THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771.
SECOND ten 1777—1784.
THIRD eighteen 1788—1797.
FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810.
FIFTH twenty 1815—1817.
SIXTH twenty 1823 — 1824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 1853 — 1860.
NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.
ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XV
ITALY to KYSNTYM
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
1911
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
AE sr
• E 3-
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XV. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. A. M. ARTHUR ANTHONY MACDONELL, M.A., PH.D. f
Boden Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Oxford. Keeper of the Indian I „-,..-
Institute. Fellow of Balliol College; Fellow of the British Academy. Author of 1 *aliaasa.
A Vedic Grammar ; A History of Sanskrit Literature ; Vedic Mythology ; &c. L
A. Ba. ADOLFO BARTOLI (1833-1894).
Formerly Professor of Literature at the Intituto di studi superior! at Florence. -| Italy: Luerature (in part).
Author of Storia della letteratura Italiana ; &c.
A. B. D. REV. ANDREW B. DAVIDSON, D.D. I Job (in part)
See the biographical article : DAVIDSON, A. B.
A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. f Keats (in part)
See the biographical article : SWINBURNE, A. C. \
A. D. HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D | Kauffmann, Angelica.
See the biographical article: DOBSON, H. AUSTIN. L
A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc. I"
Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. -| Kinorhyncha.
Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. L
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc.
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls'
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-^ Jewel, John.
1901. Lothian Prizeman (Oxford), 1892; Arnold prizeman, 1898. Author of
England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VII I.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c.
A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908).
H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of Tlie Chronicles of Newgate; -< Juvenile Offenders (in part).
Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. I
A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. f Joris;
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. \ Knipperdollinck.
A. G. D. ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LiTT.D.,F.R.S.(Canada), F.R.HisT.S. c
Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. J T , , T 4h. .1
Author of The Cradle of New France; &c. Joint-editor of Documents relating to] JOJy ae ""Dimere.
the Constitutional History of Canada. I
A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, Lirr.D., LL.D. f
See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. (_ S1
A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. f Karun; Herman;
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. ~\_ Khorasan* Kishm
A. H. Sm. ARTHUR HAMILTON SMITH, M.A., F.S.A. r
Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum.
Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Catalogue
of Greek Sculpture in the British Museum ; &c.
A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE.
See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M.
A. Ml. ALFRED OGLE MASKELL, F.S.A. r
Superintendent of the Picture Galleries, Indian and Colonial Exhibition, 1887. ] Ivory.
Cantor Lecturer, 1906. Founder and first editor of the Downside Review. Author 1
of Ivories; &c. I
(Jabiru; Jacamar; Jacana;
Jackdaw; Jay; Kakapo;
Kestrel; Killdeer; King-
Bird; Kingfisher; Kinglet;
Kite; Kiwi; Knot.
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume.
1984
vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. T. I. ALEXANDER TAYLOR INNES, M.A., LL.D. f
Scotch advocate. Author of John Knox; Law of Creeds in Scotland; Studies in \ Knox, John.
Scottish History ; &c.
A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. [
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, •{ Jacobites.
1900. [
A. W. W. ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LL.D.. D.Lrrr. / ,„„
See the biographical article: WARD, A. W. \ j01 °n> Ben'
B. F. S. B.-P. MAJOR BADEN F. S. BADEN-POWELL, F.R.A.S., F.R.MET.S. f
Inventor of man-lifting kites. Formerly President of Aeronautical Society. Author J Kite-flying (in part).
of Ballooning as a Sport; War in Practice; &c.
B. W. B. REV. BENJAMIN WISNER BACON, A.M., D.D., Lirr.D., LL.D. f
Professor of New Testament Criticism and Exegesis in Yale University. Formerly J James, Epistle of;
Director of American School of Archaeology, Jerusalem. Author of The Fourth 1 ju(Je The General Epistle of
Gospel in Research and Debate ; The Founding of the Church ; &c. I
C. D. G. REV. CHRISTIAN DAVID GINSBURG, LL.D. /„.
See the biographical article : GINSBURG, C. D. j Knabbalan (in part).
C. EL SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. r
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Kashgar (in part);
Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East ^ Khazars (in part);
Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for Khiva lit, *nri\
German East Africa, 1900-1904. 1 1UU1 a (tn part>-
Formerly Clerk for Geographical Records, India Office, London. | KashSar (m Pari)'
C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. f
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member -I John XXI.' Julius II.
of the American Historical Association.
C. H. T.* CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY. I" ¥ . , . ,%
See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL. \ JOD (m rart>-
C. J. J. CHARLES JASPER JOLY, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (1864-1906). r
Royal Astronomer of Ireland, and Andrews Professor of Astronomy in the Uni- I vnlo'Hnco
versity of Dublin, 1897-1906. Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Secretary of the ] Ralelaosc°Pe-
Royal Irish Academy. {
C. J. L. SIH CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C I.E., LL.D. (Edin.).
Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of King's College,
London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, 1889-1894. J Kablr.
Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of Translations I
of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c. [
C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.Soc., F.S.A. r
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor J Kempe.
of Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London.
C. Mi. CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. r
Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- J Karageorge;
potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 1902- 1 Karaiich
1903- [
C. M. W. SIR CHARLES MOORE WATSON, K.C.M.G., C.B. r
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy-Inspector-General of Fortifications, 1896-1902. J Jerusalem (in part).
Served under General Gordon in the Sudan, 1874-1875.
C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. J Jordanus.
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of
Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c.
C. S.* CARLO SALVIONI. r
Professor of Classical and Romance Languages, University of iMilan. \ Itaty: Language (in part).
C. S. C. CASPAR STANLEY CLARK. r
Assistant in Indian Section, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. - Kashi .(in part).
C. We. CECIL WEATHERLY.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. \ Knighthood: Orders of.
C. W. W. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907).
Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary f »„, -i /•
Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com-
mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General \ Jordan (in part);
of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of Kurdistan (in part).
Lord Clive; &c.
D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. [ Jobell; Jordan (in part);
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 J Karamanui;
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at] Kharout- Konla
Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. L
D. H. DAVID HANNAY. r Junius; Kanaris;
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal -f Keith, Viscount;
Navy, 1217-1688; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. [ Keppel, Viscount.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vii
E. B. EDWARD BRECK, M.A., PH.D.
Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the New York Herald and the New York Times. \ Kite-flying (in part).
Author of Fencing; Wilderness Pets; Sporting in Nova Scotia; &c.
E. Br. ERNEST BARKER, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly-^ Jordanes (in part).
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895. I
E. F. S. EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. f Japan: Art (in part) •
Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of I i(orjn npata-
Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects; Joint-editor ) .m, ugaia,
of Bell's " Cathedral " Series. • I Kyosai, Sho-Fu.
E.G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. f Jacobsen, Jens Peter;
See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. 1 Kalewala; Kyd, Thomas.
E. Gr. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. f j*naca
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. I
E. He. EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A. f Kenva.
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal Geographical^ „. *
Society, London. I Kilimanjaro.
E. H. B. SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, BART., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895).
M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; \ Italy: Geography (in part).
&c.
E. H. M. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. [ lyrcae;
University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian 1 » aehnhoe
at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. I A
Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D. [
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des 4 Kavadh.
Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme. I
E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. f
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, I Joints: Diseases and Injuries;
Great Ormond Street; late Examiner in Surgery in the Universities of Cambridge, 1 Kidney Diseases (in part).
Durham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. I
E. Tn. REV. ETHELRED LUKE TAUNTON, S.J. (d. 1907). /Jesuits (in Dart)
Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict; History of the Jesuits in England. \ ""
F. By. CAPTAIN FRANK BRINKLEY, R.N. f"
Foreign Adviser to Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Tokyo. Correspondent of The Times I
in Japan. Editor of the Japan Mail. Formerly Professor of Mathematics at |
Imperial Engineering College, Tokyo. Author of Japan ; &c.
F. C. C. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. (Giessen). f
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. 4 Jacobite ChuTCh.
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c. [
F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. f „ , Ki__Hnm nf
Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. \ nent> «••"•
F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. f
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on I •,„,„+„. .
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. 1 JW
Japan.
Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.
F. L. L. LADY LUGARD. J Kano;
See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D. \ Katagum.
F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D. (Leipzig), F.S.A. r
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey J
and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial |
German Archaeological Institute. L
F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. f
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \
FT. Sy. FRIEDRICH SCHWALLY. J~ Knran /:„ j,nrt\
Professor of Semitic Philology in the University of Giessen. \ *
F. S. P. FRANCIS SAMUEL PHILBRICK, A.M., PH.D. f
Formerly Teaching Fellow of Nebraska State University, and Scholar and 1 Jefferson, Thomas.
Fellow of Harvard University. Member of American Historical Association.
F. v. H. BARON FRIEDRICH VON HUGEL. fjohn: The Apostle-
Member of Cambridge Philological Society ; Member of Hellenic Society. Author^ , . rncm.l nf «
of The Mystical Element of Religion ; &c. [ John> GosPel Ol St'
F. W. B.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Jade; Jargoon;
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. 4 T........ jfaniin
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. r
Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of the Linguistic Survey
of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President J. KasHmin.
of the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of
The Languages of India ; &c.
G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.Hisx.S. ("
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. J jacoi)a.
Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign Member, Netherlands Associa- |
tion of Literature. L
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
G. F. Mo. REV. GEORGE FOOT MOORE. /Jehovah.
See th.e biographical article ; MOORE, GEORGE FOOT. \
G. G. Co. GEORGE GORDON COULTON, M.A. f
Birkbeck Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of -j Knighthood and Chivalry.
Medieval Studies; Chaucer and his England; From St Francis to Dante; &c. I
G. H. Bo. REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A. f John the Baptist;
Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew Master, Merchant Taylors' .) Joseph (New Testament) ;
School, London. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology, University of Oxford, 1908- | jujjjjee Year of (in -bart)
1909. Author of Translation of Book of Isaiah; &c.
G. I. A. GRAZIADIO I. ASCOLI.
Senator of the Kingdom of Italy. Professor of Comparative Grammar at the -j Italy: Language (in part).
University of Milan. Author of Codice Islandese; &c. I
G. K. GUSTAV KRUGER.
Professor of Church History in the University of Giessen. Author of Das Papsttum ; -> Justin Martyr.
&c.
G. Ml. REV. GEORGE MILLIGAN, D.D. f James (New Testament);
Professor ot Divinity and Biblical Criticism in the University of Glasgow. Author ] i,.,!.. Tenarinf
of The Theology of the Epistle to the Hebrews; Lectures from the Greek Papyri; &c.
G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. -fjoinville
See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, G. E. B. I
G. S. L. GEORGE SOMES LAYARD. / Keene, Charles S.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Author of Charles Keene ; Shirley Brooks ; &c.
G. S. R. SIR GEORGE SCOTT ROBERTSON, K.C.S.I., D.C.L., M.P. f
Formerly British Agent in Gilgit. Author of The Kafirs of the Hindu Rush ; -j Kaflristan.
Chitral: the Story of a Minor Siege. M.P. Central Division, Bradford. L
f Jahiz;
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. Jam Ibn Atlyya ul-Khatfl.
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old -| Jauharr JawalTqT; Jrujani;
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. Khalu ^ Anma(J; Khansa;
1 Hindi; Kumait Ibn Zaid.
H. A. W. HUGH ALEXANDER WEBSTER. f
Formerly Librarian of University of Edinburgh. Editor of the Scottish Geographical - Java (in part).
Magazine. |_
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. f
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition -| Joan of Arc (in part).
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition.
H. Cl. SIR HUGH CHARLES CLIFFORD, K.C.M.G.
Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Formerly
Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago, 1903-1907. Author -j Johor.
of Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India; &c. Joint-author of A Dictionary
of the Malay Language. [
H. C. H. HORACE CARTER HOVEY, A.M., D.D. f
Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Geological
Society of America, National Geographic Society and Societe de Speleologie (France) . J Jacobs Cavern.
Author of Celebrated American Caverns; Handbook of Mammoth Cave of Kentucky; I
Ac. [
H. C. R. SIR HENRY CRESWICKE RAWLINSON, BART.
See the biographical article: RAWLINSON, SIR H. C. 1 Kurdistan, (in part).
H. De. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, SJ. /-
Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecta Bollandiana J JanuariUS, St;
and A eta sanctorum. 1 Kilian, St.
H. M. C. HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. c
Librarian and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge. Reader in Scandinavian, J j,,*-.
Cambridge University. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions.
H. M. R. HUGH MUNRO Ross.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of The Times Engineering Vn,, •, , , . .\
Supplement. Author of British Railways. j Kelvm> Lord (*• Pa™-
H. M. V. HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S.A.
Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Mtdici \ James: the Pretender;
Popes ; The Last Stuart Queen. "\ King's Evil.
H. 0. HERMANN OELSNER, M.A., PH.D.
Taylorian Professor of the Romance Languages in University of Oxford. Member
of Council of the Philological Society. Author of A History of Provencal Literature; 1 Italy: Literature (in part).
Ac. [
H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, J John' Km6 of England;
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. I John of Hexham.
H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED.
Correspondent of The Times at Vienna. Correspondent of The Times at Rome, -I Italy : History (F.).
1897-1902.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. / „•„,,,„,
See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY. 1 KuWal
Jacob ben Asher;
Jelllnek;
I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge.
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short
History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c.
Jews: Dispersion to Modern
Times;
Joel;
Johanan Ben Zaccia;
Josippon; Kalisch, Marcus;
Krochmal.
I. L. B. ISABELLA L. BISHOP. I" ,. ,
See the biographical article: BISHOP, ISABELLA. \ Korea (in part).
J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE. r Joints (Geology);
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of Jurassic; Keuper,
The Geology of Building Stones. [ Kimeridgian.
J. A. R. VERY REV. JOSEPH ARMITAGE ROBINSON, D.D. f
Dean of Westminster. Fellow of the British Academy. Hon. Fellow of Christ's J jesu- Christ
College, Cambridge, and Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the University. Author j
of Some Thoughts on the Incarnation ; &c. I
J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D. f „. . Hi, (r \
See the biographical article, SYMONDS, JOHN ADDINGTON. \ M»W.
J. Br. RIGHT HON. JAMES BRYCE, D.C.L., D.LITT. f !„,».-„.•,_ T
See the biographical article : BRYCE, JAMES. \ J1
J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. f
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's J TAI_P_
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior 1 Jolnery-
Engineers.
J. B. A. JOSEPH BEAVTNGTON ATKINSON.
Formerly art-critic of the Saturday Review. Author of An Art Tour in the Northern Kaulbach.
Capitals of Europe; Schools of Modern Art in Germany.
J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lrrr.D., F.R.HiST.S. j-
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. I
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. J Juan Manuel, Don.
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c.
J. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A.
Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College ; \ Kastamuni.
Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. (_
J. G. Sc. SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. f Karen;
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma; -J. !/•„., ,,'u:. !/•«»» TIT™
The Upper Burma Gazetteer. [ Karen'Nl» KenS TunS-
J. Hn. JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D.
Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of J John, King Of Saxony.
Das Rheinland unter die franzosische Herrschaft.
J. H. A. H. JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. f Jews: <>«* Domination.
Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. |_ Josephus.
J. H. F. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. f Jan.us; .
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. \ Julian (in part).
J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.).
Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and-: Knight-Service.
Pedigree. (_
J. HI. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lrrr.D. r jtaiy; History (D.)-
Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. inconliliw
Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic Studies; The Development of the European JO~
Nations ; The Life of Pitt ; &c. [ Junot.
J. Ja. JOSEPH JACOBS, Lrrr.D. r
Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York.
Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corresponding J jew The Wandering.
Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin
England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c. [_
J. J. L.* REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A. (~
Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in Divinity and 4 Ketteler, Baron von.
Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge.
J. Mt. JAMES MOFFATT, M.A., D.D. J T . ,,„._,,„ „,
Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. Author of Historical New Testament; &c. \ Jonn> fiPK
J. N. K. JOHN NEVILLE KEYNES, M.A., D.Sc.
Registrary of the University of Cambridge. University Lecturer in Moral Science. T wiv c* i
Secretary to the Local Examinations and Lectures Syndicate. Formerly Fellow -\ JevOHS, William aiamey.
of Pembroke College. Author of Studies and Exercises in Formal Logic ; &c.
3. P. P. JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., Lnr.D.
Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, J Tllvonal (;„ *nrf\
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly. 1
Editor-in-Chief of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum; &c.
X
J. P. Pe.
J. R. B.
J. T. Be.
J. T. S.*
J. V.*
J. W. He.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
K.S.
L.
L. F. V.-H.
L. J. S.
L.C.
L.D.*
L.V.*
M. Br.
M. F.
M. M. Bh.
M. 0. B. C.
M. P.*
N. M.
REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D.
Canon Residentiary, P. E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in I
the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to Baby- 1
Ionia, 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the I
Euphrates.
JOHN ROSE BRADFORD, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.
Physician to University College Hospital. Professor of Materia Medica and ,
Therapeutics, University College, London. Secretary of the Royal Society.
Formerly Member of Senate, University of London.
JOHN THOMAS BEALBY.
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical .
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c.
Kerbela;
Kerkuk;
Khorsabad.
Kidney Diseases (in part).
Kalmuck; Kaluga;
Kamchatka; Kara-Kum;
Kars; Kazan; Kerch;
Khingan; Khiva; Khokand;
Khotan; Kiev;
Kronstadt; Kuban;
Kuen-Lun; Kursk; Kutais.
Author 4 Jacquerie, The.
JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D.
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.
JULES VIARD.
Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public Instruction,
of La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois ; &c.
JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. r
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at -I Kossuth.
Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German
Empire; &c.
BARON DAIROKU KIKUCHI, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. ["
President of the Imperial University of Kyoto. President of Imperial Academy of
Japan. Emeritus Professor, Imperial University, Tokio. Author of Japanese
Education; &c.
-I Joan of Arc (in part).
Japan: The Claim of Japan.
KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.
Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology.
Orchestra; &c.
Author of The Instruments of the
\ Jews' Harp; Kettledrum;
1 Keyboard.
COUNT LUTZOW, Lirr.D. (Oxon.), D.Pn. (Prague), F.R.G.S. r
Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member
of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c. -j Jerome of Prague.
Author of Bohemia, a Historical Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (Ilchester
Lecture, Oxford, 1904) ; The Life and Times of John Hus; &c. I
LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.lNST.C.E. (1839-1907).
Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London. Author of
Rivers and Canals; Harbours and Docks; Civil Engineering as applied in Con- Jetty.
slruction; &c.
LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A.
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar
of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Minera-
logical Magazine.
REV. LEWIS CAMPBELL, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article: CAMPBELL, LEWIS.
LOUIS DUCHESNE.
See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O.
Jarosite.
Jowett.
\ John XIX.;
1 Julius I.
Italy: History (E. and G.).
LUIGI VILLARI.
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre-
spondent in east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Phila-
delphia, 1907; Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and
Country; Fire and Sword in the Caucasus; &c.
LORD MACAULAY. / Tni,nsnn cam,I0i
See the biographical article : MACAULAY, BARON. \ J< on> & Iel-
MARGARET BRYANT.
| Keats (in part).
| Kblleker.
SIR MICHAEL FOSTER, K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
See the biographical article: FOSTER, SIR M.
SIR MANCHERJEE MERWANJEE BHOWNAGREE.
Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. for N.E. Bethnal Green, 1895-1906. Author J Jeejeebhoy.
of History of the Constitution of the East India Company; &c.
MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A.
Reader in Ancient History at London University,
ham University, 1905-1908.
Lecturer in Greek at Birming- J Justin II.
LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET.
Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives.
of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).
I Joinvillc (Family);
Auxiliary of the Institute -I Joyeuse;
[ Juge, Bollllle de.
NORMAN MCLEAN, M.A. [ Jacob of Edessa;
Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's 4 Jacob of Seriigh;
College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. I josnua tne gtylite
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XI
N. V.
O.K.*
0. J. R. H.
P. A.
P. A. A.
P. A. K.
P. Gi.
P. G. T.
P. La.
P. L. G.
P. Vi.
R. A.*
R. Ad.
R. A. S. M.
R. A. W.
R. F. L.
R. G.
R. H. C.
R. I. P.
R. J. M.
R. K. D.
R. L.*
JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS. ..
Member of Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist
at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Soci6t6 de 1'Histoire de •< John XXIII.
France and the Soci6t6 de 1'Ecole de Charles. Author of La France et le grand
schisms d 'Occident ; &c.
OTTO HEHNER, F.I.C., F.C.S.
Public Analyst. Formerly President of Society of Public Analysts,
of Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland,
analysis; Alcohol Tables; &c.
A *h - t Vife-Pre*ident J Jams and Jellies.
Author of works on butter ]
OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901.
British Association.
Assistant Secretary of the
Java (in part) ;
Korea (in part).
PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. f
Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, J Joachim of Floris;
Paris. Author of Les Idees morales chez les heterodoxes latines au debut du XIII' 1 John XXII.
siecle.
PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., Doc. JURIS.
New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
of the English Constitution.
Translator of H. R. von Gneist's History \ Jhering.
PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A,
Kalmuck; Kaluga;
Kamchatka; Kara-Kum;
Kazan; Kerch; Khingan;
Khokand; Kiev; Kronstadt;
Kuban; Kuen-Lun;
Kursk; Kutais.
PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. ("
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J J-
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- 1 K.
logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology.
PETER GUTHRIE TAIT.
See the biographical aracle: TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE.
Knot.
PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S.
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge Universitv. Formerly J tanan- r™lnn.
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 M0gy-
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative 'Geology.
PHILIP LYTTELTON GELL, M.A.
Sometime Scholar of Balliol College, Oxford. Secretary to the Clarendon Press
Oxford, 1884-1897. Fellow of King's College, London.
PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article : Vinogradoff , Paul.
ROBERT ANCHEL.
Archivist to the DSpartement de 1'Eure.
ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D.
See the biographical article: ADAMSON, ROBERT.
ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A.
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora-
tion Fund.
ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E.
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary De-
limitation, and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served with Tirah Expeditionary
Force, 1897-1898; Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895; &c.
REV. RICHARD FREDERICK LITTLEDALE, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. (1833-1890).
Author of Religious Communities of Women in the Early Church; Catholic Ritual
in the Church of England ; Why Ritualists do not become Roman Catholics.
RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D.
See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD.
REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., D.Lrrr. (Oxon.).
Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford, and Fellow of Merton
College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of Trinity
College, Dublin. Author and Editor of Book of Enoch ; Booh of Jubilees ; Assumption
of Moses; Ascension of Isaiah; Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs; &c.
REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S.
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.
RONALD JOHN McNEiix, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's
Gazette, London.
SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.
Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum, and I Jenghiz Khan ;
Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and Litera- 1 Julien.
ture of China ; &c.
RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of Jerboa;
Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The} Kangaroo (in part).
Deer of all Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c.
Khazars (in part).
-.. Jurisprudence, Comparative.
-; Kersaint.
J Kant (in part).
f Joppa;
] Kerak.
J Kuwet.
J Jesuits (in part).
J Kraszewski.
Jeremy, Epistle of;
Jubilees, Book of;
Judith, The Book of.
J King-Crab.
I" Jeffreys, 1st Baron;
| Keith: Family.
Xll
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
R. N. B.
R. Po.
R. P. S.
R. S. C.
ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia, the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs,
1613-172$ ; Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460
to 1796 ; &c.
RENE POUPARDIN, D. ES L.
Secretary of the Ecole des Charles. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliothtique
Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carclingiens ; Recueil
des chartes de Saint-Germain ; &c.
R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow "of King's College,
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture : East and West; &c.
ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.Lrrr. (Cantab.).
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester.
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects.
Ivan I.-VL; Jellachich;
John HI. : Sobieski;
Juel, Jens; Juel, Neils;
Karman; Kemeny, Baron;
Kisfaludy; Kollontaj;
Koniecpolski; Kosciuszko;
Kurakin, Prince.
-; John, Duke of Burgundy.
•j Jacobean Style.
S. A. C.
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In-
scriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old
Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.
stc.
S. N.
T. As.
T. A. I.
T. A. J.
T. F. C.
T. H.
T. H. H.*
T. K.
T. K. C.
Th. H.
T. Se.
T. Wo.
T. W. R. D.
W. An.
VISCOUNT ST CYRES.
See the biographical article:
IDDESLEIGH, IST EARL OF.
SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON.
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.).
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of
the Imperial German Archaeological Institute.
Italy: History (A.).
Jacob; Jehorakim;
Jehoram; Jehoshaphat;
Jehu; Jephthah;
Jerahmeel; Jeroboam;
Jews: Old Testament History;
Jezebel; Joab; Joash;
Joseph: Old Testament;
Joshua; Josiah; Judah;
Judges, Book of;
Kabbalah (in part) ;
Kenites; Kings, Books of.
J Jansen;
1 Jansenism.
Jupiter: Satellites.
(Italy: Geography and Statistics;
History (B.);
Ivrea.
| Juvenile Offenders (in part).
THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.
THOMAS ATHOL JOYCE, M.A.
Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec., Royal J Kavirondo.
Anthropological Institute.
THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A. 4 Julius III.
THOMAS HODGKIN, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article : HODGKIN, T. -| Jordanes (in part).
SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.G.S.
Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892- Kabul; Kalat; Kandahar;
1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the Perso- 1 Kashmir; Khyber Pass;
Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gates of India; &c. I Kunar; Kushk.
THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D.
Author of An Inquiry into Socialism; Primer of Socialism; &c. •< Julian (in part).
REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.D.
("Jeremiah; Joel (in part);
\ Jonah.
-j Koran (irt part).
See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K.
THEODOR NOLDEKE, PH.D.
See the biographical article: NOLDEKE, THEODOR.
THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A.
Balliol College, Oxford. "Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, f
University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of J Johnson Samuel
Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The A-^e of Johnson. \
Joint-author of Bookman History of English Literature; &c.
THOMAS WOODHOUSE. r
Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee. \ Jute.
THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D.
Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester. Professor of Pali and Buddhist f T •
Literature, University College, London, 1882-1904. President of the Pali Text Jams>
Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal 1 Jataka;
Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists; Kanishka.
Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; Dialogues of the Buddha ; &c.
WILLIAM ANDERSON, F.R.C.S.
Formerly Chairman of Council of the Japan Society. Author of The Pictorial Arts «_„ , / • A
oi Japan; Japanese Wood Engravings; Catalogue of Chinese and Japanese Pictures ~\ JaPan- Arl (tn Parl>-
in the British Museum ; &c.
W. M. Ra.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii
W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. (Bern), f Jenatsch, Georg;
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's J JungfraiT
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in ¥„,
Nature and in History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1889.
W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. [ Jacobins;
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, -j King; Kriemhild;
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. I Krttdener, Baroness von.
W. B.* WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S. f
Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain. Author of -^ Kashi (in part).
English Stoneware and Earthenware ; &c. I
W. Ba. WILLIAM BACKER, PH.D. f Jonah Rahbi. Kimhi
Professor of Biblical Studies at the Rabbinical Seminary, Buda-Pest. \ Jt
W. Be. SIR WALTER BESANT. f Tefferies
See the biographical article: BESANT, SIR WALTER. ^
W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. f
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law at King's College, H Jury.
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading, 2yd ed. L
W. F. D. WILLIAM FREDERICK DENNING, F.R.A.S.
Gold Medal, R.A.S. President, Liverpool Astronomical Society, 1877-1878. J ¥„„{*.-
Corresponding Fellow of Royal Astronomical Society of Canada ; &c. Author of ]
Telescopic Work for Starlight Evenings ; The Great Meteoric Shower ; &c.
W. G. WILLIAM GARNETT, M.A., D.C.L. f
Educational Adviser to the London County Council. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer J Kelvin, Lord.
of St John's College, Cambridge. Principal and Professor of Mathematics, Durham 1
College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Author of Elementary Dynamics; &c.
W. G. S. WILLIAM GRAHAM SUMNER. f Jackson Andrew
See the biographical article: SUMNER, WILLIAM GRAHAM. \ Ji on> A
W. H. Be. WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LiTT.(Cantab.). f
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London. J Japheth.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth
College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets ; &c.
W. H. Di. WILLIAM HENRY DINES, F.R.S. f Kite-flying (in part)
Director of Upper Air Investigation for the English Meteorological Office. I
W. H. F. SIR WILLIAM H. FLOWER, LL.D. J Kangaroo (in part).
See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H.
W. L. F. WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M PH.D. j Knights of the Golden Circle;
Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of Documentary History -{ v „-,„,, „-,„_
of Reconstruction ; &c. [ KU K1UX JUan'
W. L.-W. SIR WILLIAM LEE-WARNER, M.A., K.C.S.I. f
Member of Council of India. Formerly Secretary in the Political and Secret J Jung Bahadur Sir.
Department of the India Office. Author of Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie ; |
Memoirs of Field-Marshal Sir Henry Wylie Norman ; &c. L
W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. f Kneller
See the biographical article : ROSSETTI, DANTE G. \
SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY, LL.D., D.C.L. J ,. ,
See the biographical article, RAMSAY, SIR W. M. \ JUPltt r (m Part>-
W. P. J. WILLIAM PRICE JAMES. f
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. High Bailiff, Cardiff County Court. Author of -i. Kipling, Rudyard.
Romantic Professions ; &c. I
W. R. S. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. f Joel (in part} ;
See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. \ Jubilee, Year of (in part).
W. W. F.* WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A. f
Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, I Juno;
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; j Jupiter (in part).
The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ; &c.
W. W. R.* WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, PH.D. j Jerusalem Synod of.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. L
W. Y. S. WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D. / Juvenal (in part).
See the biographical article: SELLAR, W. Y. i
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Ivy.
Jamaica.
Janissaries.
Jaundice.
Ju-Jitsu.
Jumping.
Juniper.
Jurisprudence.
Kaffirs.
Kansas.
Kent.
Kentucky.
Kerry.
Ketones.
Kildare.
Kilkenny.
Know Nothing Party.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XV
ITALY (Italia), the name1 applied both in ancient and in
modern times to the great peninsula that projects from the mass
of central Europe far to the south into the Mediterranean Sea,
where the island of Sicily may be considered as a continuation
of the continental promontory. The portion of the Mediterranean
commonly termed the Tyrrhenian Sea forms its limit on the W.
and S., and the Adriatic on the E.; while to the N., where it
joins the main continent of Europe, it is separated from the
adjacent regions by the mighty barrier of the Alps, which sweeps
round in a vast semicircle from the head of the Adriatic to the
shores of Nice and Monaco.
Topography. — The land thus circumscribed extends between
the parallels of 46° 40' and 36° 38' N., and between 6° 30' and
18° 30' E. Its greatest length in a straight line along the main-
land is from N.W. to S.E., in which direction it measures 708 m.
in a direct line from the frontier near Courmayeur to Cape Sta
Maria di Leuca, south of Otranto, but the great mountain
peninsula of Calabria extends about two degrees farther south
to Cape Spartivento in lat. 37° 55'. Its breadth is, owing to its
configuration, very irregular. The northern portion, measured
from the Alps at the Monte Viso to the mouth of the Po, has a
breadth of about 270 m., while the maximum breadth, from the
Rocca Chiardonnet near Susa to a peak in the valley of the
Isonzo, is 354 m. But the peninsula of Italy, which forms the
largest portion of the country, nowhere exceeds 150 m. in breadth,
while it does not generally measure more than too m. across. Its
southern extremity, Calabria, forms a complete peninsula, being
united to the mass of Lucania or the Basilicata by an isthmus
only 35 m. in width, while that between the gulfs of Sta Eufemia
and Squillace, which connects the two portions of the province,
does not exceed 20 m. The area of the kingdom of Italy, exclusive
of the large islands, is computed at 91,277 sq. m. Though
Bound t^le ^PS ^orm throughout the northern boundary of
aries. Italy, the exact limits at the extremities of the Alpine
chain are not clearly marked. Ancient geographers
appear to have generally regarded the remarkable headland
which descends from the Maritime Alps to the sea between Nice
and Monaco as the limit of Italy in that direction, and in a
purely geographical point of view it is probably the best point
that could be selected. But Augustus, who was the first to give
to Italy a definite political organization, carried the frontier to
1 On the derivation see below, History, section A, ad. init.
XV. I
the river Varus or Var, a few miles west of Nice, and this river
continued in modern times to be generally recognized as the
boundary between France and Italy. But in 1860 the annexation
of Nice and the adjoining territory to France brought the
political frontier farther east, to a point between Mentone and
Ventimiglia which constitutes no natural limit.
Towards the north-east, the point where the Julian Alps
approach close to the seashore (just at the sources of the little
stream known in ancient times as the Timavus) would seem to
constitute the best natural limit. But by Augustus the frontier
was carried farther east so as to include Tergeste (Trieste), and
the little river Formio (Risano) was in the first instance chosen
as the limit, but this was subsequently transferred to the river
Arsia (the Arsa), which flows into the Gulf of Quarnero, so as
to include almost all Istria; and the circumstance that the
coast of Istria was throughout the middle ages held by the
republic of Venice tended to perpetuate this arrangement, so
that Istria was generally regarded as belonging to Italy, though
certainly not forming any natural portion of that country.
Present Italian aspirations are similarly directed.
The only other part of the nprthern frontier of Italy where the
boundary is not clearly marked by nature is Tirol or the valley
of the Adige. Here the main chain of the Alps (as marked by
the watershed) recedes so far to the north that it has never
constituted the frontier. In ancient times the upper valleys of
the Adige and its tributaries were inhabited by Raetian tribes
and included in the province of Raetia; and the line of demarca-
tion between that province and Italy was purely arbitrary,
as it remains to this day. Tridentum or Trent was in the time
of Pliny included in the tenth region of Italy or Venetia, but he
tells us that the inhabitants were a Raetian tribe. At the present
day the frontier between Austria and the kingdom of Italy
crosses the Adige about 30 m. below Trent — that city and its
territory, which previous to the treaty of Luneville in 1801 was
governed by sovereign archbishops, subject only to the German
emperors, being now included in the Austrian empire.
While the Alps thus constitute the northern boundary of Italy,
its configuration and internal geography are determined almost
entirely by the great chain of the Apennines, which branches off
from the Maritime Alps between Nice and Genoa, and, after
stretching in an unbroken line from the Gulf of Genoa to the
Adriatic, turns more to the south, and is continued throughout
ITALY
[TOPOGRAPHY
Central and Southern Italy, of which it forms as it were the back-
bone, until it ends in the southernmost extremity of Calabria at
Cape Spartivento. The great spur or promontory projecting
towards the east to Brindisi and Otranto has no direct con-
nexion with the central chain.
One chief result of the manner in which the Apennines traverse
Italy from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic is the marked
division between Northern Italy, including the region north of the
Apennines and extending thence to the foot of the Alps, and the
central and more southerly portions of the peninsula. No such
line of separation exists farther south, and the terms Central and
Southern Italy, though in general use among geographers and
convenient for descriptive purposes, do not correspond to any
natural divisions.
I. Northern Italy. — By far the larger portion of Northern Italy is
occupied by the basin of the Po, which comprises the whole of the
broad plain extending from the foot of the Apennines to that of the
Alps, together with the valleys and slopes on both sides of it. From
its source in Monte Viso to its outflow into the Adriatic — a distance
of more than 220 m. in a direct line — the Po receives all the waters
that flow from the Apennines northwards, and all those that descend
from the Alps towards the south, Mincio (the outlet of the Lake of
Garda) inclusive. The next river to the E. is the Adige, which,
after pursuing a parallel course with the Po for a considerable
distance, enters the Adriatic by a separate mouth. Farther to the
N. and N.E. the various rivers of Venetia fall directly into the Gulf
of Venice.
There is no other instance in Europe of a basin of similar extent
equally clearly characterized — the perfectly level character of the
plain being as striking as the boldness with which the lower slopes
of the mountain ranges begin to rise on each side of it. This is most
clearly marked on the side of the Apennines, where the great Aemilian
Way, which has been the high road from the time of the Romans
to our own, preserves an unbroken straight line from Rimini to
Piacenza, a distance of more than 150 m., during which the underfalls
of the mountains continually approach it on the left, without once
crossing the line of road.
The geography of Northern Italy will be best described by following
the course of the Po. That river has its origin as a mountain torrent
descending from two little dark lakes on the north flank of Monte Viso,
at a height of more than 6000 ft. above the sea; and after a course of
less than 20 m. it enters the plain at Saluzzo, between which and
Turin, a distance of only 30 m., it receives three considerable tribu-
taries— the Chisone on its left bank, bringing down the waters from
the valley of Fenestrelle, and the Varaita and Maira on the south,
contributing those of two valleys of the Alps immediately south
of that of the Po itself. A few miles below Valenza it is joined by the
Tanaro, a large stream, which brings with it the united waters of
the Stura, the Bormida and several minor rivers.
More important are the rivers that descend from the main chain
of the Graian and Pennine Alps and join the Po on its left bank.
Of these the Dora (called for distinction's sake Dora Riparia), which
unites with the greater river just below Turin, has its source in the
Mont Genevre, and flows past Susa at the foot of the Mont Cenis.
Next comes the Stura, which rises in the glaciers of the Roche Melon ;
then the Orca, flowing through the Val di Locana; and then the
Dora Baltea, one of the greatest of all the Alpine tributaries of the
Po, which has its source in the glaciers of Mont Blanc, above Cour-
mayeur, and thence descends through the Val d'Aosta for about 70 m.
till it enters the plain at Ivrea, and, after flowing about 20 m. more,
joins the Po a few miles below Chivasso. This great valley — one of
the most considerable on the southern side of the Alps — has attracted
special attention, in ancient as well as modern times, from its leading
to two of the most frequented passes across the great mountain chain
— the Great and the Little St Bernard — the former diverging at Aosta,
and crossing the main ridges to the north into the valley of the Rhone,
the other following a more westerly direction into Savoy. Below
Aosta also the Dora Baltea receives several considerable tributaries,
which descend from the glaciers between Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa.
About 25 m. below its confluence with the Dora, the Po receives the
Sesia, also a large river, which has its source above Alagna at the
southern foot of Monte Rosa, and after flowing by Varallo and
Vercelli falls into the Po about 14 m. below the latter city. About
30 m. east of this confluence — in the course of which the Po makes
a great bend south to Valenza, and then returns again to the north-
ward— it is joined by the Ticino, a large and rapid river, which
brings with it the outflow of Lago Maggiore and all the waters that
flow into it. Of these the Ticino itself has its source about 10 m.
above Airolo at the foot of the St Gotthard, and after flowing above
36 m. through the Val Leventina to Bellinzona (where it is joined
by the Mofesa bringing down the waters of the Val Misocco) enters the
lake through a marshy plain at Magadino, about 10 m. distant. On
the west side of the lake the Toccia or Tosa descends from the pass
of the Gries nearly due south to Domodossola, where it receives the
waters of the Doveria from the Simplon, and a few miles lower down
those of the Val d'Anzasca from the foot of Monte Rosa, and 12 m.
farther has its outlet into the lake between Baveno and Pallanza.
The Lago Maggiore is also the receptacle of the waters of the Lago
di Lugano on the east and the Lago d'Orta on the west.
The next great affluent of the Po, the Adda, forms the outflow of
the Lake of Como, and has also its sources in the Alps, above Bormio,
whence it flows through the broad and fertile valley of the Valtellina
for more than 65 m. till it enters the lake near Colico. The Adda in
this part of its course has a direction almost due east to west; but
at the point where it reaches the lake, the Liro descends the valley
of S. Giacomo, which runs nearly north and south from the pass of
the Spliigen, thus affording one of the most direct lines of communica-
tion across the Alps. The Adda flows out of the lake at its south-
eastern extremity at Lecco, and has thence a course through the
plain of above 70 m. till it enters the Po between Piacenza and
Cremona. It flows by Lodi and Pizzighettone, and receives the
waters of the Brembo, descending from the Val Brembana, and the
Serio from the Val Seriana above Bergamo. The Oglio, a more
considerable stream than either of the last two, rises in the Monte
Tonale above Edolo, and descends through the Val Camonica to
Lovere, where it expands into a large lake, called Iseo from the
town of that name on its southern shore. Issuing thence at its south-
west extremity, the Oglio has a long and winding course through the
plain before it finally reaches the Po a few miles above Borgoforte.
In this lower part it receives the smaller streams of the Mella, which
flows by Brescia, and the Chiese, which proceeds from the small
Lago d'Idro, between the Lago d'Iseo and that of Garda.
The last of the great tributaries of the Po is the Mincio, which
flows from the Lago di Garda, and has a course of about 40 m. from
Peschiera, where it issues from the lake at its south-eastern angle,
till it joins the Po. About 12 m. above the confluence it passes under
the walls of Mantua, and expands into a broad lake-like reach so as
entirely to encircle that city. Notwithstanding its extent, the
Lago di Garda is not fed by the snows of the high Alps, nor is the
stream which enters it at its northern extremity (at Riva) commonly
known as the Mincio, though forming the main source of that river,
but is termed the Sarca; it rises at the foot of Monte Tonale.
The Adige, formed by the junction of two streams — the Etsch
or Adige proper and the Eisak, both of which belong to Tirol rather
than to Italy — descends as far as Verona, where it enters the great
plain, with a course from north to south nearly parallel to the rivers
last described, and would seem likely to discharge its waters into
those of the Po, but below Legnago it turns eastward and runs
parallel to the Po for about 40 m., entering the Adriatic by an
independent mouth about 8 m. from the northern outlet of the greater
stream. The waters of the two rivers have, however, been made to
communicate by artificial cuts and canals in more than one place.
The Po itself, which is here a very large stream, with an average
width of 400 to 600 yds., continues to flow with an undivided mass
of waters as far as Sta Maria di Ariano, where it parts into two arms,
known as the Po di Macstra and Po di Goro, and these again are
subdivided intoseveral other branches, forming a delta above 20 m.
in width from north to south. The point of bifurcation, at present
about 25 m. from the sea, was formerly much farther inland, more
than 10 m. west of Ferrara, where a small arm of the river, still called
the Po di Ferrara, branches from the main stream. Previous to the
year 1154 this channel was the main stream, and the two small
branches into which it subdivides, called the Po di Volano and Po di
Primaro, were in early times the two main outlets of the river. The
southernmost of these, the Po di Primaro, enters the Adriatic about
12 m. north of Ravenna, so that if these two arms be included, the
delta of the Po extends about 36 m. from south to north. The whole
course of the river, including its windings, is estimated at about 450 m.
Besides the delta of the Po and the large marshy tracts which it
forms, there exist on both sides of it extensive lagoons of salt water,
generally separated from the Adriatic by narrow strips of sand or
embankments, partly natural and partly artificial, but having
openings which admit the influx and efflux of the sea-water, and
serve as ports for communication with the mainland. The best
known and the most extensive of these lagoons is that in which
Venice is situated, which extends from Torcello in the north to
Chioggia and Brondolo in the south, a distance of above 40 m. ; but
they were formerly much more extensive, and afforded a continuous
means of internal navigation, by what were called " the Seven Seas "
(Septem Maria), from Ravenna to Altinum, a few miles north of
Torcello. That city, like Ravenna, originally stood in the midst of
a lagoon; and the coast east of it to near Monfalcone, where it
meets the mountains, is occupied by similar expanses of water,
which are, however, becoming gradually converted into dry land.
The tract adjoining this long line of lagoons is, like the basin of the
Po, a broad expanse of perfectly level alluvial plain, extending from
the Adige eastwards to the Carnic Alps, where they approach close
to the Adriatic between Aquileia and Trieste, and northwards to the
foot of the great chain, which here sweeps round in a semicircle from
the neighbourhood of Vicenza to that of Aquileia. The space thus
included was known in ancient times as Venetia, a name applied in the
middle ages to the well-known city; the eastern portion of it became
known in the middle ages as the Frioul or Friuli.
Returning to the south of the Po, the tributaries of that river on
its right bank below the Tanaro are very inferior in volume and
importance to those from the north. Flowing from the Ligurian
TOPOGRAPHY]
ITALY
Apennines, which never attain the limit of perpetual snow, they
generally dwindle in summer into insignificant streams. Beginning
From the Tanaro, the principal of them are — (l)the Scrivia,a small
but rapid stream flowing from the Apennines at the back of Genoa ;
(2) the Trebbia, a much larger river, though of the same torrent-like
character, which rises near Torriglia within 20 m. of Genoa, flows
by Bobbio, and joins the Po a few miles above Piacenza; (3) the
Nure, a few miles east of the preceding; (4) the Taro, a more con-
siderable stream; (5) the Parma, flowing by the city of the same
name; (6) the Enza; (7) the Secchia, which flows by Modena;
(8) the Panaro, a few miles to the east of that city; (9) the Reno,
which flows by Bologna, but instead of holding its course till it dis-
charges its waters into the Po, as it did in Roman times, is turned
aside by an artificial channel into the Po di Primaro. The other
small streams east of this — of which the most considerable are the
Solaro, the Santerno, flowing by Imola, the Lamone by Faenza, the
Montone by ForlJ, all in Roman times tributaries of the Po — have
their outlet in like manner into the Po di Primaro, or by artificial
mouths into the Adriatic between Ravenna and Rimini. The river
Marecchia, which enters the sea immediately north of Rimini, may
be considered as the natural limit of Northern Italy. It was adopted
by Augustus as the boundary of Gallia Cispadana; the far-famed
•Rubicon was a trifling stream a few miles farther north, now called
Fiumicino. The Savio is the only other stream of any importance
which has always flowed directly into the Adriatic from this side of
the Tuscan Apennines.
The narrow strip of coast-land between the Maritime Alps, the
Apennines and the sea — called in ancient times Liguria, and now
known as the Riviera of Genoa — is throughout its extent, from Nice
to Genoa on the one side, and from Genoa to Spezia on the other,
almost wholly mountainous. It is occupied by the branches and
offshoots of the mountain ranges which separate it from the great
plain to the north, and send down their lateral ridges close to the
water's edge, leaving only in places a few square miles of level plains
at the mouths of the rivers and openings of the valleys. The district
is by no means devoid of fertility, the steep slopes facing the south
enjoying so fine a climate as to render them very favourable for the
growth of fruit trees, especially the olive, which is cultivated in
terraces to a considerable height up the face of the mountains, while
the openings of the valleys are generally occupied by towns or villages,
some of which have become favourite winter resorts.
From the proximity of the mountains to the sea none of the rivers
in this part of Italy has a long course, and they are generally mere
mountain torrents, rapid and swollen in winter and spring, and almost
dry in summer. The largest and most important are those which
descend from the Maritime Alps between Nice and Albenga. The
most considerable of them are— ^-the Roja, which rises in the Col di
Tenda and descends to Ventimiglia; the Taggia, between San
Remo and Oneglia; and the Centa, which enters the sea at Albenga.
The Lavagna, which enters the sea at Chiavari, is the only stream
of any importance between Genoa and the Gulf of Spezia. But
immediately east of that inlet (a remarkable instance of a deep land-
locked gulf with no river flowing into it) the Magra, which descends
from Pontremoli down the valley known as the Lunigiana, is a large
stream, and brings with it the waters of another considerable stream,
the Vara. The Magra (Macra), in ancient times the boundary
between Liguria and Etruria, may be considered as constituting on
this side the limit of Northern Italy.
The Apennines (q.v.), as has been already mentioned, here traverse
the whole breadth of Italy, cutting off the peninsula properly so
termed from the broader mass of Northern Italy by a continuous
barrier of considerable breadth, though of far inferior elevation to
that of the Alps. The Ligurian Apennines may be considered as
taking their rise in the neighbourhood of Savona, where a pass of
very moderate elevation connects them with the Maritime Alps,
of which they are in fact only a continuation. From the neighbour-
hood of Savona to that of Genoa they do not rise to more than 3000
to 4000 ft., and are traversed by passes of less than 2000 ft. As they
extend towards the east they increase in elevation ; the Monte Bue
rises to 5915 ft., while the Monte Cimone, a little farther east, attains
7103 ft. This is the highest point in the northern Apennines, and
belongs to a group of summits of nearly equal altitude; the range
which is continued thence between Tuscany and what are now
known as the Emilian provinces presents a continuous ridge from
the mountains at the head of the Val di Mugello (due north of
Florence) to the point where they are traversed by the celebrated
Furlo Pass. The highest point in this part of the range is the Monte
Falterona, above the sources of the Arno, which attains 5410 ft.
Throughout this tract the Apennines are generally covered with
extensive forests of chestnut, oak and beech ; while their upper slopes
afford admirable pasturage. Few towns of any importance are found
either on their northern or southern declivity, and the former
region especially, though occupying a tract of from 30 to 40 m. in
width, between the crest of the Apennines and the plain of the Po, is
one of the least known and at the same time least interesting portions
of Italy.
2. Central Italy. — The geography of Central Italy is almost wholly
determined by the Apennines, which traverse it in a direction
from about north-north-east to south-south-west, almost precisely
parallel to that of the coast of the Adriatic from Rimini to Pescara.
The line of the highest summits and of the watershed ranges is
about 30 to 40 m. from the Adriatic, while about double that distance
separates it from the Tyrrhenian Sea on the west. In this part of
the range almost all the highest points of the Apennines are found.
Beginning from the group called the Alpi della Luna near the sources
of the Tiber, which attain 4435 ft., they are continued by the Monte
Nerone (5010 ft.), Monte Catria (5590), and Monte Maggio to the
Monte Pennine near Nocera (5169 ft.), and thence to the Monte
della Sibilla, at the source of the Nar or Nera, which attains 7663 ft.
Proceeding thence southwards, we find in succession the Monte
Vettore (8128 ft.), the Pizzo di Sevo (7945 ft.), and the two great
mountain masses of the Monte Corno, commonly called the Gran
Sasso d'ltalia, the most lofty of all the Apennines, attaining to a
height of 9560 ft., and the Monte della Maiella, its highest summit
measuring 9170 ft. Farther south no very lofty .summits are found
till we come to the group of Monti del Matese, in Samnium (6660 ft.),
which according to the division here adopted belongs to Southern
Italy. Besides the lofty central masses enumerated there are two
other lofty peaks, outliers from the main range, and separated from
it by valleys of considerable extent. These are the M onte Terminillo,
near Leonessa (7278 ft.), and the Monte Velino near the Lake Fucino,
rising to 8 192 ft., both of which are covered with snow from November
till May. But the Apennines of Central Italy, instead of presenting,
like the Alps and the northern Apennines, a definite central ridge,
with transverse valleys leading down from it on both sides, in reality
constitute a mountain mass of very considerable breadth, composed
of a number of minor ranges and groups of mountains, which pre-
serve a generally parallel direction, and are separated by upland
valleys, some of them of considerable extent as well as considerable
elevation above the sea. Such is the basin of Lake Fucino, situated
in the centre of the mass, almost exactly midway between the two
seas, at an elevation of 2180 ft. above them; while the upper valley
of the Aterno, in which Aquila is situated, is 2380 ft. above the sea.
Still more elevated is the valley of the Gizio (a tributary of the
Aterno), of which Sulmona is the chief town. This communicates
with the upper valley of the Sangro by a level plain called the Piano
di Cinque Miglia, at an elevation of 4298 ft., regarded as the most
wintry spot in Italy. Nor do the highest summits form a continuous
ridge of great altitude for any considerable distance; they are rather
a series of groups separated by tracts of very inferior elevation
forming natural passes across the range, and broken in some places
(as is the case in almost all limestone countries) by the waters from
the upland valleys turning suddenly at right angles, and breaking
through the mountain ranges which bound them. Thus the Gran
Sasso and the Maiella are separated by the deep valley of the Aterno,
while the Tronto breaks through the range between Monte Vettore
and the Pizzo di Sevo. This constitution of the great mass of the
central Apennines has in all ages exercised an important influence
upon the character of this portion of Italy, which may be considered
as divided by nature into two great regions, a cold and barren upland
country, bordered on both sides by rich and fertile tracts, enjoying
a warm but temperate climate.
The district west of the Apennines, a region of great beauty and
fertility, though inferior in productiveness to Northern Italy, coincides
in a general way with the countries familiar to all students of ancient
history as Etruria and Latium. Until the union of Italy they were
comprised in Tuscany and the southern Papal States. The northern
part of Tuscany is indeed occupied to a considerable extent by the
underfalls and offshoots of the Apennines, which, besides the slopes
and spurs of the main range that constitutes its northern frontier
towards the plain of the Po, throw off several outlying ranges or
groups. Of these the most remarkable is the group between the
valleys of the Serchio and the Magra, commonly known as the
mountains of Carrara, from the celebrated marble quarries in the
vicinity of that city. Two of the summits of this group, the Pizzo
d'Uccello and the Pania della Croce, attain 6155 and 6100 ft. Another
lateral range, the Prato Magno, which branches off from the central
chain at the Monte Falterona, and separates the upper valley of
the Arno from its second basin, rises to 5188 ft.; while a similar
branch, called the Alpe di Catenaja, of inferior elevation, divides
the upper course of the Arno from that of the Tiber.
The rest of this tract is for the most part a hilly, broken country,
of moderate elevation, but Monte Amiata, near Radicofani, an isolated
mass of volcanic origin, attains a height of 5650 ft. South of this the
country between the frontier of Tuscany and the Tiber is in great part
of volcanic origin, forming hills with distinct crater-shaped basins,
in several instances occupied by small lakes (the Lake of Bolsena,
Lake of Vico and Lake of Bracciano). This volcanic tract extends
across the Campagna of Rome, till it rises again in the lofty group
of the Alban hills, the highest summit of which, the Monte Cavo,
is 3160 ft. above the sea. In this part the Apennines are separated
from the sea, distant about 30 m. by the undulating volcanic plain of
the Roman Campagna, from which the mountains rise in a wall-like
barrier, of which the highest point, the Monte Gennaro, attains
4165 ft. South of Palestrina again, the main mass of the Apennines
throws off another lateral mass, known in ancient times as the Volscian
mountains (now called the Monti Lepini), separated from the central
ranges by the broad valley of the Sacco, a tributary of the Liri (Liris)
or Garigliano, and forming; a large and rugged mountain mass, nearly
5000 ft. in height, which descends to the sea at Terracina, and
ITALY
[TOPOGRAPHY
between that point and the mouth of the Liri throws out several
rugged mountain headlands, which may be considered as constituting
the natural boundary between Latium and Campania, and con-
sequently the natural limit of Central Italy. Besides these offshoots
of the Apennines there are in this part of Central Italy several
detached mountains, rising almost like islands on the seashore,
of which the two most remarkable are the Monte Argentaro on the
coast of Tuscany near Orbetello (2087 ft.) and the Monte Circello
(1771 ft.) at the angle of the Pontine Marshes, by the whole breadth
of which it is separated from the Volscian Apennines.
The two valleys of the Arno and the Tiber (Ital. Tevere) may
be considered as furnishing the key to the geography of all this portion
of Italy west of the Apennines. The Arno, which has its source in
the Monte Falterona, one of the most elevated summits of the main
chain of the Tuscan Apennines, flows nearly south till in the neigh-
bourhood of Arezzo it turns abruptly north-west, and pursues that
course as far as Pontassieve, where it again makes a sudden bend
to the west, and pursues a westerly course thence to the sea, passing
through Florence and Pisa. Its principal tributary is the Sieve,
which joins it at Pontassieve, bringing down the waters of the Val di
Mugello. The Elsa and the Era, which join it on its left bank,
descending from the hills near Siena and Volterra, are inconsiderable
streams; and the Serchio, which flows from the territory of Lucca
and the Alpi Apuani, and formerly joined the Arno a few miles from
its mouth, now enters the sea by a separate channel. The most
considerable rivers of Tuscany south of the Arno are the Cecina,
which flows through the plain below Volterra, and the Ombrone,
which rises in the hills near Siena, and enters the sea about 12 m.
below Grosseto.
The Tiber, a much more important river than the Arno, and the
largest in Italy with the exception of the Po, rises in the Apennines,
about 20 in. east of the source of the Arno, and flows nearly south by
Borgo S. Sepolcro and Citta di Castello, then between Perugia and
Todi to Orte, just below which it receives the Nera. The Nera,
which rises in the lofty group of the Monte della Sibilla, is a consider-
able stream, and brings with it the waters of the Velino (with its
tributaries the Turano and the Salto), which joins it a few miles below
its celebrated waterfall at Terni. The Teverone or Anio, which enters
the Tiber a few miles above Rome, is an inferior stream to the Nera,
but brings down a considerable body of water from the mountains
above Subiaco. It is a singular fact in the geography of Central
Italy that the valleys of The Tiber and Arno are in some measure
connected by that of the Chiana, a level and marshy tract, the waters
from which flow partly into the Arno and partly into the Tiber.
The eastern declivity of the central Apennines towards the
Adriatic is far less interesting and varied than the western. The
central range here approaches much nearer to the sea, and hence,
with few exceptions, the rivers that flow from it have short
courses and are of comparatively little importance. They may be
enumerated, proceeding from Rimini southwards: (l) the Foglia;
(2) the Metauro, of historical celebrity, and affording access to one
of the most frequented passes of the Apennines; (3) the Esino; (4)
the Potenza; (5) the Chienti; (6) the Aso; (7) the Tronto; (8)
the Vomano; (9) the Aterno; (10) the Sangro; (n) the Trigno,
which forms the boundary of the southernmost province of the
Abruzzi, and may therefore be taken as the limit of Central Italy.
The whole of this portion of Central Italy is a hilly country, much
broken and cut up by the torrents from the mountains, but fertile,
especially in fruit-trees, olives and vines; and it has been, both in
ancient and modern times, a populous district, containing many
small towns though no great cities. Its chief disadvantage is the
absence of ports, the coast preserving an almost unbroken straight
line, with the single exception of Ancona, the only port worthy of the
name on the eastern coast of Central Italy.
3. Southern Italy. — The great central mass of the Apennines, which
has held its course throughout Central Italy, with a general direc-
tion from north-west to south-east, may be considered as continued
in the same direction for about 100 m. farther, from the basin-shaped
group of the Monti del Matese (which rises to 6060 ft.) to the neigh-
bourhood of Potenza, in the heart of the province of Basilicata,
corresponding nearly to the ancient Lucania. The whole of the
district known in ancient times as Samnium (a part of which retains
the name of Sannio, though officially designated the province of
Campobasso) is occupied by an irregular mass of mountains, of much
inferior height to those of Central Italy, and broken up into a number
of groups, intersected by rivers, which have for the most part a very
tortuous course. This mountainous tract, which has an average
breadth of from 50 to 60 m., is bounded west by the plain of Cam-
pania, now called the Terra di Lavoro, and east by the much broader
and more extensive tract of Apulia or Puglia, composed partly of
level plains, but for the most part of undulating downs, contrasting
strongly with the mountain ranges of the Apennines, which rise
abruptly above them. The central mass of the mountains, however,
throws out two outlying ranges, the one to the west, which separates
the Bay of Naples from that of Salerno, and culminates in the Monte
S. Angelo above Castellammare (4720 ft.) , while the detached volcanic
cone of Vesuvius (nearly 4000 ft.) is isolated from the neighbouring
mountains by an intervening strip of plain. On the cast side in like
manner the Monte Gargano (3465 ft.), a detached limestone mass
which projects in a bold spur-like promontory into the Adriatic,
forming the only break in the otherwise uniform coast-line of Italy
on that sea, though separated from the great body of the Apennines
by a considerable interval of low country, may be considered as
merely an outlier from the central mass.
From the neighbourhood of Potenza, the main ridge of the
Apennines is continued by the Monti della Maddalena in a direction
nearly due south, so that it approaches within a short distance of the
Gulf of Policastro, whence it is carried on as far as the Monte Pollino,
the last of the lofty summits of the Apennine chain, which exceeds
7000 ft. in height. The range is, however, continued through the
province now called Calabria, to the southern extremity or " toe " of
Italy, but presents in this part a very much altered character, the
broken limestone range which is the true continuation of the chain
as far as the neighbourhood of Nicastro and Catanzaro, and keeps
close to the west coast, being flanked on the east by a great mass of
granitic mountains, rising to about 6000 ft., and covered with vast
forests, from which it derives the name of La Sila. A similar mass,
separated from the preceding by a low neck of Tertiary hills, fills
up the whole of the peninsular extremity of Italy from Squillace
to Reggio. Its highest point is called Aspromonte (6420 ft.).
While the rugged and mountainous district of Calabria, extending
nearly due south for a distance of more than 150 m., thus derives its
character and configuration almost wholly from the range of the
Apennines, the long spur-like promontory which projects towards
the east to Brindisi and Otranto is merely a continuation of the low
tract of Apulia, with a dry calcareous soil of Tertiary origin. The
Monte Volture, which rises in the neighbourhood of Melfi and Venosa
to 4357 ft., is of volcanic origin, and in great measure detached from
the adjoining mass of the Apennines. Eastward from this the ranges
of low bare hills called the Murgie of Gravina and Altamura gradually
sink into the still more moderate level of those which constitute
the peninsular tract between Brindisi and Taranto as far as the
Cape of Sta Maria di Leuca, the south-east extremity of Italy. This
projecting tract, which may be termed the " heel " or " spur " of
Southern Italy, in conjunction with the great promontory of Calabria,
forms the deep Gulf of Taranto, about 70 m. in width, and somewhat
greater depth, which receives a number of streams from the central
mass of the Apennines.
None of the rivers of Southern Italy is of any great importance.
The Liri (Liris) or Garigliano, which has its source in the central
Apennines above Sora, not far from Lake Fucino, and enters the
Gulf of Gaeta about 10 m. east of the city of that name, brings down
a considerable body of water; as does also the Volturno, which rises
in the mountains between Castel di Sangro and Agnone, flows past
Isernia, Venafro and Capua, and enters the sea about 15 m. from the
mouth of the Garigliano. About 16 m. above Capua it receives the
Galore, which flows by Benevento. The Silarus or Sele enters the Gulf
of Salerno a few miles below the ruins of Paestum. Below this the
watershed of the Apennines is too near to the sea on that side to
allow the formation of any large streams. Hence the rivers that flow
in the opposite direction into the Adriatic and the Gulf of Taranto
have much longer courses, though all partake of the character of
mountain torrents, rushing down with great violence in winter and
after storms, but dwindling in the summer into scanty streams,
which hold a winding and sluggish course through the great plains of
Apulia. Proceeding south from the Trigno, already mentioned as
constituting the limit of Central Italy, there are (l) the Biferno and
(2) the Fortore, both rising in the mountains of Samnium, and flow-
ing into the Adriatic west of Monte Gargano; (3) the Cervaro, south
of the great promontory; and (4) the Ofanto, the Aufidus of Horace,
whose description of it is characteristic of almost all the rivers of
Southern Italy, of which it may be taken as the typical representative.
It rises about 15 m. west of Conza, and only about 25 m. from the
Gulf of Salerno, so that it is frequently (though erroneously) described
as traversing the whole range of the Apennines. In its lower course it
flows near Canosa and traverses the celebrated battlefield of Cannae.
(5) The Bradano, which rises near Venosa, almost at the foot of
Monte Volture, flows towards the south-east into the Gulf of Taranto,
as do the Basento, the Agri and the Sinni, all of which descend from
the central chain of the Apennines south of Potenza. The Crati,
which flows from Cosenza northwards, and then turns abruptly
eastward to enter the same gulf, is the only stream worthy of notice
in the rugged peninsula of Calabria; while the arid limestone hills
projecting eastwards to Capo di Leuca do not give rise to anything
more than a mere streamlet, from the mouth of the Ofanto to the
south-eastern extremity of Italy.
The only important lakes are those on or near the north frontier,
formed by the expansion of the tributaries of the Po. They have
been already noticed in connexion with the rivers by which , .
they are formed, but may be again enumerated in order of
succession. They are, proceeding; from west to east, (l) the Lago
d'Orta, (2) the Lago Maggiore, (3) the Lago di Lugano, (4) the Lago
di Como, (5) the Lago d'Iseo, (6) the Lago d'Idro, and (7) the Lago di
Garda. Of these the last named is considerably the largest, covering
an area of 143 sq. m. It is 52! m. long by 10 broad ; while the Lago
Maggiore, notwithstanding its name, though considerably exceeding
it in length (37 m.), falls materially below it in superficial extent.
They are all of great depth — the Lago Maggiore having an extreme
TOPOGRAPHY]
ITALY
depth of 1 198 ft., while that of Como attains to 1365 ft. Of a wholly
different character is the Lago di Varese, between the Lago Maggiore
and that of Lugano, which is a mere shallow expanse of water,
surrounded by hills of very moderate elevation. Two other small
lakes in the same neighbourhood, as well as those of Erba and
Pusiano, between Como and Lecco, are of a similar character.
The lakes of Central Italy, which are comparatively of trifling
dimensions, belong to a wholly different class. The most important
of these, the Lacus Fucinus of the ancients, now called the Lago di
Celano, situated almost exactly in the centre of the peninsula,
occupies a basin of considerable extent, surrounded by mountains
and without any natural outlet, at an elevation of more than 2000 ft.
Its waters have been in great part carried off by an artificial channel,
and more than half its surface laid bare. Next in size is the Lago
Trasimeno.a broad expanse of shallow waters, about 30 m. in circum-
ference, surrounded by low hills. The neighbouring lake of Chiusi
is of similar character, but much smaller dimensions. All the other
lakes of Central Italy, which are scattered through the volcanic
districts west of the Apennines, are of an entirely different formation,
and occupy deep cup-shaped hollows, which have undoubtedly at
one time formed the craters of extinct volcanoes. Such is the Lago di
Bolsena, near the city of the same name, which is an extensive sheet
of water, as well as the much smaller Lago di Vico (the Ciminian lake
of ancient writers) and the Lago di Bracciano, nearer Rome, while
to the south of Rome the well known lakes of Albano and Nemi
have a similar origin.
The only lake properly so called in southern Italy is the Lago del
Matese, in the heart of the mountain group of the same name, of
small extent. The so-called lakes On the coast of the Adriatic north
and south of the promontory of Gargano are brackish lagoons
communicating with the sea.
The three great islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica are closely
connected with Italy, both by geographical position and community
Islands. °^ '.an8uaSe> but they are considered at length in separate
articles. Of the smaller islands that lie near the coasts
of Italy, the most considerable is that of Elba, off the west coast of
central Italy, about 50 m. S. of Leghorn, and separated from the
mainland at Piombino by a strait of only about 6 m. in width.
North of this, and about midway between Corsica and Tuscany, is
the small island of Capraia, steep and rocky, and only 4! m. long,
but with a secure port; Gorgona, about 25 m. farther north, is still
smaller, and is a mere rock, inhabited by a few fishermen. South
of Elba are the equally insignificant islets of Pianosa and Monte-
cristo, while the more considerable island of Giglio lies much nearer
the mainland, immediately opposite the mountain promontory of
Monte Argentaro, itself almost an island. The islands farther south
in the Tyrrhenian Sea are of an entirely different character. Of
these Ischia and Procida, close to the northern headland of the Bay
of Naples, are of volcanic origin, as is the case also with the more
distant group of the Ponza Islands. These are three in number —
Ponza, Palmarola and Zannone; while Ventotene (also of volcanic
formation) is about midway between Ponza and Ischia. The island
of Capri, on the other hand, opposite the southern promontory of the
Bay of Naples, is a precipitous limestone rock. The Aeolian or Lipari
Islands, a remarkable volcanic group, belong rather to Sicily than to
Italy, though Stromboli, the most easterly of them, is about equi-
distant from Sicily and from the mainland.
The Italian coast of the Adriatic presents a great contrast to its
opposite shores, for while the coast of Dalmatia is bordered by a
succession of islands, great and small, the long and uniform coast-line
of Italy from Otranto to Rimini presents not a single adjacent island ;
and the small outlying group of the Tremiti Islands (north of the
Monte Gargano and about 15 m. from the mainland) alone breaks
the monotony of this part of the Adriatic.
Geology.— "The geology of Italy is mainly dependent upon that of
the Apennines (q.v.). On each side of that great chain are found
extensive Tertiary deposits, sometimes, as in Tuscany, the district
of Monferrat, &c., forming a broken, hilly country, at others spreading
into broad plains or undulating downs, such as the Tavoliere of
Puglia, and the tract that forms the spur of Italy from Bari to
Otranto.
Besides these, and leaving out of account the islands, the Italian
peninsula presents four distinct volcanic districts. In three of them
the volcanoes are entirely extinct, while the fourth is still in great
activity.
1. The Euganean hills form a small group extending for about
10 m. from the neighbourhood of Padua to Este, and separated from
the lower offshoots of the Alps by a portion of the wide plain of
Padua. Monte Venda, their highest peak, is 1890 ft. high.
2. The Roman district, the largest of the four, extends from the
hills of Albano to the frontier of Tuscany, and from the lower slopes
of the Apennines to the Tyrrhenian Sea. It may be divided into
three groups: the Monti Albani, the second highest1 of which,
Monte Cavo (3115 ft.), is the ancient Mons Albanus, on the summit
of which stood the temple of Jupiter Latialis, where the assemblies
of the cities forming the Latin confederation were held; the Monti
Cimini, which extend from the valley of the Tiber to the neighbour-
1 The actually highest point is the Maschio delle Faete (3137 ft.).
(See ALBANUS MONS.)
hood of Civita Vecchia, and attain at their culminating point an
elevation of 3454 ft. ; and the mountains of Radicofani and Monte
Amiata, the Tatter of which is 5688 ft. high. The lakes of Bolsena
(Vulsiniensis), of Bracciano (Sabatinus), of Vico (Ciminus), of
Albano (Albanus), of Nemi (Nemorensis), and other smaller lakes
belong to this district ; while between its south-west extremity and
Monte Circello the Pontine Marshes form a broad strip of alluvial
soil infested by malaria.
3. The volcanic region of the Terra di Lavoro is separated by the
Volscian mountains from the Roman district. It may be also divided
into three groups. Of Roccamonfina, at the N.N.W. end of the
Campanian Plain, the highest cone, called Montagna di Santa Croce,
is 3291 ft. The Phlegraean Fields embrace all the country round
Baiae and Pozzuoli and the adjoining islands. Monte Barbara
(Gaurus), north-east of the site of Cumae, Monte San Nicola
(Epomeus), 2589 ft. in Ischia, and Camaldoli, 1488 ft., west of
Naples, are the highest cones. The lakes Averno (Avernus), Lucrino
(Lucrinus), Fusaro (Palus Acherusia), and Agnano are within this
group, which has shown activity in historical times. A stream of
lava issued in 1198 from the crater of the Solfatara, which still con-
tinues to exhale steam and noxious gases; the Lava dell' Arso came
out of the N.E. flank of Monte Epomeo in 1302; and Monte
Nuovo, north-west of Pozzuoli (455 ft.), was thrown up in three days
in September 1538. Since its first historical eruption in A.D. 79,
Vesuvius or Somma, which forms the third group, has been in con-
stant activity. The Punta del Nasone, the highest point of Somma,
is 3714 ft. high, while the Punta del Palo, the highest point of the
brim of the crater of Vesuvius, varies materially with successive
eruptions from 3856 to 4275 ft.
4. The Apulian volcanic formation consists of the great mass of
Monte Volture, which rises at the west end of the plains of Apulia,
on the frontier of Basilicata, and is surrounded by the Apennines on
its south-west and north-west sides. Its highest peak, the Pizzuto
di Melfi, attains an elevation of 4365 ft. Within the widest crater
there are the two small lakes of Monticchio and San Michele. In
connexion with the volcanic districts we may mention 7,e Mofete,
the pools of Ampsanctus, in a wooded valley S.E. of Frigento, in
the province of Avellino, Campania (Virgil, Aeneid, vii. 563-571).
The largest is not more than 160 ft. in circumference, and 7 ft. deep.
The whole of the great plain of Lombardy is covered by Pleistocene
and recent deposits. It is a great depression — the. continuation of
the Adriatic Sea — filled up by deposits brought down by the rivers
from the mountains. The depression was probably formed during
the later stages of the growth of the Alps.
Climate and Vegetation. — The geographical position of Italy,
extending from about 46° to 38° N., renders it one of the hottest
countries in Europe. But the effect of its southern latitude is
tempered by its peninsular character, bounded as it is on both sides
by seas of considerable extent, as well as by the great range of
the Alps with its snows and glaciers to the north. There are thus
irregular variations of climate. Great differences also exist with
regard to climate between northern and southern Italy, due in great
part to other circumstances as well as to differences of latitude.
Thus the great plain of northern Italy is chilled by the cold winds
from the Alps, while the damp warm winds from the Mediterranean
are to a great extent intercepted by the Ligurian Apennines. Hence
this part of the country has a cold winter climate, so that while the
mean summer temperature of Milan is higher than that of Sassari, and
equal to that of Naples, and the extremes reached at Milan and
Bologna are a good deal higher than those of Naples, the mean winter
temperature of Turin is actually lower than that of Copenhagen.
The lowest recorded winter temperature at Turin is §° Fahr.
Throughout the region north of the Apennines no plants will thrive
which cannot stand occasional severe frosts in winter, so that not only
oranges and lemons but even the olive tree cannot be grown, except
in specially favoured situations. But the strip of coast between the
Apennines and the sea, known as the Riviera of Genoa, is not only
extremely favourable to the growth of olives, but produces oranges
and lemons in abundance, while even the aloe, the cactus and the
palm flourish in many places.
Central Italy also presents striking differences of climate and
temperature according to the greater or less proximity to the moun-
tains. Thus the greater part of Tuscany, and the provinces thence
to Rome, enjoy a mild winter climate, and are well adapted to the
growth of mulberries and olives as well as vines, but it is not till after
passing Terracina, in proceeding along the western coast towards
the south, that the vegetation of southern Italy develops in its full
luxuriance. Even in the central parts of Tuscany, however, the
climate is very much affected by the neighbouring mountains,
and the increasing elevation of the Apennines as they proceed south
produces a corresponding effect upon the temperature. But it is
when we reach the central range of the Apennines that we find
the coldest districts of Italy. In all the upland valleys of the
Abruzzi snow begins to fall early in November, and heavy storms
occur often as late as May; whole communities are shut out for
months from any intercourse with their neighbours, and some
villages are so long buried in snow that regular passages are made
between the different houses for the sake of communication among
the inhabitants. The district from the south-east of Lake Fucino
to the Piano di Cinque Miglia.enclosingthe upper basin of the Sangro
ITALY
[POPULATION
And the small lake of Scanno, is the coldest and most bleak part of
Italy south of the Alps. Heavy falls of snow in June are not un-
common, and only for a short time towards the end of July are the
nights totally exempt from light frosts. Yet less than 40 m. E. of this
district, and even more to the north, the olive, the fig-tree and the
orange thrive luxuriantly on the shores of the Adriatic from Ortona
to Vasto. In the same way, whilst in the plains and hills round
Naples snow is rarely seen, and never remains long, and the ther-
mometer seldom descends to the freezing-point, 20 m. E. from it in the
fertile valley of Avellino, of no great elevation, but encircled by high
mountains, light frosts are not uncommon as late as June; and 18 m.
farther east, in the elevated region of San Angelo dei Lombard! and
Bisaccia, the inhabitants are always warmly clad, and vines grow
with difficulty and only in sheltered places. Still farther south-east,
Potenza has almost the coldest climate in Italy, and certainly the
lowest summer temperatures. But nowhere are these contrasts
so striking as in Calabria. The shores, especially on the Tyrrhenian
Sea, present almost a continued grove of olive, orange, lemon and
citron trees, which attain a size unknown in the north of Italy. The
sugar-cane flourishes, the cotton-plant ripens to perfection, date-
trees are seen in the gardens, the rocks are clothed with the prickly-
pear or Indian fig, the enclosures of the fields are formed by aloes and
sometimes pomegranates, the liquorice-root grows wild, and the
mastic, the myrtle and many varieties of oleander and cistus form
the underwood of the natural forests of arbutus and evergreen oak.
If we turn inland but 5 or 6 m. from the shore, and often even less,
the scene changes. High districts covered with oaks and chestnuts
succeed to this almost tropical vegetation; a little higher up and
we reach the elevated regions of the Pollino and the Sila, covered
with firs and pines, and affording rich pastures even in the midst of
summer, when heavy dews and light frosts succeed each other in July
and August, and snow begins to appear at the end of September or
early in October. Along the shores of the Adriatic, which are ex-
posed to the north-east winds, blowing coldly from over the Albanian
mountains, delicate plants do not thrive so well in general as under
the same latitude along the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea.
Southern Italy indeed has in general a very different climate
from the northern portion of the kingdom; and, though large tracts
are still occupied by rugged mountains of sufficient elevation to retain
the snow for a considerable part of the year, the districts adjoining
the sea enjoy a climate similar to that of Greece and the southern
provinces of Spain. Unfortunately several of these fertile tracts
suffer severely from malaria (g.v.), and especially the great plain
adjoining the Gulf of Tarentum, which in the early ages of history
was surrounded by a girdle of Greek cities — some of which
attained to almost unexampled prosperity — has for centuries past
beenjjiven up to almost complete desolation.1
It is remarkable that, of the vegetable productions of Italy, many
which are at the present day among the first to attract the attention
of the visitor are of comparatively late introduction, and were un-
known in ancient times. The olive indeed in all ages clothed the
hills of a large part of the country; but the orange and lemon, are
a late importation from the East, while the cactus or Indian fig and
the aloe, both of them so conspicuous on the shores of southern Italy,
as well as of the Riviera of Genoa, are of Mexican origin, and conse-
quently could not have been introduced earlier than the 1 6th century.
The same remark applies to the maize or Indian corn. Manybotanists
are even of opinion that the sweet chestnut, which now constitutes
so large a part of the forests that clothe the sides both of the Alps and
the Apennines, and in some districts supplies the chief food of the
Inhabitants, is not originally of Italian growth; it is certain that
it had not attained in ancient times to anything like the extension
and importance which it now possesses. The eucalyptus is of quite
modern introduction; it has been extensively planted in malarious
districts. The characteristic cypress, ilex and stone-pine, however,
are native trees, the last-named flourishing especially near the coast.
The proportion of evergreens is large, and has a marked effect on the
landscape in winter.
Fauna. — The chamois, bouquctin and marmot are found only in
the Alps, not at all in the Apennines. I n the latter the bear was found
in Roman times, and there are said to be still a few remaining.
Wolves are more numerous, though only in the mountainous
districts; the flocks are protected against them by large white sheep-
dogs, who have some wolf blood in them. Wild boars are also found
in mountainous and forest districts. Foxes are common in the
neighbourhood of Rome. The sea mammals include the common
dolphin (Delphinus delphis). The birds are similar to those of central
Europe; in the mountains vultures, eagles, buzzards, kites, falcons
and hawks are found. Partridges, woodcock, snipe, &c., are among
the game birds; but all kinds of small birds are also shot for food,
and their number is thus kept down, while many members of the
migratory species are caught by traps in the foothills on the south
side of the Alps, especially near the Lake of Como, on their passage.
Large numbers of quails are shot in the spring. Among reptiles,,
the various kinds of lizard are noticeable. There are several varieties
of snakes, of which three species (all vipers) are poisonous. Of sea-
On the influence of malaria on the population of Early Italy see
W. H. S. Jones in Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology, ii. 97 sqq.
(Liverpool, 1909).
fish there are many varieties, the tunny, the sardine and the anchovy
being commercially the most important. Some of the other edible
fish, such as the palombo, are not found in northern waters. Small
cuttlefish are in common use as an article of diet. Tortoiseshell,
an important article of commerce, is derived from the Thalassochelys
caretta, a sea turtle. Of freshwater fish the trout of the mountain
streams and the eels of the coast lagoons may be mentioned. The
tarantula spider and the scorpion are found in the south of Italy.
The aquarium of the zoological station at Naples contains the
finest collection in the world of marine animals, showing the wonderful
variety of the different species of fish, molluscs, Crustacea, &c., found
in the Mediterranean. (E. H. B.; T. As.)
Population. — The following table indicates the areas of the several
provinces (sixty-nine in number), and the population of each accord-
ing to the censuses of the 3ist of December 1881 and the 9th of
February 1901. (The larger divisions or compartments in which the
provinces are grouped are not officially recognized.)
Provinces and Compartments.
Area in
sq. m.
Population
1881.
1901.
Alessandria
Cuneo
1950
2882
2553
3955
729,710
635,400
675,926
1,029,214
825,745
670,504
763,830
1,147,414
Novara
Turin
Piedmont ....
Genoa
Porto Maurizio ....
Liguria ....
Bergamo
• 11,34°
3,070,250
3,407,493
1582
455
760,122
132,251
931,156
144,604
2037
892,373
1,075-760
1098
1845
1091
695
912
1223
1290
1232
390,775
471,568
515-050
302,097
295-728
1,114,991
469,831
120,534
467,549
541-765
594.304
329.471
315-448
1,450,214
504-382
130,966
Brescia
Como
Cremona
Mantua
Milan
Pavia
Sondrio
Lombardy
Bclluno
Padua
Rovigo
Treviso
9386
3,680,574
4-334-099
1293
823
685
960
2541
934
1188
1052
174,140
397-762
217,700
375-704
501,745
356,708
394-065
396,349
214,803
444,360
222,057
416,945
614,720
399.823
427,018
453-621
Udine
Venice
Verona
Venetia ....
Bologna
Ferrara
9476
2,814,173
3-193-347
1448
IOI2
725
987
1250
954
|
464,879
230,807
251,110
279-254
267,306
226,758
218,359
244,959
529.619
270,558
283,996
323.598
303,694
250,491
234,656
281,085
Forll
Modena
Parma
Piacenza
Ravenna
Reggio (Emilia) ....
Emilia ....
Arezzo
7967
2,183,432
2,477,697
1273
2265
1738
133
558
687
1179
1471
238,744
790,776
"4-295
121,612
284,484
169,469
283,563
205,926
275.588
945.324
137.795
121,137
329,986
202,749
319,854
233-874
Florence
Grosseto
Leghorn
Lucca
Massa and Carrara
Pisa
Siena
Tuscany ....
Ancona
9304
2,208,869
2,566,307
762
796
1087
1118
267,338
209,185
239-713
223,043
308,346
251,829
269,505
259,083
Ascoli Piceno
Macerata
Pesaro and Urbino
Marches ....
Perugia — Umbria ....
Rome — Lazio
3763
939,279
1,088,763
3748
572,060
675-352
4663
903-472
1,142,526
POPULATION]
ITALY
Provinces and Compartments.
Area in
sq. m.
Population.
1881.
1901.
Aquila degli Abruzzi (Abruzzo
Ulteriore II.) ....
Campobasso (Molise) .
Chieti (Abruzzo Citeriore)
Teramo (Abruzzo Ulteriore I.)
Abruzzi and Molise
Avellino (Principato Ulteriore)
Benevento
Caserta (Terra di Lavoro)
Naples
Salerno (Principato Citeriore)
Campania
Bari delle Puglie(Terra di Bari)
Foggia (Capitanata) .
Lecce (Terra di Otranto) .
Apulia ....
Potenza (Basilicata) .
Catanzaro (Calabria Ulteriore
II.) . . ... . .
Cosenza (Calabria Citeriore) .
Reggio di Calabria (Calabria
Ulteriore I.) .
2484
1691
1138
1067
353,027
365,434
343,948
254,806
436,367
389,976
• 387,604
312,188
6380
1,317,215
1,526,135
1172
818
2033
35°
1916
392,619
238,425
714-131
1,001,245
550,157
421,766
265,460
805,345
1,141,788
585,132
6289
2,896,577
3.2I9.491
2065
2688
2623
679,499
356,267
553,298
837,683
421,115
705,382
7376
1,589,064
1,964,180
3845
524-504
491,558
2030
2568
1221
433,975
451,185
3/2-723
498,791
503,329
437,209
Calabria ....
Caltanisetta
Catania
Girgenti
Messina
Palermo ....
5819
1,257,883
1,439,329
1263
1917
1172
1246
1948
1442
948
266,379
563,457
3J2.487
460,924
699.151
341.526
283,977
329,449
703,598
380,666
550,895
796,i5i
433.796
373.569
Syracuse
Trapani
Sicily
9936
2,927,901
3,568,124
Cagliari ....
5204
4090
420,635
261,367
486,767
309,026
Sassari
Sardinia ....
Kingdom of Italy ....
9294
682,002
795.793
110,623
28,459,628
32,965,504
The number of foreigners in Italy in 1901 was 61,606, of whom
37,762 were domiciled within the kingdom.
The population given in the foregoing table is the resident or
" legal " population, which is also given for the individual towns.
This is 490,251 higher than the actual population, 32,475,253,
ascertained by the census of the loth of February 1901 ; the differ-
ence is due to temporary absences from their residences of certain
individuals on military service, &c., who probably were counted twice,
and also to the fact that 469,020 individuals were returned as absent
from Italy, while only 61,606 foreigners were in Italy at the date of
the census. The kingdom is divided into 69 provinces, 284 regions,
of which 197 are classed as circondarii and 87 as districts (the latter
belonging to the province of Mantua and the 8 provinces of Venetia),
1806 administrative divisions (mandamenti) and 8262 communes.
These were the figures at the date of the census. In 1906 there were
1805 mandamenti and 8290 communes, and 4 boroughs in Sardinia
not connected with communes. The mandamenti or administrative
divisions no longer correspond to the judicial divisions (mandamenti
giudiziarii) which in November 1891 were reduced from 1806 to
I535.by a 'aw which provided that judicial reform should not modify
existing administrative and electoral divisions. The principal elective
local administrative bodies are the provincial and the communal
councils. The franchise is somewhat wider than the parliamentary.
Both bodies are elected for six years, one-half being renewed every
three years. The provincial council elects a provincial commission
and the communal council a municipal council from among its own
members; these smaller bodies carry on the business of the larger
while they are not sitting. The syndic of each commune is elected
by ballot by the communal council from among its own members.
The actual (not the resident or " legal ") population of Italy since
1770 is approximately given in the following table (the first census
of the kingdom as a whole was taken in 1871) : —
1770
1800
1825
1848
14,689,317
17,237,421
19,726,977
23.6i7.l53
1861
1871
I SKI
1901
25,016,801
26,801,154
28,459,628
32,475.253
The average density increased from 257-21 per sq. m. in 1881 to
293-28 in 1901. In Venetia, Emilia, the Marches, Umbria and
Tuscany the proportion of concentrated population is only from
40 to 55%; in Piedmont, Liguria and Lombardy the proportion
rises to from 70 to 76%; in southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia it
attains a maximum of from 76 to 93 %.
The population of towns over 100,000 is given in the following
table according to the estimates for 1906. The population of the
town itself is distinguished from that of its commune, which often
includes a considerable portion of the surrounding country.
Town. Commune.
Bologna 105,153 160,423
Catania 135.548 159,210
Florence 201,183 226,559
Genoa 255,294 267,248
Messina 108,514 165,007
Milan 560,613
Naples 491,614 585,289
Palermo 264,036 323,747
Rome 403,282 516,580
Turin 277,121 361,720
Venice 146,940 169,563
The population of the different parts of Italy differs in charac-
ter and dialect; and there is little community of sentiment
between them. The modes of life and standards of comfort and
morality in north Italy and in Calabria are widely different; the
former being far in front of the latter. Much, however, is effected
towards unification, by compulsory military service, it being the
principle that no man shall serve within the military district to
which he belongs. In almost all parts the idea of personal
loyalty (e.g. between master and servant) retains an almost
feudal strength. The inhabitants of the north — the Pied-
montese, Lombards and Genoese especially — have suffered less
than those of the rest of the peninsula from foreign domination
and from the admixture of inferior racial elements, and the cold
winter climate prevents the heat of summer from being enervat-
ing. They, and also the inhabitants of central Italy, are more
industrious than the inhabitants of the southern provinces,
who have by no means recovered from centuries of misgovern-
ment and oppression, and are naturally more hot-blooded and
excitable, but less stable, capable of organization or trust-
worthy. The southerners are apathetic except when roused,
and socialist doctrines find their chief adherents in the north.
The Sicilians and Sardinians have something of Spanish dignity,
but the former are one of the most mixed and the latter probably
one of the purest races of the Italian kingdom. Physical character-
istics differ widely; but as a whole the Italian is somewhat short
of stature, with dark or black hair and eyes, often good looking.
Both sexes reach maturity early. Mortality is decreasing, but
if we may judge from the physical conditions of the recruits the
physique of the nation shows little or no improvement. Much of
this lack of progress is attributed to the heavy manual (especially
agricultural) work undertaken by women and children. The
women especially age rapidly, largely owing to this cause (E.
Nathan, Vent' anni di vita italiana attraverso all' annuario,
169 sqq.).
Births, Marriages, Deaths. — Birth and marriage rates vary
considerably, being highest in the centre and south (Umbria, the
Marches, Apulia, Abruzzi and Molise, and Calabria) and lowest in the
north (Piedmont, Liguria and Venetia), and in Sardinia. The
death-rate is highest in Apulia, in the Abruzzi and Molise, and in
Sardinia, and lowest in the north, especially in Venetia and Piedmont.
Taking the statistics for the whole kingdom, the annual marriage-
rate for the years 1876-^1880 was 7-53 per 1000; in 1881-1885 it rose
to 8-06; in 1886-1890 it was 7-77; in 1891-1895 it was 7-41, and in
1896-1900 it had gone down to 7-14 (a figure largely produced by
the abnormally low rate of 6-88 in 1898), and in 1902 was 7-23.
Divorce is forbidden by the Roman Catholic Church, and only 839
judicial separations were obtained from the courts in 1902, more
than half of the demands made having been abandoned. Of the
whole population in 1901, 57-5% were unmarried, 36-0% married,
and 6-5% widowers or widows. The illegitimate births show a
decrease, having been 6-95 per loo births in 1872 and 5-72 in 1902,
with a rise, however, in the intermediate period as high as 7-76 in
1883. The birth-rate shows a corresponding decrease from 38-10
per looo in 1881 to 33-29 in 1902. The male births have since 1872
been about 3% (3-14 in 1872-1875 and 2-72 in 1896-1900) in excess
of the female births, which is rather more than compensated for by
the greater male mortality, the excess being 2-64 in 1872-1875 and
having increased to 4-08 in 1896-1900. (The calculations are made
8
ITALY
[AGRICULTURE
in both cases on the total of births and deaths of both sexes.) The
result is that, while in 1871 there was an excess of 143,370 males
over females in the total population, in 1881 the excess was only
71,138, and in 1901 there were 169,684 more females than males.
The death-rate (excluding still-born children) was, in 1872, 30-78
per 1000, and has since steadily decreased — less rapidly between
1886-1890 than during other years; in 1902 it was only 22-15 and
in 1899 was as low as 2 1 -89. The excess of births over deaths shows
considerable variations — owing to a very low birth-rate, it was only
3-12 per looo in 1880, but has averaged 11-05 per 1000 from 1896 to
1900, reaching 11-98 in 1899 and 11-14 m 1902. For the four years
1899-1902 24-66 % died under the age of one year, 9-41 between one
and two years. The average expectation of life at birth for the same
period was 52 years and 1 1 months, 62 years and 2 months at the
age of three years, 52 years at the age of fifteen, 44 years at the age
of twenty-four, 30 years at the age of forty; while the average
period of life, which was 35 years 3 months per individual in 1882,
was 43 years per individual in 1901. This shows a considerable
improvement, largely, but not entirely, in the diminution of infant
mortality; the expectation of life at birth in 1882, it is true, was
on'y 33 years and 6 months, and at three years of age 56 years
I month; but the increase, both in the expectation of life and in its
average duration, goes all through the different ages.
Occupations. — In the census of 1901 the population over nine years
of age (both male and female) was divided as follows as regards the
main professions: —
Total.
Males.
Females.
Agricultural (including hunt-
ing and fishing) ....
Industrial
Commerce and transport
(public and private services)
Domestic service, &c.
Professional classes, admini-
stration, &c
Defence
9,666,467
4,505.736
1,003,888
574,855
1,304-347
204,012
6,466,165
3,017,393
885,070
171,875
855.217
2O4 OI2
3,200,302
1,488,343
118,818
402,980
449,130
Religion
129,893
89,329
40,564
Emigration. — The movement of emigration may be divided into
two currents, temporary and permanent — the former going? chiefly
towards neighbouring European countries and to North Africa, and
consisting of manual labourers, the latter towards trans-oceanic
countries, principally Brazil, Argentina and the United States.
These emigrants remain abroad for several years, evert when they
do not definitively establish themselves there. They are composed
principally of peasants, unskilled workmen and other manual
labourers. There was a tendency towards increased emigration
during the last quarter of the I9th century. The principal causes
are the growth of population, and the over-supply of and low rates
of remuneration for manual labour in various Italian provinces.
Emigration has, however, recently assumed such proportions as to
lead to scarcity of labour and rise of wages in Italy itself. Italians
form about half of the total emigrants to America.
Year.
Temporary Emigration.
Permanent Emigration.
Total No. of
Emigrants.
Per every
100,000 of
Population.
Total No. of
Emigrants.
Per every
100,000 of
Population.
1881
1891
1901
94.225
118,111
281,668
333
389
865
41,607
175,520
251,577
H7
578
772
The increased figures may, to a minor extent, be due to better
registration, in consequence of the law of 1901.
From the next table will be seen the direction of emigration in the
years specified: —
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
Europe
N.Africa
U.S. and Canada
Mexico (Central America)
South America
Asia and Oceania
Total ....
181,047
5,417
89,400
2,069
74,168
691
244,298
9,499
124,636
997
152,543
1,272
236,066
11,771
196,723
766
85,097
i, 086
215,943
9,452
200,383
1,3"
78,699
2,168
209,942
14,709
173,537
1,828
74,209
2,966
266,982
11,910
322,627
2,044
m, 943
2,715
352,792
533,245
531,509
507,956
477,191
718,221
The figures for 1905 show that the total of 718,221 emigrants was
made up, as regards numbers, mainly by individuals from Venetia,
Sicily, Campania, Piedmont, Calabria and the Abruzzi; while the
percentage was highest in Calabria (4-44), the Abruzzi, Venetia,
Basilicata, the Marches, Sicily (2-86), Campania, Piedmont (2-02).
Tuscany gives 1-20, Latium 1-14 %, Apulia only 1-02, while Sardinia
with 0-34 % occupies an exceptional position. The figure for Sicily,
which was 106,000 in 1905, reached 127,000 in 1906 (3-5 %), and of
these about three-fourths would be adults; in the meantime, how-
ever, the population increases so fast that even in 1905 there was a
net increase in Sicily of 20,000 souls; so that in three years 220,000
workers were replaced by 320,000 infants.
The phenomenon of emigration in Sicily cannot altogether be
explained by low wages, which have risen, though prices have done
the same. It has been defined as apparently " a kind of collective
madness."
Agriculture. — Accurate statistics with regard to the area
occupied in different forms of cultivation are difficult to obtain,
both on account of their varied and piecemeal character and
from the lack of a complete cadastral survey. A complete
survey was ordered by the law of the ist of March 1886, but
many years must elapse before its completion. The law, however,
enabled provinces most heavily burdened by land tax to ac-
celerate their portion of the survey, and to profit by the reassess-
ment of the tax on the new basis. An idea of the effects of the
survey may be gathered from the fact that the assessments in the
four provinces of Mantua, Ancona, Cremona and Milan, which
formerly amounted to a total of £1,454,696, are now £2,788,080, an
increase of 91%. Of the total area of Italy, 70,793,000 acres,
71% are classed as "productive." The unproductive area
comprises 16% of the total area (this includes 4% occupied by
lagoons or marshes, and 1-75% of the total area susceptible of
bonificazione or improvement by drainage. Between 1882 and
1902 over £4,000,000. was spent on this by the government), wie
uncultivated area is 13%. This includes 3-50% of the total
susceptible of cultivation.
The cultivated area may be divided into five agrarian regions or
zones, named after the variety of tree culture which flourishes in
them, (i) Proceeding from south to north, the first zone is that of
the agrumi (oranges, lemons and similar fruits). It comprises a
great part of Sicily. In Sardinia it extends along the southern and
western coasts. It predominates along the Ligurian Riviera from
Bordighera to Spezia, and on the Adriatic, near San Benedetto del
Tronto and Gargano, and, crossing the Italian shore of the Ionian
Sea, prevails in some regions of Calabria, and terminates around the
gulfs of Salerno, Sorrento and Naples. (2) The region of olives
comprises the internal Sicilian valleys and part of the mountain
slopes; in Sardinia, the valleys near the coast on the S.E., S.W. and
N.W. ; on the mainland it extends from Liguria and from the
southern extremities of the Romagna to Cape Santa Maria di Leuca
in Apulia, and to Cape Spartivento in Calabria. Some districts of
the olive region are near the lakes of upper Italy and in Venetia,
and the territories of Verona, Vicenza, Treviso and Friuli. (3) The
vine region begins on the sunny slopes of the Alpine spurs and in
those Alpine valleys open towards the south, extending over the
plains of Lombardy and Emilia. In Sardinia it covers the mountain
slopes to a considerable height, and in Sicily covers the sides of the
Madonie range, reaching a level above 3000 ft. on the southern slope
of Etna. The Calabrian Alps, the less rocky sides of the Apulian
Murgie and the whole length of the Apennines are covered at
different heights, according to their situation. The hills of Tuscany,
and of Monferrato in Piedmont, produce the most celebrated Italian
vintages. (4) The region of chestnuts extends from the valleys to
the high plateaus of the Alps, along the northern slopes of the
Apennines in Liguria, Modena, Tuscany, Romagna, Umbria, the
Marches and along the southern Apennines to the Calabrian and
Sicilian ranges, as well as to the mountains of Sardinia. (5) The
wooded region covers the Alps and Apennines above the chestnut
level. The woods consist chiefly of pine and hazel upon the Apennines,
and upon the Calabrian, Sicilian and Sardinian mountains of oak,
ilex, hornbeam and similar trees.
Between these regions of tree culture lie zones of different her-
baceous culture, cereals, vegetables
and textile plants. The style of
cultivation varies according to the
nature of the ground, terraces sup-
ported by stone walls being much
used in mountainous districts. Cereal
cultivation occupies the foremost
place in area and quantity though
it has been on the decline since
1903, still representing, however, an
advance on previous years. Wheat
is the most important crop and
is widely distributed. In 1905 12,734,491 acres, or about 18%
of the total area, produced 151,696,571 bushels of wheat, a yield
of only 12 bushels per acre. The importation has, however,
enormously increased since 1882 — from 164,600 to 1,126,368 tons;
while the extent of land devoted to corn cultivation has slightly
decreased. Next in importance to wheat comes maize, occupying
about 7% of the total area of the country, and cultivated almost
everywhere as an alternative crop. The production of maize in 1905
AGRICULTURE]
ITALY
reached about 96,250,000 bushels, a slight increase on the average.
The production of maize is, however, insufficient, and 208,719 tons
were imported in 1902 — about double the amount imported in 1882.
Rice is cultivated in low-lying, moist lands, where spring and
summer temperatures are high. The Po valley and the valleys of
Emilia, and the Romagna are best adapted for rice, but the area is
diminishing on- account of the competition of foreign rice and of the
impoverishment of the soil by too intense cultivation. The area is
about 0-5 % of the total of Italy. The area under rye is about 0-5 %
of the total, of which about two-thirds lie in the Alpine and about
one-third in the Apennine zone. The barley zone is geographically
extensive but embraces not more than I % of the total area, of which
half is situated in Sardinia and Sicily. Oats, cultivated in the Roman
and Tuscan maremma and in Apulia, are used almost exclusively for
horses and cattle. The area of oats cultivation is I -5 % of the total
area. The other cereals, millet and panico sorgo (Panicum italicum),
have lost much of their importance in consequence of the introduc-
tion of maize and rice. Millet, however, is still cultivated in the north
of Italy, and is used as bread for agricultural labourers, and as
forage when mixed with buckwheat (Sorghum saccaratum). The
manufacture of macaroni and similar foodstuff is a characteristic
Italian industry. It is extensively distributed, but especially
flourishes in the Neapolitan provinces. The exportation of " corn-
flour pastes " sank, however, from 7100 tons to 350 between 1882
and 1902.
The cultivation of green forage is extensive and is divided into the
categories of temporary and perennial. The temporary includes
vetches, pulse, lupine, clover and trifolium; and the perennial,
meadow- trefoil, lupinella, sulla (Hedysarum coronarium), lucerne
and darnel. The natural grass meadows are extensive, and hay is
grown all over the country, but especially in the Po valley. Pasture
occupies about 30% of the total area of the country, of which
Alpine pastures occupy 1-25%. Seed-bearing vegetables are
comparatively scarce. The principal are: white beans, largely
consumed by the working classes ; lentils, much less cultivated than
beans; and green peas, largely consumed in Italy, and exported as
a spring vegetable. Chick-pease are extensively cultivated in the
southern provinces. Horse beans are grown, especially in the south
and in the larger islands; lupines are also grown for fodder.
Among tuberous vegetables the potato comes first. The area
occupied is about 0-7 % of the whole of the country. Turnips are
grown principally in the central provinces as an alternative crop to
wheat. They yield as much as 12 tons per acre. Beetroot (Beta
vulgaris) is used as fodder, and yields about 10 tons per acre. Sugar
beet is extensively grown to supply the sugar factories. In 1898-1899
there were only four sugar factories, with an output of 5972 tons;
in 1905 there were thirty-three, with an output of 93,916 tons.
Market gardening is carried on both near towns and villages,
where products find ready sale, and along the great railways, on
account of transport facilities. Rome is an exception to the former
rule and imports garden produce largely from the neighbourhood of
Naples and from Sardinia.
Among the chief industrial plants is tobacco, which grows wherever
suitable soil exists. Since tobacco is a government monopoly, its
cultivation is subject to official concessions and prescriptions.
Experiments hitherto made show that the cultivation of Oriental
tobacco may profitably be extended in Italy. The yield for 1901
was 5528 tons, but a large increase took place subsequently, eleven
million new plants having been added in southern Italy in 1905.
The chief textile plants are hemp, flax and cotton. Hemp is
largely cultivated in the provinces of Turin, Ferrara, Bologna, Forli,
Ascoli Piceno and Caserta. Bologna hemp is specially valued.
Flax covers about 160,000 acres, with a product, in fibre, amounting
to about 20,000 tons. Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum), which at
the beginning of the loth century, at the time of the Continental
blockade, and again during the American War of Secession, was
largely cultivated, is now grown only in parts of Sicily and in a few
southern provinces. Sumach, liquorice and madder are also grown
in the south.
The vine is cultivated throughout the length and breadth of Italy,
but while in some of the districts of the south and centre it occupies
from 10 to 20% of the cultivated area, in some of the northern
provinces, such as Sondrio, Belluno, Grosseto, &c., the average is
only about I or 2 %. The methods of cultivation are varied ; but
the planting of the vines by themselves in long rows of insignificant
bushes is the exception. In Lombardy, Emilia, Romagna, Tuscany,
the Marches, Umbria and the southern provinces, they are trained
to trees which are either left in their natural state or subjected to
pruning and pollarding. In Campania the vines are allowed to climb
freely to the tops of the poplars. In the rest of Italy the elm and
the maple are the trees mainly employed as supports. Artificial
props of several kinds — wires, cane work, trellis work, &c. — are also
in use in many districts (in the neighbourhood of Rome canes are
almost exclusively employed), and in some the plant is permitted
to trail along the ground. The vintage takes place, according to
locality and climate, from the beginning of September to the beginning
of November. The vine has been attacked by the Oidium Tuckeri,
the Phylloxera vastatrix and the Peronospora viticola, which in
rapid succession wrought great havoc in Italian vineyards. American
vines, are, however, immune and have been largely adopted. The
production of wine in the vintage of 1907, which was extraordinarily
abundant all over the country, was estimated at 1232 million gallons
(56 million hectolitres), the average for 1901-1903 being some 352
million gallons less; of this the probable home consumption was
estimated at rather over half, while a considerable amount remained
over from 1906. The exportation in 1902 only reached about 45
million gallons (and even that is double the average), while an equally
abundant vintage in France and Spain rendered the exportation of
the balance of 1907 impossible, and fiscal regulations rendered the
distillation of the superfluous amount difficult. The quality, too,
owing to bad weather at the time of vintage, was not good ; Italian
wine, indeed, never is sufficiently good to compete with the best wines
of other countries, especially France (though there is more opening
for Italian wines of the Bordeaux and Burgundy type); nor will
many kinds of it stand keeping, partly owing to their natural qualities
and partly to the insufficient care devoted to their preparation.
There has been some improvement, however, while some of the
heavier white wines, noticeably the Marsala of Sicily, have excellent
keeping qualities. The area cultivated as vineyards has increased
enormously, from about 4,940,000 acres to 9,880,000 acres, or about
14 % of the total area of the country. Over-production seems thus
to be a considerable danger, and improvement of quality is rather
to be sought after. This has been encouraged by government prizes
since 1904.
Next to cereals and the vine the most important object of cultiva-
tion is the olive. In Sicily and the provinces of Reggio, Catanzaro,
Cosenza and Lecce this tree flourishes without shelter; as far north
as Rome, Aquila and Teramp it requires only the slightest protection ;
in the rest of the peninsula it runs the risk of damage by frost every
ten years or so. The proportion of ground under olives is from 20 to
36% at Porto Maunzio, and in Reggio, Lecce, Bari, Chieti and
Leghorn it averages from 10 to 19%. Throughout Piedmont,
Lombardy, Venetia and the greater part of Emilia, the tree is of
little importance. In the olive there is great variety of kinds, and
the methods of cultivation differ greatly in different districts; in
Bari, Chieti and Lecce, for instance, there are regular woods of
nothing but olive-trees, while in middle Italy there are olive-orchards
with the interspaces occupied by crops of various kinds. The
Tuscan oils from Lucca, Calci and Buti are considered the best in
the world ; those of .Bari, Umbria and western Liguria rank next.
The wood of the olive is also used for the manufacture of small
articles. The olive-growing area occupies about 3-5% of the total
area of the country, and the crop in 1905 produced about 75,000,000
gallons of oil. The falling off of the crop, especially in 1899, was due
to bad seasons and to insects, notably the Cycloconium oleoginum,
and the Dacus oleae, or oil-fly, which have ravaged the olive-yards,
and it is noticeable that lately good and bad seasons seem to alter-
nate; between 1900 and 1905 the crops were alternately one half of,
and equal to, that of the latter year. With the development of
agricultural knowledge, notable improvements have been effected
in the manufacture of oil. The steam mills give the best results.
The export trade, however, is decreasing considerably, while the
home consumption is increasing. In 1901, 1985 imperial tuns of oil
were shipped from Gallipoli for abroad — two-thirds to the United
Kingdom, one-third to Russia — and 666 to Italian ports; while in
1904 the figures were reversed, 1633 tuns going to Italian ports,
and only 945 tuns to foreign ports. The other principal port of
shipping is Gioia Tauro, 30 m. N.N.E. of Reggio Calabria. A certain
amount of linseed-oil is made in Lombardy, Sicily, Apulia and
Calabria; colza in Piedmont, Lombardy, Venetia and Emilia;
and castor-oil in Venetia and Sicily. The product is principally used
for industrial purposes, and partly in the preparation of food, but
the amount is decreasing.
The cultivation of oranges, lemons and their congeners (collec-
tively designated in Italian by the term agrumi) is of comparatively
modern date, the introduction of the Citrus Bigaradia being probably
due to the Arabs. Sicily is the chief centre of cultivation — the area
occupied by lemon and orange orchards in the province of Palermo
alone having increased from 11,525 acres in 1854 to 54,340 in 1874.
Reggio Calabria, Catanzaro, Cosenza, Lecce, Salerno, Naples and
Caserta are the continental provinces which come next after Sicily.
In Sardinia the cultivation is extensive, but receives little attention.
Both crude and concentrated lime-juice is exported, and essential
oils are extracted from the rind of the agrumi, more particularly from
that of the lemon and the bergamot. In northern and central Italy,
except in the province of Brescia, the agrumi are almost non-existent.
The trees are planted on irrigated soil and the fruit gathered between
November and August. Considerable trade is done in agro di limone
or lemon extract, which forms the basis of citric acid. Extraction is
extensively carried on in the provinces of Messina and Palermo.
Among other fruit trees, apple-trees have special importance.
Almonds are widely cultivated in Sicily, Sardinia and the southern
provinces; walnut trees throughout the peninsula, their wood being
more important than their fruit ; hazel nuts, figs, prickly pears (used
in the south and the islands for hedges, their fruit being a minor
consideration), peaches, pears, locust beans and pistachio nuts are
among the other fruits. The mulberry-tree (Morus alba), whose
leaves serve as food for silkworms, is cultivated in every region,
considerable progress having been made in its cultivation and in the
rearing of silkworms since 1850. Silkworm-rearing establishments
IO
ITALY
[AGRICULTURE
Woods
and
forests.
of importance now exist in the Marches, Umbria, in the Abruzzi,
Tuscany, Piedmont and Venetia. The chief silk-producing provinces
are Lombardy, Venetia and Piedmont. During the period 1900-1904
the average annual production of silk cocoons was 53,500 tons, and
of silk 5200 tons.
The great variety in physical and social conditions throughout
the peninsula gives corresponding variety to the methods of agricul-
ture. In the rotation of crops there is an amazing diversity — shifts of
two years, three years, four years, six years, and in many cases
whatever order strikes the fancy of the farmer. The fields of Tuscany
for the most part bear wheat one year and maize the next, in per-
petual interchanges, relieved to some extent by green crops. A
similar method prevails in the Abruzzi, and in the provinces of
Salerno, Beneyento and Avellino. In Lombardy a six- year shift
is common: either wheat, clover, maize, rice, rice, rice (the last
year manured with lupines) or maize, wheat followed by clover,
clover, clover ploughed in, and rice, rice and rice manured with
lupines. The Emihan region is one where regular rotations are best
observed — a common shift being grain, maize, clover, beans and
vetches, &c., grain, which has the disadvantage of the grain crops
succeeding each other. In the province of Naples, Caserta, &c.,
the method of fallows is widely adopted, the ground often being left
in this state for fifteen or twenty years; and in some parts of Sicily
there is a regular interchange of fallow and crop year by year. The
following scheme indicates a common Sicilian method of a type which
has many varieties: fallow, grain, grain, pasture, pasture-mother
two divisions of the area following the same order, but beginning
respectively with the two years of grain and the two of pasture.
Woods and forests play an important part, especially in regard
to the consistency of the soil and to the character of the water-
courses. The chestnut is of great value for its wood and
jts fruit, an article of popular consumption. Good timber
is furnished by the oak and beech, and pine and fir forests
of the Alps and Apennines. Notwithstanding the efforts
of the government to unify and co-ordinate the forest laws previously
existing in the various states, deforestation has continued in many
regions. This has been due to speculation, to the unrestricted
pasturage of goats, to the rights which many communes have over
the forests, and to some extent to excessive taxation, which led the
proprietors to cut and sell the trees and then abandon the ground
to the Treasury. The results are — a lack of water-supply and of
water-power, the streams becoming mere torrents for a snort period
and perfectly dry for the rest of the year; lack of a sufficient supply
of timber; the denudation of the soil on the hills, and, where the
valleys below have insufficient drainage, the formation of swamps.
If the available water-power of Italy, already very considerable,
be harnessed, converted into electric power (which is already being
done in some districts), and further increased by reafforestation, the
effect upon the industries of Italy will be incalculable, and the
importation of coal will be very materially diminished. The area of
forest is about 14-3% of the total, and of the chestnut-woods 1-5
more; and its products in 1886 were valued at £3,520,000 (not
including chestnuts). A quantity of it is really brusmvood, used for
the manufacture of charcoal and for fuel, coal being little used
except for manufacturing purposes. Forest nurseries have also been
founded.
According to an approximate calculation the number of head of
Live e s'oc'c ln Italy m 1890 was 16,620,000, thus divided : —
horses, 720,000; asses, 1,000,000; mules, 300,000;
cattle, 5,000,000; sheep, 6,000,000; goats, 1,800,000;
swine, 1,800,000.
The breed of cattle most widely distributed is that known as the
Podolian, usually with white or grey coat and enormous horns. Of
the numerous sub-varieties, the finest is said to be that of the Val
di Chiana, where the animals are stall-fed all the year round; next
is ranked the so-called Valle Tiberina type. Wilder varieties roam
in vast herds over the Tuscan and Roman maremmas, and the corre-
sponding districts in Apulia and other regions. In the Alpine
districts there is a stock distinct from the Podolian, generally called
razza montanina. These animals are much smaller in stature and
more regular in form than the Podolians; they are mainly kept for
dairy purposes. Another stock, with no close allies nearer than the
south of France, is found in the plain of Racconigi and Carmagnola ;
the mouse-coloured Swiss breed occurs in the neighbourhood of
Milan; the Tirolese breed stretches south to Padua and Modena;
and a red-coated breed named of Reggio or Friuli is familiar both in
what were the duchies of Parma and Modena, and in the provinces
of Udine and Treviso. In Sicily the so-called Modica race is of note;
and in Sardinia there is a distinct stock which seldom exceeds the
weight of 700 Ib. Buffaloes are kept in several districts, more
particularly of southern Italy.
Enormous flocks arc possessed by professional sheep-farmers,
who pasture them in the mountains in the summer, and bring them
down to the plains in the winter. At Saluzzo in Piedmont there is
a stock with hanging ears, arched face and tall stature, kept for its
dairy qualities; and in the Biellese the merino breed is maintained
by some of the larger proprietors. In the upper valleys of the Alps
there are many local varieties, one of which at Ossola is like the
Scottish blackface. Liguria is not much adapted for sheep-farming
on a large scale; but a number of small flocks come down to the
plain of Tuscany in the winter. With the exception of a few sub-
Alpine districts near Bergamo and Brescia, the great Lombard plain
is decidedly unpastoral. The Bergamo sheep is the largest breed in
the country ; that of Cadore and Belluno approaches it in size. In
the Venetian districts the farmers often have small stationary flocks.
Throughout the Roman province, and Umbria, Apulia, the Abruzzi,
Basilicata and Calabria, is found in its full development a remarkable
system of pastoral migration with the change of seasons which has
been in existence from the most ancient times, and has attracted
attention as much by its picturesqueness as by its industrial import-
ance (see APULIA). Merino sheep have been acclimatized in the
Abruzzi, Capitanata and Basilicata. The number of sheep, however,
is on the decrease. Similarly, the number of goats, which are reared
only in hilly regions, is decreasing, especially on account of the exist-
ing forest laws, as they are the chief enemies of young plantations.
Horse-breeding is on the increase. The state helps to improve the
breeds by placing choice stallions at the disposal of private breeders
at a low tariff. The exportation is, however, unimportant, while the
importation is largely on the increase, 46,463 horses having been
imported in 1902. Cattle-breeding varies with the different regions.
In upper Italy cattle are principally reared in pens and stalls; in
central Italy cattle are allowed to run half wild, the stall system being
little practised ; in the south and in the islands cattle are kept in the
open air, _ few shelters being provided. The erection of shelters,
however, is encouraged by the state. Swine are extensively reared in
many provinces. Fowls are kept on all farms and, though methods
are still antiquated, trade in fowls and eggs is rapidly increasing.
In 1905 Italy exported 32,786 and imported 17,766 head of cattle;
exported 33,574 and imported 6551 sheep; exported 95,995 and
imported 1604 swine. The former two show a very large decrease
and the latter a large increase on the export figures for 1882. The
export of agricultural products shows a large increase.
The north of Italy has long been known for its great dairy districts.
Parmesan cheese, otherwise called Lodigiano (from Lodi) or grana,
was presented to King Louis XII. as early as 1509. Parmesan is not
confined to the province from which it derives its name; it is manu-
factured in all that part of Emilia in the neighbourhood of the Po,
and in the provinces of Brescia, Bergamo, Pavia, Novara and
Alessandria. Gorgonzola, which takes its name from a town in the
province, has become general throughout the whole of Lombardy,
in the eastern parts of the "ancient provinces," and in the province of
Cuneo. The cheese known as the cacio-cavallo is produced in regions
extending from 37° to 43° N. lat. Gruyere, extensively manufactured
in Switzerland and France, is also produced in Italy in the Alpine
regions and in Sicily. With the exception of Parmesan, Gorgonzola,
La Fontina and Gruyere, most of the Italian cheese is consumed in
the locality of its production. Co-operative dairy farms are
numerous in north Italy, and though only about half as many as
in 1889 (114 in 1902) are better organized. Modern methods have
been introduced.
The drainage of marshes and marshy lands has considerably
extended. A law passed on the 22nd of March 1900 gave a _
special impulse to this form of enterprise by fixing the ratio Dralaaxe'
of expenditure incumbent respectively upon the State,
the provinces, the communes, and the owners or other private
individuals directly interested.
The Italian Federation of Agrarian Unions has greatly contributed
to agricultural progress. Government travelling teachers . H
of agriculture, and fixed schools of viticulture, also do good ~
work. Some unions annually purchase large quantities
of merchandise for their members, especially chemical mlc*-
manures. The importation of machinery amounted to over
5000 tons in 1901.
Income from land has diminished on the whole. The chief
diminution has taken place in the south in regard to oranges and
lemons, cereals and (for some provinces) vines. Since 1895, however,
the heavy import corn duty has caused a slight rise in the income
from corn lands. The principal reasons for the general decrease are
the fall in prices through foreign competition and the closing of certain
markets, the diseases of plants and the increased outlay required
to Combat them, and the growth of State and local taxation. One
of the great evils of Italian agricultural taxation is its lack of elas-
ticity and of adaptation to local conditions. Taxes are not sufficiently
proportioned to what the land may reasonably be expected to
produce, nor sufficient allowance made for the exceptional conditions
of a southern climate, in which a few hours' bad weather may destroy
a whole crop. The Italian agriculturist has come to look (and often
in vain) for action on a large scale from the state, for irrigation,
drainage of uncultivated low-lying land, which may be made fertile,
river regulation, &c. ; while to the small proprietor the state often
appears only as a hard and inconsiderate tax-gatherer.
The relations between owners and tillers of the soil are still
regulated by the ancient forms of agrarian contract, which have
remained almost untouched by social and political changes. The
possibility of reforming these contracts in some parts of the kingdom
has been studied, in the hope of bringing them into closer harmony
with the needs of rational cultivation and the exigencies of social
justice.
Peasant proprietorship is most common in Lombardy and Pied-
mont, but it is also found elsewhere. Large farms are found in certain
MINES AND FISHERIES]
ITALY
1 1
of the more open districts; but in Italy generally, and especially in
Sardinia, the land is very much subdivided. The following forms of
contract are most usual in the several regions: In Piedmont the
mezzadria (metayage), the terzieria, the colonia parziaria, the boaria,
the schiavenza and the affitto, or lease, are most usual. Under
mezzadria the contract generally lasts three years. Products are
usually divided in equal proportions between the owner and the
tiller. The owner pays the taxes, defrays the cost of preparing the
ground, and provides the necessary implements. Stock usually
belongs to the owner, and, even if kept on the half-and-half system,
is usually bought by him. The peasant, or mezzadro, provides
labour. Under terzieria the owner furnishes stock, implements and
seed, and the tiller retains only one-third of the principal products.
In the colonia parziaria the peasant executes all the agricultural
work, in return for which he is housed rent-free, and receives one-
sixth of the corn, one-third of the maize and has a small money wage.
This contract is usually renewed from year to year. The boaria
is widely diffused in its two forms of cascina fatta and paghe. In the
former case a peasant family undertakes all the necessary work in
return for payment in money or kind, which varies according to the
crop; in the latter the money wages and the payment in kind are
fixed beforehand. Schiavenza, either simple or with a share in the
crops, is a form of contract similar to the boaria, but applied princi-
pally to large holdings. The wages are lower than under the boaria.
In the affitto, or lease, the proprietor furnishes seed and the imple-
ments. Rent varies according to the quality of the soil.
In Lombardy, besides the mezzadria, the lease is common, but the
terzieria is rare. The lessee, or farmer, tills the soil at his own risk ;
usually he provides live stock, implements and capital, and has no
right to compensation for ordinary improvements, nor for extra-
ordinary improvements effected without the landlord's consent.
He is obliged to give a guarantee for the fulfilment of his engage-
ments. In some places he pays an annual tribute in grapes, corn and
other produce. In some of the Lombard mezzadria contracts taxes
are paid by the cultivator.
In Venetia it is more common than elsewhere in Italy for owners
to till their own soil. The prevalent forms of contract are the
mezzadria and the lease. In Liguria, also, mezzadria and lease are
the chief forms of contract.
In Emilia both mezzadria and lease tenure are widely diffused in
the provinces of Ferrara, Reggio and Parma; but other special
forms of contract exist, known as the famiglio da spesa, boaria,
braccianti obbligati and braccianti disobbligati. In the famiglio da
spesa the tiller receives a small wage and a proportion of certain
products. The boaria is of two kinds. If the tiller receives as much
as 45 lire per month, supplemented by other wages in kind, it is said
to be boaria a salario ; if the principal part of his remuneration is in
kind, his contract is called boaria a spesa.
In the Marches, Umbria and Tuscany, mezzadria prevails in its
purest form. Profits and losses, both in regard to produce and stock,
are equally divided. In some places, however, the landlord takes
two-thirds of the olives and the whole of the grapes and the mulberry
leaves. Leasehold exists in the province of Grosseto alone. In
Latium leasehold and farming by landlords prevail, but cases of
mezzadria and of " improvement farms " exist. In the agro Romano,
or zone immediately around Rome, land is as a rule left for pasturage.
It needs, therefore, merely supervision by guardians and mounted
overseers, or butteri, who are housed and receive wages. Large
landlords are usually represented by ministri, or factors, who direct
agricultural operations and manage the estates, but the estate is
often let to a middleman, or mercante di campagna. Wherever corn
is cultivated, leasehold predominates. Much of the work is done by
companies of peasants, who come down from the mountainous
districts when required, permanent residence not being possible
owing to the malaria. Near Velletri and Frosinqne " improvement
farms " prevail. A piece of uncultivated land is made over to a
peasant for from 20 to 29 years. Vines and olives are usually
planted, the landlord paying the taxes and receiving one-third of the
produce. At the end of the contract the landlord either cultivates
his land himself or leases it, repaying to the improver part of the
expenditure incurred by him. This repayment sometimes consists
of half the estimated value of the standing crops.
In the Abruzzi and in Apulia leasehold is predominant. Usually
leases last from three to six years. In the provinces of Foggia and
Lecce long leases (up to twenty-nine years) are granted, but in them
it is explicitly declared that they do not imply enfiteusi (perpetual
leasehold), nor any other form of contract equivalent to co-pro-
prietorship. Mezzadria is rarely resorted to. On some small hold-
ings, however, it exists with contracts lasting from two to six years.
Special contracts, known as colonie immovibili and colonie temporanee
are applied to the latifondi or huge estates, the owners of which receive
half the produce, except that of the vines, olive-trees and woods,
which he leases separately. " Improvement contracts " also exist.
They consist of long leases, under which the landlord shares the
costs of improvements and builds farm-houses; also leases of orange
and lemon gardens, two-thirds of the produce of which go to the
landlord, while the farmer contributes half the cost of farming
besides the labour. Leasehold, varying from four to six years for
arable land and from six to eighteen years for forest-land, prevails
also in Campania, Basilicata and Calabria. The estaglio, or rent,
is often paid in kind, and is equivalent to half the produce of good
land and one-third of the produce of bad land. " Improvement
contracts " are granted for uncultivated bush districts, where one
fourth of the produce goes to the landlord, and for plantations of
fig-trees, olive-trees and vines, half of the produce of which belongs
to the landlord, who at the end of ten years reimburses the tenant
for a part of the improvements effected. Other forms of contract
are the piccola mezzadria, or sub-letting by tenants to under-tenants,
on the half-and-half system; enfiteusi, or perpetual leases at low
rents — a form which has almost died out; and mezzadria (in the
provinces of Caserta and Benevento).
In Sicily leasehold prevails under special conditions. In pure
leasehold the landlord demands at least six months' rent as guarantee,
and the forfeiture of any fortuitous advantages. Under the gabella
lease the contract lasts twenty-nine years, the lessee being obliged
to make improvements, but being sometimes exempted from rent
during the first years. Inquilinaggio is a form of lease by which the
landlord, and sometimes the tenant, makes over to tenant or sub-
tenant the sowing of corn. There are various categories of inquili-
naggio, according as rent is paid in money or in kind. Under mezzadria
or metateria the landlord divides the produce with the farmer in
various proportions. The farmer provides all labour. Latifondi
farms are very numerous in Sicily. The landlord lets his land to two
or more persons jointly, who undertake to restore it to him in good
condition with one-third of it " interrozzito," that is, fallow, so as to be
cultivated the following year according to triennial rotation. These
lessees are usually speculators, who divide and sub-let the estate.
The sub-tenants in their turn let a part of their land to peasants
in mezzadria, thus creating a system disastrous both for agriculture
and the peasants. At harvest-time the produce is placed in the
barns of the lessor, who first deducts 25 % as premium, then 16 %
for battiteria (the difference between corn before and after winnowing) ,
then deducts a proportion for rent and subsidies, so that the portion
retained by the actual tiller of the soil is extremely meagre. In bad
years the tiller, moreover, gives up seed corn before beginning harvest.
In Sardinia landlord-farming and leasehold prevail. In the few
cases of mezzadria the Tuscan system is followed.
Mines. — The number of mines increased from 589 in 1881 to
1580 in 1902. The output in 1881 was worth about £2,800,000, but
by '895 had decreased to £1,800,000, chiefly on account of the fall
in the price of sulphur. It afterwards rose, and was worth more than
£3,640,000 in 1899, falling again to £3,1 18,600 in 1902 owing to severe
American competition in sulphur (see SICILY). The chief minerals
are sulphur, in the production of which Italy holds one of the first
places, iron, zinc, lead; these, and, to a smaller extent, copper of an
inferior quality, manganese and antimony, are successfully mined.
The bulk of the sulphur mines are in Sicily, while the majority of the
lead and zinc mines are in Sardinia; much of the lead smelting is
done at Pertusola, near Genoa, the company formed for this purpose
having acquired many of the Sardinian mines. Iron is mainly mined
in Elba. Quicksilver and tin are found (the latter in small quantities)
in Tuscany. Boracic acid is chiefly found near Volterra, where there
is also a little rock salt, but the main supply is obtained by evapora-
tion. The output of stone from quarries is greatly diminished (from
12,500,000 tons, worth £1,920,000, in 1890, to 8,000,000 tons, worth
£1,400,000,' in 1899), a circumstance probably attributable to the
slackening of building enterprise in many cities, and to the decrease
in the demand for stone for railway, maritime and river embankment
works. The value of the output had, however, by 1902 risen to
£1,600,000, representing a tonnage of about 10,000,000. There is
good travertine below Tivoli and elsewhere in Italy; the finest
granite is found at Baveno. Lava is much used for paving-stones
in the neighbourhood of volcanic districts, where pozzolana (for
cement) and pumice stone are also important. M uch of Italy contains
Pliocene clay, which is good for pottery and brickmaking. Mineral
springs are very numerous, and of great variety.
Fisheries. — The number of boats and smacks engaged in the
fisheries has considerably increased. In 1881 the total number was
15,914, with a tonnage of 49,103. In 1902 there were 23,098 boats,
manned by 101,720 men, and the total catch was valued at just over
half a million sterling— according to the government figures, which
are certainly below the truth. The value has, however, undoubtedly
diminished, though the number of boats and crews increases. Most
of the fishing boats, properly so called, start from the Adriatic coast,
the coral boats from the western Mediterranean coast, and the sponge
boats from the western Mediterranean and Sicilian coasts. Fishing
and trawling are carried on chiefly off the Italian (especially Ligurian,
Austrian and Tunisian coasts; coral is found principally near
Sardinia and Sicily, and sponges almost exclusively off Sicily and
Tunisia in the neighbourhood of Sfax. For sponge fishing no
accurate statistics are available before 1896; in that year 75 tons of
sponges were secured, but there has been considerable diminution
since, only 31 tons being obtained in 1902. A considerable proportion
was obtained by foreign boats. The island of Lampedusa may be
considered its centre. Coral fishing, which fell off between 1889 and
1892 on account of the temporary closing of the Sciacca coral reefs
has greatly decreased since 1884, when the fisheries produced 643
tons, whereas in 1902 they only produced 225 tons. The value of
the product has, however, proportionately increased, so that the sum
realized was little less, while less than half the number of men
12
ITALY
[MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES
was employed. Sardinian coral commands from £3 to {4 per kilo-
gramme (2-204 ft>)> and is much more valuable than the Sicilian
coral. The Sciacca reefs, were again closed for three winters by a
decree of 1904. The fishing is largely carried on by boats from
Torre del Greco, in the Gulf of Naples, where the best coral beds are
now exhausted. In 1879 4000 men were employed; in 1902 only
just over 1000. In 1902 there were 48 tunny fisheries, employing
3006 men, and 5116 tons of fish worth £80,000 were caught. The
main fisheries are in Sardinia, Sicily and Elba. Anchovy and
sardine fishing (the products of which are reckoned among the
general total) are also of considerable importance, especially along
• the Ligurian and Tuscan coasts. The lagoon fisheries are also of
great importance, more especially those of Comacchio, the lagoon
of Orbetello and the Mare Piccolo at Taranto &c The deep-sea
fishing boats in 1902 numbered 1368, with a total tonnage of 16,149;
100 of these were coral-fishing boats and in sponge-fishing boats.
Industrial Progress. — The industrial progress of Italy has been
great since 1880. Many articles formerly imported are now
made at home, and some Italian manufactures have begun to
compete in foreign markets. Italy has only unimportant lignite
and anthracite mines, but water power is abundant and has been
largely applied to industry, especially in generating electricity.
The electric power required for the tramways and the illumina-
tion of Rome is entirely supplied by turbines situated at Tivoli,
and this is the case elsewhere, and the harnessing of this water-
power is capable of very considerable extension. A sign of
industrial development is to be found in the growing number of
manufacturing companies, both Italian and foreign.
The chief development has taken place in mechanical industries,
though it has also been marked in metallurgy. Sulphur mining
ju i. i. supplies large industries of sulphur-refining and grinding,
\ in spite of American competition. Very little pig iron is
^Jg" ' made, most of the iron ore being exported, and iron
manufactured consists of old iron resmelted. For steel-
making foreign pig iron is chiefly used. The manufacture of steel
rails, carried on first at Terni and afterwards at Savona, began in
Italy in 1886. Tin has been manufactured since 1892. Lead,
antimony, mercury and copper are also produced. The total salt
production in 1902 was 458,497 tons, of which 248,215 were produced
in the government salt factories and'the rest in the free salt-works
of Sicily. Great progress has been made in the manufacture of
machinery; locomotives, railway carriages, electric tram-cars, &c.,
and machinery of all kinds, are now largely made in Italy itself,
especially in the north and in the neighbourhood of Naples. At
Turin the manufacture of motor-cars has attained great importance
and the F.I.A.T. (Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino) factory em-
ploys 2000 workmen, while eight others employ 2780 amongst them.
The textile industries, some of which are of ancient date, are among
those that have most rapidly developed. Handlpoms and small spin-
Textlk*. nm*> establishments have, in the silk industry, given place
to large establishments with steam looms. The production
of raw silk at least tripled itself between 1875 and 1900, and the value
of the silks woven in Italy, estimated in 1890 to be £2,200,000, is now,
on account of the development of the export trade, calculated to be
almost £4,000,000. Lombardy (especially Como, Milan and Bergamo),
Piedmont and Venetia are the chief silk-producing regions. There
are several public assay offices in Italy for silk; the first in the world
was established in Turin in 1750. The cotton industry has also
rapidly developed. Home products not only supply the Italian
market in increasing degree, but find their way into foreign markets.
While importation of raw cotton increases importations of cotton
thread and of cotton stuffs have rapidly decreased. The value of
the annual produce of the various branches of the cotton industry,
which in 1885 was calculated to be £7,200,000, was in 1900, not-
withstanding the fall in prices, about £12,000,000. The industry
is chiefly developed in Lombardy, Piedmont and Liguria; to some
extent also in Campanja, Venetia and Tuscany, and to a less extent
in Lazio (Rome), Apulia, Emilia, the Marches, Umbria, the Abruzzi
and Sicily. A government weaving school was established in Naples
in 1906. As in the case of cotton, Italian woollen fabrics are con-
quering the home market in increasing degree. The industry centres
chiefly in Piedmont (province of Novara), Venetia (province of
Viccnza), Tuscany (Florence), Lombardy (Brescia), Campania
(Caserta), Genoa, Umbria, the Marches and Rome. To some extent
the industry also exists in Emilia, Calabria, Basilicata, the Abruzzi,
Sardinia and Sicily. It has, however, a comparatively small export
trade.
The other textile industries (flax, jute, &c.) have made notable
progress. The jute industry is concentrated in a few large factories,
which from 1887 onwards have more than supplied the home market,
and have begun considerably to export.
Chemical industries show an output worth £2,640,000 in 1902 as
against £1,040,000 in 1893. The chief products are sulphuric acid;
Chemical* 9U'Pnate of copper, employed chiefly as a preventive of
' certain maladies of the vine; carbonate of lead, hyper-
phosphates and chemical manures; calcium carbide; explosive
powder; dynamite and other explosives. Pharmaceutical industries,
as distinguished from those above mentioned, have kept pace with
the general development of Italian activity. The principal product
is quinine, the manufacture of which has acquired great importance,
owing to its use as a specific against malaria. Milan and Genoa are
the principal centres, and also the government military pharma-
ceutical factory at Turin. Other industries of a semi-chemical
character are candle-, soap-, glue-, and perfume-making, and the
preparation of india-rubber. The last named has succeeded, by
means of the large establishments at Milan in supplying not only the
whole Italian market but an export trade.
The match-making industry is subject to special fiscal conditions.
In 1902-1903 there were 219 match factories scattered throughout
Italy, but especially in Piedmont, Lombardy and Venetia. The
number has been reduced to less than half since 1897 by the sup-
pression of smaller factories, while the production has increased
from 47,690 millions to 59,741 millions.
The beetroot-sugar industry has attained considerable proportions
in Umbria, the Marches, Lazio, Venetia and Piedmont since 1890.
In 1898—1899, 5972 tons were produced, while in 1905 the figure
had risen to 93,916. The rise of the industry has been favoured
by protective tariffs and by a system of excise which allows a con-
siderable premium to manufacturers.
Alcohol has undergone various oscillations, according to the
legislation governing distilleries. In 1871 only 20 hectolitres were
produced, but in 1881 the output was 318,000 hectolitres, the
maximum hitherto attained. Since then special laws have hampered
development, some provinces, as for instance Sardinia, being allowed
to manufacture for their own consumption but not for export. In
other parts the industry is subjected to an almost prohibitive excise-
duty. The average production is about 180,000 hectolitres per
annum. The greatest quantity is produced in Lombardy, Piedmont,
Venetia and Tuscany. The quantity of beer is about the same,
the greater part of the beer drunk being imported from Germany,
while the production of artificial mineral waters has somewhat
decreased. There is a considerable trade (not very large for export,
however) in natural mineral waters, which are often excellent.
Paper-making is highly developed in the provinces of Novara,
Caserta, Milan, Vicenza, Turin, Como, Lucca, Ancona, Genoa,
Brescia, Cuneo, Macerata and Salerno. The hand-made paper of
Fabriano is especially good.
Furniture-making in different styles is carried on all over Italy,
especially as a result of the establishment of industrial schools.
Each region produces a special type, Venetia turning out imitations
of l6th- and 17th-century styles, Tuscany the 15th-century or cinque-
cento style, and the Neapolitan provinces the Pompeian style.
Furniture and cabinet-making in great factories are carried on
particularly in Lombardy and Piedmont. Bent-wood factories have
been established in Venetia and Liguria.
A characteristic Italian industry is that of straw-plaiting for
hat-making, which is carried on principally in Tuscany, in the
district of Fermo, in the Alpine villages of the province of Vicenza,
and in some communes of the province of Messina. The plaiting
is done by country women, while the hats are made up in factories.
Both plaits and hats are largely exported.
Tobacco is entirely a government monopoly; the total amount
manufactured in 1902-1903 was 16,599 tons — a fairly constant figure.
The finest glass is made in Tuscany and Venetia; Venetian glass
is often Coloured and of artistic form.
In the various ceramic arts Italy was once unrivalled, but the
ancient tradition for a long time lost its primeval impulse. The
works at Vinovo, which had fame in the i8th century, . . .
came to an untimely end in 1820; those of Castelli (in lad^-
the Abruzzi), which have been revived, were supplanted tries'
by Charles III. 'a establishment at Cappdimonte, 1750,
which after producing articles of surprising execution was closed
before the end of the century. The first place now belongs to the
Delia Dpccia works at Florence. Founded in 1735 by the marquis
Carlo Ginori, they maintained a reputation of the very highest kind
down to about 1860; but since then they have not kept pace with
their younger rivals in other lands. They still, however, are com-
mercially successful. Other cities where the ceramic industries keep
their ground are Pesaro, Gubbio, Faenza (whose name long ago
became the distinctive term for the finer kind of potter's work in
France, faience), Savona and Albissola, Turin, Mondoyi, Cuneo,
Castellamonte, Milan, Brescia, Sassuolo, Imola, Rimini, Perugia,
Castelli, &c. In all these the older styles, by which these places
became famous in the i6th-i8th centuries, have been revived. It
is estimated that the total production of the finer wares amounts
on the average to £400,000 per annum. The ruder branches of the
art — the making of tiles and common wares — are pretty generally
diffused.
The jeweller's art received large encouragement in a country
which had so many independent courts; but nowhere has it attained
a fuller development than at Rome. A vast variety of trinkets — in
coral, glass, lava, &c. — is exported from Italy, or carried away by
the annual host of tourists. The copying of tiie paintings of the old
masters is becoming an art industry of no small mercantile import-
ance in some of the larger cities.
The production of mosaics is an industry still carried on with
much success in Italy, which indeed ranks exceedingly high in the
WORKING CLASSES]
ITALY
department. The great works of the Vatican are especially famous
(more than 17,000 distinct tints are employed in their productions),
and there are many other establishments in Rome. The Florentine
mosaics are perhaps better known abroad; they are composed of
larger pieces than the Roman. Those of the Venetian artists are
remarkable for the boldness of their colouring. There is a tendency
towards the fostering of feminine home industries — lace-making,
linen-weaving, &c.
Condition of the Working Classes. — The condition of the
numerous agricultural labourers (who constitute one-third of the
population) is, except in some regions, hard, and in places
absolutely miserable. Much light was thrown upon their position
by the agricultural inquiry (inchiesta agraria) completed in 1884.
The large numbers of emigrants, who are drawn chiefly from the
rural classes, furnish another proof of poverty. The terms of
agrarian contracts and leases (except in districts where mezzadria
prevails in its essential form), are in many regions disadvantageous
to the labourers, who suffer from the obligation to provide
guarantees for payment of rent, for repayment of seed corn and
for the division of products.
It was only at the close of the igth century that the true cause
of malaria — the conveyance of the infection by the bite of the
Malaria. Anopheles claviger — was discovered. This mosquito does
not as a rule enter the large towns ; but low-lying coast
districts and ill-drained plains are especially subject to it. Much
has been done in keeping out the insects by fine wire netting placed
on the windows and the doors of houses, especially in the railway-
men's cottages. In 1902 the state took up the sale of quinine at a
low price, manufacturing it at the central military pharmaceutical
laboratory at Turin. Statistics show the difference produced by
this measure.
Financial Year.
Pounds of
quinine sold.
Deaths by
Malaria.
1901-1902
1902-1903
1903-1904
1904-1905
1905-1906
1906-1907
4,932
15,915
30,956
41,166
45,591
13-358
9,908
8,513
8,501
7,838
4,875
The profit made by the state, which is entirely devoted to a
special fund for means against malaria, amounted in these
five years to £41,759. It has been established that two 3-grain
pastilles a day are a sufficient prophylactic; and the proprietors
of malarious estates and contractors for public works in malarious
districts are bound by law to provide sufficient quinine for their
workmen, death for want of this precaution coming under the pro-
visions of the workmen's compensation act. Much has also been,
though much remains to be, done in the way of bonificamento, i.e.
proper drainage and improvement of the (generally fertile) low-lying
and hitherto malarious plains.
In Venetia the lives of the small proprietors and of the salaried
peasants are often extremely miserable. There and in Lombardy the
disease known as pellagra is most widely diffused. The disease is
due to poisoning by micro-organisms produced by deteriorated maize,
and can be combated by care in ripening, drying and storing the
maize. The most recent statistics show the disease to be diminish-
ing. Whereas in 1881 there were 104,067 (16-29 per 1000) peasants
afflicted by the disease, in 1899 there were only 72,603 (10-30 per
1000) peasants, with a maximum of 39,882 (34-32 per 1000) peasants
in Venetia, and 19,557 (12-90 per 1000) peasants in Lombardy. The
decrease of the disease is a direct result of the efforts made to combat
it, in the form of special hospitals or pellagrosari, economic kitchens,
rural bakeries and maize-drying establishments. A bill for the
better prevention of pellagra was introduced in the spring of 1902.
The deaths from it dropped in that year to 2376, from 3054 in the
previous year and 3788 in 1900.
In Liguria, on account of the comparative rarity of large estates,
agricultural labourers are in a better condition. Men earn between
Is. 3d. and 2s. id. a day, and women from 5d. to 8d. In Emilia
the day labourers, known as disobbligati, earn, on the contrary, low
wages, out of which they have to provide for shelter and to lay by
something against unemployment. Their condition is miserable.
In Tuscany, however, the prevalence of mezzadria, properly so
called, has raised the labourers' position. Yet in some Tuscan
provinces, as, for instance, that of Grosseto, where malaria rages,
labourers are organized in gangs under " corporals," who undertake
harvest work. They are poverty-stricken, and easily fall victims
to fever. In the Abruzzi and in Apulia both regular and irregular
workmen are engaged by the year. The curatori or curatoli (factors)
receive £40 a year, with a slight interest in the profits; the stock-
men hardly earn in money and kind £13; the muleteers and under-
workmen get between £5 to £8, plus firewood, bread and oil;
irregular workmen have even lower wages, with a daily distribution
of bread, salt and oil. In Campania and Calabria the curatoli and
massari earn, in money and kind, about £12 a year; cowmen,
shepherds and muleteers about £10; irregular workmen are paid
from 8jd. to is. 8d. per day, but only find employment, on an
average, 230 days in the year. The condition of Sicilian labourers
is also miserable. The huge extent of the latifondi, or large estates,
often results in their being left in the hands of speculators, who
exploit both workmen and farmers with such usury that the latter
are often compelled, at the end of a scanty year, to hand over their
crops to the usurers before harvest. In Sardinia wage-earners are
paid lod. a day, with free shelter and an allotment for private
cultivation. Irregular adult workmen earn between lod. and is. 3d.,
and boys from 6d. to lod. a day. Woodcutters and vine-waterers,
however, sometimes earn as much as 33. a day.
The peasants somewhat rarely use animal food — this is most largely
used in Sardinia and least in Sicily — bread and polenta or macaroni
and vegetables being the staple diet. Wine is the prevailing drink.
The condition of the workmen employed in manufactures has
improved during recent years. Wages are higher, the cost of the
prime necessaries of life is, as a rule, lower, though taxation on
some of them is still enormous; so that the remuneration of
work has improved. Taking into account the variations in wages
and in the price of wheat, it may be calculated that the number
of hours of work requisite to earn a sum equal to the price of
a cwt. of wheat fell from 183 in 1871 to 73 in 1894. In
1898 it was 105, on account of the rise in the price of wheat, and
since then up till 1902 it oscillated between 105 and 95.
Wages have risen from 22-6 centimes per hour (on an average)
to 26-3 centimes, but not in all industries. In the mining and
woollen industries they have fallen, but have increased in mechanical,
chemical, silk and cotton industries. Wages vary greatly in different
parts of Italy, according to the cost of the necessaries of life, the
degree of development of working-class needs and the state of
working-class organization, which in some places has succeeded in
increasing the rates of pay. Women are, as a rule, paid less than
men, and though their wages have also increased, the rise has been
slighter than in the case of men. In some trades, for instance the
silk trade, women earn little more than lod. a day, and, for some
classes of work, as little as 7d. and 4§d. The general improvement
in sanitation has led to a corresponding improvement in the condi-
tion of the working classes, though much still remains to be done,
especially in the south. On the other hand, it is generally the case
that even in the most unpromising inn the bedding is clean.
The number of industrial strikes has risen from year to year,
although, on account of the large number of persons involved in
some of them, the rise in the number of strikers has not strikes
always corresponded to the number of strikes. During
the years 1900 and 1901 strikes were increasingly numerous, chiefly
on account of the growth of Socialist and working-class organizations.
The greatest proportion of strikes takes place in northern Italy,
especially Lombardy and Piedmont, where manufacturing industries
are most developed. Textile, building and mining industries show
the highest percentage of strikes, since they give employment to
large numbers of men concentrated in single localities. Agricultural
strikes, though less frequent than those in manufacturing industries,
have special importance in Italy. They are most common in the
north and centre, a circumstance which shows them to be promoted
less by the more backward and more ignorant peasants than by the
better-educated labourers of Lombardy and Emilia, among whom
Socialist organizations are widespread. Since IQOI there have been,
more than once, general strikes at Milan and elsewhere, and one in
the autumn of 1905 caused great inconvenience throughout the
country, and led to no effective result.
Although in some industrial centres the working-class movement
has assumed an importance equal to that of other countries, there
is no general working-class organization comparable to the English
trade unions. Mutual benefit and co-operative societies serve the
purpose of working-class defence or offence against the employers.
In 1893, after many vicissitudes, the Italian Socialist Labour Party
was founded, and has now become the Italian Socialist Party, in
which the majority of Italian workmen enrol themselves. Printers
and hat-makers, however, possess trade societies. In 1899 an agita-
tion began for the organization of " Chambers of Labour," intended
to look after the technical education of workmen and to form com-
missions of arbitration in case of strikes. They act also as employ-
ment bureaux, and are often centres of political propaganda. At
present such " chambers " exist in many Italian cities, while "leagues
of improvement," or of " resistance," are rapidly spreading in the
country districts. In many cases the action of these organizations has
proved, at least temporarily, advantageous to the working classes.
Labour legislation is backward in Italy, on account of the late
development of manufacturing industry and of working-class
organization. On the 1 7th of April 1898 a species of Employers'
Liability Act compelled employers of more than five workmen in
certain industries to insure their employees against accidents.
ITALY
[COMMUNICATIONS
Pror/deat
institu-
tions.
On the i jth of July 1898 a national fund for the insurance of workmen
against illness and old age was founded by law on the principle of
optional registration. In addition to an initial endowment by the
state, part of the annual income of the fund is furnished in various
forms by the state (principally by making over a proportion of the
profits of the Post Office Savings Bank), and part by the premiums
of the workmen. The minimum annual premium is six lire for an
annuity of one lira per day at the age of sixty, and insurance against
sickness. The low level of wages in many trades and the jealousies
of the " Chambers of Labour " and other working-class organizations
impede rapid development.
A law came into operation in February 1908, according to which
a weekly day of rest (with few exceptions)was established on Sunday
in every case in which it was possible, and otherwise upon some other
day of the week.
The French institution of Prudhommes was introduced into Italy
in 1893, under the name of Collegi di Probiviri. The institution has
not attained great vogue. Most of the colleges deal with matters
affecting textile and mechanical industries. Each " college " is
founded by royal decree, and consists of a president, with not fewer
than ten and not more than twenty members. A conciliation
bureau and a jury are elected to deal with disputes concerning wages,
hours of work, labour contracts, &c., and have power to settle the
disputes, without appeal, whenever the amounts involved do not
exceed £8.
Provident institutions have considerably developed in Italy
under the forms of savings banks, assurance companies
and mutual benefit societies. Besides the Post Office
Savings Bank and the ordinary savings banks, many
co-operative credit societies and ordinary credit banks
receive deposits of savings.
The greatest number of savings banks exists in Lombardy;
Piedmont and Venetia come next. Campania holds the first place in
the south, most of the savings of that region being deposited in the
provident institutions of Naples. In Liguria and Sardinia the habit
of thrift is less developed. Assurance societies in Italy are subject
to the general dispositions of the commercial code regarding com-
mercial companies. Mutual benefit societies have increased rapidly,
both because their advantages have been appreciated, and because,
until recently, the state had taken no steps directly to insure work-
men against illness. The present Italian mutual benefit societies
resemble the ancient beneficent corporations, of which in some
respects they may be considered a continuation. The societies
require government recognition if they wish to enjoy legal rights.
The state (law of the isth of April 1896) imposed this condition in
order to determine exactly the aims of the societies, and, while
allowing them to give help to their sick, old or feeble members, or
aid the families of deceased members, to forbid them to pay old-age
pensions, lest they assumed burdens beyond their financial strength.
Nevertheless, the majority of societies have not sought recognition,
being suspicious of fiscal state intervention.
Co-operation, for the various purposes of credit, distribution,
production and labour, has attained great development in Italy.
Credit co-operation is represented by a special type
lloa * of association known as People's Banks (Banche
Popolari). They are not, as a rule, supported by
workmen or peasants, but rather by small tradespeople, manu-
facturers and farmers. They perform a useful function in
protecting their clients from the cruel usury which prevails,
especially in the south. A recent form of co-operative credit
banks are the Casse Rurali or rural banks, on the Raffeisen
system, which lend money to peasants and small proprietors
out of capital obtained on credit or by gift. These loans are
made on personal security, but the members of the bank do
not contribute any quota of the capital, though their liability
is unlimited in case of loss. They are especially widespread in
Lombardy and Venetia.
Distributive co-operation is confined almost entirely to Piedmont,
Liguria, Lombardy, Venetia, Emilia and Tuscany, and is practically
unknown in Basihcata, the Abruzzi and Sardinia.
Co-operative dairies are numerous. They have, however, much
decreased in number since 1889. More numerous are the agricultural
and viticultural co-operative societies, which have largely jncreased in
number. They are to be found mainly in the fertile plains of north
Italy, where they enjoy considerable success, removing the cause of
labour troubles and: strikes, and providing for cultivation on a
sufficiently large scale. The richest, however, of the co-operative
societies, though few in number, are those for the production of
electricity, for textile industries and for ceramic and glass manu-
factures.
Co-operation in general is most widely diffused, in proportion to
population, in central Italy; less so in northern Italy, and much
less so in the south and the islands. It thus appears that co-operation
flourishes most in the districts in which the mezzadria system has
been prevalent.
Railways. — The first railway in Italy, a line 16 m. long from Naples
to Castellammare, was opened in 1840. By 1881 there were some
5500 m. open, in 1891 some 8000 m., while in 1901 the total length
was 9317 m. In July 1905 all the principal lines, which had been
constructed by the state, but had been since 1885 let out to three
companies (Mediterranean, Adriatic, Sicilian), were taken over by
the state; their length amounted in. 1901 to 6147 m., and in 1907
to 8422 m. The minor lines (many of them narrow gauge) remain in
the hands of private companies. The total length, including the
Sardinian railways, was 10,368 m. in 1907. The state, in taking over
the railways, did not exercise sufficient care to see that the lines and
the rolling stock were kept up to a proper state of efficiency and
adequacy for the work they had to perform; while the step itself
was taken somewhat hastily. The result was that for the first two
years of state administration the service was distinctly bad, and the
lack of goods trucks at the ports was especially felt. A capital
expenditure of £4,000,000 annually was decided on to bring the lines
up to the necessary state of efficiency to be able to cope with the
rapidly increasing traffic. It was estimated in 1906 that this would
have to be maintained for a period of ten years, with a further total
expenditure of £14,000,000 on new lines.
Comparing the state of things in 1901 with that of 1881, for the
whole country, we find the passenger and goods traffic almost
doubled (except the cattle traffic), the capital expenditure almost
doubled, the working expenses per mile almost imperceptibly
increased, and the gross receipts per mile slightly lower. The
personnel had increased from 70,568 to 108,690. The construction
of numerous unremunerative lines, and the free granting of con-
cessions to government and other employees (and also of cheap
tickets on special occasions for congresses, &c., in various towns,
without strict inquiry into the qualifications of the claimants) will
account for the failure to realize a higher profit. The fares (in slow
trains, with the addition of 10% for expenses) are: 1st class, i-8sd.;
2nd, i -3d.; 3rd, o-725d. per mile. There are, however, considerable
reductions for distances over 93 m., on a scale increasing in propor-
tion to the distance.
The taking over of the main lines by the state has of course
produced a considerable change in the financial situation of the
railways. The state incurred in this connexion a liability of some
£20,000,000, of which about £16,000,000 represented the rolling
stock. The state has considerably improved the engines and passenger
carriages. The capital value of the whole of the lines, rolling stock,
&c., for 1908-1909 was calculated approximately at £244,161,400,
and the profits at £5,295,019, or 2-2%.
Milan is the most important railway centre in the country, and
is followed by Turin, Genoa, Verona, Bologna, Rome, Naples. Lom-
bardy and Piedmont are much better provided with railways in
proportion to their area than any other parts of Italy; next come
Venetia, Emilia and the immediate environs of Naples.
The northern frontier is crossed by the railway from Turin to
Ventimiglia by the Col di Tenda, the Mont Cenis line from Turin
to Modane (the tunnel is 7 m. in length), the Simplon line (tunnel
1 1 m. in length) from Domodossola to Brigue, the St Gotthard from
Milan to Chiasso (the tunnel is entirely in Swiss territory), the
Brenner from Verona to Trent, the line from Udine to Tarvis and
the line from Venice to Triest by the Adriatic coast. Besides these
international lines the most important are those from Milan to Turin
(via Vcrcclli and via Alessandna), to Genoa via Tortona, to Bologna
via Parma and Modena, to Verona, and the shorter lines to the
district of the lakes of Lombardy ; from Turin to Genoa via Savona
and via Alessandria; from Genoa to Savona and Ventimiglia along
the Riviera, and along the south-west coast of Italy, via Sarzana
(whence a line runs to Parma) to Pisa (whence lines run to Pistoia
and Florence) and Rome; from Verona to Modena, and to Venice
via Padua; from Bologna to Padua, to Rimini (and thence along
the north-east coast via Ancona, Castellammare Adriatico and
Foggia to Brindisi and Otranto), and to Florence and Rome; from
Rome to Ancona, to Castellammare Adriatico and to Naples; from
Naples to Foggia, via Metaponto (with a junction for Reggio di
Calabria), to Brindisi and to Reggio di Calabria. (For the Sicilian
and Sardinian lines, see SICILY and SARDINIA.) The speed of the
trains is not high, nor are the runs without stoppage long as a rule.
One of the fastest runs is from Rome to Orte, 52-40 m. in 69 min.,
or 45-40 m. per hour, but this is a double line with little traffic.
The Tow speed reduces the potentiality of the lines. The insufficiency
of rolling stock, and especially of goods wagons, is mainly caused
by delays in " handling " traffic consequent on this or other causes,
among which may be mentioned the great length of the single lines
south of Rome. It is thus a matter of difficulty to provide trucks
for a sudden emergency, e.g. the vintage season; and in 1905-1907
complaints were many, while the seaports were continually snort of
trucks. This led to deficiencies in the supply of coal to the manu-
facturing centres, and to some diversion elsewhere of shipping.
Steam and Electric Tramways. — Tramways with mechanical
traction have developed rapidly. Between 1875, when the first line
was opened, and 1901, the length of the lines grew to 1890 m. of
steam and 270 m. of electric tramways. These lines exist principally
in Lombardy (especially in the province of Milan), in Piedmont,
FOREIGN TRADING]
ITALY
especially in the province of Turin, and in other regions of northern
and central Italy. In the south they are rare, on account partly of
the mountainous character of the country, and partly of the scarcity
of traffic. All the important towns of Italy are provided with internal
electric tramways, mostly with overhead wires.
Carriage-roads have been greatly extended in modern times,
although their ratio to area varies in different localities. In north
Italy there are 1480 yds. of road per sq. m.; in central Italy 993;
in southern Italy 405; in Sardinia 596, and in Sicily only 244.
They are as a rule well kept up in north and central Italy, less so in
the south, where, especially in Calabria, many villages are inac-
cessible by road and have only footpaths leading to them. By the
act of 1903 the state contributes half and the province a quarter of
the cost of roads connecting communes with the nearest railway
stations or landing places.
Inland Navigation. — Navigable canals had in 1886 a total length of
about 655 m. ; they are principally situated in Piedmont, Lombardy
and Venetia, and are thus practically confined to the Po basin.
Canals lead from Milan to the Ticino, Adda and Po. The Po is itself
navigable from Turin downwards, but through its delta it is so sandy
that canals are preferred, the Po di Volano and the Po di Primaro on
the right, and the Canale Bianco on the left. The total length of
navigable rivers is 967 m.
Posts, Telegraphs and Telephones. — The number of post offices
(including cMettorie, or collecting offices, which are rapidly being
eliminated) increased from 2200 in 1862 to 4823 in 1881, 6700 in 1891
and 8817 in 1904. In spite of a large increase in the number of
letters and post cards (i.e. nearly 10 per inhabitant per annum in
1904, as against 5-65 in 1888) the average is considerably below
that of most other European countries. The number of state tele-
graph offices was 4603, of other offices (railway and tramway stations,
which accept private telegrams for transmission) 1930. The
telephone system is considerably developed ; in 1904, 92 urban and
66 inter - urban systems existed. They were installed by private
companies, but have been taken over by the state. International
communication between Rome and Paris, and Italy and Switzerland
also exists. The parcel post and money order services have largely
increased since 1887-1888, the number of parcels having almost
doubled (those for abroad are more than trebled), while the number
of money orders issued is trebled and their value doubled (about
£40,000,000). The value of the foreign orders paid in Italy increased
from £1,280,000 to £2,356,000 — owing to the increase of emigration
and of the savings sent home by emigrants.
At the end of 1907 Italy was among the few countries that had not
adopted the reduction of postage sanctioned at the Postal Union
congress, held in Rome in 1906, by which the rates became 2jd. for
the first oz., and Ijd. per oz. afterwards. The internal rate is I5c.
(i|d.) per £ oz. ; post-cards loc. (id.), reply ISC. On the other hand,
letters within the postal district are only 5c. ( jd.) per J oz. Printed
matter is 2c. (id.) per 50 grammes (i f oz.). The regulations provide
that if there is a greater weight of correspondence (including book-
packets) than ij ft for any individual by any one delivery, notice
shall be given him that it is lying at the post office, he being then
obliged to arrange for fetching it. Letters insured for a fixed sum
are not delivered under any circumstances.
Money order cards are very convenient and cheap (up to 10 lire
(8s.] for loc. [id.]), as they need not be enclosed in a letter, while a
short private message can be written on them. Owing to the com-
paratively small amount of letters, it is found possible to have a
travelling post office on all principal trains (while almost every train
has a travelling sorter, for whom a compartment is reserved) without
a late fee being exacted in either case. In the principal towns letters
may be posted in special boxes at the head office just before the
departure of any given mail train, and are conveyed direct to the
travelling post office. Another convenient arrangement is the
provision of letter-boxes on electric tramcars in some cities.
Mercantile Marine. — Between the years 1881 and 1905 the number
of ships entered and cleared at Italian ports decreased slightly
(219,598 in 1881 and 208,737 »n 1905)1 while their aggregate tonnage
increased (32,070,704 in 1881 and 80,782,030 in 1905). In the move-
ment of shipping, trade with foreign countries prevails (especially as
regards arrivals) over trade between Italian ports. Most of the
merchandise and passengers bound for and hailing from foreign ports
sail under foreign flags. Similarly, foreign vessels prevail over
Italian vessels in regard to goods embarked. European countries
absorb the greater part of Italian sea-borne trade, whereas most of
the passenger traffic goes to North and South America. The substi-
tution of steamships for sailing vessels has brought about a diminu-
tion in the number of vessels belonging to the Italian mercantile
marine, whether employed in the coasting trade, the fisheries or in
traffic on the high seas. Thus : —
Year.
Total
No. of
Ships.
Steamships.
Sailing Vessels.
Number.
Tonnage
(Net).
Number.
Tonnage
(Net).
1881
1905
7815
5596
176
513
93,698
462,259
7,639
5.083
895.359
570,355
Among the steamers the increase has chiefly taken place in vessels
of more than 1000 tons displacement, but the number of large sailing
vessels has also increased. The most important Italian ports are
(in order): Genoa, Naples, Palermo, Leghorn, Messina, Venice,
Catania.
Foreign Trade. — Italian trade with foreign countries (imports and
exports) during the quinquennium 1872-1876 averaged £94,000,000
a year; in the quinquennium 1893-1897 it fell to £88,960,000 a year.
In 1898, however, the total rose to £104,680,000, but the increase
was principally due to the extra importation of corn in that year.
In 1899 it was nearly £120,000,000. Since 1899 there has been a
steady increase both in imports and exports. Thus : —
Year.
Trade with Foreign Countries in £1000
(exclusive of Precious Metals).1
Totals.
Imports.
Exports.
Excess of
Imports over
Exports.
1871
1881
1891
1900
1904
81,966
96,208
80,135
121,538
140.437
38,548
49,587
45,o63
68,009
76,549
43-418
46,621
35,072
53.529
63,888
-4,870
2,966
9,991
14,480
12,661
1 No account has here been taken of fluctuations of exchange.
The great extension of Italian coast-line is thought by some to be
not really a source of strength to the Italian mercantile marine, as
few of the ports have a large enough hinterland to provide them with
traffic, and in this hinterland (except in the basin of the Po) there are
no canals or navigable rivers. Another source of weakness is the fact
that Italy is a country of transit and the Italian mercantile marine
has to enter into competition with the ships of other countries, which
call there in passing. A third difficulty is the comparatively small
tonnage and volume of Italian exports relatively to the imports,
the former in 1907 being about one-fourth of the latter, and greatly
out of proportion to the relative value; while a fourth is the lack
of facilities for handling goods, especially in the smaller ports.
The total imports for the first six months of 1907 amounted to
£57,840,000, an increase of £7,520,000 as compared with the corre-
sponding period of 1906. The exports for the corresponding period
amounted to £35,840,000, a diminution of £1,520,000 as compared
with the corresponding period of 1906. The diminution was due to a
smaller exportation of raw silk and oil. The countries with which this
trade is mainly carried on are : (imports) United Kingdom, Germany,
United States, France, Russia and India; (exports) Switzerland,
United States, Germany, France, United Kingdom and Argentina.
The most important imports are minerals, including coal and
metals (both in pig and wrought); silks, raw, spun and woven;
stone, potter's earths, earthenware and glass; corn, flour and
farinaceous products; cotton, raw, spun and woven ; and live stock.
The principal exports are silk and cotton tissues, live stock, wines,
spirits and oils; corn, flour, macaroni and similar products; and
minerals, chiefly sulphur. Before the tariff reform of 1887 manu-
factured articles, alimentary products and raw materials for manu-
facture held the principal places in the imports. In the exports,
alimentary products came first, while raw materials for manufacture
and manufactured articles were of little account. The transforma-
tion of Italy from a purely agricultural into a largely industrial
country is shown by the circumstance that trade in raw stuffs, semi-
manufactured and manufactured materials, now preponderates over
that in alimentary products and wholly-manufactured articles, both
the importation of raw materials and the exportation of manufactured
articles having increased. The balance of Italian trade has under-
gone frequent fluctuations. The large predominance of imports
over exports after 1884 was a result of the falling off of the export
trade in live stock, olive oil and wine, on account of the closing of
the French market, while the importation of corn from Russia and
the Balkan States increased considerably. In 1894 the excess of
imports over exports fell to £2,720,000, but by 1898 it had grown
to £8,391,000, in consequence chiefly of the increased importation of
coal, raw cotton and cotton thread, pig and cast iron, old iron,
grease and oil-seeds for use in Italian industries. In 1899 the excess
of imports over exports fell to £3,006,000; but since then it has never
been less than £12,000,000.
Education. — Public instruction in Italy is regulated by the
state, which maintains public schools of every grade, and
requires that other public schools shah1 conform to the rules of
the state schools. No private person may open a school without
state authorization. Schools may be classed thus: —
i. Elementary, of two grades, of the lower of which there
must legally be at least one for boys and one for girls in each
commune; while the upper grade elementary school is required
in communes having normal and secondary schools or over
4000 inhabitants. In both the instruction is free They are
maintained by the communes, sometimes, with state help.
i6
ITALY
[EDUCATION
The age limit is six to nine years for the lower grade, and up
to twelve for the higher grade, attendance being obligatory at
the latter also where it exists. 2. Secondary instruction (i.)
classical in the ginnasi and licei, the latter leading to the
universities; (ii.) technical. 3. Higher education — universities,
higher institutes and special schools.
Of the secondary and higher educatory methods, in the normal
schools and licei the state provides for the payment of the staff
and for scientific material, and often largely supports the ginnasi
and technical schools, which should by law be supported by the
communes. The universities are maintained by the state and
by their own ancient resources; while the higher special schools
are maintained conjointly by the state, the province, the com-
mune and (sometimes) the local chamber of commerce.
The number of persons unable to read and write has gradually
decreased, both absolutely and in proportion to the number of
inhabitants. The census of 1871 gave 73% of illiterates, that
of 1881, 67%, and that of 1001, 56%, i.e. 51-8 for males and 60-8
for females. In Piedmont there were 17-7% of illiterates above
six years (the lowest) and in Calabria 78-7% (the highest),
the figures for the whole country being 48-5. As might be
expected, progress has been most rapid wherever education, at
the moment of national unification, was most widely diffused.
For instance, the number of bridegrooms unable to write their
names in 1872 was in the province of Turin 26%, and in the
Calabrian province of Cosenza 00%; in 1899 the percentage in
the province of Turin had fallen to 5 %, while in that of Cosenza
it was still 76%. Infant asylums (where the first rudiments of
instruction are imparted to children between two and a half and
six years of age) and elementary schools have increased in
number. There has been a corresponding increase in the number
of scholars. Thus: —
Year.
Infant Asylums
(Public and Private).
Daily Elementary Schools
(Public and Private).
Number of
Asylums.
Number of
Scholars.
Number of
Schoolrooms.
Number of
Scholars.
1885-86
1890-91
1901-02
2083
2296
3314
240,365
278,204
355.594
53.628
57,077
61,777
2,252,898
2,418,692
2,733,349
The teachers in 1901-1902 numbered 65,739 (exclusive of 576
non-teaching directors and 322 teachers of special subjects) or
about 41-5 scholars per teacher.
The rate of increase in the public state-supported schools has been
much greater than in the private schools. School buildings have
been improved and the qualifications of teachers raised. Neverthe-
less, many schools are still defective, both from a hygienic and a
teaching point of view; while the economic position of the ele-
mentary teachers, who in Italy depend upon the communal admini-
strations and not upon the state, is still in many parts of the country
extremely low.
The law of 1877 rendering education compulsory for children
between six and nine years of age has been the principal cause of the
spread of elementary education. The law is, however, imperfectly
enforced for financial reasons. In 1901-1902 only 65% out of the
whole number of children between six and nine years of age were
Xtered in the lower standards of the elementary and private
3\s. The evening schools have to some extent helped to spread
education. Their number and that of their scholars have, however,
decreased since the withdrawal of state subsidies. In 1871-1872
there were 375,947 scholars at the evening schools and 154,585 at
the holiday schools, while in 1900-1901 these numbers had fallen
to 94,510 and 35,460 respectively. These are, however, the only
institutions in which a decrease is shown, and by the law of 1906
5000 of these institutions are to be provided in the communes where
the proportion of illiterates is highest. In 1895 they numbered 4245,
with 138,181 scholars. Regimental schools impart elementary
education to illiterate soldiers. Whereas the levy of 1894 showed
40% of the recruits to be completely illiterate, only 27% were
illiterate when the levy was discharged in 1897. Private institutions
and working-class associations have striven to improve the intel-
lectual conditions of the working classes. Popular universities have
lately attained considerable development. The number of institutes
devoted to secondary education remained almost unchanged between
1880-1881 and 1895—1896. In some places the number has even been
diminished by the suppression of private educational institutes.
But the number of scholars has considerably increased, and shows
a ratio superior to the general increase of the population. The
greatest increase has taken place in technical education, where it has
been much more rapid than in classical education. There are three
higher commercial schools, with academic rank, at Venice, Genoa
and Bari, and eleven secondary commercial schools; and technical
and commercial schools for women at Florence and Milan. The
number of agricultural schools has also grown, although the total
is relatively small when compared with population. The attendance
at the various classes of secondary schools in 1882 and 1902 is shown
by the following table : —
1882.
1902.
No. of
Schools.
Ginnasi —
Government
On an equal footing with govern-
ment schools
Not on such a footing ....
13.875
6,417
22,609
24,081
7,208
24,850'
192
76
442
Total . . .
42,811
56,139
710
Technical schools —
Government
7 ein
7Q A I I
1 88
On an equal footing ....
Not on such a footing ....
8,653
8,670
12,055
3,623'
IOI
io6>
Total . . .
24.833
46,089
395
Licei —
Government ....
6 621
TO Ofi^
On an equal footing ....
Not on such a footing ....
1,167
4,600
1.955
4,962'
33
187
Total . . .
12,390
17,900
341
Technical institutes —
Government . . .
^ <^s
o 6^4
On an equal footing ....
Not on such a footing.
1,684
619
1,898
3781
IB
7
Total . . .
7,858
11,930
79
Nautical institutes —
Government
7=8
i 878
18
On an equal footing ....
Not on such a footing ....
69
13
38,
29'
i
i
Total . . .
816
1.945
20
1896.
The schools which do not obtain equality with government schools
are either some of those conducted by religious orders, or else those
in which a sufficient standard is not reached. The total number of
such schools was, in 1896, 742 with 33,813 pupils.
The pupils of the secondary schools reach a maximum of 6-60 per
1000 in Liguria and 5-92 in Latium, and a minimum of 2-30 in the
Abruzzi, 2-27 in Calabria and 1-65 in Basilicata.
For the boarding schools, or convitti, there are only incomplete
reports except for the institutions directly dependent on the ministry
of public instruction, which are comparatively few. The rest are
largely directed by religious institutions. In 1895-1896 there were
919 convitti for boys, with 59,066 pupils, of which 40, with 3814
pupils, were dependent on the ministry (in 1901-1902 there were 43 of
these with 4036 pupils); and I456for girls, with 49,367 pupils, of which
only 8, with about 600 pupils, were dependent on the ministry.
The scuole normali or training schools (117 in number, of which 75
were government institutions) for teachers had 1329 male students in
1901-1902, showing hardly any increase, while the female students
increased from 8005 in 1882-1883 to 22,316 in 1895-1896, but
decreased to 19,044 in 1901-1902, owing to the admission of women
to telegraph and telephone work. The female secondary schools in
1881-1882 numbered 77, of which 7 were government institutions,
with 3569 pupils; in 1901-1902 there were 233 schools (9 govern-
mental) with 9347 pupils.
The total attendance of students in the various faculties at the
different universities and higher institutes is as follows: —
1882.
1902.
Law
4,801
8,385
Philosophy and letters
Medicine and surgery
Professional diploma, pharmacy
Mathematics and natural science
Engineering
Agriculture
419
4,428
798
1,364
982
145
1.703
9,055
3,290
3,500
1.293
507
Commerce
128
167
Total
13,065
27,900
LIBRARIES AND CHARITIES]
ITALY
Thus a large all-round increase in secondary and higher education
is shown — satisfactory in many respects, but showing that more
young men devote themselves to the learned professions (especially
to the law) than the economic condition of the country will justify.
There are 21 universities — Bologna, Cagliari, Camerino, Catania,
Ferrara,Genpa,Macerata, Messina, Modena, Naples, Padua, Palermo,
Parma, Pavia, Perugia, Pisa, Rome, Sassari, Siena, Turin, Urbino,
of which Camerino, Ferrara, Perugia and Urbino are not state
institutions; university courses are also given at Aquila, Bari and
Catanzaro. Of these the most frequented in 1904—1905 were: Naples
(4745), Turin (3451), Rome (2630), Bologna (1711), Pavia (1559),
Padua (1364), Genoa (1276), and the least frequented, Cagliari (254),
Siena (235) and Sassari (200). The professors are ordinary and
extraordinary, and free professors (liberi docenti), corresponding to
the German Privatdozenten, are also allowed to be attached' to the
universities.
The institutions which co-operate with the universities arc the
special schools for engineers at Turin, Naples, Rome and Bologna
(and others attached to some of the universities), the higher technical
institute at Milan, the higher veterinary schools of Milan, Naples
and Turin, the institute for higher studies at Florence (Istituto di
studi superiori, pratici e di perfezionamento), the literary and scientific
academy of Milan, the higher institutes for the training of female
teachers at Florence and Rome, the Institute of Social Studies at
Florence, the higher commercial schools at Venice, Bari and Genoa,
the commercial university founded by L. Bocconi at Milan in 1902,
the higher naval school at Genoa, the higher schools of agriculture
at Milan and Portici, the experimental institute at Perugia, the
school of forestry at Vallambrosa, the industrial museum at Turin.
The special secondary institutions, distinct from those already
reckoned under the universities and allied schools, include an
Oriental institute at Naples with 243 pupils; 34 schools of agriculture
with (1904-1905) 1925 students; 2 schools of mining (at Caltanisett^
and Iglesias) with (1904-1905) 83 students; 308 industrial and
commercial schools with (1903-1904) 46,411 students; 174 schools
of design and moulding with (1898) 12,556 students; 13 government
fine art institutes (1904-1905) with 2778 students and 13 non-
government with 1662 students; 5 government institutes of music
with 1026 students, and 51 non-government with 4109 pupils (1904-
1905). Almost all of these show a considerable increase.
Libraries are numerous in Italy, those even of small cities
being often rich in manuscripts and valuable works. Statistics
collected in 1893-1894 and 1896 revealed the existence of 1831
libraries, either private (but open to the public) or completely
public. The public libraries have been enormously increased
since 1870 by the incorporation of the treasures of suppressed
monastic institutions. The richest in manuscripts is that of the
Vatican, especially since the purchase of the Barberini Library in
1902; it now contains over 34,000 MSS. The Vatican archives
are also of great importance. Most large towns contain im-
portant state or communal archives, in which a considerable
amount of research is being done by local investigators; the
various societies for local history (Societd di Storia Patria) do
very good work and issue valuable publications; the treasures
which the archives contain are by no means exhausted. Libraries
and archives are under the superintendence of the Ministry of
Public Instruction. A separate department of this ministry
under a director-general has the charge of antiquities and fine
arts, making archaeological excavations and supervising those
undertaken by private persons (permission to foreigners, even
to foreign schools, to excavate in Italy is rarely granted), and
maintaining the numerous state museums and picture galleries.
The exportation of works of art and antiquities from Italy without
leave of the ministry is forbidden (though it has in the past
been sometimes evaded). An inventory of those subjects, the
exportation of which can in no case be permitted, has been
prepared; and the ministry has at its disposal a fund of £200,000
for the purchase of important works of art of all kinds.*
Charities. — In Italy there is no legal right in the poor to be
supported by the parish or commune, nor any obligation on the
commune to relieve the poor — except in the case of forsaken
children and the sick poor. Public charity is exercised through
the permanent charitable foundations (opere pie), which are,
however, very unequally distributed in the different provinces.
The districts of Italy which show between 1881 and 1903 the
greatest increase of new institutions, or of gifts to old ones, are
Lombardy, Piedmont, Liguria, while Sardinia, Calabria and
Basilicata stand lowest, Latium standing comparatively low.
The patrimony of Italian charitable institutions is considerable
and is constantly increasing. In 1880 the number of charitable
institutions (exclusive of public pawnshops, or Monti di Pietd, and
other institutions which combine operations of credit with charity)
was approximately 22,000, with an aggregate patrimony of nearly
£80,000,000. The revenue was about £3,600,000; after deduction of
taxes, interest on debts, expenses of management, &c., £2,080,000.
Adding to this £1,240,000 of communal and provincial subsidies,
the product of the labour of inmates, temporary subscriptions, &c.,
the net revenue available for charity was, during 1880, £3,860,000.
Of this sum £260,000 was spent for religious purposes. Between
1881 and 1905 the bequests to existing institutions and sums left for
the endowment of new institutions amounted toabout £16,604,600.
Charitable institutions take, as a rule, the two forms of outdoor
and indoor relief and attendance. The indoor institutions are the
more important in regard to endowment, and consist of hospitals
for the infirm (a number of these are situated at the seaside); of
hospitals for chronic and incurable diseases; of orphan asylums ;
of poorhouses and shelters for beggars ; of infant asylums or in-
stitutes for the first education of children under six years of age ;
of lunatic asylums; of homes for the deaf and dumb; and of
institutes for the blind. The outdoor charitable institutions include
those which distribute help in money or food; those which supply
medicine and medical help; those which aid mothers unable to rear
their own children; those which subsidize orphans and foundlings;
those which subsidize educational institutes ; and those which supply
marriage portions. Between 1881 and 1898 the chief increases took
place in the endowments of hospitals; orphan asylums; infant
asylums; poorhouses; almshouses; voluntary workhouses; and
institutes for the blind. The least creditably administered of these
are the asylums for abandoned infants; in 1887, of a total of 23,913,
53-77% died; while during the years 1893-1896 (no later statistics
are available) of 117,97° 5I-72% died. The average mortality
under one year for the whole of Italy in 1893-1896 was only 16-66 %.
Italian charity legislation was reformed by the laws of 1862 and
1890, which attempted to provide efficacious protection for endow-
ments, and to ensure the application of the income to the purposes
for which it was intended. The law considers as " charitable in-
stitutions " (opere pie) all poorhouses, almshouses and institutes
which partly or wholly give help to able-bodied or infirm paupers,
or seek to improve their moral and economic condition ; and also the
Congregazioni di caritd. (municipal charity boards existing in every
commune, and composed of members elected by the municipal
council), which administer funds destined for the poor in general. All
charitable institutions were under the protection of provincial adminis-
trative j unta, existing in every province, and empowered to control the
management of charitable endowments. The supreme control was
vested in the minister of the Interior. The law of 1 890 also empowers
every citizen to appeal to the tribunals on behalf of the poor, for
whose benefit a given charitable institution may have been intended.
A more recent law provides for the formation of a central body,
with provincial commissions under it. Its effect, however, has been
comparatively small.
Public pawnshops or Monti di pietd, numbered 555 in 1896,
with a net patrimony of £2,879,625. In that year their income,
including revenue from capital, was £416,385, and their expenditure
£300,232. The amount lent on security was £4,153,229.
The Monti frumentarii or co-operative corn deposits, which lend
seed corn to farmers, and are repaid after harvest with interest in
kind, numbered 1615 in 1894, and possessed a patrimony of £240,000.
In addition to the regular charitable institutions, the communal
and provincial authorities exercise charity, the former (in 1899) to the
extent of £1,827,166 and the latter to the extent of £919,832 per
annum. Part of these sums is given to hospitals, and part spent
directly by the communal and provincial authorities. Of the sum
spent by the communes, about J goes for the sanitary service (doctors,
midwives, vaccination), J for the maintenance of foundlings,
& for the support of the sick in hospitals, and -fa for sheltering
the aged and needy. Of the sum spent by the provincial authorities,
over half goes to lunatic asylums and over a quarter to the mainten-
ance of foundling hospitals.
Religion. — The great majority of Italians — 97-12% — are
Roman Catholics. Besides the ordinary Latin rite, several
others are recognized. The Armenians of Venice maintain their
traditional characteristics. The Albanians of the southern
provinces still employ the Greek rite and the Greek language
in their public worship, and their priests, like those of the Greek
Church, are allowed to marry. Certain peculiarities introduced
by St Ambrose distinguish the ritual of Milan from that of the
general church. Up to 1871 the island of Sicily was, according
to the bull of Urban II., ecclesiastically dependent on the king,
and exempt from the canonical power of the pope.
Though the territorial authority of the papal see was practically
abolished in 1870, the fact that Rome is the seat of the admini-
strative centre of the vast organization of the church is not
without significance to the nation. In the same city in which
the administrative functions of the body politic are centralized
i8
ITALY
[RELIGION
there still exists the court of the spiritual potentate which in
1879 consisted of 1821 persons. Protestants number some
65,000, of whom half are'Italian and half foreign. Of the former
22,500 are Waldensians. The number of Jews was returned
as 36,000, but is certainly higher. There are, besides, in Italy
some 2500 members of the Greek Orthodox Church. There
were in 1901 20,707 parishes in Italy, 68,444 secular clergy and
48,043 regulars (monks, lay brothers and nuns). The size of
parishes varies from province to province, Sicily having larger
parishes in virtue of the old Sicilian church laws, and Naples,
and some parts of central Italy, having the smallest. The
Italian parishes had in 1901 a total gross revenue, including
assignments from the public worship endowment fund, of
£1,280,000 or an average of £63 per parish; 51% of this gross
sum consists of revenue from glebe lands.
The kingdom is divided into 264 sees and ten abbeys, or prelatures
nullius dioceseos. The dioceses are as follows: —
A. 6 suburbicarian sees— Ostia and Velletri, Porto and Sta Rufina,
Albano, Frascati, Palestrina, Sabina — all held by cardinal bishops.
B. 74 sees immediately subject to the Holy See, of which 12 are
archiepiscopal and 61 episcopal.
C. 37 ecclesiastical provinces, each under a metropolitan, com-
posed of 148 suffragan dioceses. Their position is indicated in the
following table: —
Metropolitans. Suffragans.
Acerenza-Matera . . . Anglona-Tursi, Tricarico, Venosa.
Bari Conversano, Ruvo-Bitpnto.
Benevento . . . . S. Agata de' Goti, Alife, Ariano, Ascoli
Satriano Cerignola, Avellino, Bojano,
Bovino, Larino, Lucera, S. Severe,
Telese (Cerreto), Termoli.
Bologna .... Faenza, Imola.
Brindisi and Ostuni . . No suffragan.
Cagliari Galtelli-Nuoro, Iglesias, Ogliastra.
Capua Caiazzo, Calvi-Teano, Caserta, Isernia-
Venafro, Sessa.
Chieti and Vasto . . . No suffragan.
Conza and Campagna . S. Angelo de' Lombardi-Bisaccia, Lace-
< Ionia, Muro I, in am..
Fermo Macerata-Tolentino, Montalto, Ripatran-
sone, S. Sevcrino.
Florence Borgo S. Sepolcro, Colle di Val d'Elsa,
Fiesole, S. Miniato, Modigliana, Pistoia-
Prato.
Genoa Albenga, Bobbio, Chiavari, Savona-Noli,
Tortona, Ventimiglia.
Lanciano and Ortona . No suffragan.
Ma P. fret Ionia and Viesti . No suffragan.
Messina Lipari, Nicosia, Patti.
Milan Bergamo, Brescia, Como, Crema,
Cremona, Lodi, Mantua, Pavia.
Modena Carpi, Guastalla, Massa-Carrara, Reggio.
Monreale Caltanisetta, Girgenti.
Naples Acerra, Ischia, Nola, Pozzuoli.
Oristano Ales-Terralba.
Otranto Gallipoli, Lecce, Ugento.
Palermo Cefalu, Mazzara, Trapani.
Pisa Leghorn, Pescia, Pontremoli, Volterra.
Ravenna Bertinoro, Cervia, Cesena, Comacchio,
Forli, Rimini, Sarsina.
Reggio Calabria . . . Bova, Cassano, Catanzaro, Cotrone,
Gerace, Nicastro, Oppido, Nicotera-
Tropea, Squillace.
Salerno Acerno, Capaccio-Vallo, Diano, Marsico-
Nuovp and Potenza, Nocera dei
Pagani, Nusco, Policastro.
Sassari Alghero, Ampurias and Tempio, Bisarhio,
Bosa.
S. Severino .... Cariati. •
Siena Chiusi-Pienza,Grosseto,MassaMarittima,
Sovana-Pitigliano.
Syracuse Caltagirone, Noto, Piazza-Armerina.
Sorrento Castellammare.
Taranto Castellaneta, Oria.
Trani-Nazareth-Barletta,
Bisceglie .... Andria.
Turin Acqui, Alba, Aosta, Asti, Cuneo, Fossano,
Ivrea, Mondovi.Pinerolo, Saluzzo.Susa.
Urbino S. Angelo in Vado-Urbania, Cagli-Pergola,
Fpssombrone, Montefeltro, Pesaro,
Sinigaglia.
Venice (patriarch) . . Adria_, Belluno-Feltre, Ceneda (Vittorio),
Chioggia, Concordia-Portogruaro,
Padua, Treviso, Verona, Vicenza.
Vercelli . ... Alessandria della Paglia, Biella, Casale,
Monferrato, Novara, Vigevano.
Twelve archbishops and sixty-one bishops are independent of all
metropolitan supervision, and hold directly of the Holy See. The
archbishops are those of Amalfi, Aquila, Camerino and Treia,
Catania, Cosenza, Ferrara, Gaeta, Lucca, Perugia, Rossano, Spoleto,
and Udine, and the bishops those of Acireale, Acquapendente, Alatri,
Amelia, Anagni, Ancona-Umana, Aquino-Sora-Pontecorvo, Arezzo,
Ascoli, Assisi, Aversa, Bagnorea, Borgo San Donnino, Cava-Sarno,
Citti di Castello, Citta della Pieve, Civita Castellana-Orte-Gallese,
Corneto-Civita Vecchia, Cortona, Fabriano-Matelica, Fano.Ferentino
Foggia, Foligno, Gravina-Montepeloso, Gubbio, Jesi, Luni-Sarzana
and Bragnato, S. Marcp-Bisignano, Marsi (Pescina), Melfi-Rapolla
Mileto,Molfetta-Terlizzi-Giovennazzo,Monopoli,Montalcino,Monte-
fiascone, Montepulciano, Nardo, Narni, Nocera in Umbria, Norcia,
Oryieto, Osimo-Cingoli, Parma, Penne-Atri, Piacenza, Poggio
Mirtetp, Recanati-Loreto, Rieti, Segni, Sutri-Nepi, Teramo, Terni,
Terracina-Piperno-Sezze, Tivoli, Todi, Trivento, Troia, Valva-
Sulmona, Veroli, Viterbo-Toscanella. Excluding the diocese of
Rome and suburbicarian sees, each see has an average area of
430 sq. m. and a population of 121,285 souls. The largest sees exist
in Venetia and Lombardy, and the smallest in the provinces of
Naples, Leghorn, Forli, Ancona, Pesaro, Urbino, Caserta, Avellino
and Ascoli. The Italian sees (exclusive of Rome and of the suburbi-
carian sees) have a total annual revenue of £206,000 equal to an
average of £800 per see. The richest is that of Girgenti, with £6304,
and the poorest that of Porto Maurizio, with only £246. In each
diocese is a seminary or diocesan school.
In 1855 an act was passed in the Sardinian states for the dis-
establishment of all houses of the religious orders not engaged in
preaching, teaching or the care of the sick, of all chapters ,, ...
of collegiate churches not haying a cure of souls or existing ? engious
in towns of less than 20,000 inhabitants, and of all private ^"\
benefices for which no service was paid by the holders.
The property and money thus obtained were used to form an ecclesi-
astical fund (Cassa Ecclesiastica) distinct from the finances of the
state. This act resulted in the suppression of 274 monasteries with
3733 friars, of 61 nunneries with 1756 nuns and of 2722 chapters and
benefices. In 1860 and 1861 the royal commissioners (even before
the constitution of the new kingdom of Italy had been formally
declared) issued decrees by which there were abolished — (i) in
Umbria, 197 monasteries and 102 convents with 1809 male and
2393 female associates, and 836 chapters or benefices; (2) in the
Marches, 292 monasteries and 127 convents with 2950 male and
2728 female associates; (3) in the Neapolitan provinces, 747 monas-
teries and 275 convents with 8787 male and 7493 female associates.
There were thus disestablished in seven or eight years 2075 houses
of the regular clergy occupied by 3 1 ,649 persons ; and the confiscated
property yielded a revenue of £398,298. And at the same time there
had been suppressed 11,889 chapters and benefices of the secular
clergy, which yielded an annual income of £199,149. The value of
the capital thus potentially freed was estimated at £12,000,000;
though hitherto the ecclesiastical possessions in Lombardy, Emilia,
Tuscany and Sicily had been untouched. As yet the Cassa Ecclesi-
astica had no right to dispose of the property thus entrusted to it ;
but in 1862 an act was passed by which it transferred all its real
property to the national domain, and was credited with a corre-
sponding amount by the exchequer. The property could now be
disposed of like the other property of the domain ; and except in
Sicily, where the system of emphyteusis was adopted, the church
lands began to be sold by auction. To encourage the poorer classes
of the people to become landholders, it was decided that the lots
offered for sale should be small, and that the purchaser should be
allowed to pay by five or ten yearly instalments. By a new act in
1866 the process of secularization was extended to the whole kingdom.
All the members of the suppressed communities received full exercise
of all the ordinary political and civil rights of laymen ; and annuities
were granted to all those who had taken permanent religious vows
prior to the 1 8th of January 1864. To priests and choristers, for
example, of the proprietary or endowed orders were assigned £24 per
annum if they were upwards of sixty years of age, £16 if upwards of
40, and £14, 8s. if younger. The Cassa Ecclesiastica was abolished,
and in its stead was instituted a Fpndo pel Culto, or public worship
fund. From the general confiscation were exempted the buildings
actually used for public worship, as episcopal residences or seminaries,
&c., or which had been appropriated to the use of schools, poorhouses,
hospitals, &c. ; as well as the buildings, appurtenances, and movable
property of the abbeys of Monte Casino, Delia Cava dei Tirreni, San
Martino della Scala, Monreale, Certosa near Pavia, and other estab-
lishments of the same kind of importance as architectural or historical
monuments. An annuity equal to the ascertained revenue of the
suppressed institutions was placed to the credit of the fund in the
government 5 % consols. A fourth of this sum was to be handed
to the communes to be employed on works of beneficence or education
as soon as a surplus was obtained from that part of the annuity
assigned for the payment of monastic pensions; and i» Sicily,
209 communes entered on their privileges as soon as the patrimony
was liquidated. Another act in 1867 decreed the suppression of
certain foundations which had escaped the action of previous
measures, put an extraordinary tax of 30% on the whole of the
patrimony of the church, and granted the government the right of
issuing 5% bonds sufficient to bring into the treasury £16,000,000,
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT]
ITALY
which were to be accepted at their nominal value as purchase money
for the alienated property. The public worship endowment fund
has relieved the state exchequer of the cost of public worship; has
gradually furnished to the poorer parish priests an addition to
their stipends, raising them to £32 per annum, with the prospect
of further raising them to £40; and has contributed to the outlay
incurred by the communes for religious purposes. The monastic
buildings required for public purposes have been made over to the
communal and provincial authorities, while the same authorities
have been entrusted with the administration of the ecclesiastical
revenues previously set apart for charity and education, and objects
of art and historical interest have been consigned to public libraries
and museums. By these laws the reception of novices was for-
bidden in the existing conventual establishments the extinction of
which had been decreed, and all new foundations were forbidden,
except those engaged in instruction and the care of the sick.
But the laws have not been rigorously enforced of late years; and
the ecclesiastical possessions seized by the state were thrown on the
market simultaneously, and so realized very low prices, being often
bought up by wealthy religious institutions. The large number
of these institutions was increased when these bodies were expelled
from France.
On the 3oth of June 1903 the patrimony of the endowment fund
amounted to £17,339,040, of which only £264,289 were represented
by buildings still occupied by monks or nuns. The rest was made up
of capital and interest. The liabilities of the fund (capitalized)
amounted to £10,668,105, of which monastic pensions represented a
rapidly diminishing sum of £2,564,930. The chief items of annual
expenditure drawn from the fund are the supplementary stipends
to priests and the pensions to members of suppressed religious houses.
The number of persons in receipt of monastic pensions on the 3Oth
of June 1899 was 13,255; but while this item of expenditure will
disappear by the deaths of those entitled to pensions, the supple-
mentary stipends and contributions are gradually increasing. The
following table shows the course of the two main categories of the
fund from 1876 to 1902-1903: —
1876.
1885-1886.
1898-1899.
1902-1903.
Monastic pensions, liquidation of re-
ligious property and provision of
shelter for nuns
Supplementary stipends to bishops and
parochial clergy, assignments to Sar-
dinian clergy and expenditure for edu-
cation and charitable purposes
£749-172
142,912
£49L339
128,521
£220,479
210,020
£i65,i44
347,940
Roman Charitable and Religious Fund. — The law of the igth of
June 1873 contained special provisions, in conformity with the
character of Rome as the seat of the papacy, and with the situation
created by the Law of Guarantees. According to the census of 1871
there were in the city and province of Rome 474 monastic establish-
ments (311 for monks, 163 for nuns), occupied by 4326 monks and
3825 nuns, and possessing a gross revenue of 4,780,891 lire. Of these,
126 monasteries and 90 convents were situated in the city, 51
monasteries and 22 convents in the " suburbicariates." The law of
1873 created a special charitable and religious fund of the city, while
it left untouched 23 monasteries and 49 convents which had either
the character of private institutions or were supported by foreign
funds. New parishes were created, old parishes were improved, the
property of the suppressed religious corporations was assigned to
charitable and educational institutions and to hospitals, while
property having no special application was used to form a charitable
and religious fund. On the 3Oth of June 1903 the balance-sheet of
this fund showed a credit amounting to £1,796,120 and a debit of
£460,819. Expenditure for the year 1902-1903 was £889,858 and
revenue £818,674.
Constitution and Government. — The Vatican palace itself
(with St Peter's), the Lateran palace, and the papal villa
at Castel Gandolfo have secured to them the privilege of
extraterritoriality by the law of 1871. The small republic of
San Marino is the only other enclave in Italian territory.
Italy is a constitutional monarchy, in which the executive
power belongs exclusively to the sovereign, while the legislative
power is shared by him with the parliament. He holds
supreme command by land and sea, appoints ministers and
officials, promulgates the laws, coins money, bestows honours,
has the right of pardoning, and summons and dissolves the
parliament. Treaties with foreign powers, however, must have
the consent of parliament. The sovereign is irresponsible, the
ministers, the signature of one of whom is required to give
validity to royal decrees, being responsible. Parliament consists
of two chambers, the senate and the Chamber of Deputies,
which are nominally on an equal footing, though practically
the elective chamber is the more important. The senate consists
of princes of the blood who have attained their majority, and
of an unlimited number of senators above forty years of age,
who are qualified under any one of twenty-one specified cate-
gories— by having either held high office, or attained celebrity
in science, literature, &c. In 1908 there were 318 senators
exclusive of five members of the royal family. Nomination is
by the king for life. Besides its legislative functions, the senate
is the highest court of justice in the case of political offences or
the impeachment of ministers. The deputies to the lower house
are 508 in number, i.e. one to every 64,893 of the population,
and all the constituencies are single-member constituencies.
The party system is not really strong. The suffrage is extended
to all citizens over twenty-one years of age who can read and
write and have either attained a certain standard of elementary
education or are qualified by paying a rent which varies from
£6 in communes of 2500 inhabitants to £16 in communes of
i5P,ooo inhabitants, or, if peasant farmers, i6s. of rent; or
by being sharers in the profits of farms on which not less than
£3, 45. of direct (including provincial) taxation is paid ; or by
paying not less than £16 in direct (including provincial) taxation.
Others, e.g. members of the professional classes, are qualified
to vote by their position. The number of electors (2,541,327)
at the general election in 1904 was 29% of the male population
over twenty-one years of age, and 7-6% of the total population —
exclusive of those temporarily disfranchised on account of
military service; and of these 62-7% voted. No candidate
can be returned unless he obtains more than half the votes given
and more than one-sixth of the total number on the register;
otherwise a second ballot must be
held. Nor can he be returned under
the age of thirty, and he must be
qualified as an elector. All salaried
government officials (except minis-
ters, under-secretaries of state and
other high functionaries, and officers
in the army or navy), and ecclesiastics,
are disqualified for election. Senators
and deputies receive no salary but have free passes on
railways throughout Italy and on certain lines of steamers.
Parliaments are quinquennial, but the king may dissolve the
Chamber of Deputies at any time, being bound, however, to
convoke a new chamber within four months. The executive
must call parliament together annually. Each of the chambers
has the right of introducing new bills, as has also the government;
but all money bills must originate in the Chamber of Deputies.
The consent of both chambers and the assent of the king is
necessary to their being passed. Ministers may attend the
debates of either house but can only vote in that of which they
are members. The sittings of both houses are public, and an
absolute majority of the members must be present to make
a sitting valid. The ministers are eleven in number and have
salaries of about £1000 each; the presidency of the council of
ministers (created in 1889) may be held by itself or (as is usual)
in conjunction with any other portfolio. The ministries are :
interior (under whom are the prefects of the several provinces),
foreign affairs, treasury (separated from finance in 1889), finance,
public works, justice and ecclesiastical affairs, war, marine,
public instruction, commerce, industry and agriculture, posts
and telegraphs (separated from public works in 1889). Each
minister is aided by an under-secretary of state at a salary of
£500. There is a council of state with advisory functions, which
can also decide certain questions of administration, especially
applications from local authorities and conflicts between
ministries, and a court of accounts, which has the right of
examining all details of state expenditure. In every country
the bureaucracy is abused, with more or less reason, for un-
progressiveness, timidity and " red-tape," and Italy is no
exception to the rule. The officials are not well paid, and are
certainly numerous; while the manifold checks and counter-
checks have by no means always been sufficient to prevent
dishonesty.
20
ITALY
[ARMY
Titles of Honour. — The former existence of so many separate
sovereignties and " fountains of honour " gave rise to a great many
hereditary titles of nobility. Besides many hundreds of princes,
dukes, marquesses, counts, barons and viscounts, there are a large
number of persons of " patrician " rank, persons with a right to the
designation nobile or signori, and certain hereditary knights or
cavalieri. In the " Golden Book of the Capitol " (Libra dOro del
Campidoglio) are inscribed 321 patrician families, and of these 28
have the title of prince and 8 that of duke, while the others are
marquesses, counts or simply patricians. For the Italian orders of
knighthood see KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY : Orders of Knighthood.
The king's uncle is duke of Aosta, his son is prince of Piedmont and
his cousin is duke of Genoa.
Justice. — The judiciary system of Italy is mainly framed on the
French model. Italy has courts of cassation at Rome, Naples,
Palermo, Turin, Florence, 20 appeal court districts, 162 tribunal
districts and 1535 mandamentt, each with its own magistracy
(pretura). In 13 of the principal towns there are also pretori who have
exclusively penal jurisdiction. For minor civil cases involving sums
up to loo lire (£4), giudici conciliator* have also jurisdiction, while
they may act as arbitrators up to any amount by request. The
Roman court of cassation is the highest, and in both penal and civil
matters has a right to decide questions of law and disputes between
the lower judicial authorities, and is the only one which has juris-
diction in penal cases, while sharing with the others the right to
revise civil cases.
The pretori have penal jurisdiction concerning all misdemeanours
(contrawenzioni) or offences (delitti) punishable by imprisonment not
exceeding three months or by fine not exceeding 1000 lire (£40).
The penal tribunals have jurisdiction in cases involving imprison-
ment up to ten years, or a fine exceeding £40, while the assize courts,
with a jury, deal with offences involving imprisonment for life or
over ten years, and have exclusive jurisdiction (except that the
senate is on occasion a high court of justice) over all political offences.
Appeal may be made from the sentences of the pretori to the tribunals,
and from the tribunals to the courts of appeal; from the assize
courts there is no appeal except on a point of form, which appeal goes
to the court of cassation at Rome. This court has the supreme
power in all questions of legality of a sentence, jurisdiction or
competency.
The penal code was unified and reformed in 1890. A reform of late
years is the condanna condizionale, equivalent to the English " being
bound over to appear for judgment if called upon, applied in
94,489 cases in 1907. In civil matters there is appeal from the
giudice conciliatore to the pretore (who has jurisdiction up to a sum
of 1500 lire = £6o), from the pretore to the civil tribunal, from the
civil tribunal to the court of appeal, and from the court of appeal to
the court of cassation.
The judges of all kinds are very poorly paid. Even the first
president o7 the Rome court of cassation only receives £6ooayear.
The statistics of civi! proceedings vary considerably from province
to province. Lombardy, with 25 lawsuits per 1000 inhabitants,
holds the lowest place; Emilia comes next with 31 per 1000;
The number of penal proceedings, especially- those within the com-
petence of praetors, has also increased, chiefly on account of the
frequency of minor contraventions of the law referred to in the
section Crime. The ratio of criminal proceedings to population is,
as a rule, much higher in the south than in the north.
A royal decree, dated February 1891, established three classes of
prisons: judiciary prisons, for persons awaiting examination or
persons sentenced to arrest, detention or seclusion for less than six
months; penitentiaries of various kinds (ergasloli, case di reclusione,
detenzione or custodia), for criminals condemned to long terms of
imprisonment; and reformatories, for criminals under age and
vagabonds. Capital punishment was abolished in 1877, penal
servitude for life being substituted. This generally involves solitary
confinement of the most rigorous nature, and, as little is done to
occupy the mind, the criminal not infrequently becomes insane.
Certain types of dangerous individuals are relegated after serving a
sentence in the ordinary convict prisons, and by administrative, not
by judicial process, to special penal colonies known as domicilii coatti
or " forced residences. ' These establishments are, however, un-
satisfactory, being mostly situated on small islands, where it is often
difficult to find work for the coatti, who are free by day, being only
confined at night. They receive a small and hardly sufficient,
allowance for food of 50 centesimi a day, which they are at liberty to
supplement by work if they can find it or care to do it.
Notwithstanding the construction of new prisons and the trans-
formation of old ones, the number of cells for solitary confinement
is still insufficient for a complete application of the penal system
established by the code of 1890, and the moral effect of the associa-
tion of the prisoners is not good, though the system of solitary con-
finement as practised in Italy is little jjetter. The total number of
prisoners, including minors and inhabitants of enforced residences,
which from 76,066 (2-84 per 1000 inhabitants) on the jjist of Decem-
ber 1871 rose to a maximum of 80,792 on the 3ist of December 1879
(2-87 per 1000), decreased to a minimum of 60,621 in 1896 (1-94 per
1000), and on the 3ist of December 1898 rose again to 75,470
(2-38 per 1000), of whom 7038, less than one-tenth, were women.
The lowness of the figures regarding women is to be noticed
throughout. On the 3ist of December 1903 it had decreased to
65,819, of which 6044 were women. Of these, 31,219 were in lock-
ups, 25,145 in penal establishments, 1837 minors in government,
and 4547 in private reformatories, and 3071 (males) were inmates
of forced residences.
Crime. — Statistics of offences, including contravyenzioni or breaches
of by-laws and regulations, exhibit a considerable increase per 100,000
inhabitants since 1887, and only a slight diminution on the figures of
1897. The figure was 1783-45 per 100,000 in 1887, 2164-46 in 1892,
2546-49 in 1897, 2497-90 in 1902. The increase is partly covered by
contrawenzioni, but almost every class of penal offence shows a rise
except homicide, and even in that the diminution is slow, 5418 in
1880, 3966 in 1887, 4408 in 1892, 4005 in 1897, 3202 in 1902; and
Italy remains, owing to the frequent use of the knife, the European
country in which it is most frequent. Libels, insults, &c., resistance
to public authority, offences against good customs, thefts and frauds,
have increased; assaults are nearly stationary. There is also an
increase in juvenile delinquency. From 1890 to 1900 the actual
number rose by one-third (from 30,108 to 43,684), the proportion to
the rest of those sentenced from one-fifth to one-fourth; while in
1905 the actual number rose to 67,944, being a considerable pro-
portionate rise also. In Naples, the Camorra and in Sicily, the Mafia
are secret societies whose power of resistance to authority is still
not inconsiderable.
Procedure, both civil and criminal, is somewhat slow, and the pre-
liminary proceedings before thejuge d'instruction occupy much time;
and recent murder trials, by the large number of witnesses called
(including experts) and the lengthy speeches of counsel, have been
dragged out to an unconscionable length. In this, as in the inter-
vention of the presiding judge, the French system has been adopted;
and it is said (e.g. by Nathan, Vent' anni di vita italiana, p. 241)
that the efforts of thejuge d'instruction are, as a rule, in fact, though
not in law, largely directed to prove that the accused is guilty. In
1902 of 884,612 persons accused of penal offences, 13-12% were ac-
quitted during the period of the instruction, 30-31 by the courts,
46-32 condemned and the rest acquitted in some other way. This
shows that charges, often involving preliminary imprisonment, are
brought against an excessive proportion of persons who either are
not or cannot be proved to be guilty. The courts of appeal and
cassation, too, often have more than they can do; in the year 1907
the court of cassation at Rome decided 948 appeals on points of
law in civil cases, while no fewer than 460 remained to be decided.
As in most civilized countries, the number of suicides in Italy has
increased from year to year.
The Italian suicide rate of 63-6 per 1,000,000 is, however, lower
than those of Denmark, Switzerland, Germany and France, while
it approximates to that of England. The Italian rate is highest in
the more enlightened and industrial north, and lowest in the south.
Emilia gives a maximum rate of 10-48 per 100,000, while that of
Liguria and Lazio is little lower. The minimum of 1-27 is found in
the Basilicata, though Calabria gives only 2-13. About 20% of the
total are women, and there is an increase of nearly 3% since 1882
in the proportion of suicides under twenty years of age.
Army. — The Italian army grew out of the old Piedmontese
army with which in the main the unification of Italy was brought
about. This unification meant for the army the absorption
of contingents from all parts of Italy and presenting serious
differences in physical and moral aptitudes, political opinions
and education. Moreover the strategic geography of the country
required the greater part of the army to be stationed permanently
within reach of the north-eastern and north-western frontiers.
These conditions made a territorial system of recruiting or organ-
ization, as understood in Germany, practically impossible. To
secure fairly uniform efficiency in the various corps, and also as a
means of unifying Italy, Piedmontese, Umbrians and Neapolitans
are mixed in the same corps and sleep in the same barrack
room. But on leaving the colours the men disperse to their
homes, and thus a regiment has, on mobilization, to draw
largely on the nearest reservists, irrespective of the corps to
which they belong. The remedy for this condition of affairs
is sought in a most elaborate and artificial system of transferring
officers and men from one unit to another at stated intervals in
peace-time, but this is no more than a palliative, and there are
other difficulties of almost equal importance to be surmounted.
Thus in Italy the universal service system, though probably
the best organization both for the army and the nation, works
with a maximum of friction. " Army Reform," therefore, has
been very much in the forefront of late years, owing to the
estrangement of Austria (which power can mobilize much more
rapidly), but financial difficulties have hitherto stood in the way
NAVY]
ITALY
21
of any radical and far-reaching reforms, and even the proposals
of the Commission of 1907, referred to below, have only been
partially accepted.
The law of 1875 therefore still regulates the principles of military
service in Italy, though an important modification was made in
1907-1908. By this law, every man liable and accepted for service
served for eight or nine years on the Active Army and its Reserve
(of which three to five were spent with the colours), four or five in
the Mobile Militia, and the rest of the service period of nineteen
years in the Territorial Militia. Under present regulations the
term of liability is divided into nine years in the-Active Army and
Reserve (three or two years with the colours) four in the Mobile
Militia and six in the Territorial Militia. But these figures do not
represent the actual service of every able-bodied Italian. Like almost
all " Universal Service " countries, Italy only drafts a small pro-
portion of the available recruits into the army.
The following table shows the operation of the law of 1875, with
the figures of 1871 for comparison: —
Officers '
Men
ActingArmy & Reserve
Mobile Militia
Territorial Militia .
30th Sept.
1871.
14,070
521,969
536,039
1881.
22,482
1-833,554
73I-H9
294,714
823,970
3Oth June.
1891.
36,739
2,821,367
843,160
445,315
1-553,784
1901.
36,718
3,330,202
734,401
320,170
2,275,631
1 Including officers on special service or in the reserve.
Thus, on the 3Oth of September 1871 the various categories of
the army included only 2 % of the population, but on the 3Oth of
June 1898 they included 10%. But in 1901 the strength of the
active army and reserve shows a marked diminution, which
became accentuated in the year following. The table below in-
dicates that up to 1907 the army, though always below its
nominal strength, never absorbed more than a quarter of the
available contingent.
1902.
1903-
1904.
1906.
Liable
\\ T I7T
Physically unfit .
Struck off ....
91,176
12,270
98,065
13,189
119,070
13,130
122,559
18,222
Failed to appear
Put back for re-examina-
33.634
34,7"
39,219
40,226
tion
108 835
108 618
IO7 171
Assigned to Territorial
Militia and excused
peace service .
92,952
96,916
94,136
87,032
Assigned to active army
102,204
102,141
97,132
87,493
Joined active army . .
88,666
86,448
81,581
66,836
The serious condition of recruiting was quickly noticed, and the
tabulation of each year's results was followed by a new draft law,
but no solution was achieved until a special commission assembled.
The inquiries made by this body revealed an unsatisfactory con-
dition in the national defences, traceable in the main to financial
exigencies, and as regards recruiting a new law was brought into
force in 1907-1908.
One specially difficult point concerned the effectives of the peace-
strength army. Hitherto the actual time of training had been less
than the nominal. The recruits due to join in November were not
incorporated till the following March, and thus in the winter months
Italy was defenceless. The army is always maintained at a low
peace effective (about one-quarter of war establishment) and even
this was reduced, by the absence of the recruits, until there were
often only 15 rank and file with a company, whose war strength
is about 230. Even in the summer and autumn a large proportion
of the army consisted of men with but a few months' service — a
highly dangerous state of things considering the peculiar mobiliza-
tion conditions of the country. Further — and this case no legislation
can coyer — the contingent, and (what is more serious) the reserves,
are being steadily weakened by emigration. The increase in the
numbers rejected as unfit is accounted for by the fact that if only a
small proportion of the contingent can be taken for service, the
medical standard of acceptance is high.
The new recruiting scheme of 1907 re-established three categories
of recruits,1 the 2nd category corresponding practically to the
German Ersatz-Reserve. The men classed in it have to train for
six months, and they are called up in the late summer to bridge the
'The 2nd category of the 1875 law had practically ceased to
exist.
gap above mentioned. The new terms of service for the other
categories have been already stated. In consequence, in 1908, of
490,000 liable, some 110,000 actually joined for full training and
24,000 of the new 2nd category for short training, which contrasts
very forcibly with the feeble embodiments of 1906 and 1907. These
changes threw a considerable strain on the finances, but the im-
minence of the danger caused their acceptance.
The peace strength under the new scheme is nominally 300,000,
but actually (average throughout the year) about 240,000. The
army is organized in 12 army corps (each of 2 divisions), 6 of
which are quartered on the plain of Lombardy and Venetia and
on the frontiers, and 2 more in northern Central Italy. Their
headquarters are: I. Turin, II. Alessandria, III. Milan, IV.
Genoa, V. Verona, VI. Bologna, VII. Ancona, VIII. Florence,
IX. Rome, X. Naples, XI. Bari, XII. Palermo, Sardinian division
Cagliari. In addition there are 22 " Alpini " battalions and
1 5 mountain batteries stationed on the Alpine frontiers.
The war strength was estimated in 1901 as, Active Army (incl.
Reserve) 750,000, Mobile Militia 320,000, Territorial Militia
2,300,000 (more than half of the last-named untrained). These
figures are, with a fractional increase in the Regular Army,
applicable to-day. When the 1907 scheme takes full effect,
however, the Active Army and the Mobile Militia will each be
augmented by about one-third. In 1915 the field army should,
including officers and permanent cadres, be about 1,012,000
strong. The Mobile Militia will not, however, at that date have
felt the effects of the scheme, and the Territorial Militia (setting
the drain of emigration agajnst the increased population) will
probably remain at about the same figure as in 1901.
The army consists of 96 three-battalion regiments of infantry of
the line and 12 of bersaglieri (riflemen), each of the latter having
a cyclist company (Bersaglieri cyclist battalions are being (1909)
provisionally formed); 26 regiments of cavalry, of which 10 are
lancers, each of 6 squadrons; 24 regiments of artillery, each of
8 batteries;2 I regiment of horse artillery of 6 batteries; I of
mountain artillery of 12 batteries, and 3 independent mountain
batteries. The armament of the infantry is the Mannlicher-Carcano
magazine rifle of 1891. The field and horse artillery was in 1909
in process of rearmament with a Krupp quick-firer. The garrison
artillery consists of 3 coast and 3 fortress regiments, with a total of
72 companies. There are 4 regiments (11 battalions) of engineers.
The carabinieri or gendarmerie, some 26,500 in number, are part of
the standing army ; they are recruited from selected volunteers from
the army. In 1902 the special corps in Eritrea numbered about
4700 of all ranks, including nearly 4000 natives.
Ordinary and extraordinary military expenditure for the financial
year 1898-1899 amounted to nearly £10,000,000, an increase of
£4,000,000 as compared with 1871. The Italian Chamber decided
that from the 1st of July 1901 until the 3Oth of June 1907 Italian
military expenditure proper should not exceed the maximum of
£9,560,000 per annum fixed by the Army Bill of May 1897, and that
military pensions should not exceed £1,440,000. Italian military
expenditure was thus until 1907 £11,000,000 per annum. In 1908
the ordinary and extraordinary expenditure was £10,000,000.
The demands of the Commission were only partly complied with,
but a large special grant was voted amounting to at least £1,000,000
per annum for the next seven years. The amount spent is slight
compared with the military expenditure of other countries.
The Alpine frontier is fortified strongly, although the condition
of the works was in many cases considered unsatisfactory by the
1907 Commission. The fortresses in the basin of the Po chiefly
belong to the era of divided Italy and are now out of date; the
:hief coast fortresses are Vado, Genoa, Spezia, Monte Argentaro,
Saeta, Straits of Messina, Taranto, Maddalena. Rome is protected
ay a circle of forts from a coup de main from the sea, the coast, only
12 m. off, being flat and deserted.
Navy. — For purposes of naval organization the Italian coast is
divided into three maritime departments, with headquarters at
Spezia, Naples and Venice; and into two comandi milUari, with
headquarters at Taranto and at the island of Maddalena.
The personnel of the navy consists of the following corps: (i)
eneral staff; (2) naval engineers, chiefly employed in building
and repairing war vessels; (3) sanitary corps; (4) commissariat
corps, for supplies and account-keeping; (5) crews.
The materiel of the Italian navy has been completely trans-
rormed, especially in virtue of the bill of the 3ist of March 1875.
Did types of vessels have been sold or demolished, and replaced
sy newer types.
2 This may be reduced, in consequence of the adoption of the new
2.F. gun, i to 6.
22
ITALY
[FINANCE
In March 1907 the Italian navy contained, excluding ships of no
fighting value : —
Effective.
Completing.
Projected.
Modern battleships .
Old battleships . .
Armoured cruisers
Protected cruisers . .
Torpedo gunboats
Destroyers ....
Modern torpedo boats
Submarines
4
IO
6
'4
13
13
34
i
4
2
4
4
3
10
15
2
The four modern ships — the " Vittorio Emanuele " class, laid
down in 1897 — have a tonnage of 12,625, two 12-in. and twelve 8-in.
guns, an I.H.P. of 19,000, and a designed speed of 22 knots, being
intended to avoid any battleship and to carry enough guns to
destroy any cruiser.
The personnel on active service consisted of 1799 officers and
25,000 men, the former being doubled and the latter trebled since
1882.
Naval expenditure has enormously increased since 1871, the total
for 1871 having been about £900,000, and the total for 1905-1906
over £5,100,000. Violent fluctuations have, however, taken place
from year to year, according to the state of Italian finances. To
permit the steady execution of a normal programme of shipbuilding,
the Italian Chamber, in May 1901, adopted a resolution limiting
naval expenditure, inclusive of naval pensions and of premiums on
mercantile shipbuilding, to the sum of £4,840,000 for the following
six years, i.e. from 1st July 1901 until jjoth June 1907. This sum
consists of £4,240,000 of naval expenditure proper, £220,000 for
naval pensions and £380,000 for premiums upon mercantile ship-
building. During thefinancial year ending on the 3Oth of June 1901
these figures were slightly exceeded.
Finance. — The volume of the Italian budget has considerably
increased as regards both income and expenditure. The income
of £60,741,418 in 1881 rose in 1899-1900 to £69,917,126; while
the expenditure increased from £58,705,929 in 1881 to £69,708,706
in 1890-1900, an increase of £9,1 75, 708 in income and £11,002, 777
in expenditure, while there has been a still further increase since,
the figures for 1905-1006 showing (excluding items which figure
on both sides of the account) an increase of £8,766,995 in income
and £5,434,560 in expenditure over 1890-1900. These figures
include not only the categories of " income and expenditure "
proper, but also those known as " movement of capital," " rail-
way constructions "and" partite di giro, "which do not constitute
real income and expenditure.1 Considering only income and
expenditure proper, the approximate totals are: —
Financial Year.
Revenue.
Expenditure.
Surpluses or
Deficits.
1882
1885-1886
1890-1891
1895-1896
1898-1899
1899-1900
1900-1901
1905-1906
£52,064,800
56,364,000
61,600,000
65,344,000
66,352,800
66,860,800
68,829,200
77,684,100
£51,904,800
57,304,400
64,601,600
67,962,800
65,046,400
65,323,600
66,094,400
75,143.300
£-(- 160,000
— 940,400
— 3,001,600
-2,618,800
+ 1,306,400
+ 1,537-200
+2,734,800
+2,540,900
The financial year 1862 closed with a deficit of more than
£16,000,000, which increased in 1866 to £28,840,000 on account of
the preparations for the war against Austria. Excepting the in-
creases of deficit in 1868 and 1870, the annual deficits tended thence-
forward to decrease, until in 1875 equilibrium between expenditure
and revenue was attained, and was maintained until 1881. Ad-
vantage was taken of the equilibrium to abolish certain imposts,
amongst them the grist tax, which prior to its gradual repeal pro-
" Movement of capital " consists, as regards " income," of the
proceeds of the sale of buildings, Church or Crown lands, old prisons,
barracks, &c., or of moneys derived from sale of consolidated stock.
Thus " income " really signifies diminution of patrimony or increase
of debt. In regard to " expenditure," " movement of capital "
refers to extinction of debt by amortization or otherwise, to pur-
chases of buildings or to advances made by the state. Thus ex-
penditure" really represents a patrimonial improvement, a creation
of credit or a decrease of indebtedness. The items referring to
" railway construction " represent, on the one hand, repayments
made to the exchequer by the communes and provinces of money
disbursed on their account by the State Treasury; and, on the
other, the cost of new railways incurred by the Treasury. The
items of the " partite di giro " are inscribed both on the credit and
debit sides of the budget, and have merely a figurative value.
duced more than £3,200,000 a year. From 1885-1886 onwards,
outlay on public works, military and colonial expenditure, and
especially the commercial and financial crises, contributed to pro-
duce annual deficits; but owing to drastic reforms introduced in
1894-1895 and to careful management the year 1898-1899 marked
a return of surpluses (nearly £1,306,400).
The revenue in the Italian financial year 1905-1906 (July I, 1905
to June 30, 1906) was £102,486,108, and the expenditure £99,945,253,
or, subtracting the partite di giro, £99,684,121 and £97,143,266,
leaving a surplus of £2,54O,855.2 The surplus was made up by
contributions from every branch of the effective revenue, except the
" contributions and repayments from local authorities." The rail-
ways showed an increase of £351,685; registration transfer and
succession, £295,560; direct taxation, £42,136 (mainly from income
tax, which more than made up for the remission of the house tax in
the districts of Calabria visited by the earthquake of 1906) ; customs
and excise, £1,036,742; government monopolies, £291,027; posts,
£41,310; telegraphs, £23,364; telephones, £65,771. Of the surplus
£1,000,000 was allocated to the improvement of posts, telegraphs and
telephones; £1,000,000 to public works (£720,000 for harbour im-
provement and £280,000 for internal navigation) ; £200,000 to the
navy (£132,000 for a second dry dock at Taranto and £68,000 for
coal purchase) ; and £200,000 as a nucleus of a fund for the purchase
of valuable works of art which are in danger of exportation.
The state therefore draws its principal revenues from the imposts,
the taxes and the monopolies. According to the Italian tributary
system, " imposts, "properly socalled are thoseupon land, Ta,.tlon
buildings and personal estate. The impost upon land is '
based upon the cadastral survey independently of the vicissitudes of
harvests. In 1869 the main quota to the impost was increased by
one-tenth, in addition to the extra two-tenths previously imposed
in 1866. Subsequently, it was decided to repeal these additional
tenths, the first being abolished in 1886 and the rest in 1887. On
account of the inequalities still existing in the cadastral survey, in
spite of the law of 1886 (see Agriculture, above), great differences are
found in the land tax assessments in various parts of Italy. Land is
not so heavily burdened by the government quota as by the additional
centimes imposed by the provincial and communal authorities.
On an average Italian landowners pay nearly 25 % of their revenues
from land in government and local land tax. The buildings impost
has been assessed since 1866 upon the basis of 12-50% of " taxable
revenue." Taxable revenue corresponds to two-thirds of actual
income from factories and to three-fourths of actual income from
houses; it is ascertained by the agents of the financial administra-
tion. In 1869, however, a third additional tenth was added to the
previously existing additional two-tenths, and, unlike the tenths of
the land tax, they have not been abolished. At present the main
quota with the additional three-tenths amounts to 16-25% of tax-
able income. The imposts on incomes from personal estate (ricchezza
mobile) were introduced in 1866; it applies to incomes derived from
investments, industry or personal enterprise, but not to landed
revenues. It is proportional, and is collected by deduction from
salaries and pensions paid to servants of the state, where it is assessed
on three-eighths of the income, and from interest on consolidated
stock, where it is assessed on the whole amount ; and by register in
the cases of private individuals, who pay on three-fourths of their
income, professional men, capitalists or manufacturers, who pay on
one-half or nine-twentieths of their income. From 1871 to 1894 it
was assessed at 13-20% of taxable income, this quota being formed
of 12% main quota and 1-20% as an additional tenth. In 1894 the
quota, including the additional tenth, was raised to the uniform level
of 20%. One-tenth of the tax is paid to the communes as compensa-
tion for revenues made over to the state.
Taxes proper are divided into (a) taxes on business transactions
and (6) taxes on articles of consumption. The former apply prin-
cipally to successions, stamps, registrations, mortgages, &c. ; the
latter to distilleries, breweries, explosives, native sugar and matches,
though the customs revenue and octrois upon articles of general
consumption, such as corn, wine, spirits, meat, flour, petroleum,
butter, tea, coffee and sugar, may be considered as belonging to this
class. The monopolies are those of salt, tobacco and the lottery.
Since 1880, while income from the salt and lotto monopolies has
remained almost stationary, and that from land tax and octroi has
diminished, revenue derived from all other sources has notably
increased, especially that from the income tax on personal estate,
and the customs, the yield from which has been nearly doubled.
It will be seen that the revenue is swollen by a large number of
taxes which can only be justified by necessity; the reduction and,
still more, the readjustment of taxation (which now largely falls on
articles of primary necessity) is urgently needed. The government
in presenting the estimates for 1907-1908 proposed to set aside a
sum of nearly £800,000 every year for this express purpose. It
must be remembered that the sums realized by the octroi go in the
main to the various communes. It is only in Rome and Naples that
the octroi is collected directly by the government, which pays over a
certain proportion to the respective communes.
The external taxation is not only strongly protectionist, but is
* Financial operations (mainly in connexion with railway purchase)
figure on each side of the account for about £22,000,000.
FINANCE]
ITALY
applied to goods which cannot be made in Italy; hardly anything
comes in duty free, even such articles as second-hand furniture paying
duty, unless within six months of the date at which the importer
has declared domicile in Italy. The application, too, is somewhat
rigorous, e.g. the tax on electric light is applied to foreign ships
generating their own electricity while lying in Italian ports.
The annual consumption per inhabitant of certain kinds of food
and drink has considerably increased, e.g. grain from 270 ft per head
in 1884-188510321 Ibin 1901-1902 (maize remains almost stationary
at 158 Ib) ; wine from 73 to 125 litres per head; oil from 12 to 13 Ib
per head (sugar is almost stationary at 7j Ib per head, and coffee
at about I Ib) ; salt from 14 to 16 Ib per head. . Tobacco slightly
diminished in weight at a little over I Ib per head, while the gross
receipts are considerably increased — by over 2j millions sterling
since 1884-1885 — showing that the quality consumed is much better.
The annual expenditure on tobacco was 5s. per inhabitant in 1902-
1903, and is increasing.
The annual surpluses are largely accounted for by the heavy
taxation on almost everything imported into the country, l and by
the monopolies on tobacco and on salt ; and are as a rule spent, and
well spent, in other ways. Thus, that of 1907-1908 was devoted
mainly to raising the salaries of government officials and university
professors; even then the maximum for both (in the former class,
for an under-secretary of state) was only £500 per annum. The case
is frequent, too, in which a project is sanctioned by law, but is then
not carried into execution, or only partly so, owing to the lack of
funds. Additional stamp duties and taxes were imposed in 1909 to
meet the expenditure necessitated by the disastrous earthquake at
the end of 1908.
The way in which the taxes press on the poor may be shown by the
number of small proprietors sold up owing to inability to pay the
land and other taxes. In 1882 the number of landed proprietors was
14-52% of the population, in 1902 only 12-66, with an actual
diminution of some 30,000. Had the percentage of 1882 been kept
up there would have been in 1902 600,000 more proprietors than
there were. Between 1884 and 1902 no fewer than 220,616 sales
were effected for failure to pay taxes, while, from 1886 to 1902,
79,208 expropriations were effected for other debts not due to the
state. In 1884 there were 20,422 sales, of which 35-28% were for
debts of 43. or less, and 51-95 for debts between 43. and £2 ; in 1902
there were 4857 sales, but only 11-01% for debts under 45. (the
treasury having given up proceeding in cases where the property is
a tiny piece of ground, sometimes hardly capable of cultivation),
and 55-69% for debts between 43. and £2. The expropriations deal
as a rule with properties of higher value; of these there were 3217
in 1886, 5993 in 1892 (a period of agricultural depression), 3910 in
1902. About 22% of them are for debts under £40, about 49%
from £40 to £200, about 26 % from £200 to £2000.
Of the expenditure a large amount is absorbed by interest on debt.
Debt has continually increased with the development of the state.
.. The sum paid in interest on debt amounted to £17,640,000
in 1871, £19,440,000 in 1881, £25,600,000 in 1891-1892
and £27,560,000 in 1899-1900; but had been reduced to
£23,160,409 by the 3Oth of June 1906. The public debt at that date
was composed as follows : —
Part 1.— Funded Debt.
Grand Livre —
Consolidated 5 %
1 <"/
,, 3 /•
4l% net .
4 %
Total .
Debts to be transferred to the Grand Livre
Perpetual annuity to the Holy See
Perpetual debts (Modena, Sicily, Naples)
Total
Amount.
£316,141,802
6,404,335
28,872,511
7,875,592
37,689,880
£396,984,120
60,868
2,580,000
2,591,807
£402,216,795
Part II.— Unfunded Debt.
Debts separately inscribed in the Grand Livre . 10,042,027
Various railway obligations, redeemable, &c. . 56,375,351
Sicilian indemnities 195,348
Capital value of annual payment to South
Austrian Company 37,102,908
Long date Treasury warrants, law of July 7, 1901 1,416,200
Railway certificates (3-65% net), Art. 6 of law,
June 25, 1905, No. 261 14,220,000
Total
Parti.
£119,351,834
£402,216,795
Grand Total . £521,568,629
Date.
Direct Liability of State.
Notes issued
by State
Banks.
Aggregate
Paper
Currency.
State Notes.
Bonsde Caisse.i
3ist December 1881
1886
1891
1896
1899
1905
Lire.
940,000,000
446,663,535
341.949,237
400,000,000
45i,43i,78o
441,304,780
Lire.
110,000,000
42,138,152
:,874,i84
Lire.
735,570,197
1,031,869,713
1,121,601,079
1,069,233,376
1,180,110,330
1,406,474,800
Lire.
1,675.579,19?
1,478,535,247
1,463,550,316
1.570,233.376
1,673,680,262
1,848,657,764
1 For example, wheat, the price of which was in 1902 26 lire per
cwt., pays a tax of 7i lire ; sugar pays four times its wholesale value
in tax ; coffee twice its wholesale value.
The debt per head of population was, in 1905, £14, i6s. 3d., and
the interest 135. sd.
In July 1906 the 5% gross (4% net), and 4% net rente were
successfully converted into 3! % stock (to be reduced to 3i% after
five years), to a total amount of £324,017,393. The demands for
reimbursement at par represented a sum of only £187,588 and the
market value of the stock was hardly affected; while the saving
to the Treasury was to be £800,000 per annum for the first five years
and about double the amount afterwards.
Currency. — The lira (pluraUire) of loocentesimi (centimes) is equal
in value to the French franc. The total coinage (exclusive of Eritrean
currency) from the 1st of January 1862 to the end of 1907 was
1,104,667,116 lire (exclusive of recoinage), divided as follows: gold,
427,516,970 lire; silver, 570,097,025 lire; nickel, 23,417,000 lire;
bronze, 83,636,121 lire. The forced paper currency, instituted in
1866, was abolished in 1881, in which year were dissolved the Union
of Banks of Issue created in 1874 to furnish to the state treasury a
milliard of lire in notes, guaranteed collectively by the banks. Part
of the Union notes were redeemed, part replaced by 10 lire and 5 lin;
state notes, payable at sight in metallic legal tender by certain state
banks. Nevertheless the law of 1881 did not succeed in maintaining
the value of the state notes at a par with the metallic currency, and
from 1885 onwards there reappeared a gold premium, which during
1899 and 1900 remained at about 7 %, but subsequently fell to about
3% and has since 1902 practically disappeared. The paper circula-
tion to the debit of the state and the paper currency issued by tho
authorized state banks is shown below: —
1 These ceased to have legal currency at the end of 1901; they were notes of i and 2 lire.
Banks. — Until 1893 the juridical status of the Banks of Issue was
regulated by the laws of the 3Oth of April 1874 on paper currency and
of the 7th of April 1 88 1 on the abolition of forced currency. At that
time four limited companies were authorized to issue bank notes,
namely, the National Bank, the National Bank of Tuscany, the
Roman Bank and the Tuscan Credit Bank; and two banking
corporations, the Bank of Naples and the Bank of Sicily. In 1893
the Roman Bank was put into liquidation, and the other three
limited companies were fused, so as to create the Bank of Italy, the
privilege of issuing bank notes being thenceforward confined to the
Bank of Italy, the Bank of Naples and the Bank of Sicily. The gold
reserve in the possession of the Banca d'ltalia on September 3Oth
1907 amounted to £32,240,984, and the silver reserve to £4,767,861 ;
the foreign treasury bonds, &c. amounted to £3,324,074, making
the total reserve £40,332,919; while the circulation amounted to
£54,612,234. The figures were on the 3ist of December 1906:
Paper
Circulation.
Reserve.
Banca d'ltalia
Banca di Napoli .
Banca di Sicilia .
Total . .
£47,504,352
13,893,152
2,813,692
£36,979.235
9,756,284
2,060,481
£64,211,196
£48,796,000
This is considerably in excess of the circulation, £40,404,000, fixed
by royal decree of 1900; but the issue of additional notes was
allowed, provided they were entirely covered by a metallic reserve,
whereas up to the fixed limit a 40% reserve only was necessary.
These notes are of 50, 100, 500 and 1000 lire; while the state issues
notes for 5, 10 and 25 lire, the currency of these at the end of October
1906 being £17,546,967; with a total guarantee of £15,636,000 held
against them. They were in January 1908 equal in value to the
metallic currency of gold and silver.
The price of Italian consolidated 5% (gross, 4% net, allowing for
the 20% income tax) stock, which is the security most largely
negotiated abroad, and used in settling differences between large
financial institutions, has steadily risen during recent years. After
being depressed between 1885 and 1894, the prices in Italy and abroad
reached, in 1899, on the Rome Stock Exchange, the average of
100-83 and of 94-8 on the Paris Bourse. By the end of 1901 the price
of Italian stock on the Paris Bourse had, however, risen to par or
thereabouts. The average price of Italian 4% in 1905 was 105-29;
since the conversion to 3! % net (to be further reduced to 3 J in five
more years), the price has been about 103-5. Rates of exchange, or,
in other words the gold premium, favoured Italy during the years
immediately following the abolition of the forced currency in 1881.
In 1885, however, rates tended to rise, and though they fell in 1886
they subsequently increased to such an extent as to reach 110%
at the end of August 1894. For the next four years they continued
ITALY
[ FINANCE.
low, but rose again in 1898 and 1899. In 1900 the maximum rate
was 107-32, and the minimum 105-40, but in 1901 rates fell consider-
ably, and were at par in 1902-1909.
There are in Italy six clearing houses, namely, the ancient one at
Leghorn, and those of Genoa, Milan, Rome, Florence and Turin,
founded since 1882.
The number of ordinary banks, which diminished between 1889
and 1894, increased in the following years, and was 158 in 1898. At
the same time the capital employed in banking decreased by nearly
one-half, namely, from about £12,360,000 in 1880 to about £6,520,000
in 1898. This decrease was due to the liquidation of a number of
large and small banks, amongst others the Bank of Genoa, the
General Bank, and the Societa di Credito Mobiliare Italiano of Rome,
and the Genoa Discount Bank — establishments which alone repre-
sented £4,840,000 of paid-up capital. Ordinary credit operations
are also carried on by the co-operative credit societies, of which
there are some 700.
Certain banks make a special business of lending money to owners
of land or buildings (credito fondiario). Loans are repayable by
AtraHao instalments, and are guaranteed by first mortgages not
Credit greater in amount than half the value of the hypothecated
Banks property. The banks may buy up mortgages and advance
money on current account on the security of land or
buildings. The development of the large cities has induced these
banks to turn their attention rather to building enterprise than to
mortgages on rural property. The value of their land certificates
or cartelle fondiarie (representing capital in circulation) rose from
£10,420,000 in 1881 to £15,560,000 in 1886, and to £30,720,000
in 1891, but fell to £29,320,000 in 1896, to £27,360,000 in 1898,
and to £24,360,000 in 1907; the amount of money lent increased
from £10,440,000 in 1881 to £15,600,000 in 1886, and £50,800,000 in
1891, but fell to £29,320,000 in 1896, to £27,360,000 m 1899, and
to £21,720,000 in 1907. The diminution was due to the law of the
loth of April 1893 upon the banks of issue, by which they were
obliged to liquidate the loan and mortgage business they had pre-
viously carried on.
Various laws have been passed to facilitate agrarian credit. The
law of the 23rd of January 1887 (still in force) extended the dis-
positions of the. Civil Code with regard to " privileges," * and
established special " privileges " in regard to harvested produce,
produce stored in barns and farm buildings, and in regard to agricul-
tural implements. Loans on mortgage may also be granted to land-
owners and agricultural unions, with a view to the introduction of
agricultural improvements. These loans are regulated by special
disposition, ana are guaranteed by a share of the increased value
of the land after the improvements have been carried out. Agrarian
credit banks may, with the permission of the government, issue
cartflle agrarie, or agrarian bonds, repayable by instalments and
bearing interest.
Internal Administration. — It was not till 1865 that the adminis-
trative unity of Italy was realized. Up to that year some of the
regions of the kingdom, such as Tuscany, continued to have a kind
of autonomy; but by the laws of the 2Oth of March the whole
country was divided into 69 provinces and 8545 communes. The
extent to which communal independence had been maintained in
Italy through all the centuries of its political disintegration was
strongly in its favour. The syndic (sinaaco) or chief magistrate of
the commune was appointed by the king for three years, and he was
assisted by a " municipal junta."
Local government was modified by the law of the loth of February
1889 ana by posterior enactments. The syndics (or mayors) are now
elected by a secret ballot of the communal council, though they are
still government officials. In the provincial administrations the
functions of the prefects have been curtailed. Each province has a
prefect, responsible to and appointed by the Ministry of the Interior,
while each of the regions (called variously circondarii and distretti)
has its sub-prefect. Whereas the prefect was formerly ex-officio
president of the provincial deputation or executive committee of the
provincial council, his duties under the present law are reduced to
mere participation in the management of provincial affairs, the
president of the provincial deputation being chosen among and
elected by the members of the deputation. The most important
change introduced by the new law has been the creation in every
province of a provincial administrative junta entrusted with the
supervision of communal administrations, a function previously
discharged by the provincial deputation. Each provincial adminis-
trative junta is composed, in part, of government nominees, and in
larger part of elective elements, elcctecl by the provincial council for
four years, half of whom require to be elected every two years. The
acts of communal administration requiring the sanction of the
provincial administrative junta are chiefly financial. Both com-
munal councils and prefects may appeal to the government against
the decision of the provincial administrative juntas, the government
being guided by the opinion of the Council of State. Besides possess-
ing competence in regard to local government elections, which
1 " Privileges " assure to creditors priority of claim in case of
foreclosure for debt or mortgage. Prior to the law of the 23rd of
January 1887 harvested produce and agricultural implements were
legally exempt from " privilege."
previously came within the jurisdiction of the provincial deputations,
the provincial administrative juntas discharge magisterial functions
in administrative affairs, and deal with appeals presented by private
persons against acts of the communal and provincial administrations.
The juntas are in this respect organs of the administrative juris-
prudence created in Italy by the law of the 1st of May 1890, in order
to provide juridical protection for those rights and interests outside
the competence of the ordinary tribunals. The provincial council
only meets once a year in ordinary session.
The former qualifications for electorship in local government
elections have been modified, and it is now sufficient to pay five lire
annually in direct taxes, five lire of certain communal taxes, or a
certain rental (which varies according to the population of a com-
mune), instead of being obliged to pay, as previously, at least five
lire annually of direct taxes to the state. In consequence of this
change the number of local electors increased by more than one-
third between 1887-1889; it decreased, however, as a result of an
extraordinary revision of the registers in 1894. The period for
which both communal and provincial councils are elected is six
years, one-half being renewed every three years.
The ratio of local electors to population is in Piedmont 79 %, but
in Sicily less than 45%. The ratio of voters to qualified electors
tends to increase; it is highest in Campania, Basilicata and in
the south generally; the lowest percentages are given by Emilia
and Liguria.
Local finance is regulated by the communal and provincial law of
May 1898, which instituted provincial administrative juntas, em-
powered to examine and sanction the acts of the com-
munal financial administrations. The sanction of the ~'oa
provincial administrative junta is necessary for sales or
purchases of property, alterations of rates (although in case of
increase the junta can only act upon request of ratepayers paying an
aggregate of one-twentieth of the local direct taxation), and ex-
penditure affecting the communal budget for more than five years.
The provincial administrative junta is, moreover, empowered to
order " obligatory " expenditure, such as the upkeep of roads,
sanitary works, lighting, police (i.e. the so-called " guardie di pubblica
sicurezza," the " carabinieri " being really a military force; only the
largest towns maintain a municipal police force), charities, education,
&c., in case such expenditure is neglected by the communal authorities.
The cost of fire brigades, infant asylums, evening and holiday schools,
is classed as " optional " expenditure. Communal revenues are
drawn from the proceeds of communal property, interest upon
capital, taxes and local dues. The most important of the local clues
is the gate tax, or dazio di consumo, which may be either a surtax
upon commodities (such as alcoholic drinks or meat), having already
paid customs duty at the frontier, in which case the local surtax may
not exceed 50% of the frontier duty, or an exclusively communal
duty limited to 10 % on flour, bread and farinaceous products,* and
to 20 % upon other commodities. The taxes thus vary considerably
in different towns.
In addition, the communes have a right to levy a surtax not ex-
ceeding 50% of the quota levied by the state upon lands and
buildings; a family tax, or fuocatico, upon the total incomes of
families, which, for fiscal purposes, are divided into various cate-
gories; a tax based upon the rent-value of houses, and other taxes
upon cattle, horses, dogs, carriages and servants; also on licences for
shopkeepers, hotel and restaurant keepers, &c. ; on the slaughter of
animals, stamp duties, one-half of the tax on bicycles, &c. Occa-
sional sources of interest are found in the sale of communal property,
the realization of communal credits, and the contraction of debt.
The provincial administrations are entrusted with the manage-
ment of the affairs of the provinces in general, as distinguished from
those of the communes. Their expenditure is likewise classed as
".obligatory " and " optional." The former category comprises the
maintenance of provincial roads, bridges and watercourse embank-
ments; secondary education, whenever this is not provided for by
private institutions or by the state (elementary education being
maintainc4 by the communes), and the maintenance of foundlings
and pauper lunatics. " Optional " expenditure includes the cost of
services of general public interest, though not strictly indispensable.
Provincial revenues are drawn from provincial property, school taxes,
tolls and surtaxes on land and buildings. The provincial surtaxes
may not exceed 50% of the quotas levied by the state. In 1897 the
total provincial revenue was £3,732,253, of which £3,460,000 was
obtained from the surtax upon lands and buildings. Expenditure
amounted to £3,768,888, of which the principal items were £760,000
for roads ancTbridges, £520,000 for lunatic asylums, £240,000 for
foundling hospitals, £320,000 for interest on debt and £200,000 for
police. Like communal revenue, provincial revenue has considerably
increased since 1880, principally on account of the increase in the
land and building surtax.
The Italian local authorities, communes and provinces alike,
have considerably increased their indebtedness since 1882. The
ratio of communal and provincial debt per inhabitant has grown
1 At the beginning of 1902 the Italian parliament sanctioned a bill
providing for the abolition of municipal duties on bread and farin-
aceous products within three years of the promulgation of the bill on
1st July 1902.
ETHNOGRAPHY]
ITALY
from 30-79 lire (£1,43. 7id.) to 43-70 lire (£i, 143. 1 id.), an increase due
in great part to the need for improved buildings, hygienic reforms
and education, but also attributable in part to the manner in which
the finances of many communes are administered. The total was in
1900, £49,496,193 for the communes and £6,908,022 for the provinces.
The former total is more than double and the latter more than treble
the sum in 1873, while there is an increase of 62 % in the former and
26% in the latter over the totals for 1882.
See Annuario statistic? italiano (not, however, issued regularly each
year) for general statistics; and other official publications; W.
Deecke, Italy; a Popular Account of the Country, its People and its
Institutions (translated by H. A. Nesbitt, London, 1904) ; B. King
and T. Okey, Italy to-day (London, 1901) ; E. Nathan, Vent' Anni di
vita italiana attraverso air Annuario (Rome, 1906); G. Strafforello,
Geografia dell' Italia (Turin, 1890-1902). (T. As.)
HISTORY
The difficulty of Italian history lies in the fact that until
modern times the Italians have had no political unity, no inde-
pendence, no organized existence as a nation. Split up into
numerous and mutually hostile communities, they never, through
the fourteen centuries which have elapsed since the end of the
old Western empire, shook off the yoke of foreigners completely;
they never until lately learned to merge their local and conflicting
interests in the common good of undivided Italy. Their history
is therefore not the history of a single people, centralizing and
absorbing its constituent elements by a process of continued
evolution, but of a group of cognate populations, exemplifying
divers types of constitutional developments.
The early history of Italy will be found under ROME and allied
headings. The following account is therefore mainly concerned
with the periods succeeding A.D. 476, when Romulus Augustulus
was deposed by Odoacer. Prefixed to this are two sections
dealing respectively with (A) the ethnographical and philological
divisions of ancient Italy, and (B) the unification of the country
under Augustus, the growth of the road system and so forth.
The subsequent history is divided into five periods: (C) From
476 to 1796; (D) From 1796 to 1814; (E) From 1815 to 1870;
(F) From 1870 to 1902; (G) From 1902 to 1910.
A. ANCIENT LANGUAGES AND PEOPLES
The ethnography of ancient Italy is a very complicated and
difficult subject, and notwithstanding the researches of modern
scholars is still involved in some obscurity. The great beauty
and fertility of the country, as well as the charm of its climate,
undoubtedly attracted, even in early ages, successive swarms of
invaders from the north, who sometimes drove out the previous
occupants of the most favoured districts, at others reduced them
to a state of serfdom, or settled down in the midst of them, until
the two races gradually coalesced. Ancient writers are agreed
as to the composite character of the population of Italy, and the
diversity of races that were found within the limits of the
peninsula. But unfortunately the traditions they have trans-
mitted to us are often various and conflicting, while the only safe
test of the affinities of nations, derived from the comparison of
their languages, is to a great extent inapplicable, from the fact
that the idioms that prevailed in Italy in and before the 5th
century B.C. are preserved, if at all, only in a few scanty and
fragmentary inscriptions, though from that date onwards we
have now a very fair record of many of them (see, e.g. LATIN
LANGUAGE, OSCA LINGUA, IGUVTUM, VOLSCI, ETRURIA: section
Language, and below). These materials, imperfect as they are,
when combined with the notices derived from ancient writers and
the evidence of archaeological excavations, may be considered
as having furnished some results of reasonable certainty.
It must be observed that the name " Italians " was at one
time confined to the Oenotrians; indeed, according to Antiochus
of Syracuse (apud Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. ii. i), the name of Italy
was first still more limited, being applied only to the southern
portion of the Bruttium peninsula (now known as Calabria).
But in the time of that historian, as well as of Thucydides, the
names of Oenotria and Italia, which appear to have been at that
period regarded as synonymous, had been extended to include
the shore of the Tarentine Gulf as far as Metapontum and
from thence across to the gulfs of Laus and Posidonia on the
Tyrrhenian Sea. It thus still comprised only the two provinces
subsequently known as Lucania and Bruttium (see references s.v.
" Italia " in R. S. Conway's Italic Dialects, p. 5). The name seems
to be a Graecized form of an Italic Vitelia, from the stem vitlo-,
" calf " (Lat. vilulus, Gr. £raX6s), and perhaps to have meant
"calf-land," " grazing-land " ; but the origin is more certain
than the meaning; the calf may be one of the many animals
connected with Italian tribes (see HIRPINI, SAMNITES).
Taking the term Italy to comprise the whole peninsula with
the northern region as far as the Alps, we must first distinguish
the tribe or tribes which spoke Indo-European languages from
those who did not. To the latter category it is now possible to
refer with certainty only the Etruscans (for the chronology and
limits of their occupation of Italian soil see ETRURIA: section
Language). Of all the other tribes that inhabited Italy down
to the classical period, of whose speech there is any record
(whether explicit or in the form of names and glosses), it is
impossible to maintain that any one does not belong to the
Indo-European group. Putting aside the Etruscan, and also
the different Greek dialects of the Greek colonies, like Cumae,
Neapolis, Tarentum, and proceeding from the south to the
north, the different languages or dialects, of whose separate
existence at some time between, say, 600 and 200 B.C., we can
be sure, may be enumerated as follows: (i) Sicel, (2) South
Oscan and Oscan, (3) Messapian, (4) North Oscan, (5) Volscian,
(6) East Italic or " Sabellic," (7) Latinian, (8) Sabine, (9) Iguvine
or " Umbrian," (10) Gallic, (n) Ligurian and (12) Venetic.
Between several of these dialects it is probable that closer
affinities exist, (i) It is probable, though not very clearly
demonstrated, that Venetic, East Italic and Messapian are
connected together and with the ancient dialects spoken in
Illyria (?.».), so that these might be provisionally entitled the
Adriatic group, to which the language spoken by the Eteocretes
of the city of Praesos in Crete down to the 4th century B.C.
was perhaps akin. (2) Too little is known of the Sicel language
to make clear more than its Indo-European character. But
it must be reckoned among the languages of Italy because of the
well-supported tradition of the early existence of the Sicels in
Latium (see SICULI). Their possible place in the earlier stratum
of Indo-European population is discussed under SABINI. How
far also the language or languages spoken in Bruttium and at
certain points of Lucania, such as Anxia, differed from the
Oscan of Samnium and Campania there is not enough evidence
to show (see BRUTTII). (3) It is doubtful whether there are any
actual inscriptions which can be referred with certainty to the
language of the Ligures, but some other evidence seems to link
them with the -CO- peoples, whose early distribution is discussed
under VOLSCI and LIGURIA. (4) It is difficult to point to any
definite evidence by which we may determine the dates of the
earliest appearance of Gallic tribes in the north of Italy. No
satisfactory collection has been made of the Celtic inscriptions of
Cisalpine Gaul, though many are scattered about in different
museums. For our present purpose it is important to note that
the archaeological stratification in deposits like those of Bologna
shows that the Gallic period supervened upon the Etruscan.
Until a scientific collection of the local and personal names of
this district has been made, and until the archaeological evidence
is clearly interpreted, it is impossible to go beyond the region
of conjecture as to the tribe or tribes occupying the valley of
the Po before the two invasions. It is clear, however, that the
Celtic and Etruscan elements together occupied the greater
part of the district between the Apennines and the Alps
down to its Romanization, which took place gradually in the
course of the 2nd century B.C. Their linguistic neighbours
were Ligurian in the south and south-west, and the Veneti
on the east.
We know from the Roman historians that a large force of
Gauls came as far south as Rome in the year 390 B.C., and that
some part of this horde settled in what was henceforward known
as the Ager Gallicus, the easternmost strip of coast in what was
later known as Umbria, including the towns of Caesena, Ravenna
and Ariminum. A bilingual inscription (Gallic and Latin) of
26
ITALY
[UNDER AUGUSTUS
the 2nd century B.C. was found as far south as Tuder, the modern
Todi (Italic Dialects, ii. 528; Stokes, Bezzenberger's Beitrdge,
n, p. 113).
(5) Turning now to the languages which constitute the Italic
group in the narrower sense, (a) Oscan; (b) the dialect of Velitrae,
commonly called Volscian; (c) Latinian (i.e. Latin and its
nearest congeners, like Faliscan); and (d) Umhrian (or, as it
may more safely be called, Iguvine), two principles of classifica-
tion offer themselves, of which the first is purely linguistic, the
second linguistic and topographical. Writers on the ethnology
of Italy have been hitherto content with the first, namely, the
broad distinction between the dialects which preserved the Indo-
European velars (especially the breathed plosive q) as velars or
back-palatals (gutturals), with or without the addition of a
ai-sound, and the dialects which converted the velars wholly
into labials, for example, Latinian quis contrasted with Oscan,
Volscian and Umbrian pis (see further LATIN LANGUAGE).
This distinction, however, takes us but a little way towards
an historical grouping of the tribes, since the only Latinian
dialects of which, besides Latin, we have inscriptions are Faliscan
and Marsian (see FALISCI, MARST); although the place-names
of the Aequi (q.v.) suggest that they belong to the same group
in this respect. Except, therefore, for a very small and appar-
ently isolated area in the north of Latium and south of Etruria,
all the tribes of Italy, though their idioms differed in certain
particulars, are left undiscriminated. This presents a strong
contrast to the evidence of tradition, which asserts very strongly
(i) the identity of the Sabines and Samnites; (2) the conquest
of an earlier population by this tribe; and which affords (3)
clear evidence of the identity of the Sabines with the ruling
class, i.e. the patricians, at Rome itself (see SABINI; and ROME.
Early History and Ethnology).
Some clue to this enigma may perhaps be found in the second
principle of classification proposed by the present writer at the
Congresso Internationale di Scienze Storiche at Rome (Attidel
Congresso, ii) in 1003. It was on that occasion pointed out that the
ethnica or tribal and oppidan names of communities belonging
to the Sabine stock were marked by the use of the suffix -NO-
as in Sabini; and that there was some linguistic evidence that
this stratum of population overcame an earlier population, which
used, generally, ethnica in -CO- or -TI- (as in Marruci, Ardeates,
transformed later into Marrucini, Ardeatini).
The validity of this distinction and its results are discussed
under SABINI and VOLSCI, but it is well to state here its chief
consequences.
1. Latin will be counted the language of the earlier plebeian
stratum of the population of Rome and Latium, probably once
spread over a large area of the peninsula, and akin in some
degree to the language or languages spoken in north Italy
before either the Etruscan or the Gallic invasions began.
2. It would follow, on the other hand, that what is called
Oscan represented the language of the invading Sabines (more
correctly Safines), whose racial affinities would seem to be
of a distinctly more northern cast, and to mark them, like the
Dorians or Achaeans in Greece, as an early wave of the invaders
who more than once in later history have vitally influenced the
fortunes of the tempting southern land into which they forced
their way.
3. What is called Volscian, known only from the important
inscription of the town of Velitrae, and what is called Umbrian,
known from the famous Iguvine Tables with a few other records,
would be regarded as Safine dialects, spoken by Safine com-
munities who had become more or less isolated in the midst
of the earlier and possibly partly Etruscanized populations, the
result being that as early as the 4th century B.C. their language
had suffered corruptions which it escaped both in the Samnite
.mountains and in the independent and self-contained community
of Rome.
For fuller details the reader must be referred to the separate
articles already mentioned, and to IGUVIUM, PICENUM, OSCA LINGUA,
MA RSI, AEQUI, SicuLland LIGURIA. Such archaeological evidence as
can be connected with the linguistic data will there be discussed.
(R. S. C.)
B. CONSOLIDATION OF ITALY
We have seen that the name of Italy was originally applied
only to the southernmost part of the peninsula, and was only
gradually extended so as to comprise the central regions, such
as Latium and Campania, which were designated by writers as
late as Thucydides and Aristotle as in Opicia. The progress of
this change cannot be followed in detail, but there can be little
doubt that the extension of the Roman arms, and the gradual
union of the nations of the peninsula under one dominant power,
would contribute to the introduction, or rather would make the
necessity felt, for the use of one general appellation. At first,
indeed, the term was apparently confined to the regions of the
central and southern districts, exclusive of Cisalpine Gaul and
the whole tract north of the Apennines, and this continued to
be the official or definite signification of the name down to the
end of the republic. But the natural limits of Italy are so clearly
marked that the name came to be generally employed as a geo-
graphical term at a much earlier period. Thus we already find
Polybius repeatedly applying it in this wider signification to the
whole country, as far as the foot of the Alps; and it is evident
from many passages in the Latin writers that this was the familiar
use of the term in the days of Cicero and Caesar. The official
distinction was, however, still retained. Cisalpine Gaul, includ-
ing the whole of northern Italy, still constituted a " province,"
an appellation never applied to Italy itself. As such it was
assigned to Julius Caesar, together with Transalpine Gaul,
and it was not till he crossed the Rubicon that he entered Italy
in the strict sense of the term.
Augustus was the first who gave a definite administrative
organization to Italy as a whole, and at the same time gave
official sanction to that wider acceptation of the name which
had already established itself in familiar usage, and which has
continued to prevail ever since.
The division of Italy into eleven regions, instituted by Augustus
for administrative purposes, which continued in official use till
the reign of Constantine, was based mainly on the territorial
divisions previously existing, and preserved with few exceptions
the ancient limits.
The first region comprised Latium (in the more extended sense
of the term, as including the land of the Volsci, Hernici and
Aurunci), together with Campania and the district of the
Picentini. It thus extended from the mouth of the Tiber to
that of the Silarus (see LATIUM).
The second region included Apulia and Calabria (the name
by which the Romans usually designated the district known to
the Greeks as Messapia or lapygia), together with the land of the
Hirpini, which had usually been considered as a part of Samnium.
The third region contained Lucania and Bruttium; it was
bounded on the west coast by the Silarus, on the east by the
Bradanus.
The fourth region comprised all the Samnites (except the
Hirpini), together with the Sabines and the cognate tribes of
the Frentani, Marrucini, Marsi, Peligni, Vestini and Aequiculi.
It was separated from Apulia on the south by the river Tifernus,
and from Picenum on the north by the Matrinus.
The fifth region was composed solely of Picenum, extending
along the coast of the Adriatic from the mouth of the Matrinus
to that of the Aesis, beyond Ancona.
The sixth region was formed by Umbria, in the more extended
sense of the term, as including the Ager Gallicus, along the coast
of the Adriatic from the Aesis to the Ariminus, and separated
from Etruria on the west by the Tiber.
The seventh region consisted of Etruria, which preserved
its ancient limits, extending from the Tiber to the Tyrrhenian
Sea, and separated from Liguria on the north by the river
Macra.
The eighth region, termed Gallia Cispadana, comprised the
southern portion of Cisalpine Gaul, and was bounded on the north
(as its name implied) by the river Padus or Po, from above
Placentia to its mouth. It was separated from Etruria and
Umbria by the main chain of the Apennines; and the river
GOTHIC AND LOMBARD KINGDOMS]
ITALY
27
Ariminus was substituted for the far-famed Rubicon as its limit
on the Adriatic.
The ninth region comprised Liguria, extending along the sea-
coast from the Varus to the Macra, and inland as far as the river
Padus, which constituted its northern boundary from its source
in Mount Vesulus to its confluence with the Trebia just above
Placentia.
The tenth region included Venetia from the Padus and Adriatic
to the Alps, to which was annexed the neighbouring peninsula
of Istria, and to the west the territory of the Cenomani, a Gaulish
tribe, extending from the Athesis to the Addua, which had
previously been regarded as a part of Gallia Cisalpina.
The eleventh region, known as Gallia Transpadana, included
all the rest of Cisalpine Gaul from the Padus on the south and
the Addua on the east to the foot of the Alps.
The arrangements thus established by Augustus continued
almost unchanged till the time of Constantine, and formed the
basis of all subsequent administrative divisions until the fall
of the Western empire.
The mainstay of the Roman military control of Italy first,
and of the whole empire afterwards, was the splendid system of
roads. As the supremacy of Rome extended itself
<ds' over Italy, the Roman road system grew step by step,
each fresh conquest being marked by the pushing forward of
roads through the heart of the newly-won territory, and the
establishment of fortresses in connexion with them. It was in
Italy that the military value of a network of roads was first
appreciated by the Romans, and the lesson stood them in good
stead in the provinces. And it was for military reasons that
from mere cart-tracks they were developed into permanent
highways (T. Ashby, in Papers of the British School at Rome,
i. 129). From Rome itself roads radiated in all directions.
Communications with the south-east were mainly provided
by the Via Appia (the " queen of Roman roads," as Statius called
it) and the Via Latina, which met close to Casilinum, at the
crossing of the Volturnus, 3 m. N.W. of Capua, the second city in
Italy in the 3rd century B.C., and the centre of the road system
of Campania. Here the Via Appia turned eastward towards
Beneventum, while the Via Popilia continued in a south-easterly
direction through the Campanian plain and thence southwards
through the mountains of Lucania and Bruttii as far as Rhegium.
Coast roads of minor importance as means of through com-
munication also existed on both sides of the " toe " of the boot.
Other roads ran south from Capua to Cumae, Puteoli (the most
important harbour of Campania), and Neapolis, which could
also be reached by a coast road from Minturnae on the Via Appia.
From Beneventum, another important road centre, the Via
Appia itself ran south-east through the mountains past Venusia
to Tarentum on the south-west coast of the " heel," and thence
across Calabria to Brundusium, while Trajan's correction of it,
following an older mule-track, ran north-east through the moun-
tains and then through the lower ground of Apulia, reaching the
coast at Barium. Both met at Brundusium, the principal port
for the East. From Aequum Tuticum, on the Via Traiana,
the Via Herculia ran to the south-east, crossing the older Via
Appia, then south to Potentia and so on to join the Via Popilia
in the centre of Lucania.
The only highroad of importance which left Rome and ran
eastwards, the Via Valeria, was not completed as far as the
Adriatic before the time of Claudius; but on the north and north-
west started the main highways which communicated with central
and northern Italy, and with all that part of the Roman empire
which was accessible by land. The Via Salaria, a very ancient
road, with its branch, the Via Caecilia, ran north-eastwards to
the Adriatic coast and so also did the Via Flaminia, which reached
the coast at Fanum Fortunae, and thence followed it to Ariminum.
The road along the east coast from Fanum Fortunae down to
Barium, which connected the terminations of the Via Salaria
and Via Valeria, and of other roads farther south crossing from
Campania, had no special name in ancient times, as far as we
know. The Via Flaminia was the earliest and most important
road to the north; and it was soon extended (in 187 B.C.) by
the Via Aemilia running through Bononia as far as P'acentia,
in an almost absolutely straight line between the plain of the
Po and the foot of the Apennines. In the same year a road was
constructed over the Apennines from Bononia to Arretium, but
it is difficult to suppose that it was not until later that the Via
Cassia was made, giving a direct communication between
Arretium and Rome. The Via Clodia was an alternative route
to the Cassia for the first portion out of Rome, a branch having
been built at the same time from Florentia to Lucca and Luna.
Along the west coast the Via Aurelia ran up to Pisa and was
continued by another Via Aemilia to Genoa. Thence the Via
Postumia led to Dertona, Placentia and Cremona, while the Via
Aemilia and the Via Julia Augusta continued along the coast into
Gallia Narbonensis.
The road system of Cisalpine Gaul was mainly conditioned
by the rivers which had to be crossed, and the Alpine passes
which had to be approached.
Cremona, on the north bank of the Po, was an important
meeting point of roads and Hostilia (Ostiglia) another; so also
was Patavium, farther east, and Altinum and Aquileia farther
east still. Roads, indeed, were almost as plentiful as railways
at the present day in the basin of the Po.
As to the roads leading out of Italy, from Aquileia roads
diverged northward into Raetia, eastward to Noricum and
Pannonia, and southwards to the Istrian and Dalmatian coasts.
Farther west came the roads over the higher Alpine passes —
the Brenner from Verona, the Septimer and the Splugen from
Clavenna (Chiavenna), the Great and the Little St Bernard from
Augusta Praetoria(Aosta),and the Mont Genevre from Augusta
Taurinorum (Turin).
Westward two short but important roads led on each side of
the Tiber to the great harbour at its mouth ; while the coast
of Latium was supplied with a coast road by Septimius Severus.
To the south-west the roads were short and of little importance.
On ancient Italian geography in general see articles in Pauly-
Wissowa, Realencyclopddie (1899, sqq.); Corpus inscriptionum
Lalinarum (Berlin, 1862 sqq.) ; G. Strafforello, Geografia dell' Italia
(Turin, 1890-1892); H. Nissen, Italische Landeskunde (Berlin, 1883-
1902) ; also references in articles ROME, LATIUM, &c. (T. As.)
C. FROM 476 to 1796
The year 476 opened a new age for the Italian people. Odoacer,
a chief of the Herulians, deposed Romulus, the last Augustus
of the West, and placed the peninsula beneath the titular sway
of the Byzantine emperors. At Pavia the barbarian conquerors
of Italy proclaimed him king, and he received from Zeno the
dignity of Roman patrician. Thus began that system of mixed
government, Teutonic and Roman, which, in the absence of a
national monarch, impressed the institutions of new Italy from
the earliest date with dualism. The same revolution vested
supreme authority in a non-resident and inefficient autocrat,
whose title gave him the right to interfere in Italian affairs, but
who lacked the power and will to rule the people for his own or
their advantage. Odoacer inaugurated that long series of foreign
rulers — Greeks, Franks, Germans, Spaniards and Austrians —
who have successively contributed to the misgovernment of
Italy from distant seats of empire.
I. Gothic and Lombard Kingdoms. — In 488 Theodoric, king of
the East Goths, received commission from the Greek emperor,
Zeno, to undertake the affairs of Italy. He defeated Odoacer,
drove him to Ravenna, besieged him there, and in 493 completed
the conquest of the country by murdering the Herulian chief
with his own hand. Theodoric respected the Roman institutions
which he found in Italy, held the Eternal City sacred, and governed
by ministers chosen from the Roman population. He settled
at Ravenna, which had been the capital of Italy since the days
of Honorius, and which still testifies by its monuments to the
Gothic chieftain's Romanizing policy. Those who believe that
the Italians would have gained strength by unification in a single
monarchy must regret that this Gothic kingdom lacked the
elements of stability. The Goths, except in the valley of the
Po, resembled an army of occupation rather than a people
numerous enough to blend with the Italic stock. Though their
ITALY
[PRANKISH EMPERORS
rule was favourable to the Romans, they were Arians; and
religious differences, combined with the pride and jealousies
of a nation accustomed- to imperial honours, rendered the in-
habitants of Italy eager to throw off their yoke. When, there-
fore, Justinian undertook the reconquest of Italy, his generals,
Belisarius and Narses, were supported by the south. The struggle
of the Greeks and the Goths was carried on for fourteen years,
between 539 and 553, when Teias, the last Gothic king, was
finally defeated in a bloody battle near Vesuvius. At its close
the provinces of Italy were placed beneath Greek dukes, controlled
by a governor-general, entitled exarch, who ruled in the Byzantine
emperor's name at Ravenna.
This new settlement lasted but a few years. Narses had
employed Lombard auxiliaries in his campaigns against the
The Goths; and when he was recalled by an insulting
Lombards, message from the empress in 565, he is said to have
invited this fiercest and rudest of the Teutonic clans
to seize the spoils of Italy. Be this as it may, the Lombards,
their ranks swelled by the Gepidae, whom they had lately
conquered, and by the wrecks of other barbarian tribes, passed
southward under their king Alboin in 568. The Herulian
invaders had been but a band of adventurers; the Goths were
an army; the Lombards, far more formidable, were a nation
in movement. Pavia offered stubborn resistance; but after
a three years' siege it was taken, and Alboin made it the capital
of his new kingdom.
In order to understand the future history of Italy, it is necessary
to form a clear conception of the method pursued by the Lombards
in their conquest. Penetrating the peninsula, and advancing
like a glacier or half-liquid stream of mud, they occupied the
valley of the Po, and moved slowly downward through the centre
of the country. Numerous as they were compared with their
Gothic predecessors, they had not strength or multitude enough
to occupy the whole peninsula. Venice, which since the days
of Attila had offered an asylum to Roman refugees from the
northern cities, was left untouched. So was Genoa with its
Riviera. Ravenna, entrenched within her lagoons, remained
a Greek city. Rome, protected by invincible prestige, escaped.
The sea-coast cities of the south, and the islands, Sicily, Sardinia
and Corsica, preserved their independence. Thus the Lombards
neither occupied the extremities nor subjugated the brain-centre
of the country. The strength of Alboin's kingdom was in the
north; his capital, Pavia. As his people pressed southward,
they omitted to possess themselves of the coasts; and what
was worse for the future of these conquerors, the original impetus
of the invasion was checked by the untimely murder of Alboin
in 573. After this event, the semi-independent chiefs of the
Lombard tribe, who borrowed the title of dukes from their
Roman predecessors, seem to have been contented with con-
solidating their power in the districts each had occupied. The
duchies of Spoleto in the centre, and of Benevento in the south,
inserted wedge-like into the middle of the peninsula, and enclos-
ing independent Rome, were but loosely united to the kingdom
at Pavia. Italy was broken up into districts, each offering
points for attack from without, and fostering the seeds of internal
revolution. Three separate capitals must be discriminated —
Pavia, the seat of the new Lombard kingdom; Ravenna, the
garrison city of the Byzantine emperor; and Rome, the rallying
point of the old nation, where the successor of St Peter was
already beginning to assume that national protectorate which
proved so influential in the future.
It is not necessary to write the history of the Lombard kingdom
in detail. Suffice it to say that the rule of the Lombards proved
at first far more oppressive to the native population, and was
less intelligent of their old customs, than that of the Goths had
been. Wherever the Lombards had the upper hand, they placed
the country under military rule, resembling in its general
character what we now know as the feudal system. Though
there is reason to suppose that the Roman laws were still ad-
ministered within the cities, yet the Lombard code was that of
the kingdom; and the Lombards being Arians, they added the
oppression of religious intolerance to that of martial despotism
and barbarous cupidity. The Italians were reduced to the
last extremity when Gregory the Great (590-604), having
strengthened his position by diplomatic relations with the
duchy of Spoleto, and brought about the conversion of the
Lombards to orthodoxy, raised the cause of the remaining
Roman population throughout Italy. The fruit of his policy,
which made of Rome a counterpoise against the effete empire
of the Greeks upon the one hand and against the pressure of the
feudal kingdom on the other, was seen in the succeeding century.
When Leo the Isaurian published his decrees against the worship
of images in 726, Gregory II. allied himself with Liudprand,
the Lombard king, threw off allegiance to Byzantium, and
established the autonomy of Rome. This pope initiated the
dangerous policy of playing one hostile force off against another
with a view to securing independence. He used the Lombards
in his struggle with the Greeks, leaving to his successors the
duty of checking these unnatural allies. This was accomplished
by calling the Franks in against the Lombards. Liudprand
pressed hard, not only upon the Greek dominions of the exarchate,
but also upon Rome. His successors, Rachis and Aistolf,
attempted to follow the same game of conquest. But the popes,
Gregory III., Zachary and Stephen II., determining at any
cost to espouse the national cause and to aggrandize their own
office, continued to rely upon the Franks. Pippin twice crossed
the Alps, and forced Aistolf to relinquish his acquisitions,
including Ravenna, Pentapolis, the coast towns of Romagna
and some cities in the duchy of Spoleto. These he handed
over to the pope of Rome. This donation of Pippin in 756
confirmed the papal see in the protectorate of the Italic party,
and conferred upon it sovereign rights. The virtual outcome
of the contest carried on by Rome since the year 726 with
Byzantium and Pavia was to place the popes in the position
held by the Greek exarch, and to confirm the limitation of the
Lombard kingdom. We must, however, be cautious to remember
that the south of Italy was comparatively unaffected. The
dukes of the Greek empire and the Lombard dukes of Benevento,
together with a few autonomous commercial cities, still divided
Italy below the Campagna of Rome (see LOMBARDS).
II. Prankish Emperors. — The Franko-Papal alliance, which
conferred a crown on Pippin and sovereign rights upon the see
of Rome, held within itself that ideal of mutually Charles
supporting papacy and empire which exercised so the Great
powerful an influence in medieval history. When
Charles the Great (Charlemagne) deposed his father-in-
law Desiderius, the last Lombard king, in 774, and
when he received the circlet of the empire from Leo III. at Rome
in 800, he did but complete and ratify the compact offered to
his grandfather, Charles Martel, by Gregory III. The relations
between the new emperor and the pope were ill defined; and
this proved the source of infinite disasters to Italy and Europe
in the sequel. But for the moment each seemed necessary to
the other; and that sufficed. Charles took possession of the
kingdom of Italy, as limited by Pippin's settlement. The pope
was confirmed in his rectorship of the cities ceded by Aistolf,
with the further understanding, tacit rather than expressed,
that, even as he had wrung these provinces for the Italic people
from both Greeks and Lombards, so in the future he might
claim the protectorate of such portions of Italy, external to the
kingdom, as he should be able to acquire. This, at any rate,
seems to be the meaning of that obscure re-settlement of the
peninsula which Charles effected. The kingdom of Italy, trans-
mitted on his death by Charles the Great, and afterwards con-
firmed to his grandson Lothar by the peace of Verdun in 843,
stretched from the Alps to Terracina. The duchy of Benevento
remained tributary, but independent. The cities of Gaeta and
Naples, Sicily and the so-called Theme of Lombardy in South
Apulia and Calabria, still recognized the Byzantine emperor.
Venice stood aloof, professing a nominal allegiance to the East.
The parcels into which the Lombards had divided the peninsula
remained thus virtually unaltered, except for the new authority
acquired by the see of Rome.
Internally Charles left the affairs of the Italian kingdom
GERMAN EMPERORS]
ITALY
29
much as he found them, except that he appears to have
pursued the policy of breaking up the larger fiefs of the Lombards,
substituting counts for their dukes, and adding to the privileges
of the bishops. We may reckon these measures among the
earliest advantages extended to the cities, which still contained
the bulk of the old Roman population, and which were destined
to intervene with decisive effect two centuries later in Italian
history. It should also here be noticed that the changes intro-
duced into the holding of the fiefs, whether by altering their
boundaries or substituting Prankish for Lombard vassals,
were chief among the causes why the feudal system took no
permanent hold in Italy. Feudalism was not at any time a
national institution. The hierarchy of dukes and marquises
and counts consisted of foreign soldiers imposed on the indigenous
inhabitants; and the rapid succession of conquerors, Lombards,
Franks and Germans following each other at no long interval,
and each endeavouring to weaken the remaining strength of his
predecessor, prevented this alien hierarchy from acquiring
fixity by permanence of tenure. Among the many miseries
inflicted upon Italy by the frequent changes of her northern
rulers, this at least may be reckoned a blessing.
The Italians acknowledged eight kings of the house of Charles
the Great, ending in Charles the Fat, who was deposed in 888.
Prankish After them followed ten sovereigns, some of whom
and have been misnamed Italians by writers too eager
Italian ^o catch at any resemblance of national glory for a
people passive in the hands of foreign masters. The
truth is that no period in Italian history was less really glorious
than that which came to a close in 961 by Berengar II. 's cession
of his rights to Otto the Great. It was a period marked in the
first place by the conquests of the Saracens, who began to occupy
Sicily early in the gth century, overran Calabria and Apulia, took
Bari and threatened Rome. In the second place it was marked
by a restoration of the Greeks to power. In 890 they established
themselves again at Bari, and ruled the Theme of Lombardy by
means of an officer entitled Catapan. In the third place it was
marked by a decline of good government in Rome. Early in the
loth century the papacy fell into the hands of a noble family,
known eventually as the counts of Tusculum, who almost
succeeded in rendering the office hereditary, and in uniting the
civil and ecclesiastical functions of the city under a single member
of their house. It is not necessary to relate the scandals of
Marozia's and Theodora's female reign, the infamies of John XII.
or the intrigues which tended to convert Rome into a duchy.
The most important fact for the historian of Italy to notice is
that during this time the popes abandoned, not only their high
duties as chiefs of Christendom, but also their protectorate of
Italian liberties. A fourth humiliating episode in this period
was the invasion of the Magyar barbarians, who overran the
north of Italy, and reduced its fairest provinces to the condition
of a wilderness. Anarchy and misery are indeed the main
features of that long space of time which elapsed between the
death of Charles the Great and the descent of Otto. Through
the almost impenetrable darkness and confusion we only discern
this much, that Italy was powerless to constitute herself a
nation.
The discords which followed on the break-up of the Carolingian
power, and the weakness of the so-called Italian emperors, who
were unable to control the feudatories (marquises of Ivrea and
Tuscany, dukes of Friuli and Spoleto), from whose ranks they
sprang, exposed Italy to ever-increasing misrule. The country
by this time had become thickly covered over with castles, the
seats of greater or lesser nobles, all of whom were eager to detach
themselves from strict allegiance to the " Regno." The cities,
exposed to pillage by Huns in the north and Saracens in the
south, and ravaged on the coast by Norse pirates, asserted their
right to enclose themselves with walls, and taught their burghers
the use of arms. Within the circuit of their ramparts, the bishops
already began to exercise authority in rivalry with the counts,
to whom, since the days of Theodoric, had been entrusted the
government of the Italian burghs. Agreeably to feudal customs,
these nobles, as they grew in power, retired from the town,
and built themselves fortresses on points of vantage in the
neighbourhood. Thus the titular king of Italy found himself
simultaneously at war with those great vassals who had chosen
him from their own class, with the turbulent factions of the
Roman aristocracy, with unruly bishops in the growing cities
and with the multitude of minor counts and barons who occupied
the open lands, and who changed sides according to the interests
of the moment. The last king of the quasi-Italian succession,
Berengar II., marquis of Ivrea (951-961), made a vigorous effort
to restore the authority of the regno; and had he succeeded, it
is not impossible that now at the last moment Italy might have
become an independent nation. But this attempt at unification
was reckoned to Berengar for a crime. He only won the hatred
of all classes, and was represented by the obscure annalists of
that period as an oppressor of the church and a remorseless
tyrant. In Italy, divided between feudal nobles and almost
hereditary ecclesiastics, of foreign blood and alien sympathies,
there was no national feeling. Berengar stood alone against a
multitude, unanimous in their intolerance of discipline. His
predecessor in the kingdom, Lothar, had left a young and
beautiful widow, Adelheid. Berengar imprisoned her upon the
Lake of Como, and threatened her with a forced marriage to his
son Adalbert. She escaped to the castle of Canossa, where the
great count of Tuscany espoused her cause, and appealed in
her behalf to Otto the Saxon. The king of Germany descended
into Italy, and took Adelheid in marriage. After this episode
Berengar was more discredited and impotent than ever. In the
extremity of his fortunes he had recourse himself to Otto, making
a formal cession of the Italian kingdom, in his own name and
that of his son Adalbert, to the Saxon as his overlord. By this
slender tie the crown of Italy was joined to that of Germany;
and the formal right of the elected king of Germany to be con-
sidered king of Italy and emperor may be held to have accrued
from this epoch.
III. The German Emperors. — Berengar gained nothing by
his act of obedience to Otto. The great Italian nobles, in their
turn, appealed to Germany. Otto entered Lombardy Saxoa
in 961, deposed Berengar, assumed the crown in San and Fran-
Ambrogio at Milan, and in 962 was proclaimed coniaa
emperor by John XII. at Rome. Henceforward «"«>«">«•
Italy changed masters according as one or other of the German
families assumed supremacy beyond the Alps. It is one of the
strongest instances furnished by history of the fascination
exercised by an idea that the Italians themselves should have
grown to glory in this dependence of their nation upon Caesars
who had nothing but a name in common with the Roman
Imperator of the past.
The first thing we have to notice in this revolution which
placed Otto the Great upon the imperial throne is that the
Italian kingdom, founded by the Lombards, recognized by
the Franks and recently claimed by eminent Itah'an feudatories,
virtually ceased to exist. It was merged in the German kingdom;
and, since for the German princes Germany was of necessity
their first care, Italy from this time forward began to be left
more and more to herself. The central authority of Pavia had
always been weak; the regno had proved insufficient to combine
the nation. But now even that shadow of union disappeared,
and the Italians were abandoned to the slowly working influences
which tended to divide them into separate states. The most
brilliant period of their chequered history, the period which
includes the rise of communes, the exchange of municipal
liberty for despotism and the gradual discrimination of the five
great powers (Milan, Venice, Florence, the Papacy and the
kingdom of Naples), now begins. Among the centrifugal forces
which determined the future of the Italian race must be reckoned,
first and foremost, the new spirit of municipal independence.
We have seen how the cities enclosed themselves with walls,
and how the bishops defined their authority against that of
the counts. Otto encouraged this revolution by placing the
enclosures of the chief burghs beyond the jurisdiction of the
counts. Within those precincts the bishops and the citizens were
independent of all feudal masters but the emperor. He further
ITALY
[GERMAN EMPERORS
broke the power of the great vassals by redivisions of their feuds,
and by the creation of new marches which he assigned to his
German followers. In this way, owing to the dislocation of the
ancient aristocracy, to the enlarged jurisdiction of a power so
democratic as the episcopate, and to .the increased privileges of
the burghs, feudalism received a powerful check in Italy. The
Italian people, that people which gave to the world the commerce
and the arts of Florence, was not indeed as yet apparent. But the
conditions under which it could arise, casting from itself all
foreign and feudal trammels, recognizing its true past in ancient
Rome, and reconstructing a civility out of the ruins of those
glorious memories, were now at last granted. The nobles from
this time forward retired into the country and the mountains,
fortified themselves in strong places outside the cities, and gave
their best attention to fostering the rural population. Within
the cities and upon the open lands the Italians, in this and
the next century, doubled, trebled and quadrupled their
numbers. A race was formed strong enough to keep the
empire itself in check, strong enough, except for its own
internecine contests, to have formed a nation equal to its
happier neighbours.
The recent scandals of the papacy induced Otto to deprive
the Romans of their right to elect popes. But when he died
in 973, his son Otto II. (married to Theophano of the imperial
Byzantine house) and his grandson, Otto III., who descended
into Italy in 996, found that the affairs of Rome and of the
southern provinces were more than even their imperial powers
could cope with. The faction of the counts of Tusculum raised
its head from time to time in the Eternal. City, and Rome still
claimed to be a commonwealth. Otto III.'s untimely death in
1002 introduced new discords. Rome fell once more into the
hands of her nobles. The Lombards chose Ardoin, marquis of
Ivrea, for king, and Pavia supported his claims against those of
Henry of Bavaria, who had been elected in Germany. Milan
sided with Henry; and this is perhaps the first eminent instance
of cities being reckoned powerful allies in the Italian disputes of
sovereigns. It is also the first instance of that bitter feud
between the two great capitals of Lombardy, a feud rooted in
ancient antipathies between the Roman population of Medio-
lanum and the Lombard garrison of Alboin's successors, which
proved so disastrous to the national cause. Ardoin retired to
a monastery, where he died in 1015. Henry nearly destroyed
Pavia, was crowned in Rome and died in 1024. After this event
Heribert, the archbishop of Milan, invited Conrad, the Franconian
king of Germany, into Italy, and crowned him with the iron
crown of the kingdom.
The intervention of this man, Heribert, compels us to turn a
closer glance upon the cities of North Italy. It is here, at the
Heribert present epoch and for the next two centuries, that the
and the pith and nerve of the Italian nation must be sought;
Lombard an(j among the burghs of Lombardy, Milan, the eldest
daughter of ancient Rome, assumes the lead. In
Milan we hear for the first time the word Comune. In Milan
the citizens first form themselves into a Parlamento. In Milan
the archbishop organizes the hitherto voiceless, defenceless
population into a community capable of expressing its needs,
and an army ready to maintain its rights. To Heribert is
attributed the invention of the Carroccio, which played so
singular and important a part in the warfare of Italian cities.
A huge car drawn by oxen, bearing the standard of the burgh,
and carrying an altar with the host, this carroccio, like the ark
of the Israelites, formed a rallying point in battle, and reminded
the armed artisans that they had a city and a church to fight for.
That Heribert 's device proved effectual in raising the spirit of
his burghers, and consolidating them into a formidable band of
warriors, is shown by the fact that it was speedily adopted in
all the free cities. It must not, however, be supposed that at
this epoch the liberties of the burghs were fully developed. The
mass of the people remained unrepresented in the government ;
and even if the consuls existed in the days of Heribert, they
were but humble legal officers, transacting business for their
constituents in the courts of the bishop and his viscount. It
still needed nearly a century of struggle to render the burghers
independent of lordship, with a fully organized commune,
self-governed in its several assemblies. While making these
reservations, it is at the same time right to observe that certain
Italian communities were more advanced upon the path of
independence than others. This is specially the case with the
maritime ports. Not to mention Venice, which has not yet
entered the Italian community, and remains a Greek free city,
Genoa and Pisa were rapidly rising into ill-defined autonomy.
Their command of fleets gave them incontestable advantages,
as when, for instance, Otto II. employed the Pisans in 980 against
the Greeks in Lower Italy, and the Pisans and Genoese together
attacked the Saracens of Sardinia in 1017. Still, speaking
generally, the age of independence for the burghs had only
begun when Heribert from Milan undertook the earliest
organization of a force that was to become paramount in peace
and war.
Next to Milan, and from the point of view of general politics
even more than Milan, Rome now claims attention. The
destinies of Italy depended upon the character which R0a,e
the see of St Peter should assume. Even the liberties
of her republics in the north hung on the issue of a contest which
in the nth and i2th centuries shook Europe to its farthest
boundaries. So fatally were the internal affairs of that magnifi-
cent but unhappy country bound up with concerns which
brought the forces of the civilized world into play. Her ancient
prestige, her geographical position and the intellectual primacy
of her most noble children rendered Italy the battleground of
principles that set all Christendom in motion, and by the clash
of which she found herself for ever afterwards divided. During
the reign of Conrad II., the party of the counts of Tusculum
revived in Rome; and Crescentius, claiming the title of consul
in the imperial city, sought once more to control the election
of the popes. When Henry III., the son of Conrad, entered
Italy in 1046, he found three popes in Rome. These he abolished,
and, taking the appointment into his own hands, gave German
bishops to the see. The policy thus initiated upon the precedent
laid down by Otto the Great was a remedy for pressing evils.
It saved Rome from becoming a duchy in the hands of the
Tusculum house. But it neither raised the prestige of the papacy,
nor could it satisfy the Italians, who rightly regarded the Roman
see as theirs. These German popes were short-lived and in-
efficient. Their appointment, according to notions which defined
themselves within the church at this epoch, was simoniacal;
and during the long minority of Henry IV., who succeeded
his father in 1056, the terrible Tuscan monk, Hildebrand of
Soana, forged weapons which he used with deadly effect against
the presumption of the empire. The condition of the church
seemed desperate, unless it could be purged of crying scandals —
of the subjection of the papacy to the great Roman nobles,
of its subordination to the German emperor and of its internal
demoralization. It was Hildebrand's policy throughout three
papacies, during which he controlled the counsels of the Vatican,
and before he himself assumed the tiara, to prepare the mind
of Italy and Europe for a mighty change. His programme
included these three points: (i) the celibacy of the clergy;
(2) the abolition of ecclesiastical appointments made by the
secular authority; (3) the vesting of the papal election in
the hands of the Roman clergy and people, presided over by the
curia of cardinals. How Hildebrand paved the way for these
reforms during the pontificates of Nicholas II. and Alexander II.,
how he succeeded in raising the papal office from the depths of
degradation and subjection to illimitable sway over the minds
of men in Europe, and how his warfare with the empire estab-
lished on a solid basis the still doubtful independence of the
Italian burghs, renewing the long neglected protectorate of the
Italian race, and bequeathing to his successors a national policy
which had been forgotten by the popes since his great pre-
decessor Gregory II., forms a chapter in European history which
must now be interrupted. We have to follow the fortunes of
unexpected allies, upon whom in no small measure his success
depended.
AGE OF THE COMMUNES]
ITALY
In order to maintain some thread of continuity through the
perplexed and tangled vicissitudes of the Italian race, it has been
.. necessary to disregard those provinces which did not
Normaa .... .....
conquest immediately contribute to the formation of its history.
of the For this reason we have left the whole of the south up
*° ^e Present point unnoticed. Sicily in the hands ot
the Mussulmans, the Theme of Lombardy abandoned to
the weak suzerainty of the Greek catapans, the Lombard duchy
of Benevento slowly falling to pieces and the maritime republics
of Naples, Gaeta and Amalfi extending their influence by com-
merce in the Mediterranean, were in effect detached from the
Italian regno, beyond the jurisidiction of Rome, included in no
parcel of Italy proper. But now the moment had arrived when
this vast group of provinces, forming the future kingdom of the
Two Sicilies, was about to enter definitely and decisively within
the bounds of the Italian community. Some Norman adventurers,
on pilgrimage to St Michael's shrine on Monte Gargano, lent
their swords in 1017 to the Lombard cities of Apulia against the
Greeks. Twelve years later we find the Normans settled at
Aversa under their Count Rainulf . From this station as a centre
the little band of adventurers, playing the Greeks off against the
Lombards, and the Lombards against the Greeks, spread their
power in all directions, until they made themselves the most con-
siderable force in southern Italy William of Hauteville was
proclaimed count of Apulia. His half-brother, Robert Wiskard
or Guiscard, after defeating the papal troops at Civitella in 1053,
received from Leo IX. the investiture of all present and future
conquests in Apulia, Calabria and Sicily, which he agreed to hold
as fiefs of the Holy See. Nicholas II. ratified this grant, and con-
firmed the title of count. Having consolidated their possessions
on the mainland, the Normans, under Robert Guiscard's brother,
the great Count Roger, undertook the conquest of Sicily in 1060.
After a prolonged struggle of thirty years, they wrested the
whole island from the Saracens; and Roger, dying in noi,
bequeathed to his son Roger a kingdom in Calabria and Sicily
second to none in Europe for wealth and magnificence. This,
while the elder branch of the Hauteville family still held the title
and domains of the Apulian duchy; but in 1127, upon the death
of his cousin Duke William, Roger united the whole of the future
realm. In 1130 he assumed the style of king of Sicily, inscribing
upon his sword the famous hexameter —
"Appulus et Calaber Siculus mihi scrvit et Afer."
This Norman conquest of the two Sicilies forms the most
romantic episode in medieval Italian history. By the con-
solidation of Apulia, Calabria and Sicily into a powerful kingdom,
by checking the growth of the maritime republics and by
recognizing the over-lordship of the papal see, the house of
Hauteville influenced the destinies of Italy with more effect than
any of the princes who had previously dealt with any portion of
the peninsula. Their kingdom, though Naples was from time to
time separated from Sicily, never quite lost the cohesion they
had given it; and all the disturbances of equilibrium in Italy
were due in after days to papal manipulation of the rights
acquired by Robert Guiscard's act of homage. The southern
regno, in the hands of the popes, proved an insurmountable
obstacle to the unification of Italy, led to French interference in
Italian affairs, introduced the Spaniard and maintained in those
rich southern provinces the reality of feudal sovereignty long
after this alien element had been eliminated from the rest of
Italy (see NORMANS; SICILY: History).
For the sake of clearness, we have anticipated the course of
events by nearly a century. We must now return to the date of
Hildebrand's elevation to the papacy in 1073, when
invesil- ^e chose the memorable name of Gregory VII. In
tares. the next year after his election Hildebrand convened
a council, and passed measures enforcing the celibacy
of the clergy. In 1075 ne caused the investiture of ecclesiastical
dignitaries by secular potentates of any degree to be condemned.
These two reforms, striking at the most cherished privileges and
most deeply-rooted self-indulgences of the aristocratic caste in
Europe, inflamed the bitterest hostility. Henry IV., king of
Germany, but not crowned emperor, convened a diet in the
following year at Worms, where Gregory was deposed and ex-
communicated. The pope followed with a counter excommunica-
tion, far more formidable, releasing the king's subjects from
their oaths of allegiance. War was thus declared between the
two chiefs of western Christendom, that war of investitures
which out-lasted the lives of both Gregory and Henry, and was
not terminated till the year 1122. The dramatic episodes of this
struggle are too well known to be enlarged upon. In his single-
handed duel with the strength of Germany, Gregory received
material assistance from the Countess Matilda of Tuscany. She
was the last heiress of the great house of Canossa, whose fiefs
stretched from Mantua across Lombardy, passed the Apennines,
included the Tuscan plains, and embraced a portion of the duchy
of Spoleto. It was in her castle of Canossa that Henry IV. per-
formed his three days' penance in the winter of 1077; and there
she made the cession of her vast domains to the church. That
cession, renewed after the death of Gregory to his successors,
conferred upon the popes indefinite rights, of which they after-
wards availed themselves in the consolidation of their temporal
power. Matilda died in the year 1115. Gregory had passed
before her from the scene of his contest, an exile at Salerno,
whither Robert Guiscard carried him in 1084 from the anarchy of
rebellious Rome. With unbroken spirit, though the objects of
his life were unattained, though Italy and Europe had been
thrown into confusion, and the issue of the conflict was still
doubtful, Gregory expired in 1085 with these words on his lips: " I
loved justice, I hated iniquity, therefore in banishment I die."
The greatest of the popes thus breathed his last; but the new
spirit he had communicated to the papacy was not destined to
expire with him. Gregory's immediate successors, Victor III.,
Urban II. and Paschal II., carried on his struggle with Henry
IV. and his imperial antipopes, encouraging the emperor's son
to rebel against him, and stirring up Europe for the first crusade.
When Henry IV. died, his own son's prisoner, in 1106, Henry
V. crossed the Alps, entered Rome, wrung the imperial coronation
from Paschal II. and compelled the pope to grant his claims
on the investitures. Scarcely had he returned to Germany when
the Lateran disavowed all that the pope had done, on the score
that it had been extorted by force. France sided with the
church. Germany rejected the bull of investiture. A new
descent into Italy, a new seizure of Rome, proved of no avail.
The emperor's real weakness was in Germany, where his subjects
openly expressed their discontent. He at last abandoned the
contest which had distracted Europe. By the concordat of
Worms, 1122, the emperor surrendered the right of investiture
by ring and staff, and granted the right of election to the clergy.
The popes were henceforth to be chosen by the cardinals, the
bishops by the chapters subject to the pope's approval. On
the other hand the pope ceded to the emperor the right of
investiture by the sceptre. But the main issue of the struggle
was not in these details of ecclesiastical government; principles
had been at stake far deeper and more widely reaching. The
respective relations of pope and emperor, ill-defined in the
compact between Charles the Great and Leo III., were brought
in question, and the two chief potentates of Christendom, no
longer tacitly concordant, stood against each other in irreconcil-
able rivalry. Upon this point, though the battle seemed to be
a drawn one, the popes were really victors. They remained
independent of the emperor, but the emperor had still to seek
the crown at their hands. The pretensions of Otto the Great
and Henry III. to make popes were gone for ever (see PAPACY;
INVESTITURE).
IV. Age of the Communes. — The final gainers, however, by the
waj of investitures were the Italians. In the first place, from
this time forward, owing to the election of popes by
the Roman curia, the Holy See remained in the hands £^,e °
of Italians; and this, though it was by no means an cttiet.
unmixed good, was a great glory to the nation. In the
next place, the antagonism of the popes to the emperors, which
became hereditary in the Holy College, forced the former to
assume the protectorate of the national cause. But by far the
greatest profit the Italians reaped was the emancipation of their
ITALY
[AGE OF THE COMMUNES
burghs. During the forty-seven years' war, when pope and
emperor were respectively bidding for their alliance, and offering
concessions to secure their support, the communes grew in
self-reliance, strength and liberty. As the bishops had helped
to free them from subservience to their feudal masters, so the
war of investitures relieved them of dependence on their bishops.
The age of real autonomy, signalized by the supremacy of consuls
in the cities, had arrived.
In the republics, as we begin to know them after the war of
investitures, government was carried on by officers called consuls,
varying in number according to custom and according to the
division of the town into districts. These magistrates, as we
have already seen, were originally appointed to control and
protect the humbler classes. But, in proportion as the people
gained more power in the field the consuls rose into importance,
superseded the bishops and began to represent the city in trans-
actions with its neighbours. Popes and emperors who needed
the assistance of a city, had to seek it from the consuls, and thus
these officers gradually converted an obscure and indefinite
authority into what resembles the presidency of a common-
wealth. They were supported by a deliberative assembly,
called credenza, chosen from the more distinguished citizens.
In addition to this privy council, we find a gran consiglio, consist-
ing of the burghers who had established the right to interfere
immediately in public affairs, and a still larger assembly called
parlamento, which included the whole adult population. Though
the institutions of the communes varied in different localities,
this is the type to which they all approximated. It will be
perceived that the type was rather oligarchical than strictly
democratic. Between the parlamento and the consuls with their
privy council, or credenza, was interposed the gran consiglio of
privileged burghers. These formed the aristocracy of the town,
who by their wealth and birth held its affairs within their custody.
There is good reason to believe that, when the term popolo
occurs, it refers to this body and not to the whole mass of the
population. The comune included the entire city — bishop,
consuls, oligarchy, councils, handicraftsmen, proletariate. The
popolo was the governing or upper class. It was almost inevitable
in the transition from feudalism to democracy that this inter-
mediate ground should be traversed; and the peculiar Italian
phrases, primo popolo, secondo popolo, terzo popolo, and so forth,
indicate successive changes, whereby the oligarchy passed from
one stage to another in its progress toward absorption in
democracy or tyranny.
Under their consuls the Italian burghs rose to a great height
of prosperity and splendour. Pisa built her Duomo. Milan
undertook the irrigation works which enriched the soil of
Lombardy for ever. Massive walls, substantial edifices, com-
modious seaports, good roads, were the benefits conferred by this
new government on Italy. It is also to be noticed that the
people now began to be conscious of their past. They recognized
the fact that their blood was Latin as distinguished from Teutonic,
and that they must look to ancient Rome for those memories
which constitute a people's nationality. At this epoch the study
of Roman law received a new impulse, and this is the real meaning
of the legend that Pisa, glorious through her consuls, brought
the pandects in a single codex from Amalfi. The very name
consul, no less than the Romanizing character of the best archi-
tecture of the time, points to the same revival of antiquity.
The rise of the Lombard communes produced a sympathetic
revolution in Rome, which deserves to be mentioned in this place.
A monk, named Arnold of Brescia, animated with the
in Home sp'1^ °f the Milanese, stirred up the Romans to shake
off the temporal sway of their bishop. He attempted,
in fact, upon a grand scale what was being slowly and quietly
effected in the northern cities. Rome, ever mindful of her
unique past, listened to Arnold's preaching. A senate was
established, and the republic was proclaimed. The title of
patrician was revived and offered to Conrad, king of Italy, but
not crowned emperor. Conrad refused it, and the Romans
conferred it upon one of their own nobles. Though these institu-
tions borrowed high-sounding titles from antiquity, they were
in reality imitations of the Lombard civic system. The patrician
stood for the consuls. The senate, composed of nobles, repre-
sented the credenza and the gran consiglio. The pope was
unable to check this revolution, which is now chiefly interesting
as further proof of the insurgence of the Latin as against the
feudal elements in Italy at this period (see ROME: History).
Though the communes gained so much by the war of investi-
tures, the division of the country between the pope's and
emperor's parties was no small price to pay for inde- .. . .
pendence. It inflicted upon Italy the ineradicable pal wa'ni
curse of party-warfare, setting city against city, house
against house, and rendering concordant action for a national
end impossible. No sooner had the compromise of the investitures
been concluded than it was manifest that the burghers of the
new enfranchised communes were resolved to turn their arms
against each other. We seek in vain an obvious motive for each
separate quarrel. All we know for certain is that, at this epoch,
Rome attempts to ruin Tivoli, and Venice Pisa; Milan fights
with Cremona, Cremona with Crema, Pavia with Verona,
Verona with Padua, Piacenza with Parma, Modena and Reggio
with Bologna, Bologna and Faenza with Ravenna and Imola,
Florence and Pisa with Lucca and Siena, an,d so on through the
whole list of cities. The nearer the neighbours, the more rancor-
ous and internecine is the strife; and, as in all cases where
animosity is deadly and no grave local causes of dispute are
apparent, we are bound to conclude that some deeply-seated
permanent uneasiness goaded these fast growing communities
into rivalry. Italy was, in fact, too small for her children. As
the towns expanded, they perceived that they must mutually
exclude each other. They fought for bare existence, for primacy
in commerce, for the command of seaports, for the keys of
mountain passes, for rivers, roads and all the avenues of wealth
and plenty. The pope's cause and the emperor's cause were of
comparatively little moment to Italian burghers; and the names
of Guelph and Ghibelline, which before long began to be heard in
every street, on every market-place, had no meaning for them.
These watchwords are said to have arisen in Germany during
the disputed succession of the empire between 1135 and 1152,
when the Welfs of Bavaria opposed the Swabian princes of
Waiblingen origin. But in Italy, although they were severally
identified with the papal and imperial parties, they really served
as symbols for jealousies which altered in complexion from time
to time and place to place, expressing more than antagonistic
political principles, and involving differences vital enough to
split the social fabric to its foundation.
Under the imperial rule of Lothar the Saxon (1125-1137) and
Conrad the Swabian (1138-1152), these civil wars increased
in violence owing to the absence of authority. Neither swabiaa
Lothar nor Conrad was strong at home; the former emperors.
had no influence in Italy, and the latter never entered
Italy at all. But when Conrad died, the electors chose his
nephew Frederick, surnamed Barbarossa, who united the rival
honours of Welf and Waiblingen, to succeed him; and it was
soon obvious that the empire had a master powerful p^,^^
of brain and firm of will. Frederick immediately Barbarossa
determined to reassert the imperial rights in his and the
southern provinces, and to check the warfare of the*-01"*™*
burghs. When he first crossed the Alps in 1154, cltlcs-
Lombardy was, roughly speaking, divided between two parties,
the one headed by Pavia professing loyalty to the empire,
the other headed by Milan ready to oppose its claims. The
municipal animosities of the last quarter of a century gave
substance to these factions; yet neither the imperial nor the
anti-imperial party had any real community of interest with
Frederick. He came to supersede self-government by consuls,
to deprive the cities of the privilege of making war on their own
account and to extort his regalian rights of forage, food and
lodging for his armies. It was only the habit of interurban
jealousy which prevented the communes from at once combining
to resist demands which threatened their liberty of action, -and
would leave them passive at the pleasure of a foreign master.
The diet was opened at Roncaglia near Piacenza, where Frederick
AGE OF THE COMMUNES]
ITALY
33
listened to the complaints of Como and Lodi against Milan, of
Pavia against Tortona and of the marquis of Montferrat against
Asti and Chieri. The plaintiffs in each case were imperialists;
and Frederick's first action was to redress their supposed griev-
ances. He laid waste Chieri, Asti and Tortona, then took the
Lombard crown at Pavia, and, reserving Milan for a future day,
passed southward to Rome. Outside the gates of Rome he was
met by a deputation from the senate he had come to supersede,
who addressed him in words memorable for expressing the
republican spirit of new Italy face to face with autocratic
feudalism: " Thou wast a stranger, I have made thee a citizen ";
it is Rome who speaks: " Thou earnest as an alien from beyond
the Alps, I have conferred on thee the principality." Moved
only to scorn and indignation by the rhetoric of these presump-
tuous enthusiasts, Frederick marched into the Leonine city, and
took the imperial crown from the hands of Adrian IV. In return
for this compliance, the emperor delivered over to the pope his
troublesome rival Arnold of Brescia, who was burned alive by
Nicholas Breakspear, the only English successor of St Peter.
The gates of Rome itself were shut against Frederick; and even
on this first occasion his good understanding with Adrian began
to suffer. The points of dispute between them related mainly
to Matilda's bequest, and to the kingdom of Sicily, which the
pope had rendered independent of the empire by renewing its
investiture in the name of the Holy See. In truth, the papacy
and the empire had become irreconcilable. Each claimed
illimitable authority, and neither was content to abide within
such limits as would have secured a mutual tolerance. Having
obtained his coronation, Frederick withdrew to Germany, while
Milan prepared herself against the storm which threatened.
In the ensuing struggle with the empire, that great city rose to
the' altitude of patriotic heroism. By their sufferings no less
than by their deeds of daring, her citizens showed themselves to
be sublime, devoted and disinterested, winning the purest
laurels which give lustre to Italian story. Almost in Frederick's
presence, they rebuilt Tortona, punished Pavia, Lodi, Cremona
and the marquis of Montferrat. Then they fortified the Adda
and Ticino, and waited for the emperor's next descent. He
came in 1158 with a large army, overran Lombardy, raised his
imperial allies, and sat down before the walls of Milan. Famine
forced the burghers to partial obedience, and Frederick held a
victorious diet at Roncaglia. Here the jurists of Bologna
appeared, armed with their new lore of Roman law, and ex-
pounded Justinian's code in the interests of the German empire.
It was now seen how the absolutist doctrines of autocracy
developed in Justinian's age at Byzantium would bear fruits in
the development of an imperial idea, which was destined to be
the fatal mirage of medieval Italy. Frederick placed judges of
his own appointment, with the title of podesta, in all the Lombard
communes; and this stretch of his authority, while it exacer-
bated his foes, forced even his friends to join their ranks against
him. The war, meanwhile, dragged on. Crema yielded after an
heroic siege in 1160, and was abandoned to the cruelty of its
fierce rival Cremona. Milan was invested in 1161, starved into
capitulation after nine months' resistance, and given up to total
destruction by the Italian imperialists of Frederick's army,
so stained and tarnished with the vindictive passions of municipal
rivalry was even this, the one great glorious strife of Italian
annals. Having ruined his rebellious city, but not tamed her
spirit, Frederick withdrew across the Alps. But, in the interval
between his second and third visit, a league was formed against
him in north-eastern Lombardy. Verona, Vicenza, Padua,
Treviso, Venice entered into a compact to defend their liberties ;
and when he came again in 1 163 with a brilliant staff of German
knights, the imperial cities refused to join his standards. This
was the first and ominous sign of a coming change.
Meanwhile the election of Alexander III. to the papacy in
1159 added a powerful ally to the republican party. Opposed
by an anti-pope whom the emperor favoured, Alexander found
it was his truest policy to rely for support upon the anti-
imperialist communes. They in return gladly accepted a
champion who lent them the prestige and influence of the
xv. 2
Lombard
League.
church. When Frederick once more crossed the Alps in 1 166, he
advanced on Rome, and besieged Alexander in the Coliseum. But
the affairs of Lombardy left him no leisure to persecute a
recalcitrant pontiff. In April 1167 a new league was formed
between Cremona, Bergamo, Brescia, Mantua and Ferrara.
In December of the same year this league allied itself with the
elder Veronese league, and received the addition of Milan, Lodi,
Piacenza, Parma, Modena and Bologna. The famous league
of Lombard cities, styled Concordia In its acts of settlement, was
now established. Novara, Vercelli, Asti and Tortona swelled its
ranks; only Pavia and Montferrat remained imperiah'st
between the Alps and Apennines. Frederick fled for
his life by the Mont Cenis, and in 1168 the town of
Alessandria was erected to keep Pavia and the marquisate in check.
In the emperor's absence, Ravenna, Rimini, Imola and Forli
joined the league, which now called itself the " Society of Venice,
Lombardy, the March, Romagna and Alessandria." For the
fifth time, in 1174, Frederick entered his rebellious dominions.
The fortress town of Alessandria stopped his progress with those
mud walls contemptuously named " of straw," while the forces
of the league assembled at Modena and obliged him to raise the
siege. In the spring of 1176 Frederick threatened Milan. His
army found itself a little to the north of the town near the
village of Legnano, when the troops of the city, assisted only by
a few allies from Piacenza, Verona, Brescia, Novara and Vercelli,
met and overwhelmed it. The victory was complete. Frederick
escaped alone to Pavia, whence he opened negotiations with
Alexander. In consequence of these transactions, he was
suffered to betake himself unharmed to Venice. Here, as upon
neutral ground, the emperor met the pope, and a truce for six
years was concluded with the Lombard burghs. Looking back
from the vantage-ground of history upon the issue of this long
struggle, we are struck with the small results which satisfied
the Lombard communes. They had humbled and utterly
defeated their foreign lord. They had proved their strength
in combination. Yet neither the acts by which their league was
ratified nor the terms negotiated for them by their patron
Alexander evince the smallest desire of what we now understand
as national independence. The name of Italy is never mentioned.
The supremacy of the emperor is not called in question. The
conception of a permanent confederation, bound together in
offensive and defensive alliance for common objects, has not
occurred to these hard fighters and stubborn asserters of their
civic privileges. All they claim is municipal autonomy; the
right to manage their own affairs within the city walls, to fight
their battles as they choose, and to follow their several ends
unchecked. It is vain to lament that, when they might have
now established Italian independence upon a secure basis, they
chose local and municipal privileges. Their mutual jealousies,
combined with the prestige of the empire, and possibly with the
selfishness of the pope, who had secured his own position, and
was not likely to foster a national spirit that would have
threatened the ecclesiastical supremacy, deprived the Italians
of the only great opportunity they ever had of forming themselves
into a powerful nation.
. When the truce expired in 1183, a permanent peace was
ratified at Constance. The intervening years had been spent by
the Lombards, not in consolidating their union, but
in attempting to secure special privileges for their
several cities. Alessandria della Paglia, glorious by .
her resistance to the emperor in 1174, had even
changed her name to Cesarea ! The signatories of the peace of
Constance were divided between leaguers and imperialists.
On the one side we find Vercelli, Novara, Milan, Lodi, Bergamo,
Brescia, Mantua, Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Treviso, Bologna,
Faenza, Modena, Reggio, Parma, Piacenza; on the other,
Pavia, Genoa, Alba, Cremona, Como, Tortona, Asti, Cesarea.
Venice, who had not yet entered the Italian community, is
conspicuous by her absence. According to the terms of this
treaty, the communes were confirmed in their right of self-govern-
ment by consuls, and their right of warfare. The emperor
retained the supreme courts of appeal within the cities, and
34
ITALY
[AGE OF THE COMMUNES
War of
his claim for sustenance at their expense when he came into
Italy.
The privileges confirmed to the Lombard cities by the peace
of Constance were extended to Tuscany, where Florence, having
ruined Fiesole, had begun her career of freedom and
prosperity. The next great chapter in the history of
against Italian evolution is the war of the burghs against the
nobles. nobles. The consular cities were everywhere sur-
rounded by castles; and, though the feudal lords had been
weakened by the events of the preceding centuries, they con-
tinued to be formidable enemies. It was, for instance, necessary
to the well-being of the towns that they should possess territory
round their walls, and this had to be wrested from the nobles.
We cannot linger over the details of this warfare. It must
suffice to say that, partly by mortgaging their property to rich
burghers, partly by entering the service of the cities as condoltieri
(mercenary leaders), partly by espousing the cause of one town
against another, and partly by forced submission after the siege
of their strong places, the counts were gradually brought into
connexion of dependence on the communes. These, in their
turn, forced the nobles to leave their castles, and to reside for
at least a portion of each year within the walls. By these
measures the counts became citizens, the rural population
ceased to rank as serfs, and the Italo-Roman population of
the towns absorbed into itself the remnants of Franks, Germans
and other foreign stocks. It would be impossible to exaggerate
the importance of this revolution, which ended by destroying
the last vestige of feudality, and prepared that common Italian
people which afterwards distinguished itself by 'the creation of
European culture. But, like all the vicissitudes, of the Italian
race, while it was a decided step forward in one direction, it
introduced a new source of discord. The associated nobles
proved ill neighbours to the peaceable citizens. They fortified
their houses, retained their military habits, defied the consuls,
and carried on feuds in the streets and squares. The war against
the castles became a war against the palaces; and the system
of government by consuls proved inefficient to control the
clashing elements within the state. This led to the establishment
of podestas, who represented a compromise between two radically
hostile parties in the city, and whose business it was to arbitrate
and keep the peace between them. Invariably a foreigner,
elected for a year with power of life and death and control of
the armed force, but subject to a strict account at the expiration
of his office, the podesta might be compared to a dictator invested
with limited authority. His title was derived from that of
Frederick Barbarossa's judges; but he had no dependence on
the empire. The citizens chose him, and voluntarily submitted
to his rule. The podesta marks an essentially transitional state
in civic government, and his intervention paved the way for
despotism.
The thirty years which elapsed between Frederick Barbarossa's
death in 1190 and the coronation of his grandson Frederick II.
in 1220 form one of the most momentous epochs in
Itab'an history. Barbarossa, perceiving the advantage
that would accrue to his house if he could join the
crown of Sicily to that of Germany, and thus deprive the popes of.
their allies in Lower Italy, procured the marriage of his son
Henry VI. to Constance, daughter of King Roger, and heiress of
the Hauteville dynasty. When William II., the last monarch of
the Norman race, died, Henry VI. claimed that kingdom in his
•wife's right, and was recognized in 1 194. Three years afterwards
he died, leaving a son, Frederick, to the care of Constance, who
in her turn died in 1198, bequeathing the young prince, already
crowned king of Germany, to the guardianship of Innocent III.
It was bold policy to confide Frederick to his greatest enemy and
rival; but the pope honourably discharged his duty, until his
ward outgrew the years of tutelage, and became a fair mark for
ecclesiastical hostility. Frederick's long minority was occupied
by Innocent's pontificate. Among the principal events of that
reign must be reckoned the foundation of the two orders, Fran-
ciscan and Dominican, who were destined to form a militia for the
holy see in conflict with the empire and the heretics of Lombardy.
Innocent
III.
A second great event was the fourth crusade, undertaken in 1 198,
which established the naval and commercial supremacy of the
Italians in the Mediterranean. The Venetians, who contracted
for the transport of the crusaders, and whose blind doge Dandolo
was first to land in Constantinople, received one-half and one-
fourth of the divided Greek empire for their spoils. The Venetian
ascendancy in the Levant dates from this epoch; for, though the
republic had no power to occupy all the domains ceded to it,
Candia was taken, together with several small islands and stations
on the mainland. The formation of a Latin empire in the East
increased the pope's prestige; while at home it was his policy to
organize Countess Matilda's heritage by the formation of Guelph
leagues, over which he presided. This is the meaning of the three
leagues, in the March, in the duchy of Spoleto and in Tuscany,
which now combined the chief cities of the papal territory into
allies of the holy see. From the Tuscan league Pisa, consistently
Ghibelline, stood aloof. Rome itself again at this epoch established
a republic, with which Innocent would not or could not interfere.
The thirteen districts in their council nominated four caporioni,
who acted in concert with a senator, appointed, like the podesta
of other cities, for supreme judicial functions. Meanwhile the
Guelph and Ghibelline factions were beginning to divide Italy
into minute parcels. Not only did commune range itself against
commune under the two rival flags, but party rose up against
party within the city walls. The introduction of the factions
into Florence in 1215, owing to a private quarrel between the
Buondelmonti, Amidei and Donati, is a celebrated instance of
what was happening in every burgh.
Frederick II. was left without a rival for the imperial throne
in 1218 by the death of Otto IV., and on the 22nd of November
1 220, Honorius III., Innocent's successor, crowned
him in Rome. It was impossible for any section of the f*8*/**
Italians to mistake the gravity of his access to power. perar~
In his single person he combined the prestige of empire
with the crowns of Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Germany and Bur-
gundy; and in 1225, by marriage with Yolande de Brienne, he
added that of Jerusalem. There was no prince greater or more
formidable in the habitable globe. The communes, no less than
the popes, felt that they must prepare themselves for contest to
the death with a power which threatened their existence. Already
in 1218, the Guelphs of Lombardy had resuscitated their old
league, and had been defeated by the Ghibellines in a battle near
Ghibello. Italy seemed to lie prostrate before the emperor, who
commanded her for the first time from the south as well as from
the north. In 1227 Frederick, who had promised to lead a
crusade, was excommunicated by Gregory IX. because he was
obliged by illness to defer his undertaking; and thus the spiritual
power declared war upon its rival. The Guelph towns of Lom-
bardy again raised their levies. Frederick enlisted his Saracen
troops at Nocera and Luceria, and appointed the terrible Ezzelino
da Romano his vicar in the Marches of Verona to quell their
insurrection. It was 1236, however, before he was able to take
the field himself against the Lombards. Having established
Ezzelino in Verona, Vicenza and Padua, he defeated the Milanese
and their allies at Cortenuova in 1237, and sent their carroccio as
a trophy of his victory to Rome. Gregory IX. feared lest the
Guelph party would be ruined by this check. He therefore
made alliance with Venice and Genoa, fulminated a new ex-
communication against Frederick, and convoked a council at
Rome to ratify his ban in 1 241 . The Genoese undertook to bring
the French bishops to this council. Their fleet was attacked at
Meloria by the Pisans, and utterly defeated. The French prelates
went in silver chains to prison in the Ghibelline capital of Tuscany.
So far Frederick had been successful at all points. In 1243 a new
pope, Innocent IV., was elected, who prosecuted the war with
still bitterer spirit. Forced to fly to France, he there, at Lyons,
in 1245, convened a council, which enforced his condemnation of
the emperor. Frederick's subjects were freed from their allegiance,
and he was declared dethroned and deprived of all rights. Five
times king and emperor as he was, Frederick, placed under the
ban of the church, led henceforth a doomed existence. The
mendicant monks stirred up the populace to acts of fanatical
AGE OF THE COMMUNES]
ITALY
35
enmity. To plot against him, to attempt his life by poison or
the sword, was accounted virtuous. His secretary, Piero delle
Vigne, was wrongly suspected of conspiring. The crimes of his
vicar Ezzelino, who laid whole provinces waste and murdered men
by thousands in his Paduan prisons, increased the horror with
which he was regarded. Parma revolted from him, and he spent
months in 1247-1248 vainly trying to reduce this one time
faithful city. The only gleam of success which shone on his ill
fortune was the revolution which placed Florence in the hands of
the Ghibellines in 1248. Next year Bologna rose against him,
defeated his troops and took his son Enzio, king of Sardinia,
prisoner at Fossalta. Hunted to the ground and broken-hearted,
Frederick expired at the end of 1250 in his Apulian castle of
Fiorentino. It is difficult to judge his career with fairness. The
only prince who could, with any probability of success, have
established the German rule in Italy, his ruin proved the im-
possibility of that long-cherished scheme. The nation had out-
grown dependence upon foreigners, and after his death no
German emperor interfered with anything but miserable failure
in Italian affairs. Yet from many points of view it might be
regretted that Frederick was not suffered to rule Italy. By birth
and breeding an Italian, highly gifted and widely cultivated,
liberal in his opinions, a patron of literature, a founder of uni-
versities, he anticipated the spirit of the Renaissance. At his
court Italian started into being as a language. His laws were
wise. He was capable of giving to Italy a large and noble culture.
But the commanding greatness of his position proved his ruin.
Emperor and king of Sicily, he was the natural enemy of popes,
who could not tolerate so overwhelming a rival,
After Frederick's death, the popes carried on their war for
eighteen years against his descendants. The cause of his son
Conrad was sustained in Lower Italy by Manfred,
one °^ Frederick's many natural children; and, when
Frede- Conrad died in 1254, Manfred still acted as vicegerent
***'* for the Swabians, who were now represented by a boy
Conradin. Innocent IV. and Alexander IV. continued
to make head against the Ghibelline party. The most
dramatic incident in this struggle was the crusade preached
against Ezzelino. This tyrant had made himself justly odious;
and when he was hunted to death in 1259, the triumph was less
for the Guelph cause than for humanity outraged by the
iniquities of such a monster. The battle between Guelph and
Ghibelline raged with unintermitting fury. While the former
faction gained in Lombardy by the massacre of Ezzelino, the
latter revived in Tuscany after the battle of Montaperti, which
in 1260 placed Florence at the discretion of the Ghibellines.
Manfred, now called king of Sicily, headed the Ghibellines, and
there was no strong counterpoise against him. In this necessity
Urban IV. and Clement IV. invited Charles of Anjou to enter
Italy and take the Guelph command. They made him senator
of Rome and vicar of Tuscany, and promised him the investiture
of the regno provided he stipulated that it should not be held in
combination with the empire. Charles accepted these terms,
and was welcomed by the Guelph party as their chief throughout
Italy. He defeated Manfred in a battle at Grandella near
Benevento in 1266. Manfred was killed; and, when Conradin,
a lad of sixteen, descended from Germany to make good his
claims to the kingdom, he too was defeated at Tagliacozzo in
1267. Less lucky than his uncle, Conradin escaped with his
life, to die upon a scaffold at Naples. His glove was carried to
his cousin Constance, wife of Peter of Aragon, the last of the
great Norman-Swabian family. Enzio died in his prison four
years later. The popes had been successful; but they had
purchased their bloody victory at a great cost. This first
invitation to French princes brought with it incalculable evils.
Charles of Anjou, supported by Rome, and recognized as
chief in Tuscany, was by far the most formidable of the Italian
potentates. In his turn he now excited the jealousy of the
popes, who began, though cautiously, to cast their weight into
the Ghibelline scale. Gregory initiated the policy of establish-
ing an equilibrium between the parties, which was carried out
by his successor Nicholas III. Charles was forced to resign
succes-
sors.
the senatorship of Rome and the signoria of Lombardy and
Tuscany. In 1 282 he received a more decided check, when Sicily
rose against him in the famous rebellion of the Vespers.
He lost the island, which gave itself to Aragon; and o'ta'ae/ph*
thus the kingdom of Sicily was severed from that of and
Naples, the dynasty in the one being Spanish and O.-iibel-
Ghibelline, in the other French and Guelph. Mean- Uae8'
while a new emperor had been elected, the prudent Rudolf of
Habsburg, who abstained from interference with Italy, and
who confirmed the territorial pretensions of the popes by solemn
charter in 1278. Henceforth Emilia, Romagna, the March of
Ancona, the patrimony of St Peter and the Campagna of Rome
held of the Holy See, and not of the empire. The imperial
chancery, without inquiring closely into the deeds furnished
by the papal curia, made a deed of gift, which placed the pope
in the position of a temporal sovereign. While Nicholas III.
thus bettered the position of the church in Italy, the Guelph party
grew stronger than ever, through the crushing defeat of the Pisans
by the Genoese at Meloria in 1284. Pisa, who had ruined
Amain, was now ruined by Genoa. She never held her head
so high again after this victory, which sent her best and bravest
citizens to die in the Ligurian dungeons. The Mediterranean
was left to be fought for by Genoa and Venice, while Guelph
Florence grew still more powerful in Tuscany. Not long after
the battle of Meloria Charles of Anjou died, and was succeeded
by his son Charles II. of Naples, who played no prominent
part in Italian affairs. The Guelph party was held together
with a less tight hand even in cities so consistent as Florence.
Here in the year 1300 new factions, subdividing the old Guelphs
and Ghibellines under the names of Neri and Bianchi, had
acquired such force that Boniface VIII., a violently Guelph pope,
called in Charles of Valois to pacify the republic and undertake
the charge of Italian affairs. Boniface was a passionate and
unwise man. After quarrelling with the French king, Philip
le Bel, he fell into the hands of the Colonna family at Anagni,
and died, either of the violence he there received or of mortifica-
tion, in October 1303.
After the short papacy of Benedict XI. a Frenchman, Clement
V., was elected, and the seat of the papacy was transferred to
Avignon. Thus began that Babylonian exile of the f,.aas.
popes which placed them in subjection to the French igtioa
crown and ruined their prestige in Italy. Lasting of the
seventy years, and joining on to the sixty years of flsPa£5'<0
the Great Schism, this enfeeblement of the papal vgno
authority, coinciding as it did with the practical elimination
of the empire from Italian affairs, gave a long period of com-
parative independence to the nation. Nor must it be forgotten
that this exile was due to the policy which induced the pontiffs,
in their detestation of Ghibellinism, to rely successively upon
the Louses of Anjou and of Valois. This policy it was which
justified Dante's fierce epigram — the puttaneggiar co regi.
The period we have briefly traversed was immortalized by
Dante in an epic which from one point of view might be called
the poem of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. From the foregoing bare
narration of events it is impossible to estimate the importance
of these parties, or to understand theii bearing on subsequent
Italian history We are therefore forced to pause awhile, and
probe beneath the surface. The civil wars may be regarded as
a continuation of the previous municipal struggle, intensified by
recent hostilities between the burghers and the nobles. The
quarrels of the church and empire lend pretexts and furnish
war-cries; but the real question at issue is not the supremacy of
pope or emperor. The conflict is a social one. between civic
and feudal institutions, between commercial and military
interests, between progress and conservatism. Guelph de-
mocracy and industry idealize the pope. The banner of the
church waves above the camp of those who aim at positive
prosperity and republican equality. Ghibelline aristocracy and
immobility idealize the emperor. The prestige of the empire,
based upon Roman law and feudal tradition, attracts imaginative
patriots and systematic thinkers. The two ideals are counter-
posed and mutually exclusive. No city calls itself either Guelph
ITALY
[AGE OF THE DESPOTS
or Ghibelline till it has expelled one-half of its inhabitants;
for each party is resolved to constitute the state according to
its own conception, and the affirmation of the one programme
is the negation of the other. The Ghibelline honestly believes
that the Guelphs will reduce society to chaos. The Guelph is
persuaded that the Ghibellines will annihilate freedom and
strangle commerce. The struggle is waged by two sets of men
who equally love their city, but who would fain rule it upon
diametrically opposite principles, and who fight to the death
for its possession. This contradiction enters into the minutest
details of life — armorial bearings, clothes, habits at table,
symbolize and accentuate the difference. Meanwhile each party
forms its own organization of chiefs, finance-officers and registrars
at home, and sends ambassadors to foreign cities of the same
complexion. A network of party policy embraces and dominates
the burghs of Italy, bringing the most distant centres into
relation, and by the very division of the country augmenting
the sense of nationality. The Italians learn through their dis-
cords at this epoch that they form one community. The victory
in the conflict practically falls to the hitherto unenfranchised
plebeians. The elder noble families die out or lose their pre-
ponderance^ In some cities, as notably in Florence after the
date 1292, it becomes criminal to be scioperato, or unemployed
in industry. New houses rise into importance ; a new commercial
aristocracy is formed. Burghers of all denominations are enrolled
in one or other of the arts or gilds, and these trading companies
furnish the material from which the government or signoria of
the city is composed. Plebeian handicrafts assert their right
to be represented on an equality with learned professions and
wealthy corporations. The ancient classes are confounded and
obliterated in a population more homogeneous, more adapted
for democracy and despotism.
In addition to the parliament and the councils which have
been already enumerated, we now find a council of the party
New coo- established within the city. This body tends to
MtHuiion become a little state within the state, and, by con-
of the free trolling the victorious majority, disposes of the
government as it thinks best. The consuls are merged
in ancients or priors, chosen from the arts. A new magistrate,
the gonfalonier of justice, appears in some of the Guelph cities,
with the special duty of keeping the insolence of the nobility
in check. Meanwhile the podesta still subsists; but he is no
longer equal to the task of maintaining an equilibrium of forces.
He sinks more and more into a judge, loses more and more the
character of dictator. His ancient place is now occupied by a
new functionary, no longer acting as arbiter, but concentrating
the forces of the triumphant party. The captain of the people,
acting as head of the ascendant Guelphs or Ghibellines, under-
takes the responsibility of proscriptions, decides on questions of
policy, forms alliances, declares war. Like all officers created
to meet an emergency, the limitations to his power are ill-
defined, and he is often little better than an autocrat.
V. Age of the Despots. — Thus the Italians, during the heat of
the civil wars, were ostensibly divided between partisans of the
Origin of emP're anc* partisans of the church. After the death
Tyraaale*. °^ Frederick II. their affairs were managed by Manfred
and by Charles of Anjou, the supreme captains of
the parties, under whose orders acted the captains of the
people in each city. The contest being carried on by warfare,
it followed that these captains in the burghs were chosen on
account of military skill; and, since the nobles were men of
arms by profession, members of ancient houses took the lead
again in towns where they had been absorbed into the bourgeoisie.
In this way, after the downfall of the Ezzelini of Romano, the
Delia Scala dynasty arose in Verona, and the Carraresi in Padua.
The Estensi made themselves lords of Ferrara; the Torriani
headed the Guelphs of Milan. At Ravenna we find the Polenta
family, at Rimini the Malatestas, at Parma the Rossi, at Pia-
cenza the Scotti, at Faenza the Manfredi. There is not a burgh of
northern Italy but can trace the rise of a dynastic house to the
vicissitudes of this period. In Tuscany, where the Guelph party
was very strongly organized, and the commercial constitution of
Florence kept the nobility in check, the communes remained as
yet free from hereditary masters. Yet generals from time to
time arose, the Conte Ugolino della Gheradesca at Pisa, Uguccione
della Faggiuola at Lucca, the Conte Guido di Montefeltro at
Florence, who threatened the liberties of Tuscan cities with
military despotism.
Left to themselves by absentee emperors and exiled popes, the
Italians pursued their own course of development unchecked.
After the commencement of the i4th century, the civil wars
decreased in fury, and at the same time it was perceived that
their effect had been to confirm tyrants in their grasp upon free
cities. Growing up out of the captain of the people or signore of
the commune, the tyrant annihilated both parties for his own
profit and for the peace of the state. He used the dictatorial
powers with which he was invested to place himself above the
law, resuming in his person the state-machinery which had
preceded him. In him, for the first time, the city attained self-
consciousness; the blindly working forces of previous revolutions
were combined in the will of a ruler. The tyrant's general policy
was to favour the multitude at the expense of his own caste.
He won favour by these means, and completed the levelling down
of classes, which had been proceeding ever since the emergence of
the communes.
In 1309 Robert, grandson of Charles, the first Angevine
sovereign, succeeded to the throne of Naples, and became the
leader of the Guelphs in Italy. In the next year Henry
VII. of Luxembourg crossed the Alps soon after his Ofci°u
election to the empire, and raised the hopes of the wars.
Ghibellines. Dante from his mountain solitudes Aiveatot
passionately called upon him to play the part of a
Messiah. But it was now impossible for any German
to control the " Garden of the Empire." Italy had entered on a
new phase of her existence, and the great poet's De monarchia
represented a dream of the past which could not be realized.
Henry established imperial vicars in the Lombard towns, confirm-
ing the tyrants, but gaining nothing for the empire in exchange
for the titles he conferred. After receiving the crown in Rome,
he died at Buonconvento, a little walled town south of Siena,
on his backward journey in 1313. The profits of his inroad were
reaped by despots, who used the Ghibelline prestige for the
consolidation of their own power. It is from this epoch that the
supremacy of the Visconti, hitherto the unsuccessful rivals of
the Guelphic Torriani for the signory of Milan, dates. The
Scaligers in Verona and the Carraresi in Padua were strengthened;
and in Tuscany Castruccio Castracane, Uguccione's successor
at Lucca, became formidable. In 1325 he defeated the Florentines
at Alto Pascio, and carried home their carroccio as a trophy of
his victory over the Guelphs. Louis of Bavaria, the next
emperor, made a similar excursion in the year 1327, with even
greater loss of imperial prestige. He deposed Galeazzo Visconti
on his downward journey, and offered Milan for a sum of money
to his son Azzo upon his return. Castruccio Castracane was
nominated by him duke of Lucca; and this is the first instance
of a dynastic title conferred upon an Italian adventurer by the
emperor. Castruccio dominated Tuscany, where the Guelph
cause, in the weakness of King Robert, languished. But the
adventurer's death in 1328 saved the stronghold of republican
institutions, and Florence breathed freely for a while again. Can
Grande della Scala's death in the next year inflicted on the
Lombard Ghibellines a loss hardly inferior to that of Castruccio's
on their Tuscan allies. Equally contemptible in its political
results and void of historical interest was the brief visit of John of
Bohemia, son of Henry VII., whom the Ghibellines next invited
to assume their leadership. He sold a few privileges, conferred
a few titles, and recrossed the Alps in 1333. It is clear that at
this time the fury of the civil wars was spent. In spite of repeated
efforts on the part of the Ghibellines, in spite of King Robert's
supine incapacity, the imperialists gained no permanent advan-
tage. The Italians were tired of fighting, and the leaders of both
factions looked exclusively to their own interests. Each city
which had been the cradle of freedom thankfully accepted a
master, to quench the conflagration of party strife, encourage
AGE OF THE DESPOTS]
ITALY
37
trade, and make the handicraftsmen comfortable. Even the
Florentines in 1342 submitted for a few months to the despotism
of the duke of Athens. They conferred the signory upon him
for life; and, had he not mismanaged matters, he might have
held the city in his grasp. Italy was settling down and turning
her attention to home comforts, arts and literature. Boccaccio,
the contented bourgeois, succeeded to Dante, the fierce aristocrat.
The most marked proof of the change which came over Italy
towards the middle of the I4th century is furnished by the
companies of adventure. It was with their own militia that the
burghers won freedom in the war of independence, subdued
the nobles, and fought the battles of the parties. But from
this time forward they laid down their arms, and played the
game of warfare by the aid of mercenaries. Ecclesiastical
overlords, interfering from a distance in Italian politics;
prosperous republics, with plenty of money to spend but no
leisure or inclination for camp-life; cautious tyrants, glad of
every pretext to emasculate their subjects, and courting popu-
larity by exchanging conscription for taxation — all combined
to favour the new system. Mercenary troops are said to have
been first levied from disbanded Germans, together with Breton
and English adventurers, whom the Visconti and Castruccio
topk into their pay. They soon appeared under their own
captains, who hired them out to the highest bidder, or marched
them on marauding expeditions up and down the less protected
districts. The names of some of these earliest captains of
adventure, Fra Moriale, Count Lando and Duke Werner, who
styled himself the " Enemy of God and Mercy," have been
preserved to us. As the companies grew in size and improved
their discipline, it was seen by the Italian nobles that this kind
of service offered a good career for men of spirit, who had learned
the use of arms. To leave so powerful and profitable a calling
in the hands of foreigners seemed both [dangerous and un-
economical. Therefore, after the middle of the century, this
profession fell into the hands of natives. The first Italian who
formed an exclusively Italian company was Alberico da Barbiano,
a nobleman of Romagna, and founder of the Milanese house
of Belgiojoso. In his school the great condottieri Braccio da
Montone and Sforza Attendolo were formed; and henceforth
the battles of Italy were fought by Italian generals command-
ing native troops. This was better in some respects than if the
mercenaries had been foreigners. Yet it must not be forgotten
that the new companies of adventure, who decided Italian
affairs for the next century, were in no sense patriotic. They
sold themselves for money, irrespective of the cause which they
upheld; and, while changing masters, they had no care for any
interests but their own. The name condottiero, derived from
condotta, a paid contract to supply so many fighting men in
serviceable order, sufficiently indicates the nature of the business.
In the hands of able captains, like Francesco Sforza or Piccinino,
these mercenary troops became moving despotisms, draining
the country of its wealth, and always eager to fasten and found
tyrannies upon the provinces they had been summoned to
defend. Their generals substituted heavy-armed cavalry for
the old militia, and introduced systems of campaigning which
reduced the art of war to a game of skill. Battles became
all but bloodless; diplomacy and tactics superseded feats of
arms and hard blows in pitched fields. In this way the Italians
lost their military vigour, and wars were waged by despots
from their cabinets, who pulled the strings of puppet captains
in their pay. Nor were the people only enfeebled for resist-
ance to a real foe; the whole political spirit of the race was
demoralized. The purely selfish bond between condottieri and
their employers, whether princes or republics, involved intrigues
and treachery, checks and counterchecks, secret terror on the
one hand and treasonable practice on the other, which ended by
making statecraft in Italy synonymous with perfidy.
It must further be noticed that the rise of mercenaries was
synchronous with a change in the nature of Italian despotism.
The tyrants, as we have already seen, established themselves
as captains of the people, vicars of the empire, vicars for the
church, leaders of the Guelph and Ghibelline parties. They were
Change
In type
accepted by a population eager for repose, who had merged old
class distinctions in the conflicts of preceding centuries. They
rested in large measure on the favour of the multitude,
and pursued a policy of sacrificing to their interests
the nobles. It was natural that these self-made
princes should seek to secure the peace which P°tlsm-
they had promised in their cities, by freeing the people from
military service and disarming the aristocracy. As their tenure
of power grew firmer, they advanced dynastic claims, assumed
titles, and took the style of petty sovereigns. Their government
became paternal; and, though there was no limit to their
cruelty when stung by terror, they used the purse rather than the
sword, bribery at home and treasonable intrigue abroad in
preference to coercive measures or open war. Thus was elabor-
ated the type of despot which attained completeness in Gian
Galeazzo Visconti and Lorenzo de' Medici. No longer a tyrant
of Ezzelino's stamp, he reigned by intelligence and terrorism
masked beneath a smile. He substituted cunning and corruption
for violence. The lesser people tolerated him because he extended
the power of their city and made it beautiful with public buildings.
The bourgeoisie, protected in their trade, found it convenient
to support him. The nobles, turned into courtiers, placemen,
diplomatists and men of affairs, ended by preferring his autho-
rity to the alternative of democratic institutions. A lethargy
of well-being, broken only by the pinch of taxation for war-costs,
or by outbursts of frantic ferocity and lust in the less calculating
tyrants, descended on the population of cities which had boasted
of their freedom. Only Florence and Venice, at the close of
the period upon which we are now entering, maintained their
republican independence. And Venice was ruled by a close
oligarchy; Florence was passing from the hands of her oligarchs
into the powqr of the Medicean merchants.
Between the year 1305, when Clement V. settled at Avignon,
and the year 1447, when Nicholas V. re-established the papacy
upon a solid basis at Rome, the Italians approximated
more nearly to self-government than at any other
epoch of their history. The conditions which have
been described, of despotism, mercenary warfare
and bourgeois prosperity, determined the character of
this epoch, which was also the period when the great achievements
•of the Renaissance were prepared. At the end of this century
and a half, five principal powers divided the peninsula; and
their confederated action during the next forty-five years
^447-^92) secured for Italy a season of peace and brilliant
prosperity. These five powers were the kingdom of Naples, the
duchy of Milan, the republic of Florence, the republic of Venice
and the papacy. The subsequent events of Italian history
will be rendered most intelligible if at this point we trace the
development of these five constituents of Italian greatness
separately.
When Robert of Anjou died in 1343, he was succeeded by his
grand-daughter Joan, the childless wife of four successive
husbands, Andrew of Hungary, Louis of Taranto,
James of Aragon and Otto of Brunswick. Charles of SiciHes.°
Durazzo, the last male scion of the Angevine house in
Lower Italy, murdered Joan in 1382, and held the kingdom
for five years. Dying in 1387, he transmitted Naples to his son
Ladislaus, who had no children, and was followed in 1414 by
his sister Joan II. She too, though twice married, died without
issue, having at one time adopted Louis III. of Provence and his
brother Rene, at another Alfonso V. of Aragon, who inherited
the crown of Sicily. After her death in February 1435 the
kingdom was fought for between Rene of Anjou and Alfonso,
surnamed the Magnanimous. Rene1 found supporters among the
Italian princes, especially the Milanese Visconti, who helped
him to assert his claims with arms. During the war of succession
which ensued, Alfonso was taken prisoner by the Genoese fleet
in August 1435, and was sent a prisoner to Filippo Maria at
Milan. Here he pleaded his own cause so powerfully, and proved
so incontestably the advantage which might ensue to the Visconti
from his alliance, if he held the regno, that he obtained his
release and recognition as king. From the end of the year 1435
Discrimi-
nation of
the five
great
powers.
ITALY
[AGE OF THE DESPOTS
Alfonso reigned alone and undisturbed in Lower Italy, combining
for the first time since the year 1282 the crowns of Sicily and
Naples. The former he held by inheritance, together with that
of Aragon. The latter he considered to be his by conquest.
Therefore, when he died in 1458, he bequeathed Naples to his
natural son Ferdinand, while Sicily and Aragon passed together
to his brother John, and so on to Ferdinand the Catholic. The
twenty-three years of Alfonso's reign were the most prosperous
and splendid period of South Italian history. He became an
Italian in taste and sympathy, entering with enthusiasm into
the humanistic ardour of the earlier Renaissance, encouraging
men of letters at his court, administering his kingdom on the
principles of an enlightened despotism, and lending his authority
to establish that equilibrium in the peninsula upon which the
politicians of his age believed, not without reason, that Italian
independence might be secured.
The last member of the Visconti family of whom we had
occasion to speak was Azzo, who bought the city in 1328 from
Duchy of Lo^ °f Bavaria. His uncle Lucchino succeeded, but
Milan. was murdered in 1349 by a wife against whose life he
had been plotting. Lucchino's brother John, arch-
bishop of Milan, now assumed the lordship of the city, and
extended the power of the Visconti over Genoa and the whole of
north Italy, with the exception of Piedmont, Verona, Mantua,
Ferrara and Venice. The greatness of the family dates from the
reign of this masterful prelate. He died in 1354, and his heritage
was divided between three members of his house, Matteo,Bernabo
and Galeazzo. In the next year Matteo, being judged incom-
petent to rule, was assassinated by order of his brothers, who
made an equal partition of their subject cities — Bernabo
residing in Milan, Galeazzo in Pavia. Galeazzo was the wealthiest
and most magnificent Italian of his epoch. He married his
daughter Violante to our duke of Clarence, and his son Gian
Galeazzo to a daughter of King John of France. When he died
in 1378, this son resolved to reunite the domains of the Visconti;
and, with this object in view, he plotted and executed the murder
of his uncle Bernabd. Gian Galeazzo thus became by one stroke
the most formidable of Italian despots. Immured in his castle at
Pavia, accumulating wealth by systematic taxation and methodical
economy, he organized the mercenary troops who eagerly took
service under so good a paymaster; and, by directing their-
operations from his cabinet, he threatened the whole of Italy
with conquest. The last scions of the Delia Scala family still
reigned in Verona, the last Carraresi in Padua; the Estensi were
powerful in Ferrara, the Gonzaghi in Mantua. Gian Galeazzo,
partly by force and partly by intrigue, discredited these minor
despots, pushed his dominion to the very verge of Venice, and,
having subjected Lombardy to his sway, proceeded to attack
Tuscany. Pisa and Perugia were threatened with extinction, and
Florence dreaded the advance of the Visconti arms, when the
plague suddenly cut short his career of treachery and conquest
in the year 1402. Seven years before his death Gian Galeazzo
bought the title of duke of Milan and count of Pavia from the
emperor Wenceslaus, and there is no doubt that he was aiming at
the sovereignty of Italy. But no sooner was he dead than the
essential weakness of an artificial state, built up by cunning and
perfidious policy, with the aid of bought troops, dignified by no
dynastic title, and consolidated by no sense of loyalty, became
apparent. Gian Galeazzo 's duchy was a masterpiece of
mechanical contrivance, the creation of a scheming intellect and
lawless will. When the mind which had planned it was with-
drawn, it fell to pieces, and the very hands which had been used
to build it helped to scatter its fragments. The Visconti's own
generals, Facino Cane, Pandolfo Malatesta, Jacopo dal Verme,
Gabrino Fondulo, Ottobon Terzo, seized upon the tyranny of
several Lombard cities. In others the petty tyrants whom the
Visconti had uprooted reappeared. The Estensi recovered their
grasp upon Ferrara, and the Gonzaghi upon Mantua. Venice
strengthened herself between the Adriatic and the Alps. Florence
reassumed her Tuscan hegemony. Other communes which still
preserved the shadow of independence, like Perugia and Bologna,
began once more to dream of republican freedom under their
own leading families. Meanwhile Gian Galeazzo had left two
sons, Giovanni Maria and Filippo Maria. Giovanni, a monster
of cruelty and lust, was assassinated by some Milanese nobles in
1412; and now Filippo set about rebuilding his father's duchy.
Herein he was aided by the troops of Facino Cane, who, dying
opportunely at this period, left considerable wealth, a well-
trained band of mercenaries, and a widow, Beatrice di Tenda.
Filippo married and then beheaded Beatrice after a mock trial for
adultery, having used her money and her influence in reuniting
several subject cities to the crown of Milan. He subsequently
spent a long, suspicious, secret and incomprehensible career in
the attempt to piece together Gian Galeazzo's Lombard state, and
to carry out his schemes of Italian conquest. In this endeavour
he met with vigorous opponents. Venice and Florence, strong
in the strength of their resentful oligarchies, offered a determined
resistance; nor was Filippo equal in ability to his father. His
infernal cunning often defeated its own aims, checkmating him at
the point of achievement by suggestions of duplicity or terror.
In the course of Filippo's wars with Florence and Venice, the
greatest generals of this age were formed — Francesco Carmagnola,
who was beheaded between the columns at Venice in 1432;
Niccolo Piccinino, who died at Milan in 1444; and Francesco
Sforza, who survived to seize his master's heritage in 1450. Son
of Attendolo Sforza, this Francesco received the hand of Filippo's
natural daughter, Bianca, as a reward for past service and a
pledge of future support. When the Visconti dynasty ended by
the duke's death in 1447, he pretended to espouse the cause of
the Milanese republic, which was then re-established; but he
played his cards so subtly as to make himself, by the help of
Cosimo de' Medici in Florence, duke de facto if not de jure.
Francesco Sforza was the only condottiero among many aspiring
to be tyrants who planted themselves firmly on a throne of first-
rate importance. Once seated in the duchy of Milan, he displayed
rare qualities as a ruler; for he not only entered into the spirit of
the age, which required humanity and culture from a despot,
but be also knew how to curb his desire for territory. The con-
ception of confederated Italy found in him a vigorous supporter.
Thus the limitation of the Milanese duchy under Filippo Maria
Visconti, and its consolidation under Francesco Sforza, were
equally effectual in preparing the balance of power to which
Italian politics now tended.
This balance could not have been established without the con-
current aid of Florence. After the expulsion of the duke of
Athens in 1343, and the great plague of 1348, the Florentine
proletariate rose up against the merchant princes. This insur-
gence of the artisans, in a republic which had been remodelled
upon economical principles by Giano della Bella's constitution of
1292, reached a climax in 1378, when the Ciompi rebellion placed
the city for a few years in the hands of the Lesser Arts. The
revolution was but temporary, and was rather a symptom of
democratic tendencies in the state than the sign of any capacity
for government on the part of the working classes. The neces-
sities of war and foreign affairs soon placed Florence in the power
of an oligarchy headed by the great Albizzi family. They fought
the battles of the republic with success against the Visconti, and
widely extended the Florentine domain over the Tuscan cities.
During their season of ascendancy Pisa was enslaved, and
Florence gained the access to the sea. But throughout this
period a powerful opposition was gathering strength. It was led
by the Medici, who sided with the common people, and increased
their political importance by the accumulation and wise employ-
ment of vast commercial wealth. In 1433 the Albizzi and the
Medici came to open strife. Cosimo de' Medici, the chief of the
opposition, was exiled to Venice. In the next year he returned,
assumed the presidency of the democratic party, and by a system
of corruption and popularity-hunting, combined with the
patronage of arts and letters, established himself as the real but
unacknowledged dictator of the commonwealth. Cosimo aban-
doned the policy of his predecessors. Instead of opposing Fran-
cesco Sforza in Milan, he lent him his prestige and influence,
foreseeing that the dynastic future of his own family and the
pacification of Italy might be secured by a balance of power in
AGE OF THE DESPOTS]
ITALY
39
which Florence should rank on equal terms with Milan and
Naples.
The republic of Venice differed essentially from any other
state in Italy; and her history was so separate that, up to this
point, it woul d have been needless to interrupt the
narrative by tracing it. Venice, however, in the i4th
century took her place at last as an Italian power on an equality
at least with the very greatest. The constitution of the common-
wealth had slowly matured itself through a series of revolutions,
which confirmed and defined a type of singular stability. During
the earlier days of the republic the doge had been a prince elected
by the people, and answerable only to the popular assemblies.
In 1032 he was obliged to act in concert with a senate, called
pregadi; and in 1172 the grand council, which became the real
sovereign of the state, was formed. The several steps whereby
the members of the grand council succeeded in eliminating the
people from a share in the government, and reducing the doge
to the position of their ornamental representative, cannot here
be described. It must suffice to say that these changes cul-
minated in 1297, when an act was passed for closing the grand
council, or in other words for confining it to a fixed number of
privileged families, in whom the government was henceforth
vested by hereditary right. This ratification of the oligarchical
principle, together with the establishment in 1311 of the
Council of Ten, completed that famous constitution which
endured till the extinction of the republic in 1797. Meanwhile,
throughout the middle ages, it had been the policy of Venice to
refrain from conquests on the Italian mainland, and to confine
her energies to commerce in the East. The first entry of any
moment made by the Venetians into strictly Italian affairs was
in 1336, when the republics of Florence and St Mark allied them-
selves against Mastino della Scala, and the latter took possession
of Treviso. After this, for thirty years, between 1352 and 1381,
Venice and Genoa contested the supremacy of the Mediterranean.
Pisa's maritime power having been, extinguished in the battle
of Meloria (1284), the two surviving republics had no rivals.
They fought their duel out upon the Bosporus, off Sardinia,
and in the Morea, with various success. From the first great
encounter, in 1355, Venice retired well-nigh exhausted, and
Genoa was so crippled that she placed herself under the protection
of the Visconti. The second and decisive battle was fought upon
the Adriatic. The Genoese fleet under Luciano Doria defeated
the Venetians off Pola in 1379, and sailed without opposition to
Chioggia, which was stormed and taken. Thus the Venetians
found themselves blockaded in their own lagoons. Meanwhile
a fleet was raised for their relief by Carlo Zeno in the Levant,
and the admiral Vittore Pisani, who had been imprisoned after
the defeat at Pola, was released to lead their forlorn hope from
the city side. The Genoese in their turn were now blockaded in
Chioggia, and forced by famine to surrender. The losses of men
and money which the war of Chioggia, as it was called, entailed,
though they did not immediately depress the spirit of the Genoese
republic, signed her naval ruin. During this second struggle
to the death with Genoa, the Venetians had been also at strife
with the Carraresi of Padua and the Scaligers of Verona. In 1406,
after the extinction of these princely houses they added Verona,
Vicenza and Padua to the territories they claimed on terra firma.
Their career of conquest, and their new policy of forming Italian
alliances and entering into the management of Italian affairs
were confirmed by the long dogeship of Francesco Foscari (1423-
f457), who must rank with Alfonso, Cosimo de' Medici, Francesco
Sforza and Nicholas V., as a joint-founder of confederated Italy.
When Constantinople fell in 1453, the old ties between Venice and
the Eastern empire were broken, and she now entered on a
wholly new phase of her history. Ranking as one of the five
Italian powers, she was also destined to defend Western Christen-
dom against the encroachments of the Turk in Europe. (See
VENICE: History.)
By their settlement in Avignon, the popes relinquished their
protectorate of Italian liberties, and lost their position as Italian
potentates. Rienzi's revolution in Rome (1347-1354), and his
establishment of a republic upon a fantastic basis, half classical,
The
Papacy.
half feudal, proved the temper of the times; while the rise of
dynastic families in the cities of the church, claiming the title
of papal vicars, but acting in their own interests,
weakened the authority of the Holy See. The pre-
datory expeditions of Bertrand du Poiet and Robert of
Geneva were as ineffective as the descents of the emperors;
and, though, the cardinal Albornoz conquered Romagna and the
March in 1364, the legates who resided in those districts were not
long able to hold them against their despots. 'At last Gregory XI.
returned to Rome; and Urban VI., elected in 1378, put a final
end to the Avignonian exile. Still the Great Schism, which now
distracted Western Christendom, so enfeebled the papacy, and
kept the Roman pontiffs so engaged in ecclesiastical disputes,
that they had neither power nor leisure to occupy themselves
seriously with their temporal affairs. The threatening presence
of the two princely houses of Orsini and Colonna, alike dangerous
as friends or foes, rendered Rome an unsafe residence. Even
when the schism was nominally terminated in 1415 by the council
of Constance, the next two popes held but a precarious grasp
upon their Italian domains. Martin V. (1417-1431) resided
principally at Florence. Eugenius IV. (1431-1447) followed his
example. And what Martin managed to regain Eugenius lost.
At the same time, the change which had now come over Italian
politics, the desire on all sides for a settlement, and the growing
conviction that a federation was necessary, proved advantageous
to the popes as sovereigns. They gradually entered into the
spirit of their age, assumed the style of despots and made use of
the humanistic movement, then at its height, to place themselves
in a new relation to Italy. The election of Nicholas V. in 1447
determined this revolution in the papacy, and opened a period of
temporal splendour, which ended with the establishment of the
popes as sovereigns. Thomas of Sarzana was a distinguished
humanist. Humbly born, he had been tutor in the house of the
Albizzi, and afterwards librarian of the Medici at Florence,
where he imbibed the politics together with the culture of the
Renaissance. Soon after assuming the tiara, he found himself
without a rival in the church; for the schism ended by Felix V.'s
resignation in 1449. Nicholas fixed his residence in Rome, which
he began to rebuild and to fortify, determining to render the
Eternal City once more a capital worthy of its high place in
Europe. The Romans were flattered; and, though his reign
was disturbed by republican conspiracy, Nicholas V. was able
before his death in 1455 to secure the modern status of the pontiff
as a splendid patron and a wealthy temporal potentate.
Italy was now for a brief space independent. The humanistic
movement had created a common culture, a common language
and sense of common nationality. The five great
powers, with their satellites— dukes of Savoy and
Urbino, marquesses of Ferraraand Mantua, republics naiy.
of Bologna, Perugia, Siena — were constituted. All
political institutions tended toward despotism. The Medici
became yearly more indispensable to Florence, the Bentivogli
more autocratic in Bologna, the Baglioni in Perugia; and even
Siena was ruled by the Petrucci. But this despotism was of a
mild type. The princes were Italians; they shared the common
enthusiasms of the nation for art, learning, literature and science;
they studied how to mask their tyranny with arts agreeable to the
multitude. When Italy had reached this point, Constantinople
was taken by the Turks. On all sides it was felt that the Italian
alliance must be tightened; and one of the last, best acts of
Nicholas V.'s pontificate was the appeal in 1453 to the five great
powers in federation. As regards their common opposition to
the Turk, this appeal led to nothing; but it marked the growth
of a new Italian consciousness.
Between 1453 and 1492 Italy continued to be prosperous and
tranquil. Nearly all wars during this period were undertaken
either to check the growing power of Venice or to further the
ambition of the papacy. Having become despots, the popes
sought to establish their relatives in principalities. The word
nepotism acquired new significance in the reigns of Sixtus IV.
and Innocent VIII. Though the country was convulsed by no
great struggle, these forty years witnessed a truly appalling
4o
ITALY
[AGE OF INVASIONS
increase of political crime. To be a prince was tantamount to
being the mark of secret conspiracy and assassination. Among
the most noteworthy examples of such attempts may be mentioned
the revolt of the barons against Ferdinand I. of Naples (1464),
the murder of Galeazzo Maria Sforza at Milan (1476) and the
plot of the Pazzi to destroy the Medici (1478). After Cosimo
de' Medici's death in 1464, the presidency of the Florentine
republic passed to his son Piero, who left it in 1469 to his sons
Lorenzo and Giuliano. These youths assumed the style of princes,
and it was against their lives that the Pazzi, with the sanction
of Sixtus IV., aimed their blow. Giuliano was murdered, Lorenzo
escaped, to tighten his grasp upon the city, which now loved
him and was groud of him. During the following fourteen years
of his brilliant career he made himself absolute master of
Florence, and so modified her institutions that the Medici were
henceforth necessary to the state. Apprehending the importance
of Italian federation, Lorenzo, by his personal tact and prudent
leadership of the republic, secured peace and a common intel-
ligence between the five powers. His own family was fortified
by the marriage of his daughter to a son of Innocent VIII.,
which procured his son Giovanni's elevation to the cardinalate,
and involved two Medicean papacies and the future dependence
of Florence upon Rome.
VI. Age of Invasions. — The year 1492 opened a new age for
Italy. In this year Lorenzo died, and was succeeded by his son,
the vain and weak Piero; France passed beneath
of Charles ^e personal control of the inexperienced Charles
vni. VIII.; the fall of Granada freed Spain from her
embarrassments; Columbus discovered America,
destroying the commercial supremacy of Venice; last, but not
least, Roderigo Borgia assumed the tiara with the famous
title of Alexander VI. In this year the short-lived federation
of the five powers was shaken, and Italy was once more drawn
into the vortex of European affairs. The events which led to
this disaster may be briefly told. After Galeazzo Maria's
assassination, his crown passed to a boy, Gian Galeazzo, who
was in due course married to a grand-daughter of Ferdinand I.
of Naples. But the government of Milan remained in the hands
of this youth's uncle, Lodovico, surnamed II Moro. Lodovico
resolved to become duke of Milan. The king of Naples was
his natural enemy, and he had cause to suspect that Piero de'
Medici might abandon his alliance. Feeling himself alone,
with no right to the title he was bent on seizing, he had recourse
to Charles VIII. of France, whom he urged to make good his
claim to the kingdom of Naples. This claim, it may be said in
passing, rested on the will of King Ren6 of Anjou. After some
hesitation, Charles agreed to invade Italy. He crossed the Alps
in 1495, passed through Lombardy, entered Tuscany, freed Pisa
from the yoke of Florence, witnessed the expulsion of the Medici,
marched to Naples and was crowned there — all this without
striking a blow. Meanwhile Lodovico procured his nephew's
death, and raised a league against the French in Lombardy.
Charles hurried back from Naples, and narrowly escaped destruc-
tion at Fornovo in the passes of the Apennines. He made good
his retreat, however, and returned to France in 1495. Little
remained to him of his light acquisitions; but he had convulsed
Italy by this invasion, destroyed her equilibrium, exposed her
military weakness and political disunion, and revealed her wealth
to greedy and more powerful nations.
The princes of the house of Aragon, now represented by
Frederick, a son of Ferdinand I., returned to Naples. Florence
Lout* XII. made herself a republic, adopting a form of constitu-
tion analogous to that of Venice. At this crisis she
was ruled by the monk Girolamo Savonarola, who inspired
the people with a thirst for freedom, preached the necessity
of reformation, and placed himself in direct antagonism to
Rome. After a short but eventful career, the influence of which
was long effective, he lost his hold upon the citizens. Alexander
VI. procured a mock trial, and his enemies burned him upon the
Piazza in 1498. In this year Louis XII. succeeded Charles VIII.
upon the throne of France. As duke of Orleans he had certain
claims to Milan through his grandmother Valentina, daughter of
Gian Galeazzo, the first duke. They were not valid, for the
investiture of the duchy had been granted only to male heirs.
But they served as a sufficient pretext, and in 1499 Louis entered
and subdued the Milanese. Lodovico escaped to Germany,
returned the next year, was betrayed by his Swiss mercenaries
and sent to die at Loches in France. In 1500 Louis made the
blunder of calling Ferdinand the Catholic to help him in the
conquest of Naples. By a treaty signed at Granada, the French
and Spanish kings were to divide the spoil. The conquest was
easy; but, when it came to a partition, Ferdinand played his
ally false. He made himself supreme over the Two Sicilies,
which he now reunited under a single crown. Three years later,
unlessoned by this experience, Louis signed the treaty of Blois
(1504), whereby he invited the emperor Maximilian to aid him
in the subjugation of Venice. No policy could have been less
far-sighted; for Charles V., joint heir to Austria, Burgundy,
Castile and Aragon, the future overwhelming rival of France,
was already born.
The stage was now prepared, and all the actors who were
destined to accomplish the ruin of Italy trod it with their armies.
Spain, France, Germany, with their Swiss auxiliaries, had been
summoned upon various pretexts to partake her provinces.
Then, too late, patriots like Machiavelli perceived the suicidal
self-indulgence of the past, which, by substituting mercenary
troops for national militias, left the Italians at the absolute
discretion of their neighbours. Whatever parts the Italians
themselves played in the succeeding quarter of a century, the
game was in the hands of French, Spanish and German invaders.
Meanwhile, no scheme for combination against common foes
arose in the peninsula. Each petty potentate strove for his own
private advantage in the confusion; and at this epoch the chief
gains accrued to the papacy. Aided by his terrible son, Cesare
Borgia, Alexander VI. chastised the Roman nobles, subdued
Romagna and the March, threatened Tuscany, and seemed to
be upon the point of creating a Central Italian state in favour
of his progeny, when he died suddenly in 1503. His conquests
reverted to the Holy See. Julius II., his bitterest enemy and
powerful successor, continued Alexander's policy, but no longer
in the interest of his own relatives. It became the nobler
ambition of Julius to aggrandize the church, and to reassume
the protectorate of the Italian people. With this object, he
secured Emilia, carried his victorious arms against Ferrara,
and curbed the tyranny of the Baglioni in Perugia. Julius II.
played a perilous game; but the stakes were high, and he fancied
himself strong enough to guide the tempest he evoked. Quarrel-
ling with the Venetians in 1508, he combined the forces of all
Europe by the league of Cambray against them; and, when he
had succeeded in his first purpose of humbling them even to the
dust, he turned round in 1510, uttered his famous resolve to
expel the barbarians from Italy, and pitted the Spaniards
against the French. It was with the Swiss that he hoped to
effect this revolution; but the Swiss, now interfering for the first
time as principals in Italian affairs, were incapable of more than
adding to the already maddening distractions of the people.
Formed for mercenary warfare, they proved a perilous instrument
in the hands of those who used them, and were hardly less injurious
to their friends than to their foes. In 1512 the battle of Ravenna
between the French troops and the allies of Julius — Spaniards,
Venetians and Swiss — was fought. Gaston de Foix bought a
doubtful victory dearly with his death; and the allies, though
beaten on the banks of the Ronco, immediately afterwards
expelled the French from Lombardy. Yet Julius II. had
failed, as might have been foreseen. He only exchanged one
set of foreign masters for another, and taught a new barbarian
race how pleasant were the plains of Italy. As a consequence
of the battle of Ravenna, the Medici returned in 151210 Florence.
When Leo X. was elected in 1513, Rome and Florence rejoiced;
but Italy had no repose. Louis XII. had lost the game, and the
Spaniards were triumphant. But new actors appeared upon
the scene, and the same old struggle was resumed with fiercer
energy. By the victory of Marignano in 1515 Francis I., having
now succeeded to the throne of France, regained the Milanese,
SPANISH-AUSTRIAN ASCENDANCY]
ITALY
and broke the power of the Swiss, who held it for Massimiliano
Sforza, the titular duke. Leo for a while relied on Francis; for
the vast power of Charles V., who succeeded to the empire
in 1519, as in 1516 he had succeeded to the crowns of Spain
and Lower Italy, threatened the whole of Europe. It was
Leo's nature, however, to be inconstant. In 1521 he changed
sides, allied himself to Charles, and died after hearing that the
imperial troops had again expelled the French from Milan.
During the next four years the Franco-Spanish war dragged on
in Lombardy until the decisive battle of Pavia'in 1525, when
Francis was taken prisoner, and Italy lay open to the Spanish
armies. Meanwhile Leo X. had been followed by Adrian VI.,
and Adrian by Clement VII., of the house of Medici, who had
long ruled Florence. In the reign of this pope Francis was
released from his prison in Madrid (1526), and Clement hoped
that he might still be used in the Italian interest as a counterpoise
to Charles. It is impossible in this place to follow the tangled
intrigues of that period. The year 1527 was signalized by the
famous sack of Rome. An army of mixed German and Spanish
troops, pretending to act for the emperor, but which may
rather be regarded as a vast marauding party, entered Italy
under their leader Frundsberg. After his death, the Constable
de Bourbon took command of them; they marched slowly
down, aided by the marquis of Ferrara, and unopposed by the
duke of Urbino, reached Rome, and took it by assault. The
constable was killed in the first onslaught; Clement was im-
prisoned in the castle of St Angelo; Rome was abandoned
to the rage of 30,000 ruffians. As an immediate result of this
catastrophe, Florence shook off the Medici, and established a
republic. But Clement, having made peace with the emperor,
turned the remnants of the army which had sacked Rome
against his native city. After a desperate resistance, Florence
fell in 1530. Alessandro de' Medici was placed there with the
title of duke of Civita di Penna; and, on his murder in 1537,
Cosimo de' Medici, of the younger branch of the ruling house,
was made duke. Acting as lieutenant for the Spaniards, he
subsequently (1555) subdued Siena, and bequeathed to his
descendants the grand-duchy of Tuscany.
VII. Spanish-Austrian Ascendancy. — It was high time, after
the sack of Rome in 1527, that Charles V. should undertake
Italian affairs. The country was exposed to anarchy,
of wmch this had been the last an(* most disgrace-
by spaia. ful example. The Turks were threatening western
Europe, and Luther was inflaming Germany. By
the treaty of Barcelona in 1529 the pope and emperor made
terms. By that of Cambray in the same year France relinquished
Italy to Spain. Charles then entered the port of Genoa, and on
the 5th of November met Clement VII. at Bologna. He there
received the imperial crown, and summoned the Italian princes
for a settlement of all disputed claims. Francesco Sforza, the
last and childless heir of the ducal house, was left in Milan till
his death, which happened in 1535. The republic of Venice was
respected in her liberties and Lombard territories. The Este
family received a confirmation of their duchy of Modena and
Reggio, and were invested in their fief of Ferrara by the pope.
The marquessate of Mantua was made a duchy; and Florence
was secured, as we have seen, to the Medici. The great gainer
by this settlement was the papacy, which held the most sub-
stantial Italian province, together with a prestige that raised
it far above all rivalry. The rest of Italy, however parcelled,
henceforth became but a dependence upon Spain. Charles V.,
it must be remembered, achieved his conquest and confirmed
his authority far less as emperor than as the heir of Castile and
Aragon. A Spanish viceroy in Milan and another in Naples,
supported by Rome and by the minor princes who followed the
policy dictated to them from Madrid, were sufficient to preserve
the whole peninsula in a state of somnolent inglorious servitude.
From 1530 until 1796, that is, for a period of nearly three
centuries, the Italians had no history of their own. Their annals
are filled with records of dynastic changes and redistributions of
territory, .consequent upon treaties signed by foreign powers, in
the settlement of quarrels which no wise concerned the people.
Italy only too often became the theatre of desolating and dis-
tracting wars. But these wars were fought for the most part
by alien armies; the points at issue were decided beyond the
Alps; the gains accrued to royal families whose names were
unpronounceable by southern tongues. The affairs of Europe
during the years when Habsburg and Bourbon fought their
domestic battles with the blood of noble races may teach grave
lessons to all thoughtful men of our days, but none bitterer,
none fraught with more insulting recollections, than to the
Italian people, who were haggled over like dumb driven cattle
in the mart of chaffering kings. We cannot wholly acquit the
Italians of their share of blame. When they might have won
national independence, after their warfare with the Swabian
emperors, they let the golden opportunity slip. Pampered with
commercial prosperity, eaten to the core with inter-urban
rivalries, they submitted to despots, renounced the use of arms,
and offered themselves in the hour of need, defenceless and dis-
united to the shock of puissant nations. That they had created
modern civilization for Europe availed them nothing. Italy,
intellectually first among the peoples, was now politically and
practically last; and nothing to her historian is more heart-
rending than to watch the gradual extinction of her spirit in this
age of slavery.
In 1534 Alessandro Farnese, who owed his elevation to his
sister Giulia, one of Alexander VI.'s mistresses, took the tiara
with the title of Paul III. It was his ambition to
create a duchy for his family; and with this object he Ponttn-
gave Parma and Piacenza to his son Pier Luigi. After <pw°in.
much wrangling between the French and Spanish
parties, the duchy was confirmed in 1586 to Ottaviano Farnese
and his son Alessandro, better known as Philip II.'s general,
the prince of Parma. Alessandro 's descendants reigned in Parma
and Piacenza till the year 1731. Paul III.'s pontificate was
further marked by important changes in the church, all of which
confirmed the spiritual autocracy of Rome. In 1540 this pope
approved of Loyola's foundation, and secured the powerful
militia of the Jesuit order. The Inquisition was established with
almost unlimited powers in Italy, and the press was placed under
its jurisdiction. Thus free thought received a check, by which
not only ecclesiastical but political tyrants knew how to profit.
Henceforth it was impossible to publish or to utter a word which
might offend the despots of church or state; and the Italians
had to amuse their leisure with the polite triflings of academics.
In 1545 a council was opened at Trent for the reformation of
church discipline and the promulgation of orthodox doctrine.
The decrees of this council defined Roman Catholicism against
the Reformation; and, while failing to regenerate morality,
they enforced a hypocritical observance of public decency. Italy
to outer view put forth blossoms of hectic and hysterical piety,
though at the core her clergy and her aristocracy were more
corrupt than ever.
In 1556 Philip II., by the abdication of his father Charles V.,
became king of Spain. He already wore the crown of the Two
Sicilies, and ruled the duchy of Milan. In the next
year Ferdinand, brother of Charles, was elected em-
peror. The French, meanwhile, had not entirely
abandoned their claims on Italy. Gian Pietro Caraffa, who
was made pope in 1555 with the name of Paul IV., en-
deavoured to revive the ancient papal policy of leaning upon
France. He encouraged the duke of Guise to undertake the
conquest of Naples, as Charles of Anjou had been summoned by
his predecessors. But such schemes were now obsolete and
anachronistic. They led to a languid lingering Italian campaign,
which was settled far beyond the Alps by Philip's victories over
the French at St Quentin and Gravelines. The peace of Cateau
Cambresis, signed in 1559, left the Spanish monarch undisputed
lord of Italy. Of free commonwealths there now survived only
Venice, which, together with Spain, achieved for Europe the
victory of Lepanto in 1573; Genoa, which, after the ineffectual
Fieschi revolution in 1547, abode beneath the rule of the great
Doria family, and held a feeble sway in Corsica; and the two
insignificant republics of Lucca and San Marino.
ITALY
[SPANISH-AUSTRIAN ASCENDANCY
The future hope of Italy, however, was growing in a remote
and hitherto neglected corner. Emmanuel Philibert, duke of
Savoy, represented the oldest and not the least illustrious reigning
house in Europe, and his descendants were destined to achieve
for Italy the independence which no other power or prince
had given her since the fall of ancient Rome. (See SAVOY,
HOUSE OF.)
When Emmanuel Philibert succeeded to his father Charles III.
in 1553, he was a duke without a duchy. But the princes of
the house of Savoy were a race of warriors; and what Emmanuel
Philibert lost as sovereign he regained as captain of adventure
in the service of his cousin Philip II. The treaty of Cateau
Cambresis in 1559, and the evacuation of the Piedmontese cities
held by French and Spanish troops in 1574, restored his state.
By removing the capital from Chambery to Turin, he completed
the transformation of the dukes of Savoy from Burgundian into
Italian sovereigns. They still owned Savoy beyond the Alps, the
plains of Bresse, and the maritime province of Nice.
Emmanuel Philibert was succeeded by his son Charles
Emmanuel I., who married Catherine, a daughter of Philip II.
He seized the first opportunity of annexing Saluzzo, which had
been lost to Savoy in the last two reigns, and renewed the
disastrous policy of his grandfather Charles III. by invading
Geneva and threatening Provence. Henry IV. of France forced
him in 1601 to relinquish Bresse and his Burgundian possessions.
In return he was allowed to keep Saluzzo. All hopes of conquest
on the transalpine side were now quenched; but the keys of
Italy had been given to the dukes of Savoy; and their attention
was still further concentrated upon Lombard conquests. Charles
Emmanuel now attempted the acquisition of Montferrat, which
was soon to become vacant by the death of Francesco Gonzaga,
who held it together with Mantua. In order to secure this
territory, he went to war with Philip III. of Spain, and allied
himself with Venice and the Grisons to expel the Spaniards from
the Valtelline. When the male line of the Gonzaga family expired
in 1627, Charles, duke of Nevers, claimed Mantua and Montferrat
in right of his wife, the only daughter of the last duke. Charles
Emmanuel was now checkmated by France, as he had formerly
been by Spain. The total gains of all his strenuous endeavours
amounted to the acquisition of a few places on the borders of
Montferrat.
Not only the Gonzagas, but several other ancient ducal
families, died out about the date which we have reached. The
Extinc- legitimate line of the Estensi ended in 1597 by the
iiooof death of Alfonso II., the last duke of Ferrara. He
old ducal left his domains to a natural relative, Cesare d'Este,
fmmiiiet. wno wou](j jn earu'er days have inherited without
dispute, for bastardy had been no bar on more than one occasion
in the Este pedigree. Urban VIII., however, put in a claim to
Ferrara, which, it will be remembered, had been recognized a
papal fief in 1530. Cesare d'Este had to content himself with
Modena and Reggio, where his descendants reigned as dukes
till 1794. Under the same pontiff, the Holy See absorbed the
duchy of Urbino on the death of Francesco Maria II., the last
representative of Montefeltro and Delia Rovere. The popes
were now masters of a fine and compact territory, embracing
no inconsiderable portion of. Countess Matilda's legacy, in
addition to Pippin's donation, and the patrimony of St Peter.
Meanwhile Spanish fanaticism, the suppression of the Huguenots
in France and the Catholic policy of Austria combined to
strengthen their authority as pontiffs. Urban's predecessor,
Paul V., advanced so far as to extend his spiritual jurisdiction
over Venice, which, up to the date of his election (1605), had
resisted all encroachments of the Holy See. Venice offered the
single instance in Italy of a national church. The republic
managed the tithes, and the clergy acknowledged no chief above
their own patriarch. Paul V. now forced the Venetians to
admit his ecclesiastical supremacy; but they refused to readmit
the Jesuits, who had been expelled in 1606. This, if we do not
count the proclamation of James I. of England (1604), was the
earliest instance of the order's banishment from a state where
it had proved disloyal to the commonwealth.
Venice rapidly declined throughout the I7th century. The
loss of trade consequent upon the closing of Egypt and the
Levant, together with the discovery of America and Decline
the sea-route to the Indies, had dried up her chief of Venice
source of wealth. Prolonged warfare with the Otto- *"<!
mans, who forced her to abandon Candia in 1669, sPala-
as they had robbed her of Cyprus in 1570, still further crippled
her resources. Yet she kept the Adriatic free of pirates, notably
by suppressing the sea-robbers called Uscocchi (1601-1617),
maintained herself in the Ionian Islands, and in 1684 added one
more to the series of victorious episodes which render her annals
so romantic. In that year Francesco Morosini, upon whose
tomb we still may read the title Peloponnesiacus, wrested the
whole of the Morea from the Turks. But after his death in 1715
the republic relaxed her hold upon his conquests. The Venetian
nobles abandoned themselves to indolence and vice. Many of
them fell into the slough of pauperism, and were saved from
starvation by public doles. Though the signory still made a
brave show upon occasions of parade, it was clear that the state
was rotten to the core, and sinking into the decrepitude of dotage.
The Spanish monarchy at the same epoch dwindled with
apparently less reason. Philip's Austrian successors reduced
it to the rank of a secondary European power. This decline of
vigour was felt, with the customary effects of discord and bad
government, in Lower Italy. The revolt of Masaniello in Naples
(1647), followed by rebellions at Palermo and Messina, which
placed Sicily for a while in the hands of Louis XIV. (1676-
1678) were symptoms of progressive anarchy. The population,
ground down by preposterous taxes, ill-used as only the subjects
of Spaniards, Turks or Bourbons are handled, rose in blind
exasperation against their oppressors. It is impossible to attach
political importance to these revolutions; nor did they bring
the people any appreciable good. The destinies of Italy were
decided in the cabinets and on the battlefields of northern
Europe. A Bourbon at Versailles, a Habsburg at Vienna, or
a thick-lipped Lorrainer, with a stroke of his pen, wrote off
province against province, regarding not the populations who
had bled for him or thrown themselves upon his mercy.
This inglorious and passive chapter of Italian history is con-
tinued to the date of the French Revolution with the records of
three dynastic wars, the war of the Spanish succession,
the war of the Polish succession, the war of the Austrian
succession, followed by three European treaties, ,/„„.
which brought them respectively to diplomatic
terminations. Italy, handled and rehandled, settled and re-
settled, upon each of these occasions, changed masters without
caring or knowing what befell the principals in any one of the
disputes. Humiliating to human nature in general as are the
annals of the iSth-century campaigns in Europe, there is no
point of view from which they appear in a light so tragi-comic
as from that afforded by Italian history. The system of setting
nations by the ears with the view of settling the quarrels of a
few reigning houses was reduced to absurdity when the people,
as in these cases, came to be partitioned and exchanged without
the assertion or negation of a single principle affecting their
interests or rousing their emotions.
In 1700 Charles II. died, and with him ended the Austrian
family in Spain. Louis XIV. claimed the throne for Philip,
duke of Anjou. Charles, archduke of Austria, opposed
him. The dispute was fought out in Flanders; but Spanish
Lombardy felt the shock, as usual, of the French and g"^'"'
Austrian dynasties. The French armies were more
than once defeated by Prince Eugene of Savoy, who drove them
out of Italy in 1707. Therefore, in the peace of Utrecht (1713),
the services of the house of Savoy had to be duly recognized.
Victor Amadeus II. received Sicily with the title of king. Mont-
ferrat and Alessandria were added to his northern provinces,
and his state was recognized as independent. Charles of Austria,
now emperor, took Milan, Mantua, Naples and Sardinia for his
portion of the Italian spoil. Philip founded the Bourbon line
of Spanish kings, renouncing in Italy all that his Habsburg
predecessors had gained. Discontented with this diminution
THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD]
ITALY
43
of the Spanish heritage, Philip V. married Elisabetta Farnese,
heiress to the last duke of Parma, in 1714. He hoped to secure
this duchy for his son, Don Carlos; and Elisabetta further brought
with her a claim to the grand-duchy of Tuscany, which would
soon become vacant by the death of Gian Gastone de' Medici.
After this marriage Philip broke the peace of Europe by invading
Sardinia. The Quadruple Alliance was formed, and the new king
of Sicily was punished for his supposed adherence to Philip V.
by the forced exchange of Sicily for the island of Sardinia.
It was thus that in 1720 the house' of Savoy assumed the regal
title which it bore until the declaration of the Italian kingdom
in the last century. Victor AmadeusII.'s reign was of great import-
ance in the history of his state. Though a despot, as all monarchs
were obliged to be at that date, he reigned with prudence,
probity and zeal for the welfare of his subjects. He took public
education out of the hands of the Jesuits, which, for the future
development of manliness in his dominions, was a measure
• of incalculable value. The duchy of Savoy in his days became
a kingdom, and Sardinia, though it seemed a poor exchange for
Sicily, was a far less perilous possession than the larger and
wealthier island would have been. In 1730 Victor Amadeus
abdicated in favour of his son Charles Emmanuel III. Repenting
of this step, he subsequently attempted to regain Turin, but was
imprisoned in the castle of Rivoli, where he ended his days
in 1732.
The War of the Polish Succession which now disturbed Europe
is only important in Italian history because the treaty of Vienna
in 1738 settled the disputed affairs of the duchies
of Parma and Tuscany. The duke Antonio Farnese
s/oo. died in 1731; the grand-duke Gian Gastone de'
Medici died in 1737. In the duchy of Parma Don
Carlos had already been proclaimed. But he was now transferred
to the Two Sicilies, while Francis of Lorraine, the husband of
Maria Theresa, took Tuscany and Parma. Milan and Mantua
remained in the hands of the Austrians. On this occasion
Charles Emmanuel acquired Tortona and Novara.
Worse complications ensued for the Italians when the emperor
Charles VI., father of Maria Theresa, died in 1740. The three
branches of the Bourbon house, ruling in France,
Austrian Spain and the Sicilies, joined with Prussia, Bavaria
s/on. and the kingdom of Sardinia to despoil Maria Theresa
of her heritage. Lombardy was made the seat of war;
and here the king of Sardinia acted as in some sense the arbiter
of the situation. After war broke out, he changed sides and
supported the Habsburg-Lorraine party. At first, in 1745, the
Sardinians were defeated by the French and Spanish troops.
But Francis of Lorraine, elected emperor in that year, sent an
army to the king's support, which in 1746 obtained a signal
victory over the Bourbons at Piacenza. Charles Emmanuel now
threatened Genoa. The Austrian soldiers already held the town.
But the citizens expelled them, and the republic kept her inde-
pendence. In 1748 the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which put an
end to the War of the Austrian Succession, once more redivided
Italy. Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla were formed into a duchy
for Don Philip, brother of Charles III. of the Two Sicilies, and son
of Philip V. of Spain. Charles III. was confirmed in his kingdom
of the Two Sicilies. The Austrians kept Milan and Tuscany. The
duchy of Modena was placed under the protection of the French.
So was Genoa, which in 1755, after Paoli's insurrection against
the misgovernment of the republic, ceded her old domain of
Corsica to France.
From the date of this settlement until 1792, Italy enjoyed a
period of repose and internal amelioration under her numerous
Forty paternal despots. It became the fashion during these
four forty-four years of peace to encourage the industrial
population and to experimentalize in economical re-
forms. The Austrian government in Lombardy under
Maria Theresa was characterized by improved agriculture, regular
administration, order, reformed taxation and increased educa-
tion. A considerable amount of local autonomy was allowed, and
dependence en Vienna was very slight and not irksome. The
nobles and the clergy were rich and influential, but kept in order
by the civil power. There was no feeling of nationality, but the
people were prosperous, enjoyed profound peace and were
placidly content with the existing order of things. On the death
of Maria Theresa in 1780, the emperor Joseph II. instituted much
wider reforms. Feudal privileges were done away with, clerical
influence diminished and many monasteries and convents sup-
pressed, the criminal law rendered more humane and torture
abolished largely as a result of G. Beccaria's famous pamphlet
Dei delitti e delle pene. At the same time Joseph's administration
was more arbitrary, and local autonomy was to some extent
curtailed. His anti-clerical laws produced some ill-feeling
among the more devout part of the population. On the whole
the Austrian rule in pre-revolutionary days was beneficial and
far from oppressive, and helped Lombardy to recover from the
ill-effects of the Spanish domination. It did little for the moral
education of the people, but the same criticism applies more or
less to all the European governments of the day. The emperor
Francis I. ruled the grand-duchy of Tuscany by lieutenants until
his death in 1765, when it was given, as an independent state, to
his second son, Peter Leopold. The reign of this duke was long
remembered as a period of internal prosperity, wise legislation
and important public enterprise. Leopold, among other useful
works, drained the Val di Chiana, and restored those fertile upland
plains to agriculture. In 1790 he succeeded to the empire, and
left Tuscany to his son Ferdinand. The kingdom of Sardinia
was administered upon similar principles, but with less of
geniality. Charles Emmanuel made his will law, and erased the
remnants of free institutions from his state. At the same time
he wisely followed his father's policy with regard to education and
the church. This is perhaps the best that can be said of a king
who incarnated the stolid absolutism of the period. From this
date, however, we are able to trace the revival of independent
thought among the Italians. The European ferment of ideas
which preceded the French Revolution expressed itself in men
like Alfieri, the fierce denouncer of tyrants, Beccaria, the philo-
sopher of criminal jurisprudence, Volta, the physicist, and
numerous political economists of Tuscany. Moved partly by
external influences and partly by a slow internal reawakening,
the people was preparing for the efforts of the igth century.
The papacy, during this period, had to reconsider the question of
the Jesuits, who made themselves universally odious, not only in
Italy, but also in France and Spain. In the pontificate of
Clement XIII they ruled the Vatican, and almost succeeded in
embroiling the pope with the concerted Bourbon potentates of
Europe. His successor, Clement XIV. suppressed the order
altogether by a brief of 1773. (J. A. S.)
D. ITALY IN THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD, 1796-1814
The campaign of 1796 which led to the awakening of the
Italian people to a new consciousness of unity and strength is
detailed in the article NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS. Here we can
attempt only a general survey of the events, political, civic and
social, which heralded the Risorgimento in its first phase. It is
desirable in the first place to realize the condition of Italy at
the time when the irruption of the French and the expulsion of
the Austrians opened up a new political vista for that oppressed
and divided people.
For many generations Italy had been bandied to and fro
between the Habsburgs and the Bourbons The decline of
French influence at the close of the reign of Louis XIV.
left the Habsburgs and the Spanish Bourbons without Otthe
serious rivals. The former possessed the rich duchies Frecch
of Milan (including Mantua) and Tuscany; while y"™'""
through a marriage alliance with the house of Este
of Modena (the Archduke Ferdinand had married the heiress
of Modena) its influence over that duchy was supreme.
It also had a few fiefs in Piedmont and in Genoese
territory. By marrying her daughter, Maria Amelia, to the
young duke of Parma, and another daughter, Maria Carolina,
to Ferdinand of Naples, Maria Theresa consolidated Habsburg
influence in the north and south of the peninsula. The Spanish
Bourbons held Naples and Sicily, as well as the duchy of Parma.
44
ITALY
[THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD
Ron*-
'
Of the nominally independent states the chief were the kingdom
of Sardinia, ruled over by the house of Savoy, and comprising
Piedmont, the isle of Sardinia and nominally Savoy and Nice,
though the two provinces last named had virtually been lost
to the monarchy since the campaign of 1793. Equally extensive,
but less important in the political sphere, were the Papal States
and Venetia, the former torpid under the obscurantist rule
of pope and cardinals, the latter enervated by luxury and the
policy of unmanly complaisance long pursued by doge and
council. The ancient rival of Venice, Genoa, was likewise far
gone in decline. The small states, Lucca and San Marino,
completed the map of Italy. The worst governed part of the
peninsula was the south, where feudalism lay heavily on the
cultivators and corruption pervaded all ranks. Milan and
Piedmont were comparatively well governed; but repugnance
to Austrian rule in the former case, and the contagion of French
Jacobinical opinions in the latter, brought those populations into
increasing hostility to the rulers. The democratic propaganda,
which was permeating all the large towns of the peninsula, then
led to the formation of numerous and powerful clubs and secret
societies; and the throne of Victor Amadeus III., of the house
of Savoy, soon began to totter under the blows delivered by the
French troops at the mountain barriers of his kingdom and under
the insidious assaults of the friends of liberty at Turin. Plotting
was rife at Milan, as also at Bologna, where the memory of old
liberties predisposed men to cast off clerical rule and led to the
first rising on behalf of Italian liberty in the year 1794. At
Palermo the Sicilians struggled hard to establish a republic
in place of the odious government of an alien dynasty.
Tjje anathemas of the pope, the bravery of Piedmontese
and Austrians, and the subsidies of Great Britain
failed to keep the league of Italian princes against
France intact. The grand-duke of Tuscany was the first of the
European sovereigns who made peace with, and recognized
the French republic, early in 1795. The first fortnight of
Napoleon's campaign of 1796 detached Sardinia from alliance
with Austria and England. The enthusiasm of the Italians
for the young Corsican " liberator " greatly helped his progress.
Two months later Ferdinand of Naples sought for an armistice,
the central duchies were easily overrun, and, early in 1797,
Pope Pius VI. was fain to sign terms of peace with Bonaparte
at Tolentino, practically ceding the northern part of his states,
known as the Legations. The surrender of the last Habsburg
stronghold, Mantua, on the 2nd of February 1797 left the field
clear for the erection of new political institutions.
Already the men of Reggio, Modena and Bologna had declared
for a democratic policy, in which feudalism and clerical rule
should have no place, and in which manhood suffrage,
together with other rights promised by Bonaparte
epubic, to the men of Milan in May 1796, should form the basis
of a new order of things. In taking this step the
Modenese and Romagnols had the encouragement of Bonaparte,
despite the orders which the French directory sent to him in a
contrary sense. The result was the formation of an assembly
at Modena which abolished feudal dues and customs, declared
for manhood suffrage and established the Cispadane Republic
(October 1796).
The close of Bonaparte's victorious campaign against the
Archduke Charles in 1797 enabled him to mature those designs
respecting Venice which are detailed in the article NAPOLEON.
On a far higher level was his conduct towards the Milanese.
While the French directory saw in that province little more
than a district which might be plundered and bargained for,
Bonaparte, though by no means remiss in the exaction of gold
and of artistic treasures, was laying the foundation of a friendly
republic. During his sojourn at the castle of Montebello or
Mombello, near Milan, he commissioned several of the leading
men of northern Italy to draw up a project of constitution and
list of reforms for that province. Meanwhile he took care to
curb the excesses of the Italian Jacobins and to encourage
the Moderates, who were favourable to the French connexion
as promising a guarantee against Austrian domination and
internal anarchy. He summed up his conduct in the letter of
the 8th of May 1797 to the French directory, " I cool the hot
heads here and warm the cool ones." The Transpadane
Republic, or, as it was soon called, the Cisalpine
Republic, began its organized life on the 9th of July
1797, with a brilliant festival at Milan. The constitu-
tion was modelled on that of the French directory, and, lest there
should be a majority of clerical or Jacobinical deputies, the
French Republic through its general, Bonaparte, nominated
and appointed the first deputies and administrators of the
new government. In the same month it was joined by the
Cispadane Republic; and the terms of the treaty of Campo
Formio (October 17, 1797), while fatal to the political life
of Venice, awarded to this now considerable state the Venetian
territories west of the river Adige. A month later, under the
pretence of stilling the civil strifes in the Valtelline, Bonaparte
absorbed that Swiss district in the Cisalpine Republic, which
thus included all the lands between Como and Verona on the
north, and Rimini on the south.
Early in the year 1798 the Austrians, in pursuance of the
scheme of partition agreed on at Campo Formio, entered Venice
and brought to an end its era of independence which
had lasted some 1 100 years. Venice with its mainland B°d ot the
territories east of the Adige, inclusive of Istria and
Dalmatia, went to the Habsburgs, while the Venetian
isles of the Adriatic (the Ionian Isles) and the Venetian fleet went
to strengthen France for that eastern expedition on which
Bonaparte had already set his heart. Venice not only paid the
costs of the war to the two chief belligerents, but her naval
resources also helped to launch the young general on his career
of eastern adventure. Her former rival, Genoa, had also been
compelled, in June 1797, to bow before the young conqueror,
and had undergone at his hands a remodelling on the lines already
followed at Milan. The new Genoese republic, French in all
but name, was renamed the Ligurian Republic.
Before he set sail for Egypt, the French had taken possession
of Rome. Already masters of the papal fortress of Ancona,
they began openly to challenge the pope's authority French
at the Eternal City itself. Joseph Bonaparte, then occupa-
French envoy to the Vatican, encouraged democratic "°n ot
manifestations; and one of them, at the close of 1797, Rome-
led to a scuffle in which a French general, Duphot, was killed.
The French directory at once ordered its general, Berthier, to
march to Rome: the Roman democrats proclaimed a republic
on the isth of February 1798, and on their invitation Berthier
and his troops marched in. The pope, Pius VI., was forthwith
haled away to Siena and a year later to Valence in the south of
France, where he died. Thus fell the temporal power. The
" liberators " of Rome thereupon proceeded to plunder the city
in a way which brought shame on their cause and disgrace
(perhaps not wholly deserved) on the general left in command,
Mass6na.
These events brought revolution to the gates of the kingdom
of Naples, the worst-governed part of Italy, where the boorish
king, Ferdinand IV. (U rl lazzarone, he was termed), N
and his whimsical consort, Maria Carolina, scarcely
held in check the discontent of their own subjects. A British
fleet under Nelson, sent into the Mediterranean in May 1798
primarily for their defence, checkmated the designs of Bonaparte
in Egypt, and then, returning to Naples, encouraged that court
to adopt a spirited policy. It is now known that the influence
of Nelson and of the British ambassador, Sir William Hamilton,
and Lady Hamilton precipitated the rupture between Naples
and France. The results were disastrous. The Neapolitan
troops at first occupied Rome, but, being badly handled by
their leader, the Austrian general, Mack, they were soon scattered
in flight; and the Republican troops under General Tne
Championnet, after crushing the stubborn resistance Partheno-
of the lazzaroni, made their way into Naples and paean
proclaimed the Parthenopaean Republic (January 23, *ePu*/yc-
1799). The Neapolitan Democrats chose five of the'r leading
mtn to be directors, and tithes and feudal dues and customs
THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD]
ITALY
45
were abolished. Much good work was done by the Republicans
during their brief tenure of power,but it soon came to an end owing
to the course of events which favoured a reaction against France.
The directors of Paris, not content with overrunning and plunder-
ing Switzerland, had outraged German sentiment in many ways.
Further, at the close of 1798 they virtually compelled the young
king of Sardinia, Charles Emmanuel IV., to abdicate at Turin.
He retired to the island of Sardinia, while the French despoiled
Piedmont, thereby adding fuel to the resentment rapidly growing
against them in every part of Europe.
The outcome of it all was the War of the Second Coalition,
in which Russia, Austria, Great Britain, Naples and some
secondary states of Germany took part. The incursion
°f an Austro-Russian army, led by that strange but
magnetic being, Suvarov, decided the campaign in
northern Italy. The French, poorly handled by Scherer and
Serurier, were everywhere beaten, especially at Magnano (April
• 5) and Cassano (April 27). Milan and Turin fell before the
allies, and Moreau, who took over the command, had much
difficulty in making his way to the Genoese coast-line. There
he awaited the arrival of Macdonald with the an -.y of Naples.
That general, Championnet's successor, had been compelled by
these reverses and by the threatening pressure of Nelson's fleet
to evacuate Naples and central Italy. In many parts the
peasants and townsfolk, enraged by the licence of the French,
hung on his flank and rear. The republics set up by the French
at Naples, Rome and Milan collapsed as soon as the French
troops retired; and a reaction in favour of clerical and Austrian
influence set in with great violence. For the events which then
occurred at Naples, so compromising to the reputation of Nelson,
see NELSON and NAPLES. Sir William Hamilton was subse-
quently recalled in a manner closely resembling a disgrace, and
his place was taken by Paget, who behaved with more dignity
and tact.
Meanwhile Macdonald, after struggling through central Italy,
had defeated an Austrian force at Modena (June 12, 1799),
but Suvarov was able by swift movements utterly to overthrow
him at the Trebbia (June 17-19). The wreck of his force
drifted away helplessly towards Genoa. A month later the
ambitious young general, Joubert, who took over Moreau's
command and rallied part of Macdonald's following, was utterly
routed by the Austro-Russian army at Novi (August 15) with
the loss of 12,000 men. Joubert perished in the battle. The
growing friction between Austria and Russia led to the transfer-
ence of Suvarov and his Russians to Switzerland, with results
which were to be fatal to the allies in that quarter. But in Italy
the Austrian successes continued. Melas defeated Championnet
near Coni on the 4th of November; and a little later the French
garrisons at Ancona and Coni surrendered. The tricolour,
which floated triumphantly over all the strongholds of Italy
early in the year, at its close waved only over Genoa, where
Massena prepared for a stubborn defence. Nice and Savoy
also seemed at the mercy of the invaders. Everywhere the old
order of things was restored. The death of the aged Pope
Pius VI. at Valence (August 29, 1799) deprived the French of
whatever advantage they had hoped to gain by dra.gging him
into exile; on the 24th of March 1800 the conclave, assembled
for greater security on the island of San Giorgio at Venice, elected
a new pontiff, Pius VII.
Such was the position of affairs when Bonaparte returned
from Egypt and landed at Frejus. The contrast presented by
his triumphs, whether real or imaginary, to the reverses
Campaign sustained by the armies of the French directory, was
Marengo. fatal to that body and to popular institutions in France.
After the coup d'&tat of Brumaire (November 1799) he,
as First Consul, began to organize an expedition against the
Austrians (Russia having now retired from the coalition), in
northern Italy. The campaign culminating at Marengo was
the result. By that triumph (due to Desaix and Kellermann
rather than directly to him), Bonaparte consolidated his own
position in France and again laid Italy at his feet. The Austrian
general, Melas, signed an armistice whereby he was to retire
with his army beyond the river Mincio. Ten days earlier,
namely on the 4th of June, Massena had been compelled by
hunger to capitulate at Genoa; but the success at Marengo,
followed up by that of Macdonald in north Italy, and Moreau
at Hohenlinden (December 2, 1800), brought the emperor
Francis to sue for peace which was finally concluded
at Luneville on the 9th of February 1801. The £™£«fe
Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics (reconstituted soon
after Marengo) were recognized by Austria on condition that they
were independent of France. The rule of Pius VII. over the
Papal States was admitted; and Italian affairs were arranged
much as they were at Campo Formio: Modena and Tuscany
now reverted to French control, their former rulers being promised
compensation in Germany. Naples, easily worsted by the French,
under Miollis, left the British alliance, and made peace by the
treaty of Florence (March 1801), agreeing to withdraw her
troops from the Papal States, to cede Piombino and the Presidii
(in Tuscany) to France and to close her ports to British ships and
commerce. King Ferdinand also had to accept a French garrison
at Taranto, and other points in the south.
Other changes took place in that year, all of them in favour
of France. By complex and secret bargaining with the court
of Madrid, Bonaparte procured the cession to France Napoleon'*
of Louisiana, in North America, and Parma; while reorgan-
the duke of Parma (husband of an infanta of Spain) '"Won of
was promoted by him to the duchy of Tuscany, now IMy'
renamed the kingdom of Etruria. Piedmont was declared to be
a military division at the disposal of France (April 21, 1801);
and on the 2ist of September 1802, Bonaparte, then First Consul
for life, issued a decree for its definitive incorporation in the
French Republic. About that time, too, Elba fell into the hands
of Napoleon. Piedmont was organized in six departments on
the model of those of France, and a number of French veterans
were settled by Napoleon in and near the fortress of Alessandria.
Besides copying the Roman habit of planting military colonies,
the First Consul imitated the old conquerors of the world by
extending and completing the road-system of his outlying
districts, especially at those important passes, the Mont Cenis
and Simplon. He greatly improved the rough track over the
Simplon Pass, so that, when finished in 1807, it was practicable
for artillery. Milan was the terminus of the road, and the
construction of the Foro Buonaparte and the completion of the
cathedral added dignity to the Lombard capital. The Corniche
road was improved; and public works in various parts of
Piedmont, and the Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics attested
the foresight and wisdom of the great organizer of industry and
quickener of human energies. The universities of Pavia and
Bologna were reopened and made great progress in this time of
peace and growing prosperity. Somewhat later the Pavia canal
was begun in order to connect Lake Como with the Adriatic
for barge-traffic.
The personal nature of the tie binding Italy to France was
illustrated by a curious incident of the winter of 1802-1803.
Bonaparte, now First Consul for life, felt strong enough to impose
his will on the Cisalpine Republic and to set at defiance one of
the stipulations of the treaty of Lun6ville. On the pretext of
consolidating that republic, he invited 450 of its leading men to
come to Lyons to a consulta. In reality he and his agents had
already provided for the passing of proposals which were agree-
able to him. The deputies having been dazzled by fetes and
reviews, Talleyrand and Marescalchi, ministers of foreign affairs
at Paris and Milan, plied them with hints as to the course to be
followed by the consulta; and, despite the rage of the more
democratic of their number, everything corresponded to the
wishes of the First Consul. It remained to find a chief. Very
many were in favour of Count Melzi, a Lombard noble, who had
been chief of the executive at Milan; but again Talleyrand and
French agents set to work on behalf of their master, with the
result that he was elected president for ten years. He accepted
that office because, as he frankly informed the deputies, he kad
found no one who " for his services rendered to his country,
his authority with the people and his separation from party
ITALY
[THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD
has deserved such an office." Melzi was elected vice-president
with merely honorary {unctions. The constitution comprised a
consulta charged with executive duties, a legislative body of
150 members and a court charged with the maintenance of the
fundamental laws. These three bodies were to be chosen by
three electoral colleges consisting of (a) landed proprietors,
(b) learned men and clerics, (c) merchants and traders, holding
their sessions biennially at Milan, Bologna and Brescia re-
spectively. In practice the consulta could override the legis-
lature; and, as the consulta was little more than the organ of
the president, the whole constitution may be pronounced as
autocratic as that of France after the changes brought about
by Bonaparte in August 1802. Finally we must note that the
Cisalpine now took the name of the Italian Republic, and that
by a concordat with the pope, Bonaparte regulated its relations
to the Holy See in a manner analogous to that adopted in the
famous French concordat promulgated at Easter 1802 (see
CONCORDAT). It remains to add that the Ligurian Republic
and that of Lucca remodelled their constitutions in a way some-
what similar to that of the Cisalpine.
Bonaparte's ascendancy did not pass unchallenged. Many of
the Italians retained their enthusiasm for democracy and national
independence. In 1803 movements in these directions
to°k P'ace at Rimini, Brescia and Bologna; but they
were sharply repressed, and most Italians came to
acquiesce in the Napoleonic supremacy as inevitable and indeed
beneficial. The complete disregard shown by Napoleon for one
of the chief conditions of the treaty of Lun6ville (February
1801) — that stipulating for the independence of the Ligurian
and Cisalpine Republics — became more and more apparent
every year. Alike in political and commercial affairs they were
for all practical purposes dependencies of France. Finally,
after the proclamation of the French empire (May 18, 1804)
Napoleon proposed to place his brother Joseph over the Italian
state, which now took the title of kingdom of Italy. On Joseph
declining, Napoleon finally decided to accept the crown which
Melzi, Marescalchi, Serbelloni and others begged him to assume.
Accordingly, on the 26th of May 1805, in the cathedral at Milan,
he crowned himself with the iron crown of the old Lombard
kings, using the traditional formula, " God gave it me: let him
beware who touches it." On the yth of June he appointed his
step-son, Eugene Beauharnais, to be viceroy. Eugene soon found
that his chief duty was to enforce the will of Napoleon. The
legislature at Milan having ventured to alter some details of
taxation, Eugene received the following rule of conduct from his
step-father: " Your system of government is simple: the
emperor wills it to be thus." Republicanism was now every-
where discouraged. The little republic of Lucca, along with
Piombino, was now awarded as a principality by the emperor
to Elisa Bonaparte and her husband, Bacciocchi.
In June 1805 there came a last and intolerable affront to the
emperors of Austria and Russia, who at that very time were
seeking to put bounds to Napoleon's ambition and to redress
the balance of power. The French emperor, at the supposed
request of the doge of Genoa, declared the Ligurian Republic
to be an integral part of the French empire. This defiance to
the sovereigns of Russia and Austria rekindled the flames of
war. The third coalition was formed between Great Britain,
Russia and Austria, Naples soon joining its ranks.
For the chief events of the ensuing campaigns see NAPOLEONIC
CAMPAIGNS. While Mass6na pursued the Austrians into their
own lands at the close of 1805, Italian forces under EugSne
and Gouvion St Cyr (q.v.) held their ground against allied forces
landed at Naples. After Austerlitz (December 2, 1805)
Austria made peace by the treaty of Pressburg, ceding to the
kingdom of Italy her part of Venetia along with the provinces
of Istria and Dalmatia. Napoleon then turned fiercely against
Maria Carolina of Naples upbraiding her with her " perfidy."
He sent Joseph Bonaparte and Massena southwards with a
strong column, compelled the Anglo-Russian forces to evacuate
Naples, and occupied the south of the peninsula with little
opposition except at the fortress of Gaeta. The Bourbon court
sailed away to Palermo, where it remained for eight years
under the protection afforded by the British fleet and a
British army of occupation. On the i$th of February
1806 Joseph Bonaparte entered Naples in triumph, his Bonaparte
troops capturing there two hundred pieces of cannon. /0 Naples.
Gaeta, however, held out stoutly against the French.
Sir Sidney Smith with a British squadron captured Capri
(February 1806), and the peasants of the Abruzzi and Calabria
soon began to give trouble. Worst of all was the arrival of a
small British force hi Calabria under Sir John Stuart, which
beat off with heavy loss an attack imprudently delivered by
General Reynier on level ground near the village of Maida
(July 4). The steady volleys of Kempt's light infantry
were fatal to the French, who fell back in disorder under a
bayonet charge of the victors, with the loss of some 2700 men.
Calabria now rose in revolt against King Joseph, and the peasants
dealt out savage reprisals to the French troops. On the i8th
of July, however, Gaeta surrendered to Massena, and that
marshal, now moving rapidly southwards, extricated Reynier,
crushed the Bourbon rising in Calabria with great barbarity,
and compelled the British force to re-embark for Sicily. At
Palermo Queen Maria Carolina continued to make vehement
but futile efforts for the overthrow of King Joseph.
It is more important to observe that under Joseph and his
ministers or advisers, including the Frenchmen Roederer,
Dumas, Miot de Melito and the Corsican Saliceti, great progress
was made* in abolishing feudal laws and customs, in reforming
the judicial procedure and criminal laws on the model of the
Code Napolion, and in attempting the beginnings of elementary
education. More questionable was Joseph's policy in closing
and confiscating the property of 213 of the richer monasteries
of the land. The monks were pensioned off, but though the
confiscated property helped to fill the empty coffers of the state,
the measure aroused widespread alarm and resentment among
that superstitious people.
The peace of Tilsit (July 7, 1807) enabled Napoleon to press
on his projects for securing the command of the Mediterranean,
thenceforth a fundamental axiom of his policy. Consequently,
in the autumn of 1807 he urged on Joseph the adoption of vigorous
measures for the capture of Sicily. Already, in the negotiations
with England during the summer of 1806, the emperor had shown
his sense of the extreme importance of gaining possession of
that island, which indeed caused the breakdown of the peace
proposals then being considered; and now he ordered French
squadrons into the Mediterranean in order to secure Corfu and
Sicily. His plans respecting Corfu succeeded. That island and
some of the adjacent isles fell into the hands of the French
(some of them were captured by British troops in 1809-10);
but Sicily remained unassailable. Capri, however, fell to the
French on the i8th of October 1808, shortly after the arrival
at Naples of the new king, Murat.
This ambitious marshal, brother-in-law of Napoleon, foiled
in his hope of gaining the crown of Spain, received that of Naples
in the summer of 1808, Joseph Bonaparte being moved
from Naples to Madrid. This arrangement pleased Kingot
neither of the relatives of the emperor; but his will Naples,
now was law on the continent. Joseph left Naples on
the 23rd of May 1808; but it was not until the 6th of September
that Joachim Murat made his entry. A fortnight later his
consort Caroline arrived, and soon showed a vigour and restless-
ness of spirit which frequently clashed with the dictates of her
brother, the emperor and the showy, unsteady policy of her
consort. The Spanish national rising of 1808 and thereafter
the Peninsular War diverted Napoleon's attention from the
affairs of south Italy. In June 1809, during his campaign
against Austria, Sir John Stuart with an Anglo-Sicilian force
sailed northwards, captured Ischia and threw Murat into great
alarm; but on the news of the Austrian defeat at Wagram,
Stuart sailed back again.
It is now time to turn to the affairs of central Italy. Early in
1808 Napoleon proceeded with plans which he had secretly
concerted after the treaty of Tilsit for transferring the infanta
THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD]
ITALY
47
Central
Italy.
of Spain who, after the death of her consort, reigned at Florence
on behalf of her young son, Charles Louis, from her kingdom of
Etruria to the little principality of Entre Douro e
Minho which he proposed to carve out from the north
of Portugal. Etruria reverted to the French empire,
but the Spanish princess and her son did not receive the promised
indemnity. Elisa Bonaparte and her husband, Bacciocchi,
rulers of Lucca and Piombino, became the heads of the admini-
stration in Tuscany, Elisa showing decided governing capacity.
The last part of the peninsula to undergo the .Gallicizing influ-
ence was the papal dominion. For some time past the relations
between Napoleon and the pope, Pius VII., had been
severety strained, chiefly because the emperor insisted
Papac. on controlling the church, both in France and in the
kingdom of Italy, in a way inconsistent with the
traditions of the Vatican, but also because the pontiff refused to
grant the divorce between Jerome Bonaparte and the former
Miss Patterson on which Napoleon early in the year 1806 laid so
much stress. -These and other disputes led the emperor, as
successor of Charlemagne, to treat the pope in a very high-
handed way. " Your Holiness (he wrote) is sovereign of Rome,
but I am its emperor "; and he threatened to annul the pre-
sumed " donation " of Rome by Charlemagne, unless the pope
yielded implicit obedience to him in all temporal affairs. He
further exploited the Charlemagne tradition for the benefit of
the continental system, that great engine of commercial war by
which he hoped to assure the ruin of England. This aim prompted
the annexation of Tuscany, and his intervention in the affairs of
the Papal States. To this the pope assented under pressure
from Napoleon; but the latter soon found other pretexts for
intervention, and in February 1808 a French column under
Miollis occupied Rome, and deposed the papal authorities.
Against this violence Pius VII. protested in vain. Napoleon
sought to push matters to an extreme, and on the 2nd of April
Atiaexa- ne adopted the rigorous measure of annexing to the
iion of the kingdom of Italy the papal provinces of Ancona,
Papal Urbino, Macerata and Camerina. This measure, which
States. seemed to the pious an act of sacrilege, and to Italian
patriots an outrage on the only independent sovereign of the
peninsula, sufficed for the present. The outbreak of war in
Spain, followed by the rupture with Austria in the spring of 1809,
distracted the attention of the emperor. But after the occupation
of Vienna the conqueror dated from that capital on the 1 7th of
May 1809 a decree virtually annexing Rome and the Patri-
monium Petri to the French empire. Here again he cited the
action of Charlemagne, his " august predecessor," who had
merely given " certain domains to the bishops of Rome as fiefs,
though Rome did not thereby cease to be part of his empire."
In reply the pope prepared a bull of excommunication against
those who should infringe the prerogatives of the Holy See in
this matter. Thereupon the French general, Miollis, who still
occupied Rome, caused the pope to be arrested and carried him
away northwards into Tuscany, thence to Savona; finally he was
taken, at Napoleon's orders, to Fontainebleau. Thus, a second
time, fell the temporal power of the papacy. By an imperial
decree of the i7th of February 1810, Rome and the neighbouring
districts, including Spoleto, became part of the French empire.
Rome thenceforth figured as its second city, and entered upon
a new life under the administration of French officials. The
Roman territory was divided into two departments — the Tiber
and Trasimenus; the Code Napoleon was introduced, public works
were set on foot and great advance was made in the material
sphere. Nevertheless the harshness with which the emperor
treated the Roman clergy and suppressed the monasteries
caused deep resentment to the orthodox.
There is no need to detail the fortunes of the Napoleonic states
in Italy. One and all they underwent the influences emanating
Character ^rom Pa"s; and in respect to civil administration,
ofNapo- law, judicial procedure, education and public works,
/eon's they all experienced great benefits, the results of which
rute- never wholly disappeared. On the other hand, they
suffered from the rigorous measures of the continental system,
which seriously crippled trade at the ports and were not com-
pensated by the increased facilities for trade with France which
Napoleon opened up. The drain of men to supply his armies in
Germany, Spain and Russia was also a serious loss. A powerful
Italian corps marched under Eugene Beauharnais to Moscow,
and distinguished itself at Malo-Jaroslavitz, as also during the
horrors of the retreat in the closing weeks of 1812. It is said that
out of 27,000 Italians who entered Russia with Eugene, only 333
saw their country again. That campaign marked the beginning of
the end for the Napoleonic domination in Italy as else- collapse
where. Murat, left in command of the Grand Army at ofNapo-
Vilna, abandoned his charge and in the next year made /eon's
overtures to the allies who coalesced against Napoleon. rule'
For his vacillations at this time and his final fate, see MURAT.
Here it must suffice to say that the uncertainty caused by his
policy in 1813-1814 had no small share in embarrassing Napoleon
and in precipitating the downfall of his power in Italy. Eugene
Beauharnais, viceroy of the kingdom of Italy, showed both
constancy and courage; but after the battle of Leipzig (October
16-19, 1813) his power crumbled away under the assaults of
the now victorious Austrians. By an arrangement with Bavaria,
they were able to march through Tirol and down the valley of the
Adige in force, and overpowered the troops of Eugene whose
position was fatally compromised by the defection of Murat and
the dissensions among the Italians. Very many of them, distrust-
ing both of these kings, sought to act independently in favour
of an Italian republic. Lord William Bentinck with an Anglo-
Sicilian force landed at Leghorn on the 8th of March 1814, and
issued a proclamation to the Italians bidding them rise against
Napoleon in the interests of their own freedom. A little later he
gained possession of Genoa. Amidst these schisms the defence
of Italy collapsed. On the i6th of AprH 1814 Eugene, on hearing
of Napoleon's overthrow at Paris, signed an armistice at Mantua
by which he was enabled to send away the French troops beyond
the Alps and entrust himself to the consideration of the allies.
The Austrians, under General Bellegarde, entered Milan without
resistance; and this event precluded the restoration of the old
political order.
The arrangements made by the allies in accordance with the
treaty of Paris (June 12, 1814) and the Final Act of the congress
of Vienna (June 9, 1815), imposed on Italy boundaries which,
roughly speaking, corresponded to those of the pre-Napoleonic
era. To the kingdom of Sardinia, now reconstituted under
Victor Emmanuel I., France ceded its old provinces, Savoy and
Nice; and the allies, especially Great Britain and Austria,
insisted on the addition to that monarchy of the territories of
the former republic of Genoa, in respect of which the king took
the title of duke of Genoa, in order to strengthen it for the duty
of acting as a buffer state between France and the smaller states
of central Italy. Austria recovered the Milanese, and all the
possessions of the old Venetian Republic on the mainland,
including Istria and Dalmatia. The Ionian Islands, formerly
belonging to Venice, were, by a treaty signed at Paris on the
5th of November 1815, placed under the protection of Great
Britain. By an instrument signed on the 24th of April 1815,
the Austrian territories in north Italy were erected into the
kingdom of Lombardo-Venetia, which, though an integral part
of the Austrian empire, was to enjoy a separate administration,
the symbol of its separate individuality being the coronation
of the emperors with the ancient iron crown of Lombardy
(" Proclamation de 1'empereur d'Autriche, &c.," April 7, 1815,
State Papers, ii. 906). Francis IV., son of the archduke
Ferdinand of Austria and Maria Beatrice, daughter of Ercole
Rinaldo, the last of the Estensi, was reinstated as duke of
Modena. Parma and Piacenza were assigned to Marie Louise,
daughter of the Austrian emperor and wife of Napoleon, on
behalf of her son, the little Napoleon, but by subsequent arrange-
ments (1816-1817) the duchy was to revert at her death to the
Bourbons of Parma, then reigning at Lucca. Tuscany was
restored to the grand-duke Ferdinand III. of Habsburg-Lorraine.
The duchy of Lucca was given to Marie Louise of Bourbon-
Parma, who; at the death of Marie Louise of Austria, would
ITALY
[THE RISORGIMENTO
return to Parma, when Lucca would be handed over to Tuscany.
The pope, Pius VII., who had long been kept under restraint
by Napoleon at Fontainebleau, returned to Rome in May 1814,
and was recognized by the congress of Vienna (not without
some demur on the part of Austria) as the sovereign of all the
former possessions of the Holy See. Ferdinand IV. of Naples,
not long after the death of his consort, Maria Carolina, in Austria,
returned from Sicily to take possession of his dominions on the
mainland. He received them back in their entirety at the hands
of the powers, who recognized his new title of Ferdinand I. of
the Two Sicilies. The rash attempt of Murat in the autumn of
1815, which led to his death at Pizzo in Calabria, enabled the
Bourbon dynasty to crush malcontents with all the greater
severity. The reaction, which was dull and heavy in the
dominions of the pope and of Victor Emmanuel, systematically
harsh in the Austrian states of the north, and comparatively
mild in Parma and Tuscany, excited the greatest loathing in
southern Italy and Sicily, because there it was directed by a
dynasty which had aroused feelings of hatred mingled with
contempt.
There were special reasons why Sicily should harbour these
feelings against the Bourbons. During eight years (1806-1814)
the chief places of the island had been garrisoned by British
troops; and the commander of the force which upheld the
tottering rule of Ferdinand at Palermo naturally had great
authority. The British government, which awarded a large
annual subsidy to the king and queen at Palermo, claimed to
have some control over the administration. Lord William
Bentinck finally took over large administrative powers, seeing
that Ferdinand, owing to his dulness, and Maria Carolina, owing
to her very suspicious intrigues with Napoleon, could never be
trusted. The contest between the royal power and that of the
Sicilian estates threatened to bring matters to a deadlock, until
in 1812, under the impulse of Lord William Bentinck, a con-
stitution modelled largely on that of England was passed by
the estates. After the retirement of the British troops in 1814
the constitution lapsed, and the royal authority became once
more absolute. But the memory of the benefits conferred by
" the English constitution " remained fresh and green amidst
the arid waste of repression which followed. It lived on as one
of the impalpable but powerful influences which spurred on the
Sicilians and the democrats of Naples to the efforts which they
put forth in 1821, 1830, 1848 and 1860.
This result, accruing from British intervention, was in some
respects similar to that exerted by Napoleon on the Italians of
the mainland. The brutalities of Austria's white coats in the
north, the unintelligent repression then characteristic of the
house of Savoy, the petty spite of the duke of Modena, the
medieval obscurantism of pope and cardinals in the middle of the
peninsula and the clownish excesses of Ferdinand in the south,
could not blot out from the minds of the Italians the recollection
of the benefits derived from the just laws, vigorous administra-
tion and enlightened aims of the great emperor. The hard but
salutary training which they had undergone at his hands had
taught them that they were the equals of the northern races
both in the council chamber and on the field of battle. It had
further revealed to them that truth, which once grasped can
never be forgotten, that, despite differences of climate, character
and speech, they were in all essentials a nation. (J. HL. R.)
E. THE RISORGIMENTO, 1815-1870
As the result of the Vienna treaties, Austria became the real
mistress of Italy. Not only did she govern Lombardy and
Venetia directly, but Austrian princes ruled in Modena, Parma
and Tuscany; Piacenza, Ferrara and Comacchio had Austrian
garrisons; Prince Metternich, the Austrian chancellor, believed
that he could always secure the election of an Austrophil pope,
and Ferdinand of Naples, reinstated by an Austrian army,
had bound himself, by a secret article of the treaty of June 12,
1815, not to introduce methods of government incompatible
with those adopted in Austria's Italian possessions. Austria
also concluded offensive and defensive alliances with Sardinia,
Tuscany and Naples; and Metternich 's ambition was to make
Austrian predominance over Italy still more absolute, by placing
an Austrian archduke on the Sardinian throne.
Victor Emmanuel I., the king of Sardinia, was the only native
ruler in the peninsula, and the Savoy dynasty was popular with
all classes. But although welcomed with enthusiasm
i • m • i • » i KCSCltOu
on his return to Tunn, he introduced a system of lathe
reaction which, if less brutal, was no less uncom- Italian
promising than that of Austrian archdukes or Bourbon states-
princes. His object was to restore his dominions to the condi-
tions preceding the French occupation. The French system of
taxation was maintained because it brought in ampler revenues;
but feudalism, the antiquated legislation and bureaucracy were
revived, and all the officers and officials still living who had served
the state before the Revolution, many of them now in their
dotage, were restored to their posts; only nobles were eligible for
the higher government appointments; all who had served under
the French administration were dismissed or reduced in rank;
and in the army beardless scions of the aristocracy were placed
over the heads of war-worn veterans who had commanded
regiments in Spain and Russia. The influence of a bigoted
priesthood was re-established, and " every form of intellectual
and moral torment, everything save actual persecution and
physical torture that could be inflicted on the ' impure ' was
inflicted " (Cesare Balbo's Autobiography). All this soon pro-
voked discontent among the educated classes. In Genoa the
government was particularly unpopular, for the Genoese resented
being handed over to their old enemy Piedmont like a flock of
sheep. Nevertheless the king strongly disliked the Austrians,
and would willingly have seen them driven from Italy.
In Lombardy French rule had ended by making itself un-
popular, and even before the fall of Napoleon a national party,
called the Ilalici puri, had begun to advocate the
independence of Lombardy, or even its union with
Sardinia. At first a part of the population were
content with Austrian rule, which provided an honest
and efficient administration; but the rigid system of centraliza-
tion which, while allowing the semblance of local autonomy,
sent every minute question for settlement to Vienna; the
severe police methods; the bureaucracy, in which the best
appointments were usually conferred on Germans or Slavs
wholly dependent on Vienna, proved galling to the people, and
in view of the growing disaffection the country was turned
into a vast armed camp. In Modena Duke Francis proved
a cruel tyrant. In Parma, on the other hand, there was
very little oppression, the French codes were retained, and
the council of state was consulted on all legislative matters.
Lucca too enjoyed good government, and the peasantry were
well cared for and prosperous. In Tuscany the rule of Ferdinand
and of his minister Fossombroni was mild and benevolent,
but enervating and demoralizing. The Papal States were
ruled by a unique system of theocracy, for not only the head of
the state but all the more important officials were ecclesiastics,
assisted by the Inquisition, the Index and all the paraphernalia
of medieval church government. The administration
was inefficient and corrupt, the censorship uncom-
promising, the police ferocious and oppressive, although
quite unable to cope with the prevalent anarchy and brigandage;
the antiquated pontifical statutes took the place of the French
laws, and every vestige of the vigorous old communal independ-
ence was swept away. In Naples King Ferdinand retained
some of the laws and institutions of Murat's regime, and many
of the functionaries of the former government entered Ng fc
his service; but he revived the Bourbon tradition,
the odious police system and the censorship; and a degrading
religious bigotry, to which the masses were all too much inclined,
became the basis of government and social life. The upper
classes were still to a large extent inoculated with French ideas,
but the common people were either devoted to the dynasty or
indifferent. In Sicily, which for centuries had enjoyed a feudal
constitution modernized and Anglicized under British auspices
in 1812, and where anti-Neapolitan feeling was strong, autonomy
THE RISORGIMENTO]
ITALY
49
was suppressed, the constitution abolished in 1816, and the
island, as a reward for its fidelity to the dynasty, converted into
a Neapolitan province governed by Neapolitan bureaucrats.
To the mass of the people the restoration of the old govern-
ments undoubtedly brought a sense of relief, for the terrible
drain in men and money caused by Napoleon's wars had caused
much discontent, whereas now there was a prospect of peace and
rest. But the restored governments in their terror of revolution
would not realize that the late regime had wafted a breath of
new life over the country and left ineffaceable traces in the way
of improved laws, efficient administration, good roads and the
sweeping away of old {(buses; while the new-born idea of
Italian unity, strengthened by a national pride revived on many
a stricken field from Madrid to Moscow, was a force to be
reckoned with. The oppression and follies of the restored
governments made men forget the evils of French rule and
remember only its good side. The masses were still more or
less indifferent, but among the nobility and the educated middle
Secret classes, cut off from all part in free political life, there
societies, was developed either the spirit of despair at Italy's
The Car- morai degradation, as expressed in the writings of
Foscolo and Leopardi, or a passion of hatred and
revolt, which found its manifestation, in spite of severe laws,
in the development of secret societies. The most important of
these were the Carbonari lodges, whose objects were the expulsion
of the foreigner and the achievement of constitutional freedom
(see CARBONARI).
When Ferdinand returned to Naples in 1815 he found the
kingdom, and especially the army, honeycombed with Carbonar-
Revolu- ism> to wmcn many noblemen and officers were
tloa la affiliated; and although the police instituted prosecu-
Napies, tions and organized the counter-movement of the
1820, Calderai, who may be compared to the " Black
Hundreds " of modern Russia, the revolutionary spirit continued
to grow, but it was not at first anti-dynastic. The granting
of the Spanish constitution of 1820 proved the signal for the
beginning of the Italian liberationist movement; a military
mutiny led by two officers, Silvati and Morelli, and the priest
Menichini, broke out at Monteforte, to the cry of " God, the
King, and the Constitution!" The troops sent against them
commanded by General Guglielmo Pepe, himself a Carbonaro,
hesitated to act, and the king, finding that he could not rount
on the army, granted the constitution (July 13, 1820), and
appointed his son Francis regent. The events that followed
are described in the article on the history Of Naples (q.v.). Not
only did the constitution, which was modelled on the impossible
Spanish constitution of 1812, prove unworkable, but the powers
of the Grand Alliance, whose main object was to keep the peace
of Europe, felt themselves bound to interfere to prevent the evil
precedent of a successful military revolution. The diplomatic
developments that led to the intervention of Austria are sketched
elsewhere (see EUROPE : History) ; in general the result of the
deliberations of the congresses of Troppau and Laibach was to
establish, not the general right of intervention claimed in the
Troppau Protocol, but the special right of Austria to safeguard
her interests in Italy. The defeat of General Pepe by the
Austrians at Rieti (March 7, 1821) and the re-establishment
of King Ferdinand's autocratic power under the protection of
Austrian bayonets were the effective assertion of this principle.
The movement in Naples had been purely local, for the
Neapolitan Carbonari had at that time no thought save of
Naples; it was, moreover, a movement of the mid die
revolt la anc^ uPPer classes in which the masses took little
Piedmont, interest. Immediately after the battle of Rieti a
Carbonarist mutiny broke out in Piedmont independ-
ently of events in the south. Both King Victor Emmanuel and
his brother Charles Felix had no sons, and the heir presumptive
to the throne was Prince Charles Albert, of the Carignano
branch of the house of Savoy. Charles Albert felt a certain
interest in Liberal ideas and was always surrounded by young
nobles of Carbonarist and anti-Austrian tendencies, and was
therefore regarded with suspicion by his royal relatives. Metter-
nich, too, had an instinctive dislike for him, and proposed to
exclude him from the succession by marrying one of the king's
daughters to Francis of Modena, and getting the Salic law
abolished so that the succession would pass to the duke and
Austria would thus dominate Piedmont. The Liberal movement
had gained ground in Piedmont as in Naples among the younger
nobles and officers, and the events of Spain and southern Italy
aroused much excitement. In March 1821, Count Santorre di
Santarosa and other conspirators informed Charles Albert of a
constitutional and anti-Austrian plot, and asked for his help.
After a momentary hesitation he informed the king; but at
his request no arrests were made, and no precautions were
taken. On the loth of March the garrison of Alessandria
mutinied, and its example was followed on the I2th by that
of Turin, where the Spanish constitution was demanded, and
the black, red and blue flag of the Carbonari paraded the streets.
The next day the king abdicated after appointing Charles Albert
regent. The latter immediately proclaimed the constitution,
but the new king, Charles Felix, who was at Modena at the time,
repudiated the regent's acts and exiled him to Tuscany; and,
with his consent, an Austrian army invaded Piedmont and
crushed the constitutionalists at Novara. Many of the con-
spirators were condemned to death, but all succeeded in escaping.
Charles Felix was most indignant with the ex-regent, but he
resented, as an unwarrantable interference, Austria's attempt
to have him excluded from the succession at the congress of
Verona (1822). Charles Albert's somewhat equivocal conduct
also roused the hatred of the Liberals, and for a long time the
esecrato Carignano was regarded, most unjustly, as a traitor
even by many who were not republicans.
Carbonarism had been introduced into Lombardy by two
Romagnols, Count Laderchi and Pietro Maroncelli, but the
leader of the movement was Count F. Confalonieri,
who was in favour of an Italian federation composed ^"0^m
of northern Italy under the house of Savoy, central hardy.
Italy under the pppe, and the kingdom of Naples.
There had been some mild plotting against Austria in Milan,
and an attempt was made to co-operate with the Piedmontese
movement of 1821; already in 1820 Maroncelli and the poet
Silvio Pellico had been arrested as Carbonari, and after the
movement in Piedmont more arrests were made. The mission
of Gaetano Castiglia and Marquis Giorgio Pallavicini to Turin,
where they had interviewed Charles Albert, although without
any definite result — for Confalonieri had warned the prince that
Lombardy was not ready to rise — was accidentally discovered,
and Confalonieri was himself arrested. The plot would never
have been a menace to Austria but for her treatment of the
conspirators. Pellico and Maroncelli were immured in the
Spielberg; Confalonieri and two dozen others were condemned
to death, their sentences being, however, commuted to imprison-
ment in that same terrible fortress. The heroism of the prisoners,
and Silvio Pellico's account of his imprisonment (Le mie Prigioni),
did much to enlist the sympathy of Europe for the Italian cause.
During the next few years order reigned in Italy, save for a
few unimportant outbreaks in the Papal States; there was,
however, perpetual discontent and agitation, especially ne Papal
in Romagna, where misgovernment was extreme, states.
Under Pius VII. and his minister Cardinal Consalvi
oppression had not been very severe, and Metternich's proposal
to establish a central inquisitorial tribunal for political offences
throughout Italy had been rejected by the papal government.
But on the death of Pius in 1823, his successor Leo XII. (Cardinal
Delia Genga) proved a ferocious reactionary under whom
barbarous laws were enacted and torture frequently applied.
The secret societies, such as the Carbonari, the Adelfi and the
Bersaglieri d' America, which flourished in Romagna, replied
to these persecutions by assassinating the more brutal officials
ans spies. The events of 1820-1821 increased the agitation in
Romagna, and in 1825 large numbers of persons were condemned
to death, imprisonment or exile. The society of the Sanfedisti,
formed of the dregs of the populace, whose object was to murder
every Liberal, was openly protected and encouraged. Leo died
ITALY
[THE RISORGIMENTO
in 1829, and the mild, religious Pius VIII. (Cardinal Castiglioni)
only reigned until 1830, when Gregory XVI. (Cardinal Cappellari)
was elected through 'Austrian influence, and proved another
zelante. The July revolution in Paris and the declara-
. tion of the new king, Louis Philippe, that France, as
1830. a Liberal monarchy, would not only not intervene
in the internal affairs of other countries, but would
not permit other powers to do so, aroused great hopes among the
oppressed peoples, and was the immediate cause of a revolution
in Romagna and the Marches. In February 1831 these provinces
rose, raised the red, white and green tricolor (which henceforth
took the place of the Carbonarist colours as the Italian flag),
and shook off the papal yoke with surprising ease.1 At Parma
too there was an outbreak and a demand for the constitution;
Marie Louise could not grant it because of her engagements
with Austria, and, therefore, abandoned her dominions. In
Modena Duke Francis, ambitious of enlarging his territories,
coquetted with the Carbonari of Paris, and opened indirect
negotiations with Menotti, the revolutionary leader in his state,
believing that he might assist him in his plans. Menotti, for
his part, conceived the idea of a united Italian state under the
duke. A rising was organized for February 1831; but Francis
got wind of it, and, repenting of his dangerous dallying with
revolution, arrested Menotti and fled to Austrian territory with
his prisoner. In his absence the insurrection took place, and
Biagio Nardi, having been elected dictator, proclaimed that
" Italy is one; the Italian nation one sole nation." But the
French king soon abandoned his principle of non-intervention
on which the Italian revolutionists had built their hopes; the
Austrians intervened unhindered; the old governments were
re-established in Parma, Modena and Romagna; and Menotti
and many other patriots were hanged. The Austrians evacuated
Romagna in July, but another insurrection having broken out
immediately afterwards which the papal troops were unable
to quell, they returned. This second intervention gave umbrage
to France, who by way of a counterpoise sent, a force to occupy
Ancona. These two foreign occupations, which were almost
as displeasing to the pope as to the Liberals, lasted until 1838.
The powers, immediately after the revolt, presented a memor-
andum to Gregory recommending certain moderate reforms,
but no attention was paid to it. These various movements
proved in the first place that the masses were by no means ripe
for revolution, and that the idea of unity, although now advocated
by a few revolutionary leaders, was far from being generally
accepted even by the Liberals; and, secondly, that, in spite of
the indifference of the masses, the despotic governments were
unable to hold their own without the assistance of foreign
bayonets.
On the 2yth of April 1831, Charles Albert succeeded Charles
Felix on the throne of Piedmont. Shortly afterwards he received
Mazziai a Iett;er from an unknown person, in which he was
.•„/,/ exhorted with fiery eloquence to place himself at the
11 Young head of the movement for liberating and uniting
Italy and expelling the foreigner, and told that he
Italy.'
was free to choose whether he would be " the first of men or the
last of Italian tyrants." The author was Giuseppe Mazzini,
then a young man of twenty-six years, who, though in theory a
republican, was ready to accept the leadership of a prince of
the house of Savoy if he would guide the nation to freedom.
The only result of his letter, however, was that he was forbidden
to re-enter Sardinian territory. Mazzini, who had learned to
distrust Carbonarism owing to its lack of a guiding principle
and its absurd paraphernalia of ritual and mystery, had conceived
the idea of a more serious political association for the emancipa-
tion of his country not only from foreign and domestic despotism
but from national faults of character; and tl)is idea he had
materialized in the organization of a society called the Giovane
Italia (Young Italy) among the Italian refugees at Marseilles.
After the events of 1831 he declared that the liberation of Italy
could only be achieved through unity, and his great merit lies
1 Among the insurgents of Romagna was Louis Napoleon, after-
wards emperor of the French.
in having inspired a large number of Italians with that idea at
a time when provincial jealousies and the difficulty of communica-
tions maintained separatist feelings. Young Italy spread to
all centres of Italian exiles, and by means of literature carried
on an active propaganda in Italy itself, where the party came
to be called " Ghibellini," as though reviving the traditions
of medieval anti-Papalism. Though eventually this activity
of the Giovane Italia supplanted that of the older societies,
in practice it met with no better success; the two attempts
to invade Savoy in the hope of seducing the army from its
allegiance failed miserably, and only resulted in a series of
barbarous sentences of death and imprisonment which made
most Liberals despair of Charles Albert, while they called down
much criticism on Mazzini as the organizer of raids in which
he himself took no part. He was now forced to leave France,
but continued his work of agitation from London. The disorders
in Naples and Sicily in 1837 had no connexion with Mazzini,
but the forlorn hope of the brothers Bandiera, who in 1844
landed on the Calabrian coast, was the work of the Giovane
Italia. The rebels were captured and shot, but the significance
of the attempt lies in the fact that it was the first occasion on
which north Italians (the Bandieras were Venetians and officers
in the Austrian navy) had tried to raise the standard of revolt
in the south.
Romagna had continued a prey to anarchy ever since 1831;
the government organized armed bands called the Centurion!
(descended from the earlier Sanfedisti) , to terrorize the Liberals,
while the secret societies continued their " propaganda by
deeds." It is noteworthy that Romagna was the only part of
Italy where the revolutionary movement was accompanied by
murder. In 1845 several outbreaks occurred, and a band led by
Pietro Renzi captured Rimini, whence a proclamation drawn up
by L. C. Farini was issued demanding the reforms advocated by
the powers' memorandum of 1831. But the movement collapsed
without result, and the leaders fled to Tuscany.
Side by side with the Mazzinian propaganda in favour of a united
Italian republic, which manifested itself in secret societies, plots and
insurrections, there was another Liberal movement based
on the education of opinion and on economic development.
In Piedmont, in spite of the government's reactionary *
methods, a large part of the population were genuinely jj^""(,
attached to the Savoy dynasty, and the idea of a regenera- '
tion of Italy under its auspices began to gain ground.
Some writers proclaimed the necessity of building railways, develop-
ing agriculture and encouraging industries, before resorting to
revolution; while others, like the Tuscan Gino Capponi, inspired by
the example of England and France, wished to make the people fit
for freedom by means of improved schools, books and periodicals.
Vincenzo Gioberti (<7.f.) published in 1843 his famous treatise Del
primato morale e civile degli Italian^, a work, which, in striking con-
trast to the prevailing pessimism of the day, extolled the past great-
ness and achievements of the Italian people and their present virtues.
His political ideal was a federation of all the Italian states under the
presidency of the pope, on a basis of Catholicism, but without a
constitution. In spite of all its inaccuracies and exaggerations the
book served a useful purpose in reviving the self-respect of a de-
spondent people. Another work of a similar kind was Le Speranze
d'llalia (1844) by the Piedmontese Count Cesare Balbo (q.v,). Like
Gioberti he advocated a federation of Italian states, but he declared
that before this could be achieved Austria must be expelled from
Italy and compensation found for her in the Near East by making
her a Danubian power — a curious forecast that Italy's liberation
would begin with an eastern war. He extolled Charles Albert
and appealed to his patriotism; he believed that the church was
necessary and the secret societies harmful; representative govern-
ment was undesirable, but he advocated a consultative assembly.
Above all Italian character must be reformed and the nation edu-
cated. A third important publication was Massimo d'Azeglio's
Degli ultimi casi di Romagna, in which the author, another Pied-
montese nobleman, exposed papal misgovernment while condemning
the secret societies and advocating open resistance and protest. He
upheld the papacy in principle, regarded Austria as the great enemy
of Italian regeneration, and believed that the means of expelling her
were only to be found in Piedmont.
Besides the revolutionists and republicans who promoted con-
spiracy and insurrection whenever possible, and the moderates or
Neo-Guelphs," as Gioberti's followers were called, we
must mention the Italian exiles who were learning the art V**
of war in foreign countries — in Spain, in Greece, in
Poland, in South America — and those other exiles who, in
Paris or London, eked out a bare subsistence by teaching Italian or
THE RISORGIMENTO]
ITALY
by their pen, and laid the foundations of that loye of Italy which,
especially in England, eventually brought the weight of diplomacy
into the scales for Italian freedom. All these forces were equally
necessary— the revolutionists to keep up agitation and make govern-
ment by bayonets impossible; the moderates to curb the impetu-
osity of the revolutionists and to present a scheme of society that
was neither reactionary nor anarchical; the volunteers abroad to
gain military experience ; and the more peaceful exiles to spread the
name of Italy among foreign peoples. All the while a vast amount of
revolutionary literature was being printed in Switzerland, France
and England, and smuggled into Italy; the poet Giusti satirized the
Italian princes, the dramatist G. B. Niccolini blasted tyranny in his
tragedies, the novelist Guerrazzi re-evoked the memories of the last
struggle for Florentine freedom in L'Assedio di Firenze, and Verdi's
operas bristled with political double entendres which escaped the censor
but were understood and applauded by the audience.
On the death of Pope Gregory XVI. in 1846 Austria hoped to
secure the election of another zealot; but the Italian cardinals,
who did not want an Austrophil, finished the conclave
before tne arrival of Cardinal Gaysruck, Austria's
mouthpiece, and in June elected Giovanni Maria
Mastai Ferretti as Pius IX. The new pope, who while bishop
of Imole had evinced a certain interest in Liberalism, was
a kindly man, of inferior intelligence, who thought that
all difficulties could be settled with a little good-will, some
reforms and a political amnesty. The amnesty which he
granted was the beginning of the immense if short-lived popularity
which he was to enjoy. But he did not move so fast in the path
of reform as was expected, and agitation continued throughout
the papal states.1 In 1847 some administrative reforms were
enacted, the laity were admitted to certain offices, railways were
talked about, and political newspapers permitted. In April
Pius created a Consulta, or consultative assembly, and soon
afterwards a council of ministers and a municipality for Rome.
Here he would willingly have stopped, but he soon realized that
he had hardly begun. Every fresh reform edict was greeted with
demonstrations of enthusiasm, but the ominous cry " Viva Pio
Nonosolo!" signified dissatisfaction with the whole system of
government. A lay ministry was now demanded, a constitution,
and an Italian federation for war against Austria. Rumours of a
reactionary plot by Austria and the Jesuits against Pius, induced
him to create a national guard and to appoint Cardinal Ferretti
as secretary of state.
Events in Rome produced widespread excitement throughout
Europe. Metternich had declared that the one thing which had
not entered into his calculations was a Liberal pope, only that was
an impossibility; still he was much disturbed by Pius's attitude,
and tried to stem the revolutionary tide by frightening the
princes. Seizing the agitation in Romagna as a pretext, he had
the town of Ferrara occupied by Austrian troops, which provoked
the indignation not only of the Liberals but also of the pope, for
according to the treaties Austria had the right of occupying the
citadel alone. There was great resentment throughout Italy, and
in answer to the pope's request Charles Albert declared that he
was with him in everything, while from South America Giuseppe
Garibaldi wrote to offer his services to His Holiness. Charles
Albert, although maintaining his reactionary policy, had intro-
duced administrative reforms, built railways, reorganized the
army and developed the resources of the country. He had little
sympathy with Liberalism and abhorred revolution, but his
hatred of Austria and his resentment at the galling tutelage to
which she subjected him had gained strength year by year.
Religion was still his 'dominant passion, and when a pope in
Liberal guise appeared on the scene and was bullied by Austria,
his two strongest feelings — piety and hatred of Austria — ceased
Revolu- to be incompatible. In 1847 Lord Minto visited the
tionary Italian courts to try to induce the recalcitrant despots
agitation, to mend their ways, so as to avoid revolution and war,
l847- the latter being England's especial anxiety; this
mission, although not destined to produce much effect, aroused
extravagant hopes among the Liberals. Charles Louis, the opera-
1 In Rome itself a certain Angelo Brunetti, known as Ciceruacchio,
a forage merchant of lowly birth and a Carbonaro, exercised great
influence over the masses and kept the peace where the authorities
would have failed.
bouffe duke of Lucca, who had coquetted with Liberalism in the
past, now refused to make any concessions to his subjects, and in
1847 sold his duchy to Leopold II. of Tuscany (the successor of
Ferdinand III. since 1824) to whom it would have reverted in any
case at the death of the duchess of Parma. At the same time
Leopold ceded Lunigiana to Parma and Modena in equal parts,
an arrangement which provoked the indignation of the in-
habitants of the district (especially of those destined to be ruled
by Francis V. of Modena, who had succeeded to Francis IV. in
1846), and led to disturbances at Fivizzano. In September 1847,
Leopold gave way to the popular agitation for a national guard,
in spite of Metternich's threats, and allowed greater freedom of
the press; every concession made by the pope was followed by
demands for a similar measure in Tuscany.
Ferdinand I. of the Two Sicilies had died in 1825, and was
succeeded by Francis I. At the latter's death in 1830 Ferdinand
II. succeeded, and although at first he gave promise of proving a
wiser ruler, he soon reverted to the traditional Bourbon methods.
An ignorant bigot, he concentrated the whole of the executive
into his own hands, was surrounded by priests and monks, and
served by an army of spies. In 1847 there were unimportant
disturbances in various parts of the kingdom, but there was no
anti-dynastic outbreak, the jealousy between Naples and Sicily
largely contributing to the weakness of the movement. On the
1 2th of January, however, a revolution, the first of the many
throughout Europe that was to make the year 1848 memorable,
broke out at Palermo under the leadership of Ruggiero Settimo.
The Neapolitan army sent to crush the rising was at first un-
successful, and the insurgents demanded the constitution of 1812
or complete independence. Disturbances occurred at Naples
also, and the king, who could not obtain Austrian help, as the
pope refused to allow Austrian troops to pass through his
dominions, on the advice of his prime minister, the duke of
Serracapriola, granted a constitution, freedom of the press, the
national guard, &c. (January 28).
The news from Naples strengthened the demand for a con-
stitution in Piedmont. Count Camillo Cavour, then editor of a
new and influential paper called // Risorgimento, had
advocated it strongly, and monster demonstrations
were held every day. The king disliked the idea, but
great pressure was brought to bear on him, and
finally, on the 4th of March 1848, he granted the charter which
was destined to be the constitution of the future Italian kingdom.
It provided for a nominated senate and an elective chamber of .
deputies, the king retaining the right of veto; the press censor-
ship was abolished, and freedom of meeting, of the press and of
speech were guaranteed. Balbo was called upon to form the first
constitutional ministry. Three days later the grand-duke of
Tuscany promised similar liberties, and a charter, prepared by a
commission which included Gino Capponi and Bettino Ricasoli,
was promulgated on the i7th.
In the Austrian provinces the situation seemed calmer, and
the government rejected the moderate proposals of Daniele
Manin and'N. Tommaseo. A demonstration in favour of Pius IX.
on the 3rd of January at Milan was dispersed with unnecessary
severity, and martial law was proclaimed the following month.
The revolution which broke out on the 8th of March in Vienna
itself and the subsequent flight of Metternich (see AUSTRIA-
HUNGARY: History), led to the granting of feeble concessions
to Lombardy and Venetia, which were announced in Milan on
the i8th. But it was too late; and in spite of the exhortations
of the mayor, Gabrio Casati, and of the republican C. Cattaneo,
who believed that a rising against 15,000 Austrian soldiers under
Field-Marshal Radetzky was madness, the famous Five Days'
revolution began. It was a popular outburst of pent-up hate,
unprepared by leaders, although leaders such as Luciano Manara
soon arose. Radetzky occupied the citadel and other points of
vantage; but in the night barricades sprang up by the hundred
and were manned by citizens of all classes, armed with every
kind of weapon. The desperate struggle lasted until the 22nd,
when the Austrians, having lost 5000 killed and wounded, were
forced to evacuate the city. The rest of Lombardy and Venetia
ITALY
[THE RISORGIMENTO
now flew to arms, and the Austrian garrisons, except in the
Quadrilateral (Verona,, Peschiera, Mantua and Legnano) were
expelled. In Venice the people, under the leadership of Manin,
rose in arms and forced the military and civil governors (Counts
Zichy and Palffy) to sign a capitulation on the 22nd of March,
after which the republic was proclaimed. At Milan, where there
was a division of opinion between the monarchists under Casati
and the republicans under Cattaneo, a provisional administration
was formed and the question of the form of government postponed
for the moment. The duke of Modena and Charles Louis of
Parma (Marie Louise was now dead) abandoned their capitals;
in both cities provisional governments were set up which sub-
sequently proclaimed annexation to Piedmont. In Rome the
pope gave way to popular clamour, granting one concession after
another, and on the 8th of February he publicly called down
God's blessing on Italy — that Italy hated by the Austrians,
whose name it had hitherto been a crime to mention. On the
loth of March he appointed a new ministry, under Cardinal
Antonelli, which included several Liberal laymen, such as Marco
Minghetti, G. Pasolini, L. C. Farini and Count G. Recchi. On
the nth a constitution drawn up by a commission of cardinals,
without the knowledge of the ministry, was promulgated, a
constitution which attempted the impossible task of reconciling
the pope's temporal power with free institutions. In the mean-
while preparations for war against Austria were being carried on
with Pius's sanction.
There were now three main political tendencies, viz. the union
of north Italy under Charles Albert and an alliance with the
pope and Naples, a federation of the different states under their
present rulers, and a united republic of all Italy. All parties,
however, were agreed in favour of war against Austria, for which
the peoples forced their unwilling rulers to prepare. But the
only state capable of taking the initiative was Piedmont, and the
king still hesitated. Then came the news of the Five Days of
Milan, which produced the wildest excitement in Turin; unless
Pint war the army were sent to assist the struggling Lombards
of Italy at once the dynasty was in jeopardy. Cavour's stirring
agaiott articles in the Risorgimento hastened the king's decision,
AustHa. an(j on tjje 2^rcj of March he declared war (see for the
military events ITALIAN WARS, 1848-70). But much precious
time had been lost, and even then the army was not ready.
Charles Albert could dispose of 90,000 men, including some
30,000 from central Italy, but he took the field with only half
his force. He might yet have cut off Radetzky on his retreat,
or captured Mantua, which was only held by 300 men. But his
delays lost him both chances and enabled Radetzky to receive
reinforcements from Austria. The pope, unable to resist the
popular demand for war, allowed his army to depart (March 23)
under the command of General Durando, with instructions to
act in concert with Charles Albert, and he corresponded with the
grand-duke of Tuscany Jtnd the king of Naples with a view to a
military alliance. But at the same time, fearing a schism in the
church should he attack Catholic Austria, he forbade his troops
to do more than defend the frontier, and in his Encyclical of the
29th of April stated that, as head of the church, he could not
declare war, but that he was unable to prevent his subjects from
following the example of other Italians. He then requested
Charles Albert to take the papal troops under his command, and
also wrote to the emperor of Austria asking him voluntarily
to relinquish Lombardy and Venetia. Tuscany and Naples had
both joined the Italian league; a Tuscan army started for
Lombardy on the 3Oth of April, and 17,000 Neapolitans com-
manded by Pepe (who had returned after 28 years of exile)
went to assist Durando in intercepting the Austrian reinforce-
ments under Nugent. The Piedmontese defeated the enemy
at Pastrengo (April 30), but did not profit by the victory.
The Neapolitans reached Bologna on the i7th of May, but in
the meantime a dispute had broken out at Naples between the
king and parliament as to the nature of the royal oath; a cry of
treason was raised by a group of factious youngsters, barricades
were erected and street fighting ensued (May 15). On the
1 7th Ferdinand dissolved parliament and recalled the army.
On receiving the order to return, Pepe, after hesitating for some
time between his oath to the king and his desire to fight for Italy,
finally resigned his commission and crossed the Po with a few
thousand men, the rest of his force returning south. The effects
of this were soon felt. A force of Tuscan volunteers was attacked
by a superior body of Austrians at Curtatone and Montanaro
and defeated after a gallant resistance on the 2 7th of May;
Charles Albert, after wasting precious time round Peschiera,
which capitulated on the 3oth of May, defeated Radetzky at
Goito. But the withdrawal of the Neapolitans left Durando
too weak to intercept Nugent and his 30,000 men; and the
latter, although harassed by the inhabitants of Venetia and
repulsed at Vicenza, succeeded in joining Radetzky, who was
soon further reinforced from Tirol. The whole Austrian army
now turned on Vicenza, which after a brave resistance sur-
rendered on the loth of June. All Venetia except the capital
was thus once more occupied by the Austrians. On the 23rd,
24th and 25th of July (first battle of Custozza) the Piedmontese
were defeated and forced to retire on Milan with Radetzky's
superior force in pursuit. The king was the object of a hostile
demonstration in Milan, and although he was ready to defend
the city to the last, the town council negotiated a capitulation
with Radetzky. The mob, egged on by the republicans, attacked
the palace where the king was lodged, and he escaped with
difficulty, returning to Piedmont with the remnants of his army.
On the 6th of August Radetzky re-entered Milan, and three
days later an armistice was concluded between Austria and
Piedmont, the latter agreeing to evacuate Lombardy and
Venetia. The offer of French assistance, made after the pro-
clamation of the republic in the spring of 1848, had been rejected
mainly because France, fearing that the creation of a strong
Italian state would be a danger to her, would have demanded
the cession of Nice -and Savoy, which the king refused to
consider.
Meanwhile, the republic had been proclaimed in Venice;
but on the 7th of July the assembly declared in favour of fusion
with Piedmont, and Manin, who had been elected
president, resigned his powers to the royal com- Dfnl<-le
. . P .-, * . Jnaotn and
missioners. Soon after Custozza, however, the ven/ce
Austrians blockaded the city on the land side. In
Rome the pope's authority weakened day by day, and disorder
increased. The Austrian attempt to occupy Bologna was re-
pulsed by the citizens, but unfortunately this success was followed
by anarchy and murder, and Farini only with difficulty restored
a semblance of order. The Mamiani ministry having failed to
achieve anything, Pius summoned Pellegrino Rossi, a learned
lawyer who had long been exiled in France, to form a cabinet.
On the i sth of November he was assassinated, and as no one
was punished for this crime the insolence of the disorderly
elements increased, and shots were exchanged with the Swiss
Guard. The terrified pope fled in disguise to Gaeta (November
25), and when parliament requested him to return he refused
even to receive the deputation. This meant a complete rupture;
on the sth of February 1849 a constituent assembly was
summoned, and on the 9th it voted the downfall of the temporal
power and proclaimed the republic. Mazzini hurried prodama-
to Rome to see his dream realized, and was chosen tioaoftbe
head of the Triumvirate. On the i8th Pius invited Roman
the armed intervention of France, Austria, Naples Republic.
and Spain to restore his authority. In Tuscany the government
drifted from the moderates to the extreme democrats; the
Ridolfi ministry was succeeded after Custozza by that of Ricasoli,
and the latter by that of Capponi. The lower classes provoked
disorders, which were very serious at Leghorn, and were only
quelled by Guerrazzi's energy. Capponi resigned in October
1848, and Leopold reluctantly consented to a democratic ministry
led by Guerrazzi and Montanelli, the former a very ambitious
and unscrupulous man, the latter honest but fantastic. Follow-
ing the Roman example, a constituent assembly was demanded
to vote on union with Rome and eventually with the rest of
Italy. The grand-duke, fearing an excommunication from the
pope, refused the request, and left Florence for Siena and
THE RISORGIMENTO]
ITALY
53
S. Stefano; on the 8th of February 1849 the republic was pro-
claimed, and on the 2ist, at the pressing request of the pope and
the king of Naples, Leopold went to Gaeta.
Ferdinand did not openly break his constitutional promises
until Sicily was reconquered. His troops had captured Messina
after a bombardment which earned him the sobriquet of " King
Bomba "; Catania and Syracuse fell soon after, hideous atrocities
being everywhere committed with his sanction. He now pro-
rogued parliament, adopted stringent measures against the
Liberals, and retired to Gaeta, the haven of refu"ge for deposed
despots.
But so long as Piedmont was not completely crushed none of
the princes dared to take decisive measures against their'subjects;
in spite of Custozza, Charles Albert still had an army, and Austria,
with revolutions hi Vienna, Hungary and Bohemia on her
hands, could not intervene. In Piedmont the Pinelli-Revel
ministry, which had continued the negotiations for an alliance
with Leopold and the pope, resigned as it could not count
on a parliamentary majority, and in December the returned
exile Gioberti formed a new ministry. His proposal to reinstate
Leopold -and the pope with Piedmontese arms, so as to avoid
Austrian intervention, was rejected by both potentates, and met
with opposition even in Piedmont, which would thereby have
forfeited its prestige throughout Italy. Austrian mediation
was now imminent, as the Vienna revolution had been crushed,
and the new emperor, Francis Joseph, refused to consider any
settlement other than on the basis of the treaties of 1815. But
Charles Charles Albert, who, whatever his faults, had a generous
Albert re- nature, was determined that so long as he had an
Hen's the army in being he could not abandon the Lombards
and the Venetians, whom he had encouraged in their
resistance, without one more effort, though he knew full well
that he was staking all on a desperate chance. On the I2th of
March 1849, he denounced the armistice, and, owing to the
want of confidence in Piedmontese strategy after 1848, gave the
chief command to the Polish General Chrzanowski. His forces
amounted to 80,000 men, including a Lombard corps and some
Roman, Tuscan and other volunteers. But the discipline and
moral of the army were shaken and its organization faulty.
General Ramorino, disobeying his instructions, failed to prevent
a corps of Austrians under Lieut. Field-Marshal d'Aspre
from seizing Mortara, a fault for which he was afterwards court-
martialled and shot, and after some preliminary fighting Radetzky
won the decisive battle of Novara (March 23) which broke up
the Piedmontese army. The king, who had sought death in vain
all day, had to ask terms of Radetzky; the latter demanded
Accession a s^ce °^ Piedmont and the heir to the throne (Victor
oi victor Emmanuel) as a hostage, without a reservation for
Emmanuel the consent of parliament. Charles Albert, realizing
l1' his own failure and thinking that his son might obtain
better terms, abdicated and departed at once for Portugal, where
he died in a monastery a few months later. Victor Emmanuel
went in person to treat with Radetzky on the 24th of March.
The Field-Marshal received him most courteously and offered
not only to waive the demand for a part of Piedmontese territory,
but to enlarge the kingdom, on condition that the constitution
should be abolished and the blue Piedmontese flag substituted
for the tricolor. But the young king was determined to abide
by his father's oath, and had therefore to agree to an Austrian
occupation of the territory between the Po, the Ticino and the
Sesia, and of half the citadel of Alessandria, until peace should
be concluded, the evacuation of all districts occupied by his
troops outside.Piedmont, the dissolution of his corps of Lombard,
Polish and Hungarian volunteers and the withdrawal of his
fleet from the Adriatic.
Novara set Austria free to reinstate the Italian despots.
Ferdinand at once re-established autocracy in Naples; though
the struggle in Sicily did not end until May, when Palermo,
after a splendid resistance, capitulated. In Tuscany disorder
continued, and although Guerrazzi, who had been appointed
dictator, saved the country from complete anarchy, a large part
of the population, especially among the peasantry, was still
loyal to the grand-duke. After Novara the chief question was
how to avoid an Austrian occupation, and owing to the prevailing
confusion the town council of Florence took matters into its
own hands and declared the grand-duke reinstated, but on a
constitutional basis and without foreign help (April 12). Leopold
accepted as regards the constitution, but said nothing about
foreign intervention. Count Serristori, the grand-ducal com-
missioner, arrived in Florence on the 4th of May 1849; the
national guard was disbanded; and on the 25th, the Austrians
under d'Aspre entered Florence.
On the 28th of July Leopold returned to his capital, and while
that event was welcomed by a part of the people, the fact that
he had come under Austrian protection ended by destroying all
loyalty to the dynasty, and consequently contributed not a
little to Italian unity.
In Rome the triumvirate decided to defend the republic to
the last. The city was quieter and more orderly than it had
ever been before, for Mazzini and Ciceruacchio success- Oariid/<w
fully opposed all class warfare; and in April the
defenders received a priceless addition to their strength in the
person of Garibaldi, who, on the outbreak of the revolution in
1848, had returned with a few of his followers from his exile
in South America, and in April 1849 entered Rome with some
500 men to fight for the republic. At this time France, as a
counterpoise to Austrian intervention in other parts of Italy,
decided to restore the pope, regardless of the fact that this
action would necessitate the crushing of a sister „
... France
republic. As yet, however, no such intention was and the
publicly avowed. On the 25th of April General Roman
Oudinot landed with 8000 men at Civitavecchia, and RePuollc>
on the 3oth attempted to capture Rome by suprise, but was
completely defeated by Garibaldi, who might have driven the
French into the sea, had Mazzini allowed him to leave the city.
The French republican government, in order to gain time for
reinforcements to arrive, sent Ferdinand de Lesseps to pretend
to treat with Mazzini, the envoy himself not being a party to
this deception. Mazzini refused to allow the French into the
city, but while the negotiations were being dragged on Oudinot 's
force was increased to 3 5,000 men. At the same time an Austrian
army was marching through the Legations, and Neapolitan and
Spanish troops were advancing from the south. The Roman
army (20,000 men) was commanded by General Rosselli, and
included, besides Garibaldi's red-shirted legionaries, volunteers
from all parts of Italy, mostly very young men, many of them
wealthy and of noble family. The Neapolitans were ignomini-
ously beaten in May and retired to the frontier; on the ist of
June Oudinot declared that he would attack Rome on the 4th,
but by beginning operations on the 3rd, when no attack was
expected, he captured an important position in the Pamphili
gardens.
In spite of this success, however, it was not until the end of
the month, and after desperate fighting, that the French pene-
trated within the walls and the defence ceased (June 29). The
Assembly, which had continued in session, was dispersed by the
French troops on the 2nd of July, but Mazzini escaped a week
later. Garibaldi quitted the city, followed by 4000 of his men,
and attempted to join the defenders of Venice. In spite of the
fact that he was pursued by the armies of four Powers, he
succeeded in reaching San Marino; but his force melted away
and, after hiding in the marshes of Ravenna, he fled across the
peninsula, assisted by nobles, peasants and priests, to the
Tuscan coast, whence he reached Piedmont and eventually
America, to await a new call to fight for Italy (see GARIBALDI).
After a heroic defence, conducted by Giuseppe Martinengo,
Brescia was recaptured in April by the Austrians under Lieut.
Field-Marshal von Haynau, the atrocities which Reauo
followed earning for Haynau the name of " The tion of
Hyena of Brescia." In May they seized Bologna, Venkeby
and Ancona in June, restoring order in those towns "'
by the same methods as at Brescia. Venice alone still held out;
after Novara the Piedmontese commissioners withdrew and
Manin again took charge of the government. The assembly
54
ITALY
[THE RISORGIMENTO
voted: " Venice resists the Austrians at all costs," and the
citizens and soldiers, strengthened by the arrival of volunteers
from all parts of Italy, including Pepe, who was given the chief
command of the defenders, showed the most splendid devotion
in their hopeless task. By the end of May the city was blockaded
by land and sea, and in July the bombardment began. On the
24th the city, reduced by famine, capitulated on favourable
terms. Manin, Pepe and a few others were excluded from the
amnesty and went into exile.
Thus were despotism and foreign predominance re-established
throughout Italy save in Piedmont. Yet the " terrible year "
was by no means all loss. The Italian cause had been crushed,
but revolution and war had strengthened the feeling of unity,
for Neapolitans had fought for Venice, Lombards for Rome,
Piedmontese for all Italy. Piedmont was shown to possess
the qualities necessary to constitute the nucleus of a great nation.
It was now evident that the federal idea was impossible, for none
of the princes except Victor Emmanuel could be trusted, and
that unity and freedom could not be achieved under a republic,
for nothing could be done without the Piedmontese army, which
was royalist to the core. All reasonable men were now convinced
that the question of the ultimate form of the Italian govern-
ment was secondary, and that the national efforts should be
concentrated on the task of expelling the Austrians; the form
of government could be decided afterwards. Liberals were by no
means inclined to despair of accomplishing this task; for hatred
of the foreigners, and of the despots restored by their bayonets,
had been deepened by the humiliations and cruelties suffered
during the war into a passion common to all Italy.
When the terms of the Austro-Piedmontese armistice were
announced in the Chamber at Turin they aroused great indigna-
tion, but the king succeeded in convincing the deputies
l^at ^y were inevitable. The peace negotiations
dragged on for several months, involving two changes
of ministry, and D'Azeglio became premier. Through
Anglo-French mediation Piedmont's war indemnity was reduced
from 230,000,000 to 75,000,000 lire, but the question of the
amnesty remained. The king declared himself ready to go to
war again if those compromised in the Lombard revolution were
not freely pardoned, and at last Austria agreed to amnesty all
save a very few, and in August the peace terms were agreed upon.
The Chamber, however, refused to ratify them, and it was not
until the king's eloquent appeal from Moncalieri to his people's
loyalty, and after a dissolution and the election of a new parlia-
ment, that the treaty was ratified (January 9, 1850). The
situation in' Piedmont was far from promising, the exchequer
was empty, the army disorganized, the country despondent and
suspicious of the king. If Piedmont was to be fitted for the part
which optimists expected it to play, everything must be built
up anew. Legislation had to be entirely reformed, and the bill
for abolishing the special jurisdiction for the clergy (joro ecclesi-
astico) and other medieval privileges aroused the bitter opposition
of the Vatican as well as of the Piedmontese clericals. This
same year (1850) Cavour, who had been in parliament
for some time and had in his speech of the ythof March
struck the first note of encouragement after the gloom of Novara,
became minister of agriculture, and in 1851 also assumed the
portfolio of finance. He ended by dominating the cabinet, but
owing to his having negotiated a union of the Right Centre and
the Left Centre (the Connubio) in the conviction that the country
needed the moderate elements of both parties, he quarrelled with
D'Azeglio (who, as an uncompromising conservative, failed to
see the value of such a move) and resigned. But D'Azeglio was
not equal to the situation, and he, too, resigned in November
1852; whereupon the king appointed Cavour prime minister,
a position which with short intervals he held until his death.
The Austrians in the period from 1849 to 1859, known as the
decennio della resislenza (decade of resistance), were made to feel
that they were in a conquered country where they could have
no social intercourse with the people; for no self-respecting
Lombard or Venetian would even speak to an Austrian. Austria,
on the other hand, treated her Italian subjects with great severity.
Cavour.
The Italian provinces were the most heavily taxed in the
whole empire, and much of the money thus levied was spent
either for the benefit of other provinces or to pay for
the huge army of occupation and the fortresses in
Italy. The promise of a constitution for the empire,
made in 1849, was never carried out; the government
of Lombardo-Venetia was vested in Field-Marshal Radetzky;
and although only very few of the revolutionists were
excluded from the amnesty, the carrying of arms or the
distribution or possession of revolutionary literature was
punished with death. Long terms of imprisonment and the
bastinado, the latter even inflicted on women, were the penalties
for the least expression of anti-Austrian opinion.
The Lombard republicans had been greatly weakened by the
events of 1848, but Mazzini still believed that a bold act by a few
revolutionists would make the people rise en masse and expel
the Austrians. A conspiracy, planned with the object, among
others, of kidnapping the emperor while on a visit to Venice and
forcing him to make concessions, was postponed in consequence
of the coup d'ttat by which Louis Napoleon became emperor
of the French (1852); but a chance discovery led to a large
number of arrests, and the state trials at Mantua, conducted in
the most shamelessly inquisitorial manner, resulted in five death
sentences, including that of the priest Tazzoli, and many of
imprisonment for long terms. Even this did not convince
Mazzini of the hopelessness of such attempts, for he was out of
touch with Italian public opinion, and he greatly weakened his
influence by favouring a crack-brained outbreak at Milan on the
6th of February 1853, which was easily quelled, numbers of the
insurgents being executed or imprisoned. Radetzky, not
satisfied with this, laid an embargo on the property of many
Lombard emigrants who had settled in Piedmont and become
naturalized, accusing them of complicity. The Piedmontese
government rightly regarded this measure as a violation of the
peace treaty of 1850, and Cavour recalled the Piedmontese
minister from Vienna, an action which was endorsed by Italian
public opinion generally, and won the approval of France and
England.
Cavour's ideal for the present was the expulsion of Austria
from Italy and the expansion of Piedmont into a north Italian
kingdom; and, although he did not yet think of Italian unity
as a question of practical policy, he began to foresee it as a
future possibility. But in reorganizing the shattered finances of
the state and preparing it for its greater destinies, he had to
impose heavy taxes, which led to rioting and involved the
minister himself in considerable though temporary unpopularity.
His ecclesiastical legislation, too, met with bitter opposition
from the Church.
But the question was soon forgotten in the turmoil caused by
the Crimean War. Cavour believed that by taking part in the
war his country would gain for itself a military status
and a place in the councils of the great Powers, and
establish claims on Great Britain and France for the
realization of its Italian ambitions. One section of public opinion
desired to make Piedmont's co-operation subject to definite
promises by the Powers; but the latter refused to bind them-
selves, and both Victor Emmanuel and Cavour realized that,
even without such promises, participation would give Piedmont
a claim. There was also the danger that Austria might join the
allies first and Piedmont be left isolated; but there were also
strong arguments on the other side, for while the Radical party
saw no obvious reason why Piedmont should fight other people's
battles, and therefore opposed the alliance, there was the risk
that Austria might join the alliance together with Piedmont,
which would have constituted a disastrous situation. Da
Bormida, the minister for foreign affairs, resigned ltg.
rather than agree to the proposal, and other statesmen aaa the
were equally opposed to it. But after long negotiations Congm*
the treaty of alliance was signed in January 1855, and °fJ£H*'
while Austria remained neutral, a well-equipped Pied-
montese force of 15,000 men, under General La Marmora, sailed
for the Crimea. Everything turned out as Cavour had hoped.
Crimean
War.
THE RISORGIMENTO]
ITALY
55
The Piedmontese troops distinguished themselves in the field,
gaining the sympathies of the French and English; and at the
subsequent congress of Paris (1856), where Cavour himself was
Sardinian representative, the Italian question was discussed,
and the intolerable oppression of the Italian peoples by Austria
and the despots ventilated.
Austria at last began to see that a policy of coercion was
useless and dangerous, and made tentative efforts at conciliation.
Taxation was somewhat reduced, the censorship was made less
severe, political amnesties were granted, humane* officials were
appointed and the Congregations (a sort of shadowy consultative
assembly) were revived. In 1856 the emperor and empress
visited their Italian dominions, but were received with icy
coldness; the following year, on the retirement of Radetzky
at the age of ninety-three, the archduke Maximilian, an able,
cultivated and kind-hearted man, was appointed viceroy. He
made desperate efforts to conciliate the population, and succeeded
with a few of the nobles, who were led to believe in the possi-
bility of an Italian confederation, including Lombardy and
Venetia which would be united to Austria by a personal union
alone; but the immense majority of all classes rejected these
advances, and came to regard union with Piedmont with
increasing favour.1
Meanwhile Francis V. of Modena, restored to his duchy by
Austrian bayonets, continued to govern according to the traditions
s( fed of his house. Charles II. of Parma, after having been
gotera- reinstated by the Austrians, abdicated in favour of his
ments son Charles III. a drunken libertine and a cruel tyrant
after (May 1849); the latter was assassinated in 1854, and
a regency under his widow, Marie Louise, was insti-
tuted during which the government became somewhat more
tolerable, although by no means free from political persecution;
in 1857 the Austrian troops evacuated the duchy. Leopold of
Tuscany suspended the constitution, and in 1852 formally
abolished it by order from Vienna; he also concluded a treaty of
semi-subjection with Austria and a Concordat with the pope for
granting fresh privileges to the Church. His government, how-
ever, was not characterized by cruelty like those of his brother
despots, and Guerrazzi and the other Liberals of 1849, although
tried and sentenced to long terms of imprisonment, were merely
exiled. Yet the opposition gained recruits among all the ablest
and most respectable Tuscans. In Rome, after the restoration of
the temporal power by the French troops, the pope paid no
attention to Louis Napoleon's advice to maintain some form of
constitution, to grant a general amnesty, and to secularize the
administration. He promised, indeed, a consultative council of
state, and granted an amnesty from which no less than 25,000
persons were excluded; but on his return to Rome (i2th April
1850), after he was quite certain that France had given up all
idea of imposing constitutional limitations on him, he re-estab-
lished his government on the old lines of priestly absolutism, and,
devoting himself to religious practices, left political affairs mostly
to the astute cardinal Antonelli, who repressed with great
severity the political agitation which still continued. At Naples
Persecu- a trifling disturbance in September 1849, led to the
tioa of arrest of a large number of persons connected with the
Liberals UnM Italiana, a society somewhat similar to the
la Naples. carbonari. The prisoners included Silvio Spaventa,
Luigi Settembrini, Carlo Poerio and many other cultured and
worthy citizens. Many condemnations followed, and hundreds of
" politicals " were immured in hideous dungeons, a state of
things which provoked Gladstone's famous letters to Lord
Aberdeen, in which Bourbon rule was branded for all time as
" the negation of God erected into a system of government."
But oppressive, corrupt and inefficient as it was, the government
was not confronted by the uncompromising hostility of the
whole people; the ignorant priest-ridden masses were either
indifferent or of mildly Bourbon sympathies; the opposition was
constituted by the educated middle classes and a part of the
'The popular cry of "Viva Verdi!" did not merely express
enthusiasm for Italy's most eminent musician, but signified, in
initials: " Viva Vittorio Emanuele Re d' Italia ! "
nobility. The revolutionary attempts of Bentivegna in Sicily
(1856) and of the Mazzinian Carlo Pisacane, who landed at
Sapri in Calabria with a few followers in 1857, failed from lack of
popular support, and the leaders were killed.
The decline of Mazzini's influence was accompanied by the
rise of a new movement in favour of Italian unity under Victor
Emmanuel, inspired by the Milanese marquis Giorgio New
Pallavicini, who had spent 14 years in the Spielberg, Unionist
and by Manin, living in exile in Paris, both of them move-
ex-republicans who had become monarchists. The """*•
propaganda was organized by the Sicilian La Farina by means
of the Societd Nazionale. All who accepted the motto " Unity,
Independence and Victor Emmanuel " were admitted into
the society. Many of the republicans and Mazzinians joined
it, but Mazzini himself regarded it with no sympathy. In the
Austrian provinces and in the duchies it carried all before it,
and gained many adherents in the Legations, Rome and Naples,
although in the latter regions the autonomist feeling was still
strong even among the Liberals. In Piedmont itself it was at
first less successful; and Cavour, although he aspired ultimately
to a united Italy with Rome as the capital,2 openly professed no
ambition beyond the expulsion of Austria and the formation of a
North Italian kingdom. But he gave secret encouragement to
the movement, and ended by practically directing its activity
through La Farina. The king, too, was in close sympathy with the
society's aims, but for the present it was necessary to hide this
attitude from the eyes of the Powers, whose sympathy Cavour
could only hope to gain by professing hostility to everything that
savoured of revolution. Both the king and his minister realized
that Piedmont alone, even with the help of the National Society,
could not expel Austria from Italy without foreign assistance.
Piedmontese finances had been strained to breaking-point to
organize an army obviously intended for other than merely
defensive purposes. Cavour now set himself to the task of
isolating Austria and securing an alliance for her expulsion.
A British alliance would have been preferable, but the British
government was too much concerned with the preservation of
European peace. The emperor Napoleon, almost alone
among Frenchmen, had genuine Italian sympathies.
But were he to intervene in Italy, the intervention
would not only have to be successful; it would have
to bring tangible advantages to France. Hence his hesitations
and vacillations, which Cavour steadily worked to overcome.
Suddenly on the I4th of January 1858 Napoleon's life was
attempted by Felice Orsini (q.v.) a Mazzinian Romagnol, who
believed that Napoleon was the chief obstacle to the success of
the revolution in Italy. The attempt failed and its author was
caught and executed, but while it appeared at first to destroy
Napoleon's Italian sympathies and led to a sharp interchange of
notes between Paris and Turin, the emperor was really impressed
by the attempt and by Orsini's letter from prison exhorting him
to intervene in Italy. He realized how deep the Italian feeling
for independence must be, and that a refusal to act now might
result in further attempts on his life, as indeed Orsini's letter
stated. Consequently negotiations with Cavour were resumed,
and a meeting with him was arranged to take place at Plom-
bieres (2oth and 2ist of July 1858). There it was agreed that
France should supply 200,000 men and Piedmont 100,000 for the
expulsion of the Austrians from Italy, that Piedmont should be
expanded into a kingdom of North Italy, that central Italy should
form a separate kingdom, on the throne of which the emperor
contemplated placing one of his own relatives, and Naples
another, possibly under Lucien Murat ; the pope, while retaining
only the " Patrimony of St Peter " (the Roman province), would
be president of the Italian confederation. In exchange for
French assistance Piedmont would cede Savoy and perhaps
Nice to France; and a marriage between Victor Emmanuel's
daughter Clothilde and Jerome Bonaparte, to which Napoleon
attached great importance, although not made a definite
condition, was also discussed. No written agreement, however,
was signed.
1 La Farina's Epislolario, ii. 426.
ITALY
[THE RISORGIMENTO
On the ist of January 1859, Napoleon astounded the diplo-
matic world by remarking to Baron Hiibner, the Austrian
ambassador, at the New Year's reception at the Tuileries, that
he regretted that relations between France and Austria were
" not so good as they had been "; and at the opening of the
Piedmontese parliament on the loth Victor Emmanuel pro-
nounced the memorable words that he could not be insensible
to the cry of pain (il grido di dolore) which reached him from all
parts of Italy. Yet after these warlike declarations and after
the signing of a military convention at Turin, the king agreeing
to all the conditions proposed by Napoleon, the latter suddenly
became pacific again, and adopted the Russian suggestion that
Italian affairs should be settled by a congress. Austria agreed
on condition that Piedmont should disarm and should not be
admitted to the congress. Lord Malmesbury urged the Sardinian
government to yield; but Cavour refused to disarm, or to accept
the principle of a congress, unless Piedmont were admitted to
it on equal terms with the other Powers. As neither the Sardinian
nor the Austrian government seemed disposed to yield, the idea
of a congress' had to be abandoned. Lord Malmesbury now
proposed that all three Powers should disarm simultaneously
and that, as suggested by Austria, the precedent of Laibach
should be followed and all the Italian states invited to plead
their cause at the bar of the Great Powers. To this course
Napoleon consented, to the despair of King Victor Emmanuel
and Cavour, who saw in this a proof that he wished to back out
of his engagement and make war impossible. When war seemed
imminent volunteers from all parts of Italy, especially from
Lombardy, had come pouring into Piedmont to enrol themselves
in the army or in the specially raised volunteer corps (the com-
mand of which was given to Garibaldi), and " to go to Piedmont "
became a test of patriotism throughout the country. Urged by
a peremptory message from Napoleon, Cavour saw the necessity
of bowing to the will of Europe, of disbanding the volunteers
and reducing the army to a peace footing. The situation, how-
ever, was saved by a false move on the part of Austria. At
Vienna the war party was in the ascendant; the convention
for disarmament had been signed, but so far from its being
carried out, the reserves were actually called out on the I2th of
April; and on the 23rd, before Cavour's decision was known
at Vienna, an Austrian ultimatum reached Turin, summoning
Piedmont to disarm within three days on pain of invasion.
Cavour was filled with joy at the turn affairs had taken, for
Austria now appeared as the aggressor. On the
Italian ^jj Francis Joseph declared war, and the next day
his troops crossed theTicino, a'move which was followed,
as Napoleon had stated it would be, by a French
declaration of war. The military events of the Italian war of
1859 are described under ITALIAN WARS. The actions of
Montebello (May 20), Palestro(May 31) and Melegnano (June
8) and the battles of Magenta (June 4) and Solferino (June 24)
all went against the Austrians. Garibaldi's volunteers raised
the standard of insurrection and held the field in the region of
the Italian lakes. After Solferino the allies prepared to besiege
the Quadrilateral. Then Napoleon suddenly drew back, un-
willing, for many reasons, to continue the campaign. Firstly,
he doubted whether the allies were strong enough to attack the
Quadrilateral, for he saw the defects of his own army's organiza-
tion; secondly, he began to fear intervention by Prussia, whose
attitude appeared menacing; thirdly, although really anxious
to expel the Austrians from Italy, he did not wish to create a
too powerful Italian state at the foot of the Alps, which, besides
constituting a potential danger to France, might threaten the
pope's temporal power, and Napoleon believed that he could not
stand without the clerical vote; fourthly, the war had been
declared against the wishes of the great majority of Frenchmen
and was even now far from popular. Consequently, to the
surprise of all Europe, while the allied forces were drawn up
ready for battle, Napoleon, without consulting Victor Emmanuel,
sent General Fleury on the 6th of July to Francis Joseph to ask
for an armistice, which was agreed to. The king was now
informed, and on the 8th Generals Vaillant, Delia Rocca and
wmrot
KS9.
Hess met at Villafranca and arranged an armistice until the
1 5th of August. But the king and Cavour were terribly upset by
this move, which meant peace without Venetia; Cavour
hurried to the king's headquarters at Monzambano A""lstlce
and in excited, almost disrespectful, language implored franca"
him not to agree to peace and to continue the war
alone, relying on the Piedmontese army and a general Italian
revolution. But Victor Emmanuel on this occasion proved the
greater statesman of the two; he understood that, hard as it
was, he must content himself with Lombardy for the present, lest
all be lost. On the nth the two emperors met at Villafranca,
where they agreed that Lombardy should be ceded to Piedmont,
and Venetia retained by Austria but governed by Liberal methods;
that the rulers of Tuscany, Parma and Modena, who had been
again deposed, should be restored, the Papal States reformed,
the Legations given a separate administration and the pope
made president of an Italian confederation including Austria
as mistress of Venetia. It was a revival of the old impossible
federal idea, which would have left Italy divided and dominated
by Austria and France. Victor Emmanuel regretfully signed
the peace preliminaries, adding, however, pour ce qui me concerns
(which meant that he made no undertaking with regard to
central Italy), and Cavour resigned office.
The Lombard campaign had produced important effects
throughout the rest of Italy. The Sardinian government had
formally invited that of Tuscany to participate in unionist
the war of liberation, and on the grand-duke rejecting move-
the proposal, moderates and democrats combined to meats to
present an ultimatum to Leopold demanding that he Central
should abdicate in favour of his son, grant a constitu-
tion and take part in the campaign. On his refusal Florence rose
as one man, and he, feeling that he could not rely on his troops,
abandoned Tuscany on the 27th of April 1859. A provisional
government was formed, led by Ubaldino Peruzzi, and was
strengthened on the 8th of May by the inclusion of Baron
Bettino Ricasoli, a man of great force of character, who became
the real head of the administration, and all through the ensuing
critical period aimed unswervingly at Italian unity. Victor
Emmanuel, at the request of the people, assumed the protector-
ate over Tuscany, where he was represented by the Sardinian
minister Boncompagni. On the 23rd of May Prince Napoleon,
with a French army corps, landed at Leghorn, his avowed object
being to threaten the Austrian flank;1 and in June these troops,
together with a Tuscan contingent, departed for Lombardy.
In the duchy of Modena an insurrection had broken out, and
after Magenta Duke Francis joined the Austrian army in
Lombardy, leaving a regency in charge. But on the I4th of
June the municipality formed a provisional government and
proclaimed annexation to Piedmont; L. C. Farini was chosen
dictator, and 4000 Modenese joined the allies. The duchess-
regent of Parma also withdrew to Austrian territory, and on
the nth of June annexation to Piedmont was proclaimed.
At the same time the Austrians evacuated the Legations and
Cardinal Milesi, the papal representative, departed. The muni-
cipality of Bologna formed a Giunla, to which Romagna and
the Marches adhered, and invoked the dictatorship of Victor
Emmanuel; at Perugia, too, a provisional government was
constituted under F. Guardabassi. But the Marches were
soon reoccupied by pontifical troops, and Perugia fell, its capture
being followed by an indiscriminate massacre of men, women
and children. In July the marquis D'Azeglio arrived at Bologna
as royal commissioner.
After the meetings at Villafranca Napoleon returned to France.
The question of the cession of Nice and Savoy had not been
raised; for the emperor had not fulfilled his part of the bargain,
that he would drive the Austrians out of Italy, since Venice was
yet to be freed. At the same time he was resolutely opposed
to the Piedmontese annexations in central Italy. But here
Cavour intervened, for he was determined to maintain the
annexations, at all costs. Although he had resigned, he remained
1 In reality the emperor was contemplating an Etrurian kingdom
with the prince at its head.
THE RISORGIMENTO]
ITALY
57
in office until Rattazzi could form a new ministry; and while
officially recalling the royal commissioners according to the
preliminaries of Villafranca, he privately encouraged them to
remain and organize resistance to the return of the despots, if
necessary by force (see CAVOUR). Farini, who in August was
elected dictator of Parma as well as Modena, and Ricasoli, who
since, on the withdrawal of the Sardinian commissioner Bon-
compagni, had become supreme in Tuscany, were now the men
who by their energy and determination achieved the annexation
of central Italy to Piedmont, in spite of the strenuous opposition
of the French emperor and the weakness of many Italian Liberals.
In August Marco Minghetti succeeded in forming a military
league and a customs union between Tuscany, Romagna and
the duchies, and in procuring the adoption of the Piedmontese
codes; and envoys were sent to Paris to mollify Napoleon.
Constituent assemblies met and voted for unity under Victor
Emmanuel, but the king could not openly accept the proposal
owing to the emperor's opposition, backed by the presence of
French armies in Lombardy; at a word from Napoleon there
might have been an Austrian, and perhaps a Franco-Austrian,
invasion of central Italy. But to Napoleon's statement that
he could not agree to the unification of Italy, as he was bound
by his promises to Austria at Villafranca, Victor Emmanuel
replied that he himself, after Magenta and Solferino, was bound
in honour to link his fate with that of the Italian people; and
General Manfredo Fanti was sent by the Turin government to
organize the army of the Central League, with Garibaldi under
him.
The terms of the treaty of peace signed at Zurich on the loth
of November were practically identical with those of the pre-
liminaries of Villafranca. It was soon evident, however,
ZUHch." tnat tne Italian question was far from being settled.
Central Italy refused to be bound by the treaty, and
offered the dictatorship to Prince Carignano, who, himself unable
to accept owing to Napoleon's opposition, suggested Boncompagni,
who was accordingly elected. Napoleon now realized that it
would be impossible, without running serious risks, to oppose
the movement in favour of unity. He suggested an international
congress on the question; inspired a pamphlet, Le Pape et le
Congres, which proposed a reduction of the papal territory, and
wrote to the pope advising him to cede Romagna in order to
obtain better guarantees for the rest of his dominions. The
proposed congress fell through, and Napoleon thereupon raised
the question of the cession of Nice and Savoy as the price of
his consent to the union of the central provinces with the Italian
kingdom. In January 1866 the Rattazzi ministry fell, after
completing the fusion of Lombardy with Piedmont, and Cavour
was again summoned by the king to the head of affairs.
Cavour well knew the unpopularity that would fall upon him
by consenting to the cession of Nice, the birthplace of Garibaldi,
and Savoy, the cradle of the royal house; but he realized the
necessity of the sacrifice, if central Italy was to be won. The
negotiations were long drawn out; for Cavour struggled to save
Nice and Napoleon was anxious to make conditions, especially
as regards Tuscany. At last, on the 24th of March, the treaty
was signed whereby the cession was agreed upon, but subject
to the vote of the populations concerned and ratification by the
Italian parliament. The king having formally accepted the
voluntary annexation of the duchies, Tuscany and Romagna,
appointed the prince of Carignano viceroy with Ricasoli as
governor-general (22nd of March), and was immediately after-
wards excommunicated by the pope. On the 2nd of April 1860
the new Italian parliament, including members from central
Italy, assembled at Turin. Three weeks later the treaty of
Turin ceding Savoy and Nice to France was ratified, though
not without much opposition, and Cavour was fiercely reviled
for his share in the transaction, especially by Garibaldi, who
even contemplated an expedition to Nice, but was induced to
desist by the king.
In May 1859 Ferdinand of Naples was succeeded by his son
Francis II., who gave no signs of any intention to change his
father's policy, and, in spite of Napoleon's advice, refused to
grant a constitution or to enter into an alliance with Sardinia.
The result was a revolutionary agitation which in Sicily, stirred
up by Mazzini's agents, Rosalino Pilo and Francesco
Crispi, culminated, on the sth of April 1860, in open /Vs"/es
revolt. An invitation had been sent Garibaldi to put p"^fe u
himself at the head of the movement; at first he
had refused, but reports of the progress of the insurrection
soon determined him to risk all on a bold stroke, and on the
Sth of May he embarked at Quarto, near Genoa, with Bixio,
the Hungarian Tiirr and some 1000 picked followers, on two
steamers. The preparations for the expedition, openly made,
were viewed by Cavour with mixed feelings. With its object
he sympathized; yet he could not give official sanction to
an armed attack on a friendly power, nor on the other hand
could he forbid an action enthusiastically approved by public
opinion. He accordingly directed the Sardinian admiral Persano
only to arrest the expedition should it touch at a Sardinian port;
while in reply to the indignant protests of the continental
powers he disclaimed all knowledge of the affair. On the nth
Garibaldi landed at Marsala, without opposition, defeated the
Neapolitan forces at Calatafimi on the isth, and on the 27th
entered Palermo in triumph, where he proclaimed himself, in
King Victor Emmanuel's name, dictator of Sicily. By the end
of July, after the hard-won victory of Milazzo, the whole island,
with the exception of the citadel of Messina and a few unim-
portant ports, was in his hands.
From Cavour's point of view, the situation was now one of
extreme anxiety. It was certain that, his work in Sicily done,
Garibaldi would turn his attention to the Neapolitan dominions
on the mainland; and beyond these lay Umbria and the Marches
and — Rome. It was all-important that whatever victories
Garibaldi might win should be won for the Italian kingdom,
and, above all, that no ill-timed attack on the Papal States
should provoke an intervention of the powers. La Farina was
accordingly sent to Palermo to urge the immediate annexation of
Sicily to Piedmont. But Garibaldi, who wished to keep a free
hand, distrusted Cavour and scorned all counsels of expediency,
refused to agree; Sicily was the necessary base for his projected
invasion of Naples; it would be time enough to announce its
union with Piedmont when Victor Emmanuel had been pro-
claimed king of United Italy in Rome. Foiled by the dictator's
stubbornness, Cavour had once more to take to underhand
methods; and, while continuing futile negotiations with King
Francis, sent his agents into Naples to stir up disaffection and
create a sentiment in favour of national unity strong enough, in
any event, to force Garibaldi's hand.
On the Sth of August, in spite of the protests and threats of
most of the powers, the Garibaldians began to cross the Straits,
and in a short time 20,000 of them were on the main-
land. The Bourbonists in Calabria, utterly dis-
organized, broke before the invincible red-shirts, and
the 40,000 men defending the Salerno-Avellino line made
no better resistance, being eventually ordered to fall back
on the Volturno. On the 6th of September King Francis, with
his family and several of the ministers, sailed for Gaeta, and the
next day Garibaldi entered Naples alone in advance of the army,
and was enthusiastically welcomed. He proclaimed himself
dictator of the kingdom, with Bertani as secretary of state, but
as a proof of his loyalty he consigned the Neapolitan fleet to
Persano.
His rapid success, meanwhile, inspired both the French
emperor and the government of Turin with misgivings. There
was a danger that Garibaldi's entourage, composed of
ex-Mazzinians, might induce him to proclaim a republic •"terv*a'
and march on Rome; which would have meant pieamoat.
French intervention and the undoing of all Cavour's
work. King Victor Emmanuel and Cavour both wrote to
Garibaldi urging him not to spoil all by aiming at too much.
But Garibaldi poured scorn on all suggestions of compromise;
and Cavour saw that the situation could only be saved by
the armed participation of Piedmont in the liberation of
south Italy.
ITALY
(THE RISORGIMENTO
The situation was, indeed, sufficiently critical. The unrest
in Naples had spread into Umbria and the Marches, and the
papal troops, under 'General Lamoriciere, were preparing to
suppress it. Had they succeeded, the position of the Pied-
montese in Romagna would have been imperilled; had they
failed, the road would have been open for Garibaldi to march
on Rome. In the circumstances, Cavour decided that Piedmont
must anticipate Garibaldi, occupy Umbria and the Marches
and place Italy between the red-shirts and Rome. His excuse
was the pope's refusal to dismiss his foreign levies (September 7).
On the nth of September a Piedmontese army of 35,000 men
crossed the frontier at La Cattolica; on the i8th the pontifical
army was crushed at Castelfidardo; and when, on the 29th,
Ancona fell, Umbria and the Marches were in the power of
Piedmont. On the i5th of October King Victor Emmanuel
crossed the Neapolitan border at the head of his troops.
It had been a race between Garibaldi and the Piedmontese.
"If we do not arrive at the Volturno before Garibaldi reaches
La Cattolica," Cavour had said, " the monarchy is lost, and Italy
will remain in the prison-house of the Revolution." l Fortun-
ately for his policy, the red-shirts had encountered a formidable
obstacle to their advance in the Neapolitan army entrenched
on the Volturno under the guns of Capua. On the igth of
September the Garibaldians began their attack on this position
with their usual impetuous valour; but they were repulsed
again and again, and it was not till the 2nd of October, after
a two days' pitched battle, that they succeeded in carrying the
position. The way was now open for the advance of the Pied-
montese, who, save at Isernia, encountered practically no
resistance. On the 2o,th Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi met,
and on the 7th of November they entered Naples together.
Garibaldi now resigned his authority into the king's hands and,
refusing the title and other honours offered to him, retired to his
island home of Caprera.2
Gaeta remained still to be taken. The Piedmontese under
Cialdini had begun the siege on the 5th of November, but it was
Recogai- not unt" tne lot'1 °^ JanuarX 1 86 1, when at the
tionoithe instance of Great Britain Napoleon withdrew his
united squadron, that the blockade could be made complete.
On the 13th of Februarv tne fortress surrendered,
Francis and his family having departed by sea for
papal territory. The citadel of Messina capitulated on the 2 2nd,
and Civitella del Tronto, the last stronghold of Bourbonism,
on the zist of March. On the i8th of February the first Italian
parliament met at Turin, and Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed
king of Italy. The new kingdom was recognized by Great
Britain within a fortnight, by France three months later, and
subsequently by other powers. It included the whole peninsula
except Venetia and Rome, and these the government and the
nation were determined to annex sooner or later.
There were, however, other serious problems calling for im-
mediate attention. The country had to be built up and converted
Problem* 'ronl an agglomeration of scattered medieval princi-
aew palities into a unified modern nation. The first question
xovem- which arose was that of brigandage in the south. Brigand-
mcnt aKe nac' a'ways existed in the Neapolitan kingdom, largely
ttriga'ad- ow'nK to the poverty of the people; but the evil was now
^^ aggravated by the mistake of the new government in
dismissing the Bourbon troops, and then calling them out
again as recruits. A great many turned brigands rather than serve
again, and together with the remaining adherents of Bourbon rule and
malefactors of all kinds, were made use of by the ex-king and his
entourage to harass the Italian administration. Bands of desperadoes
were formed, commanded by the most infamous criminals and by
foreigners who came to fight in what they were led to believe was
an Italian Vendee, but which was in reality a campaign of butchery
and plunder. Villages were sacked and burnt, men, women and
children mutilated, tortured or roasted alive, and women outraged.
The authors of these deeds when pursued by troops fled into papal
territory, where they were welcomed by the authorities and allowed
to refit and raise fresh recruits under tne aegis of the Church. The
prime organizers of the movement were King Francis's uncle, the
count of Trapani, and Mons. de M£rode, a Belgian ecclesiastic who
1 N. Bianchi, Cavour, p. 118.
* He asked for the Neapolitan viceroyalty for life, which the king
very wisely refused.
volun-
teers.
enjoyed immense influence at the Vatican. The task of suppressing
brigandage was entrusted to Generals La Marmora and Cialdini;
but in spite of extreme severity, justifiable in the circumstances, it
took four or five years completely to suppress the movement. Its
vitality, indeed, was largely due to the mistakes made by the
new administration, conducted as this was by officials ignorant of
southern conditions and out of sympathy with a people far more
primitive than in any other part of the peninsula. Politically, its
sole outcome was to prove the impossibility of allowing the continu-
ance of an independent Roman state in the heart of Italy.
Another of the government's difficulties was the question of what
to do with Garibaldi's volunteers. Fanti, the minister of war, had
three armies to incorporate in that of Piedmont, viz. that
of central Italy, that of the Bourbons and that of Garibaldi. °a""
The first caused no difficulty; the rank and file of the
second were mostly disbanded, but a number of the officers
were taken into the Italian army; the third offered a more
serious problem. Garibaldi demanded that all hisofficers should be
given equivalent rank in the Italian army, and in this he had the
support of Fanti. Cavour, on the other hand, while anxious to deal
generously with the Garibaldians, recognized the impossibility of such
a course, which would not only have offended the conservative spirit
of the Piedmontese military caste, which disliked and despised
irregular troops, but would almost certainly have introduced into the
army an element of indiscipline and disorder.
On the i8th of April the question of the volunteers was
discussed in one of the most dramatic sittings of the
Italian parliament. Garibaldi, elected member for Naples,
denounced Cavour in unmeasured terms for his treatment of the
volunteers and for the cession of Nice, accusing him of leading
the country to civil war. These charges produced a tremendous
uproar, but Bixio by a splendid appeal for concord succeeded
in calming the two adversaries. On the 23rd of April they were
formally reconciled in the presence of the king, but the scene of
the 1 8th of April hastened Cavour's end. In May the Roman
question was discussed in parliament. Cavour had often declared
that in the end the capital of Italy must be Rome, for it alone of
all Italian cities had an unquestioned claim to moral supremacy,
and his views of a free church in a free state were well known.
He had negotiated secretly with the pope through unofficial
agents, and sketched out a scheme of settlement of the Roman
question, which foreshadowed in its main features the law of
papal guarantees. But it was not given him to see this problem
solved, for his health was broken by the strain of the
last few years, during which practically the whole cal'our'
administration of the country was concentrated in his
hands. He died after a short illness on the 6th of June 1861,
at a moment when Italy had the greatest need of his statesman-
ship.
Ricasoli now became prime minister, Cavour having advised
the king to that effect. The financial situation was far from
brilliant, for the expenses of the administration of Rkasoll
Italy were far larger than the total of those of all the Ministry.
separate states, and everything had to be created or financial
rebuilt. The budget of 1861 showed a deficit of
344,000,000 lire, while the service of the debt was
110,000,000; deficits were met by new loans issued on unfavour-
able terms (that of July 1861 for 500,000,000 lire cost the govern-
ment 714,833,000), and government stock fell as low as 36. It
was now that the period of reckless finance began which, save for
a lucid interval under Sella, was to last until nearly the end of the
century. Considering the state of the country and the coming
war for Venice, heavy expenditure was inevitable, but good
management might have rendered the situation less dangerous.
Ricasoli, honest and capable as he was, failed to win popularity;
his attitude on the Roman question, which" became more un-
compromising after the failure of his attempt at conciliation,
and his desire to emancipate Italy from French predominance,
brought down on him the hostility of Napoleon. He fell in
March 1862, and was succeeded by Rattazzi, who being more
pliable and intriguing managed at first to please every-
body, including Garibaldi. At this time the extremists Ministry.
and even the moderates were full of schemes for liberat-
ing Venice and Rome. Garibaldi had a plan, with which the
premier was connected, for attacking Austria by raising a revolt
in the Balkans and Hungary, and later he contemplated a raid
THE RISORGIMENTO]
ITALY
59
into the Trentino; but the government, seeing the danger of such
an attempt, arrested several Garibaldians at Sarnico (near
Brescia), and in the imeule which followed several persons were
shot. Garibaldi now became an opponent of the ministry, and
in June went to Sicily, where, after taking counsel
ana Rome, with his former followers, he decided on an immediate
Affair of raid on Rome. He summoned his legionaries, and in
Aspro- August crossed over to Calabria with 1000 men. His
intentions in the main were still loyal, for he desired
to capture Rome for the kingdom; and he did his
best to avoid the regulars tardily sent against him. On the
zpth of August 1862, however, he encountered a force under
Pallavicini at Aspromonte, and, although Garibaldi ordered his
men not to fire, some of the raw Sicilian volunteers discharged a
few volleys which were returned by the regulars. Garibaldi
himself was seriously wounded and taken prisoner. He was shut
up in the fortress of Varignano, and after endless discussions as to
whether he should be tried or not, the question was settled by an
amnesty. The affair made the ministry so unpopular
Ministry, that it was forced to resign. Farini, who succeeded,
retired almost at once on account of ill-health, and
Minghetti became premier, with Visconti-Venosta as minister
for foreign affairs. The financial situation continued to be
seriously embarrassing; deficit was piled on deficit, loan upon
loan, and the service of the debt rose from 90,000,000 lire in
1860 to 220,000,000 in 1864.
Negotiations were resumed with Napoleon for the evacuation
of Rome by the French troops; but the emperor, though he saw
France, tnat l^e temporal power could not for ever be supported
Italy ana by French bayonets, desired some guarantee that the
the Roman evacuation should not be followed, at all events
question. jmmeciiately, by an Italian occupation, lest Catholic
opinion should lay the blame for this upon France. Ultimately
the two governments concluded a convention on the isth of
September 1864, whereby France agreed to withdraw her troops
from Rome so soon as the papal army should be reorganized,
or at the outside within two years, Italy undertaking not to
attack it nor permit others to do so, and to transfer the capital
from Turin to some other city within six months.1 The change of
capital would have the appearance of a definite abandonment of
the Roma capitate programme, although in reality it was to be
merely a tappa (stage) on the way. The convention was kept secret,
Capital but tne 'ast c^ause leaked out and caused the bitterest
trans- feeling among the people of Turin, who would have
ferredto been resigned to losing the capital provided it were
transferred to Rome, but resented the fact that it was
to be established in any other city, and that the con-
vention was made without consulting parliament. Demonstra-
tions were held which were repressed with unnecessary violence,
and although the change of capital was not unpopular in the rest of
Italy, where the Piemontesismo of the new regime was beginning
to arouse jealousy, the secrecy with which the affair was arranged
and the shooting down of the people in Turin raised such a storm
of disapproval that the king for the first time used his privilege
of dismissing the ministry. Under La Marmora's ad-
Marmora ministration the September convention was ratified.
Ministry, and the capital was transferred to Florence the follow-
ing year. This affair resulted in an important
political change, for the Piedmontese deputies, hitherto the
bulwarks of moderate conservatism, now shifted to the Left or
constitutional opposition.
Meanwhile, the Venetian question was becoming more and
more acute. Every Italian felt the presence of the Austrians in
the lagoons as a national humiliation, and between
question. J^59 an<i X866 countless plots were hatched for their
expulsion. But, in spite of the sympathy of the king,
the attempt to raise armed bands in Venetia had no success, and
it became clear that the foreigner could only be driven from the
peninsula by regular war. To wage this alone Italy was still too
weak, and it was necessary to look round for an ally. Napoleon
1 The counterblast of Pius IX. to this convention was the encyclical
Quanta Curaol Dec. 8, 1864, followed by the famous Syllabus.
was sympathetic; he desired to see the Austrians expelled, and
the Syllabus of Pius IX., which had stirred up the more aggressive
elements among the French clergy against his government, had
brought him once more into harmony with the views of Victor
Emmanuel; but he dared not brave French public opinion by
another war with Austria, nor did Italy desire an alliance
which would only have been bought at the price of further
cessions. There remained Prussia, which, now that the Danish
campaign of 1864 was over, was completing her prepara-
tions for the final struggle with Austria for the hegemony
of Germany; and Napoleon, who saw in the furthering of
Bismarck's plans the surest means of securing his own influence
in a divided Europe, willingly lent his aid in negotiating a Prusso-
Italian alliance. In the summer of 1865 Bismarck made formal
proposals to La Marmora; but the pourparlers were interrupted by
the conclusion of the convention of Gastein (August 14), to which
Austria agreed partly under pressure of the Prusso-Italian entente.
To Italy the convention seemed like a betrayal; to PTUSSO-
Napoleon it was a set-back which he tried to retrieve by Italian
suggesting to Austria the peaceful cession of Venetia to Alliance
the Italian kingdom, in order to prevent any danger of "' l866'
its alliance with Prussia. This proposal broke on the refusal of the
emperor Francis Joseph to cede Austrian territory except as the
result of a struggle; and Napoleon, won over by Bismarck at
the famous interview at Biarritz, once more took up the idea of
a Prusso-Italian offensive and defensive alliance. This was
actually concluded on the 8th of April 1866. Its terms, dictated
by a natural suspicion on the part of the Italian government,
stipulated that it should only become effective in the event of
Prussia declaring war on Austria within three months. Peace
was not to be concluded until Italy should have received Venetia,
and Prussia an equivalent territory in Germany.
The outbreak of war was postponed by further diplomatic
complications. On the i2th of June Napoleon, whose policy
throughout had been obscure and contradictory, signed a secret
treaty with Austria, under which Venice was to be handed over
to him, to be given to Italy in the event of her making a separate
peace. La Marmora, however, who believed himself bound in
honour to Prussia, refused to enter into a separate arrangement.
On the 1 6th the Prussians began hostilities, and on the 2oth
Italy declared war.
Victor Emmanuel took the supreme command of the Italian
army, and La Marmora resigned the premiership (which was
assumed by Ricasoli), to become chief of the staff.
' , Ricasoli
La Marmora had three army corps (130,000 men) Miaistry.
under his immediate command, to operate on the
Mincio, while Cialdini with 80,000 men was to operate on the
Po. The Austrian southern army consisting of 95,000 men was
commanded by the archduke Albert, with General von John
as chief of the staff. On the 23rd of June La Marmora crossed
the Mincio, and on the 24th a battle was fought at Custozza,
under circumstances highly disadvantageous to the Italians,
which after a stubborn contest ended in a crushing Austrian
victory. Bad generalship, bad organization and the jealousy
between La Marmora and Delia Rocca were responsible for this
defeat. Custozza might have been afterwards retrieved, for
the Italians had plenty of fresh troops besides Cialdini's army;
but nothing was done, as both the king and La Marmora believed
the situation to be much worse than it actually was. On the
3rd of July the Prussians completely defeated the
Austrians at Koniggratz, and on the 5th Austria K"Sa
ceded Venetia to Napoleon, accepting his mediation griitz.
in favour of peace. The Italian iron-clad fleet com-
manded by the incapable Persano, after wasting much time at
Taranto and Ancona, made an unsuccessful attack on the
Dalmatian island of Lissa on the i8th of July, and on the 2Oth
was completely defeated by the Austrian squadron, consisting
of wooden ships, but commanded by the capable Admiral
Tegethoff.
On the 22nd Prussia, without consulting Italy, made an armis-
tice with Austria, while Italy obtained an eight days' truce on
condition of evacuating the Trentino, which had almost entirely
0
6o
ITALY
[THE RISORGIMENTO
Sicily,
1866.
fallen into the hands of Garibaldi and his volunteers. Ricasoli
wished to go on with the war, rather than accept Venetia as a
gift from France; but the king and La Marmora saw that
peace must be made, as the whole Austrian army of 350,000
men was now free to fall on Italy. An armistice was accord-
ingly signed at Cormons on the izth of August; Austria
handed Venetia over to General Leboeuf, representing
Venice Napoleon; and on the 3rd of October peace between
"to Italy. Austria and4 Italy was concluded at Vienna. On the
igth Leboeuf handed Venetia over to the Venetian
representatives, and at the plebiscite held on the zist and 22nd,
647,246 votes were returned in favour of union with Italy, only
69 against it. When this result was announced to the king by
a deputation from Venice he said: " This is the finest day of
my life; Italy is made, but it is not complete." Rome was
still wanting.
Custozza and Lissa were not Italy's only misfortunes in 1866.
There had been considerable discontent in Sicily, where the
government had made itself unpopular. The priest-
to hood and the remnants of the Bourbon party fomented
an agitation, which in September culminated in an
attack on Palermo by 3000 armed insurgents, and in
similar outbreaks elsewhere. The revolt was put down owing
to the energy of the mayor of Palermo, Marquis A. Di Rudini,
and the arrival of reinforcements. The Ricasoli cabinet fell
over the law against the religious houses, and was succeeded
by that of Rattazzi, who with the support of the Left
Ministry. was apparently more fortunate. The French regular
troops were withdrawn from Rome in December 1866;
but the pontifical forces were largely recruited in France and
commanded by officers of the imperial army, and service under
the pope was considered by the French war office as equivalent
to service in France. This was a violation of the letter as well
as of the spirit of the September convention, and a stronger
and more straightforward statesman than Rattazzi would have
declared Italy absolved from its provisions. Mazzini now wanted
to promote an insurrection in Roman territory, whereas Garibaldi
advocated an invasion from without. He delivered a series
of violent speeches against the papacy, and made open prepara-
tions for a raid, which were not interfered with by the govern-
ment; but on the 23rd of September 1867 Rattazzi had him
suddenly arrested and confined to Caprera. In spite of the
vigilance of the warships he escaped on the I4th of
October and landed in Tuscany. Armed bands had
already entered papal territory, but achieved nothing
in particular. Their presence, however, was a sufficient
excuse for Napoleon, under pressure of the clerical party, to
send another expedition to Rome (26th of October). Rattazzi,
after ordering a body of troops to enter papal territory with no
definite object, now resigned, and was succeeded by
MUiistry* Menabrea. Garibaldi joined the bands on the 23rd,
but his ill-armed and ill-disciplined force was very
inferior to his volunteers of '49, '60 and '66. On the 24th he
captured Monte Rotondo, but did not enter Rome as the expected
insurrection had not broken out. On the 29th a French force,
under de Failly, arrived, and on the 3rd of November a battle
took place at Mentana between 4000 or 5000 red-
shirts and a somewhat superior force of French and
pontificals. The Garibaldians, mowed down by the
new French chossepdt rifles, fought until their last cartridges
were exhausted, and retreated the next day towards the Italian
frontier, leaving 800 prisoners.
The affair of Mentana caused considerable excitement through-
out Europe, and the Roman question entered on an acute stage.
Napoleon suggested his favourite expedient of a congress,
but the proposal broke down owing to Great Britain's refusal
to participate; and Rouher, the French premier, declared in
the Chamber (sth of December 1867) that France could never
permit the Italians to occupy Rome. The attitude of France
strengthened that anti-French feeling in Italy which had begun
with Villafranca; and Bismarck was not slow to make use
of this hostility, with a view to preventing Italy from taking
attacks
Rome.
sides with France against Germany in the struggle between the
two powers which he saw to be inevitable. At the same time
Napoleon was making overtures both to Austria and to Italy,
overtures which were favourably received. Victor Emmanuel
was sincerely anxious to assist Napoleon, for in spite of Nice
and Savoy and Mentana he felt a chivalrous desire to help the
man who had fought for Italy. But with the French at Civita-
vecchia (they had left Rome very soon after Mentana) a war for
France was not to be thought of, and Napoleon would not promise
more than the literal observance of the September convention.
Austria would not join France unless Italy did the same, and
she realized that that was impossible unless Napoleon gave way
about Rome. Consequently the negotiations were suspended.
A scandal concerning the tobacco monopoly led to
the fall of Menabrea, who was succeeded in December Ministry.
1869 by Giovanni Lanza, with Visconti-Venosta at
the foreign office and Q. Sella as finance minister. The latter
introduced a sounder financial policy, which was maintained
until the fall of the Right in 1876. Mazzini, now openly hostile
to the monarchy, was seized with a perfect monomania for in-
surrections, and promoted various small risings, the only effect
of which was to show how completely his influence was gone.
In December 1869 the XXI. oecumenical council began its
sittings in Rome, and on the i8th of July 1870 proclaimed the
infallibility of the pope (see VATICAN COUNCIL). Two days
previously Napoleon had declared war on Prussia, and immedi-
ately afterwards he withdrew his troops from Civitavecchia;
but he persuaded Lanza to promise to abide by the September
convention, and it was not until after Worth and Gravelotte
that he offered to give Italy a free hand to occupy Rome. Then
it was too late; Victor Emmanuel asked Thiers if he could
give his word of honour that with 100,000 Italian troops France
could be saved, but Thiers remained silent. Austria replied
like Italy: " It is too late." On the 9th of August Italy made
a declaration of neutrality, and three weeks later Visconti-
Venosta informed the powers that Italy was about to occupy
Rome. On the 3rd of September the news of Sedan reached
Florence, and with the fall of Napoleon's empire the September
convention ceased to have any value. The powers having
engaged to abstain from intervention in Italian affairs, Victor
Emmanuel addressed a letter to Pius IX. asking him in the name
of religion and peace to accept Italian protection instead of the
temporal power, to which the pope replied that he Italian
would only yield to force. On the nth of September occupa-
General Cadorna at the head of 60,000 men entered UoD ot
papal territory. The garrison of Civitavecchia sur- Kome.
rendered to Bixio, but the 10,000 men in Rome, mostly French,
Belgians, Swiss and Bavarians, under Kanzler, were ready to
fight. Cardinal Antonelli would have come to terms, but the
pope decided on making a sufficient show of resistance to prove
that he was yielding to force. On the 2oth the Italians began
the attack, and General Maz6 de la Roche's division having
effected a breach in the Porta Pia, the pope ordered the garrison
to cease fire and the Italians poured into the Eternal City followed
by thousands of Roman exiles. By noon the whole city on the
left of the Tiber was occupied and the garrison laid down their
arms; the next day, at the pope's request, the Leonine City
on the right bank was also occupied. It had been intended to
leave that part of Rome to the pope, but by the earnest desire
of the inhabitants it too was included' in the Italian kingdom.
At the plebiscite there were 133,681 votes for union and 1507
against it. In July 1872 King Victor Emmanuel made his
solemn entry into Rome, which was then declared the capital
of Italy. Thus, after a struggle of more than half a century, in
spite of apparently insuperable obstacles, the liberation and
the unity of Italy were accomplished.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A vast amount of material on the Risorgimento
has been published both in Italy and abroad as well as numerous
works of a literary and critical nature. The most detailed Italian
history of the period is Carlo Tivaroni's Sloria critica del Risorgi-
mento Ilalia.no in 9 vols. (Turin, 1888-1897), based on a diligent study
of the original authorities and containing a large amount of informa-
tion; the author is a Mazzinian, which fact should be taken into
1870-1902]
ITALY
61
account, but he generally quotes the opinions of those who disagree
with him as well. Another voluminous but less valuable work is
F. Bertolini's Storia d' Italia dal 1814 al 1878, in 2 parts (Milan, 1880-
1881). L. Chiala's Lettere del Cpnte di Cavour (7 vols.,. Turin, 1883-
1887) and D. Zanichelli's Scritti del Conte di Cavour (Bologna, 1892)
are very important, and so are Prince Metternich's Memoifes (7 vols.,
Paris, 1881). P. Orsi's L'ltalia moderna (Milan, 1901) should also be
mentioned. N. Bianchi's Storia della diplomazia europea in Italia
(8 vols., Turin, 1865) is an invaluable and thoroughly reliable work.
See also Zini's Storia d' Italia (4 vols.^ Milan, 1875) ; Gualterio's
Gli
for
d'ltali
of Italian Independence (Boston, 1893) is gushing and not always
accurate ; C. Cantu's Dell' indipendenza italiana cronistoria (Naples,
1872-1877) is reactionary and often unreliable; V. Bersezio, //
Regno di Vittorio Emanuele II (8 vols., Turin, 1889, &c.). For
English readers Countess E. Martinengo Cesaresco's Liberation of
Italy (London, 1895) is to be strongly recommended, and is indeed,
for accuracy, fairness and synthesis, as well as for charm of style,
one of the very best books on the subject in any language; Bolton
King's History of Italian Unity (2 vols., London, 1899) is bulkier and
less satisfactory, but contains a useful bibliography. A succinct
account of the chief events of the period will be found in Sir Spencer
Walpole's History of Twenty- Five Years (London, 1904). See also
the Cambridge Modern History, vols. x. and xi. (Cambridge, 1907, &c.),
where full bibliographies will be found. (L. V.*)
F. HISTORY, 1870-1902
The downfall of the temporal power was hailed throughout
Italy with unbounded enthusiasm. Abroad, Catholic countries
Italian a*- nrs*- received the tidings with resignation, and
occupa- Protestant countries with joy. In France, where the
tloo of Government of National Defence had replaced the
Rome. Empire, Cremieux, as president of the government
delegation at Tours, hastened to offer his congratulations to
Italy. The occupation of Rome caused no surprise to the
French government, which had been forewarned on nth
September of the Italian intentions. On that occasion Jules
Favre had recognized the September convention to be dead, and,
while refusing explicitly to denounce it, had admitted that unless
Italy went to Rome the city would become a prey to dangerous
agitators. At the same time he made it clear that Italy would
occupy Rome upon her own responsibility. Agreeably surprised
by this attitude on the part of France, Visconti-Venosta lost
no time in conveying officially the thanks of Italy to the French
government. He doubtless foresaw that the language of Favre
and Cremieux would not be endorsed by the French Clericals.
Prussia, while satisfied at the fall of the temporal power, seemed
to fear lest Italy might recompense the absence of French opposi-
tion to the occupation of Rome by armed intervention in favour
of France. Bismarck, moreover, was indignant at the connivance
of the Italian government in the Garibaldian expedition to
Dijon, and was irritated by Visconti-Venosta's plea in the
Italian parliament for the integrity of French territory. The
course of events in France, however, soon calmed German
apprehensions. The advent of Thiers, his attitude towards
the petition of French bishops on behalf of the pope, the recall
of Senard, the French minister at Florence — who had written to
congratulate Victor Emmanuel on the capture of Rome — and
the instructions given to his successor, the comte de Choiseul,
to absent himself from Italy at the moment of the king's official
entry into the new capital (2nd July 1871), together with the
haste displayed in appointing a French ambassador to the Holy
See, rapidly cooled the cordiality of Franco-Italian relations, and
reassured Bismarck on the score of any dangerous intimacy
between the two governments.
The friendly attitude of France towards Italy during the
period immediately subsequent to the occupation of Rome
seemed to cow and to dishearten the Vatican. For
a few weeks tlle relations between the Curia and the
Vatican. Italian authorities were marked by a conciliatory
spirit. The secretary-general of the Italian foreign
office, Baron Blanc, who had accompanied General Cadorna
to Rome, was received almost daily by Cardinal Antonelli,
papal secretary of state, in order to settle innumerable questions
arising out of the Italian occupation. The royal commissioner
for finance, Giacomelli, had, as a precautionary measure, seized
the pontifical treasury; but upon being informed by Cardinal
Antonelli that among the funds deposited in the treasury were
1,000,000 crowns of Peter's Pence offered by the faithful to the
pope in person, the commissioner was authorized by the Italian
council of state not only to restore this sum, but also to indemnify
the Holy See for moneys expended for the service of the October
coupon of the pontifical debt, that debt having been taken over
by the Italian state. On the 2pthof September Cardinal Antonelli
further apprised Baron Blanc that he was about to issue drafts
for the monthly payment of the 50,000 crowns inscribed in the
pontifical budget for the maintenance of the pope, the Sacred
College, the apostolic palaces and the papal guards. The
Italian treasury at once honoured all the papal drafts, and thus
contributed a first instalment of the 3,225,000 lire per annum
afterwards placed by Article 4 of the Law of Guarantees at the
disposal of the Holy See. Payments would have been regularly
continued had not pressure from the French Clerical party
coerced the Vatican into refusing any further instalment.
Once in possession of Rome, and guarantor to the Catholic
world of the spiritual independence of the pope, the Italian
government prepared juridically to regulate its
relations to the Holy See. A bill known as the Law of Tlle Law
Guarantees was therefore framed and laid before taat"*^
parliament. The measure was an amalgam of Cavour's
scheme for a " free church in a free state," of Ricasoli's Free
Church Bill, rejected by parliament four years previously,
and of the proposals presented to Pius IX. by Count Ponza di
San Martino in September 1870. After a debate lasting nearly
two months the Law of Guarantees was adopted in secret ballot
on the 2ist of March 1871 by 185 votes against 106.
It consisted of two parts. The first, containing thirteen articles,
recognized (Articles I and 2) the person of the pontiff as sacred and
intangible, and while providing for free discussion of religious
questions, punished insults and outrages against the pope in the
same way as insults and outrages against the king. Royal honours
were attributed to the pope (Article 3), who was further guaranteed
the same precedence as that accorded to him by other Catholic
sovereigns, and the right to maintain his Noble and Swiss guards.
Article 4 allotted the pontiff an annuity of 3,225,000 lire (£129,000)
for the maintenance of the Sacred College, the sacred palaces, the
congregations, the Vatican chancery and the diplomatic service.
The sacred palaces, museums and libraries were, by Article 5,
exempted from all taxation, and the pope was assured perpetual
enjoyment of the Vatican and Lateran buildings and gardens, and of
the papal villa at Castel Gandolfo. Articles 6 and 7 forbade access
of any Italian official or agent to the above-mentioned palaces or to
any eventual conclave or oecumenical council without special author-
ization from the pope, conclave or council. Article 8 prohibited the
seizure or examination of any ecclesiastical papers, documents,
books or registers of purely spiritual character. Article 9 guaranteed
to the pope full freedom for the exercise of his spiritual ministry, and
provided for the publication of pontifical announcements on the
doors of the Roman churches and basilicas. Article 10 extended
immunity to ecclesiastics employed by the Holy See, and bestowed
upon foreign ecclesiastics in Rome the personal rights of Italian
citizens. By Article n, diplomatists accredited to the Holy See,
and papal diplomatists while in Italy, were placed on the same footing
as diplomatists accredited to the Quirinal. Article 12 provided for
the transmission free of cost in Italy of all papal telegrams and
correspondence both with bishops and foreign governments, and
sanctioned the establishment, at the expense of the Italian state,
of a papal telegraph office served by papal officials in communication
with the Italian postal and telegraph system. Article 13 exempted
all ecclesiastical seminaries, academies, colleges and schools for the
education of priests in the city of Rome from all interference on
the part of the Italian government.
This portion of the law, designed to reassure foreign Catholics,
met with little opposition; but the second portion, regulating the
relations between state and church in Italy, was sharply criticized
by deputies who, like Sella, recognized the ideal of a " free church in
a free state " to be an impracticable dream. The second division of
the law abolished (Article 14) all restrictions upon the right of
meeting of members of the clergy. By Article 15 the government
relinquished its rights to apostolic legation in Sicily, and to the ap-
pointment of its own nominees to the chief benefices throughout the
kingdom. Bishops were further dispensed from swearing fealty to
the king, though, except in Rome and suburbs, the choice of bishops
was limited to ecclesiastics of Italian nationality. Article 16
abolished the need for royal exequatur and placet for ecclesiastical
publications, but subordinated the enjoyment of temporalities by
ITALY
[1870-1902
bishops and priests to the concession of state exequatur and placet.
Article 17 maintained the independence of the ecclesiastical juris-
diction in spiritual and disciplinary matters, but reserved for the
state the exclusive right to carry out coercive measures.
On the izth of July 1871, Articles 268, 269 and 270 of the
Italian Penal Code were so modified as to make ecclesiastics
liable to imprisonment for periods varying from six months to
five years, and to fines from 1000 to 3000 lire, for spoken or
written attacks against the laws of the state, or for the fomenta-
tion of disorder. An encyclical of Pius IX. to the bishops of the
Catholic Church on the 1 5th of May 1871 repudiated the Law of
Guarantees, and summoned Catholic princes to co-operate in
restoring the temporal power. Practically, therefore, the law
has remained a one-sided enactment, by which Italy considers
herself bound, and of which she has always observed the spirit,
even though the exigencies of self-defence may have led in some
minor respects to non-observance of the letter. The annuity
payable to the pope has, for instance, been 'made subject to
quinquennial prescription, so that in the event of tardy recogni-
tion of the law the Vatican could at no time claim payment of
more than five years' annuity with interest.
For a few months after the occupation of Rome pressing
questions incidental to a new change of capital and to the
administration of a new domain distracted public attention from
the real condition of Italian affairs. The rise of the Tiber and
the flooding of Rome in December 1870 (tactfully used by
Victor Emmanuel as an opportunity for a first visit to the new
capital) illustrated the imperative necessity of reorganizing the
drainage of the city and of constructing the Tiber embankment.
In spite of pressure from the French government, which desired
Italy to maintain Florence as the political and to regard Rome
merely as the moral capital of the realm, the government offices
and both legislative chambers were transferred in 1871 to the
Eternal City. Early in the year the crown prince Humbert with
the Princess Margherita took up their residence in the Quirinal
Palace, which, in view of the Vatican refusal to deliver up the
keys, had to be opened by force. Eight monasteries were
expropriated to make room for the chief state departments,
pending the construction of more suitable edifices. The growth
of Clerical influence in France engendered a belief that Italy
would soon have to defend with the sword her newly-won unity,
while the tremendous lesson of the Franco-Prussian War con-
vinced the military authorities of the need for thorough military
reform. General Ricotti Magnani, minister of war, therefore
framed an Army Reform Bill designed to bring the Italian army
as nearly as possible up to the Prussian standard. Sella, minister
of finance, notwithstanding the sorry plight of the Italian
exchequer, readily granted the means for the reform. " We
must arm," he said, " since we have overturned the papal
throne," and he pointed to France as the quarter from which
attack was most likely to come.
Though perhaps less desperate than during the previous decade,
the condition of Italian finance was precarious indeed. With
_. taxation screwed up to breaking point on personal and
real estate, on all forms of commercial and industrial
activity, and on salt, flour and other necessaries of life; with a
deficit of £8, 500,000 for the current year, and the prospect of a
further aggregate deficit of £12,000,000 during the next quin-
quennium, Sella's heroic struggle against national bankruptcy
was still far from a successful termination. He chiefly had
borne the brunt and won the laurels of the unprecedented fight
against deficit in which Italy had been involved since 1862.
As finance minister in the Rattazzi cabinet of that year he had
been confronted with a public debt of nearly £120,000,000, and
with an immediate deficit of nearly £18,000,000. In 1864, as
minister in the La Marmora cabinet, he had again to face an
excess of expenditure over income amounting to more than
£14,600,000. By the seizure and sale of Church lands, by the
sale of state railways, by " economy to the bone" and on one
supreme occasion by an appeal to taxpayers to advance a year's
quota of the land-tax, he had met the most pressing engagements
of that troublous period. The king was persuaded to forgo
one-fifth of his civil list, ministers and the higher civil servants
were required to relinquish a portion of their meagre salaries,
but, in spite of all, Sella had found himself in 1865 compelled
to propose the most hated of fiscal burdens — a grist tax on
cereals. This tax (macinato) had long been known in Italy.
Vexatious methods of assessment and collection had made it so
unpopular that the Italian government in 1859-1860 had thought
it expedient to abolish it throughout the realm. Sella hoped
by the application of a mechanical meter both to obviate the
odium attaching to former methods of collection and to avoid the
maintenance of an army of inspectors and tax-gatherers, whose
stipends had formerly eaten up most of the proceeds of the
impost. Before proposing the reintroduction of the tax, Sella
and his friend Ferrara improved and made exhaustive experi-
ments with the meter. The result of their efforts was laid before
parliament in one of the most monumental and most painstaking
preambles ever prefixed to a bill. Sella, nevertheless, fell before
the storm of opposition which his scheme aroused. Scialoja,
who succeeded him, was obliged to adopt a similar proposal,
but parliament again proved refractory. Ferrara, successor of
Scialoja, met a like fate; but Count Cambray-Digny, finance
minister in the Menabrea cabinet of 1868-1869, driven to find
means to cover a deficit aggravated by the interest on the
Venetian debt, succeeded, with Sella's help, in forcing a Grist
Tax Bill through parliament, though in a form of which Sella
could not entirely approve. When, on the ist of January 1869,
the new tax came into force, nearly half the flour-mills in Italy
ceased work. In many districts the government was obliged
to open mills on its own account. Inspectors and tax-gatherers
did their work under police protection, and in several parts of
the country riots had to be suppressed manu mililari. At first
the net revenue from the impost was less than £1,100,000; but
under Sella's firm administration (1860-1873), and in consequence
of improvements gradually introduced by him, the net return
ultimately exceeded £3,200,000. The parliamentary opposition
to the impost, which the Left denounced as " the tax on hunger,"
was largely factitious. Few, except the open partisans of national
bankruptcy, doubted its necessity; yet so strong was the current
of feeling worked up for party purposes by opponents of the
measure, that Sella's achievement in having by its means saved
the financial situation of Italy deserves to rank among the most
noteworthy performances of modern parliamentary statesman-
ship.
Under the stress of the appalling financial conditions
represented by chronic deficit, crushing taxation, the heavy
expenditure necessary for the consolidation of the kingdom, the
reform of the army and the interest on the pontifical debt, Sella,
on the nth of December 1871, exposed to parliament the
financial situation in all its nakedness. He recognized that
considerable improvement had already taken place. Revenue
from taxation had risen in a decade from £7,000,000 to
£20,200,000; profit on state monopolies had increased from
£7,000,000 to £9,400,000; exports had grown to exceed imports;
income from the working of telegraphs had tripled itself; rail-
ways had been extended from 2200 to 6200 kilometres, and the
annual travelling public had augmented from 15,000,000 to
25,000,000 persons. The serious feature of the situation lay
less in the income than in the " intangible " expenditure, namely,
the vast sums required for interest on the various forms of public
debt and for pensions. Within ten years this category of outlay
had increased from £8,000,000 to £28,800,000. During the same
period the assumption of the Venetian and Roman debts, losses
on the issue of loans and the accumulation of annual deficits,
had caused public indebtedness to rise from £92,000,000 to
£328,000,000, no less than £100,000,000 of the latter sum having
been sacrificed in premiums and commissions to bankers and
underwriters of loans. By economies and new taxes Sella
had reduced the deficit to less than £2,000,000 in 1871, but for
1872 he found himself confronted with a total expenditure of
£8,000,000 in excess of revenue. He therefore proposed to make
over the treasury service to the state banks, to increase the
forced currency, to raise the stamp and registration duties and
1870-1902]
ITALY
to impose a new tax on textile fabrics. An optional conversion
of sundry internal loans into consolidated stock at a lower rate of
interest was calculated to effect considerable saving. The battle
over these proposals was long and fierce. But for the tactics of
Rattazzi, leader of the Left, who, by basing his opposition on
party considerations, impeded the secession of Minghetti and a
part of the Right from the ministerial majority, Sella would have
been defeated. On the 23rd of March 1872, however, he suc-
ceeded in carrying his programme, which not only provided for
the pressing needs of the moment, but laid the foundation of the
much-needed equilibrium between expenditure and revenue.
In the spring of 1873 it became evident that the days of the
Lanza-Sella cabinet were numbered. Fear of the advent of a
Radical administration under Rattazzi alone prevented the
Minghettian Right from revolting against the government. The
Left, conscious of its strength, impatiently awaited the moment
of accession to power. Sella, the real head of the Lanza cabinet,
was worn out by four years' continuous work and disheartened
by the perfidious misrepresentation in which Italian politicians,
particularly those of the Left, have ever excelled. By sheer force
of will he compelled the Chamber early in 1873 to adopt some
minor financial reforms, but on the 2gth of April found himself
in a minority on the question of a credit for a proposed state
arsenal at Taranto. Pressure from all sides of the House, how-
ever, induced the ministry to retain office until after the debate
on the application to Rome and the Papal States of the Religious
Orders Bill (originally passed in 1866) — a measure which, with
the help of Ricasoli, was carried at the end of May. While
leaving intact the general houses of the various confraternities
(except that of the Jesuits), the bill abolished the
Religious corporate personality of religious orders, handed over
BUI. their schools and hospitals to civil administrators,
placed their churches at the disposal of the secular
clergy, and provided pensions for nuns and monks, those who
had families being sent to reside with their relatives, and those
who by reason of age or bereavement had no home but their
monasteries being allowed to end their days in religious houses
specially set apart for the purpose. The proceeds of the sale of
the suppressed convents and monasteries were partly converted
into pensions for monks and nuns, and partly allotted to the
municipal charity boards which had undertaken the educational
and charitable functions formerly exercised by the religious
orders. To the pope was made over £16,000 per annum as a
contribution to the expense of maintaining in Rome represen-
tatives of foreign orders; the Sacred College, however, rejected
this endowment, and summoned all the suppressed confraternities
to reconstitute themselves under the ordinary Italian law of
association. A few days after the passage of the Religious Orders
Bill, the death of Rattazzi ($th June 1873) removed all probability
of the immediate advent of the Left. Sella, uncertain of the
loyalty of the Right, challenged a vote on the immediate dis-
cussion of further financial reforms, and on the 23rd of June was
overthrown by a coalition of the Left under Depretis with a
part of the Right under Minghetti and the Tuscan Centre under
Correnti. The administration which thus fell was unquestionably
the most important since the death of Cavour. It had completed
national unity, transferred the capital to Rome, overcome the
chief obstacles to financial equilibrium, initiated military reform
and laid the foundation of the relations between state and church.
The succeeding Minghetti-Visconti-Venosta cabinet — which
held office from the loth of July 1873 to the i8th of March 1876 —
M. . ,„ continued in essential points the work of the preceding
ffiingattiiit t f * ii»t
administration. Minghetti s finance, though less clear-
sighted and less resolute than that of Sella, was on the whole
prudent and beneficial. With the aid of Sella he concluded
conventions for the redemption of the chief Italian railways from
their French and Austrian proprietors. By dint of expedients he
gradually overcame the chronic deficit, and, owing to the normal
increase of revenue, ended his term of office with the announce-
ment of a surplus of some £720,000. The question whether this
surplus was real or only apparent has been much debated, but
there is no reason to doubt its substantial reality. It left out of
account a sum of £1,000,000 for railway construction which was
covered by credit, but, on the other hand, took no note of
£360,000 expended in the redemption of debt. Practically,
therefore, the Right, of which the Minghetti cabinet was the last
representative administration, left Italian finance with a surplus
of £80,000. Outside the all-important domain of finance, the
attention of Minghetti and his colleagues was principally absorbed
by strife between church and state, army reform and railway
redemption. For some time after the occupation of Rome the
pope, in order to substantiate the pretence that his spiritual
freedom had been diminished, avoided the creation of cardinals
and the nomination of bishops. On the 22nd of December 1873,
however, he unexpectedly created twelve cardinals, and subse-
quently proceeded to nominate a number of bishops. Visconti-
Venosta, who had retained the portfolio for foreign affairs in the
Minghetti cabinet, at once drew the attention of the European
powers to this proof of the pope's spiritual freedom and of the
imaginary nature of his " imprisonment " in the Vatican. At
the same time he assured them that absolute liberty would be
guaranteed to the deliberations of a conclave. In relation to the
Church in Italy, Minghetti's policy was less perspicacious.
He let it be understood that the announcement of the appoint-
ment of bishops and the request for the royal exequatur might be
made to the government impersonally by the congregation of
bishops and regulars, by a municipal council or by any other
corporate body — a concession of which the bishops were quick to
take advantage, but which so irritated Italian political opinion
that, in July 1875, the government was compelled to withdraw
the temporalities of ecclesiastics who had neglected to apply for
the exequatur, and to evict sundry bishops who had taken posses-
sion of their palaces without authorization from the state.
Parliamentary pressure further obliged Bonghi, minister of
public instruction, to compel clerical seminaries either to forgo
the instruction of lay pupils or to conform to the laws of the
state in regard to inspection and examination, an ordinance
which gave rise to conflicts between ecclesiastical and lay
authorities, and led to the forcible dissolution of the Mantua
seminary and to the suppression of the Catholic university in
Rome.
More noteworthy than its management of internal affairs
were the efforts of the Minghetti cabinet to strengthen and
consolidate national defence. Appalled by the weak-
ness, or rather the non-existence, of the navy, Admiral ^'^^vat
Saint-Bon, with his coadjutor Signer Brin, addressed reform.
himself earnestly to the task of recreating the fleet,
which had never recovered from the effects of the disaster of
Lissa. During his three years of office he laid the foundation
upon which Brin was afterwards to build up a new Italian navy.
Simultaneously General Ricotti Magnani matured the army
reform scheme which he had elaborated under the preceding
administration. His bill, adopted by parliament on the 7th of
June 1875, still forms the ground plan of the Italian army.
It was fortunate for Italy that during the whole period 1869-
1876 the direction of her foreign policy remained in the experi-
enced hands of Visconti-Venosta, a statesman whose Foreign
trustworthiness, dignity and moderation even political policy
opponents have been compelled to recognize. Diplo- a£f"t thc
matic records fail to substantiate the accusations of
lack of initiative and instability of political criterion currently
brought against him by contemporaries. As foreign minister of
a young state which had attained unity in defiance of the most
formidable religious organization in the world and in opposition
to the traditional policy of France, it could but be Visconti-
Venosta's aim to uphold the dignity of his country while convinc-
ing European diplomacy that United Italy was an element of
order and progress, and that the spiritual independence of the
Roman pontiff had suffered no diminution. Prudence, moreover,
counselled avoidance of all action likely to serve the predominant
anti-Italian party in France as a pretext for violent intervention
in favour of the pope. On the occasion of the Metrical Congress,
which met in Paris in 1872, he, however, successfully protested
against the recognition of the Vatican delegate, Father Secchi,
64
ITALY
[1870-1902
as a representative of a " state," and obtained from Count de
Remusat, French foreign minister, a formal declaration that the
presence of Father Secchi on that occasion could not constitute a
diplomatic precedent. The irritation displayed by Bismarck
at the Francophil attitude of Italy towards the end of the
Franco- German War gave place to a certain show of goodwill
when the great chancellor found himself in his turn involved
in a struggle against the Vatican and when the policy of Thiers
began to strain Franco-Italian relations. Thiers had consistently
opposed the emperor Napoleon's pro-Italian policy. In the case
of Italy, as in that of Germany, he frankly regretted the constitu-
tion of powerful homogeneous states upon the borders of France.
Personal pique accentuated this feeling in regard to Italy.
The refusal of Victor Emmanuel II. to meet Thiers at the opening
of the Mont Cenis tunnel (a refusal not unconnected with offensive
language employed at Florence in October 1870 by Thiers during
his European tour, and with his instructions to the French
minister to remain absent from Victor Emmanuel's official
entry into Rome) had wounded the amour propre of the French
statesman, and had decreased whatever inclination he might
otherwise have felt to oppose the French Clerical agitation for
the restoration of the temporal power, and for French interference
with the Italian Religious Orders Bill. Consequently relations
between France and Italy became so strained that in 1873 both
the French minister to the Quirinal and the Italian minister to
the Republic remained for several months absent from their
posts. At this juncture the emperor of Austria invited Victor
Emmanuel to visit the Vienna Exhibition, and the Italian
government received a confidential intimation that acceptance
of the invitation to Vienna would be followed by a further
invitation from Berlin. Perceiving the advantage of a visit
to the imperial and apostolic court after the Italian occupation
of Rome and the suppression of the religious orders, and con-
vinced of the value of more cordial intercourse with the German
empire, Visconti-Venosta and Minghetti advised their sovereign
to accept both the Austrian and the subsequent German invita-
tions. The visit to Vienna took place on the I7th.to the 22nd
of September, and that to Berlin on the 22nd to the 26th of
September 1873, the Italian monarch being accorded in both
capitals a most cordial reception, although the contemporaneous
publication of La Marmora's famous pamphlet, More Light on
the Events of 1866, prevented intercourse between the Italian
ministers and Bismarck from being entirely confidential. Visconti-
Venosta and Minghetti, moreover, wisely resisted the chancellor's
pressure to override the Law of Guarantees and to engage in an
Italian Kitlturkampf. Nevertheless the royal journey contributed
notably to the establishment of cordial relations between Italy
and the central powers, relations which were further strengthened
by the visit of the emperor Francis Joseph to Victor Emmanuel
at Venice in April 1875, and by that of the German emperor
to Milan in October of the same year. Meanwhile Thiers had
given place to Marshal Macmahon, who effected a decided
improvement in Franco-Italian relations by recalling from
Civitavecchia the cruiser " Ordnoque," which since 1870 had been
stationed in that port at the disposal of the pope in case he
should desire to quit Rome. The foreign policy of Visconti-
Venosta may be said to have reinforced the international position
of Italy without sacrifice of dignity, and without the vacillation
and short-sightedness which was to characterize the ensuing
administrations of the Left.
The fall of the Right on the i8th of March 1876 was an event
destined profoundly and in many respects adversely to affect
the course of Italian history. Except at rare and not auspicious
intervals, the Right had held office from 1849 to 1876. Its
rule was associated in the popular mind with severe administra-
tion; hostility to the democratic elements represented by
Garibaldi, Crispi, Depretis and Bertani; ruthless imposition
and collection of taxes in order to meet the financial engagements
forced upon Italy by the vicissitudes of her Risorgimento;
strong predilection for Piedmontese, Lombards and Tuscans,
and a steady determination, not always scrupulous in its choice
of means, to retain executive power and the most important
administrative offices of the state for the consorteria, or close
corporation, of its own adherents. For years the men of the
Left had worked to inoculate the electorate with suspicion of
Conservative methods and with hatred of the imposts which
they nevertheless knew to be indispensable to sound finance.
In regard to the grist tax especially, the agitators of the Left
had placed their party in a radically false position. Moreover,
the redemption of the railways by the state — contracts for which
had been signed by Sella in 1875 on behalf of the Minghetti
cabinet with Rothschild at Basel and with the Austrian govern-
ment at Vienna — had been fiercely opposed by the Left, although
its members were for the most part convinced of the utility
of the operation. When, at the beginning of March 1876, these
contracts were submitted to parliament, a group of Tuscan
deputies, under Cesare Correnti, joined the opposition, and on
the 1 8th of March took advantage of a chance motion concerning
the date of discussion of an interpellation on the grist tax to
place the Minghetti cabinet in a minority. Depretis, ex-pro-
dictator of Sicily, and successor of Rattazzi in the leadership
of the Left, was entrusted by the king with the formation of a
Liberal ministry. Besides the premiership, Depretis assumed the
portfolio of finance; Nicotera, an ex-Garibaldian of
somewhat tarnished reputation, but a man of energetic ^*Je</,
and conservative temperament, was placed at the cabinet.
ministry of the interior; public works were entrusted
to Zanardelli, a Radical doctrinaire of considerable juridical
attainments; General Mezzacapo and Signor Brin replaced
General Ricotti Magnani and Admiral Saint-Bon at the war office
and ministry of marine; while to Mancini and Coppino, pro-
minent members of the Left, were allotted the portfolios of jus-
tice and public instruction. Great difficulty was experienced in
finding a foreign minister willing to challenge comparison with
Visconti-Venosta. Several diplomatists in active service were
approached, but, partly on account of their refusal, and partly
from the desire of the Left to avoid giving so important a post
to a diplomatist bound by ties of friendship or of interest to the
Right, the choice fell upon Melegari, Italian minister at Bern.
The new ministers had long since made monarchical professions
of faith, but, up to the moment of taking office, were nevertheless
considered to be tinged with an almost revolutionary hue. The
king alone appeared to feel no misgiving. His shrewd sense of
political expediency and his loyalty to constitutional principles
saved him from the error of obstructing the advent and driving
into an anti-dynastic attitude politicians who had succeeded
in winning popular favour. Indeed, the patriotism and loyalty
of the new ministers were above suspicion. Danger lay rather
in entrusting men schooled in political conspiracy and in un-
scrupulous parliamentary opposition with the government of a
young state still beset by enemies at home and abroad. As an
opposition party the Left had lived upon the facile credit of
political promises, but had no well-considered programme nor
other discipline nor unity of purpose than that born of the
common eagerness of its leaders for office and their common
hostility to the Right. Neither Depretis, Nicotera, Crispi,
Cairoli nor Zanardelli was disposed permanently to recognize
the superiority of any one chief. The dissensions which broke
out among them within a few months of the accession of their
party to power never afterwards disappeared, except at rare
moments when it became necessary to unite in preventing the
return of the Conservatives. Considerations such as these could
not be expected to appeal to the nation at large, which hailed
the advent of the Left as the dawn of an era of unlimited popular
sovereignty, diminished administrative pressure, reduction of
taxation and general prosperity. The programme of Depretis
corresponded only in part to these expectations. Its chief
points were extension of the franchise, incompatibility of a
parliamentary mandate with an official position, strict Pro,
enforcement of the rights of the State in regard to the gramme
Church, protection of freedom of conscience, mainten- otthe
ance of the military and naval policy inaugurated by the Lelt"
Conservatives, acceptance of the railway redemption contracts,
consolidation of the financial equilibrium, abolition of the forced
1870-1902]
ITALY
currency, and, eventually, fiscal reform. The long-promised
abolition of the grist tax was not explicitly mentioned, opposition
to the railway redemption contracts was transformed into
approval, and the vaunted reduction of taxation replaced by
lip-service to the Conservative deity of financial equilibrium.
The railway redemption contracts were in fact immediately
voted by parliament, with a clause pledging the government
to legislate in favour of farming out the railways to private
companies.
Nicotera, minister of the interior, began his- administration
of home affairs by a sweeping change in the personnel of the
prefects, sub-prefects and public prosecutors, but found himself
obliged to incur the wrath of his supporters by prohibiting
Radical meetings likely to endanger public order, and by enunciat-
ing administrative principles which would have befitted an
inveterate Conservative. In regard to the Church, he instructed
the prefects strictly to prevent infraction of the law against
religious orders. At the same time the cabinet, as a whole,
brought in a Clerical Abuses Bill, threatening with severe
punishment priests guilty of disturbing the peace of families,
of opposing the laws of the state, or of fomenting disorder.
Depretis, for his part, was compelled to declare impracticable
the immediate abolition of the grist tax, and to frame a bill for
the increase of revenue, acts which caused the secession of some
sixty Radicals and Republicans from the ministerial majority,
and gave the signal for an agitation against the premier similar
to that which he himself had formerly undertaken against the
Right. The first general election under the Left (November
1876) had yielded the cabinet the overwhelming majority of
421 Ministerialists against 87 Conservatives, but the very size
of the majority rendered it unmanageable. The Clerical Abuses
Bill provoked further dissensions: Nicotera was severely
affected by revelations concerning his political past; Zanardelli
refused to sanction the construction of a railway in Calabria
in which Nicotera was interested; and Depretis saw fit to com-
pensate the supporters of his bill for the increase of revenue
by decorating at one stroke sixty ministerial deputies with the
Order of the Crown of Italy. A further derogation from the
ideal of democratic austerity was committed by adding £80,000
per annum to the king's civil list (i4th May 1877) and by burden-
ing the state exchequer with royal household pensions amounting
to £20,000 a year. The civil list, which the law of the loth of
August 1862 had fixed at £650,000 a year, but which had been
voluntarily reduced by the king to £530,000 in 1864, and to
£490,000 in 1867, was thus raised to £570,000 a year. Almost
the only respect in which the Left could boast a decided im-
provement over the administration of the Right was the energy
displayed by Nicotera in combating brigandage and the mafia
in Calabria and Sicily. Successes achieved in those provinces
failed, however, to save Nicotera from the wrath of the Chamber,
and on the i4th of December 1877 a cabinet crisis arose over a
question concerning the secrecy of telegraphic correspondence.
Depretis thereupon reconstructed his administration, excluding
Nicotera, Melegari and Zanardelli, placing Crispi at the home
office, entrusting Magliani with finance, and himself assuming
the direction of foreign affairs.
In regard to foreign affairs, the debut of the Left as a governing
party was scarcely more satisfactory than its home policy.
Since the war of 1866 the Left had advocated an Italo-
pofcyof Prussian alliance in opposition to the Francophil
the Left, tendencies of the Right. On more than one occasion
Bismarck had maintained direct relations with the
chiefs of the Left, and had in 1870 worked to prevent a Franco-
Italian alliance by encouraging the " party of action " to press
for the occupation of Rome. Besides, the Left stood for anti-
clericalism and for the retention by the State of means of coercing
the Church, in opposition to the men of the Right, who, with
the exception of Sella, favoured Cavour's ideal of " a free Church
in a free State," and the consequent abandonment of state
control over ecclesiastical government. Upon the outbreak of
the Prussian Kulturkampf the Left had pressed the Right to
introduce an Italian counterpart to the Prussian May laws,
xv. 3
especially as the attitude of Thiers and the hostility of the
French Clericals obviated the need for sparing French sus-
ceptibilities. Visconti-Venosta and Minghetti, partly from
aversion to a Jacobin policy, and partly from a conviction that
Bismarck sooner or later would undertake his Gang nach Canossa,
regardless of any tacit engagement he might have assumed
towards Italy, had wisely declined to be drawn into any infraction
of the Law of Guarantees. It was, however, expected that the
chiefs of the Left, upon attaining office, would turn resolutely
towards Prussia in search of a guarantee against the Clerical
menace embodied in the regime of Marshal Macmahon. On the
contrary, Depretis and Melegari, both of whom were imbued
with French Liberal doctrines, adopted towards the Republic
an attitude so deferential as to arouse suspicion in Vienna and
Berlin. Depretis recalled Nigra from Paris and replaced him by
General Cialdini, whose ardent plea for Italian intervention
in favour of France in 1870, and whose comradeship with Marshal
Macmahon in 1859, would, it was supposed, render him persona
gratissima to the French government. This calculation was
falsified by events. Incensed by the elevation to the rank of
embassies of the Italian legation in Paris and the French legation
to the Quirinal, and by the introduction of the Italian bill
against clerical abuses, the French Clerical party not only attacked
Italy and her representative, General Cialdini, in the Chamber
of Deputies, but promoted a monster petition against the Italian
bill. Even the coup d'etat of the i6th of May 1877 (when
Macmahon dismissed the Jules Simon cabinet for opposing the
Clerical petition) hardly availed to change the attitude of
Depretis. As a precaution against an eventual French attempt
to restore the temporal power, orders were hurriedly given to
complete the defences of Rome, but in other respects the ItaJian
government maintained its subservient attitude. Yet at that
moment the adoption of a clear line of policy, in accord with
the central powers, might have saved Italy from the loss of
prestige entailed by her bearing in regard to the Russo-Turkish
War and the Austrian acquisition of Bosnia, and might have
prevented the disappointment subsequently occasioned by the
outcome of the Congress of Berlin. In the hope of inducing
the European powers to " compensate" Italy for the increase
of Austrian influence on the Adriatic, Crispi undertook in the
autumn of 1877, with the approval of the king, and in spite of
the half-disguised opposition of Depretis, a semi-official mission
to Paris, Berlin, London and Vienna. The mission appears
not to have been an unqualified success, though Crispi afterwards
affirmed in the Chamber (4th March 1886) that Depretis might in
1877 " have harnessed fortune to the Italian chariot." Depretis,
anxious only to avoid " a policy of adventure," let slip whatever
opportunity may have presented itself, and neglected even to
deal energetically with the impotent but mischievous Italian
agitation for a " rectification " of the Italo-Austrian frontier.
He greeted the treaty of San Stefano (3rd March 1878) with
undisguised relief, and by the mouth of the king, congratulated
Italy (7th March 1878) on having maintained with the powers
friendly and cordial relations " free from suspicious precautions,"
and upon having secured for herself " that most precious of
alliances, the alliance of the future " — a phrase of which the
empty rhetoric was to be bitterly demonstrated by the Berlin
Congress and the French occupation of Tunisia.
The entry of Crispi into the Depretis cabinet (December 1877)
placed at the ministry of the interior a strong hand and sure eye
at a moment when they were about to become im- crispl.
peratively necessary. Crispi was the only man of truly
statesmanlike calibre in the ranks of the Left. Formerly a friend
and disciple of Mazzini, with whom he had broken on the question
of the monarchical form of government which Crispi believed
indispensable to the unification of Italy, he had afterwards been
one of Garibaldi's most efficient coadjutors and an active member
of the " party of action." Passionate, not always scrupulous in
his choice and use of political weapons, intensely patriotic, loyal
with a loyalty based rather on reason than sentiment, quick-
witted, prompt in action, determined and pertinacious, he
possessed in eminent degree many qualities lacking in other
66
ITALY
[1870-1902
//. and
Phis IX.
Liberal chieftains. Hardly had he assumed office when the
unexpected death of Victor Emmanuel II. (gth January
Deaths ot ^S) stirre'd national feeling to an unprecedented
victor depth, and placed the continuity of monarchical in-
Bmmanuei stitutions in Italy upon trial before Europe. For thirty
years Victor Emmanuel had been the centre point
of national hopes, the token and embodiment of the
struggle for national redemption. He had led the country out of
the despondency which followed the defeat of Novara and the
abdication of Charles Albert, through all the vicissitudes of
national unification to the final triumph at Rome. His dis-
appearance snapped the chief link with the heroic period, and
removed from the helm of state a ruler of large heart, great
experience and civil courage, at a moment when elements of
continuity were needed and vital problems of internal reorganiza-
tion had still to be faced. Crispi adopted the measures necessary
to ensure the tranquil accession of King Humbert with a quick
energy which precluded any Radical or Republican demonstra-
tions. His influence decided the choice of the Roman Pantheon
as the late monarch's burial-place, in spite of formidable pressure
from the Piedmontese, who wished Victor Emmanuel II. to rest
with the Sardinian kings at Superga. He also persuaded the
new ruler to inaugurate, as King Humbert I., the new dynastical
epoch of the kings of Italy, instead of continuing as Humbert IV.
the succession of the kings of Sardinia. Before the commotion
caused by the death of Victor Emmanuel had passed away, the
decease of Pius IX. (7th February 1878) placed further demands
upon Crispi's sagacity and promptitude. Like Victor Emmanuel,
Pius IX. had been bound up with the history of the Risorgimento,
but, unlike him, had represented and embodied the anti-national,
reactionary spirit. Ecclesiastically, he had become the instru-
ment of the triumph of Jesuit influence, and had in turn set his
seal upon the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, the Syllabus
and Papal Infallibility. Yet, in spite of all, his jovial disposition
and good-humoured cynicism saved him from unpopularity, and
rendered his death an occasion of mourning. Notwithstanding
the pontiff's bestowal of the apostolic benediction in articulo
mortis upon Victor Emmanuel, the attitude of the Vatican had
remained so inimical as to make it doubtful whether the conclave
would be held in Rome. Crispi, whose strong anti-clerical con-
victions did not prevent him from regarding the papacy as pre-
eminently an Italian institution, was determined both to prove
to the Catholic world the practical independence of the govern-
ment of the Church and to retain for Rome so potent a centre of
universal attraction as the presence of the future pope. The
Sacred College having decided to hold the conclave abroad, Crispi
assured them of absolute freedom if they remained in Rome, or of
protection to the frontier should they migrate, but warned
them that, once evacuated, the Vatican would be occupied in the
name of the Italian government and be lost to the Church as
headquarters of the papacy. The cardinals thereupon overruled
their former decision, and the conclave was held in Rome, the
new pope, Cardinal Pecci, being elected on the 2oth of February
1878 without let or hindrance. The Italian government not only
prorogued the Chamber during the conclave to prevent
unseemly inquiries or demonstrations on the part of
deputies, but by means of Mancini, minister of justice, and
Cardinal di Pietro, assured the new pope protection during the
settlement of his outstanding personal affairs, an assurance of
which Leo XIII. on the evening after his election, took full
advantage. At the same time the duke of Aosta, commander of
the Rome army corps, ordered the troops to render royal honours
to the pontiff should he officially appear in the capital. King
Humbert addressed to the pope a letter of congratulation upon
his election, and received a courteous reply. The improve-
ment thus signalized in the relations between Quirinal and
Vatican was further exemplified on the i8th of October 1878,
when the Italian government accepted a papal formula with
regard to the granting of the royal exequatur for bishops,
whereby they, upon nomination by the Holy See, recognized
state control over, and made application for, the payment of
their temporalities.
Leo XIII.
The Depretis-Crispi cabinet did not long survive the opening
of the new reign. Crispi's position was shaken by a morally
plausible but juridically untenable charge of bigamy,
while on the 8th of March the election of Cairoli, an Calm"-
opponent of the ministry and head of the extremer section of the
Left, to the presidency of the Chamber, induced Depretis to
tender his resignation to the new king. Cairoli succeeded in
forming an administration, in which his friend Count Corti,
Italian ambassador at Constantinople, accepted the portfolio of
foreign affairs, Zanardelli the ministry of the interior, and Seismit
Doda the ministry of finance. Though the cabinet had no stable
majority, it induced the Chamber to sanction a commercial
treaty which had been negotiated with France and a general
" autonomous " customs tariff. The commercial treaty was,
however, rejected by the French Chamber in June 1878, a cir-
cumstance necessitating the application of the Italian general
tariff, which implied a 10 to 20% increase in the duties on the
principal French exports. A highly imaginative financial exposi-
tion by Seismit Doda, who announced a surplus of £2,400,000,
paved the way fora Grist Tax Reduction Bill, which Cairoli had
taken over from the Depretis programme. The Chamber,
though convinced of the danger of this reform, the perils of which
were incisively demonstrated by Sella, voted by an overwhelming
majority for an immediate reduction of the impost by one-
fourth, and its complete abolition within four years. Cairoli's
premiership was, however, destined to be cut short by an attempt
made upon the king's life in November 1878, during a royal visit
to Naples, by a miscreant named Passanante. In spite of the
courage and presence of mind of Cairoli, who received the dagger
thrust intended for the king, public and parliamentary indigna-
tion found expression in a vote which compelled the ministry to
resign.
Though brief, Cairoli's term of office was momentous in regard
to foreign affairs. The treaty of San Stefano had led to the
convocation of the Berlin Congress, and though Count
Corti was by no means ignorant of the rumours con- (Jjj^"^
cerning secret agreements between Germany, Austria congress.
and Russia, and Germany, Austria and Great Britain,
he scarcely seemed alive to the possible effect of such agreements
upon Italy. Replying on the pth of April 1878 to interpellations
by Visconti -Venosta and other deputies on the impending
Congress of Berlin, he appeared free from apprehension lest
Italy, isolated, might find herself face to face with a change of
the balance of power in the Mediterranean, and declared that
in the event of serious complications Italy would be " too much
sought after rather than too much forgotten." The policy of
Italy in the congress, he added, would be to support the interests
of the young Balkan nations. Wrapped in this optimism, Count
Corti proceeded, as first Italian delegate, to Berlin, where he
found himself obliged, on the 28th of May, to join reluctantly in
sanctioning the Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
On the 8th of July the revelation of the Anglo-Ottoman treaty
for the British occupation of Cyprus took the congress by surprise.
Italy, who had made the integrity of the Ottoman empire a
cardinal point of her Eastern policy, felt this change of the
Mediterranean status quo the more severely inasmuch as, in
order not to strain her relations with France, she had turned a
deaf ear to Austrian, Russian and German advice to prepare to
occupy Tunisia in agreement with Great Britain. Count Corti
had no suspicion that France had adopted a less disinterested
attitude towards similar suggestions from Bismarck and Lord
Salisbury. He therefore returned from the German capital
with " clean " but empty hands, a plight which found marked
disfavour in Italian eyes, and stimulated anti-Austrian Irre-
dentism. Ever since Venetia had been ceded by
Austria to the emperor Napoleon, and by him to Italy,
after the war of 1866, secret revolutionary com-
mittees had been formed in the northern Italian provinces to
prepare for the "redemption" of Trent and Trieste. For
twelve years these committees had remained comparatively in-
active, but in 1878 the presence of the ex-Garibaldian Cairoli
at the head of the government, and popular dissatisfaction at the
1870-1902]
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67
spread of Austrian sway on the Adriatic, encouraged them to
begin a series of noisy demonstrations. On the evening of the
signature at Berlin of the clause sanctioning the Austrian occupa-
tion of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an Irredentist riot took place
before the Austrian consulate at Venice. The Italian govern-
ment attached little importance to the occurrence, and believed
that a diplomatic expression of regret would suffice to allay
Austrian irritation. Austria, indeed, might easily have been
persuaded to ignore the Irredentist agitation, had not the
equivocal attitude of Cairoli and Zanardelli cast doubt upon the
sincerity of their regret. The former at Pavia (i5th October
1878), and the latter at Arco (3rd November), declared publicly
that Irredentist manifestations could not be prevented under
existing laws, but gave no hint of introducing any law to sanction
their prevention. " Repression, not prevention " became the
official formula, the enunciation of which by Cairoli at Pavia
caused Count Corti and two other ministers to resign.
The fall of Cairoli, and the formation of a second Depretis
cabinet in 1878, brought no substantial change in the attitude
of the government towards Irredentism, nor was the position
improved by the return of Cairoli to power in the following July.
Though aware of Bismarck's hostility towards Italy, of the
conclusion of the Austro-German alliance of 1879, an(i of tne
undisguised ill-will of France, Italy not only made no attempt
to crush an agitation as mischievous as it was futile, but granted
a state funeral to General Avezzana, president of the Irredentist
League. In Bonghi's mordant phrase, the foreign policy of
Italy during this period may be said to have been characterized
by " enormous intellectual impotence counterbalanced by equal
moral feebleness." Home affairs were scarcely better managed.
Parliament had degenerated into a congeries of personal groups,
whose members were eager only to overturn cabinets in order
to secure power for the leaders and official favours for themselves.
Depretis, who had succeeded Cairoli in December 1878, fell in
July 1879, after a vote in which Cairoli and Nicotera joined the
Conservative opposition. On izth July Cairoli formed a new
administration, only to resign on 24th November, and to recon-
struct his cabinet with the help of Depretis. The administration
of finance was as chaotic as the condition of parliament. The
£2,400,000 surplus announced by Seismit Doda proved to be a
myth. Nevertheless Magliani, who succeeded Seismit Doda,
had neither the perspicacity nor the courage to resist the abolition
of the grist tax. The first vote of the Chamber for the immediate
diminution of the tax, and for its total abolition on ist January
1883, had been opposed by the Senate. A second bill
was passed by the Chamber on i8th July 1879, pro-
viding for the immediate repeal of the grist tax on minor cereals,
and for its total abolition on ist January 1884. While approving
the repeal in regard to minor cereals, the Senate (24th January
1880) again rejected the repeal of the tax on grinding wheat as
prejudicial to national finance. After the general election of
1880, however, the Ministerialists, aided by a number of factious
Conservatives, passed a third bill repealing the grist tax on
wheat (loth July 1880), the repeal to take effect from the ist of
January 1884 onwards. The Senate, in which the partisans of
the ministry had been increased by numerous appointments ad
hoc, finally set the seal of its approval upon the measure. Not-
withstanding this prospective loss of revenue, parliament showed
great reluctance to vote any new impost, although hardly a year
previously it had sanctioned (3oth June 1879) Depretis's scheme
for spending during the next eighteen years £43,200,000 in
building 5000 kilometres of railway, an expenditure not wholly
justified by the importance of the lines, and useful principally
as a source of electoral sops for the constituents of ministerial
deputies. The unsatisfactory financial condition of the Florence,
Rome and Naples municipalities necessitated state help, but
the Chamber nevertheless proceeded with a light heart (23rd
February 1881) to sanction the issue of a foreign loan for
£26,000,000, with a view to the abolition of the forced currency,
thus adding to the burdens of the exchequer a load which
three years later again dragged Italy into the gulf of chronic
deficit.
In no modern country is error or incompetence on the part
of administrators more swiftly followed by retribution than in
Italy; both at home and abroad she is hemmed in
by political and economic conditions which leave Tualsla-
little margin for folly, and still less for " mental and moral
insufficiency," such as had been displayed by the Left. Nemesis
came in the spring of 1881, in the form of the French invasion
of Tunisia. Guiccioli, the biographer of Sella, observes that
Italian politicians find it especially hard to resist " the temptation
of appearing crafty." The men of the Left believed themselves
subtle enough to retain the confidence and esteem of all foreign
powers while coquetting at home with elements which some
of these powers had reason to regard with suspicion. Italy,
in constant danger from France, needed good relations with
Austria and Germany, but could only attain the goodwill of
the former by firm treatment of the revolutionary Irredentist
agitation, and of the latter by clear demonstration of Italian
will and ability to cope with all anti-monarchical forces. Depretis
and Cairoli did neither the one nor the other. Hence, when
opportunity offered firmly to establish Italian predominance in
the central Mediterranean by an occupation of Tunisia, they
found themselves deprived of those confidential relations with
the central powers, and even with Great Britain, which might
have enabled them to use the opportunity to full advantage.
The conduct of Italy in declining the suggestions received from
Count Andrassy and General Ignatiev on the eve of the Russo-
Turkish War — that Italy should seek compensation in Tunisia
for the extension of Austrian sway in the Balkans — and in
subsequently rejecting the German suggestion to come to an
arrangement with Great Britain for the occupation of Tunisia as
compensation for the British occupation of Cyprus, was certainly
due to fear lest an attempt on Tunisia should lead to a war with
France, for which Italy knew herself to be totally unprepared.
This very unpreparedness, however, rendered still less excusable
her treatment of the Irredentist agitation, which brought her
within a hair's-breadth of a conflict with Austria. Although
Cairoli, upon learning of the Anglo-Ottoman convention in regard
to Cyprus, had advised Count Corti of the possibility that Great
Britain might seek to placate France by conniving at a French
occupation of Tunisia, neither he nor Count Corti had any
inkling of the verbal arrangement made between Lord Salisbury
and Waddington at the instance of Bismarck, that, when con-
venient, France should occupy Tunisia, an agreement afterwards
confirmed (with a reserve as to the eventual attitude of Italy)
in despatches exchanged in July and August 1878 between the
Quai d'Orsay and Downing Street. Almost up to the moment
of the French occupation of Tunisia the Italian government
believed that Great Britain, if only out of gratitude for the bearing
of Italy in connexion with the Dulcigno demonstration in the
autumn of 1880, would prevent French acquisition of the Regency.
Ignorant of the assurance conveyed to France by Lord Granville
that the Gladstone cabinet would respect the engagements of
the Beaconsfield-Salisbury administration, Cairoli, in deference
to Italian public opinion, endeavoured to neutralize the activity
of the French consul Roustan by the appointment of an equally
energetic Italian consul, Maccio. The rivalry between these
two officials in Tunisia contributed not a little to strain Franco-
Italian relations, but it is doubtful whether France would have
precipitated her action had not General Menabrea, Italian
ambassador in London, urged his government to purchase the
Tunis-Goletta railway from the English company by which it
had been constructed. A French attempt to purchase the line
was upset in the English courts, and the railway was finally
secured by Italy at a price more than eight times its real value.
This pertinacity engendered a belief in France that Italy was
about to undertake in Tunisia a more aggressive pok'cy than
necessary for the protection of her commercial interests. Roustan
therefore hastened to extort from the bey concessions calculated
to neutralize' the advantages which Italy had hoped to secure
by the possession of the Tunis-Goletta line, and at the same time
the French government prepared at Toulon an expeditionary
corps for the occupation of the Regency. In the spring of 1881
68
ITALY
[1870-1902
the Kroumir tribe was reported to have attacked a French force
on the Algerian border, and on the oth of April Roustan informed
the bey of Tunis that France would chastise the assailants.
The bey issued futile protests to the powers. On the z6th of
April the island of Tabarca was occupied by the French, Bizerta
was seized on the 2nd of May, and on the izth of May the bey
signed the treaty of Bardo accepting the French protectorate.
France undertook the maintenance of order in the Regency,
and assumed the representation of Tunisia in all dealings with
other countries.
Italian indignation at the French coup de main was the
deeper on account of the apparent duplicity of the government
of the Republic. On the nth of May the French foreign
minister, Barthelemy Saint Hilaire, had officially assured the
Italian ambassador in Paris that France " had no thought of
occupying Tunisia or any part of Tunisian territory, beyond
some points of the Kroumir country." This assurance, dictated
by Jules Ferry to Barthelemy Saint Hilaire in the presence of
the Italian ambassador, and by him telegraphed en clair to Rome,
was considered a binding pledge that France would not materially
alter the status quo in Tunisia. Documents subsequently published
have somewhat attenuated the responsibility of Ferry and
Saint Hilaire for this breach of faith, and have shown that the
French forces in Tunisia acted upon secret instructions from
General Farre, minister of war in the Ferry cabinet, who pursued
a policy diametrically opposed to the official declarations made
by the premier and the foreign minister. Even had this circum-
stance been known at the time, it could scarcely have mitigated
the intense resentment of the whole Italian nation at an event
which was considered tantamount not only to the destruction
of Italian aspirations to Tunisia, but to the ruin of the interests
of the numerous Italian colony and to a constant menace against
the security of the Sicilian and south Italian coasts.
Had the blow thus struck at Italian influence in the Mediter-
ranean induced politicians to sink for a while their personal
differences and to unite in presenting a firm front to foreign
nations, the crisis in regard to Tunisia might not have been
wholly unproductive of good. Unfortunately, on this, as on
other critical occasions, deputies proved themselves incapable of
common effort to promote general welfare. While excitement
over Tunisia was at its height, but before the situation was
irretrievably compromised to the disadvantage of Italy, Cairoli
had been compelled to resign by a vote of want of confidence in
the Chamber. The only politician capable of dealing adequately
with the situation was Sella, leader of the Right, and to him the
crown appealed. The faction leaders of the Left, though divided
by personal jealousies and mutually incompatible ambitions,
agreed that the worst evil which could befall Italy would be the
return of the Right to power, and conspired to preclude the
possibility of a Sella cabinet. An attempt by Depretis to re-
compose the Cairoli ministry proved fruitless, and after eleven
precious days had been lost, King Humbert was obliged, on the
igth of April 1881, to refuse Cairoli's resignation. The conclusion
of the treaty of Bardo on the izth of May, however, compelled
Cairoli to sacrifice himself to popular indignation. Again Sella
was called upon, but again the dog-in-the-manger policy of
Depretis, Cairoli, Nicotera and Baccarini, in conjunction with
the intolerant attitude of some extreme Conservatives, proved
fatal to his endeavours. Depretis then succeeded in recomposing
the Cairoli cabinet without Cairoli, Mancini being placed at the
foreign office. Except in regard to an increase of the army
estimates, urgently demanded by public opinion, the new
ministry had practically no programme. Public opinion was
further irritated against France by the massacre of some Italian
workmen at Marseilles on the occasion of the return of the
French expedition from Tunisia, and Depretis, in response to
public feeling, found himself obliged to mobilize a part of the
militia for military exercises. In this condition of home and
foreign affairs occurred disorders at Rome in connexion with the
transfer of the remains of Pius IX. from St Peter's to the basilica
of San Lorenzo. Most of the responsibility lay with the Vatican,
which had arranged the procession in the way best calculated to
irritate Italian feeling, but little excuse can be offered for the
failure of the Italian authorities to maintain public order. In
conjunction with the occupation of Tunisia, the effect of these
disorders was to exhibit Italy as a country powerless to defend
its interests abroad or to keep peace at home. The scandal and
the pressure of foreign Catholic opinion compelled Depretis to
pursue a more energetic policy, and to publish a formal declaration
of the intangibility of the Law of Guarantees.
Meanwhile a conviction was spreading that the only way of
escape from the dangerous isolation of Italy lay in closer agree-
ment with Austria and Germany. Depretis tardily
recognized the need for such agreement, if only to arowth ol
remove the " coldness and invincible diffidence " which, \utaa^*
by subsequent confession of Mancini, then characterized
the attitude of the central powers; but he was opposed to any
formal alliance, lest it might arouse French resentment, while the
new Franco-Italian treaty was still unconcluded, and the foreign
loan for the abolition of the forced currency had still to be
floated. He, indeed, was not disposed to concede to public
opinion anything beyond an increase of the army, a measure
insistently demanded by Garibaldi and the Left. The Right like-
wise desired to strengthen both army and navy, but advocated
cordial relations with Berlin and Vienna as a guarantee against
French domineering, and as a pledge that Italy would be vouch-
safed time to effect her armaments without disturbing financial
equilibrium. The Right also hoped that closer accord with
Germany and Austria would compel Italy to conform her home
policy more nearly to the principles of order prevailing in
those empires. More resolute than Right or Left was the
Centre, a small group led by Sidney Sonnino, a young
politician of unusual fibre, which sought in the press and in
parliament to spread a conviction that the only sound basis for
Italian policy would be close alliance with the central powers and
a friendly understanding with Great Britain in regard to Mediter-
ranean affairs. The principal Italian public men were divided in
opinion on the subject of an alliance. Peruzzi, Lanza and
Bonghi pleaded for equal friendship with all powers, and
especially with France; Crispi, Minghetti, Cadorna and others,
including Blanc, secretary-general to the foreign office, openly
favoured a pro-Austrian policy. Austria and Germany, however,
scarcely reciprocated these dispositions. The Irredentist agita-
tion had left profound traces at Berlin as well as at Vienna, and
had given rise to a distrust of Depretis which nothing had yet
occurred to allay. Nor, in view of the comparative weakness of
Italian armaments, could eagerness to find an ally be deemed
conclusive proof of the value of Italian friendship. Count di
Robilant, Italian ambassador at Vienna, warned his government
not to yield too readily to pro-Austrian pressure, lest the dignity
of Italy be compromised, or her desire for an alliance be granted
on onerous terms. Mancini, foreign minister, who was as anxious
as Depretis for the conclusion of the Franco-Italian commercial
treaty, gladly followed this advice, and limited his efforts to the
maintenance of correct diplomatic relations with the central
powers. Except in regard to the Roman question, the advantages
and disadvantages of an Italian alliance with Austria and
Germany counterbalanced each other. A rapprochement with
France and a continuance of the Irredentist movement could not
fail to arouse Austro-German hostility; but, on the other hand,
to draw near to the central powers would inevitably accentuate
the diffidence of France. In the one hypothesis, as in the other,
Italy could count upon the moral support of Great Britain, but
could not make of British friendship the keystone of a Continental
policy. Apart from resentment against France on account of
Tunisia there remained the question of the temporal power of the
pope to turn the scale in favour of Austria and Germany. Danger
of foreign interferencein the relations between Italy and the papacy
had never been so great since the Italian occupation of Rome, as
when, in the summer of i88i,the disorders during the transfer of
the remains of Pius IX. had lent an unwonted ring of plausibility
to the papal complaint concerning the " miserable " position of
the Holy See. Bismarck at that moment had entered upon his
" pilgrimage to Canossa," and was anxious to obtain from the
1870-1902]
ITALY
69
Vatican the support of German Catholics. What resistance
could Italy have offered had the German chancellor, seconded by
Austria, and assuredly supported by France, called upon Italy to
revise the Law of Guarantees in conformity with Catholic
exigencies, or had he taken the initiative of making papal in-
dependence the subject of an international conference ? Friend-
ship and alliance with Catholic Austria and powerful Germany
could alone lay this spectre. This was the only immediate
advantage Italy could hope to obtain by drawing nearer the
central Powers.
The political conditions of Europe favoured the realization
of Italian desires. Growing rivalry between Austria and Russia
in the Balkans rendered the continuance of the " League of the
Three Emperors " a practical impossibility. The Austro-
German alliance of 1879 formally guaranteed the territory of
the contracting parties, but Austria could not count upon
effectual help from Germany in case of war, since Russian attack
upon Austria would certainly have been followed by French
attack upon Germany. As in 1869-1870, it therefore became a
matter of the highest importance for Austria to retain full
disposal of all her troops by assuring herself against Italian
aggression. The tsar, Alexander III., under the impression of
the assassination of his father, desired, however, the renewal
of the Dreikaiserbund, both as a guarantee of European peace
and as a conservative league against revolutionary parties.
The German emperor shared this desire, but Bismarck and the
Austrian emperor wished to substitute for the imperial league
some more advantageous combination. Hence a tacit under-
standing between Bismarck and Austria that the latter should
profit by Italian resentment against France to draw Italy into
the orbit of the Austro-German alliance. For the moment
Germany was to hold aloof lest any active initiative on her part
should displease the Vatican, of whose help Bismarck stood
in need.
At the beginning of August 1881 the Austrian press mooted the
idea of a visit from King Humbert to the emperor Francis
Joseph. Count di Robilant, anxious that Italy should not seem
to beg a smile from the central Powers, advised Mancini to receive
with caution the suggestions of the Austrian press. Depretis
took occasion to deny, in a form scarcely courteous, the prob-
ability of the visit. Robilant's opposition to a precipitate
acceptance of the Austrian hint was founded upon fear lest King
Humbert at Vienna might be pressed to disavow Irredentist
aspirations, and upon a desire to arrange for a visit of the emperor
Francis Joseph to Rome in return for King Humbert's visit to
Vienna. Seeing the hesitation of the Italian government, the
Austrian and German semi-official press redoubled their efforts
to bring about the visit. By the end of September the idea
had gained such ground in Italy that the visit was practically
settled, and on the 7th of October Mancini informed Robilant
(who was then in Italy) of the fact. Though he considered
such precipitation impolitic, Robilant, finding that confidential
information of Italian intentions had already been conveyed
to the Austrian government, sought an interview with King
Humbert, and on the i7th of October started for Vienna to settle
the conditions of the visit. Depretis, fearing to jeopardize the
impending conclusion of the Franco-Italian commercial treaty,
would have preferred the visit to take the form of an act of
personal courtesy between sovereigns. The Austrian government,
for its part, desired that the king should be accompanied by
Depretis, though not by Mancini, lest the presence of the Italian
foreign minister should lend to the occasion too marked a political
character. Mancini, unable to brook exclusion, insisted, how-
ever, upon accompanying the king. King Humbert with
Queen Margherita reached Vienna on the morning of the 27th
of October, and stayed at the Hofburg until the 3ist of October.
The visit was marked by the greatest cordiality, Count Robilant's
fears of inopportune pressure with regard to Irredentism
proving groundless. Both in Germany and Austria the visit
was construed as a preliminary to the adhesion of Italy to the
Austro-German alliance. Count Hatzfeldt, on behalf of the
German Foreign Office, informed the Italian ambassador in
Berlin that whatever was done at Vienna would be regarded as
having been done in the German capital. Nor did nascent
irritation in France prevent the conclusion of the Franco-Italian
commercial treaty, which was signed at Paris on the 3rd of
November.
In Italy public opinion as a whole was favourable to the visit,
especially as it was not considered an obstacle to the projected
increase of the army and navy. Doubts, however, soon sprang up
as to its effect upon the minds of Austrian statesmen, since on
the 8th of November the language employed by Kallay and Count
Andrassy to the Hungarian delegations on the subject of
Irredentism was scarcely calculated to soothe Italian suscepti-
bilities. But on gth November the European situation was
suddenly modified by the formation of the Gambetta cabinet,
and, in view of the policy of revenge with which Gambetta was
supposed to be identified, it became imperative for Bismarck to
assure himself that Italy would not be enticed into a Francophil
attitude by any concession Gambetta might offer. As usual
when dealing with weaker nations, the German chancellor re-
sorted to intimidation. He not only re-established the Prussian
legation to the Vatican, suppressed since 1874, and omitted
from the imperial message to the Reichstag (i7th November
1881) all reference to King Humbert's visit to Vienna, but took
occasion on the 2gth of November to refer to Italy as a country
tottering on the verge of revolution, and opened in the German
semi-official press a campaign in favour of an international
guarantee for the independence of the papacy. These manoeuvres
produced their effect upon Italian public opinion. In the long
and important debate upon foreign policy in the Italian Chamber
of Deputies (6th to gth December) the fear was repeatedly
expressed lest Bismarck should seek to purchase the support
of German Catholics by raising the Roman question. Mancini,
still unwilling frankly to adhere to the Austro-German alliance,
found his policy of " friendship all round " impeded by Gambetta's
uncompromising attitude in regard to Tunisia. Bismarck never-
theless continued his press campaign in favour of the temporal
power until, reassured by Gambetta's decision to send Roustan
back to Tunis to complete as minister the anti-Italian programme
begun as consul, he finally instructed his organs to emphasize
the common interests of Germany and Italy on the occasion of
the opening of the St Gothard tunnel. But the effect of the
German press campaign could not be effaced in a day. At
the new year's reception of deputies King Humbert aroused
enthusiasm by a significant remark that Italy intended to remain
" mistress in her own house "; while Mancini addressed to Count
de Launay, Italian ambassador in Berlin, a haughty despatch,
repudiating the supposition that the pope might (as Bismarckian
emissaries had suggested to the Vatican) obtain abroad greater
spiritual liberty than in Rome, or that closer relations between
Italy and Germany, such as were required by the interests and
aspirations of the two countries, could be made in any way
contingent upon a modification of Italian freedom of action in
regard to home affairs.
The sudden fall of Gambetta (26th January 1882) having
removed the fear of immediate European complications, the
cabinets of Berlin and Vienna again displayed diffidence towards
Italy. So great was Bismarck's distrust of Italian parliamentary
instability, his doubts of Italian capacity for offensive warfare
and his fear of the Francophil tendencies of Depretis, that for
many weeks the Italian ambassador at Berlin was unable to
obtain audience of the chancellor. But for the Tunisian question
Italy might again have been drawn into the wake of France.
Mancini tried to impede the organization of French rule in the
Regency by refusing to recognize the treaty of Bardo, yet so
careless was Bismarck of Italian susceptibilities that he in-
structed the German consul at Tunis to recognize French decrees.
Partly under the influence of these circumstances, and partly
in response to persuasion by Baron Blanc, secretary-general
for foreign affairs, Mancini instructed Count di Robilant to open
negotiations for an Italo-Austrian alliance — instructions which
Robilant neglected until questioned by Count Kaln6ky on the sub-
ject. The first exchange of ideas between the two Governments
ITALY
[1870-1902
proved fruitless, since Kaln6ky, somewhat Clerical-minded,
was averse from guaranteeing the integrity of all Italian
territory, and Mancini was equally unwilling to guarantee to
Austria permanent possession of Trent and Trieste. Mancini,
moreover, wished the treaty of alliance to provide for reciprocal
protection of the chief interests of the contracting Powers,
Italy undertaking to second Austria-Hungary in the Balkans,
and Austria and Germany pledging themselves to support
Italy in Mediterranean questions. Without some such proviso
Italy would, in Mancini's opinion, be exposed single-handed
to French resentment. At the request of Kaln6ky, Mancini
defined his proposal in a memorandum, but the illness of himself
and Depretis, combined with an untoward discussion in the
Italian press on the failure of the Austrian emperor to return in
Rome King Humbert's visit to Vienna, caused negotiations to
drag. The pope, it transpired, had refused to receive the
emperor if he came to Rome on a visit to the Quirinal, and
Francis Joseph, though anxious to return King Humbert's
visit, was unable to offend the feelings of his Catholic subjects.
Meanwhile (nth May 1882) the Italian parliament adopted the
new Army Bill, involving a special credit of £5,100,000 for the
creation of two new army corps, by which the war footing of the
regular army was raised to nearly 850,000 men and the ordinary
military estimates to £8,000,000 per annum. Garibaldi, who,
since the French occupation of Tunis, had ardently worked for
the increase of the army, had thus the satisfaction of seeing his
desire realized before his death at Caprera, on the 2nd
°^ June 1882. " In spirit a child, in character a man
of classic mould," Garibaldi had remained the nation's
idol, an almost legendary hero whose place none could aspire
to fill. Gratitude for his achievements and sorrow for his death
found expression in universal mourning wherein king and
peasant equally joined. Before his death, and almost con-
temporaneously with the passing of the Army Bill, negotiations
for the alliance were renewed. Encouraged from Berlin, Kaln6ky
agreed to the reciprocal territorial guarantee, but declined
reciprocity in support of special interests. Mancini had therefore
to be content with a declaration that the allies would act in
mutually friendly intelligence. Depretis made some opposition,
but finally acquiesced, and the treaty of triple alliance was signed
on the 2oth of May 1882, five days after the promulgation of
the Franco-Italian commercial treaty in Paris. Though partial
Signature revelations have been made, the exact tenor of the
of the treaty of triple alliance has never been divulged.
Treaty, It is known to have been concluded for a period of
five years, to have pledged the contracting parties
to join in resisting attack upon the territory of any one of them,
and to have specified the military disposition to be adopted by
each in case attack should come either from France, or from
Russia, or from both simultaneously. The Italian General
Staff is said to have undertaken, in the event of war against
France, to operate with two armies on the north-western frontier
against the French armee des Alpes, of which the war strength is
about 250,000 men. A third Italian army would, if expedient,
pass into Germany, to operate against either France or Russia.
Austria undertook to guard the Adriatic on land and sea, and
to help Germany by checkmating Russia on land. Germany
would be sufficiently employed in carrying on war against two
fronts. Kaln6ky desired that both the terms of the treaty and
the fact of its conclusion should remain secret, but Bismarck
and Mancini hastened to hint at its existence, the former in the
Reichstag on the I2th of June 1882, and the latter in the Italian
semi-official press. A revival of Irredentism in connexion with
the execution of an Austrian deserter named Oberdank, who
after escaping into Italy endeavoured to return to Austria with
explosive bombs in his possession, and the cordial references to
France made by Depretis at Stradella (8th October 1882),
prevented the French government from suspecting the existence
of the alliance, or from ceasing to strive after a Franco-Italian
understanding. Suspicion was not aroused until March 1883,
when Mancini, in defending himself against strictures upon his
refusal to co-operate with Great Britain in Egypt, practically
revealed the existence of the treaty, thereby irritating France
and destroying Depretis's secret hope of finding in the triple
alliance the advantage of an Austro-German guarantee without
the disadvantage of French enmity. In Italy the revelation
of the treaty was hailed with satisfaction except by the Clericals,
who were enraged at the blow thus struck at the restoration
of the pope's temporal power, and by the Radicals, who feared
both the inevitable breach with republican France and the
reinforcement of Italian constitutional parties by intimacy
with strong monarchical states such as Germany and Austria.
These very considerations naturally combined to recommend
the fact to constitutionalists, who saw in it, besides the territorial
guarantee, the elimination of the danger of foreign interference
in the relations between Italy and the Vatican, such as Bismarck
had recently threatened and such as France was believed ready
to propose.
Nevertheless, during its first period (1882-1887) the triple
alliance failed to ensure cordiality between the contracting
Powers. Mancini exerted himself in a hundred ways to soothe
French resentment. He not only refused to join Great Britain
in the Egyptian expedition, but agreed to suspend Italian
consular jurisdiction in Tunis, and deprecated suspicion of
French designs upon Morocco. His efforts were worse than
futile. France remained cold, while Bismarck and Kaln6ky,
distrustful of the Radicalism of Depretis and Mancini, assumed
towards their ally an attitude almost hostile. Possibly Germany
and Austria may have been influenced by the secret treaty signed
between Austria, Germany and Russia on the 2ist of March
1884, and ratified during the meeting of the three emperors at
Skierniewice in September of that year, by which Bismarck, in
return for " honest brokerage " in the Balkans, is understood
to have obtained from Austria and Russia a promise of bene-
volent neutrality in case Germany should be " forced " to make
war upon a fourth power — France. Guaranteed thus against
Russian attack, Italy became in the eyes of the central powers
a negligible quantity, and was treated accordingly. Though
kept in the dark as to the Skierniewice arrangement, the Italian
government soon discovered from the course of events that the
triple alliance had practically lost its object, European peace
having been assured without Italian co-operation. Meanwhile
France provided Italy with fresh cause for uneasiness by abating
her hostility to Germany. Italy in consequence drew nearer
to Great Britain, and at the London conference on the Egyptian
financial question sided with Great Britain against Austria and
Germany. At the same time negotiations took place with
Great Britain for an Italian occupation of Massawa, and Mancini,
dreaming of a vast Anglo-Italian enterprise against the Mahdi,
expatiated in the spring of 1885 upon the glories of an Anglo-
Italian alliance, an indiscretion which drew upon him a scarcely-
veiled dtmenli from London. Again speaking in the Chamber,
Mancini claimed for Italy the principal merit in the conclusion
of the triple alliance, but declared that the alliance left Italy
full liberty of action in regard to interests outside its scope,
" especially as there was no possibility of obtaining protection
for such interests from those who by the alliance had not under-
taken to protect them." These words, which revealed the
absence of any stipulation in regard to the protection of Italian
interests in the Mediterranean, created lively dissatisfaction in>
Italy and corresponding satisfaction in France. They hastened
Mancini's downfall (i?th June 1885), and prepared the advent
of count di Robilant, who three months later succeeded Mancini
at the Italian Foreign Office. Robilant, for whom the Skiernie-
wice pact was no secret, followed a firmly independent policy
throughout the Bulgarian crisis of 1885-1886, declining to be
drawn into any action beyond that required by the treaty of
Berlin and the protection of Italian interests in the Balkans.
Italy, indeed, came out of the Eastern crisis with enhanced
prestige and with her relations to Austria greatly improved.
Towards Prince Bismarck Robilant maintained an attitude
of dignified independence, and as, in the spring of 1886, the
moment for the renewal of the triple alliance drew near, he
profited by the development of the Bulgarian crisis and the
1870-1902]
ITALY
threatened Franco-Russian understanding to secure from the
central powers " something more " than the bare territorial
guarantee of the original treaty. This " something more "
consisted, at least in part, of the arrangement, with the help of
Austria and Germany, of an Anglo-Italian naval understanding
having special reference to the Eastern question, but providing
for common action by the British and Italian fleets in the
Mediterranean in case of war. A vote of the Italian Chamber on
the 4th of February 1887, in connexion with the disaster to Italian
troops at Dogali, in Abyssinia, brought about the resignation
of the Depretis-Robilant cabinet. The crisis dragged for three
months, and before its definitive solution by the formation of a
Depretis-Crispi ministry, Robilant succeeded (i7th March 1887)
in renewing the triple alliance on terms more favourable to
First re- Italy than those obtained in 1882. Not only did he
ncwaii.f secure concessions from Austria and Germany corre-
the Trifle spending in some degree to the improved state of the
Alliance. Italian army and navy, but, in virtue of the Anglo-
Italian understanding, assured the practical adhesion of Great
Britain to the European policy of the central powers, a triumph
probably greater than any registered by Italian diplomacy
since the completion of national unity.
The period between May 1881 and July 1887 occupied, in the
region of foreign affairs, by the negotiation, conclusion and
renewal of the triple alliance, by the Bulgarian crisis
'reforms. an(^ by the dawn of an Italian colonial policy, was
marked at home by urgent political and economic
problems, and by the parliamentary phenomena known as
trasformismo. On the 2gth of June 1881 the Chamber adopted a
Franchise Reform Bill, which increased the electorate from
600,000 to 2,000,000 by lowering the fiscal qualification from
40 to 19-80 lire in direct taxation, and by extending the suffrage
to all persons who had passed through the two lower standards
of the elementary schools, and practically to all persons able
to read and write. The immediate result of the reform was to
increase the political influence of large cities where the proportion
of illiterate workmen was lower than in the country districts,
and to exclude from the franchise numbers of peasants and small
proprietors who, though of more conservative temperament
and of better economic position than the artizan population of
the large towns, were often unable to fulfil the scholarship
qualification. On the i2th of April 1883 the forced currency was
formally abolished by the resumption of treasury payments
in gold with funds obtained through a loan of £14,500,000 issued
in London on the 5th of May 1882. Owing to the hostility of
the French market, the loan was covered with difficulty, and,
though the gold premium fell and commercial exchanges were
temporarily facilitated by the resumption of cash payments,
it is doubtful whether these advantages made up for the burden of
£640,000 additional annual interest thrown upon the exchequer.
On the 6th of March 1885 parliament finally sanctioned the
conventions by which state railways were farmed out to three
private companies — the Mediterranean, Adriatic and Sicilian.
The railways redeemed in 1875-1876 had been worked in the
interval by the government at a heavy loss. A commission of
inquiry reported in favour of private management. The conven-
tions, concluded for a period of sixty years, but terminable by
either party after twenty or forty years, retained for the state
the possession of the lines (except the southern railway, viz.
the line from Bologna to Brindisi belonging to the Societa
Meridionale to whom the Adriatic lines were now farmed) , but
sold rolling stock to the companies, arranged various schedules
of state subsidy for lines projected or in course of construction,
guaranteed interest on the bonds of the companies and arranged
for the division of revenue between the companies, the reserve
fund and the state. National control of the railways was secured
by a proviso that the directors must be of Italian nationality.
Depretis and his colleague Genala, minister of public works,
experienced great difficulty in securing parliamentary sanction for
the conventions, not so much on account of their defective
character, as from the opposition of local interests anxious to
extort new lines from the government. In fact, the conventions
were only voted by a majority of twenty-three votes after the
government had undertaken to increase the length of new state-
built lines from 1500 to 2500 kilometres. Unfortun-
ately, the calculation of probable railway revenue on The rail-
which the conventions had been based proved to be way co"'
enormously exaggerated. For many years the 375%
of the gross revenue (less the cost of maintaining the rolling
stock, • incumbent on the state) scarcely sufficed to pay the
interest on debts incurred for railway construction and on
the guaranteed bonds. Gradually the increase of traffic con-
sequent upon the industrial development of Italy decreased
the annual losses of the state, but the position of the government
in regard to the railways still remained so unsatisfactory as to
render the resumption of the whole system by the state on the
expiration of the first period of twenty years in 1905 inevitable.
Intimately bound up with the forced currency, the railway
conventions and public works was the financial question in
general. From 1876, when equilibrium, between ,..
expenditure and revenue had first been attained,
taxation yielded steady annual surpluses, which in 1881 reached
the satisfactory level of £2,120,000. The gradual abolition of
the grist tax on minor cereals diminished the surplus in 1882
to £236,000, and in 1883 to £110,000, while the total repeal of the
grist tax on wheat, which took effect on the ist of January 1884,
coincided with the opening of a new and disastrous period of
deficit. True, the repeal of the grist tax was not the
only, nor possibly even the principal, cause of the deficit.
The policy of " fiscal transformation " inaugurated by the
Left increased revenue from indirect taxation from £17,000,000
in 1876 to more than £24,000,000 in 1887, by substituting
heavy corn duties for the grist tax, and by raising the
sugar and petroleum duties to unprecedented levels. But
partly from lack of firm financial administration, partly
through the increase of military and naval expenditure (which
in 1887 amounted to £9,000,000 for the army, while special
efforts were made to strengthen the navy), and principally
through the constant drain of railway construction and public
works, the demands upon the exchequer grew largely to exceed
the normal increase of revenue, and necessitated the contraction
of new debts. In their anxiety to remain in office Depretis and
the finance minister, Magliani, never hesitated to mortgage
the financial future of their country. No concession could be
denied to deputies, or groups of deputies, whose support was
indispensable to the life of the cabinet, nor, under such conditions,
was it possible to place any effective check upon administrative
abuses in which politicians or their electors were interested.
Railways, roads and harbours which contractors had undertaken
to construct for reasonable amounts were frequently made to
cost thrice the original estimates. Minghetti, in a trenchant
exposure of the parliamentary condition of Italy during this
period, cites a case in which a credit for certain public works
was, during a debate in the Chamber, increased by the govern-
ment from £6,600,000 to £9,000,000 in order to conciliate local
political interests. In the spring of 1887 Genala, minister of
public works, was taken to task for having sanctioned expenditure
of £80,000,000 on railway construction while only £40,000,000
had been included in the estimates. As most of these credits
were spread over a series of years, succeeding administrations
found their financial liberty of action destroyed, and were
obliged to cover deficit by constant issues of consolidated stock.
Thus the deficit of £940,000 for the financial year 1885-1886
rose to nearly £2,920,000 in 1887-1888, and in 1888-1889
attained the terrible level of £9,400,000.
Nevertheless, in spite of many and serious shortcomings,
the long series of Depretis administrations was marked by the
adoption of some useful measures. Besides the realization of
the formal programme of the Left, consisting of the repeal of
the grist tax, the abolition of the forced currency, the extension
of the suffrage and the development of the railway system,
Depretis laid the foundation for land tax re-assessment by intro-
ducing a new cadastral survey. Unfortunately, the new survey
was made largely optional, so that provinces which had reason
ITALY
[1870-1902
to hope for a diminution of land tax under a revised assessment
hastened to complete their survey, while others, in which the
average of the land tax was below a normal assessment,
neglected to comply with the provisions of the scheme. An
important undertaking, known as the Agricultural Inquiry,
brought to light vast quantities of information valuable for
future agrarian legislation. The year 1885 saw the introduction
and adoption of a measure embodying the principle of employers'
liability for accidents to workmen, a principle subsequently
extended and more equitably defined in the spring of 1899.
An effort to encourage the development of the mercantile marine
was made in the same year, and a convention was concluded
with the chief lines of passenger steamers to retain their fastest
vessels as auxiliaries to the fleet in case of war. Sanitation and
public hygiene received a potent impulse from the cholera
epidemic of 1884, many of the unhealthiest quarters in Naples
and other cities being demolished and rebuilt, with funds chiefly
furnished by the state. The movement was strongly supported
by King Humbert, whose intrepidity in visiting the most
dangerous spots at Busca and Naples while the epidemic was
at its height, reassuring the panic-stricken inhabitants by his
presence, excited the enthusiasm of his people and the admiration
of Europe.
During the accomplishment of these and other reforms the
condition of parliament underwent profound change. By degrees
the administrations of the Left had ceased to rely
solely upon the Liberal sections of the Chamber, and
had carried their most important bills with the help
of the Right. This process of transformation was not exclusively
the work of Depretis, but had been initiated as early as 1873,
when a portion of the Right under Minghetti had, by joining
the Left, overturned the Lanza-Sella cabinet. In 1876 Minghetti
himself had fallen a victim to a similar defection of Conservative
deputies. The practical annihilation of the old Right in the
elections of 1876 opened a new parliamentary era. Reduced in
number to less than one hundred, and radically changed in spirit
and composition, the Right gave way, if not to despair, at least
to a despondency unsuited to an opposition party. Though on
more than one occasion personal rancour against the men of
the Moderate Left prevented the Right from following Sella's
advice and regaining, by timely coalition with cognate parlia-
mentary elements, a portion of its former influence, the bulk of
the party, with singular inconsistency, drew nearer and nearer
to the Liberal cabinets. The process was accelerated by Sella's
illness and death ( i-jth March 1884), an event which cast profound
discouragement over the more thoughtful of the Conservatives
And Moderate Liberals, by whom Sella had been regarded as a
supreme political reserve, as a statesman whose experienced
vigour and patriotic sagacity might have been trusted to lift
Italy from any depth of folly or misfortune. By a strange
anomaly the Radical measures brought forward by the Left
diminished instead of increasing the distance between it and the
Conservatives. Numerically insufficient to reject such measures,
and lacking the fibre and the cohesion necessary for the pursuance
of a far-sighted policy, the Right thought prudent not to employ
its strength in uncompromising opposition, but rather, by sup-
porting the government, to endeavour to modify Radical legisla-
tion in a Conservative sense. In every case the calculation proved
fallacious. Radical measures were passed unmodified, and the
Right was compelled sadly to accept the accomplished fact.
Thus it was with the abolition of the grist tax, the reform of the
suffrage, the railway conventions and many other bills. When,
in course of time, the extended suffrage increased the Republican
and Extreme Radical elements in the Chamber, and the Liberal
" Pentarchy " (composed of Crispi, Cairoli, Nicotera, Zanardelli
and Baccarini) assumed an attitude of bitter hostility to Depretis,
the Right, obeying the impulse of Minghetti, rallied openly
to Depretis, lending him aid without which his prolonged term
of office would have been impossible. The result was parlia-
mentary chaos, baptized trasformismo. In May 1 883 this process
received official recognition by the elimination of the Radicals
Zanardelli and Baccarini from the Depretis cabinet, while in
the course of 1884 a Conservative, Signor Biancheri, was elected
to the presidency of the Chamber, and another Conservative,
General Ricotti, appointed to the War Office. Though Depretis,
at the end of his life in 1887, showed signs of repenting of the
confusion thus created, he had established a parliamentary
system destined largely to sterilize and vitiate the political life
of Italy.
Contemporaneously with the vicissitudes of home and foreign
policy under the Left there grew up in Italy a marked tendency
towards colonial enterprise. The tendency itself dated
from 1869, when a congress of the Italian chambers of
commerce at Genoa had urged the Lanza cabinet to
establish a commercial dep6t on the Red Sea. On the nth of
March 1870 an Italian shipper, Signor Rubattino, had bought the
bay of Assab, with the neighbouring island of Darmakieh, from
Beheran, sultan of Raheita, for £1880, the funds being furnished
by the government. The Egyptian government being unwilling
to recognize the sovereignty of Beheran over Assab or his right
to sell territory to a foreign power, Visconti-Venosta thought it
opportune not then to occupy Assab. No further step was taken
until, at the end of 1879, Rubattino prepared to establish a
commercial station at Assab. The British government made
inquiry as to his intentions, and on the igth of April 1880
received a formal undertaking from Cairoli that Assab would
never be fortified nor be made a military establishment. Mean-
while (January 1880) stores and materials were landed, and Assab
was permanently occupied. Eighteen months later a party of
Italian sailors and explorers under Lieutenant Biglieri and
Signor Giulietti were massacred in Egyptian territory. Egypt,
however, refused to make thorough inquiry into the massacre,
and was only prevented from occupying Raheita and coming into
conflict with Italy by the good offices of Lord Granville, who
dissuaded the Egyptian government from enforcing its sove-
reignty. On the 2oth of September 1881 Beheran formally
accepted Italian protection, and in the following February an
Anglo-Italian convention established the Italian title to Assab
on condition that Italy should formally recognise the suzerainty
of the Porte and of the khedive over the Red Sea coast, and
should prevent the transport of arms and munitions of war
through the territory of Assab. This convention was never
recognized by the Porte nor by the Egyptian government. A
month later (loth March 1882) Rubattino made over his establish-
ment to the Italian government, and on the I2th of June the
Chamber adopted a bill constituting Assab an Italian crown
colony.
Within four weeks of the adoption of this bill the bombardment
of Alexandria by the British fleet (nth July 1882) opened an
era destined profoundly to affect the colonial position of
Italy. The revolt of Arabi Pasha (September 1881) ™*ptlaa
had led to the meeting of an ambassadorial conference Question.
at Constantinople, promoted by Mancini, Italian
minister for foreign affairs, in the hope of preventing European
intervention in Egypt and the permanent establishment of an
Anglo-French condominium to the detriment of Italian influence.
At the opening of the conference (2jrd June 1882) Italy secured
the signature of a self-denying protocol whereby all the great
powers undertook to avoid isolated action; but the rapid develop-
ment of the crisis in Egypt, and the refusal of France to co-
operate with Great Britain in the restoration of order, necessitated
vigorous action by the latter alone. In view of the French
refusal, Lord Granville on the 27th of July invited Italy to join
in restoring order in Egypt; but Mancini and Depretis, in
spite of the efforts of Crispi, then in London, declined the
offer. Financial considerations, lack of proper transports for an
expeditionary corps, fear of displeasing France, dislike of a
" policy of ad venture, "misplaced deference towards the ambassa-
dorial conference in Constantinople, and unwillingness to thwart
the current of Italian sentiment in favour of the Egyptian
" nationalists," were the chief motives of the Italian refusal,
which had the effect of somewhat estranging Great Britain and
Italy. Anglo-Italian relations, however, regained their normal
cordiality two years later, and found expression in the support
1870-1902]
ITALY
73
lent by Italy to the British proposal at the London conference on
the Egyptian question (July 1884). About the same time
Mancini was informed by the Italian agent in Cairo that Great
Britain would be well disposed towards an extension of Italian
influence on the Red Sea coast. Having sounded Lord Granville,
Mancini received encouragement to seize Beilul and Massawa,
in view of the projected restriction of the Egyptian zone of
military occupation consequent on the Mahdist rising in the
Sudan. Lord Granville further inquired whether Italy would
co-operate in pacifying the Sudan, and received an affirmative
reply. Italian action was hastened by news that, in December
1884, an exploring party under Signor Bianchi, royal com-
missioner for Assab, had been massacred in the Aussa (Danakil)
country, an event which aroused in Italy a desire to punish the
assassins and to obtain satisfaction for the still unpunished
massacre of Signor Giulietti and his companions. Partly to
satisfy public opinion, partly in order to profit by the favourable
disposition of the British government, and partly in the hope of
remedying the error committed in 1882 by refusal to co-operate
with Great Britain in Egypt, the Italian government in January
1885 despatched an expedition under Admiral Caimi and Colonel
Saletta to occupy Massawa and Beilul. The occupation, effected
on the 5th of February, was accelerated by fear lest Italy might
be forestalled by France or Russia, both of which powers were
suspected of desiring to establish themselves firmly on the Red
Sea and to exercise a protectorate over Abyssinia. News of the
occupation reached Europe simultaneously with the tidings of the
fall of Khartum, an event which disappointed Italian hopes of
military co-operation with Great Britain in the Sudan. The
resignation of the Gladstone-Granville cabinet further precluded
the projected Italian occupation of Suakin, and the Italians,
wisely refraining from an independent attempt to succour
Kassala, then besieged by the Mahdists, bent their efforts to the
increase of their zone of occupation around Massawa. The ex-
tension of the Italian zone excited the suspicions of John, negus
of Abyssinia, whose apprehensions were assiduously fomented
by Alula, ras of Tigre, and by French and Greek adventurers.
Measures, apparently successful, were taken to reassure the negus,
but shortly afterwards protection inopportunely accorded by
Italy to enemies of Ras Alula, induced the Abyssinians to enter
upon hostilities. In January 1886 Ras Alula raided the village of
Wa, to the west' of Zula, but towards the end of the year (23rd
November) Wa was occupied by the irregular troops of General
Gene, who had superseded Colonel Saletta at Massawa. Angered
by this step, Ras Alula took prisoners the members of an Italian
exploring party commanded by Count Salimbeni, and held them
as hostages for the evacuation of Wa. General Gene nevertheless
reinforced Wa and pushed forward a detachment to Saati. On
the 25th of January 1887 Ras Alula attacked Saati, but was
repulsed with loss. On the following day, however, the Abys-
sinians succeeded in surprising, near the village of Dogali, an
Italian force of 524 officers and men under Colonel De Cristoforis,
who were convoying provisions to the garrison of Saati.
The Abyssinians, 20,000 strong, speedily overwhelmed
the small Italian force, which, after exhausting its
ammunition, was destroyed where it stood. One man only
escaped. Four hundred and seven men and twenty-three officers
were killed outright, and one officer and eighty-one men wounded.
Dead and wounded alike were horribly mutilated by order of
Alula. Fearing a new attack, General Gene withdrew his forces
from Saati, Wa and Arafali; but the losses of the Abyssinians
at Saati and Dogali had been so heavy as to dissuade Alula from
further hostilities.
In Italy the disaster of Dogali produced consternation, and
caused the fall of the Depretis-Robilant cabinet. The Chamber,
Abyssinia. eager f°r revenge, voted a credit of £200,000, and
sanctioned the despatch of reinforcements. Mean-
while Signor Crispi, who, though averse from colonial adventure,
desired to vindicate Italian honour, entered the Depretis cabinet
as minister of the interior, and obtained from parliament a new
credit of £800,000. In November 1887 a strong expedition under
General di San Marzano raised the strength of the Massawa
Disaster
of Dogali.
garrison to nearly 20,000 men. The British government,
desirous of preventing an Italo-Abyssinian conflict, which could
but strengthen the position of the Mahdists, despatched Mr
(afterwards Sir) Gerald Portal from Massawa on the 2pth of
October to mediate with the negus. The mission proved fruitless.
Portal returned to Massawa on the 25th of December 1887, and
warned the Italians that John was preparing to attack them in
the following spring with an army of 100,000 men. On the 28th
of March 1888 the negus indeed descended from the Abyssinian
high plateau in the direction of Saati, but finding the Italian posi-
tion too strong to be carried by assault, temporized and opened
negotiations for peace. His tactics failed to entice the Italians
from their position, and on the 3rd of April sickness among his
men compelled John to withdraw the Abyssinian army. The negus
next marched against Menelek, king of Shoa, whose neutrality
Italy had purchased with 5000 Remington rifles and a supply of
ammunition, but found him with 80,000 men too strongly en-
trenched to be successfully attacked. Tidings of a new Mahdist
incursion into Abyssinian territory reaching the negus induced
him to postpone the settlement of his quarrel with Menelek until
the dervishes had been chastised. Marching towards the Blue
Nile, he joined battle with the Mahdists, but on the loth of
March 1889 was killed, in the hour of victory, near Gallabat.
His death gave rise to an Abyssinian war of succession between
Mangasha, natural son of John, and Menelek, grandson of the
Negus Sella-Sellassie. Menelek, by means of Count Antonelli,
resident in the Shoa country, requested Italy to execute a
diversion in his favour by occupying Asmara and other points on
the high plateau. Antonelli profited by the situation to obtain
Menelek's signature to a treaty fixing the frontiers of the Italian
colony and defining Italo-Abyssinian relations. The treaty,
signed at Uccialli on the 2nd of May 1899, arranged for
regular intercourse between Italy and Abyssinia and
conceded to Italy a portion of the high plateau, with
the positions of Halai, Saganeiti and Asmara. The main point
of the treaty, however, lay in clause 17: —
" His Majesty the king of kings of Ethiopia consents to make use
of the government of His Majesty the king of Italy for the treatment
of all questions concerning other powers and governments."
Upon this clause Italy founded her claim to a protectorate over
Abyssinia. In September 1889 the treaty of Uccialli was ratified
in Italy by Menelek's h'eutenant, the Ras Makonnen. Makonnen
further concluded with the Italian premier, Crispi, a convention
whereby Italy recognized Menelek as emperor of Ethiopia,
Menelek recognized the Italian colony, and arranged for a special
Italo-Abyssinian currency and for a loan. On the i ith of October
Italy communicated article 17 of the treaty of Uccialli to the
European powers, interpreting it as a valid title to an Italian
protectorate over Abyssinia. Russia alone neglected to take note
of the communication, and persisted in the hostile attitude she
had assumed at the moment of the occupation of Massawa.
Meanwhile the Italian mint coined thalers bearing the portrait
of King Humbert, with an inscription referring to the Italian
protectorate, and on the ist of January 1890 a royal decree con-
ferred upon the colony the name of " Eritrea."
In the colony itself General Baldissera, who had replaced
General Saletta, delayed the movement against Mangasha
desired by Menelek. The Italian general would have
preferred to wait until his intervention was requested Opera-
by both pretenders to the Abyssinian throne. Pressed Abyssinia.
by the home government, he, however, instructed a
native ally to occupy the important positions of Keren and
Asmara, and prepared himself to take the offensive against
Mangasha and Ras Alula. The latter retreated south of the
river Mareb, leaving the whole of the cis-Mareb territory, includ-
ing the provinces of Hamasen, Agameh, Serae and Okule-Kusai,
in Italian hands. General Orero, successor of Baldissera, pushed
offensive action more vigorously, and on the 26th of January
1890 entered Adowa, a city considerably to the south of the
Mareb — an imprudent step which aroused Menelek's suspicions,
and had hurriedly to be retraced. Mangasha, seeing further
resistance to be useless, submitted to Menelek, who at the end
74
ITALY
[1870-1902
of February ratified at Makalle the additional convention to
the treaty of Uccialli, but refused to recognize the Italian occupa-
tion of the Mareb. The negus, however, conformed to article
17 of the treaty of Uccialli by requesting Italy to represent
Abyssinia at the Brussels anti-slavery conference, an act which
strengthened Italian illusions as to Menelek's readiness to submit
to their protectorate. Menelek had previously notified the chief
European powers of his coronation at Entotto (i4th December
1889), but Germany and Great Britain replied that such notifica-
tion should have been made through the Italian government.
Germany, moreover, wounded Menelek's pride by employing
merely the title of " highness." The negus took advantage of
the incident to protest against the Italian text of article 17,
and to contend that the Amharic text contained no equivalent
for the word "consent," but merely stipulated that Abyssinia
" might " make use of Italy in her relations with foreign powers.
On the 28th of October 1890 Count Antonelli, negotiator of the
treaty, was despatched to settle the controversy, but on arriving
at Adis Ababa, the new residence of the negus, found agreement
impossible either with regard to the frontier or the protectorate.
On the loth of April 1891, Menelek communicated to the powers
his views with regard to the Italian frontier, and announced
his intention of re-establishing the ancient boundaries of Ethiopia
as far as Khartum to the north-west and Victoria Nyanza to the
south. Meanwhile the marquis de Rudini, who had succeeded
Crispi as Italian premier, had authorized the abandonment of
article 17 even before he had heard of the failure of Antonelli's
negotiations. Rudini was glad to leave the whole dispute in
abeyance and to make with the local ras, or chieftains, of the
high plateau an arrangement securing for Italy the cis-Mareb
provinces of Serae and Okule-Kusai under the rule of an allied
native chief named Bath-Agos. Rudini, however, was able
to conclude two protocols with Great Britain (March and April
1891) whereby the British government definitely recognized
Abyssinia as within the Italian sphere of influence in return for
an Italian recognition of British rights in the Upper Nile.
The period 1887-1890 was marked in Italy by great political
activity. The entry of Crispi into the Depretis cabinet as
minister of the interior (4th April 1887) introduced
Crb ' i *nto tne 8overnment an element of vigour which had
Cabinet. 'On8 Deen lacking. Though sixty-eight years of age,
Crispi possessed an activity, a rapidity of decision
and an energy in execution with which none of his contemporaries
could vie. Within four months the death of Depretis (29th
July 1887) opened for Crispi the way to the premiership. Besides
assuming the presidency of the council of ministers and retaining
the ministry of the interior, Crispi took over the portfolio of
foreign affairs which Depretis had held since the resignation of
Count di Robilant. One of the first questions with which he
had to deal was that of conciliation between Italy and the
Vatican. At the end of May the pope, in an allocution to the
cardinals, had spoken of Italy in terms of unusual cordiality,
and had expressed a wish for peace. A few days later Signor
Bonghi, one of the framers of the Law of Guarantees, published
in the Nuova Antologia a plea for reconciliation on the basis of
an amendment to the Law of Guarantees and recognition by
the pope of the Italian title to Rome. The chief incident cf the
movement towards conciliation consisted, however, in the
publication of a pamphlet entitled La Conciliazione by Father
Tosti, a close friend and confidant of the pope, extolling the
advantages of peace between Vatican and Quirinal. Tosti's
pamphlet was known to represent papal ideas, and Tosti himself
was persona grata to the Italian government. Recon-
dilation seemed within sight when suddenly Tosti's
tfon. pamphlet was placed on the Index, ostensibly on
account of a phrase, " The whole of Italy entered
Rome by the breach of Porta Pia; the king cannot restore
Rome to the pope, since Rome belongs to the Italian people."
On the 4th of June 1887 the official Vatican organ, the Ossenatore
Romano, published a letter written by Tosti to the pope condition-
ally retracting the views expressed in the pamphlet. The letter
had been written at the pope's request, on the understanding
that it should not be published. On the isth of June the pope
addressed to Cardinal Rampolla del Tindaro, secretary of state,
a letter reiterating in uncompromising terms the papal claim to
the temporal power, and at the end of July- Cardinal Rampolla
reformulated the same claim in a circular to the papal nuncios
abroad. The dream of conciliation was at an end, but the Tosti
incident had served once more to illustrate the true position of
the Vatican in regard to Italy. It became clear that neither the
influence of the regular clergy, of which the Society of Jesus
is the most powerful embodiment, nor that of foreign clerical
parties, which largely control the Peter's Pence fund, would
ever permit renunciation of the papal claim to temporal power.
France, and the French Catholics especially, feared lest concilia-
tion should diminish the reliance of the Vatican upon Terms
France, and consequently French hold over the of the
Vatican. The Vatican, for its part, felt its claim to "fomaa ^
temporal power to be too valuable a pecuniary asset e
and too efficacious an instrument of church discipline lightly
to be thrown away. The legend of an " imprisoned pope,"
subject to every whim of his gaolers, had never failed to arouse
the pity and loosen the purse-strings of the faithful; dangerous
innovators and would-be reformers within the church could be
compelled to bow before the symbol of the temporal power, and
their spirit of submission tested by their readiness to forgo
the realization of their aims until the head of the church should
be restored to his rightful domain. More important than all
was the interest of the Roman curia, composed almost exclusively
of Italians, to retain in its own hands the choice of the pontiff
and to maintain the predominance of the Italian element and
the Italian spirit in the ecclesiastical hierarchy. Conciliation
with Italy would expose the pope and his Italian entourage to
suspicion of being unduly subject to Italian political influence —
of being, in a word, more Italian than Catholic. Such a suspicion
would inevitably lead to a movement in favour of the inter-
nationalization of the curia and of the papacy. In order to
avoid this danger it was therefore necessary to refuse all com-
promise, and, by perpetual reiteration of a claim incompatible
with Italian territorial unity, to prove to the church at large
that the pope and the curia were more Catholic than Italian.
Such rigidity of principle need not be extended to the affairs
of everyday contact between the Vatican and the Italian
authorities, with regard to which, indeed, a tacit modus vivendi
was easily attainable. Italy, for her part, could not go back
upon the achievements of the Risorgimento by restoring Rome
or any portion of Italian territory to the pope. She had hoped
by conciliation to arrive at an understanding which should have
ranged the church among the conservative and not among the
disruptive forces of the country, but she was keenly desirous
to retain the papacy as a preponderatingly Italian institution,
and was ready to make whatever formal concessions might have
appeared necessary to reassure foreign Catholics concerning the
reality of the pope's spiritual independence. The failure of the
conciliation movement left profound irritation between Vatican
and Quirinal, an irritation which, on the Vatican side, found
expression in vivacious protests and in threats of leaving Rome;
and, on the Italian side, in the deposition of the syndic of
Rome for having visited the cardinal-vicar, in the anti-clerical
provisions of the new penal code, and in the inauguration (gth
June 1889) of a monument to Giordano Bruno on the very site
of his martyrdom.
The internal situation inherited by Crispi from Depretis was
very unsatisfactory. Extravagant expenditure on railways
and public works, loose administration of finance, the cost of
colonial enterprise, the growing demands for the army and
navy, the impending tariff war with France, and the over-
speculation in building and in industrial ventures, which had
absorbed all the floating capital of the country, had combined
to produce a state of affairs calling for firm and radical treatment.
Crispi, burdened by the premiership and by the two most
important portfolios in the cabinet, was, however, unable to
exercise efficient control over all departments of state. Neverthe-
less his administration was by no means unfruitful. Zanardelli,
1870-1902]
ITALY
75
minister of justice, secured in June 1888 the adoption of a new
penal code; state surveillance was extended to the opere pie,
or charitable institutions; municipal franchise was reformed
by granting what was practically manhood suffrage with
residential qualification, provision being made for minority
representation; and the central state administration was
reformed by a bill fixing the number and functions of the various
ministries. The management of finance was scarcely satisfactory,
for though Giolitti, who had succeeded Magliani and Perazzi
at the treasury, suppressed the former's illusory "• pension fund,"
he lacked the fibre necessary to deal with the enormous deficit
of nearly £10,000,000 in 1888-1889, the existence of which both
Perazzi and he had recognized. The most successful feature
of Crispi's term of office was his strict maintenance of order and
the suppression of Radical and Irredentist agitation. So
vigorous was his treatment of Irredentism that he dismissed
without warning his colleague Seismit Doda, minister of finance,
.for having failed to protest against Irredentist speeches delivered
in his presence at Udine. Firmness such as this secured for him
the support of all constitutional elements, and after three years'
premiership his position was infinitely stronger than at the
outset. The general election of 1890 gave the cabinet an almost
unwieldy majority, comprising four-fifths of the Chamber. A
lengthy term of office seemed to be opening out before him when,
on the 3ist of January 1891, Crispi, speaking in a debate upon
an unimportant bill, angrily rebuked the Right for its noisy
interruptions. The rebuke infuriated the Conservative deputies,
who, protesting against Crispi's words in the name of the " sacred
memories " of their party, precipitated a division and placed
the cabinet in a minority. The incident, whether due to chance
or guile, brought about the resignation of Crispi. A few days
later he was succeeded in the premiership by the marquis di
Rudini, leader of the Right, who formed a coalition cabinet with
Nicotera and a part of the Left.
The sudden fall of Crispi wrought a great change in the
character of Italian relations with foreign powers. His policy
Radial ^ad keen cnaracterized by extreme cordiality towards
Austria and Germany, by a close understanding with
Great Britain in regard to Mediterranean questions, and by an
apparent animosity towards France, which at one moment
seemed likely to lead to war. Shortly before the fall of the
Depretis-Robilant cabinet Count Robilant had announced the
intention of Italy to denounce the commercial treaties with
France and Austria, which would lapse en the 3ist of December
1887, and had intimated his readiness to negotiate new treaties.
On the 24th of June 1887, in view of a possible rupture of com-
mercial relations with France, the Depretis-Crispi cabinet
introduced a new general tariff. The probability of the conclu-
sion of a new Franco-Italian treaty was small, both on account
of the protectionist spirit of France and of French resentment
at the renewal of the triple alliance, but even such slight proba-
bility vanished after a visit paid to Bismarck by Crispi (October
1887) within three months of his appointment to the premiership.
Crispi entertained no a priori animosity towards France, but was
strongly convinced that Italy must emancipate herself from the
position of political dependence on her powerful neighbour
which had vitiated the foreign policy of the Left. So far was he
from desiring a rupture with France, that he had subordinated
acceptance of the portfolio of the interior in the Depretis cabinet
to an assurance that the triple alliance contained no provision
for offensive warfare. But his ostentatious visit to Friedrichsruh,
and a subsequent speech at Turin, in which, while professing
sentiments of friendship and esteem for France, he eulogized
the personality of Bismarck, aroused against him a hostility
on the part of the French which he was never afterwards able
to allay. France was equally careless of Italian susceptibilities,
and in April 1888 Goblet made a futile but irritating attempt
to enforce at Massawa the Ottoman regime of the capitulations
in regard to non-Italian residents. In such circumstances the
negotiations for the new commercial treaty could but fail, and
though the old treaty was prolonged by special arrangetnent
for two months, differential tariffs were put in force on both sides
of the frontier on the 29th of February 1888. The value of
French exports into Italy decreased immediately by one-half,
while Italian exports to France decreased by nearly two-thirds.
At the end of 1889 Crispi abolished the differential duties against
French imports and returned to the general Italian tariff, but
France declined to follow his lead and maintained her prohibitive
dues. Meanwhile the enthusiastic reception accorded to the
young German emperor on the occasion of his visit to Rome in
October 1888, and the cordiality shown towards King Humbert
and Crispi at Berlin in May 1889, increased the tension of Franco-
Italian relations; nor was it until after the fall of Prince
Bismarck in March 1890 that Crispi adopted towards the Republic
a more friendly attitude by sending an Italian squadron to salute
President Carnot at Toulon. The chief advantage derived
by Italy from Crispi's foreign policy was the increase of con-
fidence in her government on the part of her allies and of Great
Britain. On the occasion of the incident raised by Goblet with
regard to Massawa, Bismarck made it clear to France that, in
case of complications, Italy would not stand alone; and when
in February 1888 a strong French fleet appeared to menace
the Italian coast, the British Mediterranean squadron demon-
strated its readiness to support Italian naval dispositions.
Moreover, under Crispi's hand Italy awoke from the apathy
of former years and gained consciousness of her place in the
world. The conflict with France, the operations in Eritrea,
the vigorous interpretation of the triple alliance, the questions
of Morocco and Bulgaria, were all used by him as means to
stimulate national sentiment. With the instinct of a true
statesman, he felt the pulse of the people, divined their need for
prestige, and their preference for a government heavy-handed
rather than lax. How great had been Crispi's power was seen
by contrast with the policy of the Rudini cabinet which succeeded
him in February 1891. Crispi's so-called " megalomania " gave
place to retrenchment in home affairs and to a deferential
attitude towards all foreign powers. The premiership second
of Rudini was hailed by the Radical leader, Cavallotti, renewal of
as a pledge of the non-renewal of the triple alliance, the Tr}ph
against which the Radicals began a vociferous campaign. AUIaace-
Their tactics, however, produced a contrary effect, for Rudini,
accepting proposals from Berlin, renewed the alliance in June
1891 for a period of twelve years. None of Rudini's public
utterances justify the supposition that he assumed office with the
intention of allowing the alliance to lapse on its expiry in May
1892; indeed, he frankly declared it to form the basis of his
foreign policy. The attitude of several of his colleagues was more
equivocal, but though they coquetted with French financiers
in the hope of obtaining the support of the Paris Bourse for
Italian securities, the precipitate renewal of the alliance destroyed
all probability of a close understanding with France. The desire
of Rudini to live on the best possible terms with all powers was
further evinced in the course of a visit paid to Monza by M. de
Giers in October 1891, when the Russian statesman was apprised
of the entirely defensive nature of Italian engagements under
the triple alliance. At the same time he carried to a successful
conclusion negotiations begun by Crispi for the renewal of
commercial treaties with Austria and Germany upon terms
which to some extent compensated Italy for the reduction of
her commerce with France, and concluded with Great Britain
conventions for the delimitation of British and Italian spheres
of influence in north-east Africa. In home affairs his administra-
tion was weak and vacillating, nor did the economies effected
in naval and military expenditure and in other departments
suffice to strengthen the position of a cabinet which had dis-
appointed the hopes of its supporters. On the i4th of April
1892 dissensions between ministers concerning the financial
programme led to a cabinet crisis, and though Rudini succeeded
in reconstructing his administration, he was defeated in the
Chamber on the sth of May and obliged to resign. King Humbert,
who, from lack of confidence in Rudini, had declined atoilta.
to allow him to dissolve parliament, entrusted Signer
Giolitti, a Piedmontese deputy, sometime treasury minister
in the Crispi cabinet, with the formation of a ministry of
76
ITALY
[1870-1902
the Left, which contrived to obtain six months' supply on
account, and dissolved the Chamber.
The ensuing general election (November 1892), marked by
unprecedented violence and abuse of official pressure upon
the electorate, fitly ushered in what proved to be
scandals. l^e most unfortunate period of Italian history since
the completion of national unity. The influence of
Giolitti was based largely upon the favour of a court clique,
and especially of Rattazzi, minister of the royal household.
Early in 1893 a scandal arose in connexion with the manage-
ment of state banks, and particularly of the Banca Romana,
whose managing director, Tanlongo, had issued £2,500,000 of
duplicate bank-notes. Giolitti scarcely improved matters by
creating Tanlongo a member of the senate, and by denying in
parliament the existence of any mismanagement. The senate,
however, manifested the utmost hostility to Tanlongo, whom
Giolitti, in consequence of an interpellation in the Chamber,
was compelled to arrest. Arrests of other prominent persons
followed, and on the 3rd of February the Chamber authorized
the prosecution of De Zerbi, a Neapolitan deputy accused of
corruption. On the 2oth of February De Zerbi suddenly
expired. For a time Giolitti successfully opposed inquiry into
the conditions of the state banks, but on the 2ist of March was
compelled to sanction an official investigation by a parliamentary
commission composed of seven members. On the 23rd of
November the report of the commission was read to the Chamber
amid intense excitement. It established that all Italian cabinets
since 1880 had grossly neglected the state banks; that the two
preceding cabinets had been aware of the irregularities committed
by Tanlongo; that Tanlongo had heavily subsidized the press,
paying as much as £20,000 for that purpose in 1888 alone;
that a number of deputies, including several ex-ministers, had
received from him loans of a considerable amount, which they
had apparently made no effort to refund; that Giolitti had
deceived the Chamber with regard to the state banks, and was
open tosuspicion of having.af ter the arrest of Tanlongo, abstracted
a number of documents from the latter's papers before placing
the remainder in the hands of the judicial authorities. In spite
of the gravity of the charges formulated against many prominent
men, the report merely " deplored " and " disapproved " of
their conduct, without proposing penal proceedings. Fear of
extending still farther a scandal which had already attained
huge dimensions, and the desire to avoid any further shock to
national credit, convinced the commissioners of the expediency
of avoiding a long series of prosecutions. The report, however,
sealed the fate of the Giolitti cabinet, and on the 24th of November
it resigned amid general execration.
Apart from the lack of scruple manifested by Giolitti in the
bank scandals, he exhibited incompetence in the conduct of
foreign and home affairs. On the i6th and i8th of
August 1893 a number of Italian workmen were
majMcrc. massacred at Aigues-Mortes. The French authorities,
under whose eyes the massacre was perpetrated, did
nothing to prevent or repress it, and the mayor of Marseilles
even refused to admit the wounded Italian workmen to the
municipal hospital. These occurrences provoked anti-French
demonstrations in many parts of Italy, and revived the chronic
Italian rancour against France. The Italian foreign minister,
Brin, began by demanding the punishment of the persons
guilty of the massacre, but hastened to accept as satisfactory the
anodyne measures adopted by the French government. Giolitti
removed the prefect of Rome for not having prevented an
expression of popular anger, and presented formal excuses to
the French consul at Messina for a demonstration against that
consulate. In the following December the French tribunal at
Angoulfe'me acquitted all the authors of the massacre. At
home Giolitti displayed the same weakness. Riots at Naples
in August 1893 and symptoms of unrest in Sicily found him,
as usual, unprepared and vacillating. The closing of the French
market to Sicilian produce, the devastation wrought by the
phylloxera and the decrease of the sulphur trade had combined
to produce in Sicily a discontent of which Socialist agitators
t Ion in
took advantage to organize the workmen of the towns and
the peasants of the country into groups known as fasci.
The movement had no well-defined object. Here
and there it was based upon a bastard Socialism,
, , . . '.
in other places it was made a means of municipal
party warfare under the guidance of the local mafia,
and in some districts it was simply popular effervescence against
the local octrois on bread and flour. As early as January 1893 a
conflict had occurred between the police and the populace, in
which several men, women and children were killed, an occurrence
used by the agitators further to inflame the populace. Instead
of maintaining a firm policy, Giolitti allowed the movement
to spread until, towards the autumn of 1893, he became alarmed
and drafted troops into the island, though in numbers insufficient
to restore order. At the moment of his fall the movement
assumed the aspect of an insurrection, and during the interval
between his resignation (24th November) and the formation
of a new Crispi cabinet (loth December) conflicts between the
public forces and the rioters were frequent. The return of Crispi
to power — a return imposed by public opinion as that of the only
man capable of dealing with the desperate situation — marked
the turning-point of the crisis. Intimately acquainted with
the conditions of his native island, Crispi adopted efficacious
remedies. The/a5« were suppressed, Sicily was filled with troops,
the reserves were called out, a state of siege proclaimed, military
courts instituted and the whole movement crushed in a few
weeks. The chief agitators were either sentenced to heavy
terms of imprisonment or were compelled to flee the country.
A simultaneous insurrection at Massa - Carrara was crushed
with similar vigour. Crispi's methods aroused great outcry
in the Radical press, but the severe sentences of the military
courts were in time tempered by the Royal prerogative of
amnesty.
But it was not alone in regard to public order that heroic
measures were necessary. The financial situation inspired
serious misgivings. While engagements contracted
by Depretis in regard to public works had more than cr/s/s<
neutralized the normal increase of revenue from taxa-
tion, the whole credit of the state had been affected by the
severe economic and financial crises of the years 1880-1893.
The state banks, already hampered by maladministration,
were encumbered by huge quantities of real estate which had
been taken over as compensation for unredeemed mortgages.
Baron Sidney Sonnino, minister of finance in the Crispi cabinet,
found a prospective deficit of £7,080,000, and in spite of economies
was obliged to face an actual deficit of more than £6,000,000.
Drastic measures were necessary to limit expenditure and to
provide new sources of revenue. Sonnino applied, and sub-
sequently amended, the Bank Reform Bill passed by the previous
Administration (August 10, 1893) for the creation of a supreme
state bank, the Bank of Italy, which was entrusted with the
liquidation of the insolvent Banca Romana. The new law
forbade the state banks to lend money on real estate, limited
their powers of discounting bills and securities, and reduced the
maximum of their paper currency. In order to diminish the
gold premium, which under Giolitti had risen to 16%, forced
currency was given to the existing notes of the banks of Italy,
Naples and Sicily, while special state notes were issued to meet
immediate currency needs. Measures were enforced to prevent
Italian holders of consols from sending their coupons abroad to
be paid in gold, with the result that, whereas in 1893 £3,240,000
had been paid abroad in gold for the service of the January
coupons and only £680,000 in paper in Italy, the same coupon
was paid a year later with only £i ,360,000 abroad and £2,540,000
at home. Economies for more than £i ,000,000, were immediately
effected, taxes, calculated to produce £2,440,000, were proposed
to be placed upon land, incomes, salt and corn, while the existing
income-tax upon consols (fixed at 8% by Cambray-Digny in
1868, and raised to 13-20% by Sella in 1870) was increased to
20% irrespectively of the stockholders' nationality. These
proposals met with opposition so fierce as to cause a cabinet
crisis, but Sonnino who resigned office as minister of finance,
1870-1902]
ITALY
77
returned to power as minister of the treasury, promulgated some
of his proposals by royal decree, and in spite of vehement
opposition secured their ratification by the Chamber. The tax
upon consols, which, in conjunction with the other severe fiscal
measures, was regarded abroad as a pledge that Italy intended
at all costs to avoid bankruptcy, caused a rise in Italian stocks.
When the Crispi cabinet fell in March 1896 Sonnino had the
satisfaction of seeing revenue increased by £3,400,000, expendi-
ture diminished by £2,800,000, the gold premium reduced from
16 to 5%, consolidated stock at 95 instead of "j 2, and, notwith-
standing the expenditure necessitated by the Abyssinian War,
financial equilibrium practically restored.
While engaged in restoring order and in supporting Sonnino's
courageous struggle against bankruptcy, Crispi became the
4 object of fierce attacks from the Radicals, Socialists
on Crispi. and anarchists. On the i6th of June an attempt by
an anarchist named Lega was made on Crispi's life;
on the 24th of June President Carnot was assassinated by the
anarchist Caserio; and on the 3oth of June an Italian journalist
was murdered at Leghorn for a newspaper attack upon anarchism
— a series of outrages which led the government to frame and
parliament to adopt (nth July) a Public Safety Bill for the pre-
vention of anarchist propaganda and crime. At the end of July
the trial of the persons implicated in the Banca Romana scandal
revealed the fact that among the documents abstracted by Giolitti
from the papers of the bank manager, Tanlongo, were several
bearing upon Crispi's political and private life. On the i ith of
December Giolitti laid these and other papers before the Chamber,
in the hope of ruining Crispi, but upon examination most of them
were found to be worthless, and the rest of so private a nature as
to be unfit for publication. The effect of the incident was rather
to increase detestation of Giolitti than to damage Crispi. The
latter, indeed, prosecuted the former for libel and for abuse of
his position when premier, but after many vicissitudes, including
the flight of Giolitti to Berlin in order to avoid arrest, the
Chamber refused authorization for the prosecution, and the
matter dropped. A fresh attempt of the same kind was then
made against Crispi by the Radical leader Cavallotti, who
advanced unproven charges of corruption and embezzlement.
These attacks were, however, unavailing to shake Crispi's
position, and in the general election of May 1895 his government
obtained a majority of nearly 200 votes. Nevertheless public
confidence in the efficacy of the parliamentary system and in the
honesty of politicians was seriously diminished by these un-
savoury occurrences, which, in combination with the acquittal of
all the defendants in the Banca Romana trial, and the abandon-
ment of the proceedings against Giolitti, reinforced to an alarm-
ing degree the propaganda of the revolutionary parties.
The foreign policy of the second Crispi Administration, in
which the portfolio of foreign affairs was held by Baron Blanc,
was, as before, marked by a cordial interpretation of
ttoasta " *ne tfiple alliance, and by close accord with Great
Eritrea. Britain. In the Armenian question Italy seconded with
energy the diplomacy of Austria and Germany, while
the Italian fleet joined the British Mediterranean squadron in a
demonstration off the Syrian coast. Graver than any foreign
question were the complications in Eritrea. Under the arrange-
ment concluded in 1891 by Rudini with native chiefs in regard
to the Italo-Abyssinian frontier districts, relations with Abyssinia
had remained comparatively satisfactory. Towards the Sudan,
however, the Mahdists, who had recovered from a defeat inflicted
by an Italian force at Agordat in 1890, resumed operations in
December 1893. Colonel Arimondi, commander of the colonial
forces in the absence of the military governor, General Baratieri,
attacked and routed a dervish force 10,000 strong on the zist of
December. The Italian troops, mostly native levies, numbered
only 2200 men. The dervish loss was more than 1000 killed,
while the total Italian casualties amounted to less than 250.
General Baratieri, upon returning to the colony, decided to
execute a coup de main against the dervish base at Kassala, both in
order to relieve pressure from that quarter and to preclude a com-
bined Abyssinian and dervish attack upon the colony at the end of
1894. The protocol concluded with Great Britain on the isth of
April 1891, already referred to, contained a clause to the effect that,
were Kassala occupied by the Italians, the place should be trans-
ferred to the Egyptian government as soon as the latter should
be in a position to restore order in the Sudan. Concentrating a
little army of 2600 men, Baratieri surprised and captured Kassala
on the I7th of July 1894, and garrisoned the place with native
levies under Italian officers. Meanwhile Menelek, jealous of the
extension of Italian influence to a part of northern Somaliland
and to the Benadir coast, had, with the support of France and
Russia, completed his preparations for asserting his authority as
independent ruler of Ethiopia. On the nth of May 1893 he
denounced the treaty of Uccialli, but the Giolitti cabinet, absorbed
by the bank scandals, paid no heed to his action. Possibly an
adroit repetition in favour of Mangasha and against Menelek of
the policy formerly followed in favour of Menelek against the
negus John might have consolidated Italian influence in Abyssinia
by preventing the ascendancy of any single chieftain. The
Italian government, however, neglected this opening, and
Mangasha came to terms with Menelek. Consequently the
efforts of Crispi and his envoy, Colonel Piano, to conclude a new
treaty with Menelek in June 1894 not only proved unsuccessful,
but formed a prelude to troubles on the Italo-Abyssinian frontier.
Bath-Agos, the native chieftain who ruled the Okule'-Kusai and
the cis-Mareb provinces on behalf of Italy, intrigued with
Mangasha, ras of the trans-Mareb province of Tigre, and with
Menelek, to raise a revolt against Italian rule on the high
plateau. In December 1894 the revolt broke out, but Major
Toselli with a small force marched rapidly against Bath Agos,
whom he routed and killed at Halai. General Baratieri, having
reason to suspect the complicity of Mangasha in the revolt, called
upon him to furnish troops for a projected Italo-Abyssinian
campaign against the Mahdists. Mangasha made no reply, and
Baratieri crossing the Mareb advanced to Adowa, but four days
later was obliged to return northwards. Mangasha thereupon
took the offensive and attempted to occupy the village of Coatit
in Okule-Kusai, but was forestalled and defeated by Baratieri on
the i3th of January 1895. Hurriedly retreating to Senafe, hard
pressed by the Italians, who shelled Senafe on the evening of the
1 5th of January, Mangasha was obliged to abandon his camp and
provisions to Baratieri, who also secured a quantity of corre-
spondence establishing the complicity of Menelek and Mangasha
in the revolt of Bath-Agos.
The comparatively facile success achieved by Baratieri
against Mangasha seems to have led him to undervalue his
enemy, and to forget that Menelek, negus and king
of Shoa, had an interest in allowing Mangasha to be
crushed, in order that the imperial authority and the
superiority of Shoan over Tigrin arms might be the more strikingly
asserted. After obtaining the establishment of an apostolic
prefecture in Eritrea under the charge of Italian Franciscans,
Baratieri expelled from the colony the French Lazarist mission-
aries for their alleged complicity in the Bath-Agos insurrection,
and in March 1895 undertook the conquest of Tigre. Occupying
Adigrat and Makalle, he reached Adowa on the ist of April, and
thence pushed forward to Axum, the holy city of Abyssinia. These
places were garrisoned, and during the rainy season Baratieri
returned to Italy, where he was received with unbounded
enthusiasm. Whether he or the Crispi cabinet had any inkling
of the enterprise to which they were committed by the occupa-
tion of Tigre is more than doubtful. Certainly Baratieri made
no adequate preparations to repel an Abyssinian attempt to
reconquer the province. Early in September both Mangasha
and Menelek showed signs of activity, and on the 2oth of Sep-
tember Makonnen, ras of Harrar, who up till then had been
regarded as a friend and quasi-ally by Italy, expelled all Italians
from his territory and marched with 30,000 men to join the
negus. On returning to .Eritrea, Baratieri mobilized his native
reserves and pushed forward columns under Major Toselli and
General Arimondi as far south as Amba Alagi. Mangasha fell
back before the Italians, who obtained several minor successes;
but on the 6th of December Toselli's column, 2000 strong, which
ITALY
[1870-1902
through a misunderstanding continued to hold Amba Alagi, was
almost annihilated by the Abyssinian vanguard of 40,000 men.
Toselli and all but three officers and 300 men fell at their posts
after a desperate resistance. Arimondi, collecting the survivors
of the Toselli column, retreated to Makalle and Adigrat. At
Makalle, however, he left a small garrison in the fort, which on
the yth of January 1896 was invested by the Abyssinian army.
Repeated attempts to capture the fort having failed, Menelek
and Makonnen opened negotiations with Baratieri for its capitula-
tion, and on the 2ist of January the garrison, under Major
Galliano, who had heroically defended the position, were per-
mitted to march out with the honours of war. Meanwhile
Baratieri received reinforcements from Italy, but remained
undecided as to the best plan of campaign. Thus a month was
lost, during which the Abyssinian army advanced to Hausen,
a position slightly south of Adowa. The Italian commander
attempted to treat with Menelek, but his negotiations merely
enabled the Italian envoy, Major Salsa, to ascertain that the
Abyssinians were nearly 100,000 strong mostly armed with
rifles and well supplied with artillery. The Italians, including
camp-followers, numbered less than 25,000 men, a force too
small for effective action, but too large to be easily provisioned
at 200 m. from its base, in a roadless, mountainous country,
almost devoid of water. For a moment Baratieri thought of
retreat, especially as the hope of creating a diversion from Zaila
towards Harrar had failed in consequence of the British refusal
to permit the landing of an Italian force without the consent
of France. The defection of a number of native allies (who,
however, were attacked and defeated by Colonel Stevani on
the i8th of February) rendered the Italian position still more
precarious; but Baratieri, unable to make up his mind, continued
to manoeuvre in the hope of drawing an Abyssinian attack.
These futile tactics exasperated the home government, which
on the 22nd of February despatched General Baldissera, with
strong reinforcements, to supersede Baratieri. On the 25th of
February Crispi telegraphed to Baratieri, denouncing his opera-
tions as " military phthisis," and urging him to decide upon
some strategic plan. Baratieri, anxious probably to obtain
some success before the arrival of Baldissera, and alarmed by
the rapid diminution of his stores, which precluded further
immobility, called a council of war (291)1 of February) and
obtained the approval of the divisional commanders for a plan
of attack. During the night the army advanced towards
Adowa in three divisions, under Generals Dabormida, Arimondi
and Albertone, each division being between 4000 and 5000
strong, and a brigade 5300 strong under General
Ellena remaining in reserve. All the divisions,
save that of Albertone, consisted chiefly of Italian
troops. During the march Albertone's native division mistook
the road, and found itself obliged to delay in the Arimondi column
by retracing its steps. Marching rapidly, however, Albertone
outdistanced the other columns, but, in consequence of allowing
his men an hour's rest, arrived upon the scene of action when
the Abyssinians, whom it had been hoped to surprise at dawn,
were ready to receive the attack. Pressed by overwhelming
forces, the Italians, after a violent combat, began to give way.
The Dabormida division, unsupported by Albertone, found
itself likewise engaged in a separate combat against superior
numbers. Similarly the Arimondi brigade was attacked by
30,000 Shoans, and encumbered by the dfibris of Albertone's
troops. Baratieri vainly attempted to push forward the reserve,
but the Italians were already overwhelmed, and the battle — or
rather, series of distinct engagements — ended in a general rout.
The Italian loss is estimated to have been more than 6000,
of whom 3125 were whites. Between 3000 and 4000 prisoners
were taken by the Abyssinians, including General Albertone,
while Generals Arimondi and Dabormida were killed and General
Ellena wounded. The Abyssinians lost more than 5000 killed
and 8000 wounded. Baratieri, after a futile attempt to direct
the retreat, fled in haste and reached Adi-Caj£ before the debris
of his army. Thence he despatched telegrams to Italy throwing
blame for the defeat upon his troops, a proceeding which sub-
Battle of
Adowa.
sequent evidence proved to be as unjustifiable as it was unsoldier-
like. Placed under court-martial for his conduct, Baratieri
was acquitted of the charge for having been led to give battle
by other than military considerations, but the sentence "deplored
that in such difficult circumstances the command should have
been given to a general so inferior to the exigencies of the
situation."
In Italy the news of the defeat of Adowa caused deep dis-
couragement and dismay. On the 5th of March the Crispi
cabinet resigned before an outburst of indignation which the
Opposition had assiduously fomented, and five days later a new
cabinet was formed by General Ricotti-Magnani, who, however,
made over the premiership to the marquis di Rudini. The latter,
though leader of the Right, had long been intriguing with
Cavallotti, leader of the Extreme Left, to overthrow Crispi, but
without the disaster of Adowa his plan would scarcely have
succeeded. The first act of the new cabinet was to confirm
instructions given by its predecessor to General Baldissera (who
had succeeded General Baratieri on the 2nd of March) to treat
for peace with Menelek if he thought desirable. Baldissera
opened negotiations with the negus through Major Salsa, and
simultaneously reorganized the Italian army. The negotiations
having failed, he marched to relieve the beleaguered garrison
of Adigrat; but Menelek, discouraged by the heavy losses at
Adowa, broke up his camp and returned southwards
to Shoa. At the same time Baldissera detached ^"^.
Colonel Stevani with four native battalions to relieve meat.
Kassala, then hard pressed by the Mahdists. Kassala
was relieved on the ist of April, and Stevani a few days later
severely defeated the dervishes at Jebel Mokram and Tucruff.
Returning from Kassala Colonel Stevani rejoined Baldissera,
who on the 4th of May relieved Adigrat after a well-executed
march. By adroit negotiations with Mangasha the Italian
general obtained the release of the Italian prisoners in Tigre,
and towards the end of May withdrew his whole force north of
the Mareb. Major Nerazzini was then despatched as special
envoy to the negus to arrange terms of peace. On the 26th of
October Nerazzini succeeded in concluding, at Adis Ababa,
a provisional treaty annulling the treaty of Uccialli; recognizing
the absolute independence of Ethiopia; postponing for one year
the definitive delimitation of the Italo-Abysslnian boundary,
but allowing the Italians meanwhile to hold the strong Mareb-
Belesa-Muna line; and arranging for the release of the Italian
prisoners after ratification of the treaty in exchange for an
indemnity of which the amount was to be fixed by the Italian
government. The treaty having been duly ratified, and an
indemnity of £400,000 paid to Menelek, the Shoan prisoners were
released, and Major Nerazzini once more returned to Abyssinia
with instructions to secure, if possible, Menelek's assent to the
definitive retention of the Mareb-Belesa-Muna line by Italy.
Before Nerazzini could reach Adis Ababa, Rudini, in order
partially to satisfy the demands of his Radical supporters for
the abandonment of the colony, announced in the Chamber the
intention of Italy to limit her occupation to the triangular zone
between the points Asmara, Keren and Massawa, and, possibly,
to withdraw to Massawa alone. This declaration, of which
Menelek was swiftly apprised by French agents, rendered it
impossible to Nerazzini to obtain more than a boundary leaving
to Italy but a small portion of the high plateau and ceding to
Abyssinia the fertile provinces of Serae' and Okul6-Kusai. The
fall of the Rudini cabinet in June 1898, however, enabled
Signer Ferdinando Martini and Captain Cicco di Cola, who had
been appointed respectively civil governor of Eritrea and minister
resident at Adis Ababa, to prevent the cession of Serae and Okul6-
Kusai, and to secure the assent of Menelek to Italian retention
of the Mareb-Belesa-Muna frontier. Eritrea has now approxi-
mately the same extent as before the revolt of Bath-Agos,
except in regard (i) to Kassala, which was transferred to the
Anglo-Egyptian authorities on the 25th of December 1897, in
pursuance of the above-mentioned Anglo-Italian convention;
and (2) to slight rectifications of its northern and eastern bound-
aries by conventions concluded between the Eritrean and the
1870-1902]
ITALY
79
Anglo-Egyptian authorities. Under Signor Ferdinando Martini's
able administration (1898-1906) the cost of the colony to Italy
was reduced and its trade and agriculture have vastly improved.
While marked in regard to Eritrea by vacillation and un-
dignified readiness to yield to Radical clamour, the policy of
the marquis di Rudini was in other respects chiefly characterized
by a desire to demolish Crispi and his supporters. Actuated by
rancour against Crispi, he, on the 2gth of April 1896, authorized
the publication of a Green Book on Abyssinian affairs, in which,
without the consent of Great Britain, the confidential Anglo-
Italian negotiations in regard to the Abyssinian war were
disclosed. This publication, which amounted to a gross breach
of diplomatic confidence, might have endangered the cordiality of
Anglo-Italian relations, had not the esteem of the British
government for General Ferrero, Italian ambassador in London,
induced it to overlook the incident. Fortunately for Raly,
the marquis Visconti Venosta shortly afterwards consented
to assume the portfolio of foreign affairs, which had been resigned
by Duke Caetani di Sermoneta, and again to place, after an
interval of twenty years, his unrivalled experience at the service
of his country. In September 1896 he succeeded in concluding
with France a treaty with regard to Tunisia in place of the old
Italo-Tunisian treaty, denounced by the French Government a
year previously. During the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 Visconti
Venosta laboured to maintain the European concert, joined
Great Britain in preserving Greece from the worst consequences
of her folly, and lent moral and material aid in establishing an
autonomous government in Crete. At the same time he mitigated
the Francophil tendencies of some of his colleagues, accompanied
King Humbert and Queen Margherita on their visit to Homburg
in September 1897, and, by loyal observance of the spirit of the
triple alliance, retained for Italy the confidence of her allies
without forfeiting the goodwill of France.
The home administration of the Rudini cabinet compared
unfavourably with that of foreign affairs. Bound by a secret
understanding with the Radical leader Cavallotti, an able but
unscrupulous demagogue, Rudini was compelled to bow to
Radical exigencies. He threw all the influence of the government
against Crispi, who was charged with complicity in embezzlements
perpetrated by Favilla, managing director of the Bologna
branch of the Bank of Naples. After being subjected to persecu-
tion for nearly two years, Crispi's character was substantially
vindicated by the report of a parliamentary commission ap-
pointed to inquire into his relations with Favilla. True, the
commission proposed and the Chamber adopted a vote of censure
upon Crispi's conduct in 1894, when, as premier and minister
of the interior, he had borrowed £12,000 from Favilla to replenish
the secret service fund, and had subsequently repaid the money
as instalments for secret service were in due course furnished by
the treasury. Though irregular, his action was to some extent
justified by the depletion of the secret service fund under Giolitti
and by the abnormal circumstances prevailing in 1893-1894,
when he had been obliged to quell the insurrections in Sicily
and Massa-Carrara. But the Rudini-Cavallotti alliance was
destined to produce other results than those of the campaign
against Crispi. Pressed by Cavallotti, Rudini in March 1897
dissolved the Chamber and conducted the general election in
such a way as to crush by government pressure the partisans of
Crispi, and greatly to strengthen the (Socialist, Republican and
Radical) revolutionary parties. More than ever at the mercy
of the Radicals and of their revolutionary allies, Rudini continued
so to administer public affairs that subversive propaganda
and associations obtained unprecedented extension. The effect
was seen in May 1898, when, in consequence of a rise in the
price of bread, disturbances occurred in southern Italy. The
corn duty was reduced to meet the emergency, but the disturbed
area extended to Naples, Foggia, Bari, Minervino-
Riots of Murge, Molfetta and thence along the line of railway
1898. which skirts the Adriatic coast. At Faenza, Piacenza,
Cremona, Pavia and Milan, where subversive associa-
tions were stronger, it assumed the complexion of a political revolt.
From the 7th to the gth of May Milan remained practically in
the hands of the mob. A palace was sacked, barricades were
erected and for forty-eight hours the troops under General
Bava-Beccaris, notwithstanding the employment of artillery,
were unable to restore order. In view of these occurrences,
Rudini authorized the proclamation of a state of siege at Milan,
Florence, Leghorn and Naples, delegating the suppression of
disorder to special military commissioners. By these means
order was restored, though not without considerable loss of life
at Milan and elsewhere. At Milan alone the official returns
confessed to eighty killed and several hundred wounded, a total
generally considered below the real figures. As in 1894, excess-
ively severe sentences were passed by the military tribunals
upon revolutionary leaders and other persons considered to have
been implicated in the outbreak, but successive royal amnesties
obliterated these condemnations within three years.
No Italian administration since the death of Depretis under-
went so many metamorphoses as that of the marquis di Rudini.
Modified a first time within five months of its forma-
tion (July 1896) in connexion with General Ricotti's telloux
Army Reform Bill, and again in December 1897,
when Zanardelli entered the cabinet, it was recon-
structed for a third time at the end of May 1898 upon the
question of a Public Safety Bill, but fell for the fourth and last
time on the i8th of June 1898, on account of public indignation
at the results of Rudini's home policy as exemplified in the May
riots. On the 29th of June Rudini was succeeded in the premier-
ship by General Luigi Pelloux, a Savoyard, whose only title to
office was the confidence of the king. The Pelloux cabinet
possessed no clear programme except in regard to the Public
Safety Bill, which it had taken over from its predecessor. Pre-
sented to parliament in November 1898, the bill was read a
second time in the following spring, but its third reading was
violently obstructed by the Socialists, Radicals and Republicans
of the Extreme Left. After a series of scenes and scuffles the
bill was promulgated by royal decree, the decree being post-
dated to allow time for the third reading. Again obstruction
precluded debate, and on the 22nd of July 1899 the decree
automatically acquired force of law, pending the adoption of
a bill of indemnity by the Chamber. In February 1900 it was,
however, quashed by the supreme court on a point of procedure,
and the Public Safety Bill as a whole had again to be presented
to the Chamber. In view of the violence of Extremist obstruc-
tion, an effort was made to reform the standing orders of the
Lower House, but parliamentary feeling ran so high that General
Pelloux thought it expedient to appeal to the country. The
general election of June 1900 not only failed to reinforce the
cabinet, but largely increased the strength of the extreme
parties (Radicals, Republicans and Socialists), who in the new
Chamber numbered nearly 100 out of a total of 508. General
Pelloux therefore resigned, and on the 24th of June a moderate
Liberal cabinet was formed by the aged Signor Saracco, president
of the senate. Within five weeks of its formation King Humbert
was shot by an anarchist assassin named Bresci while leaving
an athletic festival at Monza, where his Majesty had distributed
the prizes (29th July 1900). The death of the unfortunate
monarch, against whom an attempt had previously
been made by the anarchist Acciarito (22nd April
1897), caused an outburst of profound sorrow and Humbert.
indignation. Though not a great monarch, King
Humbert had, by his unfailing generosity and personal courage,
won the esteem and affection of his people. During the cholera
epidemic at Naples and Busca in 1884, and the Ischia earth-
quake of 1885, he, regardless of danger, brought relief and en-
couragement to sufferers, and rescued many lives. More than
£100,000 of his civil list was annually devoted to charitable pur-
poses. Humbert was succeeded by his only son, Victor Accestloa
Emmanuel III. (b. November n, 1869), a liberal- ofKing
minded and well-educated prince, who at the time of victor
his father's assassination was returning from a cruise Emmanuel
in the eastern Mediterranean. The remains of King "•
Humbert were laid to rest in the Pantheon at Rome beside
those of his father, Victor Emmanuel II. (gth August). Two
8o
ITALY
[1902-1909
days later Victor Emmanuel III. swore fidelity to the con-
stitution before the assembled Houses of Parliament and in
the presence of his consort, Elena of Montenegro, whom he had
married in October 1896.
The later course of Italian foreign policy was marked by
many vicissitudes. Admiral Canevaro, who had gained distinc-
tion as commander of the international forces in
Crete (1896-1898), assumed the direction of foreign
affairs in the first period of the Pelloux administration.
His diplomacy, though energetic, lacked steadiness. Soon after
taking office he completed the negotiations begun by the Rudini
administration for a new commercial treaty with France (October
1898), whereby Franco-Italian commercial relations were placed
upon a normal footing after a breach which had lasted for more
than ten years. By the despatch of a squadron to South
America he obtained satisfaction for injuries inflicted thirteen
years previously upon an Italian subject by the United States
of Colombia. In December 1898 he convoked a diplomatic
conference in Rome to discuss secret means for the repression
of anarchist propaganda and crime in view of the assassination
of the empress of Austria by an Italian anarchist (Luccheni),
but it is doubtful whether results of practical value were achieved.
The action of the tsar of Russia in convening the Peace Conference
at The Hague in May 1900 gave rise to a question as to the right
of the Vatican to be officially represented, and Admiral Canevaro,
supported by Great Britain and Germany, succeeded in prevent-
ing the invitation of a papal delegate. Shortly afterwards his
term of office was brought to a close by the failure of an attempt
to secure for Italy a coaling station at Sanmen and a sphere
of influence in China; but his policy of active participation in
Chinese affairs was continued in a modified form by his successor,
the Marquis Visconti Venosta, who, entering the reconstructed
Pelloux cabinet in May 1899, retained the portfolio of foreign
affairs in the ensuing Saracco administration, and secured the
despatch of an Italian expedition, 2000 strong, to aid in repress-
ing the Chinese outbreak and in protecting Italian interests
in the Far East (July 1000). With characteristic foresight,
Visconti Venosta promoted an exchange of views between Italy
and France in regard to the Tripolitan hinterland, which the
Anglo-French convention of 1899 had placed within the French
sphere of influence — a modification of the status quo ante con-
sidered highly detrimental to Italian aspirations in Tripoli.
For this reason the Anglo-French convention had caused pro-
found irritation in Italy, and had tended somewhat to diminish
the cordiality of Anglo-Italian relations. Visconti Venosta
is believed, however, to have obtained from France a formal
declaration that France would not transgress the limits assigned
to her influence by the convention. Similarly, in regard to
Albania, Visconti Venosta exchanged notes with Austria with
a view to the prevention of any misunderstanding through the
conflict between Italian and Austrian interests in that part of
the Adriatic coast. Upon the fall of the Saracco cabinet (gth
February 1901) Visconti Venosta was succeeded at the foreign
office by Signer Prinetti, a Lombard manufacturer of strong
temperament, but without previous diplomatic experience.
The new minister continued in most respects the policy of his
predecessor. The outset of his administration was marked
by Franco-Italian ffites at Toulon (loth to i4th April 1901),
when the Italian fleet returned a visit paid by the French
Mediterranean squadron to Cagliari in April 1899; and by the
despatch of three Italian warships to Prevesa to obtain satis-
faction for damage done to Italian subjects by Turkish officials.
The Saracco administration, formed after the obstructionist
crisis of 1899-1900 as a cabinet of transition and pacification, was
Zanar- overthrown in February 1901 in consequence of its
dcin- vacillating conduct towards a dock strike at Genoa.
nioiitti It was succeeded by a Zanardelli cabinet, in which the
cabinet. portfolio of the interior was allotted to Giolitti. Com-
posed mainly of elements drawn from the Left, and dependent
for a majority upon the support of the subversive groups of the
Extreme Left, the formation of this cabinet gave the signal for a
vast working-class movement, during which the Socialist party
sought to extend its political influence by means of strikes and
the organization of labour leagues among agricultural labourers
and artisans. The movement was confined chiefly to the
northern and central provinces. During the first six months of
1901 the strikes numbered 600, and involved more than 1,000,000
workmen. (H. W. S.)
G. 1902-1909
In 1901-1902 the social economic condition of Italy was a
matter of grave concern. The strikes and other economic agita-
tions at this time may be divided roughly into three
groups: strikes in industrial centres for higher wages,
shorter hours and better labour conditions generally;
strikes of agricultural labourers in northern Italy for better con-
tracts with the landlords; disturbances among the south Italian
peasantry due to low wages, unemployment (particularly in
Apulia), and the claims of the labourers to public land occupied
illegally by the landlords, combined with local feuds and the
struggle for power of the various influential families. The
prime cause in most cases was the unsatisfactory economic
condition of the working classes, which they realized all the more
vividly for the very improvements that had been made in it,
while education and better communications enabled them to
organize themselves. Unfortunately these genuine grievances
were taken advantage of by the Socialists for their own purposes,
and strikes and disorders were sometimes promoted without
cause and conciliation impeded by outsiders who acted from
motives of personal ambition or profit. Moreover, while many
strikes were quite orderly, the turbulent character of a part of
the Italian people and their hatred of authority often converted
peaceful demands for better conditions into dangerous riots, in
which the dregs of the urban population (known as teppisli or the
mala vita) joined.
Whereas in the past the strikes had been purely local and due
to local conditions, they now appeared of more general and
political character, and the " sympathy " strike came to be a
frequent and undesirable addition to the ordinary economic
agitation. The most serious movement at this time was that of
the railway servants. The agitation had begun some fifteen
years before, and the men had at various times demanded better
pay and shorter hours, often with success. The next demand
was for greater fixity of tenure and more regular promotion, as
well as for the recognition by the companies of the railwaymen's
union. On the 4th of January 1902, the employees of the
Mediterranean railway advanced these demands at a meeting at
Turin, and threatened to strike if they were not satisfied. By the
beginning of February the agitation had spread all over Italy, and
the government was faced by the possibility of a strike which
would paralyse the whole economic life of the country. Then the
Turin gas men struck, and a general " sympathy " strike broke
out in that city in consequence, which resulted in scenes of
violence lasting two days. The government called out all the
railwaymen who were army reservists, but continued to keep
them at their railway work, exercising military discipline over
them and thus ensuring the continuance of the service. At the
same time it mediated between the companies and the employees,
and in June a settlement was formally concluded between the
ministers of public works and of the treasury and the directors of
the companies concerning the grievances of the employees.
One consequence of the agrarian agitations was the increased
use of machinery and the reduction in the number of hands
employed, which if it proved advantageous to the landlord and to
the few labourers retained, who received higher wages, resulted
in an increase of unemployment. The Socialist party, which had
grown powerful under a series of weak-kneed administrations,
now began to show signs of division; on the one hand there was
the revolutionary wing, led by Signer Enrico Ferri, the Mantuan
deputy, which advocated a policy of uncompromising class
warfare, and on the other the riformisti, or moderate Socialists,
led by Signor Filippo Turati, deputy for Milan, who adopted a
more conciliatory attitude and were ready to ally themselves with
other parliamentary parties. Later the division took another
1902-1909]
ITALY
81
aspect, the extreme wing being constituted by the sindacalisti, who
were opposed to all legislative parliamentary action and favoured
only direct revolutionary propaganda by means of the sindacati or
unions which organized strikes and demonstrations. In March
1902 agrarian strikes organized by the leghe broke out in the
district of Copparo and Polesine (lower valley of the Po), owing
to a dispute about the labour contracts, and in Apulia on account
of unemployment. In August there were strikes among the dock
labourers of Genoa and the iron workers of Florence; the latter
agitation developed into a general strike in that city, which
aroused widespread indignation among the orderly part of the
population and ended without any definite result. At Como
15,000 textile workers remained on strike for nearly a month, but
there were no disorders.
The year 1903, although not free from strikes and minor
disturbances, was quieter, but in. September 1904 a very serious
situation was brought about by a general economic
and political agitation. The troubles began with the
1904. disturbances at Buggeru in Sardinia and Castelluzzo in
Sicily, in both of which places the troops were compelled
to use their arms and several persons were killed and wounded;
at a demonstration at Sestri Ponente in Liguria to protest
against what was called the Buggeru " massacre," four cara-
bineers and eleven rioters were injured. The Monza labour
exchange then took the initiative of proclaiming a general strike
throughout Italy (September isth) as a protest against the
government for daring to maintain order. The strike spread to
nearly all the industrial centres, although in many places it was
limited to a few trades. At Milan it was more serious and lasted
longer than elsewhere, as the movement was controlled by the
anarchists under Arturo Labriola; the hooligans committed
many acts of savage violence, especially against those workmen
who refused to strike, and much property was wilfully destroyed.
At Genoa, which was in the hands of the tcppisti for a couple of
days, three persons were killed and 50 wounded, including 14
policemen, and railway communications were interrupted for a
short time. Venice was cut off from the mainland for two days
and all the public services were suspended. Riots broke out also
in Naples, Florence, Rome and Bologna. The deputies of the
Extreme Left, instead of using their influence in favour of
pacification, could think of nothing better than to demand an
immediate convocation of parliament in order that they might
present a bill forbidding the troops and police to use their arms in
all conflicts between capital and labour, whatever the provocation
might be. This preposterous proposal was of course not even
discussed, and the movement caused a strong feeling of reaction
against Socialism and of hostility to the government for its
weakness; for, however much sympathy there might be with the
genuine grievances of the working classes, the September strikes
were of a frankly revolutionary character and had been fomented
by professional agitators and kept going by the dregs of the
people. The mayor of Venice sent a firm and dignified protest to
the government for its inaction, and the people of Liguria raised
a large subscription in favour of the troops, in recognition of
their gallantry and admirable discipline during the troubles.
Early in 1905 there was a fresh agitation among the railway
servants, who were dissatisfied with the clauses concerning
the personnel in the bill for the purchase of the lines
1905. ' by tne state. They initiated a system of obstruction
which hampered and delayed the traffic without alto-
gether suspending it. On the i7th of April a general railway
strike was ordered by the union, but owing to the action of the
authorities, who for once showed energy, the traffic was carried
on. Other disturbances of a serious character occurred among
the steelworkers of Terni, at Grammichele in Sicily and at
Alessandria. The extreme parties now began to direct especial
attention to propaganda in the army, with a view to destroying
its cohesion and thus paralysing the action of the government.
The campaign was conducted on the lines of the anti-militarist
movement in France identified with the name of Herve. Fortu-
nately, however, this policy was not successful, as military service
is less unpopular in Italy than in many other countries; aggressive
militarism is quite unknown, and without it anti-militarism can
gain no foothold. No serious mutinies have ever occurred in
the Italian army, and the only results of the propaganda were
occasional meetings of hooligans, .where Herveist sentiments
were expressed and applauded, and a few minor disturbances
among reservists unexpectedly called back to the colours.
In the army itself the esprit de corps and the sense of duty and
discipline nullified the work of the propagandists.
In June and July 1907 there were again disturbances among
the agricultural labourers of Ferraia and Rovigo, and a wide-
spread strike organized by the leghe throughout those
provinces caused very serious losses to all concerned.
The leghisti, moreover, were guilty of much criminal
violence; they committed one murder and established a veritable
reign of terror, boycotting, beating and wounding numbers of
peaceful labourers who would not join the unions, and brutally
maltreating solitary policemen and soldiers. The authorities,
however, by arresting a number of the more prominent leaders
succeeded in restoring order. Almost immediately afterwards an
agitation of a still less defensible character broke out in various
towns under the guise of anti-clericalism. Certain scandals
had come to light in a small convent school at Greco near Milan.
This was seized upon as a pretext for violent anti-clerical demon-
strations all over Italy and for brutal and unprovoked attacks
on unoffending priests; at Spezia a church was set on fire and
another dismantled, at Marino Cardinal Merry del Val was
attacked by a gang of hooligans, and at Rome the violence of
the teppisti reached such a pitch as to provoke reaction on the
part of all respectable people, and some of the aggressors were
very roughly handled. The Socialists and the Freemasons were
largely responsible for the agitation, and they filled the country
with stories of other priestly and conventual immoralities,
nearly all of which, except the original case at Greco, proved to
be without foundation. In September 1907 disorders in
Apulia over the repartition of communal lands broke out anew,
and were particularly serious at Ruvo, Bari, Cerignola and
Satriano del Colle. In some cases there was foundation for the
labourers' claims, but unfortunately the movement got into the
hands of professional agitators and common swindlers, and
the leader, a certain Giampetruzzi, who at one time seemed to
be a worthy colleague of Marcelin Albert, was afterwards tried
and condemned for having cheated his own followers.
In October 1907 there was again a general strike at Milan,
which was rendered more serious on account of the action of
the railway servants, and extended to other cities; traffic
was disorganized over a large part of northern Italy, until the
government, being now owner of the railways, dismissed the
ringleaders from the service. This had the desired effect, and
although the Sindacato del ferrovieri (railway servants' union)
threatened a general railway strike if the dismissed men were
not reinstated, there was no further trouble. In the spring of
1908 there were agrarian strikes at Parma; the labour contracts
had pressed hardly on the peasantry, who had cause for complaint;
but while some improvement had been effected in the new
contracts, certain unscrupulous demagogues, of whom Alceste
De Ambris, representing the " syndacalist " wing of the Socialist
party, was the chief, organized a widespread agitation. The
landlords on their part organized an agrarian union to defend
their interests and enrolled numbers of non-union labourers to
carry on the necessary work and save the crops. Conflicts
occurred between the strikers and the independent labourers
and the police; the trouble spread to the city of Parma, where
violent scenes occurred when the labour exchange was occupied
by the troops, and many soldiers and policemen, whose behaviour
as usual was exemplary throughout, were seriously wounded.
The agitation ceased in June with the defeat of the strikers,
but not until a vast amount of damage had been done to the
crops and all had suffered heavy losses, including the government,
whose expenses for the maintenance of public order ran into tens
of millions of lire. The failure of the strike caused the Socialists
to quarrel among themselves and to accuse each other of dis-
honesty in the management of party funds; it appeared in fact
82
ITALY
[1902-1909
that the large sums collected throughout Italy on behalf of the
strikers had been squandered or appropriated by the " synda-
calist" leaders. The spirit of indiscipline had begun to reach
the lower classes of state employees, especially the school teachers
and the postal and telegraph clerks, and at one time it seemed
as though the country were about to face a situation similar to
that which arose in France in the spring of 1909. Fortunately,
however, the government, by dismissing the ringleader, Dr
Campanozzi, in time nipped the agitation in the bud, and it
did attempt to redress some of the genuine grievances. Public
opinion upheld the government in its attitude, for all persons
of common sense realized that the suspension of the public
services could not be permitted for a moment in a civilized
country.
In parliamentary politics the most notable event in 1902
was the presentation of a divorce bill by Signer Zanardelli's
government ; this was done not because there was any
real demand for it> but to please the doctrinaire
1902. anti-clericals and freemasons, divorce being regarded
not as a social institution but as a weapon against
Catholicism. But while the majority of the deputies were
nominally in favour of the bill, the parliamentary committee
reported against it, and public opinion was so hostile that an
anti-divorce petition received 3,500,000 signatures, including
not only those of professing Catholics, but of free-thinkers and
Jews, who regarded divorce as unsuitable to Italian conditions.
The opposition outside parliament was in fact so overwhelming
that the ministry decided to drop the bill. The financial situa-
tion continued satisfactory; a new loan at 3^% was voted by
the Chamber in April 1902, and by June the whole of it had been
placed in Italy. In October the rate of exchange was at par,
the premium on gold had disappeared, and by the end of the
year the budget showed a surplus of sixteen millions.
In January 1903 Signer Prinetti, the minister for foreign
affairs, resigned on account of ill-health, and was succeeded by
^^ Admiral Morin, while Admiral Bettolo took the latter's
place as minister of marine. The unpopularity of
the ministry forced Signor Giolitti, the minister of the
interior, to resign (June 1003), and he was followed by Admiral
Bettolo, whose administration had been violently attacked by
the Socialists; in October Signor Zanardelli, the premier,
resigned on account of his health, and the king entrusted the
formation of the cabinet to Signor Giolitti. The latter accepted
the task, and the new administration included Signor Tittoni,
late prefect of Naples, as foreign minister, Signor Luigi Luzzatti,
the eminent financier, at the treasury, General Pedotti at the
war office, and Admiral Mirabello as minister of marine. Almost
immediately after his appointment Signor Tittoni accompanied
the king and queen of Italy on a state visit to France and then
to England, where various international questions were discussed,
and the cordial reception which the royal pair met with in London
and at Windsor served to dispel the small cloud which had arisen
in the relations of the two countries on account of the Tripoli
agreements and the language question in Malta. The premier's
programme was not well received by the Chamber, although
the treasury minister's financial statement was again satisfactory.
The weakness of the government in dealing with the strike riots
caused a feeling of profound dissatisfaction, and the so-called
" experiment of liberty," conducted with the object of conciliat-
ing the extreme parties, proved a dismal failure. In October
1904, after the September strikes, the Chamber was dissolved,
and at the general elections in November a ministerial majority
was returned, while the deputies of the Extreme Left (Socialists,
Republicans and Radicals) were reduced from 107 to 94, and
a few mild clericals elected. The municipal elections in several
of the larger cities, which had hitherto been regarded as strong-
holds of socialism, marked an overwhelming triumph for the
constitutional parties, notably in Milan, Turin and Genoa, for
the strikes had wrought as much harm to the working classes
as to the bourgeoisie. In spite of its majority the Giolitti
cabinet, realizing that it had lost its hold over the country,
resigned in March 1905.
KOS-
1906.
1906-
1909.
Signor Fortis then became premier and minister of the interior,
Signor Maiorano finance minister and Signor Carcano treasury
minister, while Signor Tittoni, Admiral Mirabello
and General Pedotti retained the portfolios they had
held in the previous administration. The new govern-
ment was colourless in the extreme, and the premier's programme
aroused no enthusiasm in the House, the most important bill
presented being that for the purchase of the railways, which was
voted in June 1905. But the ministry never had any real hold
over the country or parliament, and the dissatisfaction caused
by the modus vivendi with Spain, which would have wrought
much injury to the Italian wine-growers, led to demonstrations
and riots, and a hostile vote in the Chamber produced a cabinet
crisis (December 17, 1905); Signor Fortis, however, reconstructed
the ministry, inducing the marquis di San Giuliano to accept the
portfolio of foreign affairs. This last fact was significant, as
the new foreign secretary, a Sicilian deputy and a specialist on
international politics, had hitherto been one of Signor Sonnino's
staunchest adherents; his defection, which was but one of many,
showed that the more prominent members of the Sonnino party
were tired of waiting in vain for their chief's access to power.
Even this cabinet was still-born, and a hostile vote in the Chamber
on the 30th of January 1906 brought about its fall.
Now at last, after waiting so long, Signor Sonnino's hour had
struck, and he became premier for the first time. This result
was most satisfactory to all the best elements in the
country, and great hopes were entertained that the
advent of a rigid and honest statesman would usher
in a new era of Italian parliamentary life. Unfortunately at
the very outset of its career the composition of the new cabinet
proved disappointing; for while such men as Count Guicciardini,
the minister for foreign affairs, and Signor Luzzatti at the
treasury commanded general approval, the choice of Signor
Sacchi as minister of justice and of Signor Pantano as minister
of agriculture and trade, both of them advanced and militant
Radicals, savoured of an unholy compact between the premier
and his erstwhile bitter enemies, which boded ill for the success
of the administration. For this unfortunate combination Signor
Sonnino himself was not altogether to blame; having lost many
of his most faithful followers, who, weary of waiting for office,
had gone over to the enemy, he had been forced to seek support
among men who had professed hostility to the existing order of
things and thus to secure at least the neutrality of the Extreme
Left and make the public realize that the " reddest " of
Socialists, Radicals and Republicans may be tamed and rendered
harmless by the offer of cabinet appointments. A similar
experiment had been tried in France not without success.
Unfortunately in the case of Signor Sonnino public opinion
expected too much and did not take to the idea of such a com-
promise. The new premier's first act was one which cannot be
sufficiently praised: he suppressed all subsidies to journalists,
and although this resulted in bitter attacks against him in the
columns of the " reptile press " it commanded the approval of
all right-thinking men. Signor Sonnino realized, however, that
his majority was not to be counted on: " The country is with
me," he said to a friend, " but the Chamber is against me."
In April 1906 an eruption of Mount Etna caused the destruction
of several villages and much loss of life and damage to property;
in appointing a committee to distribute the relief funds the premier
refused to include any of the deputies of the devastated districts
among its members, and when asked by them for the reason of
this omission, he replied, with a frankness more characteristic
of the man than politic, that he knew they would prove more
solicitous in the distribution of relief for their own electors than
for the real sufferers. A motion presented by the Socialists in
the Chamber for the immediate discussion of a bill to prevent
" the massacres of the proletariate " having been rejected by
an enormous majority, the 28 Socialist deputies resigned their
seats; on presenting themselves for re-election their number
was reduced to 25. A few days later the ministry, having received
an adverse vote on a question of procedure, sent in its resignation
(May 17).
1902-1909]
ITALY
The fall of Signor Sonnino, the disappointment caused by the
non-fulfilment of the expectations to which his advent to power
had given rise throughout Italy and the dearth of influential
statesmen, made the return to power of Signor Giolitti inevitable.
An appeal to the country might have brought about a different
result, but it is said that opposition from the highest quarters
rendered this course practically impossible. The change of
government brought Signor Tittoni back to the foreign office;
Signor Maiorano became treasury minister, General Vigano
minister of war, Signor Cocco Ortu, whose chief claim to con-
sideration was the fact of his being a Sardinian (the island had
rarely been represented in the cabinet) minister of agriculture,
Signor Gianturco of justice, Signor Massimini of finance, Signor
Schanzer of posts and telegraphs and Signor Fusinato of educa-
tion. The new ministry began auspiciously with the conversion
of the public debt from 4% to 3$ %, to be eventually reduced
to 3!%. This operation had been prepared by Signor Luzzatti
under Signor Sonnino's leadership, and although carried out by
Signor Maiorano it was Luzzatti who deservedly reaped the
honour and glory; the bill was presented, discussed and voted
by both Houses on the zpth of June, and by the 7th of July the
conversion was completed most successfully, showing on how
sound a basis Italian finance was now placed. The surplus for
the year amounted to 65,000,0x30 lire. In November Signor
Gianturco died, and Signor Pietro Bertolini took his place as
minister of public works; the latter proved perhaps the ablest
member of the cabinet, but the acceptance of office under Giolitti
of a man who had been one of the most trusted and valuable
lieutenants of Signor Sonnino marked a further step in the
degringolade of that statesman's party, and was attributed to
the fact that Signor Bertolini resented not having had a place
in the late Sonnino ministry. General Vigano was succeeded
in December by Senator Casana, the first civilian to become
minister of war in Italy. He made various reforms which were
badly wanted in army administration, but on the whole the
experiment of a civilian " War Lord " was not a complete
success, and in April 1909 Senator Casana retired and was suc-
ceeded by General Spingardi, an appointment which received
general approval.
The elections of March 1909 returned a chamber very slightly
different from its predecessor. The ministerial majority was
over three hundred, and although the Extreme Left was some-
what increased in numbers it was weakened in tone, and many
of the newly elected " reds " were hardly more than pale pink.
Meanwhile, the relations between Church and State began to
show signs' of change. The chief supporters of the claims of the
papacy to temporal power were the clericals of France
sad state. anc^ Austria, but in the former country they had lost
all influence, and the situation between the Church and
the government was becoming every day more strained.
With the rebellion of her " Eldest Daughter," the Roman
Church could not continue in her old attitude of uncompromising
hostility towards United Italy, and the Vatican began to realize
the folly of placing every Italian in the dilemma of being either a
good Italian or a good Catholic, when the majority wished to be
both. Outside of Rome relations between the clergy and the
authorities were as a rule quite cordial, and in May 1903 Cardinal
Sarto, the patriarch of Venice, asked for and obtained an audience
with the king when he visited that city, and the meeting which
followed was of a very friendly character. In July following Leo
XIII. died, and that same Cardinal Sarto became pope under the
style of Pius X. The new pontiff, although nominally upholding
the claims of the temporal power, in practice attached but little
importance to it. At the elections for the local bodies the
Catholics had already been permitted to vote, and, availing
themselves of the privilege, they gained seats in many municipal
councils and obtained the majority in some. At the general
parliamentary elections of 1904 a few Catholics had been elected
as such, and the encyclical of the i ith of June 1905 on the political
organization of the Catholics, practically abolished the non
exped.it. In September of that year a number of reb'gious institu-
tions in the Near East, formerly under the protectorate of the
French government, in view of the rupture between Church and
State in France, formally asked to be placed under Italian pro-
tection, which was granted in January 1907. The situation thus
became the very reverse of what it had been in Crispi's time,
when the French government, even when anti-clerical, protected
the Catholic Church abroad for political purposes, whereas the
conflict between Church and State in Italy extended to foreign
countries, to the detriment of Italian political interests. A more
difficult question was that of religious education in the public
elementary schools. Signor Giolitti wished to conciliate the
Vatican by facilitating religious education, which was desired
by the majority of the parents, but he did not wish to offend the
Freemasons and other anti-clericals too much, as they could
always give trouble at awkward moments. Consequently the
minister of education, Signor Rava, concocted a body of rules
which, it was hoped, would satisfy every one: religious instruction
was to be maintained as a necessary part of the curriculum, but
in communes where the majority of the municipal councillors
were opposed to it it might be suppressed; the council in that
case must, however, facilitate the teaching of religion to those
children whose parents desire it. In practice, however, when the
council has suppressed religious instruction no such facilities are
given. At the general elections of March 1909, over a score of
Clerical deputies were returned, Clericals of a very mild tone who
had no thought of the temporal power and were supporters of the
monarchy and anti-socialists; where no Clerical candidate was
in the field the Catholic voters plumped for the constitutional
candidate against all representatives of the Extreme Left. On
the other hand, the attitude of the Vatican towards Liberalism
within the Church was one of uncompromising reaction, and
under the new pope the doctrines of Christian Democracy and
Modernism were condemned in no uncertain tone. Don Romolo
Murri, the Christian Democratic leader, who exercised much
influence over the younger and more progressive clergy, having
been severely censured by the Vatican, made formal submission,
and declared his intention of retiring from the struggle. But he
appeared again on the scene in the general elections of 1909, as a
Christian Democratic candidate; he was elected, and alone of the
Catholic deputies took his seat in the Chamber on the Extreme
Left, where all his neighbours were violent anti-clericals.
At 5 A.M. on the 28th of December 1908, an earthquake of
appalling severity shook the whole of southern Calabria and the
eastern part of Sicily, completely destroying the cities Barth-
of Reggio and Messina, the smaller towns of Canitello, quake of
Scilla, Villa San Giovanni, Bagnara, Palmi, Melito, °££mber
Porto Salvo and Santa Eufemia, as well as a large
number of villages. In the case of Messina the horror of the
situation was heightened by a tidal wave. The catastrophe was
the greatest of its kind that has ever occurred in any country;
the number of persons killed was approximately 150,000, while
the injured were beyond calculation.
The characteristic feature of Italy's foreign relations during
this period was the weakening of the bonds of the Triple Alliance
and the improved relations with France, while the
traditional friendship with England remained un-
impaired. Franco-Italian friendship was officially
cemented by the visit of King Victor Emmanuel and Queen
Elena in October 1903 to Paris where they received a very cordial
welcome. The visit was returned in April 1904 when M.
Loubet, the French president, came to Rome; this action was
strongly resented by the pope, who, like his predecessor since
1870, objected to the presence of foreign Catholic rulers in Rome,
and led to the final rupture between France and the Vatican.
The Franco-Italian understanding had the effect of raising
Italy's credit, and the Italian rente, which had been shut out
of the French bourses, resumed its place there once more, a fact
which contributed to increase its price and to reduce the unfavour-
able rate of exchange. That agreement also served to clear up
the situation in Tripoli; while Italian aspirations towards
Tunisia had been ended by the French occupation of that
territory, Tripoli and Bengazi were now recognized as coming
within the Italian " sphere of influence." The Tripoli hinterland,
ITALY
[1902-1909
however, was in danger of being absorbed by other powers
having large African interests; the Anglo-French declaration
of the zist of March 1899 in particular seemed likely to interfere
with Italian activity.
The Triple Alliance was maintained and renewed as far as
paper documents were concerned (in June 1902 it was reconfirmed
for 12 years), but public opinion was no longer so favourably
disposed towards it. Austria's petty persecutions of her Italian
subjects in the irredente provinces, her active propaganda
incompatible with Italian interests in the Balkans, and the anti-
Italian war talk of Austrian military circles, imperilled the
relations of the two " allies "; it was remarked, indeed, that the
object of the alliance between Austria and Italy was to prevent
war between them. Austria had persistently adopted a policy
of pin-pricks and aggravating police provocation towards the
Italians of the Adriatic Littoral and of the Trentino, while
encouraging the Slavonic element in the former and the Germans
in the latter. One of the causes of ill-feeling was the university
question; the Austrian government had persistently refused
to create an Italian university for its Italian subjects, fearing
lest it should become a hotbed of " irredentism," the Italian-
speaking students being thus obliged to attend the German-
Austrian universities. An attempt at compromise resulted in
the institution of an Italian law faculty at Innsbruck, but this
aroused the violent hostility of the German students and populace,
who gave proof of their superior civilization by an unprovoked
attack on the Italians in October 1902. Further acts of violence
were committed by the Germans in 1903, which led to anti-
Austrian demonstrations in Italy. The worst tumults occurred
in November 1904, when Italian students and professors were
attacked at Innsbruck without provocation; being outnumbered
by a hundred to one the Italians were forced to use their revolvers
in self-defence, and several persons were wounded on both sides.
Anti-Italian demonstrations occurred periodically also at Vienna,
while in Dalmatia and Croatia Italian fishermen and workmen
(Italian citizens, not natives) were subject to attacks by gangs
of half-savage Croats, which led to frequent diplomatic " inci-
dents." A further cause of resentment was Austria's attitude
towards the Vatican, inspired by the strong clerical tendencies
of the imperial family, and indeed of a large section of the
Austrian people. But the most serious point at issue was the
Balkan question. Italian public opinion could not view without
serious misgivings the active political propaganda which Austria
was conducting in Albania. The two governments frequently
discussed the situation, but although they had agreed to a self-
denying ordinance whereby each bound itself not to occupy any
part of Albanian territory, Austria's declarations and promises
were hardly borne out by the activity of her agents in the Balkans.
Italy, therefore, instituted a counter-propaganda by means of
schools and commercial agencies. The Macedonian troubles of
1903 again brought Austria and Italy into conflict. The accept-
ance by the powers of the Miirzsteg programme and the appoint-
ment of Austrian and Russian financial agents in Macedonia
was an advantage for Austria and a set-back for Italy; but the
latter scored a success in the appointment of General de Giorgis
as commander of the international Macedonian gendarmerie;
she also obtained, with the support of Great Britain, France
and Russia, the assignment of the partly Albanian district of
Monastir to the Italian officers of that corps.
In October 1908 came the bombshell of the Austrian annexa-
tion of Bosnia, announced to King Victor Emmanuel and to
other rulers by autograph letters from the emperor-king. The
news caused the most widespread sensation, and public opinion
in Italy was greatly agitated at what it regarded as an act of
brigandage on the part of Austria, when Signor Tittoni in a speech
at Carate Brianza (October 6th) declared that " Italy might await
events with serenity, and that these could find her neither unpre-
pared nor isolated." These words were taken to mean that Italy
would receive compensation to restore the balance of power
upset in Austria's favour. When it was found that there was
to be no direct compensation for Italy a storm of indignation
was aroused against Austria, and also against Signor Tittoni.
On the 29th of October, however, Austria abandoned her
military posts in the sandjak of Novibazar, and the frontier
between Austria and Turkey, formerly an uncertain one, which
left Austria a half-open back door to the Aegean, was now a
distinct line of demarcation. Thus the danger of a " pacific
penetration " of Macedonia by Austria became more remote.
Austria also gave way on another point, renouncing her right to
police the Montenegrin coast and to prevent Montenegro from
having warships of its own (paragraphs 5, 6 and n of art. 29 of
the Berlin Treaty) in a note presented to the Italian foreign
office on the I2th of April 1909. Italy had developed some
important commercial interests in Montenegro, and anything
which strengthened the position of that principality was a
guarantee against further Austrian encroachments. The harbour
works in the Montenegrin port of Antivari, commenced in
March 1905 and completed early in 1909, were an Italian
concern, and Italy became a party to the agreement for the
Danube-Adriatic Railway (June 2, 1908) together with Russia,
France and Servia; Italy was to contribute 35,000,000 lire out
of a total capital of 100,000,000, and to be represented by four
directors out of twelve. But the whole episode was a warning
to Italy, and the result was a national movement for security.
Credits for the army and navy were voted almost without a
dissentient voice; new battleships were laid down, the strength
of the army was increased, and the defences of the exposed
eastern border were strengthened. It was clear that so long as
Austria, bribed by Germany, could act in a way so opposed to
Italian interests in the Balkans, the Triple Alliance was a
mockery, and Italy could only meet the situation by being
prepared for all contingencies.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — It is difficult to indicate in a short space the
most important sources of general Italian history. Muratori's great
collection, the Rerum Italicarum scriptores, in combination with his
Dissertationes, the chronicles and other historical material published
by the Archivio Storico Italiano, and the works of detached annalists
of whom the Villani are the most notable, take first rank. Next we
may mention Muratori's Annali d' Italia, together with Guicciardini's
Storia d' Italia and its modern continuation by Carlo Botta. Among
the more recent contributions S. de Sismpndi's Republiques italiennes
(Brussels, 1838) and Carlo Troya's Storia d' Italia nel media evo are
among the most valuable general works, while the large Storia
Politico d' Italia by various authors, published at Milan, is also im-
portant— F. Bertolini, / Barbari; F. Lanzani, Storia dei comuni
italiani dalle originijft.no al 1313 (1882); C. Cipolla, Storia delle
Signorie Italiane dal 1313 al 1530 (1881); A. Cosci, L' Italia durante
le preponderant straniere, 1530-1789 (1875); A. Franchetti, Storia
d' Italia dal 1780 al 1799 ; G. de Castro, Storia d' Italia dal 1789 al
1814 (1881). For the beginnings of Italian history the chief works
are T. Hodgkin's Italy and her Invaders (Oxford, 1892-1899) and
P. yillari's Le Invasioni barbariche (Milan, 1900), both based on
original research and sound scholarship. The period from 1494 to
modern times is dealt with in various volumes of the Cambridge
Modern History, especially in vol. i., " The Renaissance," which
contains valuable bibliographies. Giuseppe Ferrari's Rivoluzioni
d' Italia (1858) deserves notice as a work of singular vigour, though
no great scientific importance, and Cesare Balbo's Sommario .
(Florence, 1856) presents the main outlines of the subject with
brevity and clearness. For the period of the French revolution and
the Napoleonic wars see F. Lemmi's Le Origini del risorgimento
italiano (Milan, 1906); E. Bonnal de Ganges, La Chute d'une re-
publique [Venise] (Paris, 1885); D. Carutti, Storia della corte di
Savota durante la rivoluzione e I' impero francese (2 vols., Turin,
1892); G. de Castro, Storia d' Italia dal 1797 al 1814 (Milan, 1881);
A. Dufourcq, Le Regime jacobin en Italie, 1796-1799 (Paris, 1900) ;
A. Franchetti, Storia d' Italia dal 1789 al 1799 (Milan, 1878); P.
Gaffarel, Bonaparte el les republiques italiennes (1796-1799) (Paris,
1895); R. M. Johnston, The Napoleonic Empire in Southern Italy
(2 vols., with full bibliography, London, 1904); E. Ramondini,
L' Italia durante la dominazione francese (Naples, 1882); E. Ruth,
Geschichte des italienischen Volkes unter der napoleonischen Herrschaft
(Leipzig, 1859). For modern times, see Bolton King's History of
Italian Unity (1899) and Bolton King and Thomas Okey's Italy
To-day (1901). With regard to the history of separate provinces it
may suffice to notice N. Machiavelli's Storia fiorentina, B. Corio's
Storia di Milano, G. Capponi's Storia della repubblica di Firenze
(Florence, 1875), P. Villari s / primi due secoli della storia di Firenze
(Florence, 1905), F. Pagano's Istoria del regno di Napoli (Palermo-
Naples, 1832, &c.), P. Rqmanin's Storia documentata di Venezia
(Venice, 1853), M. Amari's Musulmani di Sicilia (1854-1875),
F. Gregorovius's Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Stuttgart, 1881), A. von
Reumont's Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Berlin, 1867), L. Cibrark/s
Storia della monarchia piemontese (Turin, 1840), and D. Carutti's
ITEM— ITINERARIUM
Storia della diplomazia della corle di Savoia (Rome, 1875). The
Archivii storici and Deputazioni di storia patria of the various Italian
towns and provinces contain a great deal of valuable material for
local history. From the point of view of papal history, L. von
Ranke's History of the Popes (English edition, London, 1870), M.
Creighton's History of the Papacy (London, 1897) and L. Pastor's
GeschichtederPapste (Freiburg i. B., 1886- 1896), should be mentioned.
From the point of view of general culture, Jacob Burckhardt's
Cullur der Renaissance in Italien (Basel, 1860), E. Guinet's Revolu-
tions d'ltalie (Paris, 1857), and J. A. Symonds's Renaissance in Italy
(5 vols., London, 1875, &c.) should be consulted. . (L. V.*)
ITEM (a Latin adverb meaning " also," " likewise "), originally
used adverbially in English at the beginning of each separate
head in a list of articles, or each detail in an account book or
ledger or in a legal document. The word is thus applied, as a
noun, to the various heads in any such enumeration and also
to a piece of information or news.
ITHACA ('Waiai), vulgarly Thiaki (610107), next to Paxo
the smallest of the seven Ionian Islands, with an area of about
44 sq. m. It forms an eparchy of the nomos of Cephalonia in
the kingdom of Greece, and its population, which was 9873 in
1870, is now about 13,000. The island consists of two mountain
masses, connected by a narrow isthmus of hills, and separated
by a wide inlet of the sea known as the Gulf of Molo. Thenorthern
and greater mass culminates in the heights of Anoi (2650 ft.),
and the southern in Hagios Stephanos, or Mount Merovigli
(2100 ft.). Vathy (Bo0ii="deep "), the chief town and port
of the island, lies at the northern foot of Mount Stephanos,
its whitewashed houses stretching for about a mile round the
deep bay in the Gulf of Molo, to which it owes its name. As
there are only one or two small stretches of arable land in Ithaca,
the inhabitants are dependent on commerce for their grain
supply; and olive oil, wine and currants are the principal
products obtained by the cultivation of the thin stratum of
soil that covers the calcareous rocks. Goats are fed in con-
siderable number on the brushwood pasture of the hills; and
hares (in spite of Aristotle's supposed assertion of their absence)
are exceptionally abundant. The island is divided into four
districts: Vathy, Aeto (or Eagle's Cliff), Anoge (Anoi) or
Upland, and Exoge (Exoi) or Outland.
The name has remained attached to the island from the
earliest historical times with but little interruption of the tradi-
tion; though in Brompton's travels (izth century) and in the
old Venetian maps we find it called Fale or Val de Compar, and
at a later date it not unfrequently appears as Little Cephalonia.
This last name indicates the general character of Ithacan history
(if history it can be called) in modern and indeed in ancient times;
for the fame of the island is almost solely due to its position
in the Homeric story of Odysseus. Ithaca, according to the
Homeric epos, was the royal seat and residence of King Odysseus.
The island is incidentally described with no small variety of
detail, picturesque and topographical; the Homeric localities
for which counterparts have been sought are Mount Neritos,
Mount Neion, the harbour of Phorcys, the town and palace of
Odysseus, the fountain of Arethusa, the cave of the Naiads, the
stalls of the swineherd Eumaeus, the orchard of Laertes, the
Korax or Raven Cliff and the island Asteris, where the suitors
lay in ambush for Telemachus. Among the " identificationists "
there are two schools, one placing the town at Polis on the west
coast in the northern half of the island (Leake, Gladstone, &c.),
and the other at Aeto on the isthmus. The latter site, which
was advocated by Sir William Gell (Topography and Antiquities
of Ithaca, London, 1807), was supported by Dr H. Schliemann,
who carried on excavations in 1873 and 1878 (seeH. Schliemann,
Ithaque, le Peloponnese, Troie, Paris, 1869, also published in
German; his letter to The Times, 26th of September, 1878;
and the author's life prefixed to Ilios, London, 1880). But
his results were mainly negative. The fact is that no amount
of ingenuity can reconcile the descriptions given in the Odyssey
with the actual topography of this island. Above all, the passage
in which the position of Ithaca is described offers great difficulties.
" Now Ithaca lies low, farthest up the sea line towards the
darkness, but those others face the dawning and the sun "
(Butcher and Lang). Such a passage fits very ill an island
lying, as Ithaca does, just to the east of Cephalonia. Accordingly
Professor W. Dorpfeld has suggested that the Homeric Ithaca
is not the island which was called Ithaca by the later Greeks,
but must be identified with Leucas (Santa Maura, q.v.). He
succeeds in fitting the Homeric topography to this latter island,
and suggests that the name may have been transferred in con-
sequence of a migration of the inhabitants. There is no doubt
that Leucas fits the Homeric descriptions much better than
Ithaca; but, on the other hand, many scholars maintain that
it is a mistake to treat the imaginary descriptions of a poet as
if they were portions of a guide-book, or to look, in the author
of the Odyssey, for a close familiarity with the geography of the
Ionian islands.
See, besides the works already referred to, the separate works on
Ithaca by Schreiber (Leipzig, 1829); Ruhle von Lilienstern (Berlin,
1832); N. Karavias Grivas ('laropla rijs rfaov 'Waniis) (Athens,
1849); Bowen (London, 1851); and Gandar, (Paris, 1854); Hercher,
in Hermes (1866); Leake's Northern Greece; Mure's Tour in Greece;
Bursian's Geogr. von Griechenland; Gladstone, "The Dominions of
Ulysses," in Macmillan's Magazine (1877). A history of the discus-
sions will be found in Buchholz, Die Homerischen Realien (Leipzig
1871); Partsch, Kephallenia und Ithaka (1890); W. Dorpfeld in
Melanges Perrot, pp. 79-93 (1903); P. Goessler, Leukas-Ithaka
(Stuttgart, 1904). (E. GR.)
ITHACA, a city and the county-seat of Tompkins county,
New York, U.S.A., at the southern end of Cayuga Lake, 60 m.
S.W. of Syracuse. Pop. (1890) 11,079, (190°) 13,136, of whom
1310 were foreign-born, (1910 census) 14,802. It is served
by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western and the Lehigh
Valley railways and by interurban electric line; and steam-
boats ply on the lake. Most of the city is in the level valley,
from which it spreads up the heights on the south, east and
west. The finest residential district is East Hill, particularly
Cornell and Cayuga Heights (across Fall Creek from the Cornell
campus). Renwick Beach, at the head of the lake, is a pleasure
resort. The neighbouring region is one of much beauty, and is
frequented by summer tourists. Near the city are many water-
falls, the most notable being Taughannock Falls (9 m. N.), with
a fall of 215 ft. Through the city from the east run Fall, Cas-
cadilla and Six Mile Creeks, the first two of which have cut
deep gorges and have a number of cascades and waterfalls,
the largest, Ithaca Fall in Fall Creek, being 120 ft. high. Six
Mile Creek crosses the south side of the city and empties into
Cayuga Inlet, which crosses the western and lower districts,
often inundated in the spring. The Inlet receives the waters of
a number of small streams descending from the south-western
hills. Among the attractions in this direction are Buttermilk
Falls and ravine, on the outskirts of the city, Lick Brook Falls
and glen and Enfield Falls and glen, the last 7 m. distant.
Fall Creek furnishes good water-power. The city has various
manufactures, including fire-arms, calendar clocks, traction
engines, electrical appliances, patent chains, incubators, auto-
phones, artesian well drills, salt, cement, window glass and wall-
paper. The value of the factory product increased from
$1,500,604 in 1900 to $2,080,002 in 1905, or 38-6%. Ithaca
is also a farming centre and coal market, and much fruit is grown
in the vicinity. The city is best known as the seat of Cornell
University (q.v.). It has also the Ezra Cornell Free Library
of about 28,000 volumes, the Ithaca Conservatory of Music,
the Cascadilla School and the Ithaca High School. Ithaca
was settled about 1789, the name being given to it by Simeon
De Witt in 1806. It was incorporated as a village in 1821, and
was chartered as a city in 1888. At Buttermilk Falls stood
the principal village of the Tutelo Indians, Coreorgonel,
settled in 1753 and destroyed in 1779 by a detachment of
Sullivan's force.
ITINERARIUM (i.e. road-book, from Lat. iter, road), a term
applied to the extant descriptions of the ancient Roman roads
and routes of traffic, with the stations and distances. It is
usual to distinguish two classes of these, Ilineraria adnolata or
scripta and Ilineraria picta — the former having the character
of a book, and the latter being a kind of travelling map. Of
the Itineraria Scripta the most important are: (i) It. Anlonini
(see ANTONINI ITINERARIUM), which consists of two parts, the
86
ITIUS PORTUS— ITRI
one dealing with roads in Europe, Asia and Africa, and the other
with familiar sea-routes — the distances usually being measured
from Rome; (2) //. Hierosolymitanum or Burdigalense, which
belongs to the 4th century, and contains the route of a pilgrimage
from Bordeaux to Jerusalem and from Heraclea by Rome to
Milan (ed. G. Parthey and M. Finder, 1848, with the Itinerarium
Antonini); (3) It. Alexandri, containing a sketch of the march-
route of Alexander the Great, mainly derived from Arrian and
prepared for Constantius's expedition in A.D. 340-345 against
the Persians (ed. D. Volkmann, 1871). A collected edition of
the ancient itineraria, with ten maps, was issued by Portia
d'Urban, Recueil des itintraires anciens (1845). Of the Itineraria
Picta only one great example has been preserved. This is the
famous Tabula Peutingeriana, which, without attending to the
shape or relative position of the countries, represents by straight
lines and dots of various sizes the roads and towns of the whole
Roman world (facsimile published by K. Miller, 1888; see also
MAP).
ITIUS PORTUS, the name given by Caesar to the chief harbour
which he used when embarking for his second expedition to
Britain in 54 B.C. (De bello Gallico, v. 2). It was certainly
near the uplands round Cape Grisnez (Promuntorium Ilium),
but the exact site has been violently disputed ever since the
renaissance of learning. Many critics have assumed that Caesar
used the same port for his first expedition, but the name does not
appear at all in that connexion (B. G. iv. 21-23). This fact,
coupled with other considerations, makes it probable that the
two expeditions started from different places. It is generally
agreed that the first embarked at Boulogne. The same view
was widely held about the second, but T. Rice Holmes in an
article in the Classical Review (May 1909) gave strong reasons
for preferring Wissant, 4 m. east of Grisnez. The chief reason is
that Caesar, having found he could not set sail from the small
harbour of Boulogne with even 80 ships simultaneously, decided
that he must take another point for the sailing of the " more
than 800 " ships of the second expedition. Holmes argues
that, allowing for change in the foreshore since Caesar's time,
800 specially built ships could have been hauled above the
highest spring-tide level, and afterwards launched simultaneously
at Wissant, which would therefore have been " commodissimus ".
(v. 2) or opposed to " brevissimus traiectus " (iv. 21).
See T. R. Holmes in Classical Review (May 1909), in which he
partially revises the conclusions at which he arrived in his Ancient
Britain (1907), pp. 552-594; that the first expedition started from
Boulogne is accepted, e.g. by H. Stuart Jones, in English Historical
Review (1909), xxiv. 115; other authorities in Holmes's article.
ITO, HIROBUMI, PRINCE (1841-1909), Japanese statesman,
was born in 1841, being the son of Ito JflzO, and (like his father)
began life as a retainer of the lord of Choshu, one of the most
powerful nobles of Japan. Choshu, in common with many of his
fellow Daimyos, was bitterly opposed to the rule of the sh6gun
or tycoon, and when this rule resulted in the conclusion of the
treaty with Commodore M. C. Perry in 1854, the smouldering
discontent broke out into open hostility against both parties
to the compact. In these views Ito cordially agreed with
his chieftain, and was sent on a secret mission to Yedo to report
to his lord on the doings of the government. This visit had the
effect of causing Ito to turn his attention seriously to the study
of the British and of other military systems. As a result he
persuaded Choshu to remodel his army, and to exchange the
bows and arrows of his men for guns and rifles.' But Ito felt
that his knowledge of foreigners, if it was to be thorough, should
be sought for in Europe, and with the connivance of Choshu he,
in company with Inouye and three other young men of the same
rank as himself, determined to risk their lives by committing
the then capital offence of visiting a foreign country. With great
secrecy they made their way to Nagasaki, where they concluded
an arrangement with the agent of Messrs Jardine, Matheson & Co.
for passages on board a vessel which was about to sail for
Shanghai (1863). At that port the adventurers separated, three
of their number taking ship as passengers to London, while Ito
and Inouye preferred to work their passages before the mast
in the " Pegasus," bound for the same destination. For a year these
two friends remained in London studying English methods,
but then events occurred in Japan which recalled them to theii
country. The treaties lately concluded by the shdgun with the
foreign powers conceded the right to navigate the strait of
Shimonoseki, leading to the Inland Sea. On the northern shores
of this strait stretched the feudal state ruled over by Prince
Choshu, who refused to recognize the clause opening the strait,
and erected batteries on the shore, from which he opened fire
on all ships which attempted to force the passage. The shogun
having declared himself unable in the circumstances to give effect
to the provision, the treaty powers determined to take the
matter into their own hands. Ito, who was better aware than
his chief of the disproportion between the fighting powers of
Europe and Japan, memorialized the cabinets, begging that
hostilities should be suspended until he should have had time to
use his influence with Choshu in the interests of peace. With
this object Ito hurried back to Japan. But his efforts were
futile. Choshu refused to give way, and suffered the conse-
quences of his obstinacy in the destruction of his batteries and
in the infliction of a heavy fine. The part played by Ito in these
negotiations aroused the animosity of the more reactionary of
his fellow-clansmen, who made repeated attempts to assassinate
him. On one notable occasion he was pursued by his enemies
into a tea-house, where he was concealed by a young lady beneath
the floor of her room. Thus began a romantic acquaintance,
which ended in the lady becoming the wife of the fugitive.
Subsequently (1868) Ito was made governor of Hiogo, and in the
course of the following year became vice-minister of finance.
In 1871 he accompanied Iwakura on an important mission to
Europe, which, though diplomatically a failure, resulted in the
enlistment of the services of European authorities on military,
naval and educational systems.
After his return to Japan Ito served in several cabinets as
head of the bureau of engineering and mines, and in 1886 he
accepted office as prime minister, a post which, when he resigned
in 1901, he had held four times. In 1882 he was sent on a
mission to Europe to study the various forms of constitutional
government; on this occasion he attended the coronation of the
tsar Alexander III. On his return to Japan he was entrusted
with the arduous duty of drafting a constitution. In 1890 he
reaped the fruits of his labours, and nine years later he was
destined to witness the abrogation of the old treaties, and the
substitution in their place of conventions which place Japan on
terms of equality with the European states. In all the great
reforms in the Land of the Rising Sun Ito played a leading part.
It was mainly due to his active interest in military and naval
affairs that he was able to meet Li Hung-chang at the end of
the Chinese and Japanese War (1895) as the representative of
the conquering state, and the conclusion of the Anglo- Japanese
Alliance in 1902 testified to his triumphant success in raising
Japan to the first rank among civilized powers. As a reward for
his conspicuous services in connexion with the Chinese War Ito
was made a marquis, and in 1897 he accompanied Prince Arisu-
gawa as a joint representative of the Mikado at the Diamond
Jubilee of Queen Victoria. At the close of 1901 he again, though
in an unofficial capacity, visited Europe and the United States;
and in England he was created a G.C.B. After the Russo-
Japanese War (1905) he was appointed resident general in Korea,
and in that capacity he was responsible for the steps taken to
increase Japanese influence in that country. In September
1907 he was advanced to the rank of prince. He retired from
his post in Korea in July 1909, and became president of the
privy council in Japan. But on the 26th of October,
when on a visit to Harbin, he was shot dead by a Korean
assassin.
He is to be distinguished from Admiral Count Yuko Ito (b. 1843),
the distinguished naval commander.
ITRI, a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta,
6 m. by road N.W. of Formia. Pop. (1901) 5797. The town is
picturesquely situated 690 ft. above sea-level, in the mountains
which the Via Appia traverses between Fondi and Formia.
ITURBIDE— IVAN
87
Interesting remains of the substruction wall supporting the
ancient road are preserved in Itri itself; and there are many
remains of ancient buildings near it. The brigand Fra Diavolo,
the hero of Auber's opera, was a native of Itri, and the place
was once noted for brigandage.
ITURBIDE (or YTURBIDE), AUGUSTIN DE (1783-1824),
emperor of Mexico from May 1822 to March 1823, was born on
the 27th of September 1783, at Valladolid, now Morelia, in
Mexico, where his father, an Old Spaniard from Pampeluna,
had settled with his Creole wife. After enjoying'a better educa-
tion than was then usual in Mexico, Iturbide entered the military
service, and in 1810 held the post of lieutenant in the provincial
regiment of his native city. In that year the insurrection under
Hidalgo broke out, and Iturbide, more from policy, it would seem,
than from principle, served in the royal army. Possessed of
splendid courage and brilliant military talents, which fitted him
especially for guerilla warfare, the young Creole did signal service,
• and rapidly rose in military rank. In December 1813 Colonel
Iturbide, along with General Llano, dealt a crushing blow to
the revolt by defeating Morelos, the successor of Hidalgo, in the
battle of Valladolid; and the former followed it up by another
decisive victory at Puruaran in January 1814. Next year Don
Augustin was appointed to the command of the army of the north
and to the governorship of the provinces of Valladolid and
Guanajuato, but in 1816 grave charges of extortion and violence
were brought against him, which led to his recall. Although
the general was acquitted, or at least although the inquiry was
dropped, he did not resume his commands, but retired into private
life for four years, which, we are told, he spent in a rigid course
of penance for his former excesses. In 1820 Apodaca, viceroy
of Mexico, received instructions from the Spanish cortes to
proclaim the constitution promulgated in Spain in 1812, but
although obliged at first to submit to an order by which his
power was much curtailed, he secretly cherished the design of
reviving the absolute power for Ferdinand VII. in Mexico.
Under pretext of putting down the lingering remains of revolt,
he levied troops, and, placing Iturbide at their head, instructed
him to proclaim the absolute power of the king. Four years of
reflection, however, had modified the general's views, and now,
led both by personal ambition and by patriotic regard for his
country, Iturbide resolved to espouse the cause of national
independence. His subsequent proceedings — how he issued the
Plan of Iguala, on the 24th of February 1821, how by the refusal
of the Spanish cortes to ratify the treaty of Cordova, which he
had signed with O'Donoju, he was transformed from a mere
champion of monarchy into a candidate for the crown, and how,
hailed by the soldiers as Emperor Augustin I. on the i8th of
May 1822, he was compelled within ten months, by his arrogant
neglect of constitutional restraints, to tender his abdication to
a congress which he had forcibly dissolved — will be found
detailed under MEXICO. Although the congress refused to accept
his abdication on the ground that to do so would be to recognize
the validity of his election, it permitted the ex-emperor to retire
to Leghorn in Italy, while in consideration of his services in 1820
a yearly pension of £5000 was conferred upon him. But Iturbide
resolved to make one more bid for power; and in 1824, passing
from Leghorn to London, he published a Statement, and on the
1 1 th of May set sail for Mexico. The congress immediately issued
an act of outlawry against him, forbidding him to set foot on
Mexican soil on pain of death. Ignorant of this, the ex-emperor
landed in disguise at Soto la Marina on the I4th of July. He was
almost immediately recognized and arrested, and on the igth of
July 1824 was shot at Padilla, by order of the state of Tamaulipas,
without being permitted an appeal to the general congress.
Don Augustin de Iturbide is described by his contemporaries
as being of handsome figure and ingratiating manner. His
brilliant courage and wonderful success made him the idol of
his soldiers, though towards his prisoners he displayed the most
cold-blooded cruelty, boasting in one of his despatches of having
honoured Good Friday by shooting three hundred excommuni-
cated wretches. Though described as amiable in his private
life, he seems in his public career to have been ambitious and
unscrupulous, and by his haughty Spanish temper, impatient
of all resistance or control, to have forfeited the opportunity
of founding a secure imperial dynasty. His grandson Augustin
was chosen by the ill-fated emperor Maximilian as his successor.
See Statement of some of the principal events in the public life of
Augustin de Iturbide, written by himself (Eng. trans., 1824).
ITZA, an American-Indian people of Mayan stock, inhabiting
the country around Lake Peten in northern Guatemala. Chichen-
Itza, among the most wonderful of the ruined cities of Yucatan,
was the capital of the Itzas. Thence, according to their traditions
they removed, on the breaking up of the Mayan kingdom in 1420,
to an island in the lake where another city was built. Cortes
met them in 1525, but they preserved their independence till
1697, when the Spaniards destroyed the city and temples, and a
library of sacred books, written in hieroglyphics on bark fibre.
The Itzas were one of the eighteen semi-independent Maya
states, whose incessant internecine wars at length brought
about the dismemberment of the empire of Xibalba and the
destruction of Mayan civilization.
ITZEHOE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Schleswig-Holstein, on the Stor, a navigable tributary of the
Elbe, 3 2m. north-west of Hamburg and 15 m. north of Gluckstadt.
Pop. (1900) 15,649. The church of St Lawrence, dating from
the 1 2th century, and the building in which the Holstein estates
formerly met, are noteworthy. The town has a convent founded
in 1256, a high school, a hospital and other benevolent institu-
tions. Itzehoe is a busy commercial place. Its sugar refineries
are among the largest in Germany. Ironfounding, shipbuilding
and wool-spinning are also carried on, and the manufactures
include machinery, tobacco, fishing-nets, chicory, soap, cement
and beer. Fishing employs some of the inhabitants, and the
markets for cattle and horses are important. A considerable
trade is carried on in agricultural products and wood, chiefly
with Hamburg and Altona.
Itzehoe is the oldest town in Holstein. Its nucleus was a
castle, built in 809 by Egbert, one of Charlemagne's counts,
against the Danes. The community which sprang up around
it was diversely called Esseveldoburg, Eselsfleth and Ezeho.
In 1201 the town was destroyed, but it was restored in 1224. To
the new town the Liibeck rights were granted by Adolphus IV.
in 1 238, and to the old town in 1303. During the Thirty
Years' War Itzehoe was twice destroyed by the Swedes, in 1644
and 1657, but was rebuilt on each occasion. It passed to Prussia
in i867,with the duchy of Schleswig-Holstein.
IUKA, the county-seat of Tishomingo county, Mississippi,
U.S.A., about 25 m. S.E. of Corinth in the N.E. corner of the
state and 8 m. S. of the Tennessee river. Pop. (1900) 882;
(1910) 1221. It is served by the Southern railway, and has
a considerable trade in cotton and farm products. Its mineral
springs make it a health resort. In the American Civil War,
a Confederate force under General Sterling Price occupied the
town on the I4th of September 1862, driving out a small Union
garrison; and on the igth of September a partial engagement
took place between Price and a Federal column commanded by
General Rosecrans, in which the Confederate losses were 700
and the Union 790. Price, whose line of retreat was threatened
by superior forces under General Grant, withdrew from luka
on the morning of the 2oth of September.
IULUS, in Roman legend: (a) the eldest son of Ascanius
and grandson of Aeneas, founder of the Julian gens (gens lulia),
deprived of his kingdom of Latium by his younger brother
Silvius (Dion. Halic. i. 70); (b) another name for, or epithet
of, Ascanius.
IVAN QOHN), the name of six grand dukes of Muscovy and
tsars of Russia.
IVAN I., called Kalita, or Money-Bag (d. 1341), grand duke
of Vladimir, was the first sobiratel,or" gatherer "of the scattered
Russian lands, thereby laying the foundations of the future
autocracy as a national institution. This he contrived to do by
adopting a policy of complete subserviency to the khan of the
Golden Horde, who, in return for a liberal and punctual tribute,
permitted him to aggrandize himself at the expense of the lesser
88
IVAN
grand dukes. Moscow and Tver were the first to fall. The latter
Ivan received from the hand of the khan, after devastating it
with a host of 50,000 Tatars (1327). When Alexander of Tver
fled to the powerful city of Pskov, Ivan, not strong enough to
attack Pskov, procured the banishment of Alexander by the aid
of the metropolitan, Theognost, who threatened Pskov with an
interdict. In 1330 Ivan extended his influence over Rostov
by the drastic methods of blackmail and hanging. But Great
Novgorod was too strong for him, and twice he threatened that
republic in vain. In 1340 Ivan assisted the khan to ravage the
domains of Prince Ivan of Smolensk, who had refused to pay the
customary tribute to the Horde. Ivan's own domains, at any
rate during his reign, remained free from Tatar incursions, and
prospered correspondingly, thus attracting immigrants and
their wealth from the other surrounding principalities. Ivan
was a most careful, not to say niggardly economist, keeping an
exact account of every village or piece of plate that his money-
bags acquired, whence his nickname. The most important
event of his reign was the transference of the metropolitan see
from Vladimir to Moscow, which gave Muscovy the pre-eminence
over all the other Russian states, and made the metropolitan
the ecclesiastical police-superintendent of the grand duke.
The Metropolitan Peter built the first stone cathedral of Moscow,
and his successor, Theognost, followed suit with three more stone
churches. Simultaneously Ivan substituted stone walls for the
ancient wooden ones of the KremT, or citadel, which made
Moscow a still safer place of refuge.
See S. M. Solov'ev, History of Russia (Rus.), vol. ill. (St Petersburg,
1895); Polezhaev, The Principality of Moscow in the first half of the
14th Century (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1878).
IVAN II. (1326-1359), grand duke of Vladimir, a younger son
of Ivan Kalita, was born in 1326. In 1353 he succeeded his
elder brother Simeon as grand duke, despite the competition
of Prince Constantine of Suzdal, the Khan Hanibek preferring
to bestow the yarluik, or letter of investiture, upon Ivan rather
than upon Constantine. At first the principalities of Suzdal,
Ryazan and the republic of Novgorod refused to recognize him
as grand duke, and waged war with him till 1354. The authority
of the grand duchy sensibly diminished during the reign of
Ivan II. The surrounding principalities paid but little attention
to Moscow, and Ivan, " a meek, gentle and merciful prince,"
was ruled to a great extent by the tuisyatsky, or chiliarch, Alexis
Khvost, and, after his murder by the jealous boyars in 1357, by
Bishop Alexis. He died in 1359. Like most of his predecessors,
Ivan, by his last will, divided his dominions among his children.
See Dmitry Ilovaisky, History of Russia (Rus.), vol. ii. (Moscow,
1876-1894).
IVAN III. (1440-1505), grand duke of Muscovy, son of Vasily
(Basil) Vasilievich the Blind, grand duke of Moscow, and Maria
Yaroslavovna, was born in 1440. He was co-regent with his
father during the latter years of his life and succeeded him in
1462. Ivan tenaciously pursued the unifying policy of his
predecessors. Nevertheless, cautious to timidity, like most of
the princes of the house of Rurik, he avoided as far as possible
any violent collision with his neighbours until all the circum-
stances were exceptionally favourable, always preferring to
attain his ends gradually, circuitously and subterraneously.
Muscovy had by this time become a compact and powerful state,
whilst her rivals had grown sensibly weaker, a condition of things
very favourable to the speculative activity of a statesman of
Ivan III.'s peculiar character. His first enterprise was a war
with the republic of Novgorod, which, alarmed at the growing
dominancy of Muscovy, had placed herself beneath the protection
of Casimir IV., king of Poland, an alliance regarded at Moscow
as an act of apostasy from orthodoxy. Ivan took the field
against Novgorod in 1470, and after his generals had twice
defeated the forces of the republic, at Shelona and on the Dvina,
during the summer of 1471, the Novgorodians were forced to
sue for peace, which they obtained on engaging to abandon for
ever the Polish alliance, ceding a considerable portion of their
northern colonies, and paying a war indemnity of 15,500 roubles.
From henceforth Ivan sought continually a pretext for destroying
Novgorod altogether; but though he frequently violated its
ancient privileges in minor matters, the attitude of the republic
was so wary that his looked-for opportunity did not come till
1477. In that year the ambassadors of Novgorod played into
his hands by addressing him in public audience as " Gosudar "
(sovereign) instead of " Gospodin " (" Sir ") as heretofore. Ivan
at once seized upon this as a recognition of his sovereignty,
and when the Novgorodians repudiated their ambassadors, he
marched against them. Deserted by Casimir IV., and surrounded
on every side by the Muscovite armies, which included a Tatar
contingent, the republic recognized Ivan as autocrat, and
surrendered (January 14, 1478) all her prerogatives and
possessions (the latter including the whole of northern Russia
from Lapland_to the Urals) into his hands. Subsequent revolts
(1470-1488) were punished by the removal en masse of the
richest and most ancient families of Novgorod to Moscow,
Vyatka and other central Russian cities. After this, Novgorod,
as an independent state, ceased to exist. The rival republic
of Pskov owed the continuance of its own political existence to
the readiness with which it assisted Ivan against its ancient
enemy. The other principalities were virtually absorbed, by
conquest, purchase or marriage contract — Yaroslavl in 1463,
Rostov in 1474, Tver in 1485.
Ivan's refusal to share his conquests with his brothers, and
his subsequent interference with the internal politics of their
inherited principalities, involved him in several wars with them,
from which, though the princes were assisted by Lithuania,
he emerged victorious. Finally, Ivan's new rule of government,
formally set forth in his last will to the effect that the domains of
all his kinsfolk, after their deaths, should pass directly to the
reigning grand duke instead of reverting, as hitherto, to the
princes' heirs, put an end once for all to these semi-independent
princelets. The further extension of the Muscovite dominion
was facilitated by the death of Casimir IV. in 1492, when Poland
and Lithuania once more parted company. The throne of
Lithuania was now occupied by Casimir's son Alexander, a weak
and lethargic prince so incapable of defending his posses-
sions against the persistent attacks of the Muscovites that he
attempted to save them by a matrimonial compact, and wedded
Helena, Ivan's daughter. But the clear determination of
Ivan to appropriate as much of Lithuania as possible at last
compelled Alexander in 1499 to take up arms against his father-
in-law. The Lithuanians were routed at Vedrosha (July 14,
1500), and in 1503 Alexander was glad to purchase peace by
ceding to Ivan Chernigov, Starodub, Novgorod-Syeversk and
sixteen other towns.
It was in the reign of Ivan III. that Muscovy rejected the
Tatar yoke. In 1480 Ivan refused to pay the customary tribute
to the grand Khan Ahmed. When, however, the grand khan
marched against him, Ivan's courage began to fail, and only
the stern exhortations of the high-spirited bishop of Rostov,
Vassian, could induce him to take the field. All through the
autumn the Russian and Tatar hosts confronted each other on
opposite sides of the Ugra, till the nth of November, when
Ahmed retired into the steppe. In the following year the grand
khan, while preparing a second expedition against Moscow,
was suddenly attacked, routed and slain by Ivak, the khan of
the Nogai Tatars, whereupon the Golden Horde suddenly fell
to pieces. In 1487 Ivan reduced the khanate of Kazan (one of
the offshoots of the Horde) to the condition of a vassal-state,
though in his later years it broke away from his suzerainty.
With the other Mahommedan powers, the khan of the Crimea
and the sultan of Turkey, Ivan's relations were pacific and
even amicable. The Crimean khan, Mengli Girai, helped him
against Lithuania and facilitated the opening of diplomatic
intercourse between Moscow and Constantinople, where the
first Russian embassy appeared in 1495..
The character of the government of Muscovy under Ivan III.
changed essentially and took on an autocratic form which it
had never had before. This was due not merely to the natural
consequence of the hegemony of Moscow over the other Russian
lands, but even more to the simultaneous growth of new and
IVAN
89
exotic principles falling upon a soil already prepared for them.
After the fall of Constantinople, orthodox canonists were in-
clined to regard the Muscovite grand dukes as the successors
by the Byzantine emperors. This movement coincided with a
change in the family circumstances of Ivan III. After the
death of his first consort, Maria of Tver (1467), at the suggestion
of Pope Paul II. (1469), who hoped thereby to bind Russia to the
holy see, Ivan III. wedded the Catholic Zoe Palaeologa (better
known by her orthodox name of Sophia), daughter of Thomas,
despot of the Morea, who claimed the throne of- Constantinople
as the nearest relative of the last Greek emperor. The princess,
however, clave to her family traditions, and awoke imperial
ideas in the mind of her consort. It was through her influence
that the ceremonious etiquette of Constantinople (along with
the imperial double-headed eagle and all that it implied) was
adopted by the court of Moscow. The grand duke henceforth
held aloof from his boyars. The old patriarchal systems of
• government vanished. The boyars were no longer consulted
on affairs of state. The sovereign became sacrosanct, while
the boyars were reduced to the level of slaves absolutely de-
pendent on the will of the sovereign. The boyars naturally
resented so insulting a revolution, and struggled against it, at
first with some success. But the clever Greek lady prevailed
in the end, and it was her son Vasily, not Maria of Tver's son,
Demetrius, who was ultimately crowned co-regent with his
father (April 14, 1502). It was in the reign of Ivan III. that
the first Russian " Law Book," or code, was compiled by the
scribe Gusev. Ivan did his utmost to promote civilization in
his realm, and with that object invited many foreign masters
and artificers to settle in Muscovy, the most noted of whom was
the Italian Ridolfo di Fioravante, nicknamed Aristotle because
of his extraordinary knowledge, who built the cathedrals of the
Assumption (Uspenski) and of Saint Michael or the Holy Arch-
angels in the Kreml.
See P. Pierling, Mariage d'un tsar au Vatican, Ivan III et Sophie
Paleologue (Paris, 1891) ; E. I. Kashprovsky, The Struggle of Ivan III.
with Sigismund I. (Rus.) (Nizhni, 1899); S. M. Solovev, History of
Russia (Rus.), vol. v. (St Petersburg, 1895).
IVAN IV., called " the Terrible " (1530-1584), tsar of Muscovy,
was the son of Vasily [Basil] III. Ivanovich, grand duke of
Muscovy, by his second wife, Helena Glinska. Born on the
25th of August 1530, he was proclaimed grand duke on the
death of his father (1533), and took the government into his own
hands in 1544, being then fourteen years old. Ivan IV. was in
every respect precocious; but from the first there was what
we should now call a neurotic strain in his character. His father
died when he was three, his mother when he was only seven, and
he grew up in a brutal and degrading environment where he
learnt to hold human life and human dignity in contempt. He
was maltreated by the leading boyars whom successive revolu-
tions placed at the head of affairs, and hence he conceived an
inextinguishable hatred of their whole order and a corresponding
fondness for the merchant class, their natural enemies. At a
very early age he entertained an exalted idea of his own divine
authority, and his studies were largely devoted to searching
in the Scriptures and the Slavonic chronicles for sanctions and
precedents for the exercise and development of his right divine.
He first asserted his power by literally throwing to the dogs the
last of his boyar tyrants, and shortly afterwards announced his
intention of assuming the title of tsar, a title which his father
and grandfather had coveted but never dared to assume publicly.
On the i6th of January 1547, he was crowned the first Russian
tsar by the metropolitan of Moscow; on the 3rd of February
in the same year he selected as his wife from among the virgins
gathered from all parts of Russia for his inspection, Anastasia
Zakharina-Koshkina, the scion of an ancient and noble family
better known by its later name of Romanov.
Hitherto, by his own showing, the private life of the young
tsar had been unspeakably abominable, but his sensitive con-
science (he was naturally religious) induced him, in 1550, to
summon a Zemsky Sobor or national assembly, the first of its
kind, to which he made a curious public confession of the sins
of his youth, and at the same time promised that the realm of
Russia (for whose dilapidation he blamed the boyar regents)
should henceforth be governed justly and mercifully. In 1551
the tsar submitted to a synod of prelates a hundred questions
as to the best mode of remedying existing evils, for which reason
the decrees of this synod are generally called utoglaii or cenlwia.
The decennium extending from 1550 to 1560 was the good period
of Ivan IV. 's reign, when he deliberately broke away from his
disreputable past and surrounded himself with good men of
lowly origin. It was not only that he hated and distrusted the
boyars, but he was already statesman enough to discern that they
could not be fitted into the new order of things which he aimed at
introducing. Ivan meditated the regeneration of Muscovy, and
the only men who could assist him in his task were men who
could look steadily forward to the future because they had no
past to look back upon, men who would unflinchingly obey their
sovereign because they owed their whole political significance to
him alone. The chief of these men of good-will were Alexis
Adashev and the monk Sylvester, men of so obscure an origin
that almost every detail of their lives is conjectural, but both
of them, morally, the best Muscovites of their day. Their in-
fluence upon the young tsar was profoundly beneficial, and the
period of their administration coincides with the most glorious
period of Ivan's reign — the period of the conquest of Kazan and
Astrakhan.
In the course of 1551 one of the factions of Kazan offered
the whole khanate to the young tsar, and on the 2oth of August
1552 he stood before its walls with an army of 150,000 men and
50 guns. The siege was long and costly; the army suffered
severely; and only the tenacity of the tsar kept it in camp for
six weeks. But on the 2nd of October the fortress, which had
been heroically defended, was taken by assault. The conquest
of Kazan was an epoch-making event in the history of eastern
Europe. It was not only the first territorial conquest from the
Tatars, before whom Muscovy had humbled herself for genera-
tions; at Kazan Asia, in the name of Mahomet, had fought
behind its last trench against Christian Europe marshalled
beneath the banner of the tsar of Muscovy. For the first time the
Volga became a Russian river. Nothing could now retard the
natural advance of the young Russian state towards the east and
the south-east. In 1554 Astrakhan fell almost without a blow.
By 1560 all the Finnic and Tatar tribes between the Oka and the
Kama had become Russian subjects. Ivan was also the first
tsar who dared to attack the Crimea. In 1555 he sent Ivan
Sheremetev against Perekop, and Sheremetev routed the Tatars
in a great two days' battle at Sudbishenska. Some of Ivan's
advisers, including both Sylvester and Adashev, now advised
him to make an end of the Crimean khanate, as he had already
made an end of the khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan. But
Ivan, wiser in his generation, knew that the thing was impossible,
in view of the immense distance to be traversed, and the pre-
dominance of the Grand Turk from whom it would have to be
wrested. It was upon Livonia that his eyes were fixed, which
was comparatively near at hand and promised him a seaboard
and direct communication with western Europe. Ivan IV., like
Peter I. after him, clearly recognized the necessity of raising
Muscovy to the level of her neighbours. He proposed to do so
by promoting a wholesale immigration into his tsardom of
master-workmen and skilled artificers. But all his neighbours,
apprehensive of the consequences of a civilized Muscovy, com-
bined to thwart him. Charles V. even went so far as to disperse
123 skilled Germans whom Ivan's agent had collected and
brought to Liibeck for shipment to a Baltic port. After this,
Ivan was obliged to help himself as best he could. His oppor-
tunity seemed to have come when, in the middle of the i6th
century, the Order of the Sword broke up, and the possession
of Livonia was fiercely contested between Sweden, Poland and
Denmark. Ivan intervened in 1558 and quickly captured
Narva, Dorpat and a dozen smaller fortresses; then, in 1560,
Livonia placed herself beneath the protection of Poland, and
King Sigismund II. warned Ivan off the premises.
By this time, Ivan had entered upon the second and evil
portion of his reign. As early as 1553 he had ceased to trust
9o
IVAN
Sylvester and Adashev, owing to their extraordinary backward-
ness in supporting the claims of his infant son to the throne
while he himself lay at 'the point of death. The ambiguous and
ungrateful conduct of the tsar's intimate friends and proteges
on this occasion has never been satisfactorily explained, and he
had good reason to resent it. Nevertheless, on his recovery,
much to his credit, he overlooked it, and they continued to direct
affairs for six years longer. Then the dispute about the Crimea
arose, and Ivan became convinced that they were mediocre
politicians as well as untrustworthy friends. In 1560 both of
them disappeared from the scene, Sylvester into a monastery
at his own request, while Adashev died the same year, in honour-
able exile as a general in Livonia. The death of his deeply
beloved consort Anastasia and his son Demetrius, and the
desertion of his one bosom friend Prince Kurbsky, about the
same time, seem to have infuriated Ivan against God and man.
During the next ten years (1560-1570) terrible and horrible
things happened in the realm of Muscovy. The tsar himself
lived in an atmosphere of apprehension, imagining that every
man's hand was against him. On the 3rd of December 1564 he
quitted Moscow with his whole family. On the 3rd of January
1565 he declared in an open letter addressed to the metropolitan
his intention to abdicate. The common people, whom he had
always favoured at the expense of the boyars, thereupon im-
plored him to come back on his own terms. He consented to do
so, but entrenched himself within a peculiar institution, the
oprichina or " separate estate." Certain towns and districts all
over Russia were separated from the rest of the realm, and their
revenues were assigned to the maintenance of the tsar's new
court and household, which was to consist of 1000 carefully
selected boyars and lower dignitaries, with their families and
suites, in the midst of whom Ivan henceforth lived exclusively.
The oprichina was no constitutional innovation. The duma, or
council, still attended to all the details of the administration;
the old boyars still retained their ancient offices and dignities.
The only difference was that the tsar had cut himself off from
them, and they were net even to communicate with him except
on extraordinary and exceptional occasions. The oprichniki,
as being the exclusive favourites of the tsar, naturally, in their
own interests, hardened the tsar's heart against all outsiders,
and trampled with impunity upon every one beyond the charmed
circle. Their first and most notable victim was Philip, the
saintly metropolitan of Moscow, who was strangled for condemn-
ing the oprichina as an unchristian institution, and refusing to
bless the tsar (1569). Ivan had stopped at Tver, to murder St
Philip, while on his way to destroy the second wealthiest city
in his tsardom — Great Novgorod. A delator of infamous char-
acter, one Peter, had accused the authorities of the city to the
tsar of conspiracy; Ivan, without even confronting the Nov-
gorodians with their accuser, proceeded at the end of 1569 to
punish them. After ravaging the land, his own land, like a wild
beast, he entered the city on the 8th of January 1570, and for
the next five weeks, systematically and deliberately, day after
day, massacred batches of every class of the population. Every
monastery, church, manor-house, warehouse and farm within a
circuit of 100 m. was then wrecked, plundered and left roofless,
all goods were pillaged, all cattle destroyed. Not till the I3th
of February were the miserable remnants of the population
permitted to rebuild their houses and cultivate their fields
once more.
An intermittent and desultory war, with Sweden and Poland
simultaneously, for the possession of Livonia and Esthonia,
went on from 1560 to 1582. Ivan's generals (he himself rarely
took the field) were generally successful at first, and bore down
their enemies by sheer numbers, capturing scores of fortresses
and towns. But in the end the superior military efficiency of
the Swedes and Poles invariably prevailed. Ivan was also un-
fortunate in having for his chief antagonist Stephen Bathory,
one of the greatest captains of the age. Thus all his strenuous
efforts, all his enormous sacrifices, came to nothing. The West
was too strong for him. By the peace of Zapoli (January 15th,
1582) he surrendered Livonia with Polotsk to Bathory, and by
the truce of Ilyusa he at the same time abandoned Ingria to the
Swedes. The Baltic seaboard was lost to Muscovy for another
century and a half. In his latter years Ivan cultivated friendly
relations with England, in the hope of securing some share in the
benefits of civilization from the friendship of Queen Elizabeth,
one of whose ladies, Mary Hastings, he wished to marry, though
his fifth wife, Martha Nagaya, was still alive. Towards the end
of his life Ivan was partially consoled for his failure in the west
by the unexpected acquisition of the kingdom of Siberia in the
east, which was first subdued by the Cossack hetman Ermak
or Yermak in 1581.
In November 1 580 Ivan in a fit of ungovernable fury at some
contradiction or reproach, struck his eldest surviving son Ivan,
a prince of rare promise, whom he passionately loved, a blow
which proved fatal. In an agony of remorse, he would now have .
abdicated " as being unworthy to reign longer "; but his
trembling boyars, fearing some dark ruse, refused to obey any one
but himself. Three years later, on the i8th of March 1584,
while playing at chess, he suddenly fell backwards in his chair
and was removed to his bed in a dying condition. At' the last
moment he assumed the hood of the strictest order of hermits,
and died as the monk Jonah.
Ivan IV. was undoubtedly a man of great natural ability. His
political foresight was extraordinary. He anticipated the
ideals of Peter the Great, and only failed in realizing them because
his material resources were inadequate. But admiration of his
talents must not blind us to his moral worthlessness, nor is it
right to cast the blame for his excesses on the brutal and vicious
society in which he lived. The same society which produced his
infamous favourites also produced St Philip of Moscow, and by
refusing to listen to.St Philip Ivan sank below even the not very
lofty moral standard of his own age. He certainly left Muscovite
society worse than he found it, and so prepared the way for
the horrors of " the Great Anarchy." Personally, Ivan was tall
and well-made, with high shoulders and a broad chest. His eyes
were small and restless, his nose hooked, he had a beard and
moustaches of imposing length. His face had a sinister, troubled
expression; but an enigmatical smile played perpetually
around his lips. He was the best educated and the hardest
worked man of his age. His memory was astonishing, his
energy indefatigable. As far as possible he saw to everything
personally, and never sent away a petitioner of the lower orders.
See S. M. Solov'ev, History of Russia (Rus.) vol. v. (St Petersburg,
1895); A. Bruckner, Geschichte Russian/Is bis zum Ende des iSten
Jahrhunderts (Gotha, 1896); E. Tikhomirov, The first Tsar of
Moscovy, Ivan IV. (Rus.) (Moscow, 1888); L. G. T. Tidander,
Kriget mellan Sverige och Ryssland aren 1555-155? (Vesteras, 1888);
P. Pierling, Un Arbitrage pontifical au X VI' siecle entre la Pologne
et la Russie (Bruxelles, 1890); V. V. Novodvorsky, The Struggle for
Livonia, 1570-1582 (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1904); K. Waliszcwski,
Ivan le terrible (Paris, 1904) ; R. N. Bain, Slavonic Europe, ch. 5
(Cambridge, 1907).
IVAN V.1 (1666-1696), tsar of Russia, was the son of Tsar
Alexius Mikhailovich and his first consort Miloslavzkoya.
Physically and mentally deficient, Ivan was the mere tool of the
party in Muscovy who would have kept the children of the tsar
Alexis, by his second consort Natalia Naruishkina, from the
throne. In 1682 the party of progress, headed by Artamon
Matvyeev and the tsaritsa Natalia, passed Ivan over and placed
his half-brother, the vigorous and promising little tsarevich
Peter, on the throne. On the 23rd of May, however, the Naruish-
kin faction was overthrown by the strycltsi (musketeers), secretly
worked upon by Ivan's half-sister Sophia, and Ivan was associ-
ated as tsar with Peter. Three days later he was proclaimed
" first tsar," in order still further to depress the Naruishkins, and
place the government in the hands of Sophia exclusively. In
1689 the name of Ivan was used as a pretext by Sophia in her
attempt to oust Peter from the throne altogether. Ivan was
made to distribute beakers of wine to his sister's adherents with
his own hands, but subsequently, beneath the influence of his
uncle Prozorovsky, he openly declared that " even for his sister's
1 Ivan V., if we count from the first grand duke of that name, as
most Russian historians do; Ivan II., if, with the minority, we
reckon from Ivan the Terrible as the first Russian tsar.
IVANGOROD— IVORY, SIR J.
sake, he would quarrel no longer with his dear brother." During
the reign of his colleague Peter, Ivan V. took no part whatever
in affairs, but devoted himself " to incessant prayer and rigorous
fasting." On the 9th of January 1684 he married Praskovia
Saltuikova, who bore him five daughters, one of whom, Anne,
ultimately ascended the Russian throne. In his last years Ivan
was a paralytic. He died on the 29th of January 1696.
See R. Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905) ; M. P.
Pogodin, The First Seventeen Years of the Life of Peter the Great (Rus.)
(Moscow, 1875).
IVAN VI. (1740-1764), emperor of Russia, was the son of
Prince Antony Ulrich of Brunswick, and the princess Anna
Leopoldovna of Mecklenburg, and great-nephew of the empress
Anne, who adopted him and declared him her successor on the
5th of October 1740, when he was only eight weeks old. On the
death of Anne (October I7th) he was proclaimed emperor, and
on the following day Ernest Johann Biren, duke of Courland,
.was appointed regent. On the fall of Biren (November 8th),
the regency passed to the baby tsar's mother, though the govern-
ment was in the hands of the capable vice-chancellor, Andrei
Osterman. A little more than twelve months later, a coup
d'etat placed the tsesarevna Elizabeth on the throne (December
6, 1741), and Ivan and his family were imprisoned in the
fortress of Diinamunde (Ust Dvinsk) (December 13, 1742)
after a preliminary detention at Riga, from whence the new
empress had at first decided to send them home to Brunswick.
In June 1 744 they were transferred to Kholmogory on the White
Sea, where Ivan, isolated from his family, and seeing nobody
but his gaoler, remained for the next twelve years. Rumours
of his confinement at Kholmogory having leaked out, he was
secretly transferred to the fortress of Schltisselburg (1756),
where he was still more rigorously guarded, the very commandant
of the fortress not knowing who " a certain arrestant " com-
mitted to his care really was. On the accession of Peter III.
the condition of the unfortunate prisoner seemed about to be
ameliorated, for the kind-hearted emperor visited and sym-
pathized with him; but Peter himself was overthrown a few
weeks later. In the instructions sent to Ivan's guardian, Prince
Churmtyev, the latter was ordered to chain up his charge, and
even scourge him should he become refractory. On the accession
of Catherine still more stringent orders were sent to the officer
in charge of " the nameless one." If any attempt were made
from outside to release him, the prisoner was to be put to death;
in no circumstances was he to be delivered alive into any one's
hands, even if his deliverers produced the empress's own sign-
manual authorizing his release. By this time, twenty years of
solitary confinement had disturbed Ivan's mental equilibrium,
though he does not seem to have been actually insane. Never-
theless, despite the mystery surrounding him, he was well aware
of his imperial origin,and always called himself gosudar(sovereign) .
Though instructions had been given to keep him ignorant, he
had been taught his letters and could read his Bible. Nor could
his residence at Schliisselburg remain concealed for ever, and
its discovery was the cause of his ruin. A sub-lieutenant of the
garrison, Vasily Mirovich, found out all about him, and formed
a plan for freeing and proclaiming him emperor. At midnight
on the 5th of July 1764, Mirovich won over some cf the garrison,
arrested the commandant, Berednikov, and demanded the
delivery of Ivan, who there and then was murdered by his
gaolers in obedience to the secret instructions already in their
possession.
See R. Nisbet Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (London, 1897) ;
M. Semevsky, Ivan VI. Antonovich (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1866);
A. Bruckner, The Emperor Ivan VI. and his Family (Rus.) (Moscow,
1874); V. A. Bilbasov, Geschichte Catherine II. (vol. ii., Berlin,
1891-1893). (R. N. B.)
IVANGOROD, a fortified town of Russian Poland, in the
government of Lublin, 64 m. by rail S.E. from Warsaw, at the
confluence of the Wieprz with the Vistula. It is defended by
nine forts on the right bank of the Vistula and by three on the
left bank, and, with Warsaw, • Novo-Georgievsk and Brest-
Litovsk, forms the Polish " quadrilateral. "
91
IVANOVO-VOZNESENSK, a town of middle Russia, in the
government of Vladimir, 86 m. by rail N. of the town of Vladimir.
Pop. (1887) 22,000; (1900) 64,628. It consists of what were
originally two villages — Ivanovo, dating from the i6th century,
and Voznesensk, of much more recent date — united into a town
in 1 86 1. Of best note among the public buildings are the
cathedral, and the church of the Intercession of the Virgin,
formerly associated with an important monastery founded in
1579 and abandoned in 1754. One of the colleges of the town
contains a public library. Linen-weaving was introduced in
1751, and in 1776 the manufacture of chintzes was brought from
Schlusselburg. The town has cotton factories, calico print-works,
iron-works and chemical works.
IVARR BEINLAUSI (d. 873), son of Ragnar Lothbrok, the
great Viking chieftain, is known in English and Continental
annals as Inuaer, Ingwar or Hingwar. He was one of the
Danish leaders in the Sheppey expedition of 855 and was perhaps
present at the siege of York in 867. The chief incident in his
life was his share in the martyrdom of St Edmund in 870. He
seems to have been the leader of the Danes on that occasion,
and by this act he probably gained the epithet " crudelissimus "
by which he is usually described. It is probable that he is to be
identified with Imhar, king of the Norsemen of all Ireland and
Britain, who was active in Ireland between the years 852 and
873, the year of his death.
IVIZA, IBIZA or Ivif A, an island in the Mediterranean Sea,
belonging to Spain, and forming part of the archipelago known as
the Balearic Islands (g.v.). Pop. (1900) 23,524; area 228 sq. m.
Iviza lies 50 m. S.W. of Majorca and about 60 m. from Cape San
Martin on the coast of Spain. Its greatest length from north-east
to south-west is about 25 m. and its greatest breadth about 13 m.
The coast is indented by numerous small bays, the principal of
which are those of San Antonio on the north-west, and of Iviza
on the south-east. Of all the Balearic group, Iviza is the most
varied in its scenery and the most fruitful. The hilly parts
which culminate in the Pico de Atalayasa (1560 ft.), are richly
wooded. The climate is for the most part mild and agreeable,
though the hot winds from the African coast are sometimes
troublesome. Oil, corn and fruits (of which the most important
are the fig, prickly pear, almond and carob-bean) are the principal
products; hemp and flax are also grown, but the inhabitants are
rather indolent, and their modes of culture are very primitive.
There are numerous salt-pans along the coast, which were
formerly worked by the Spanish government. Fruit, salt, char-
coal, lead and stockings of native manufacture are exported.
The imports are rice, flour, sugar, woollen goods and cotton.
The capital of the island, and, indeed, the only town of much
importance — for the population is remarkably scattered — is
Iviza or La Ciudad (6527), a fortified town on the south-east
coast, consisting of a lower and upper portion, and possessing
a good harbour, a 13th-century Gothic collegiate church and an
ancient castle. Iviza was the see of a bishop from 1782 to 1851.
South of Iviza lies the smaller and more irregular island of
Formentera (pop., 1900, 2243; area, 37 sq. m.), which is said to
derive its name from the production of wheat. With Iviza it
agrees both in general appearance and in the character of its
products, but it is altogether destitute of streams. Goats and
sheep are found in the mountains, and the coasts are greatly
frequented by flamingoes. Iviza and Formentera are the principal
islands of the lesser or western Balearic group, formerly known
as the Pityusae or Pine Islands.
IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842), Scottish mathematician,
was born in Dundee in 1765. In 1779 he entered the university
of St Andrews, distinguishing himself especially in mathematics.
He then studied theology; but, after two sessions at St Andrews
and one at Edinburgh, he abandoned all idea of the church, and
in 1786 he became an assistant-teacher of mathematics and
natural philosoghy in a newly established academy at Dundee.
Three years later he became partner in and manager of a flax-
spinning company at Douglastown in Forfarshire, still, however,
prosecuting in moments of leisure his favourite studies. He was
essentially a self -trained mathematician, and was not only deeply
IVORY
versed in ancient and modern geometry, but also had a full
knowledge of the analytical methods and discoveries of the conti-
nental mathematicians. His earliest memoir, dealing with an
analytical expression for the rectification of the ellipse, is pub-
lished in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
(1796); and this and his later papers on " Cubic Equations"
(1799) and " Kepler's Problem " (1802) evince great facility
in the handling of algebraic formulae. In 1804 after the dis-
solution of the flax-spinning company of which he was manager,
he obtained one of the mathematical chairs in the Royal Military
College at Marlow (afterwards removed to Sandhurst); and till
the year 1816, when failing health obliged him to resign, he dis-
charged his professional duties with remarkable success. During
this period he published in the Philosophical Transactions several
important memoirs, which earned for him the Copley medal in
1814 and ensured his election as a Fellow of the Royal Society
in 1815. Of special importance in the history of attractions is
the first of these earlier memoirs (Phil. Trans., 1809), in which
the problem of the attraction of a homogeneous ellipsoid upon an
external point is reduced to the simpler case of the attraction of
another but related ellipsoid upon a corresponding point interior
to it. This theorem is known as Ivory's theorem. His later
papers in the Philosophical Transactions treat of astronomical
refractions, of planetary perturbations, of equilibrium of fluid
masses, &c. For his investigations in the first named of these
he received a royal medal in 1826 and again in 1839. In 1831,
on the recommendation of Lord Brougham, King William IV.
granted him a pension of £300 per annum, and conferred on him
the Hanoverian Guelphic order of knighthood. Besides being
directly connected with the chief scientific societies of his own
country, the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Royal Irish Aca-
demy, &c., he was corresponding member of the Royal Academy
of Sciences both of Paris and Berlin, and of the Royal Society of
Gb'ttingen. He died at London on the 2 ist of September 1842.
A list of his works is given in the Catalogue of Scientific Papers of
the Royal Society of London.
IVORY (Fr. noire, Lat. ebur), strictly speaking a term confined
to the material represented by the tusk of the elephant, and for
commercial purposes almost entirely to that of the male elephant.
In Africa both the male and female elephant produce good-sized
tusks; in the Indian variety the female is much less bountifully
provided, and in Ceylon perhaps not more than i % of either sex
have any tusks at all. Ivory is in substance very dense, the pores
close and compact and filled with a gelatinous solution which
contributes to the beautiful polish which may be given to it
and makes it easy to work. It may be placed between bone and
horn; more fibrous than bone and therefore less easily torn or
splintered. For a scientific definition it would be difficult to find
a better one than that given by Sir Richard Owen. He says: '
" The name ivory is now restricted to that modification of den-
tine or tooth substance which in transverse sections or fractures
shows lines of different colours, or striae, proceeding in the
arc of a circle and forming by their decussations minute curvi-
linear lozenge-shaped spaces." These spaces are formed by an
immense number of exceedingly minute tubes placed very close
together, radiating outwards in all directions. It is to this
arrangement of structure that ivory owes its fine grain and
almost perfect elasticity, and the peculiar marking resembling
the engine-turning on the case of a watch, by which many people
are guided in distinguishing it from celluloid or other imitations.
Elephants' tusks are the upper incisor teeth of the animal, which,
starting in earliest youth from a semi-solid vascular pulp, grow
during the whole of its existence, gathering phosphates and other
earthy matters and becoming hardened as in the formation of
teeth generally. The tusk is built up in layers, the inside layer
being the last produced. A large proportion is embedded in the
bone sockets of the skull, and is hollow for some distance up in a
conical form, the hollow becoming less and less as it is prolonged
into a narrow channel which runs along as a thread or as it is
sometimes called, nerve, towards the point of the tooth. The
outer layer, or bark, is enamel of similar density to the central
'Lecture before the Society of Arts (1856).
part. Besides the elephant's tooth or tusk we recognize as ivory ^
for commercial purposes, the teeth of the hippopotamus, walrus,
narwhal, cachalot or sperm-whale and of some animals of the
wild boar class, such as the warthog of South Africa. Practically,
however, amongst these the hippo and walrus tusks are the only
ones of importance for large work, though boars' tusks come to the
sale-rooms in considerable quantities from India and Africa.
Generally speaking, the supply of ivory imported into Europe
comes from Africa; some is Asiatic, but much that is shipped
from India is really African, coming by way of Zanzibar and
Mozambique to Bombay. A certain amount is furnished by the
vast stores of remains of prehistoric animals still existing through-
out Russia, principally in Siberia in the neighbourhood of the
Lena and other rivers discharging into the Arctic Ocean. The
mammoth and mastodon seem at one time to have been common
over the whole surface of the globe. In England tusks have been
recently dug up — for instance at Dungeness — as long as 12 ft.
and weighing 200 Ib. The Siberian deposits have been worked
for now nearly two centuries. The store appears to be as in-
exhaustible as a coalfield. Some think that a day may come
when the spread of civilization may cause the utter disappearance
of the elephant in Africa, and that it will be to these deposits
that we may have to turn as the only source of animal ivory.
Of late years in England the use of mammoth ivory has shown
signs of decline. Practically none passed through the London
sale-rooms during 1903-1906. Before that, parcels of 10 to 20
tons were not uncommon. Not all of it is good; perhaps about
half of what comes to England is so, the rest rotten; specimens,
however, are found as perfect and in as fine condition as if
recently killed, instead of having lain hidden and preserved for
thousands of years in the icy ground. There is a considerable
literature (see SHOOTING) on the subject of big-game hunting,
which includes that of the elephant, hippopotamus and smaller
tusk-bearing animals. Elephants until comparatively recent
times roamed over the whole of Africa from the northern deserts
to the Cape of Good Hope. They are still abundant in Central
Africa and Uganda, but civilization has gradually driven them
farther and farther into the wilds and impenetrable forests of
the interior.
The quality of ivory varies according to the districts whence
it is obtained, the soft variety of the eastern parts of the con-
tinent being the most esteemed. When in perfect condition
African ivory should be if recently cut of a warm, transparent,
mellow tint, with as little as possible appearance of grain or
mottling. Asiatic ivory is of a denser white, more open in
texture and softer to work. But it is apt to turn yellow sooner,
and is not so easy to polish. Unlike bone, ivory requires no
preparation, but is fit for immediate working. That from the
neighbourhood of Cameroon is very good, then ranks the ivory
from Loango, Congo, Gabun and Ambriz; next the Gold Coast,
Sierra Leone and Cape Coast Castle. That of French Sudan
is nearly always " ringy," and some of the Ambriz variety also.
We may call Zanzibar and Mozambique varieties soft; Angola
and Ambriz all hard. Ambriz ivory was at one time much es-
teemed, but there is comparatively little now. Siam ivory is
rarely if ever soft. Abyssinian has its soft side, but Egypt is
practically the only place where both descriptions are largely
distributed. A drawback to Abyssinian ivory is a prevalence
of a rather thick bark. Egyptian is liable to be cracked, from
the extreme variations of temperature; more so formerly
than now, since better methods of packing and transit are used.
Ivory is extremely sensitive to sudden extremes of temperature;
for this reason billiard balls should be kept where the temperature
is fairly equable.
The market terms by which descriptions of ivory are dis-
tinguished are liable to mislead. They refer to ports of shipment
rather than to places of origin. For instance, " Malta " ivory
is a well-understood term, yet there are no ivory producing
animals in that island.
Tusks should be regular and tapering in shape, not very
curved or twisted, for economy in cutting; the coat fine, thin,
clear and transparent. The substance of ivory is so elastic
IVORY
93
and flexible that excellent riding-whips have been cut longi-
tudinally from whole tusks. The size to which tusks grow and
are brought to market depends on race rather than on size of
elephants. The latter run largest in equatorial Africa. Asiatic
bull elephant tusks seldom exceed 50 ft in weight, though
lengths of 9 ft. and up to 150 Ib weight are not entirely un-
known. Record lengths for African tusks are the one presented
to George V., when prince of Wales, on his marriage (1893),
measuring 8 ft. 73 in. and weighing 165 ft, and the pair of tusks
which were brought to the Zanzibar market by natives in 1898,
weighing together over 450 ft. One of the latter is now in the
Natural History Museum at South Kensington ; the other is
in Messrs Rodgers & Co.'s collection at Sheffield. For length
the longest known are those belonging to Messrs Rowland Ward,
Piccadilly, which measure n ft. and n ft. 5 in. respectively,
with a combined weight of 293 ft. Osteodentine, resulting from
the effects of injuries from spearheads or bullets, is sometimes
found in tusks. This formation, resembling stalactites, grows
with the tusk, the bullets or iron remaining embedded without
trace of their entry.
The most important commercial distinction of the qualities
of ivory is that of the hard and soft varieties. The terms are
difficult to define exactly. Generally speaking, hard or bright
ivory is distinctly harder to cut with the saw or other tools.
It is, as it were, glassy and transparent. Soft contains more
moisture, stands differences of climate and temperature better,
and does not crack so easily. The expert is guided by the shape
of the tooth, by the colour and quality of the bark or skin, and
by the transparency when cut, or even before, as at the point
of the tooth. Roughly, a line might be drawn almost centrally
down the map of Africa, on the west of which the hard quality
prevails, on the east the soft. In choosing ivory for example
for knife-handles — people rather like to see a pretty grain,
strongly marked; but the finest quality in the hard variety,
which is generally used for them, is the closest and freest from
grain. The curved or canine teeth of the hippopotamus are
valuable and come in considerable quantities to the European
markets. Owen describes this Variety as " an extremely dense,
compact kind of dentine, partially defended on the outside by
a thin layer of enamel as hard as porcelain; so hard as to strike
fire with steel." By reason of this hardness it is not at all liked
by the turner and ivory workers, and before being touched by
them the enamel has to be removed by acid, or sometimes by
heating and sudden cooling, when it can be scaled off. The
texture is slightly curdled, mottled or damasked. Hippo ivory
was at one time largely used for artificial teeth, but now mostly
for umbrella and stick-handles; whole (in their natural form)
for fancy door-handles and the like. In the trade the term is
not " riverhorse " but " seahorse teeth." Walrus ivory is less
dense and coarser than hippo, but of fine quality — what there
is of it, for the oval centre which has more the character of
coarse bone unfortunately extends a long way up. At one
time a large supply came to the market, but of late years there
has been an increasing scarcity, the animals having been almost
exterminated by the ruthless persecution to which they have
been subjected in their principal haunts in the northern seas.
It is little esteemed now, though our ancestors thought highly
of it. Comparatively large slabs are to be found in medieval
sculpture of the nth and I2th centuries, and the grips of most
oriental swords, ancient and modern, are made from it. The
ivory from the single tusk or horn of the narwhal is not of much
commercial value except as an ornament or curiosity. Some
horns attain a length of 8 to 10 ft., 4 in. thick at the base. It
is dense in substance and of a fair colour, but owing to the
central cavity there is little of it fit for anything larger than
napkin-rings.
Ivory in Commerce, and Us Industrial Applications. — Almost
the whole of the importation of ivory to Europe was until recent
years confined to London, the principal distributing mart of
the world. But the opening up of the Congo trade has placed
the port of Antwerp in a position which has equalled and, for
a time, may surpass that of London. Other important markets
are Liverpool and Hamburg; and Germany, France and Portu-
gal have colonial possessions in Africa, from which it is imported.
America is a considerable importer for its own requirements.
From the German Cameroon alone, according to Schilling,
there were exported during the ten years ending 1905, 452,100
kilos of ivory. Mr Buxton estimates the amount of ivory im-
ported into the United Kingdom at about 500 tons. If we give
the same to Antwerp we have from these two ports alone no less
than 1000 tons a year to be provided. Allowing a weight so
high as 30 ft per pair of tusks (which is far too high, perhaps
twice too- high) we should have here alone between thirty and
forty thousand elephants to account for. It is true that every
pair of tusks that comes to the market represents a dead elephant,
but not necessarily by any means a slain or even a recently killed
one, as is popularly supposed and unfortunately too often
repeated. By far the greater proportion is the result of stores
accumulated by natives, a good part coming from animals which
have died a natural death. Not 20% is live ivory or recently
killed ; the remainder is known in the trade as dead ivory.
In 1827 the principal London ivory importers imported 3000 cwt.
in 1850, 8000 cwt. The highest price up to 1855 was £55 per cwt.
At the July sales in 1905 a record price was reached for billiard-ball
teeth of £167 per cwt. The total imports into the United Kingdom
were, according to Board of Trade returns, in 1890, 14,349 cwt.;
in 1895, 10,911 cwt.; in 1900, 9889 cwt.; in 1904, 9045 cwt.
From Messrs Hale & Son's (ivory brokers, 10 Fenchurch Avenue)
Ivory Report of the second quarterly sales in London, April 1906,
it appears that the following were offered : —
Tons.
From Zanzibar, Bombay Mozambique and Siam 17
Egyptian
West Coast African
Lisbon
Abyssinian .
Sea horse (hippopotamus teeth)
Walrus
Waste ivory ....
II
I
_6f
55
10}
671
Hard ivory was scarce. West Coast African was principally of the
Gabun description, and some of very fine quality. There was very
little inquiry for walrus. The highest prices ranged as follows'.
Soft East Coast tusks (Zanzibar, Mozambique, Bombay and Siam),
102 to 143 ft. each £66, los. to £75, los. per cwt. Billiard-ball
scrivelloes, £104, per cwt. Cut points for billiard-balls (3$ in. to 2§ to
3 in.) £114 to £151 per cwt. Seahorse (for best), 33. 6d. to 43. id.
per ft. Boars' tusks, 6d. to 7d. per ft.
Quantities of ivory offered to Public auction (from Messrs Hale &
Son's Reports).
1903.
1904.
1905.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Zanzibar, Bombay, Mozambique and Siam
81
75 ,
76.
Egyptian
Abyssinian
49!
22 f
72*
94
8if
ail
West Coast African
46|
39i
4ii
Lisbon
3
3
if
203!
200
224}
Seahorse teeth and Boars' tusks .
7
9*
7i
2IOj
209^
231*
Fluctuations in prices of ivory at the London Sale-Room (from Messrs
Hale & Son's Charts, which show the prices at each quarterly
sale from 1870). .
Billiard Ball pieces ....
Averages — •
Hard Egyptian 36 to 50 Ib. .
Soft East Indian 50 to 70 ft.
West Coast African 50 to 70 ft.
Hard East African 50 to 70 ft. .
1870.
£55
30
67
36
37
1880.
1890.
1900.
1905-
£90
38
55
57
49
£112
5°
88
65
64
£68
29
57
48
48
£167
48
72
61
61
In October 1889 soft East Indian fetched an average of £82 per cwt.,
but in several instances higher prices were realized, and one lot
reached £88 per cwt. At the Liverpool April sales 1906 about ^\ tons
94
IVORY
were offered from Gabun, Angola, and Cameroon (from the last
5J tons). To the port of Antwerp the imports were 6830 cwt. in
1904 and 6570 cwt. in 1905; of which 5310 cwt. and 4890 cwt.
respectively were froip the Congo State.
The leading London sales are held quarterly in Mincing Lane, a
very interesting and wonderful display of tusks and ivory of all
kinds being laid out previously for inspection in the great warehouses
known as the " Ivory Floor in the London docks. The quarterly
Liverpool sales follow the London ones, with a short interval.
The important part which ivory plays in the industrial arts
not only for decorative, but also for domestic applications is
hardly sufficiently recognized. Nothing is wasted of this valuable
product. Hundreds of sacks full of cuttings and shavings, and
scraps returned by manufacturers after they have used what they
require for their particular trade, come to the mart. The dust is
used for polishing, and in the preparation of Indian ink, and even
for food in the form of ivory jelly. The scraps come in for in-
laying and for the numberless purposes in which ivory is used for
small domestic and decorative objects. India, which has been
called the backbone of the trade, takes enormous quantities
of the rings left in the turning of billiard-balls, which serve as
women's bangles, or for making small toys and models, and in
other characteristic Indian work. Without endeavouring to
enumerate all the applications, a glance may be cast at the most
important of those which consume the largest quantity. Chief
among these is the manufacture of billiard-balls, of cutlery
handles, of piano-keys and of brushware and toilet articles.
Billiard-balls demand the highest quality of ivory; for the best
balls the soft description is employed, though recently, through
the competition of bonzoline and similar substitutes, the hard
has been more used in order that the weight may be assimilated
to that of the artificial kind. Therefore the most valuable tusks
of all are those adapted for the billiard-ball trade. The term used
is " scrivelloes," and is applied to teeth proper for the purpose,
weighing not over about 7 Ib. The division of the tusk into
smaller pieces for subsequent manufacture, in order to avoid
waste, is a matter of importance.
The accompanying diagrams (figs. I and 2) show the method;
the cuts are made radiating from an imaginary centre of the curve
of the tusk. In after processes the various trades have their own
particular methods for making the most of the material. In making
a billiard-ball of the
English size the first
thing; to be done is to
rough put, from the
cylindrical section, a
sphere about 2 1 in. in
diameter, which will
eventually be 2 l/i« or
sometimes for pro-
fessional players a lit-
tle larger. One hemi-
sphere— as shown in
the diagrams (fig. 2)
BAST INDIAN ft ZANZIBAR
FlG. I.
first turned, and
the resulting ring de-
tached with a parting
tool. The diameter
is accurately taken
and the subsequent
removals taken off in
other directions. The
ball is then fixed in
a wooden chuck, the
half cylinder re-
versed, and the operation repeated for the other hemisphere.
It is now left five years to season and then turned dead true.
The rounder and straighter the tusk selected for ball-making
the better. Evidently, if the tusk is oval and the ball the size
of the least diameter, its sides which come nearer to the bark
or rind will be coarser and of a different density from those portions
further removed from this outer skin. The matching of billiard-balls
is important, for extreme accuracy in weight is essential. It is usual
to bleach them, as the purchaser — or at any rate the distributing
intermediary — likes to have them of a dead white. But this is a
mistake, for bleaching with chemicals takes out the gelatine to some
extent, alters the quality and affects the density; it also makes them
more liable to crack, and they are not nearly so nice-looking. Billiard-
balls should be bought in summer time when the temperature is
most equable, and gently used till the winter season. On an average
three balls of fine quality are got out of a tooth. The stock of more
than one great manufacturer surpasses at times 30,000 in number.
But although ball teeth rose in 1905 to £167 a cwt., the price of
billiard-balls was the same in 1905 as it was in 1885. Roughly
speaking, there are about twelve different qualities and prices of
billiard-balls, and eight of pyramid-and pool-balls, the latter ranging
from half a guinea to two guineas each. '
The ivory for piano-keys is delivered to the trade in the shape
of what are known as heads and tails, the former for the parts
which come under the fingers, the latter for that running up
between the black keys. The two are joined afterwards on the
keyboard with extreme accuracy. Piano-keys are bleached, but
orgftnists for some reason or other prefer unbleached keys.
The soft variety is mostly used for high-class work and preferably
of the Egyptian type.
The great centres of the ivory industry for the ordinary
objects of common domestic use are in England, for cutlery
handles Sheffield, for billiard-balls and piano-keys London. For
Lathe
Wood Chuck Metal Rmg
No.i N
NO.J.
No.*
Half ta ditto Reversed Rough
Turned = in Wood Chuck Bill
FlG. 2.
cutlery a large firm such as Rodgers & Sons uses an average of
some twenty tons of ivory annually, mostly of the hard variety.
But for billiard-balls and piano-keys America is now a large
producer, and a considerable quantity is made in France and
Germany. Brush backs are almost wholly in English hands.
Dieppe has long been famous for the numberless little ornaments
and useful articles such as statuettes, crucifixes, little book-
covers, paper-cutters, combs, serviette-rings and articles de
Paris generally. And St Claude in the Jura, and Geislingen
in Wiirtemberg, and Erbach in Hesse, Germany, are amongst
the most important centres of the industry. India and China
supply the multitude of toys, models, chess and draughtsmen,
puzzles, workbox fittings and other curiosities.
Vegetable Ivory, &c. — Some allusion may be made to vegetable
ivory and artificial substitutes. The plants yielding the vegetable
ivory of commerce represent two ormore species ofan anomalousgenus
of palms, and are known to botanists asPnytelephas. They are natives
of tropical South America, occurring chiefly on the banks of the
river Magdalena, Colombia, always found in damp localities, not
only, however, on the lower coast region as in Darien, but also at
a considerable elevation above the sea. They are mostly found in
separate groves, not mixed with other trees or shrubs. The plant is
severally Known as the " tagua " by the Indians on the banks of the
Magdalena, as the " anta " on the coast of Darien, and as the " pulli-
punta " and " homero "in Peru. It is stemless or short-stemmed,
and crowned with from twelve to twenty very long pinnatifid leaves.
The plants are dioecious, the males forming higher, more erect
and robust trunks than the females. The male inflorescence is in
the form of a simple fleshy cylindrical spadix covered with flowers;
the female flowers are also in a single spadix, which, however, is
shorter than in the male. The fruit consists of a conglomerated
head composed of six or seven drupes, each containing from six to
nine seeds, and the whole being enclosed in a walled woody covering
forming altogether a globular head as large as that of a man. A
single plant sometimes bears at the same time from six to eight of
these large headsof fruit, each weighing from 20 to 25 ft. In its very
young state the seed contains a clear insipid fluid, which travellers
take advantage of to allay thirst. As it gets older this fluid becomes
milky and of a sweet taste, and it gradually continues to change
both in taste and consistence until it becomes so hard as to make it
valuable as a substitute for animal ivory. In their youngand fresh
state the fruits are eaten with avidity by bears, hoes and other
animals. The seeds, or nuts as they are usually called when fully
ripe and hard, are used by the American Indians for making small
ornamental articles and toys. They are imported into Britain in
considerable quantities, frequently under the name of " Cdrozo "
nuts, a name by which the fruits of some species of Attalea (another
palm with hard ivory-like seeds) are known in Central America —
their uses being chiefly for small articles of turnery. Of vegetable
ivory Great Britain imported in 1904 1200 tons, of which about 400
tons were re-exported, principally to Germany. It is mainly and
largely used for coat buttons.
Many artificial compounds have, from time to time, been tried as
substitutes for ivory; amongst them potatoes treated with sulphuric
IVORY
95
acid. Celluloid is familiar to us nowadays. In the form of bonzoline,
into which it is said to enter, it is used largely for billiard balls ; and
a new French substitute — a caseine made from milk, called gallalith —
has begun to be much used for piano keys in the cheaper sorts of
instrument. Odontolite is mammoth ivory, which through lapse of
time and from surroundings becomes converted into a substance
known as fossil or blue ivory, and is used occasionally in jewelry
as turquoise, which it very much resembles. It results from the
tusks of antediluvian mammoths buried in the earth for thousands
of years, during which time under certain conditions the ivory
becomes slowly penetrated with the metallic salts which give it the
peculiar vivid blue colour of turquoise.
Ivory Sculpture and the Decorative Arts. — The use of ivory as
a material peculiarly adapted for sculpture and decoration has
been universal in the history of civilization. The earliest
examples which have come down to us take us back to pre-
historic times, when, so far as our knowledge goes, civilization
as we understand it had attained no higher degree than that of
the dwellers in caves, or of the most primitive races. Throughout
succeeding ages there is continued evidence that no other
substance — except perhaps wood, of which we have even fewer
ancient examples — has been so consistently connected with
man's art-craftsmanship. It is hardly too much to say that to
follow properly the history of ivory sculpture involves the study
of the whole world's art in all ages. It will take us back to the
most . remote antiquity, for we have examples of the earliest
dynasties of Egypt and Assyria. Nor is there entire default
when we come to the periods of the highest civilization of Greece
and Rome. It has held an honoured place in all ages for the
adornment of the palaces of the great, not only in sculpture
proper but in the rich inlay of panelling, of furniture, chariots
and other costly articles. The Bible teems with references to
its beauty and value. And when, in the days of Pheidias, Greek
sculpture had reached the highest perfection, we learn from
ancient writers that colossal statues were constructed — notably
the " Zeus of Olympia " and the " Athena of .the Parthenon."
The faces, hands and other exposed portions of these figures
were of ivory, and the question, therefore, of the method of
production of such extremely large slabs as perhaps were used
has been often debated. A similar difficulty arises with regard
to other pieces of considerable size, found, for example, amongst
consular diptychs. It has been conjectured that some means of
softening and moulding ivory was known to the ancients, but
as a matter of fact though it may be softened it cannot be again
restored to its original condition. If up to the 4th century we
are unable to point to a large number of examples of sculpture
in ivory, from that date onwards the chain is unbroken, and
during the five or six hundred years of unrest and strife from the
decline of the Roman empire in the sth century to the dawn of
the Gothic revival of art in the nth or izth, ivory sculpture
alone of the sculptural arts carries on the preservation of types
and traditions of classic times in central Europe. Most import-
ant indeed is the r61e which existing examples of
ivory carving play in the history of the last two cen-
turies of the consulates of the Western and Eastern
empires. Though the evidences of decadence in art
may be marked, the close of that period brings us
down to the end of the reign of Justinian (527-563).
Two centuries later the iconoclastic persecutions in the
Eastern empire drive westward and compel to settle
there numerous colonies of monks and artificers.
Throughout the Carlovingian period, the examples of
ivory sculpture which we possess in not inconsiderable
quantity are of extreme importance in the history
of the early development of Byzantine art in Europe.
And when the Western world of art arose from its
torpor, freed itself from Byzantine shackles and
traditions, and began to think for itself, it is to the
sculptures in ivory of the Gothic art of the I3th
and i4th centuries that we turn with admiration
of their exquisite beauty of expression. Up to about the
1 4th century the influence of the church was everywhere
predominant in all matters relating to art. In ivories,
as in mosaics, enamels or miniature painting it would be
difficult to find a dozen examples, from the age of Constantine
onwards, other than sacred ones or of sacred symbolism. But
as the period of the Renaissance approached, the influence of
romantic literature began to assert itself, and a feeling and style
similar to those which are characteristic of the charming series
of religious art in ivory, so touchingly conceived and executed,
meet us in many objects in ivory destined for ordinary domestic
uses and ornament. Mirror cases, caskets for jewelry or toilet
purposes, combs, the decoration of arms, or of saddlery or of
weapons of the chase, are carved and chased with scenes of real
life or illustrations of the romances, which bring home to us in a
vivid manner details of the manners and customs, amusements,
dresses and domestic life of the times. With the Renaissance
and a return to classical ideas, joined with a love of display and
of gorgeous magnificence, art in ivory takes a secondary place.
There is a want of simplicity and of originality. It is the period
of the commencement of decadence. Then comes the period
nicknamed rococo, which persisted so long. Ivory carving
follows the vulgar fashion, is content with copying or adapting,
and until the revival in our own times is, except in rare instances,
no longer to be classed as a fine art. It becomes a trade and is in
the hands of the mechanic of the workshop. In this necessarily
brief and condensed sketch we have been concerned mainly with
ivory carving in Europe. It will be necessary to give also,
presently, some indications enabling the inquirer to follow the
history — or at least to put him on the track of it — not only in the
different countries of the West but also in India, China and Japan.
Prehistoric Ivory Carvings. — These are the result of investiga-
tions made about the middle of the igth century in the cave
dwellings of the Dordogne in France and also of the lake dwellings
of Switzerland. As records they are unique in the history of
art. Further than this our wonderment is excited at finding
these engravings or sculptures in the round, these chiselled
examples of the art of the uncultivated savage, conceived and exe-
cuted with a feeling of delicacy and restraint which the most
modern artist might envy. Who they were who executed them
must be left to the palaeontologist and geologist to decide.
We can only be certain that they were contemporary with the
period when the mammoth and the reindeer still roved freely in
southern France. The most important examples are the sketch
of the mammoth (see PAINTING, Plate I.), on a slab of ivory
now in the museum of the Jardin des Plantes, the head and
shoulders of an ibex carved in the round on a piece of reindeer
horn, and the figure of a woman "(instances of representations
of the human form are most rare) naked and wearing a necklace
and bracelet. Many of the originals are in the museum at St
Germain-en-Laye, and casts of a considerable number are in the
British Museum.
Ancient Assyrian, Egyptian, Greek and Roman Ivories. — We
know from ancient writers that the Egyptians were skilled in
FIG. 3. — Panel with Cartouche, Nineveh.
ivory carving and that they procured ivory in large quantities
from Ethiopia. The Louvre possesses examples of a kind of
flat castanets or clappers, in the form of the curve of the tusks
themselves, engraved in outline, beautifully modelled hands
96
IVORY
forming the tapering points; and large quantities of small
objects, including a box of plain form and simple decoration
identified from the inscribed praenomen as the fifth dynasty,
about 4000 B.C. The British Museum and the museum at Cairo
are also comparatively rich. But no other collection in the world
contains such an interesting collection of ancient Assyrian
ivories as that in the British Museum. Those exhibited number
some fifty important pieces, and many other fragments are, on
account of their fragility or state of decay, stowed away. The
collection is the result of the excavations by Layard about 1840
on the supposed site of Nineveh opposite the modern city of
Mosul. When found they were so decomposed from the lapse
of time as scarcely to bear touching or the contact of the external
air. Layard hit upon the ingenious plan of boiling in a solution
of gelatine and thus restoring to them the animal matter which
had dried up in the course of centuries. Later, the explorations
of Flinders Petrie and others at Abydos brought to light a con-
siderable number of sculptured fragments which may be even
two thousand years older than those of Nineveh. They have
been exhibited in London and since distributed amongst various
museums at home and abroad.
Consular and Official and Private Diptychs. — About fifty of
the remarkable plaques called " consular diptychs," of the time
of the three last centuries
of the consulates of the
Roman and Greek empire
have been preserved. They
range in date from perhaps
mid-fourth to mid-sixth cen-
turies, and as with two or
three exceptions the dates
are certain it would be diffi-
cult to overestimate their
historic or intrinsic value.
The earliest of absolutely
certain date is the diptych
of Aosta (A.D. 408), the first
after the recognition of
Christianity; or, if the
Monza diptych represents,
as some think, the Consul
Stilicon, then we may refer
back six years earlier. At
any rate the edict of Theo-
dosius in A.D. 384, concern-
ing the restriction of the use
of ivory to the diptychs of
the regular consuls, is evi-
dence that the custom must
have been long estab-
lished. According to some
authorities the beautiful leaf
of diptych in the Liverpool
Museum (fig. 4) is a consular
one and to be ascribed to
Marcus Julius Philippus
(A.D. 248). Similarly the
From photo by w. A. Mansdi & Co. Gherardesca leaf in the
FIG. 4.— Leaf of diptych showing British Museum may be
combats with stags; in the Liver- accepted as of the Consul
pool Museum. Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 308).
But the whole question of
the half dozen earliest examples is conjectural. With a few notable
exceptions they show decadence in art. Amongst the finest may
be cited the leaf with the combats with stags at Liverpool, the dip-
tych of Probianus at Berlin and the two leaves, one of Anas-
tasius, the other of Orestes, in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
The literature concerning these diptychs is voluminous, from the
time of the erudite treatise by Gori published in 1759 to the
present day. The latest of certain date is that of Basilius,
consul of the East in 541, the last of the consuls. The diptychs
of private individuals or of officials number about sixteen, and
in the case of the private ones have a far greater artistic value.
Of these the Victoria and Albert Museum possesses the most
beautiful leaf of perhaps the finest example of ancient ivory
sculpture which has come down to us, diptychon Meleretense,
representing a Bacchante (fig. 5). The other half, which is much
injured, is in the Cluny Museum. Other important pieces are
the Aesculapius and Hygeia at Liverpool, the Hippolytus and
Phaedra at Brescia, the Barberini in the Bargello and at Vienna
and the Rufius Probianus at Berlin. Besides the diptychs
ancient Greek and Roman
ivories before the recognition
of Christianity are compara-
tively small in number and are
mostly in the great museums of
the Vatican, Naples, the British
Museum, the Louvre and the
Cluny Museum. Amongst them
are the statuette of Penthea,
perhaps of the 3rd century
(Cluny), a large head of a
woman (museum of Vienna)
and the Bellerophon (British
Museum), nor must those of
the Roman occupation in
England and other countries be
forgotten. Notable instances
are the plaque and ivory mask
found at Caerleon. Others are
now in the Guildhall and British
Museums, and most continental
European museums have ex-
amples connected with their
own history.
Early Christian and Early
Byzantine Ivories. — The few
examples we possess of Christian
ivories previous to the time of
Constantine are not of great
importance from the point of
view of the history of art. But
after that date the ivories which
we may ascribe to the
FIG. 5. — Leaf of Roman dip-
tych, representing a Bacchante;
ccn— •_ ^i * r« _i '.— . i AII L
in the Victoria
tunes from the end of the Museum.
and Albert
4th to at least the end of the
gth become of considerable interest, on account of their connexion
with the development of Byzantine art in western Europe.
With regard to exact origins and dates opinions are largely
divergent. In great part they are due to the carrying on of
traditions and styles by which the makers of the sarcophagi
were inspired, and the difficulties of ascription are increased
when in addition to the primitive elements the influence of
Byzantine systems introduced many new ideas derived from
many extraneous sources. The questions involved are of no
small archaeological, iconographical and artistic importance,
but it must be admitted that we are reduced to conjecture in
many cases, and compelled to theorize. And it would seem to be
impossible to be more precise as to dates than within a margin
of sometimes three centuries. Then, again, we are met by the
question how far these ivories are connected with Byzantine
art; whether they were made in the West by immigrant Greeks,
or indigenous works, or purely imported productions. Some
German critics have endeavoured to construct a system of
schools, and to form definite groups, assigning them to Rome,
Ravenna, Milan and Monza. Not only so, but they claim to be
precise in dating even to a certain decade of a century. But it
is certainly more than doubtful whether there is sufficient
evidence on which to found such assumptions. It is at least
probable that a considerable number of the ivories whose dates
are given by such a number of critics so wide a range as from
the 4th to the loth century are nothing more than the work of
the monks of the numerous monasteries founded throughout
the Carlovingian empire, copying and adapting from whatever
IVORY
97
came into their hands. Many of them were Greek immigrants
exiled at the time of the iconoclastic persecutions. To these
must be added the Celtic and Anglo-Saxon missionaries, who
brought with them and disseminated their own national feeling
and technique. We have to take into account also the relations
which existed not only with Constantinople but also with the
great governing provinces of Syria and Egypt. Where all our
information is so vague, and in the face of so much conflicting
opinion amongst authorities, it is not unreasonable to hold with
regard to very many of these ivories that instead of assigning
them to the age of Justinian or even the preceding century we
ought rather to postpone their dating from one to perhaps three
centuries later and to admit that we cannot be precise even
within these limits. It would be impossible to follow here the
whole of the arguments relating to this most important period
' of the development of ivory sculpture or to mention a tithe of the
examples which illustrate it. Amongst the most striking the
earliest is the very celebrated leaf of a diptych in the British
Museum representing an archangel (fig. 6). It is generally
admitted that we have no ivory
of the sth or 6th centuries or in
fact of any early medieval period
which can compare with it in
excellence of design and work-
manship. There is no record (it
is believed) from whence the
museum obtained the ivory.
There are at least plausible
grounds for surmising that it is
identical with the " Angelus
longus eburneus " of. a book-
cover among the books brought
to England by St Augustine
which is mentioned in a list of
things belonging to Christchurch,
Canterbury (see Dart, A pp. p.
xviii.). The dating of the four
Passion plaques, also in the
British Museum, varies from the
Sth to the 7th century. But
although most recent authorities
accept the earlier date, the
present writer holds strongly that
they are not anterior to, at
earliest, the 7th century. Even
then they will remain, with the
exception of the Monza oil flask
and perhaps the St Sabina doors,
the earliest known representation
of the crucifixion. The ivory
vase, with cover, in the British
Museum, appears to possess de-
fined elements of the farther
East, due perhaps to the rela-
tions between Syria and Christian India or Ceylon. Other
important early Christian ivories are the series of pyxes,
the diptych in the treasury of St Ambrogio at Milan, the
chair of Maximian at Ravenna (most important as a type
piece), the panel with the " Ascension " in the Bavarian
National Museum, the Brescia casket, the " Lorsch " bookcovers
of the Vatican and Victoria and Albert Museum, the Bodleian
and other bookcovers, the St Paul diptych in the Bargello at
Florence and the " Annunciation " plaque in the Trivulzio
collection. So far as unquestionably oriental specimens of
Byzantine art are concerned they are few in number, but we have
in the famous Harbaville triptych in the Louvre a super-
excellent example.
Gothic Ivories. — The most generally charming period of ivory
sculpture is unquestionably that which, coincident with the
Gothic revival in art, marked the beginning of a great and
lasting change. The formalism imposed by Byzantine traditions
gave place to a brighter, more delicate and tenderer conception.
xv. 4
From photo by \V. A. Mansell & Co.
FIG. 6.— Leaf of Diptych,
representing Archangel ; in
the British Museum.
This golden age of the ivory carver — at its best in the I3th cen-
tury—was still in evidence during the i4th, and although there
is the beginning of a transition in style in the isth century, the
period of neglect and decadence which set in about the beginning
of the 1 6th hardly reached the acute stage until well on into the
1 7th. To review the various developments both of religious art
which reigned almost alone until the i4th century, or of the
secular side as exemplified in the delightful mirror cases and
caskets carved with subjects from the romantic stories which
were so popular, would be impossible here. Almost every great
museum and famous private collection abounds in examples
of the well-known diptychs and triptychs and little portable
oratories of this period. Some, as in a famous panel in the
British Museum, are marvels of minute workmanship, others of
delicate openwork and tracery. Others, again, are remarkable
for the wonderful way in which, in the compass of a few inches,
whole histories and episodes of the scriptural narratives are
expressed in the most vivid and telling manner. Charming above
all are the statuettes of the Virgin and Child which French and
Flemish art, especially, have handed down to us. Of these the
Victoria and Albert Museum possesses a representative collec-
FIG. 7. — Mirror Case, illustrating the Storming of the Castle of
Love; in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
tion. Another series of interest is that of the croziers or pastoral
staves, the development of which the student of ivories will be
careful to study in connexion with the earlier ones and the
tau-headed staves. In addition there are shrines, reliquaries,
bookcovers, liturgical combs, portable altars, pyxes, holy water
buckets and sprinklers, flabella or liturgical fans, rosaries, memento
mori, paxes, small figures and groups, and almost every conceiv-
able adjunct of the sanctuary or for private devotion. It is to
French or Flemish art that the greater number and the most
beautiful must be referred. At the same time, to take one
example only — the diptych and triptych of Bishop Grandison
in the British Museum — we have evidence that English ivory
carvers were capable of rare excellence of design and workman-
ship. Nor can crucifixes be forgotten, though they are of
extreme rarity before the I7th century. A most beautiful 13th-
century figure for one — though only a fragment — is in the Victoria
and Albert Museum. Amongst secular objects of this period,
besides the mirror cases (fig. 7) and caskets, there are hunting
horns (the earlier ones probably oriental, or more or less faith-
fully copied from oriental models), chess and draughtsmen
(especially the curious set from the isle of Lewis), combs, marriage
coffers (at one period remarkable Italian ones of bone), memor-
andum tablets, seals, the pommels and cantles of saddles and a
5
98
IVORY COAST
unique harp now in the Louvre. The above enumeration will
alone suffice to show that the inquirer must be referred for
details to the numerous works which treat of medieval ivory
sculpture.
Ivory Sculpture from the i6th to the igth Century. — Compared
with the wealth of ivory carving of the two preceding centuries,
the i sth, and especially the i6th, centuries are singularly poor in
really fine work. But before we arrive at the period of real
decadence we shall come across such things as the knife of
Diana of Poitiers in the Louvre, the sceptre of Louis XIII., the
Rothschild hunting horn, many Italian powder horns, the
German Psyche in the Louvre, or the " Young Girl and Death "
in the Munich Museum, in which there is undoubtedly originality
and talent of the first order. The practice of ivory carving
became extremely popular throughout the lyth and i8th
centuries, especially in the Netherlands and in Germany, and the
amount of ivory consumed must have been very great. But,
with rare exceptions, and these for the most part Flemish, it is
art of an inferior kind, which seems to have been abandoned to
second-rate sculptors and the artisans of the workshop. There is
little originality, the rococo styles run riot, and we seem to be
condemned to wade through an interminable series of gods and
goddesses, bacchanalians and satyrs, pseudo-classical copies
from the antique and imitations of the schools of Rubens. As a
matter of fact few great museums, except the German ones,
care to include in their collections examples of these periods.
Some exceptions are made in the case of Flemish sculptors of
such talent as Francois Duquesnoy (Fiammingo), Gerard van
Obstal or Lucas Fayd'herbe. In a lesser degree, in Germany,
Christoph Angermair, Leonhard Kern, Bernhaid Strauss,
Elhafen, Kruger and Rauchmiller; and, in France, Jean Guiller-
min, David le Marchand and Jean Cavalier. Crucifixes were
turned out in enormous numbers, some of not inconsiderable
merit, but, for the most part, they represent anatomical exercises
varying but slightly from a pattern of which a celebrated one
atributed to Faistenberger may be taken as a type. Tankards
abound, and some, notably the one in the Jones collection, than
which perhaps no finer example exists, are also of a high standard.
Duquesnoy's work is well illustrated by the charming series of
six plaques in the Victoria and Albert Museum known as the
" Fiammingo boys." Amongst the crowd of objects in ivory
of all descriptions of the early i8th century, the many examples
of the curious implements known as rappoirs, or tobacco graters,
should be noticed. It may perhaps be necessary to add that
although the character of art in ivory in these periods is not of
the highest, the subject is not one entirely unworthy of attention
and study, and there are a certain number of remarkable and
even admirable examples.
Ivory Sculpture of Spain, Portugal, India, China and Japan. —
Generally speaking, with regard to Spain and Portugal, there is
little reason to do otherwise than confine our attention to a certain
class of important Moorish or Hispano-Moresque ivories of the
time of the Arab occupation of the Peninsula, from the Sth to the
i Sth centuries. Some fine examples are in the Victoria and
Albert Museum. Of Portuguese work there is little except the
hybrid productions of Goa and the Portuguese settlements in the
East. Some mention must be made also of the remarkable
examples of mixed Portuguese and savage art from Benin, now
in the British Museum. Of Indian ivory carving the India
Museum at Kensington supplies a very large and varied collection
which has no equal elsewhere. But there is little older than the
1 7th century, nor can it be said that Indian art in ivory can
occupy a very high place in the history of the art. What we
know of Chinese carving in ivory is confined to those examples
which are turned out for the European market, and can hardly
be considered as appealing very strongly to cultivated tastes.
A brief reference to the well-known delightful netsukes and the
characteristic inlaid work must suffice here for the ivories of
Japan (see JAPAN: Art).
Ivory Sculpture in the iQth Century and of the Present Day. —
Few people are aware of the extent to which modern ivory sculp-
ture is practised by distinguished artists. Year by year, however,
a certain amount is exhibited in the Royal Academy and in most
foreign salons, but in England the works — necessarily not very
numerous — are soon absorbed in private collections. On the
European continent, on the contrary, in such galleries as the
Belgian state collections or the Luxembourg, examples are
frequently acquired and exhibited. In Belgium the acquisition
of the Congo and the considerable import of ivory therefrom
gave encouragement to a definite revival of the art. Important
exhibitions have been held in Belgium, and a notable one in
Paris in 1904. Though ivory carving is as expensive as marble
sculpture, all sculptors delight in following it, and the material
entails no special knowledge or training. Of 19th-century artists
there were in France amongst the best known, besides numerous
minor workers of Dieppe and St Claude, Augustin Moreau,
Vautier, Soitoux, Belleteste, Meugniot, Pradier, Triqueti and
Gerdme; and in the first decade of the 2oth century, besides
such distinguished names in the first rank as Jean Dampt and
Theodore Riviere, there were Vever, Gardet, Caron, Barrias,
Allouard, Ferrary and many others. Nor must the decorative
work of Rene Lalique be omitted. No less than forty Belgian
sculptors exhibited work in ivory at the Brussels exhibition of
1887. The list included artists of such distinction as J. Dillens,
Constantin Meunier, van der Stappen, Khnopff, P. Wolfers,
Samuel and Paul de Vigne, and amongst contemporary Belgian
sculptors are also van Beurden, G. Devreese, Vincotte, de
Tombay and Lagae. In England the most notable work includes
the " Lamia " of George Frampton, the " St Elizabeth " of Alfred
Gilbert, the " Mors Janua Vitae " of Harry Bates, the " Launce-
lot " of W. Reynolds-Stephens and the use of ivory in the applied
arts by Lynn Jenkins, A. G. Walker, Alexander Fisher and
others.
AUTHORITIES. — See generally A. Maskell, Ivories (1906), and the
bibliography there given.
On Early Christian and Early Byzantine ivories, the following
works may be mentioned: Abbe Cabrol, Dtctionnaire de I'archeologie
chretienne (in progress) ; O. M. Dalton, Catalogue of Early Christian
Antiquities in British Museum (1902); E. Dobbert, Zur Geschichte
der Elfenbeinsculptur (1885); H. Graeven, Antike Schnitzereien
(1903); R. Kanzler, Gli atari . . . Vaticana (1903); Kondakov,
L'Art byzantin; A. Maskell, Cantor Lectures, Soc. of Arts (1906)
(lecture II., "Early Christian and Early Byzantine Ivories");
Strzygowski, Byzantinische Denkmdler (1891); V. Schulze, Archao-
logie der altchristlichen Kunst (1895); G. Stuhlfauth, Die altchristl.
Elfenbeinplastik (1896).
On the consular diptychs, see H. F. Clinton, Fasti Romani (1845-
1850); A. Gori, Thesaurus veterum diptychorum (1759); C. Lenor-
mant, Tresor de numismatique et de glyptique (1834-1846) ; F. Pulszky,
Catalogue of the .Fejervdry Ivories (1856).
On the artistic interest generally, see also C. Alabaster, Catalogue
of Chinese Objects in the South Kensington Museum; Sir R. Alcock,
Art and Art Industries in Japan (1878) ; Barraud et Martin, Le Baton
pastoral (1856); Bouchot, Les Reliures A' art a la Bibliotheque Natio-
nale; Bretagne, Sur les peignes liturgiques ; H. Cole, Indian Art
at Delhi (1904); R. Garrucci, Storia dell' arte Christiana (1881);
A. Jacquemart, Histoire du mobilier (1876); J. Labarte, Histoire des
arts industries (1864); C. Lind, Vber den Krummstab (1863); Sir F.
Madden, "Lewis Chessmen" (in Archaeologia, vol. xxiv. 1832);
W. Maskell, Ivories, Ancient and Medieval in the South Kensington
Museum (1872); A. Michel, Histoire de I'art; E. Molinier, Histoire
generate des arts (1896); E. Oldfield, Catalogue of Fictile Ivories sold
by the Arundel Society (1855); A. H. Pitt Rivers, Antique Works of
Art from Benin (1900); A. C. Quatrem^re de Quincy, Le Jupiter
Olympien (1815); Charles Scherer, Elfenbeinplastik seit der Renais-
sance (1903) ; E. du Sommerard, Les Arts au moyen Age (1838-1846) ;
G. Stephens, Runic Caskets (1866-1868); A. Venturi, Storia dell' arte
Italiana (1901); Sir G. Watt, Indian Art at Delhi (1904); J. O.
West wood, Fictile Ivories in the South Kensington Museum (1876).
Sir M. D. Wyatt, Notices of Sculpture in Ivory (1856). (A. ML.)
IVORY COAST (Cote d' I wire), a French West African colony,
bounded S. by the Gulf of Guinea, W. by Liberia and French
Guinea, N. by the colony of Upper Senegal and Niger, E. by the
Gold Coast. Its area is approximately 120,000 sq. m., and its
population possibly 2,000,000, of whom some 600 are Europeans.
Official estimates (1908) placed the native population as low as
980,000.
Physical Features.— The coast-line extends from 7° 30' to 3° / W.
and has a length of 380 m. It forms an arc of a circle of which the
convexity turns slightly to the north; neither bay nor promontory
breaks the regularity of its outline. The shore is low, bordered in its
IVORY COAST
99
eastern half with lagoons, and difficult of access on account of the
submarine bar of sand which stretches along nearly the whole of the
coast, and also because of the heavy surf caused by the great Atlantic
billows. The principal lagoons, going W. to E. are those of Grand
Lahou, Grand Bassam or Ebrie and Assini. The coast plains extend
inland about 40 m. Beyond the ground rises in steep slopes to a
general level of over 1000 ft., the plateau being traversed in several
directions by hills rising 2000 ft. and over, and cut by valleys with a
general south-eastern trend. In the north-east, in the district of
Kong (q.v.), the country becomes mountainous, Mt. Kommono
attaining a height of 4757 ft. In the north-west, by the Liberian
frontier, the mountains in the Gon region rise over.6ooo ft. Starting
from the Liberian frontier, the chief rivers are the Cavalla (or
Kavalli), the San Pedro, the Sassandra (240 m. long), the Bandama
(225 m.), formed by the Wjiite and the Red Bandama, the Komoe
(360 m.) and the Bia. All these streams are interrupted by rapids
as they descend from the highlands to the plain and are unnavigable
by steamers save for a few miles from their mouths. The rivers
named all drain to the Gulf of Guinea ; the rivers in the extreme
north of the colony belong to the Niger system, being affluents of
the Bani or Mahel Balevel branch of that river. The watershed runs
roughly fromg0 N. in the west to 10° N. in the east, and is marked by
a line of hills rising about 650 ft. above the level of the plateau.
The climate is in general very hot and unhealthy, the rainfall being
very heavy. In some parts of the plateau healthier conditions
prevail. The fauna and flora are similar to those of the Gold Coast
and Liberia. Primeval forest extends from the coast plains to about
8° N., covering nearly 50,000 sq. m.
Inhabitants. — The coast districts are inhabited by Negro
tribes allied on the one hand to the Krumen (q.v.) and on the
other to the people of Ashanti (q.v.). The Assinis are of Ashanti
origin, and chiefly of the Ochin and Agni tribes. Farther west
are found the "Jack- Jacks" and the "Kwa-Kwas," sobriquets
given respectively to the Aradian and Avikom by the early
European traders. The Kwa-Kwa are said to be so called
because their salutation " resembles the cry of a duck." In the
interior the Negro strain predominates but with an admixture
of Hamitic or Berber blood. The tribes represented include
Jamans, Wongaras and Mandingos (q.v.), some of whom are
Moslems. The Mandingos have intermarried largely with the
Bambara or Sienuf, an agricultural people of more than average
intelligence widely spread over the country, of which they are
considered to be the indigenous race. The Bambara themselves
are perhaps only a distinct branch of the original Mandingo
stock. The Baule, who occupy the central part of the colony,
are of Agni-Ashanti origin. The bulk of the inhabitants are
fetish worshippers. On the northern confines of the great forest
belt live races of cannibals, whose existence was first made known
by Captain d'Ollone in 1899. In general the coast tribes are
peaceful. They have the reputation of being neither industrious
nor intelligent. The traders are chiefly Fanti, Sierra Leonians,
Senegalese and Mandingos-
Towns. — The chief towns on the coast are Grand and Little Bassam,
Jackville and Assini in the east and Grand Lahou, Sassandra and
Tabu in the west. Grand and Little Bassam are built on the strip
of sand which separates the Grand Bassam or Ebrie lagoon from the
sea. This lagoon forms a commodious harbour, once the bar has
been crossed. Grand Bassam is situated at the point where the
lagoon and the river Komoe enter the sea and there is a minimum
depth of 12 ft. of water over the bar. The town (pop. 5000, including
about 100 Europeans) is the seat of the customs administration and
of the judicial department, and is the largest centre for the trade of
the colony. A wharf equipped with cranes extends beyond the surf
line and the town is served by a light railway. It is notoriously
unhealthy; yellow fever is endemic. Little Bassam, renamed by
the French Port Bouet, possesses an advantage over the other ports
on the coast, as at this point there is no bar. The sea floor is here
rent by a chasm, known as the " Bottomless Pit," the waters having
a depth of 65 ft. Abijean (Abidjan), on the north side of the lagoon
opposite Port Bouet is the starting-point of a railway to the oil and
rubber regions. The half-mile of foreshore separating the port from
the lagoon was in 1904—1907 pierced by a canal, but the canal silted
up as soon as cut, and in 1908 the French decided to make Grand
Bassam the chief port of the colony. Assini is an important centre
for the rubber trade of Ashanti. On the northern shore of the
Bassam lagoon, and 19 m. from Grand Bassam, is the capital of the
colony, the native name Adjame having been changed into Binger-
ville, in honour of Captain L. G. Binger (see below). The town is
built on a hill and is fairly healthy.
In the interior are several towns, though none of any size numeric-
ally. The best known are Koroko, Kong and Bona, entrepdts for
the trade of the middle Niger, and Bontuku, on the caravan route
to Sokoto and the meeting-place of the merchants from Kong and
Timbuktu engaged in the kola-nut trade with Ashanti and the Gold
Coast. Bontuku is peopled largely by Wongara and Hausa, and
most of the inhabitants, who number some 3000, are Moslems.
The town, which was founded in the isth century or earlier, is
walled, contains various mosques and generally presents the
appearance of an eastern city.
Agriculture and Trade.— The natives cultivate maize, plantains,
bananas, pineapples, limes, pepper, cotton, &c., and live easily on
the products of their gardens, with occasional help from fishing and
hunting. They also weave cloth, make pottery and smelt iron.
Europeans introduced the cultivation of coffee, which gives good
results. The forests are rich in palm-tree products, rubber and
mahogany, which constitute the chief articles of export. The rubber
goes almost exclusively to England, as does also the mahogany.
The palm-oil and palm kernels are sent almost entirely to France.
The value of the external trade of the colony exceeded £1,000,000
for the first time in 1904. About 50% of the trade is with Great
Britain. The export of ivory, for which the country was formerly
famous, has almost ceased, the elephants being largely driven out of
the colony. Cotton goods, by far the most important of the imports,
come almost entirely from Great Britain. Gold exists and many
native villages have small "placer" mines. In 1901 the government
of the colony began the granting of mining concessions, in which
British capital was largely invested. There are many ancient mines
in the country, disused since the close of the l8th century, if not
earlier.
Communications. — The railway from Little Bassam serves the
east central part of the colony and runs to Katiola, in Kong, a total
distance of 250 m. The line ;s of metre gauge. The cutting of two
canals, whereby communication is effected by lagoon between
Assini and Grand Lahou via Bassam, followed the construction of the
railway. Grand and Little Bassam are in regular communication
by steamer with Bordeaux, Marseilles, Liverpool, Antwerp and
Hamburg. Grand Bassam is connected with Europe by submarine
cable via Dakar. Telegraph lines connect the coast with all the
principal stations in the interior, with the Gold Coast, and with the
other French colonies in West Africa.
Administration, &c. — The colony is under the general superintend-
ence of the government general of French West Africa. At the head
of the local administration is a lieutenant-governor, who is assisted
by a council on which nominated unofficial members have seats.
To a large extent the native forms of government are maintained
under European administrators responsible for the preservation of
order, the colony for this purpose being divided into a number of
" circles " each with its local government. The colony has a separate
budget and is self-supporting. Revenue is derived chiefly from
customs receipts and a capitation tax of frs. 2.50 (2s.), instituted in
1901 and levied on all persons over ten years old. The budget for
1906 balanced at £120,400.
History. — The Ivory Coast is stated to have been visited by
Dieppe merchants in the i4th century, and was made known
by the Portuguese discoveries towards the end of the i$th
century. It was thereafter frequented by traders for ivory,
slaves and other commodities. There was a French settlement
at Assini, 1700-1704, and a French factory was maintained at
Grand Bassam from 1700 to 1707. In the early part of the I9tb
century several French traders had established themselves
along the coast. In 1830 Admiral (then Commandant) Bouet-
Willaumez (1808-1871) began a series of surveys and expedi-
tions which yielded valuable results. In 1842 he obtained from
the native chiefs cessions of territory at Assini and Grand Bassam
to France and the towns named were occupied in 1843. From
that time French influence gradually extended along the coast,
but no attempt was made to penetrate inland. As one result
of the Franco-Prussian War, France in 1872 withdrew her
garrisons, handing over the care of the establishments to a
merchant named Verdier, to whom an annual subsidy of £800
was paid. This merchant sent an agent into the interior who
made friendly treaties between France and some of the native
chiefs. In 1883, in view of the claims of other European powers
to territory in Africa, France again took over the actual
administration of Assini and Bassam. Between 1887 and 1889
Captain Binger (an officer of marine infantry, and subsequently
director of the African department at the colonial ministry)
traversed the whole region between the coast and the Niger,
visited Bontuku and the Kong country, and signed protectorate
treaties with the chiefs. The kingdom of Jaman, it may be men-
tioned, was for a few months included in the Gold Coast hinter-
land. In January 1889 a British mission sent by the governor
of the Gold Coast concluded a treaty with the king of Jaman
at Bontuku, placing his dominions under British protection.
IOO
IVREA— IVY
The king had, however, previously concluded treaties of " com-
merce and friendship " with the French, and by the Anglo-French
agreement of August 1889 Jaman, with Bontuku, was recognized
as French territory. In 1892 Captain Binger made further ex-
plorations in the interior of the Ivory Coast, and in 1893 he was
appointed the first governor of the colony on its erection into
an administration distinct from that of Senegal. Among other
famous explorers who helped to make known the hinterland
was Colonel (then Captain) Marchand. It was to the zone
between the Kong states and the hinterland of Liberia that
Samory (see SENEGAL) fled for refuge before he was taken
prisoner (1898), and for a short time he was master of Kong.
The boundary of the colony on the west was settled by Franco-
Liberian agreements of 1892 and subsequent dates; that on
the east by the Anglo-French agreements of 1893 and 1898.
The northern boundary was fixed in 1899 on the division of the
middle Niger territories (up to that date officially called the
French Sudan) among the other French West African colonies.
The systematic development of the colony, the opening up of
the hinterland and the exploitation of its economic resources
date from the appointment of Captain Binger as governor, a
post he held for over three years. The work he began has been
carried on zealously and effectively by subsequent governors,
who have succeeded in winning the co-operation of the natives.
In the older books of travel are often found the alternative
names for this region, Tooth Coast (C6le des Denis) or Kwa-Kwa
Coast, and, less frequently, the Coast of the Five and Six Stripes
(alluding to a kind of cotton fabric in favour with the natives).
The term C6te des Dents continued in general use in France
until the closing years of the igth century.
See Dix cms d. la Cole d'lvoire (Paris, 1906) by F. J. Clozel, governor
of the colony, and Notre colonie de la. Cute d'lvoire (Paris, 1903) by
R. Yill.nnur and Richaud. These two volumes deal with the history,
geography, zoology and economic condition of the Ivory Coast.
La Cole d'lvoire by Michellet and Clement describes the administra-
tive and land systems, &c. Another volume also called La Cote
d'lvoire (Paris, 1908) is an official monograph on the colony. For
ethnology consult Coutumes indigenes de la Cote d'lvoire (Paris, 1902)
by F. J. Clozel and R. Villamur, and Les Coutumes Agni, by R.
Villamur and Delafosse. Of books of travel see Du Niger au Golfe de
Guinee par Kong (Paris, 1892) by L. G. Binger, and Mission Hostains-
d'OUone 1898-1900 (Paris, 1901) by Captain d'Ollone. A Carte
de la Cote d'lvoire by A. Meunier, on the scale of 1 : 500,000 (6 sheets),
was published in Paris, 1905. Annual reports on the colony are
published by the French colonial and the British foreign offices.
IVREA (anc. Eporedia), a town and episcopal see of Piedmont,
Italy, in the province of Turin, from which it is 38 m. N.N.E.
by rail and 27 m. direct, situated 770 ft. above sea-level, on the
Dora Baltea at the point where it leaves the mountains. Pop.
(1901) 6047 (town), 11,696 (commune). The cathedral was
built between 973 and 1005; the gallery round the back of the
apse and the crypt have plain cubical capitals of this period.
The two campanili flanking the apse at each end of the side
aisle are the oldest example of this architectural arrangement.
The isolated tower, which is all that remains of the ancient abbey
of S. Stefano, is slightly later. The hill above the town is crowned
by the imposing Castello delle Quattro Torri, built in 1358,
and now a prison. One of the four towers was destroyed by
lightning in 1676. A tramway runs to Santhia.
The ancient Eporedia, standing at the junction of the roads
from Augusta Taurinorum and Vercellae, at the point where
the road to Augusta Praetoria enters the narrow valley of the
Duria (Dora Baltea), was a military position of considerable
importance belonging to the Salassi who inhabited the whole
upper valley of the Duria. The importance of the gold-mines
of the district led to its seizure by the Romans in 143 B.C. The
centre of the mining industry seems to have been Victumulae
(see TICINUM), until in 100 B.C. a colony of Roman citizens was
founded at Eporedia itself; but the prosperity of this was only
assured when the Salassi were finally defeated in 25 B.C. and
Augusta Praetoria founded. There are remains of a theatre
of the time of the Antonines and the Ponte Vecchio rests on
Roman foundations.
In the middle ages Ivrea was the capital of a Lombard duchy,
and later of a marquisate; both Berengar II. (950) and Arduin
(1002) became kings of Italy for a short period. Later it sub-
mitted to the marquises of Monferrato, and in the middle of the
1 4th century passed to the house of Savoy. (T. As.)
IVRY-SUR-SEINE, a town of northern France, in the depart-
ment of Seine, near the left bank of the Seine, less than i m.
S.S.E. of the fortifications of Paris. Pop. (1906) 30,532. Ivry
has a large hospital for incurables. It manufactures organs,
earthenware, wall-paper and rubber, and has engineering works,
breweries, and oil-works, its trade being facilitated by a port
on the Seine. The town is dominated by a fort of the older line
of defence of Paris.
IVY (A.S. ifig, Ger. Epheu, perhaps connected with apium,
S.TTIOV), the collective designation of certain species and
varieties of Hedera, a member of the natural order Araliaceae.
Fig. I. — Ivy (Hedera Helix) fruiting branch, J nat. size,
i. Flower. 2. Fruit.
There are fifty species of ivy recorded in modern books, but they
may be reduced to two, or at the most, three. The European ivy,
Hedera Helix (fig. i), is a plant subject to infinite variety in the
forms and colours of its leaves, but the tendency of which is
always to a three- to five-lobed form when climbing and a regular
ovate form of leaf when producing flower and fruit. The African
ivy, H . canariensis, often regarded as a variety of H. Helix and
known as the Irish ivy, is a
native of North Africa and the
adjacent islands. It is the com-
mon large-leaved climbing ivy,
and also varies, but in a less
degree than H. Helix, from
which its leaves differ in their
larger size, rich deep green colour ,
and a prevailing tendency to a
five-lobed outline. When in fruit
the leaves are usually three-
lobed, but they are sometimes
entire and broadly ovate. The
Asiatic ivy, H. colchica (fig. 2),
now considered to be a form of
H . Helix, has ovate, obscurely
three-lobed leaves of a coriaceous texture and a deep green
colour; in the tree or fruiting form the leaves are narrower
than in the climbing form, and without any trace of lobes.
Distinctive characters are also to be found in the appendages of
the pedicels and calyx, H. Helix having six-rayed stellate
hairs, H. canariensis fifteen-rayed hairs and H. colchica yellowish
two-lobed scales.
The Australian ivy, H, australiana, is a small glabrous shrub
FIG. 2. — Hedera colchica,
I nat. size.
IWAKURA
101
FIG. 3. — Climbing Shoot of Ivy.
with pinnate leaves. It is a native of Queensland, and is
practically unknown in cultivation.
It is of the utmost importance to note the difference of char-
acters of the same species of ivy in its two conditions of climbing
and fruiting. The first stage of growth, which we will suppose
to be from the seed, is essentially scandent, and the leaves are
lobed more or less. This stage is accompanied with a plentiful
production of the claspers or modified roots by means of which
the plant becomes at-
tached and obtains sup-
port. When it has
reached the summit of
the tree .or tower, the
stems, being no longer
able to maintain a per-
pendicular attitude,
fall over and become
horizontal or pendent.
Coincidently with this
change they cease to
produce claspers, and
the leaves are strik-
ingly modified in form,
being now narrower
and less lobed than
on the ascending
stems. In due time this tree-like growth produces terminal
umbels of greenish flowers, which have the parts in fives,
with the styles united into a very short one. These flowers
are succeeded by smooth black or yellow berries, containing two
to five seeds. The yellow-berried ivy is met with in northern
India and in Italy, but in northern Europe it is known only as
a curiosity of the garden, where, if sufficiently sheltered and
nourished, it becomes an exceedingly beautiful and fruitful tree.
It is stated in books that some forms of sylvestral ivy never
flower, but a negative declaration of this kind is valueless.
Sylvestral ivies of great age may be found in woods on the
western coasts of Britain that have apparently never flowered,
but this is probably to be explained by their inability to surmount
the trees supporting them, for until the plant can spread its
branches horizontally in full daylight, the flowering or tree-like
growth is never formed.
A question of great practical importance arises out of the
relation of the plant to its means of support. A moderate growth
of ivy is not injurious to trees; still the tendency is from the first
inimical to the prosperity of the tree, and at a certain stage it
becomes deadly. Therefore the growth of ivy on trees should be
kept within reasonable bounds, more especially in the case of
trees that are of special value for their beauty, history, or the
quality of their timber. In regard to buildings clothed with
ivy, there is nothing to be feared so long as the plant does not
penetrate the substance of the wall by means of any fissure.
Should it thrust its way in, the natural and continuous expansion
of its several parts will necessarily hasten the decay of the
edifice. But a fair growth of ivy on sound walls that afford no
entrance beyond the superficial attachment of the claspers is,
without any exception whatever, beneficial. It promotes dryness
and warmth, reduces to a minimum the corrosive action of the
atmosphere, and is altogether as conservative as it is beautiful.
The economical uses of the ivy are not of great importance.
The leaves are eaten greedily by horses, deer, cattle and sheep,
and in times of scarcity have proved useful. The flowers afford a
good supply of honey to bees; and, as they appear in autumn,
they occasionally make amends for the shortcomings of the
season. The berries are eaten by wood pigeons, blackbirds and
thrushes. From all parts of the plant a balsamic bitter may
be obtained, and this in the form of hederic acid is the only
preparation of ivy known to chemists.
In the garden the uses of the ivy are innumerable, and the
least known though not the least valuable of them is the cultiva-
tion of the plant as a bush or tree, the fruiting growth being
selected for this purpose. The variegated tree forms of H, Helix,
with leaves of creamy white, golden green or rich deep orange
yellow, soon prove handsome miniature trees, that thrive
almost as well in smoky town gardens as in the pure air of the
country, and that no ordinary winter will injure in the least.
The tree-form of the Asiatic ivy (H. colchica) is scarcely to be
equalled in beauty of leafage by any evergreen shrub known to
English gardens, and, although in the course of a few years it will
attain to a stature of 5 or 6 ft., it is but rarely we meet with it,
or indeed with tree ivies of any kind, but little attention having
been given to this subject until recent years. The scandent forms
are more generally appreciated, and are now much employed in
the formation of marginal lines, screens and trained pyramids,
as well as for clothing walls. A very striking example of the
capabilities of the commonest ivies, when treated artistically
as garden plants, may be seen in the Zoological Gardens of
Amsterdam, where several paddocks are enclosed with wreaths,
garlands and bands of ivy in a most picturesque manner.
About sixty varieties known in gardens are figured and
described in The Ivy, a Monograph, by Shirley Hibberd (1872).
To cultivate these is an extremely simple matter, as they will
thrive in a poor soil and endure a considerable depth of shade,
so that they may with advantage be planted under trees. The
common Irish ivy is often to be seen clothing the ground beneath
large yew trees where grass would not live, and it is occasionally
planted hi graveyards in London to form an imitation of grass
turf, for which purpose it is admirably suited.
The ivy, like the holly, is a scarce plant on the American
continent. In the northern United States and British America
the winters are not more severe than the ivy can endure, but
the summers are too hot and dry, and the requirements of the
plant have not often obtained attention. In districts where
native ferns abound the ivy will be found to thrive, and the
varieties of Hedera Helix should have the preference. But in
the drier districts ivies might often be planted on the north side
of buildings, and, if encouraged with water and careful training
for three or four years, would then grow rapidly and train them-
selves. A strong light is detrimental to the growth of ivy, but
this enhances its value, for we have no hardy plants that may
be compared with it for variety and beauty that will endure
shade with equal patience.
The North American poison ivy (poison oak), Khus Toxico-
dendron (nat. order Anacardiaceae), is a climber with pinnately
compound leaves, which are very attractive in their autumn
colour but poisonous to the touch to some persons, while others
can handle the plant without injury. The effects are redness
and violent itching followed by fever and a vesicular eruption.
The ground ivy, Nepeta Glechoma (nat. order Labiatae), is a
small creeping plant with rounded crenate leaves and small
blue-purple flowers, occurring in hedges and thickets.
IWAKURA, TOMOMI, PRINCE (1835-1883), Japanese states-
man, was born in Kioto. He was one of the court nobles (kuge)^
of Japan, and he traced his descent to the emperor Murakami
(A.D. 947-967). A man of profound ability and singular force of
character, he acted a leading part in the complications preceding
the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate, and was obliged to fly from
Kioto accompanied by his coadjutor, Prince Sanjo. They took
refuge with the Daimyo of Choshu, and, while there, established
relations which contributed greatly to the ultimate union of the
two great fiefs, Satsuma and Choshu, for the work of the Restora-
tion. From 1867 until the day of his death Iwakura was one
of the most prominent figures on the political stage. In 1871
he proceeded to America and Europe at the head of an imposing
embassy of some fifty persons, the object being to explain to
foreign governments the actual conditions existing in Japan,
and to pave the way for negotiating new treaties consistent
with her sovereign rights. Little success attended the mission.
Returning to Japan in 1873, Iwakura found the cabinet divided
as to the manner of dealing with Korea's insulting attitude.
He advocated peace, and his influence carried the day, thus
removing a difficulty which, though apparently of minor dimen-
sions, might have changed the whole course of Japan's modern
history.
102
IXION— IZU-NO-SHICHI-TO
IXION, in Greek legend, son of Phlegyas, king of the Lapithae
in Thessaly (or of Ares), and husband of Dia. According to
custom he promised his father-in-law, Deioneus, a handsome
bridal present, but treacherously murdered him when he claimed
the fulfilment of the promise. As a punishment, Ixion was
seized with madness, until Zeus purified him of hh crime and
admitted him as a guest to Olympus. Ixion abused his pardon
by trying to seduce Hera; but the goddess substituted for herself
a cloud, by which he became the father of the Centaurs. Zeus
bound him on a fiery wheel, which rolls unceasingly through the
air or (according to the later version) in the underworld (Pindar,
Pythia, ii. 21; Ovid, Metam. iv. 461; Virgil, Aeneid, vi. 601).
Ixion is generally taken to represent the eternally moving sun.
Another explanation connects the story with the practice
(among certain peoples of central Europe) of carrying a blazing,
revolving wheel through fields which needed the heat of the sun,
the legend being invented to explain the custom and subsequently
adopted by the Greeks (see Mannhardt, Wold- und Feldkulte,
ii. 1905, p. 83). In view of the fact that theoak was the sun-god's
tree and that the mistletoe grew upon it, it is suggested by A. B.
Cook (Class. Rev. xvii. 420) that 'Il-Uav is derived from ££6s
(mistletoe), the sun's fire being regarded as an emanation from
the mistletoe. Ixion himself is probably a by-form of Zeus
(Usener in Rhein. Mus. liii. 345).
" The Myth of Ixion " (by C. Smith, in Classical Review, June
1895) deals with the subject of a red-figure cantharus in the British
Museum.
IXTACCIHUATL, or IZTACCIHUATL (" white woman "), a
lofty mountain of volcanic origin, 10 m. N. of Popocatepetl and
about 40 m. S.S.E of the city of Mexico, forming part of the short
spur called the Sierra Nevada. According to Angelo Heilprin
(1853-1907) its elevation is 16,960 ft.; other authorities make it
much less. Its apparent height is dwarfed somewhat by its
elongated summit and the large area covered. It has three
summits of different heights standing on a north and south line,
the central one being the largest and highest and all three rising
above the permanent snow-line. As seen from the city of Mexico
the three summits have the appearance of a shrouded human
figure, hence the poetic Aztec appellation of " white woman "
and the unsentimental Spanish designation " La mujer gorda."
The ascent is difficult and perilous, and is rarely accomplished.
Heilprin says that the mountain is largely composed of trachytic
rocks and that it is older than Popocatepetl. It has no crater and no
trace of lingering volcanic heat. It is surmised that its crater, if it
ever had one, has been filled in and its cone worn away by erosion
through long periods of time.
IYRCAE, an ancient nation on the north-east trade route
described by Herodotus (iv. 22) beyond the Thyssagetae, some-
where about the upper basins of the Tobol and the Irtysh.
They were distinguished by their mode of hunting, climbing a
tree to survey their game, and then pursuing it with trained
horses and dogs. They were almost certainly the ancestors
of the modern Magyars, also called Jugra.
The reading TCpxai is an anachronism, and when Pliny (N.H. vi.
19) and Mela (i. 1 16) speak of Tyrcae it is also probably due to a false
correction. (E. H. M.)
IZBARTA, or SPARTA [anc. Boris], the chief town of the
Hamid-abad sanjak of the Konia vilayet, in Asia Minor, well
situated on the edge of a fertile plain at the foot of Aghlasun
Dagh. It was once the capital of the Emirate of Hamid. It
suffered severely from the earthquake of the 1 6th- 1 7th of
January 1 889 It is a prosperous place with an enlightened Greek
element in its population (hence the numerous families called
" Spartali " in Levantine towns); a'nd it is, in fact, the chief
inland colony of Hellenism in Anatolia. Pop. 20,000 (Moslems
13,000, Christians 7000). The new Aidin railway extends from
Dineir to Izbarta via Buldur.
IZHEVSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Vyatka,
140 m. S.W. of Perm and 22 m. W. from the Kama, on the Izh
river. Pop. (1897) 21,500. It has one of the principal steel and
rifle works of the Russian crown, started in 1807. The making
of sporting guns is an active industry.
IZMAIL, or .ISMAIL, a town of Russia, in the government
of Bessarabia, on the left bank of the Kilia branch of the Danube,
35 m. below Reni railway station. Pop. (1866) 31,779, (1900)
33,607, comprising Great and Little Russians, Bulgarians,
Jews and Gipsies. There are flour-mills and a trade in cereals,
wool, tallow and hides. Originally a Turkish fortified post,
Izmail had by the end of the i8th century grown into a place
of 30,000 inhabitants. It was occupied by the Russians in
1770, and twenty years later its capture was one of the brilliant
achievements of the Russian general, Count A. V. Suvarov.
On that occasion the garrison was 40,000 strong, and the assault
cost the assailants 10,000 and the defenders 30,000 men. The
victory was the theme of one of the Russian poet G. R. Der-
zhavin's odes. In 1809 the town was again captured by the
Russians; and, when in 1812 it was assigned to them by the
Bucharest peace, they chose it as the central station for their
Danube fleet. It was about this time that the town of Tuchkov,
with which it was later (1830) incorporated, grew up outside of
the fortifications. These were dismantled in accordance with
the treaty of Paris (1856), by which Izmail was made over to
Rumania. The town was again transferred to Russia by the
peace of Berlin (1878).
IZU-NO-SHICHI-TO, the seven (shichi) islands (to) of Izu,
included in the empire of Japan. They stretch in a southerly
direction from a point near the mouth of Tokyo Bay, and lie
between 33° and 34° 48' N. and between 139° and 140° E.
Their names, beginning from the north, are Izu-no-Oshima,
To-shima, Nii-shima, Kozu-shima, Miyake-shima and Hachijo-
shima. There are some islets in their immediate vicinity.
Izu-no-Oshima, an island 10 m. long and 5^ m. wide, is 15 m.
from the nearest point of the Izu promontory. It is known to
western cartographers as Vries Island, a name derived from that
of Captain Martin Gerritsz de Vries, a Dutch navigator, who is
supposed to have discovered the island in 1643. But the group
was known to the Japanese from a remote period, and used as
convict settlements certainly from the 1 2th century and probably
from a still earlier era. Hachijo, the most southerly, is often
erroneously written " Fatsisio " on English charts. Izu-no-
Oshima is remarkable for its smoking volcano, Mihara-yama
(2461 ft.), a conspicuous object to all ships bound for Yokohama.
Three others of the islands — Nii-shima, Kozu-shima and
Miyake-shima — have active volcanoes. Those on Nii-shima and
Kozu-shima are of inconsiderable size, but that on Miyake-
shima, namely, Oyama, rises to a height of 2707 ft. The most
southerly island, Hachijo-shima, has a still higher peak, Dsubo-
take (2838 ft.), but it does not emit any smoke.
J— JABLOCHKOV
103
JA letter of the alphabet which, as far as form is concerned,
is only a modification of the Latin I and dates back
with a separate value only to the isth century. It
was first used as a special form of initial I, the ordinary
form being kept for use in other positions. As, however, in
many cases initial i had the consonantal value of the English y
in iugum (yoke), &c., the symbol came to be used for the value of
y, a value which it still retains in German: Jal Jung, &c.
Initially it is pronounced in English as an affricate dzh. The
great majority of English words beginning with j are (i) of
foreign (mostly French) origin, as "jaundice," "judge"; (2)
imitative of sound, like " jar " (the verb); or (3) influenced by
• analogy, like " jaw " (influenced by chaw, according to Skeat) . In
early French g when palatalized by e or i sounds became con-
fused with consonantal i (y), and both passed into the sound of
.;' which is still preserved in English. A similar sound-change
takes place in other languages, e.g. Lithuanian, where the
resulting sound is spelt dz. Modern French and also Provencal
and Portuguese have changed j=dzh into z (zh). The sound
initially is sometimes represented in English by g: gem, gaol as
well as jail. At the end of modern English words the same
sound is represented by -dge as in judge, French juge. In this
position, however, the sound occurs also in genuine English
words like bridge, sedge, singe, but this is true only for the
southern dialects on which the literary language is founded. In
the northern dialects the pronunciation as brig, seg, sing still
survives. (P. Gi.)
JA'ALIN (from Ja'al, to settle, i.e. " the squatters "), an
African tribe of Semitic stock. They formerly occupied the
country on both banks of the Nile from Khartum to Abu
Hamed. They claim to be of the Koreish tribe and even trace
descent from Abbas, uncle of the prophet. They are of Arab
origin, but now of very mixed blood. According to their own
tradition they emigrated to Nubia in the izth century. They
were at one time subject to the Funj kings, but their position
was in a measure independent. At the Egyptian invasion in
1820 they were the most powerful of Arab tribes in the Nile
valley. They submitted at first, but in 1822 rebelled and
massacred the Egyptian garrison at Shendi. The revolt was
mercilessly suppressed, and the Ja'alin were thenceforward
looked on with suspicion. They were almost the first of the
northern tribes to join the mahdi in 1884, and it was their position
to the north of Khartum which made communication with
General Gordon so difficult. The Ja'alin are now a semi-nomad
agricultural people. Many are employed in Khartum as ser-
vants, scribes and watchmen. They are a proud religious
people, formerly notorious as cruel slave dealers. J. L. Burck-
hardt says the true Ja'alin from the eastern desert is exactly
like the Bedouin of eastern Arabia.
See The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen
(London, 1905).
JABIRU, according to Marcgrave the Brazilian name of a bird,
subsequently called by Linnaeus Mycteria americana, one of the
largest of the storks, Ciconiidae, which occurs from Mexico
southwards to the territory of the Argentine Republic. It
stands between 4 and 5 ft. in height, and is conspicuous for its
massive bill, slightly upturned, and its entirely white plumage;
but the head and neck are bare and black, except for about the
lower third part of the latter, which is bright red in the living
bird. Very nearly allied to Mycteria, and also commonly called
jabirus, are the birds of the genera Xenorhymhus and Ephippio-
rhynchus — the former containing one or (in the opinion of
some) two species, X. auslralis and X. indicus, and the latter
one only, E. senegalensis. These belong to the countries
indicated by their names, and differ chiefly by their feathered
head and neck, while the last is sometimes termed the saddle-
billed stork from the very singular shape of its beak. Somewhat
more distantly relat >-d are the gigantic birds known to Europeans
in India and elsewhere as adjutant birds, belonging to the genus
Leptuptilus, distinguished by their sad-coloured plumage, their
black scabrous head, and their enormous tawny pouch, which
depends occasionally some 16 in. or more in length from the lower
part of the neck, and seems to be connected with the respiratory
and not, as commonly believed, with the digestive system.
In many parts of India L. dubius, the largest of these birds, the
hargila as Hindus call it, is a most efficient scavenger, sailing
aloft at a vast height and descending on the discovery of offal,
though frogs and fishes also form part of its diet. It familiarly
enters the large towns, in many of which an account of its services
it is strictly protected from injury, and, having satisfied its
appetite, seeks the repose it has earned, sitting with its feet
Jabiru.
extended in front in a most grotesque attitude. A second and
smaller species, L. javanicus, has a more southern and eastern
range; while a third, L. crumenifer, of African origin, and often
known as the marabou-stork, gives its name to the beautifully
soft feathers so called, which are the under-tail-coverts; the
" marabout " feathers of the plume-trade are mostly supplied
by other birds, the term being apparently applied to any downy
feathers. (A. N.)
JABLOCHKOV, PAUL (1847-1894), Russian electrical engi-
neer and inventor, was born at Serdobsk, in the government of
Saratov, on the i4th of September 1847, and educated at St
Petersburg. In 1871 he was appointed director of the telegraph
lines between Moscow and Kursk, but in 1875 he resigned his
position in order to devote himself to his researches on electric
lighting by arc lamps, which he had already taken up. In 1876
he settled in Paris, and towards the end of the year brought out
his famous " candles," known by his name, which consisted of
two carbon parallel rods, separated by a non-conducting par-
tition; alternating currents were employed, and the candle was
operated by a high-resistance carbon match connecting the tips
of the rods, a true arc forming between the parallel carbons
when this burnt off, and the separators volatilizing as the
carbons burnt away. For a few years his system of electric
lighting was widely adopted, but it was gradually superseded
IO4
JABLONSKI— JABORANDI
(see LIGHTING: Electric) and is no longer in use. Jablochkov
made various other electrical inventions, but he died in poverty,
having returned to Russia on the igth of March 1894.
JABLONSKI, DANIEL ERNST (1660-1741), German theo-
logian, was born at Nassenhuben, near Danzig, on the 2Oth of
November 1660. His father was a minister of the Moravian
Church, who bad taken the name of Peter Figulus on his bap-
tism; the son, however, preferred the Bohemian family name of
Jablonski. His maternal grandfather, Johann Amos Comenius
(d. 1670), was a bishop of the Moravian Church. Having studied
at Frankfort-on-the-Oder and at Oxford, Jablonski entered upon
his career as a preacher at Magdeburg in 1683, and then from
1686 to 1691 he was the head of the Moravian college at Lissa,
a position which had been filled by his grandfather. Still retain-
ing his connexion with the Moravians, he was appointed court
preacher at Konigsberg in 1691 by the elector of Brandenburg,
Frederick III., and here, entering upon a career of great activity,
he soon became a person of influence in court circles. In 1693
he was transferred to Berlin as court preacher, and in 1699 he
was consecrated a bishop of the Moravian Church. At Berlin
Jablonski worked hard to bring about a union between the
followers of Luther and those of Calvin; the courts of Berlin,
Hanover, Brunswick and Gotha were interested in his scheme,
and his principal helper was the philosopher Leibnitz. His idea
appears to have been to form a general union between the
German, the English and the Swiss Protestants, and thus to
establish una eademque sancta calholica el apostolica eademque
evangelica et reformata ecclesia. For some years negotiations
were carried on with a view to attaining this end, but eventually
it was found impossible to surmount the many difficulties in the
way ; Jablonski and Leibnitz, however, did not cease to believe
in the possibility of accomplishing their purpose. Jablonski's
next plan was to reform the Church of Prussia by introducing
into it the episcopate, and also the liturgy of the English
Church, but here again he was unsuccessful. As a scholar
Jablonski brought out a Hebrew edition of the Old Testament,
and translated Bentley's A Confutation of Atheism into Latin
(1696). He had some share in founding the Berlin Academy of
Sciences, of which he was president in 1733, and he received
a degree from the university of Oxford. He died on the 25th
of May 1741.
Jablonski's son, Paul Ernst Jablonski (1693-1757), was pro-
fessor of theology and philosophy at the university of Frankfort-
on-the-Oder.
Editions of the letters which passed between Jablonski and
Leibnitz, relative to the pioposed union, were published at Leipzig
in 1747 and at Dorpat in 1899.
JABORANDI, a name given in a generic manner in Brazil and
South America generally to a number of different plants, all
of which possess more or less marked sialogogue and sudorific
properties. In the year 1875 a drug was introduced under the
above name to the notice of medical men in France by Dr
Coutinho of Pernambuco, its botanical source being then un-
known. Pilocarpus pennatifolius, a member of the natural
order Rutaceae, the plant from which it is obtained, is a slightly
branched shrub about 10 ft. high, growing in Paraguay and the
eastern provinces of Brazil. The leaves, which are placed
alternately on the stem, are often ii ft. long, and consist of from
two to five pairs of opposite leaflets, the terminal one having a
longer pedicel than the others. The leaflets are oval, lanceolate,
entire and obtuse, with the apex often slightly indented, from
3 to 4 in. long and i to ij in. broad in the middle. When held
up to the light they may be observed to have scattered all over
them numerous pellucid dots or receptacles of secretion immersed
in the substance of the leaf. The leaves in size and texture
bear some resemblance to those of the cherry-laurel (Prunus
laurocerasus), but are less polished on the upper surface. The
flowers, which are produced in spring and early summer, are
borne on a raceme, 6 or 8 in. long, and the fruit consists of five
carpels, of which not more than two or three usually arrive at
maturity. The leaves are the part of the plant usually imported,
although occasionally the stems and roots are attached to them.
The active principle for which the name ptiocarpine, suggested by
Holmes, was ultimately adopted, was discovered almost simulta-
neously by Hardy in France and Gerrard in England, but was first
obtained in a pure state by Petit of Paris. It is a liquid alkaloid,
slightly soluble in water, and very soluble in alcohol, ether and
chloroform. It strongly rotates the plane of polarization to the
right, and forms crystalline salts of which the nitrate is that
chiefly used in medicine. The nitrate and phosphate are
insoluble in ether, chloroform and benzol, while the hydro-
chlorate and hydrobromate dissolve both in these menstrua and
in water and alcohol; the sulphate and acetate being deliques-
cent are not employed medicinally. The formula of the alkaloid
is CUH16N2O2.
Certain other alkaloids are present in the leaves. They have
been named jaborine, jaboridine and pilocarpidine. The first
of these is the most important and constant. It is possibly
derived from pilocarpine, and has the formula CjjHszN^Oi.
Jaborine resembles atropine pharmacologically, and is there-
fore antagonistic to pilocarpine. The various preparations of
Jaborandi — a, leaf (reduced) ; b, leaflet (natural size) ; c, flower;
d, fruit (natural size).
jaborandi leaves are therefore undesirable for therapeutic pur-
poses, and only the nitrate of pilocarpine itself should be used.
This is a white crystalline powder, soluble in the ratio of about
one part in ten of cold water. The dose is •j'o-i grain by the
mouth, and up to one-third of a grain hypodermically, in which
fashion it is usually given.
The action of this powerful alkaloid closely resembles_that of
physostigmine, but whereas the latter is specially active in influ-
encing the heart, the eye and the spinal cord, pilocarpine exerts its
greatest power on the secretions. It has no external action. When
taken by the mouth the drug is rapidly absorbed and stimulates the
secretions of the entire alimentary tract, though not of the liver.
The action on the salivary glands is the most marked and the best
understood. The great flow of saliva is due to an action of the drug,
after absorption, on the terminations of the chorda tympani, sym-
pathetic and other nerves of salivary secretion. The gland cells
themselves are unaffected. The nerves are so violently excited
that direct stimulation of them by electricity adds nothing to the
rate of salivary flow. The action is antagonized by atropine, whjch
paralyses the nerve terminals. About iJuth of a grain of atropine
JACA— JAQANA
antagonizes half a grain of pilocarpine. The circulation is depressed
by the drug, the pulse being slowed and the blood pressure falling.
The cardiac action is due to stimulation of the vagus, but the dilata-
tion of the blood-vessels does not appear to be due to a specific
action upon them. The drug does not kill by its action on the heart.
Its dangerous action is upon the bronchial secretion, which is greatly
increased. Pilocarpine is not only the most powerful sialogogue
but also the most powerful diaphoretic known. One dose may cause
the flow of nearly a pint of sweat in an hour. The action is due, as
in the case of the salivation, to stimulation of the terminals of the
sudorific nerves. According to K. Binz there is also in both cases
an action on the medullary centres for these secretions. Just as the
saliva is a true secretion containing a high proportion of ptyalin and
salts, and is not a mere transudation of water, so the perspiration is
found to contain a high ratio of urea and chlorides. The great
diaphoresis and the depression of the circulation usually cause a fall
in temperature of about 2° F. The drug is excreted unchanged in
the urine. It is a mild diuretic. When given internally or applied
locally to the eye it powerfully stimulates the terminals of the
oculomotor nerves in the iris and ciliary muscle, causing ext erne
contraction of the pupil and spasm of accommodation. The tension
'• of the eyeball is at first raised but afterwards lowered.
The chief therapeutic use of the drug is as a diaphoretic in chronic
Bright's disease. It is also used to aid the growth of the hair — in
which it is sometimes successful; in cases of inordinate thirst,
when one-tenth of a grain with a little bismuth held in the mouth
may be of much value; in cases of lead and mercury poisoning,
where it aids the elimination of the poison in the secretions; as a
galactagogue ; and in cases of atropine poisoning (though here it
is of doubtful value).
JACA, a city of northern Spain, in the province of Huesca,
114 m. by rail N. by W. of Saragossa, on the left bank of the
river Aragon, and among the southern slopes of the Pyrenees,
2380 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1900), 4934. Jaca is an episcopal
see, and was formerly the capital of the Aragonese county of
Sobrarbe. Its massive Gothic cathedral dates at least from the
nth century, and possibly from the 9th. The city derives some
importance from its position on the ancient frontier road from
Saragossa to Pau. In August 1904 the French and Spanish
governments agreed to supplement this trade-route by building
a railway from Oloion in the Basses Pyrenees to Jaca. Various
frontier defence works were constructed in the neighbourhood at
the close of the igth century.
The origin of the city is unknown. The Jaccetani ('laKKriravoi)
are mentioned as one of the most celebrated of the numerous
small tribes inhabiting the basin of the Ebro by Strabo, who adds
that their territory was the theatre of the wars which took place
in the ist century B.C. between Sertorius and Pompey. They
are probably identical with the Lacetani of Livy (xxi. 60, 61) and
Caesar (B.C. i. 60). Early in the 8th century Jaca fell into the
possession of the Moors, by whose writers it is referred to under
the name of Dyaka as one of the chief places in the province of
Sarkosta (Saragossa). The date of its reconquest is uncertain,
but it must have been before the time of Ramiro I. of Aragon
(1035-1063), who gave it the title of " city," and in 1063 held
within its walls a council, which, inasmuch as the people were
called in to sanction its decrees, is regarded as of great impor-
tance in the history of the parliamentary institutions of the
Peninsula. In 1705 Jaca supported King Philip V. from whom,
in consequence, it received the title of muy noble, muy leal y
vencedora, " most noble, most loyal and victorious." During
the Peninsular War it surrendered to the French in 1809, and
was recaptured in 1814.
JACAMAR, a word formed by Brisson from Jacameri, the
Brazilian name of a bird, as given by Marcgrave, and since
adopted in most European tongues for the species to which it
was first applied and others allied to it, forming the family
Galbulidae1 of ornithologists, the precise position of which is
uncertain, since the best authorities differ. All will agree that
the jacamars belong to the great heterogeneous group called by
Nitzsch Picariae, but further into detail it is hardly safe to go.
The Galbulidae have zygodactylous or pair-toed feet, like the
Cuadidae, Bucconidae and Picidae, they also resemble both the
latter in laying glossy white eggs, but in this respect they bear
the same resemblance to the Momotidae, Akedinidae, Meropidae
1 Galbula was first applied to Marcgrave's bird by Moehring. It
is another form of Galguliis, and seems to have been one of the many
names of the golden oriole. See ICTERUS.
and some other groups, to which affinity has been claimed for
them. In the opinion of Sclater (A Monograph of the Jacamars and
Puf -birds) the jacamars form two groups — one consisting of the
single genus and species Jacamerops aureus (J. grandis of most
authors), and the other including all the rest, viz. Urogalba with
two species, Galbula with nine, Brachygalba with five, and Jaca-
maralcyon and Galbalcyrhynchus with one each. They are all
rather small birds, the largest known being little over 10 in. in
length, with long and sharply pointed bills, and the plumage
more or less resplendent with golden or bronze reflections, but
at the same time comparatively soft. Jacamaralcyon tridactyla
differs from all the rest in possessing but three toes (as its name
indicates), on each foot, the hallux being deficient. With the
exception of Galbula melanogenia, which is found also in Central
America and southern Mexico, all the jacamars inhabit the
tropical portions of South America eastward of the Andes,
Galbttla ruficauda, however, extending its range to the islands of
Trinidad and Tobago.2 Very little is known of the habits of any
of the species. They are seen sitting motionless on trees, some-
times solitarily, at other times in companies, whence they suddenly
dart off at any passing insect, catch it on the wing, and return
to their perch. Of their nidification almost nothing has been
recorded, but the species occurring in Tobago is said by Kirk to
make its nest in marl-banks, digging a hole about an inch and a
half in diameter and some 18 in. deep. (A. N.)
JAfANA, the Brazilian name, according to Marcgrave, of
certain birds, since found to have some allies in other parts of the
world, which are also very generally called by the same appella-
tion. They have been most frequently classed with the water-
hens or rails (Rallidae), but are now recognized by many system-
atists as forming a separate family, Parridae,3 whose leaning
seems to be rather towards the Limicolae, as apparently first
Pheasant-tailed Jacana.
suggested by Blyth, a view which is supported by the osteological
observations of Parker (Proc. Zool. Society, 1863, p. 513), though
denied by A. Milne-Edwards (Ois. foss. de la France, ii. p. no).
The most obvious characteristic of this group of birds is the
extraordinary length of their toes and claws, whereby they are
enabled to walk with ease over water-h'lies and other aquatic
plants growing in rivers and lakes. The family has been divided
into four genera — of which Parra, as now restricted, inhabits
South America; Melopidius, hardly differing from it, has
representatives in Africa, Madagascar and the Indian region;
Hydralector, also very nearly allied to Parra, belongs to the
2 The singular appearance, recorded by Canon Tristram (Zoologist,
p. 3906), of a bird of this species in Lincolnshire seems to require
notice. No instance seems to be known of any jacamar having been
kept in confinement or brought to this country alive; but expert
aviculturists are often not communicative, and many importations
of rare birds have doubtless passed unrecorded.
3 The classic Parra is by some authors thought to have been the
golden oriole (see ICTERUS), while others suppose it was a jay or
pie. The word seems to have been imported into ornithology by
Aldrovandus, but the reason which prompted Linnaeus to apply it,
as he seems first to have done, to a bird of this group, cannot be
satisfactorily stated.
io6
JACINI— JACK
northern portion of the Australian region; and Hydrophasianus,
the most extravagant form of the whole, is found in India, Ceylon
and China. In habits the jaf anas have much in common with the
water-hens, but that fact is insufficient to warrant the affinity
asserted to exist between the two groups; for in their osteological
structure there is much difference, and the resemblance seems
to be only that of analogy. The Parridae lay very peculiar eggs
of a rich olive-brown colour, in most cases closely marked with
dark lines, thus presenting an appearance by which they may
be readily known from those of any other birds, though an
approach to it is occasionally to be noticed in those of certain
Limicolae, and especially of certain Charadriidae. (A, N.)
JACINI, STEP AND, COUNT (1827-1891), Italian statesman and
economist, was descended from an old and wealthy Lombard
family. He studied in Switzerland, at Milan, and in German
universities. During the period of the Austrian restoration in
Lombardy (1840-1859) he devoted himself to literary and
economic studies. For his work on La Proprietd fondiaria in
Lombardia (Milan, 1856) he received a prize from the Milanese
SocietA d'incoraggiamento di scienze e leltere and was made a
member of the Istituto Lombardo. In another work, Sulle
condizioni economiche ddla Vallellina (Milan, 1858, translated
into English by W. E. Gladstone), he exposed the evils of
Austrian rule, and he drew up a report on the general conditions
of Lombardy and Venetia for Cavour. He was minister of Public
Works under Cavour in 1860-1861, in 1864 under La Marmora,
and down to 1867 under Ricasoli. In 1866 he presented a bill
favouring Italy's participation in the construction of the St
Gotthard tunnel. He was instrumental in bringing about the
alliance with Prussia for the war of 1866 against Austria, and in
the organization of the Italian railways. From 1881 to 1886 he
was president of the commission to inquire into the agricultural
conditions of Italy, and edited the voluminous report on the
subject. He was created senator in 1870, and given the title
of count in 1880. He died in 1891.
L. Carpi's Risorgimento italiano, vol. iv. (Milan, 1888), contains a
short sketch of Jacini's life.
JACK, a word with a great variety of meanings and appli-
cations, all traceable to the common use of the word as a
by-name of a man. The question has been much discussed
whether " Jack " as a name is an adaptation of Fr. Jacques,
i.e. James, from Lat. Jacobus, Gr. 'laxco/iJoj, or whether it is a
direct pet formation from John, which is its earliest and universal
use in English. In the History of the Monastery of St Augustine
at Canterbury, 1414, Jack is given as a form of John — Mas esl
Saxonum . . . verba et nontina transformare ....«/... pro
Johanne Jankin sive Jacke (see E. W. B. Nicholson, The Pedigree
of Jack and other Allied Names, 1892). " Jack " was early used
as a general term for any man of the common people, especially
in combination with the woman's name Jill or Gill, as in the
nursery rhyme. The New English Dictionary quotes from the
Coventry Mysteries, 1450: " And I wole kepe the feet this tyde
Thow ther come both lakke and Gylle." Familiar examples of
this generic application of the name are Jack or Jack Tar for a
sailor, which seems to date from the i?th century, and such
compound uses as cheap-jack and steeple-jack, or such expres-
sions as " jack in office," " jack of all trades," &c. It is a further
extension of this that gives the name to the knave in a pack of
cards, and also to various animals, as jackdaw, jack-snipe, jack-
rabbit (a species of large prairie-hare); it is also used as a
general name for pike.
The many applications of the word " jack " to mechanical
devices and other objects follow two lines of reference, one to
objects somewhat smaller than the ordinary, the other to appli-
ances which take the place of direct manual labour or assist or
save it. Of the first class may be noticed the use of the term for
the small object bowl in the game of bowls or for jack rafters,
those rafters in a building shorter than the main rafters, espe-
cially the end rafters in a hipped roof. The use of jack as the name
for a particular form of ship's flag probably arose thus, for it is
always a smaller flag than the ensign. The jack is flown on a
staff on the bowsprit of a vessel. In the British navy the jack
is a small Union flag. (The Union flag should not be styled a
Union Jack except when it is flown as a jack.) The jack of other
nations is usually the canton of the ensign, as in the German and
the United States navies, or else is a smaller form of the national
ensign, as in France. (See FLAG.)
The more common use of " jack " is for various mechanical
and other devices originally used as substitutes for men or boys.
Thus the origin of the boot-jack and the meat-jack is explained
in Isaac Watts's Logic, 1724: "So foot boys, who had fre-
quently the common name of Jack given them, were kept to turn
the spit or pull off their masters' boots, but when instruments
were invented for both these services, they were both called
jacks." The New English Dictionary finds a transitional sense
in the use of the name " jack " for mechanical figures which
strike the hours on a bell of a clock. Such a figure in the clock
of St Lawrence Church at Reading is called a jack in the parish
accounts for 1498-1499. There are many different applications of
" jack," to certain levers and other parts of textile machinery,
to metal plugs used for connecting lines in a telephone exchange,
to wooden uprights connecting the levers of the keys with the
strings in the harpsichord and virginal, to a framework form-
ing a seat or staging which can be fixed outside a window
for cleaning or painting purposes, and to many devices contain-
ing a roller or winch, as in a jack towel, a long towel hung on
a roller. The principal mechanical application of the word,
however, is to a machine for raising weights from below. A
jack chain, sc called from its use in meat-jacks, is one in which
the links, formed each in a figure of eight, are set in planes at
right angles to each other, so that they are seen alternately flat
or edgeways.
In most European languages the word " jack " in various
forms appears for a short upper outer garment, particularly in
the shape of a sleeveless (quilted) leather jerkin, sometimes with
plates or rings of iron sewn to it. It was the common coat of
defence of the infantry of the middle ages. The word in this
case is of French origin and was an adaptation of the common
name Jacques, as being a garment worn by the common people.
In French the word is jaque, and it appears in Italian as giaco,
or giacco, in Dutch jak, Swedish jacka and German Jacke, still
the ordinary name for a short coat, as is the English jacket, from
the diminufive French jaquette. It was probably from some
resemblance to the leather coat that the well-known leather
vessels for holding liquor or for drinking were known as jacks or
black jacks. These drinking vessels, which are often of great
size, were not described as black jacks till the i6th century,
though known as jacks much earlier. Among the important
specimens that have survived to this day is one with the initials
and crown of Charles I. and the date, 1646, which came from
Kensington Palace and is now in the British Museum; one each
at Queen's College and New College, Oxford; two at Winchester
College; one at Eton College; t'.nd six at the Chelsea Hospital.
Many specimens are painted with shields of arms, initials and
other devices; they are very seldom mounted in silver, though
spurious specimens with silver medallions of Cromwell and other
prominent personages exist. At the end of the I7th century a
smaller jack of a different form, like an ordinary drinking mug
with a tapering cylindrical body, often mounted in silver, came
into vogue in a limited degree. The black jack is a distinct type
of drinking vessel from the leather botel and the bombard. The
jack-boot, the heavy riding boot with long flap covering the knee
and part of the thigh, and worn by troopers first during the i7th
century, was so called probably from association with the leather
jack or jerkin. The jack-boot is still worn by the Household
Cavalry, and the name is applied to a high riding boot reaching
to the knee as distinguished from the riding boot with tops, used
in full hunting-kit or by grooms or coachmen.
Jack, sometimes spelled jak, is the common name for the fruit
of the tree Arliocarpus integrifolia, found in the East Indies.
The word is an adaptation of the Portuguese jaca from the Malay
name chakka. (See BREAD FRUIT.)
The word " jackanapes," now used as an opprobrious term for
a swaggering person with impertinent ways and affected airs
JACKAL— JACKSON, ANDREW
and graces, has a disputed and curious history. According to
the New English Dictionary it first appears in 1450 in reference
to William de la Pole, duke of Suffolk (Political Poems, " Rolls
Series," II. 224), " Jack Napys with his clogge hath tiede Talbot
oure gentille dogge." Suffolk's badge was a clog and chain, such
as was often used for an ape kept in captivity, and he is alluded
to (ibid. 222) as " Ape clogge." Jack Napes, Jack o' Napes,
Jackanapes, was a common name for a tame ape from the i6th
century, and it seems more likely that the word is a fanciful name
for a monkey- than that it is due to the nickname of Suffolk.
JACKAL (Turk, chakdl), a name properly restricted to Canis
aureus, a wolf-like wild member of the dog family inhabiting
eastern Europe and southern Asia, but extended to include a
number of allied species. Jackals resemble wolves and dogs in
their dentition, the round eye-pupils, the period of gestation, and
to a large extent also in habits. The European species grows
to a height of 15 in. at the shoulders, and to a length of about
2 ft., exclusive of its bushy tail. Typically the fur is greyish-
yellow, darker on the back and lighter beneath. The range of
the common jackal (C. aureus) extends from Dalmatia to India,
the species being represented by several local races. In Senegal
this species is replaced by C. anthus, while in Egypt occurs the
much larger C. lupaster, commonly known as the Egyptian wolf.
Nearly allied to the last is the so-called Indian wolf (C. pallipes).
Other African species are the black-backed jackal (C. mesomelas) ,
Egyptian Jackal (Canis lupaster).
the variegated jackal (C. variegatus) , and the dusky jackal
(C. adustus). Jackals are nocturnal animals, concealing them-
selves until dusk in woody jungles and other natural lurking
places, and then sallying forth in packs, which sometimes number
two hundred individuals, and visiting farmyards, villages and
towns in search of food. This consists for the most part of the
smaller mammals and poultry; although the association in packs
enables these marauders to hunt down antelopes and sheep.
When unable to obtain living prey, they feed on carrion and
refuse of all kinds, and are thus useful in removing putrescent
matter from the streets. They are also fond of grapes and other
fruits, and are thus the pests of the vineyard as well as the poultry-
yard. The cry of the jackal is even more appalling than that of
the hyena, a shriek from one member of a pack being the signal
for a general chorus of screams, which is kept up during the
greater part of the night. In India these animals are hunted
with foxhounds or greyhounds, and from their cunning and pluck
afford excellent sport. Jackals are readily tamed; and domesti-
cated individuals are said, when called b"y their masters, to wag
their tails, crouch and throw themselves on the ground, and
otherwise behave in a dog-like fashion. The jackal, like the
fox, has an offensive odour, due to the secretion of a gland at
the base of the tail.
JACKDAW, or simply DAW (Old Low German, Doha; Dutch,
Kaauw), one of the smallest species of the genus Corvus (see
CROW), and a very well known inhabitant of Europe, the
C. monedula of ornithologists. In some of its habits it much
resembles its congener the rook, with which it constantly
associates during a great part of the year; but, while the rook
only exceptionally places its nest elsewhere than on the boughs
of trees and open to the sky, the daw almost invariably chooses
holes, whether in rocks, hollow trees, rabbit-burrows or buildings.
Nearly every church-tower and castle, ruined or not, is more or
less numerously occupied by daws. Chimneys frequently give
them the accommodation they desire, much to the annoyance
of the householder, who finds the funnel choked by the quantity
of sticks brought together by the birds, since their industry in
collecting materials for their nests is as marvellous as it often
is futile. In some cases the stack of loose sticks piled up by
daws in a belfry or tower has been known to form a structure
10 or 12 ft. in height, and hence this species may be accounted
one of the greatest nest-builders in the world. The style of
architecture practised by the daw thus brings it more than the
rook into contact with man, and its familiarity is increased by
the boldness of its disposition which, though tempered by
discreet cunning, is hardly surpassed among birds. Its small
size, in comparison with most of its congeners, alone incapaci-
tates it from inflicting the serious injuries of which some of them
are often the authors, yet its pilferings are not to be denied,
though on the whole its services to the agriculturist are great,
for in the destruction of injurious insects it is hardly inferior to
the rook, and it has the useful habit of ridding sheep, on whose
backs it may be frequently seen perched, of some of their
parasites.
The daw displays the glossy black plumage so characteristic
of the true crows, varied only by the hoary grey of the ear-
coverts, and of the nape and sides of the neck, which is the mark
of the adult; but examples from the east of Europe and western
Asia have these parts much lighter, passing into a silvery white,
and hence have been deemed by some authorities to constitute
a distinct species (C. collaris, Drumm.). Further to the east-
ward occurs the C. dauuricus of Pallas, which has not only the
collar broader and of a pure white, but much of the lower parts
of the body white also. Japan and northern China are inhabited
also by a form resembling that of western Europe, but wanting
the grey nape of the latter. This is the C. neglectus of Professor
Schlegel, and is said by Dresser, en the authority of Swinhoe,
to interbreed frequently with C. dauuricus. These are all the
birds that seem entitled to be considered daws, though Dr
Bowdler Sharpe (Cat. B. Brit. Museum, iii. 24) associates
with them (under the little-deserved separate generic distinction
Coloeus) the fish-crow of North America, which appears both in
structure and in habits to be a true crow. (A. N.)
JACKSON, ANDREW (1767-1845), seventh president of the
United States, was born on the i$th of March 1767, at the
Waxhaw or Warsaw settlement, in Union county, North
Carolina, or in Lancaster county, South Carolina, whither his
parents had immigrated from Carrickfergus, Ireland, in 1765.
He played a slight part in the War of Independence, and was
taken prisoner in 1781, his treatment resulting in a lifelong
dislike of Great Britain. He studied law at Salisbury, North
Carolina, was admitted to the bar there in 1787, and began to
practise at McLeansville, Guilford county, North Carolina, where
for a time he was a constable and deputy-sheriff. In 1788, having
been appointed prosecuting attorney of the western district of
North Carolina (now the state of Tennessee), he removed to Nash-
ville, the seat of justice of the district. In 1791 he married Mrs
Rachel Robards (nee Donelson), having heard that her husband
had obtained a divorce through the legislature of Virginia. The
io8
JACKSON, ANDREW
legislative act, however, had only authorized the courts to
determine whether or "not there were sufficient grounds for a
divorce and to grant or withhold it accordingly. It was more
than two years before the divorce was actually granted, and only
on the basis of the fact that Jackson and Mrs Robards were then
living together. On receiving this information, Jackson had
the marriage ceremony performed a second time.
In 1796 Jackson assisted in framing the constitution of
Tennessee. From December 1796 to March 1797 he represented
that state in the Federal House of Representatives, where he
distinguished himself as an irreconcilable opponent of President
Washington, and was one of the twelve representatives who
voted against the address to him by the House. In 1797 he was
elected a United States senator; but he resigned in the following
year. He was judge of the supreme court of Tennessee from
1798 to 1804. In 1804-1805 he contracted a friendship with
Aaron Burr; and at the latter's trial in 1807 Jackson was one of
his conspicuous champions. Up to the time of his nomination for
the presidency, the biographer of Jackson finds nothing to record
but military exploits in which he displayed perseverance, energy
and skill of a very high order, and a succession of personal acts
in which he showed himself ignorant, violent, perverse, quarrel-
some and astonishingly indiscreet. His combative disposition
led him into numerous personal difficulties. In 1795 he fought
a duel with Colonel Waitstill Avery (1745-1821), an opposing
counsel, over some angry words uttered in a court room; but
both, it appears, intentionally fired wild. In 1806 in another
duel, after a long and bitter quarrel, he killed Charles Dickinson,
and Jackson himself received a wound from which he never
fully recovered. In 1813 he exchanged shots with Thomas Hart
Benton and his brother Jesse in a Nashville tavern, and received
a second wound. Jackson and Thomas Hart Benton were later
reconciled.
In 1813-1814, as major-general of militia, he commanded in
the campaign against the Creek Indians in Georgia and Alabama,
defeated them (at Talladega, on the 9th of November 1813, and
at Tohopeka, on the 29th of March 1814), and thus first attracted
public notice by his talents. In May 1814 he was commissioned
as major-general in the regular army to serve against the British;
in November he captured Pensacola, Florida, then owned by
Spain, but used by the British as a base of operations; and on
the 8th of January 1815 he inflicted a severe defeat on the
enemy before New Orleans, the contestants being unaware that
a treaty of peace had already been signed. During his stay in
New Orleans he proclaimed martial law, and carried out his
measures with unrelenting sternness, banishing from the town a
judge who attempted resistance. When civil law was restored,
Jackson was fined $1000 for contempt of court; in 1844 Congress
ordered the fine with interest ($2700) to be repaid. In 1818
Jackson received the command against the Seminoles. His
conduct in following them up into the Spanish territory of
Florida, in seizing Pensacola, and in arresting and executing
two British subjects, Alexander Arbuthnot and Robert Ambris-
ter, gave rise to much hostile comment in the cabinet and in
Congress; but the negotiations for the purchase of Florida put
an end to the diplomatic difficulty. In 1821 Jackson was
military governor of the territory of Florida, and there again
he came into collision with the civil authority. From this, as
from previous troubles, John Quincy Adams, then secretary of
state, extricated him.
In July 1822 the general assembly of Tennessee nominated
Jackson for president; and in 1823 he was elected to the United
States Senate, from which he resigned in 1825. The rival
candidates for the office of president in the campaign of 1824
were Jackson, John Quincy Adams, W. H. Crawford and Henry
Clay. Jackson obtained the largest number of votes (99) in
the electoral college (Adams receiving 84, Crawford 41 and
Clay 37) ; but no one had an absolute majority, and it thus became
the duty of the House of Representatives to choose one of the
three candidates — Adams, Jackson and Crawford — who had
received the greatest numbers of electoral votes. At the
election by the house (February 9, 1825) Adams was chosen,
receiving the votes of 13 states, while Jackson received the
votes of 7 and Crawford the votes of 4. Jackson, however, was
recognized by the abler politicians as the coming man. Martin
Van Buren and others, going into opposition under his banner,
waged from the first a relentless and factious war on the admin-
istration. Van Buren was the most adroit politician of his time;
and Jackson was in the hands of very astute men, who advised
and controlled him. He was easy to lead when his mind was in
solution; and he gave his confidence freely where he had once
placed it. He was not suspicious, but if he withdrew his con-
fidence he was implacable. When his mind crystallized on a
notion that had a personal significance to himself, that notion
became a hard fact that filled his field of vision. When he was
told that he had been cheated in the matter of the presidency,1 he
was sure of it, although those who told him were by no means so.
There was great significance in the election of Jackson in 1828.
A new generation was growing up under new economic and
social conditions. They felt great confidence in themselves and
great independence. They despised tradition and Old World
ways and notions; and they accepted the Jeffersonian dogmas,
not only as maxims, but as social forces — the causes of the
material prosperity of the country. By this generation, there-
fore, Jackson was recognized as a man after their own heart.
They liked him because he was vigorous, brusque, uncouth,
relentless, straightforward and open. They made him president
in 1828, and he fulfilled all their expectations. He had 178
votes in the electoral college against 83 given for Adams. Though
the work of redistribution of offices began almost at his inaugu-
ration, it is yet an incorrect account of the matter to say that
Jackson corrupted the civil service. His administration is
rather the date at which a system of democracy, organized by
the use of patronage, was introduced into the federal arena by
Van Buren. It was at this time that the Democratic or Repub-
lican party divided, largely along personal lines, into Jacksonian
Democrats and National Republicans, the latter led by such men
as Henry Clay and J. Q. Adams. The administration itself had
two factions in it from the first, the faction of Van Buren, the
secretary of state in 1829-1831, and that of Calhoun, vice-president
in 1820-1832. The refusal of the wives of the cabinet and of Mrs
Calhoun to accord social recognition to Mrs J. H. Eaton brought
about a rupture, and in April 1831 the whole cabinet was re-
organized. Van Buren, a widower, sided with the president in
this affair and grew in his favour. Jackson in the meantime had
learned that Calhoun as secretary of war had wished to censure
him for his actions during the Seminole war in Florida in 1818,
and henceforth he regarded the South Carolina statesman as his
enemy. The result was that Jackson transferred to Van Buren
his support for succession in the presidency. The relations
between Jackson and his cabinet were unlike those existing
under his predecessors. Having a military point of view, he
was inclined to look upon the cabinet members as inferior officers,
and when in need of advice he usually consulted a group of
personal friends, who came to be called the " Kitchen Cabinet."
The principal members of this clique were William B. Lewis
(1784-1866), Amos Kendall and Duff Green, the last named
being editor of the United Stales Telegraph, the organ of the
administration.
In 1832 Jackson was re-elected by a large majority (219
electoral votes to 49) over Henry Clay, his chief opponent. The
battle raged mainly around the re-charter of the Bank of the
United States. It is probable that Jackson's advisers in 1828
had told him, though erroneously, that the bank had worked
against him, and thi-i were not able to control him. The first
message of his first presidency had contained a severe reflection
on the bank; and in the very height of this second campaign
(July 1832) he vetoed the re-charter, which had been passed in
1 The charge was freely made then and afterwards (though, it is
now believed, without justification) that Clay had supported
Adams and by influencing his followers in the house had been
instrumental in securing his election, as the result of a bargain by
which Adams had agreed to pay him for his support by appointing
him secretary of state.
JACKSON, CYRIL
the session of 1831-1832. Jackson interpreted his re-election as
an approval by the people of his war on the bank, and he pushed
it with energy. In September 1833 he ordered the public
deposits in the bank to be transferred to selected local banks,
and entered upon the " experiment " whether these could not
act as fiscal agents for the government, and whether the desire
to get the deposits would not induce the local banks to adopt
sound rules of currency. During the next session the Senate
passed a resolution condemning his conduct. Jackson protested,
and after a hard struggle, in which Jackson's friends were led by
Senator Thomas Hart Benton, the resolution was ordered to be
expunged from the record, on the i6th of January 1837.
In 1832, when the state of South Carolina attempted to
•" nullify " the tariff laws, Jackson at once took steps to enforce
the authority of the federal government, ordering two war vessels
to Charleston and placing troops within convenient distance.
He also issued a proclamation warning the people of South
Carolina against the consequences of their conduct. In the
troubles between Georgia and the Cherokee Indians, however,
he took a different stand. Shortly after his first election Georgia
passed an act extending over the Cherokee country the civil
laws of the state. This was contrary to the rights of the Cherokees
under a federal treaty, and the Supreme Court consequently
declared the act void (1832). Jackson, however, having the
frontiersman's contempt for the Indian, refused to enforce the
decision of the court (see NULLIFICATION; GEORGIA: History).
Jackson was very successful in collecting old claims against
various European nations for spoliations inflicted under
Napoleon's continental system, especially the French spoliation
claims, with reference to which he acted with aggressiveness and
firmness. Aiming at a currency to consist largely of specie, he
caused the payment of these claims to be received and imported
in specie as far as possible; and in 1836 he ordered land-agents
to receive for land nothing but specie. About the same time a
law passed Congress for distributing among the states some
$35,000,000 balance belonging to the United States, the public
debt having all been paid. The eighty banks of deposit in which
it was lying had regarded this sum almost as a permanent loan,
and had inflated credit on the basis of it. The necessary calling
in of their loans in order to meet the drafts in favour of the
states, combining with the breach of the overstrained credit
between America and Europe and the decline in the price of
cotton, brought about a crash which prostrated the whole
financial, industrial and commercial system of the country for
six or seven years. The crash came just as Jackson was leaving
office; the whole burden fell on his successor, Van Buren.
In the 1 8th century the influences at work in the American
colonies developed democratic notions. In fact, the circum-
stances were those which create equality of wealth and condition,
as far as civilized men ever can be equal. The War of Indepen-
dence was attended by a grand outburst of political dogmatism
of the democratic type. A class of men were produced who
believed in very broad dogmas of popular power and rights.
There were a few rich men, but they were almost ashamed to
differ from their neighbours and, in some known cases, they
affected democracy in order to win popularity. After the igth
century began the class of rich men rapidly increased. In the
first years of the century a little clique at Philadelphia became
alarmed at the increase of the " money power," and at the grow-
ing perils to democracy. They attacked with some violence,
but little skill, the first Bank of the United States, and they
prevented its re-charter. The most permanent interest of the
history of the United States is the picture it offers of a primitive
democratic society transformed by prosperity and the acquisi-
tion of capital into a great republican commonwealth. The
denunciations of the " money power " and the reiteration of
democratic dogmas deserve earnest attention. They show the
development of classes or parties in the old undifferentiated mass.
Jackson came upon the political stage just when a wealthy class
first existed. It was an industrial and commercial class greatly
interested in the tariff, and deeply interested also in the then
current forms of issue banking. The southern planters also
were rich, but were agriculturists and remained philosophical
Democrats. Jackson was a man of low birth, uneducated,
prejudiced, and marked by strong personal feeling in all his
beliefs and disbeliefs. He showed, in his military work and in
his early political doings, great lack of discipline. The proposal
to make him president won his assent and awakened his ambi-
tion. In anything which he undertook he always wanted to
carry his point almost regardless of incidental effects on himself
or others. He soon became completely engaged in the effort to
be made president. The men nearest to him understood his
character and played on it. It was suggested to him that the
money power was against him. That meant that, to the
educated or cultivated class of that day, he did not seem to be
in the class from which a president should be chosen. He took
the idea that the Bank of the United States was leading the
money power against him, and that he was the champion of the
masses of democracy and of the common people. The opposite
party, led by Clay, Adams, Biddle, &c., had schemes for banks
and tariffs, enterprises which were open to severe criticism. The
political struggle was very intense and there were two good sides
to it. Men like Thomas H. Benton, Edward Livingston, Amos
Kendall, and the southern statesmen, found material for strong
attacks on the Whigs. The great mass of voters felt the issue
as Jackson's managers stated it. That meant that the masses
recognized Jackson as their champion. Therefore, Jackson's
personality and name became a power on the side opposed to
banks, corporations and other forms of the new growing power
of capital. That Jackson was a typical man of his generation
is certain. He represents the spirit and temper of the free
American of that day, and it was a part of his way of thinking
and acting that he put his whole life and interest into the con-
flict. He accomplished two things of great importance in the
history: he crushed excessive state-rights and established the
contrary doctrine in fact and in the political orthodoxy of the
democrats; he destroyed the great bank. The subsequent
history of the bank left it without an apologist, and prejudiced
the whole later judgment about it. The way in which Jackson
accomplished these things was such that it cost the country ten-
years of the severest liquidation, and left conflicting traditions
of public policy in the Democratic party. After he left Washing-
ton, Jackson fell into discord with his most intimate old friends,
and turned his interest to the cause of slavery, which he thought
to be attacked and in danger.
Jackson is the only president of whom it may be said that he
went out of office far more popular than he was when he entered.
When he went into office he had no political opinions, only some
popular notions. He left his party strong, perfectly organized
and enthusiastic on a platform of low expenditure, payment of
the debt, no expenditure for public improvement or for glory
or display in any form and low taxes. His name still remained
a spell to conjure with, and the politicians sought to obtain the
assistance of his approval for their schemes; but in general his
last years were quiet and uneventful. He died at his residence,
" The Hermitage," near Nashville, Tennessee, on the 8th of
June 1845.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Of the early biographies, that by J. H. Eaton
(Philadelphia, 1824) is a history of Jackson's early military exploits,
written for political purposes. Amos Kendall's Life (New York,
1843) is incomplete, extending only to 1814. James Parton's
elaborate work (3 vpls., New York, 1860) is still useful. Parton
prepared a shorter biography for the " Great Commanders Series "
(New York, 1893), which emphasizes Jackson's military career.
W. G. Sumner's Andrew Jackson in the " American Statesmen
Series " (Boston, 1882; revised, 1899) combines the leading facts of
Jackson's life with a history of his times. W. G. Brown wrote an
appreciative sketch (Boston, 1900) for the " Riverside Biographical
Series." Of more recent works the most elaborate are the History
of Andrew Jackson, by A. C. Buell (New York, 1904), marred by
numerous errors, and the Life and Times of Andrew Jackson, by
A. S. Colyar (Nashville, 1904). Charles H. Peck's The Jacksonian
Epoch (New York, 1899) is an account of national politics from
1815 to 1840, in which the antagonism of Jackson and Clay is
emphasized. (W. G. S.)
JACKSON, CYRIL (1746-1819), dean of Christ Church,
Oxford, was born in Yorkshire, and educated at Westminster
no
JACKSON, F. G.— JACKSON, T. J.
and Oxford. In 1771 he was chosen to be sub-preceptor to the
two eldest sons of George III., but in 1776 he was dismissed,
probably through some household intrigues. He then took
orders, and was appointed in 1779 to the preachership at
Lincoln's Inn and to a canonry at Christ Church, Oxford. In
1783 he was elected dean of Christ Church. His devotion to
the college led him to decline the bishopric of Oxford in 1 799 and
the primacy of Ireland in 1800. He took a leading part in
framing the statute which, in 1802, launched the system of
public examinations at Oxford, but otherwise he was not
prominent in university affairs. On his resignation in 1809 he
settled at Felpham, in Sussex, where he remained till his
death.
JACKSON, FREDERICK GEORGE (1860- ), British Arctic
explorer, was educated at Denstone College and Edinburgh
University. His first voyage in Arctic waters was on a whaling-
cruise in 1886-1887, and in 1893 he made a sledge-journey of
3000 miles across the frozen tundra of Siberia lying between the
Ob and the Pechora. His narrative of this journey was published
under the title of The Great Frozen Land (1895). On his return,
he was given the command of the Jackson-Harmsworth Arctic
expediton (1894-1897), which had for its objective the general
exploration of Franz Josef Land. In recognition of his services
he received a knighthood of the first class of the Danish Royal
Order of St Olaf in 1898, and was awarded the gold medal of
the Paris Geographical Society in 1899. His account of the
expedition was published under the title of A Thousand Days in
the Arctic (1899). He served in South Africa during the Boer
War, and obtained the rank of captain. His travels also include
a journey across the Australian deserts.
JACKSON, HELEN MARIA (1831-1885), American poet and
novelist, who wrote under the intials of " H. H." (Helen Hunt),
was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, on the i8th of October
1831, the daughter of Nathan Welby Fiske (1798-1847), who
was a professor in Amherst College. In October 1852 she
married Lieutenant Edward Bissell Hunt (1822-1863), °f the
U.S. corps of engineers. In 1870 she published a little volume
of meditative Verses, which was praised by Emerson in the
preface to his Parnassus (1874). In 1875 she married William
S. Jackson, a banker, of Colorado Springs. She became a prolific
writer of prose and verse, including juvenile tales, books of
travel, household hints and novels, of which the best is Ramona
(1884), a defence of the Indian character. In 1883, as a special
commissioner with Abbot Kinney (b. 1850), she investigated the
condition and needs of the Mission Indians in California. A
Century of Dishonor (1881) was an arraignment of the treatment
of the Indians by the United States. She died on the i2th of
August 1885 in San Francisco.
In addition to her publications referred to above, Mercy Phil-
brick's Choice (1876), Hetty's Strange History (1877), Zeph (1886),
and Sonnets and Lyrics (1886) may be mentioned.
JACKSON, MASON (c. 1820-1003), British engraver, was
born at Berwick-on-Tweed about 1820, and was trained as a
wood engraver by his brother, John Jackson, the author of a
history of this art. In the middle of the igth century he made a
considerable reputation by his engravings for the Art Union
of London, and for Knight's Shakespeare and other standard
books; and in 1860 he was appointed art editor of the Illustrated
London News, a post which he held for thirty years. He wrote
a history of the rise and progress of illustrated journalism. He
died in December 1903.
JACKSON, THOMAS (1579-1640), president of Corpus Christi
College, Oxford, and dean of Peterborough, was born at Witton-
le-Wear, Durham, and educated at Oxford. He became a
probationer fellow of Corpus in 1606, and was soon afterwards
elected vice-president. In 1623 he was presented to the living
of St Nicholas, Newcastle, and about 1625 to the living of
Winston, Durham. Five years later he was appointed president
of Corpus, and in 1632 the king presented him to the living of
Witney, Oxfordshire. He was made a prebendary of Winchester
in 1635, and was dean of Peterborough in 1635-1639. Although
originally a Calvinist, he became in later life an Arminian.
His chief work was a series of commentaries on the Apostles'
Creed, the first complete edition being entitled The Works of Thomas
Jackson, D.D. (Londpn, 1673). The commentaries were, however,
originally published in 1613-1657, as twelve books with different
titles, the first being The Eternal Truth of Scriptures (London,
1613).
JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN (1824-1863), known as
" Stonewall Jackson," American general, was born at Clarks-
burg, Virginia (now West Viginia), on the 2ist of January 1824,
and was descended from an Ulster family. At an early age he
was left a penniless orphan, and his education was acquired in a
small country school until he procured, mainly by his own
energy, a nomination to the Military Academy. Lack of social
graces and the deficiencies of his early education impeded him at
first, but "in the end 'Old Jack,' as he was always called, with
his desperate earnestness, his unflinching straightforwardness,
and his high sense of honour, came to be regarded with something
like affection." Such qualities he displayed not less amongst
the light-hearted cadets than afterwards at the head of troops
in battle. After graduating he took part, as second lieutenant
in the ist U.S. Artillery, in the Mexican War. At Vera Cruz he
won the rank of first lieutenant, and for gallant conduct at
Contreras and Chapultepec respectively he was brevetted captain
and major, a rank which he attained with less than one year's
service. During his stay in the city of Mexico his thoughts were
seriously directed towards religion, and, eventually entering the
Presbyterian communion, he ruled every subsequent action of
his life by his faith. In 1851 he applied for and obtained a
professorship at the Virginia military institute, Lexington;
and here, except for a short visit to Europe, he remained for
ten years, teaching natural science, the theory of gunnery and
battalion drill. Though he was not a good teacher, his influence
both on his pupils and on those few intimate friends for whom
alone he relaxed the gravity of his manner was profound, and,
little as he was known to the white inhabitants of Lexington, he
was revered by the slaves, to whom he showed uniform kindness,
and for whose moral instruction he worked unceasingly. As to
the great question at issue in 1861, Major Jackson's ruling
motive was devotion to his state, and when Virginia seceded, on
the 1 7th of April, and the Lexington cadets were ordered to
Richmond, Jackson went thither in command of the corps.
His intimate friend, Governor Letcher, appreciating his gifts,
sent him as a colonel of infantry to Harper's Ferry, where the
first collision with the Union forces was hourly expected. In
June he received the command of a brigade, and in July promo-
tion to the rank of brigadier-general. He had well employed
the short time at his disposal for training his men, and on the
first field of Bull Run they won for themselves and their
brigadier, by their rigid steadiness at the critical moment of the
battle, the historic name of " Stonewall."
After the battle of Bull Run Jackson spent some time in
the further training of his brigade which, to his infinite regret,
he was compelled to leave behind him when, in October, he was
assigned as a major-general to command in the Shenandoah
Valley. His army had to be formed out of local troops, and
few modern weapons were available, but the Valley regiments
retained the impress of Jackson's training till the days of Cedar
Creek. Discipline was not acquired at once, however, and the
first ventures of the force were not very successful. At Kerns-
town, indeed, Jackson was tactically defeated by the Federals
under Shields (March 23, 1862). But the Stonewall brigade
had been sent to its old leader in November, and by the time
that the famous Valley Campaign (see SHENANDOAH VALLEY
CAMPAIGNS) began, the forces under Jackson's command had
acquired cohesion and power of manoeuvre. On the 8th of May
1862 was fought the combat of McDowell, won by Jackson
against the leading troops of Fr6mont's command from West
Virginia. Three weeks later the forces under Banks were being
driven over the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, and Jackson was
master of the Valley. Every other plan of campaign in Virginia
was at once subordinated to the scheme of " trapping Jackson."
But the Confederates, marching swiftly up the Valley, slipped
between the converging columns of Frfimont from the west and
JACKSON, W.— JACKSON
in
McDowell from the east, and concluded a most daring campaign
by the victorious actions of Cross Keys and Port Republic
(8th and pth of June). While the forces of the North were still
scattered, Jackson secretly left the Valley to take a decisive
part in Lee's campaign before Richmond. In the " Seven Days "
Jackson was frequently at fault, but his driving energy bore no
small part in securing the defeat of McClellan's advance on
Richmond. Here he passed for the first time under the direct
orders of Robert Lee, and the rest of his career was spent in
command of the II. corps of the Army of Northern Virginia.
As Lee's chief and most trusted subordinate he was throughout
charged with the execution of the more delicate and difficult
operations of his commander's hazardous strategy. After his
victory over Banks at Cedar Mountain, near Culpeper, Virginia,
Jackson led the daring march round the flank of General Pope's
army, which against all theoretical rules ended in the great
victory of second Bull Run. In the Maryland campaign
Lieut.-General Jackson was again detached from the main army.
Eleven thousand Federals, surrounded in Harper's Ferry, were
forced to surrender, and Jackson rejoined Lee just in time to
oppose McClellan's advance. At the Antietam his corps bore the
brunt of the battle, which was one of the most stubborn of
modern warfare. At Fredericksburg his wing of Lee's line of battle
was heavily engaged, and his last battle, before Chancellorsville,
in the thickets of the Wilderness, was his greatest triumph. By
one of his swift and secret flank marches he placed his corps on the
flank of the enemy, and on the 2nd of May flung them against
the Federal XI. corps, which was utterly routed. At the close
of a day of victory he was reconnoitring the hostile positions
when suddenly the Confederate outposts opened fire upon his
staff, whom they mistook in the dark and tangled forest for
Federal cavalry. Jackson fell wounded, and on the loth of May
he died at Guinea's station. He was buried, according to his
own wish, at Lexington, where a statue and a memorial hall
commemorate his connexion with the place; and on the spot
where he was mortally wounded stands a plain granite pillar.
The first contribution towards the bronze statue at Richmond
was made by the negro Baptist congregation for which Jackson
had laboured so earnestly in his Lexington years. He was twice
married, first to Eleanor (d. 1854), daughter of George Junkin,
president of Washington College, Virginia, and secondly in 1857
to Mary Anna Morrison, daughter of a North Carolina clergyman.
That Jackson's death, at a critical moment of the fortunes
of the Confederacy, was an irreparable loss was disputed by no
one. Lee said that he had lost his right arm, and, good soldiers as
were the other generals, not one amongst them was comparable
to Jackson, whose name was dreaded in the North like that of
Lee himself. His military character was the enlargement of
his personal character — " desperate earnestness, unflinching
straightforwardness," and absolute, almost fatalist, trust in
the guidance of providence. At the head of his troops, who
idolized him, he was a Cromwell, adding to the zeal of a fanatic
and the energy of the born leader the special military skill and
trained soldierly spirit which the English commander had to
gain by experience. His Christianity was conspicuous, even
amongst deeply religious men like Lee and Stuart, and pene-
trated every part of his character and conduct.
See lives by R. L. Dabney (New York, 1883), J. E. Cooke (New
York, 1866), M. A. Jackson (General Jackson's widow) (New York,
1892) ; and especially G. F. R. Henderson, Stonewall Jackson (London,
1898), and H. A. White, Stonewall Jackson (Philadelphia, 1909).
JACKSON, WILLIAM (1730-1803), English musician, was
born at Exeter on the 2gth of May 1730. His father, a grocer,
bestowed a liberal education upon him, but, on account of the
lad's strong predilection for music, was induced to place him
under the care of John Silvester, the organist of Exeter Cathedral,
with whom he remained about two years. In 1748 he went to
London, and studied under John Travers, organist of the king's
chapel. Returning to Exeter, he settled there as a teacher and
composer, and in 1777 was appointed subchanter, organist, lay-
vicar and master of the choristers of the cathedral. In 1755
he published his first work, Twelve Songs, which became at once
highly popular. His next publication, Six Sonatas for the Harp-
sichord, was a failure. His third work, Six Elegies for three voices,
preceded by an Invocation, with an Accompaniment, placed him
among the first composers of his day. His fourth work was
another set of Twelve Songs, now very scarce; and his fifth work
was ,again a set of Twelve Songs, all of which are how forgotten.
He next published Twelve Hymns, with some good remarks upon
that style of composition, although his precepts were better
than his practice. A set of Twelve Songs followed, containing
some good compositions. Next came an Ode to Fancy, the words
by Dr Warton. Twelve Canzonets for two voices formed his
ninth work; and one of them — " Time has not thinned my
Flowing Hair " — long held a place at public and private con-
certs. His tenth work was Eight Sonatas for the Harpsichord,
some of which were novel and pleasing. He composed three
dramatic pieces, — Lycidas (1767), The Lord of the Manor, to
General Burgoyne's words (1780), and The Metamorphoses, a
comic opera produced at Drury Lane in 1783, which did not
succeed. In the second of these dramatic works, two airs —
" Encompassed in an Angel's Form " and " When first this
Humble Roof I knew " — were great favourites. His church
music was published after his death by James Paddon (1820);
most of it is poor, but " Jackson in F " was for many years
popular. In 1782 he published Thirty Letters on Various Subjects,
in which he severely attacked canons, and described William
Bird's Non nobis Domine as containing passages not to be
endured. But his anger and contempt were most strongly
expressed against catches of all kinds, which he denounced
as barbarous. In 1791 he put forth a pamphlet, Observations on
the Present State of Music in London, in which he found fault
with everything and everybody. He published in 1798 The
Four Ages, together with Essays on Various Subjects, — a work
which gives a favourable idea of his character and of his literary
acquirements. Jackson also cultivated a taste for landscape
painting, and imitated, not unsuccessfully, the style of his friend
Gainsborough. He died on the sth of July 1803.
JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Jackson county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on both sides of the Grand River, 76 m. W.
of Detroit. Pop. (1890), 20,798; (1900), 25,180, of whom
3843 were foreign-born (1004 German, 941 English Canadian);
(1910 census) 31,433. It is served by the Michigan Central,
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk and
the Cincinnati Northern railways, and by inter-urban electric
lines. It is the seat of the state prison (established 1839).
Coal is mined in the vicinity; the city has a large trade with
the surrounding agricultural district (whose distinctive product
is beans); the Michigan Central railway has car and machine
shops here; and the city has many manufacturing establish-
ments. The total factory product in 1904 was valued at
$8,348,125, an increase of 24-4 % over that of 1900. The muni-
cipality owns and operates its water-works. The place was
formerly a favourite camping ground of the Indians, and was
settled by whites in 1829. In 1830 it was laid out as a town,
selected for the county-seat, and named Jacksonburg in honour
of Andrew Jackson; the present name was adopted in 1838.
Jackson was incorporated as a village in 1843, and in 1857 was
chartered as a city. It was at a convention held at Jackson
on the 6th of July 1854 that the Republican party was first
organized and so named by a representative state body.
JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Hinds county,
Mississippi, U.S.A., and the capital of the state, on the W. bank
of the Pearl River, about 40 m. E. of Vicksburg and 185 m. N.
of New Orleans, Louisiana. Pop. (1890), 5920; (1900), 7816,
of whom 4447 were negroes. According to the Federal census
taken in 1910 the population had increased to 21,262. Jackson is
served by the Illinois Central, the Alabama & Vicksburg, the
Gulf & Ship Island, New Orleans Great Northern, and the Yazoo
& Mississippi Valley railways, and during the winter by small
freight and passenger steamboats on the Pearl River. In Jackson
is the state library, with more than 80,000 volumes. The new
state capitol was finished in 1903. The old state capitol, dating
from 1839, is of considerable interest; in it were held the secession
112
JACKSON— JACKSONVILLE
convention (1861), the " Black and Tan Convention " (1868),
and the constitutional convention of 1890, and in it Jefferson
Davis made his last speech (1884). Jackson is the seat of Mill-
saps College, chartered in 1890 and opened in 1892 (under the
control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South), and having,
in 1907-1908, 12 instructors and 297 students; of Belhaven
College (non-sectarian, 1894), for girls; and of Jackson College
(founded in 1877 at Natchez by the American Baptist Home
Mission Society; in 1883 removed to Jackson), for negroes, which
had 356 students in 1907-1908. The city is a market for cotton
and farm products, and has a number of manufactories. In
1821 the site was designated as the seat of the state government,
and early in the following year the town, named in honour of
Andrew Jackson, was laid out. The legislature first met here
in December 1822. It was not until 1840 that it was chartered
as a city. During the Civil War Jackson was in the theatre of
active campaigning. On the I4th of May 1863 Johnston who
then held the city, was attacked on both sides by Sherman and
McPherson with two corps of Grant's army, which, after a sharp
engagement, drove the Confederates from the town. After
the fall of Vicksburg Johnston concentrated his forces at Jackson,
which had been evacuated by the Federal troops, and prepared
to make a stand behind the intrenchments. On the 9th of
July Sherman began an investment of the place, and during
the succeeding week a sharp bombardment was carried on.
In the night of the i6th Johnston, taking advantage of a lull
in the firing, withdrew suddenly from the city. Sherman's
army entered on the I7th and remained five days, burning a
considerable part of the city and ravaging the surrounding
country.
JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Madison county,
Tennessee, U.S.A., situated on the Forked Deer river, about 85
m. N.E. of Memphis. Pop. (1890), 10,039; (1900), 14,511, of
whom 6108 were negroes; (1910 census), 15,779. It is served
by the Mobile & Ohio, the Nashville, Chattanooga & St
Louis and the Illinois Central railways. The state supreme
court holds its sessions here for the western district of Ten-
nessee. The city is the seat of Union University (co-educational) ,
chartered in 1875 as Southwestern Baptist University, and con-
ducted under that name at Jackson until 1907, when the present
name was adopted. In 1907-1908 the university had 17 instruc-
tors and 280 students. At Jackson, also, are St Mary's Academy
(Roman Catholic); the Memphis Conference Female Institute
(Methodist Episcopal, South, 1843), and Lane College (for
negroes), under the control of the Colored Methodist Episcopal
Church. Jackson is an important cotton market, and is a
shipping point for the farm products and fruits of the surround-
ing country. It has also numerous manufactures and railway
shops. The total value of the factory product in 1005 was
$2,317,715. The municipality owns and operates the electric-
lighting plant and the water-works. There is in the city an
electro-chalybeate well with therapeutic properties. Jackson
was settled about 1820, incorporated as a town in 1823, chartered
as a city in 1854, and in 1007 received a new charter by which the
sale of intoxicating liquors is forever prohibited. After General
Grant's advance into Tennessee in 1862 Jackson was fortified
and became an important base of operations for the Federal army,
Grant himself establishing his headquarters here in October.
JACKSONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Duval county,
Florida, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, on the left bank of
the St John's River, 14 m. from the Atlantic Ocean as the crow
flies and about 27 m. by water. Pop. (1890), 17,201; (1900),
28,429, of whom 16,236 were negroes and 1166 foreign-born;
(1910 census) 57,699; the city being the largest in the state.
It is served by the Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line, the Sea-
board Air Line, the Georgia Southern & Florida and the
Florida East Coast railways, and by several steamship lines.1'
1 Shoals in the river and sand rock at its mouth long prevented the
development of an extensive water trade, but in 1896 the United
States Government made an appropriation (supplemented in 1902,
1903 and 1904) for deepening, lor a width of 300 ft., the channel
connecting the city and the ocean to 24 ft., and on the bar 27 ft.
It is the largest railway, centre in the state, and is popularly
known as the Gate City of Florida. In appearance Jacksonville
is very attractive. It has many handsome buildings, and its
residential streets are shaded with live-oaks, water oaks and
bitter-orange trees. Jacksonville is the seat of two schools for
negroes, the Florida Baptist Academy and Cookman Institute
(1872; Methodist Episcopal). Many winter visitors are annually
attracted by the excellent climate, the mean temperature for the
winter months being about 55° F. Among the places of interest
in the vicinity is the large Florida ostrich farm. There are
numerous municipal and other parks. The city owns and
operates its electric-lighting plant and its water-works system.
The capital invested in manufacturing increased from $1,857,844
in 1900 to $4,837,281 in 1905, or 160-4%, and the value of the
factory product rose from $1,798,607 in 1900 to $5,340,264 in
1905, or 196-9%. Jacksonville is the most important distributing
centre in Florida, and is a port of entry. In 1909 its foreign im-
ports were valued at $513,439; its foreign exports at $2,507,373.
The site of Jacksonville was called Cow Ford (a version of
the Indian name, Wacca Pilatka), from the excellent ford of the
St John's River, over which went the King's Road, a highway
built by the English from St Augustine to the Georgia line. The
first settlement was made in 1816. In 1822 a town was laid out
here and was named in honour of General Andrew Jackson; in
1833 Jacksonville was incorporated. During the Civil War the
city was thrice occupied by Federal troops. In 1888 there was an
epidemic of yellow fever. On the 3rd of May 1901 a fire destroyed
nearly 150 blocks of buildings, constituting nearly the whole of
the business part of the city, the total loss being more than
815,000,000; but within two years new buildings greater in
number than those destroyed were constructed, and up to
December 1909 about 9000 building permits had been granted.
JACKSONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Morgan
county, Illinois, U.S.A., on Mauvaiseterre Creek, about 33 m.
W. of Springfield. Pop. (1890), 12,935; (i9°o), 15,078, of whom
1497 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 15,326. It is served
by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & Alton,
the Chicago, Peoria & St Louis and the Wabash railways. It
is the seat of several educational and philanthropic institutions.
Illinois College (Presbyterian), founded in 1829 through the
efforts of the Rev. John Millot Ellis (1793-1855), a missionary of
the American Home Missionary Society and of the so-called
Yale Band (seven Yale graduates devoted to higher education
in the Middle West), is one of the oldest colleges in the Central
States of the United States. The Jacksonville Female Academy
(1830) and the Illinois Conservatory of Music (1871) were ab-
sorbed in 1903 by Illinois College, which then became co-educa-
tional. The college embraces, besides the collegiate department,
Whipple Academy (a preparatory department), the Illinois
Conservatory of Music and a School of Art, and in 1908-1909 had
21 instructors and 173 students. The Rev. Edward Beecher
was the first president of the college (from 1830 to 1844), and
among its prominent graduates have been Richard Yates, jun.,
the Rev. Thomas K. Beecher, Newton Bateman (1822-1897),
superintendent of public instruction of Illinois from 1865 to 1875
and president of Knox College in 1875-1893, Bishop Theodore
N. Morrison (b. 1850), Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Iowa after
1898, and William jf. Bryan. The Illinois Woman's College
(Methodist Episcopal; chartered in 1847 as the Illinois Confer-
ence Female Academy) received its present name in 1899. The
State Central Hospital for the Insane (opened in 1851), the State
School for the deaf (established in 1839, opened in 1845, and the
first charitable institution of the state) and the State School for
the Blind (1849) are also in Jacksonville. Morgan Lake and
Duncan Park are pleasure resorts. The total value of the
factory product in 1905 was $1,981,582, an increase of 17-7%
since 1900. Jacksonville was laid out in 1825 as the county-seat
of Morgan county, was named probably in honour of Andrew
Jackson, and was incorporated as a town in 1840, chartered as a
(mean low water), and by 1909 the work had been completed;
further dredging to a 24 ft. depth between the navigable channel and
pierhead lines was authorized in 1907 and completed by 1910.
JACOB— JACOB OF EDESSA
city in 1867, and re-chartered in 1887. The majority of the
early settlers came from the southern and border states, princi-
pally from Missouri and Kentucky; but subsequently there was
a large immigration of New England and Eastern people, and
these elements were stronger in the population of Jacksonville
than hi any other city of southern Illinois. The city was a
station of the " Underground Railroad."
JACOB (Hebrew y&'aqob, derived, according to Gen. xxv. 26,
xxvii. 36, from a root meaning " to seize the heel " or " sup-
plant "), son of Isaac and Rebekah in the Biblical narrative, and
the father of the twelve tribes of Israel. Jacob and his twin
brother Esau are the eponyms of the Israelites and Edomites.
It was said of them that they would be two nations, and that the
elder would serve the younger. Esau was born first, but lost
his superiority by relinquishing his birthright, and Jacob by an
act of deceit gained the paternal blessing intended for Esau
(Gen. xxvii., J and E).1 The popular view regarding Israel and
Edom is expressed when the story makes Jacob a tent-dweller,
and Esau a hunter, a man of the field. But whilst Esau married
among- the Canaanite " daughters of the land " (P hi xxvi. 34;
xxviii. 8 seq.), Jacob was sent, or (according to a variant tradition)
fled from Beer-sheba, to take a wife from among his Syrian
kinsfolk at Haran. On the way he received a revelation at
Bethel (" house of God ") promising to him and to his descen-
dants the whole extent of the land. The beautiful story of
Jacob's fortunes at Haran is among the best examples of Hebrew
narrative: how he served seven years for Rachel, "and they
seemed a few days for the love he had to her," and was tricked
by receiving the elder sister Leah, and how he served yet another
seven years, and at last won his love. The patriarch's increasing
wealth caused him to incur the jealousy of his father-in-law,
Laban, and he was forced to flee in secret with his family. They
were overtaken at Gilead,2 whose name (interpreted " heap of
witness ") is explained by the covenant into which Jacob and
Laban entered (xxxi. 47 sqq.). Passing Mahanaim (" camps "),
where he saw the camps of God, Jacob sent to Esau with friendly
overtures. At the Jabbok he wrestled with a divine being and
prevailed (cf. Hos. xii. 3 sqq.), hence he called the place Peniel
or Penuel (" the face of God "), and received the new name
Israel. He then effected an unexpected reconciliation with
Esau, passed to Succoth, where he built " booths " for his cattle
(hence its name), and reached Shechem. Here he purchased
ground from the clan Hamor (cf. Judg. ix. 28), and erected an
altar to " God (El) the God of Israel." This was the scene of the
rape of Dinah and of the attack of Simeon and Levi which led
to their ruin (xxxiv.; see DAN, LEVITES, SIMEON). Thence
Jacob went down south to Bethel, where he received a divine
revelation (P), similar to that recorded by the earlier narrator
(J), and was called Israel (xxxv. 0-13, 15). Here Deborah,
Rebekah's nurse, died, on the way to Ephrath. Rachel died in
giving birth to Benjamin (q.v.), and further south Reuben was
guilty of a grave offence (cf. xlix. 4). According to P, Jacob
came to Hebron, and it was at this juncture that Jacob and Esau
separated (a second time) and the latter removed to Mount Seir
(xxxvi. 6 sqq.; cf. the parallel in xiii. 5 sqq.). Compelled by
circumstances, described with much fullness and vividness,
Jacob ultimately migrated to Egypt, receiving on the way the
promise that God would make of him a great nation, which
should come again out of Egypt (see JOSEPH). After an inter-
view with the Pharaoh (recorded only by P, xlvii. 5-11), he
dwelt with his sons in the land of Goshen, and as his death drew
near pronounced a formal benediction upon the two sons of
Joseph (Manasseh and Ephraim), intentionally exalting the
younger. Then he summoned all the " sons " to gather round
his bed, and told them "what shall befall in the latter days"
(xlix.). He died at the age of 147 (so P), and permission was
given to carry his body to Canaan to be buried.
1 For the symbols J, E, P, as regards the sources of the book of
Genesis, see GENESIS; BIBLE: Old Test. Criticism.
2 Since it is some 300 m. from Haran to Gilead it is probable that
Laban's home, only seven days' journey distant, was nearer Gilead
than the current tradition allows (Gen. xxxi. 22 sqq.).
These narratives are full of much valuable evidence regarding
marriage customs, pastoral life and duties, popular beliefs and
traditions, and are evidently typical of what was currently re-
tailed. Their historical value has been variously estimated.
The name existed long before the traditional date of Jacob, and
the Egyptian phonetic equivalent of Jacob-el (cf .Isra-el, Ishma-el)
appears to be the name of a district of central Palestine (or
possibly east of Jordon) about 1500 B.C. But the stories in
their present form are very much later. The close relation
between Jacob and Aramaeans confirms the view that some
of the tribes of Israel were partly of Aramaean origin; his
entrance into Palestine from beyond the Jordan is parallel to
Joshua's invasion at the head of the Israelites; and his previous
journey from the south finds independent support in traditions
of another distinct movement from this quarter. Consequently,
it would appear that these extremely elevated and richly deve-
loped narratives of Jacob-Israel embody, among a number of
other features, a recollection of two distinct traditions of migra-
tion which became fused among the Israelites. See further
GENESIS; JEWS. (S. A. C.)
JACOB, JOHN (1812-1858), Indian soldier and administrator,
was born on the nth of January 1812, educated at Addiscombe,
and entered the Bombay artillery in 1828. He served in the
first Afghan War under Sir John Keane, and afterwards led his
regiment with distinction at the battles of Meeanee, Shahdadpur,
and Umarkot; but it is as commandant of the Sind Horse and
political superintendent of Upper Sind that he was chiefly famous.
He was the pacificator of the Sind frontier, reducing the tribes
to quietude as much by his commanding personality as by his
ubiquitous military measures. In 1853 he foretold the Indian
Mutiny, saying : " There is more danger to our Indian empire from
the state of the Bengal army, from the feeling which there exists
between the native and the European, and thence spreads
throughout the length and breadth of the land, than from all
other causes combined. Let government look to this; it is a
serious and most important truth "; but he was only rebuked by
Lord Dalhousie for his pains. He was a friend of Sir Charles
Napier and Sir James Outram, and resembled them in his out-
spoken criticisms and independence of authority. He died at
the early age of 46 of brain fever, brought on by excessive heat
and overwork. The town of Jacobabad, which has the reputa-
tion of being the hottest place in India, is named after him.
See A. I. Shand, General John Jacob (1900).
JACOB BEN ASHER (1280-1340), codifier of Jewish law, was
born in Germany and died in Toledo. A son of Asher ben
Yehiel (q.v.), Jacob helped to re-introduce the older elaborate
method of legal casuistry which had been overthrown by
Maimonides (q.v.). The Asheri family suffered great privations
but remained faithful in their devotion to the Talmud. Jacob
ben Asher is known as the Ba'al ha-turim (literally " Master of
the Rows ") from his chief work, the four Turim or Rows (the
title is derived from the four furim or rows of jewels in the
High Priest's breastplate). In this work Jacob ben Asher
codified" Rabbinic law on ethics and ritual, and it remained a
standard work of reference until it was edited with a commentary
by Joseph Qaro, who afterwards simplified the code into the
more popular Shulhan Aruch. Jacob also wrote two commen-
taries on the Pentateuch.
See Graetz, History of the Jews (Eng. trans.) ,vol. iv. ch. iii. ; Weiss,
Dor dor we-dorashav, v. 118-123. (I. A.)
JACOB OF EDESSA, who ranks with Barhebraeus as the most
distinguished for scholarship among Syriac writers,3 was born at
'En-debha in the province of Antioch, probably about A.D. 640.
From the trustworthy account of his life by Barhebraeus (Chron.
Eccles. 5. 289) we learn that he studied first at the famous mon-
astery of Ken-neshre (on the left bank of the Euphrates, opposite
Jerabis) and afterwards at Alexandria, which had of course been
3 " In the literature of his country Jacob holds much the same
place as Jerome among the Latin fathers " (Wright, Short Hist, o'j
Syr. Lit. p. 143).
JACOB OF JUTERBOGK— JACOB OF SERUGH
114
for some time in the hands of the Moslems.1 On his return he
was appointed bishop of Edessa by his friend Athanasius II. (of
Balad), probably in 684',* but held this office only for three or
four years, as the clergy withstood his strict enforcement of the
Church canons and he was not supported by Julian, the successor
of Athanasius in the patriarchate. Accordingly, having in
anger publicly burnt a copy of the canons in front of Julian's
residence, Jacob retired to the monastery of Kaisum near
Samosata, and from there to the monastery of Eusebhona,3
where for eleven years he taught the Psalms and the reading of
the Scriptures in Greek. But towards the close of this period
he again encountered opposition, this time from monks " who
hated the Greeks," and so proceeded to the great convent of
Tell 'Adda or Teleda (? modern Telladi, N.W. of Aleppo), where
he spent nine years in revising and emending the Peshitta version
of the Old Testament by the help of the various Greek versions.
He was finally recalled to the bishopric of Edessa in 708, but
died four months later, on the $th of June.
In doctrine Jacob was undoubtedly Monophysite.4 Of the very
large number of his works, which are mostly in prose, not many have
as yet been published, but much information may be gathered from
Assemani's Bibliotheca Orientalis and Wright's Catalogue of Syriac
MSS. in the British Museum, (i) Of the Syriac Old Testament
Jacob produced what Wright calls " a curious eclectic or patchwork
text," of which five volumes survive in Europe (Wright's Catalogue
38). It was " the last attempt at a revision of the Old Testament in
the Monophysite Church." Jacob was also the chief founder of the
Syriac Massorah among the Monophysites, which produced such
MSS. as the one (Vat. chii.) described by Wiseman in Horae syriacae,
part iii. (2) Jacob was the author both of commentaries and of
scholia on the sacred books ; of these specimens are given by Assemani
»nd Wright. They were largely quoted by later commentators, who
often refer to Jacob as " the interpreter of the Scriptures." With
the commentaries may be mentioned his Hexahemeron, or treatise
!>n the six days of creation, MSS. of which exist at Leiden and at
Lyons. It was his latest work, and being left incomplete was
finished by his friend George the bishop of the Arabs. Among
apocrypha, the History of the Rechabites composed by Zosimus was
translated from Greek into Syriac by Jacob (Wright's Catalogue
1 128, and Nau in Revue semitique vi. 263, vii. 54, 136). (3) Mention
has been made above of Jacob's zeal on behalf of ecclesiastical
canons. In his letter to the priest Addai we possess a collection of
canons from his pen, given in the form of answers to Addai's ques-
tions. These were edited by Lagarde in Reliquiae juris eccl.
syriace, pp. 117 sqq. and Lamy in Dissert, pp. 98 sqq. Additional
canons were given in Wright's Notulae syriacae. The whole have
been translated and expounded by Kayser, Die Canones Jacobs von
Edessa (Leipzig, 1886). (4) Jacob made many contributions to
Syriac liturgy, both original and translated (Wright, Short Hist.
p. 145 seq.). (5) To philosophical literature hischief original contribu-
tion was his Enchiridion, a tract on philosophical terms (Wright's
Catalogue 984). The translations of works of Aristotle which nave
been attributed to him are probably by other hands (Wright, Short
Hist. p. 149; Duval, Litterature syriaque, pp. 255, 258). The treatise
De causa omnium causarum, which was the work of a bishop of Edessa,
was formerly attributed to Jacob; but the publication of the whole
by Kayser * has made it clear that the treatise is of much later date.
(6) An important historical work by Jacob — a Chronicle in continua-
tion of that of Eusebius — has unfortunately perished all except a few
leaves. Of these a full account is given in Wright's Catalogue 1062.
(7) Jacob's fame among his countrymen rests most of all on his
labours as a grammarian. In his letter to George, bishop of Serugh,
on Syriac orthography (published by Phillips in London 1869. and
by Martin in Paris the same year) he sets forth the importance
of fidelity by scribes in the copying of minutiae of spelling. In his
grammar4 (of which only some fragments remain), while expressing
1 Merx infers that the fact of Jacob's going to Alexandria as a
student tells against the view that the Arabs burned the great library
(Hist, arlis gramm. apud Syros, p. 35). On this question cf. Krehl
in Alii del iv. congr. internaz. degh Orientalisti (Florence, 1880),
pp. 433 sqq.
* Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre says 677 ; but Athanasius was
patriarch only 684-687.
* According to Merx (op. cit. p. 43) this may be the celebrated
convent of Eusebius near Apamea.
4 Assemani tried hard to prove him orthodox (B.O. i. 470 sqq.)
but changed his opinion on reading his biography by Barhebraeus
(ib. ii. 337). See especially Lamy, Dissert. deSyrorum fide, pp. 206 sqq.
1 Text at Leipzig 1889 (Das Buck der Erkennlniss der Wahrheit oder
der Ursache alter Ursachen) : translation (posthumously) at Strassburg
* The surviving fragments were published by Wright (London,
1871) and by Merx, op. cit. p. 73 sqq. of Syriac text.
his sense of the disadvantage under which Syriac labours through
its alphabet containing only consonants, he declined to introduce
a general system of vowel-signs, lest the change should contribute
to the neglect and loss of the older books written without vowels.
At the same time he invented, by adaptation of the Greek vowels,
such a system of signs as might serve for purposes of grammatical
exposition, and elaborated the rules by which certain consonants
serve to indicate vowels. He also systematized and extended
the use of diacritical points. It is still a moot question how far
Jacob is to be regarded as the author of the five vowel-signs derived
from Greek which soon after came into use among the Jacobites.7
In any case he made the most important contribution to Syriac
grammar down to the time of Barhebraeus. (8) As a translator
Jacob's greatest achievement was his Syriac version of the Homiliae
cathedrales of Severus, the monophysite patriarch of Antioch
(512-518, 535-536) . This important collection is now in part known
to us by E. W. Brooks's edition and translation of the 6th book of
selected epistles of Seyerus, according to another Syriac version made
by Athanasius of Nisibis in 669. (9) A large number of letters by
Jacob to various correspondents have been found in various MSS.
Besides those on the canon law to Addai, and on grammar to George
of Serugh referred to above, there are others dealing with doctrine,
liturgy, &c. A few are in verse.
Jacob impresses the modern reader mainly as an educator of his
countrymen, and particularly of the clergy. His writings lack the
fervid rhetoric and graceful style of such authors as Isaac of Antioch,
Jacob of SSrugh and Philoxenus of Mabbpg. But judged by the
standard of his time he shows the qualities of a truly scientific
theologian and scholar. (N. M.)
JACOB OF JUTERBOGK (c. 1381-1465), monk and theologian.
Benedict Stolzenhagen, known in religion as Jacob, was born at
Jiiterbogk in Brandenburg of poor peasant stock. He became
a Cistercian at the monastery of Paradiz in Poland, and was sent
by the abbot to the university of Cracow, where he became
master in philosophy and doctor of theology. He returned to
his monastery, of which he became abbot. In 1441 , however, dis-
contented with the absence of strict discipline in his community,
he obtained the leave of the papal legate at the council of Basel
to transfer himself to the Carthusians, entering the monastery
of Salvatorberg near Erfurt, of which he became prior. He
lectured on theology at the university of Erfurt, of which he was
rector in 1455. He died on the 3oth of April 1465.
Jacob's main preoccupation was the reform of monastic life, the
grave disorders of which he deplored, and to this end he wrote his
Petitiones religiosorum pro reformatione sui status. Another work,
De negligentia praelatorum, was directed against the neglect of their
duties by the higher clergy, and he addressed a petition for the re-
form of the church (Advisamentum pro reformatione ecclesiae) to Pope
Nicholas V. This having no effect, he issued the most outspoken of
his works, De septem ecclesiae statibus, in which he reviewed the work
of the reforming councils of his time, and, without touching the
question of doctrine, championed a drastic reform of life and practice
of the church on the lines laid down at Constance and Basel.
His principal works are collected in Walch, Monimenta med. aev.
i. and ii. (1757, 1771), and Engelbert Klupfel, Vetus bibliotheca eccles.
(Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1780).
JACOB OF SERUGH, one of the best Syriac authors, named by
one of his biographers " the flute of the Holy Spirit and the harp
of the believing church," was born in 451 at Kurtam, a village
on the Euphrates to the west of Harran, and was probably edu-
cated at Edessa. At an early age he attracted the attention of
his countrymen by his piety and his literary gifts, and entered on
the composition of the long series of metrical homilies on religious
themes which formed the great work of his life. Having been
ordained to the priesthood, he became periodeutes or episcopal
visitor of Haura, in Serugh, not far from his birthplace. His
tenure of this office extended over a time of great trouble to the
Christian population of Mesopotamia, due to the fierce war
carried on by Kavadh II. of Persia within the Roman borders.
When on the loth of January 503 Amid was captured by the
Persians after a three months' siege and all its citizens put to the
sword or carried captive, a panic seized the whole district, and
the Christian inhabitants of many neighbouring cities planned
7 An affirmative answer is given by Wiseman (Horae syr.pp. 181-8)
and Wright (Catalogue 1168; Fragm. of the Syriac Grammar of Jacob
of Edessa, preface ; Short Hist. p. 1 5 1 sen .) . But Martin (in Jour. A s.
May-June 1869, pp. 456 sqq.), Duval (Grammaire syriaque, p. 71) and
Merx (op. cit. p. 50) are of the opposite opinion. The date of the intro-
duction of the seven Nestorian vowel-signs is also uncertain.
JACOBA— JACOBI, F. H.
to leave their homes and flee to the west of the Euphrates.
They were recalled to a more courageous frame of mind by the
letters of Jacob.1 In 519, at the age of 68, Jacob was made
bishop of Ba^nan, another town in the district of SSrugh, but
only lived till November 521.
From the various extant accounts of Jacob's life and from the
number of his known works, we gather that his literary activity
was unceasing. According to Barhebraeus (Chron. Eccles. i. 191) he
employed 70 amanuenses and wrote in all 760 metrical homilies,
besides expositions, letters and hymns of different sorts. Of his
merits as a writer and poet we are now well able to judge from
P. Bedian's excellent edition of selected metrical homilies, of which
four volumes havealready appeared (Paris 1905-1908), containing 146
pieces.2 They are written throughout in dodecasyllabic metre, and
those published deal mainly with biblical themes, though there are
also poems on such subjects as the deaths of Christian martyrs, the
fall of the idols, the council of Nicaea, &c.s Of Jacob's prose works,
which are not nearly so numerous, the most interesting are his letters,
which throw light upon some of the events of his time and reveal
his attachment to the Monophysite doctrine which was then strug-
gling for supremacy in the Syrian churches, and particularly at
Edessa, over the opposite teaching of Nestorius.4 (N. M.)
JACOBA, or JACQUELINE (1401-1436), countess of Holland,
was the only daughter and heiress of William, duke of Bavaria
and count of Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut. She was married
as a child to John, duke of Touraine, second son of Charles VI.,
king of France, who on the death of his elder brother Louis
became dauphin. John of Touraine died in April 1417, and two
months afterwards Jacoba lost her father. Acknowledged as
sovereign in Holland and Zeeland, Jacoba was opposed by her
uncle John of Bavaria, bishop of Liege. She had the support of
the Hook faction in Holland. Meanwhile she had been married
in 1418 by her uncle, John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, to
her cousin John IV., duke of Brabant. By the mediation of
John the Fearless, a treaty of partition was concluded in 1419
between Jacoba and John of Bavaria; but it was merely a truce,
and the contest between uncle and niece soon began again and
continued with varying success. In 1420 Jacoba fled to England ;
and there, declaring that her marriage with John of Brabant was
illegal, she contracted a marriage with Humphrey, duke of
Gloucester, in 1422. Two years later Jacoba, with Humphrey,
invaded Holland, where she was now opposed by her former
husband, John of Brabant, John of Bavaria having died of
poison. In 1425 Humphrey deserted his wife, who found herself
obliged to seek refuge with her cousin, Philip V., duke of Bur-
gundy, to whom she had to submit, and she was imprisoned in
the castle of Ghent. John of Brabant now mortgaged the two
counties of Holland and Zeeland to Philip, who assumed their
protectorate. Jacoba, however, escaped from prison in dis-
guise, and for three years struggled gallantly to maintain herself
in Holland against the united efforts of Philip of Burgundy and
John of Brabant, and met at first with success. The death of the
weak John of Brabant (April 1427) freed the countess from her
quondam husband; but nevertheless the pope pronounced
Jacoba's marriage with Humphrey illegal, and Philip, putting
out his full strength, broke down all opposition. By a treaty,
made in July 1428, Jacoba was left nominally countess, but Philip
was to administer the government of Holland, Zeeland and
Hainaut, and was declared heir in case Jacoba should die without
children. Two years later Philip mortgaged Holland and Zeeland
to the Borselen family, of which Francis, lord of Borselen, was the
head. Jacoba now made her last effort. In 1432 she secretly
married Francis of Borselen, and endeavoured to foment a rising
in Holland against the Burgundian rule. Philip invaded the coun-
try, however, and threw Borselen into prison. Only on condition
that Jacoba abdicated her three countships in his favour would
he allow her liberty and recognize her marriage with Borselen.
1 See the contemporary Chronicle called that of Joshua the Stylite,
chap. 54.
2 Assemani (Bibl. Orient. \. 305-339) enumerates 231 which he had
seen in MSS.
'Some other historical poems. M. Bedjan has not seen fit to
publish, on account of their unreliable and legendary character
(vol. i. p. ix. of preface).
4 A full list of the older editions of works by Jacob is given by
Wright in Short History of Syriac Literature, pp. 68-72.
She submitted in April 1432, retained her title of duchess in
Bavaria, and lived on her husband's estates in retirement. She
died on the 9th of October 1436, leaving no children.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— F. von Loher, Jakobaa von Bayern und ihre Zeit
(2 vols., Nordlmgen, 1862-1869) ; W. 1. F. Nuyens, Jacoba van Beieren
en de eerste helft der XV. eeuw (Haarlem, 1873) ; A. von Overstraten,
Jacoba van Beieren (Amsterdam, 1790). (G. E.)
JACOB AB AD, a town of British India, the administrative
headquarters of the Upper Sind frontier district in Bombay;
with a station on the Quetta branch of the North- Western rail-
way, 37m. from the junction at Ruk, on the main line. Pop.
(1901), 10,787. It is famous as having consistently the highest
temperature in India. During the month of June the thermo-
meter ranges between 120° and 127° F. The town was founded
on the site of the village of Khangarh in 1847 by General
John Jacob, for many years commandant of the Sind Horse,
who died here in 1858. It has cantonments for a cavalry regi-
ment, with accommodation for caravans from Central Asia. It
is watered by two canals. An annual horse show is held in
January.
JACOBEAN STYLE, the name given to the second phase of
the early Renaissance architecture in England, following the
Elizabethan style. Although the term is generally employed
of the style which prevailed in England during the first quarter
of the 1 7th century, its peculiar decadent detail will be found
nearly twenty years earlier at Wollaton Hall, Nottinghamshire,
and in Oxford and Cambridge examples exist up to 1660, not-
withstanding the introduction of the purer Italian style by
Inigo Jones in 1619 at Whitehall. Already during Queen
Elizabeth's reign reproductions of the classic orders had found
their way into English architecture, based frequently upon John
Shute's The First and Chief Grounds of Architecture, published in
1563, with two other editions in 1579 and 1584. In 1577, three
years before the commencement of Wollaton Hall, a copybook
of the orders was brought out in Antwerp by Jan Vredeman de
Vries. Though nominally based on the description of the orders
by Vitruvius, the author indulged freely not only in his rendering
of them, but in suggestions of his own, showing how the orders
might be employed in various buildings. Those suggestions
were of a most decadent type, so that even the author deemed it
advisable to publish a letter from a canon of the Church, stating
that there was nothing in his architectural designs which was
contrary to religion. It is to publications of this kind that
Jacobean architecture owes the perversion of its forms and the
introduction of strap work and pierced crestings, which appear
for the first time at Wollaton (1580); at Bramshill, Hampshire
(1607-1612), and in Holland House, Kensington (1624), it
receives its fullest development. (R. P. S.)
JACOBI, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1743-1819), German
philosopher, was born at Dusseldorf on the 25th of January 1743.
The second son of a wealthy sugar, merchant near Dusseldorf,
he was educated for a commercial career. Of a retiring, medita-
tive disposition, Jacobi associated himself at Geneva mainly
with the literary and scientific circle of which the most prominent
member was Lesage. He studied closely the works of Charles
Bonnet, and the political ideas of Rousseau and Voltaire. In
1763 he was called back to Dusseldorf, and in the following year
he married and took over the management of his father's busi-
ness. After a short period he gave up his commercial career,
and in 1770 became a member of the council for the duchies of
Jtilich and Berg, in which capacity he distinguished himself
by his ability in financial affairs, and his zeal in social reform.
Jacobi kept up his interest in literary and philosophic matters
by an extensive correspondence, and his mansion at Pempelfort,
near Dusseldorf, was the centre of a distinguished literary circle.
With C. M. Wieland he helped to found a new literary journal.
Der Teutsche Mercur, in which some of his earliest writings,
mainly on practical or economic subjects, were published.
Here too appeared in part the first of his philosophic works,
Edward Allnvills Briefsammlung (1776), a combination of romance
and speculation. This was followed in 1779 by Woldemar, a
philosophic novel, of very imperfect structure, but full of genial
n6
JACOBI, J. G.
ideas, and giving the most complete picture of Jacobi's method
of philosophizing. In 1779 he visited Munich as member of the
privy council, but after a short stay there differences with his
colleagues and with the authorities of Bavaria drove him back
to Pempelfort. A few unimportant tracts on questions of theo-
retical politics were followed in 1785 by the work which first
brought Jacobi into prominence as a philosopher. A conversation
which he had held with Lessing in 1780, in which Lessing avowed
that he knew no philosophy, in the true sense of that word, save
Spinozism, led him to a protracted study of Spinoza's works.
The Briefe uber die Lehre Spinozas (1785; 2nd ed., much enlarged
and with important Appendices, 1789) expressed sharply and
clearly Jacobi's strenuous objection to a dogmatic system in
philosophy, and drew upon him the vigorous enmity of the
Berlin clique, led by Moses Mendelssohn. Jacobi was ridiculed
as endeavouring to reintroduce into philosophy the antiquated
notion of unreasoning belief, was denounced as an enemy of
reason, as a pietist, and as in all probability a Jesuit in disguise,
and was especially attacked for his use of the ambiguous term
" belief." Jacobi's next important work, David Hume iiber den
Glauben, oder Idealismus und Realismus (1787), was an attempt
to show not only that the term Glaube had been used by the
most eminent writers to denote what he had employed it for in
the Letters on Spinoza, but that the nature of the cognition of
facts as opposed to the construction of inferences could not be
otherwise expressed. In this writing, and especially in the
Appendix, Jacobi came into contact with the critical philosophy,
and subjected the Kantian view of knowledge to searching
examination.
The outbreak of the war with the French republic induced
Jacobi in 1793 to leave his home near Diisseldorf, and for nearly
ten years he resided in Holstein. While there he became
intimately acquainted with Reinhold (in whose Beitrdge, pt. iii.,
1801, his important work tlberdas Unternehmen des Kriticismus,
die Vernunft zu Verstande zu bringen was first published), and
with Matthias Claudius, the editor of the Wandsbecker Bole.
During the same period the excitement caused by the accusation
of atheism brought against Fichte at Jena led to the publication
of Jacobi's Letter to Fichte (1799), in which he made more precise
the relation of his own philosophic principles to theology.
Soon after his return to Germany, Jacobi received a call to
Munich in connexion with the new academy of sciences just
founded there. The loss of a considerable portion of his fortune
induced him to accept this offer; he settled in Munich in 1804,
and in 1807 became president of the academy. In 181 1 appeared
his last philosophic work, directed against Schelling specially
(Von den gottlichen Dingen und ihrer Offenbarung), the first part
of which, a review of the Wandsbecker Bole, had been written in
1798. A bitter reply from Schelling was left without answer by
Jacobi, but gave rise to an animated controversy in which Fries
and Baader took prominent part. In 1812 Jacobi retired from
the office of president, and began to prepare a collected edition
of his works. He died before this was completed, on the loth
of March 1819. The edition of his writings was continued by
his friend F. K6ppen, and was completed in 1825. The works
fill six volumes, of which the fourth is in three parts. To the
second is prefixed an introduction by Jacobi, which is at the same
time an introduction to his philosophy. The fourth volume has
also an important preface.
The philosophy of Jacobi is essentially unsystematic. A certain
fundamental view which underlies all his thinking is brought to bear
in succession upon those systematic doctrines which appear to stand
most sharply in contradiction to it, and any positive philosophic
results are given only occasionally. The leading idea of the whole is
that of the complete separation between understanding and appre-
hension of real fact. For Jacobi understanding, or the logical faculty,
is purely formal or elaborative, and its results never transcend the
given material supplied to it. From the basis of immediate experi-
ence or perception thought proceeds by comparison and abstraction,
establishing connexions among facts, but remaining in its nature
mediate and finite. The principle of reason and consequent, the
necessity of thinking each given fact of perception as conditioned,
impels understanding towards an endless series of identical proposi-
tions, the records of successive comparisons and abstractions. The
province of the understanding is therefore strictly the region of the
conditioned; to it the world must present itself as a mechanism.
If, then, there is objective truth at all, the existence of real facts must
be made known to us otherwise than through the logical faculty
of thought; and, as the regress from conclusion to premises must
depend upon something not itself capable of logical grounding,
mediate thought implies the consciousness of immediate truth.
Philosophy therefore must resign the hopeless ideal of a systematic
(i.e. intelligible) explanation of things, and must content itself
with the examination of the facts of consciousness. It is a mere
prejudice of philosophic thinkers, a prejudice which has descended
from Aristotle, that mediate or demonstrated cognition is
superior in cogency and value to the immediate perception of
truths or facts.
As Jacobi starts with the doctrine that thought is partial and
limited, applicable only to connect facts, but incapable of explaining
their existence, it is evident that for him any demonstrative system
of metaphysic which should attempt to subject all existence to the
principle of logical ground must be repulsive. Now in modern
philosophy the first and greatest demonstrative system of meta-
physic is that of Spinoza, and it lay in the nature of things that upon
Spinoza's system Jacobi should first direct his criticism. A summary
of the results of his examination is thus presented (Werke, \. 216-
223): (i) Spinozism is atheism; (2) the Kabbalistic philosophy,
in so far as it is philosophy, is nothing but undeveloped or confused
Spinozism; (3) the philosophy of Leibnitz and Wolff is not less
fatalistic than that of Spinoza, and carries a resolute thinker to the
very principles of Spinoza; (4) every demonstrative method ends
in fatalism; (§) we can demonstrate only similarities (agreements,
truths conditionally necessary), proceeding always in identical
propositions; every proof presupposes something already proved,
the principle of which is immediately given (Offenbarung, revelation,
is the term here employed by Jacobi, as by many later writers, e.g.
Lotze, to denote the peculiar character of an immediate, unproved
truth) ; (6) the keystone (Element) of all human knowledgeand activity
is belief (Glaube). Of these propositions only the first and fourth
require further notice. Jacobi, accepting the law of reason and
consequent as the fundamental rule of demonstrative reasoning,
and as the rule explicitly followed by Spinoza, points out that, if
we proceed by applying this principle so as to recede from particular
and qualified facts to the more general and abstract conditions, we
land ourselves, not in the notion of an active, intelligent creator
of the system of things, but in the notion of an all-comprehen-
sive, indeterminate Nature, devoid of will or intelligence. Our
unconditioned is either a pure abstraction, or else the impossible
notion of a completed system of conditions. In either case the result
is atheism, and this result is necessary if the demonstrative method,
the method of understanding, is regarded as the only possible means
of knowledge. Moreover, the same method inevitably lands in
fatalism. For, if the action of the human will is to be made intelli-
gible to understanding, it must be thought as a conditioned pheno-
menon, having its sufficient ground in preceding circumstances, and,
in ultimate abstraction, as the outflow from nature which is the sum
of conditions. But this is the fatalist conception, and any philosophy
which accepts the law of reason and consequent as the essence of
understanding is fatalistic. Thus for the scientific understanding
there can be no God and no liberty. It is impossible that there should
be a God, for if so he would of necessity be finite. But a finite God,
a God that is known, is no God. It is impossible that there should be
liberty, for if so the mechanical order of phenomena, by means of
which they are comprehensible, would be disturbed, and we should
have an unintelligible world, coupled with the requirement that it
shall be understood. Cognition, then, in the strict sense, occupies
the middle place between sense perception, which is belief in matters
of sense, and reason, which is belief in supersensuous fact.
The best introduction to Jacobi's philosophy is the preface to the
second volume of the Works, and Appendix 7 to the Letters on
Spinoza's Theory. See also J. Kuhn, Jacobi und die Philosophic
seiner Zeit (1834); F. Deycks, F. H. Jacobi im Verhdltnis zu semen
Zeitgenossen (1848); H. Diintzer, Freundesbilder aus Goethes Leben
(1853); E. Zirngicbl, F. H. Jacobis Leben, Dichten, und Denken,
1867; F. Harms, Vber die Lehre von F. H. Jacobi 1(1876). Jacobi's
A-userlesener Briefwechsel has been edited by F. Roth in 2 vols.
(1825-1827).
JACOBI, JOHANN GEORG (1740-1814), German poet, elder
brother of the philosopher, F. H. Jacobi (1743-1819), was born at
Diisseldorf on the 2nd of September 1 740. He studied theology
at Gottingen and jurisprudence at Helmstedt, and was appointed,
in 1766, professor of philosophy in Halle. In this year he made
the acquaintance of J. W. L. (" Vater ") Gleim, who, attracted
by the young poet's Poetische Versuche (1764), became his
warm friend, and a lively literary correspondence ensued
between Gleim in Halberstadt and Jacobi in Halle. In order
to have Jacobi near him, Gleim succeeded in procuring for him a
prebendal stall at the cathedral of Halberstadt in 1769, and here
Jacobi issued a number of anacreontic lyrics and sonnets. He
JACOBI, K. G. J.— JACOBINS
tired, however, of the lighter muse, and in 1774, to Gleim's
grief, left Halberstadt, and for two years (1774-1776) edited at
Diisseldorf the Iris, a quarterly for women readers. Meanwhile
he wrote many charming lyrics, distinguished by exquisite taste
and true poetical feeling. In 1784 he became professor ol
literature at the university of Freiburg im Breisgau, a post
which he held until his death there on the 4th of January 1814.
In addition to the earlier Iris, to which Goethe, his brother
F. H. Jacobi, Gleim and other poets contributed, he published,
from 1803-1813, another periodical, also called Iris, in which
Klopstock, Herder, Jean Paul, Voss and the brothers Stollberg
also collaborated.
Jacobi's Sdmmtliche Werke were published in 1774 (Halberstadt,
3 vols.). Other editions appeared at Zurich in 1807-1813 and 1825.
See Ungedruckte Briefe von und an Johann Georg Jacobi (Strassburg,
1874); biographical notice by Daniel Jacoby in Allg. Deutsche
Biographic; Longo, Laurence Sterne und Johann Georg Jacobi
(Vienna, 1898) ; and Leben J. G. Jacobis, von einem seiner Freunde
(1822).
JACOBI, KARL GUSTAV JACOB (1804-1851), German
mathematician, was born at Potsdam, of Jewish parentage, on
the loth of December 1804. He studied at Berlin University,
where he obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy in 1825,
his thesis being an analytical discussion of the theory of fractions.
In 1827 he became extraordinary and in 1829 ordinary professor
of mathematics at Konigsberg, and this chair he filled till 1842,
when he visited Italy for a few months to recruit his health.
On his return he removed to Berlin, where he lived as a royal
pensioner till his death, which occurred on the i8th of February
1851.
His investigations in elliptic functions, the theory of which he
established upon quite a new basis, and more particularly his
development of the theta-function, as given in his great treatise
Fundamenta nova theoriae functionum ellipticarum (Konigsberg,
1829), and in later papers in Crelle's Journal, constitute his grandest
analytical discoveries. Second in importance only to these are
his researches in differential equations, notably the theory of the last
multiplier, which is fully treated in his Vorlesungen tiber Dynamik,
edited by R. F. A. Clebsch (Berlin, 1866). It was in analytical
development that Jacobi's peculiar power mainly lay, and he made
many important contributions of this kind to other departments
of mathematics, as a glance at the long list of papers that were
published by him in Crelle's Journal and elsewhere from 1826
onwards will sufficiently indicate. He was one of the early founders
of the theory of determinants; in particular, he invented the func-
tional determinant formed of the n2 differential coefficients of n given
functions of n independent variables, which now bears his name
(Jacobian), and which has played an important part in many
analytical investigations (see ALGEBRAIC FORMS). Valuable also
are his papers on Abelian transcendents, and his investigations in
the theory of numbers, in which latter department he mainly supple-
ments the labours of K. F. Gauss. The planetary theory and other
particular dynamical problems likewise occupied his attention from
time to time. He left a vast store of manuscript, portions of which
have been published at intervals in Crelle's Journal. His other
works include Commentatio de transformatione integralis duplicis
indefiniti in formam simpliciorem (1832), Canon arithmeticus (1839),
and Opuscula mathemalica (1846-1857). His Gesammelte Werke
(1881-1891) were published by the Berlin Academy.
See Lejeune-Dirichlet, " Gedachtnisrede auf Jacobi " in the
Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademie (1852).
JACOBINS, THE, the most famous of the political clubs of
the French Revolution. It had its origin in the Club Breton,
which was established at Versailles shortly after the opening
of the States General in 1789. It was at first composed exclu-
sively of deputies from Brittany, but was soon joined by others
from various parts of France, and counted among its early
members Mirabeau, Sieyes, Barnave, Petion, the Abbe Gregoire,
Charles and Alexandra Lameth, Robespierre, the due d'Aiguillon,
and La Revelliere-Lepeaux. At this time its meetings were
secret and little is known of what took place at them. After
the emeute of the sth and 6th of October the club, still entirely
composed of deputies, followed the National Assembly to Paris,
where it rented the refectory of the monastery of the Jacobins
in the Rue St Honore, near the seat of the Assembly. The name
" Jacobins," given in France to the Dominicans, because their
first house in Paris was in the Rue St Jacques, was first applied
to the club in ridicule by its enemies. The title assumed by
117
the club itself, after the promulgation of the constitution of
1791, was Societe des amis de la constitution slants aux Jacobins a
Paris, which was changed on the 2ist of September 1792, after
the fall of the monarchy, to Societe des Jacobins, amis de la liberti
et de I'egalite. It occupied successively the refectory, the library,
and the chapel of the monastery.
Once transferred to Paris, the club underwent rapid modifica-
tions. The first step was its expansion by the admission as
members or associates of others besides deputies; Arthur Young
was so admitted on the i8th of January 1790. On the 8th of
February the society was formally constituted on this broader
basis by the adoption of the rules drawn up by Barnave, which
were issued with the signature of the due d'Aiguillon, the presi-
dent. The objects of the club were defined as (i) to discuss in
advance questions to be decided by the National Assembly; (2) to
work for the establishment and strengthening of the constitution
in accordance with the spirit of the preamble (i.e. of respect for
legally constituted authority and the rights of man); (3) to
correspond with other societies of the same kind which should be
formed in the realm. At the same time the rules of order and
forms of election were settled, and the constitution of the club
determined. There were to be a president, elected every month,
four secretaries, a treasurer, and committees elected to super-
intend elections and presentations, the correspondence, and the
administration of the club. Any member who by word or action
showed that his principles were contrary to the constitution and
the rights of man was to be expelled, a rule which later on
facilitated the " purification " of the society by the expulsion
of its more moderate elements. By the 7th article the club
decided to admit as associates similar societies in other parts of
France and to maintain with them a regular correspondence.
This last provision was of far-reaching importance. By the
loth of August 1 790 there were already one hundred and fifty-
two affiliated clubs; the attempts at counter-revolution led to a
great increase of their number in the spring of 1791, and by the
close of the year the Jacobins had a network of branches all over
France. It was this widespread yet highly centralized organiza-
tion that gave to the Jacobin Club its formidable power.
At the outset the Jacobin Club was not distinguished by
extreme political views. The somewhat high subscription
confined its membership to men of substance, and to the last it
was — so far as the central society in Paris was concerned —
composed almost entirely of professional men, such as Robes-
pierre, or well-to-do bourgeois, like Santerre. From the first,
however, other elements were present. Besides Louis Philippe,
due de Chartres (afterwards king of the French), liberal aristo-
crats of the type of the due d'Aiguillon, the prince de Broglie,
or the vicomte de Noailles, and the bourgeois who formed the
mass of the members, the club contained such figures as " Pere "
Michel Gerard, a peasant proprietor from Tuel-en-Montgermont,
in Brittany, whose rough common sense was admired as the
oracle of popular wisdom, and whose countryman's waistcoat
and plaited hair were later on to become the model for the
Jacobin fashion.1 The provincial branches were from the first far
more democratic, though in these too the leadership was usually
in the hands of members of the educated or propertied classes.
Up to the very eve of the republic, the club ostensibly supported
the monarchy; it took no part in the petition of the i7th of July
1790 for the king's dethronement; nor had it any official share
even in the insurrections of the 2oth of June and the loth of
August 1792; it only formally recognized the republic on the
2ist of September. But the character and extent of the club's
influence cannot be gauged by its official acts alone, and long
before it emerged as the principal focus of the Terror, its charac-
ter had been profoundly changed by the secession of its more
moderate elements, some to found the Club of 1789, some in
1791 — among them Barnave, the Lameths, Duport and Bailly —
1 " When I first sat among you I heard so many beautiful speeches
that I might have believed myself in heaven, had there not been so
nany lawyers present." Instead of practical questions " we have
Become involved in a galimatias of Rights of Man of which I under-
stand mighty little but that it is worth nothing." Motion du Pere
Gerard in the Jacobins of the 27th of April 1790 (Aulard i. 63).
n8
JACOBINS
to found the club of the Feuillants scoffed at by their former
friends as the club mojiarchique. The main cause of this
change was the admission of the public to the sittings of the
club, which began on the i4th of October 1791. The result is
described in a report of the Department of Paris on " the state
of the empire," presented on the izth of June 1792, at the request
of Roland, the minister of the interior, and signed by the due
de La Rochefoucauld, which ascribes to the Jacobins all the
woes of the state. " There exists," it runs, " in the midst of the
capital committed to our care a public pulpit of defamation,
where citizens of every age and both sexes are admitted day by
day to listen to a criminal propaganda. . . . This establishment,
situated in the former house of the Jacobins, calls itself a society;
but it has less the aspect of a private society than that of a public
spectacle: vast tribunes are thrown open for the audience;
all the sittings are advertised to the public for fixed days and
hours, and the speeches made are printed in a special journal and
lavishly distributed."1 In this society — the report continues — •
murder is counselled or applauded, all authorities are calumniated
and all the organs of the law bespattered with abuse; as to its
power, it exercises " by its influence, its affiliations and its
correspondence a veritable ministerial authority, without title
and without responsibility, while leaving to the legal and
responsible authorities only the shadow of power " (Schmidt,
Tableaux i. 78, &c.).
The constituency to which the club was henceforth responsible,
and from which it derived its power, was in fact the peuple
bete of Paris; the sans-culoites — decayed lackeys, cosmopolitan
ne'er-do-weels, and starving workpeople — who crowded its
tribunes. To this audience, and not primarily to the members
of the club, the speeches of the orators were addressed and by
its verdict they were judged. In the earlier stages of the
Revolution the mob had been satisfied with the fine platitudes
of the philosophes and the vague promise of a p'olitical millen-
nium; but as the chaos in the body politic grew, and with it
the appalling material misery, it began to clamour for the
blood of the " traitors " in office by whose corrupt machinations
the millennium was delayed, and only those orators were listened
to who pandered to its suspicions. Hence the elimination of
the moderate elements from the club; hence the ascendancy of
Marat, and finally of Robespierre, the secret of whose power was
that they really shared the suspicions of the populace, to which
they gave a voice and which they did not shrink from translating
into action. After the fall of the monarchy Robespierre was in
effect the Jacobin Club; for to the tribunes he was the oracle
of political wisdom, and by his standard all others were judged.2
With his fall the Jacobins too came to an end.
Not the least singular thing about the Jacobins is the very
slender material basis on which their overwhelming power rested.
France groaned under their tyranny, which was compared to that
of the Inquisition, with its system of espionage and denuncia-
tions which no one was too illustrious or too humble to escape.
Yet it was reckoned by competent observers that, at the height of
the Terror, the Jacobins could not command a force of more than
3000 men in Paris. But the secret of their strength was that,
in the midst of the general disorganization, they alone were
organized. The police agent Dutard, in a report to the minister
Garat (April 30, 1793), describing an episode in the Palais
Egalit6 (Royal), adds: " Why did a dozen Jacobins strike terror
into two or three hundred aristocrats? It is that the former
have a rallying-point and that the latter have none." When
thejeunesse dorte did at last organize themselves, they had little
difficulty in flogging the Jacobins out of the cafes into compara-
tive silence. Long before this the Girondin government had
been urged to meet organization by organization, force by force;
and it is clear from the daily reports of the police agents that even
1 i.e. Journal des debats et de la correspondence de la Socittt, &c.
For the various newspapers published under the auspices of the
Jacobins see Aulard i. p. ex., &c.
1 In the published reports only the speeches of members are given,
not the interruptions from the tribunes. But see the report (May 18,
1793) of Dutard to Garat on a meeting of the Jacobins (Schmidt,
' 'eaux ii. 242).
a moderate display of energy would have saved the National
Convention from the humiliation of being dominated by a club,
and the French Revolution from the blot of the Terror. But
though the Girondins were fully conscious of the evil, they were
too timid, or too convinced of the ultimate triumph of their own
persuasive eloquence, to act. In the session of the 3oth of
April 1793 a proposal was made to move the Convention to
Versailles out of reach of the Jacobins, and Buzot declared that
it was " impossible to remain in Paris " so long as " this abomin-
able haunt " should exist; but the motion was not carried, and
the Girondins remained to become the victims of the Jacobins.
Meanwhile other political clubs could only survive so long as
they were content to be the shadows of the powerful organization
of the Rue St Honored The Feuillants had been suppressed
on the i8th of August 1792. The turn of the Cordeliers came so
soon as its leaders showed signs of revolting against Jacobin
supremacy, and no more startling proof of this ascendancy
could be found than the ease with which Hebert and his fellows
were condemned and the readiness with which the Cordeliers,
after a feeble attempt at protest, acquiesced in the verdict.
It is idle to speculate on what might have happened had this
ascendancy been overthrown by the action of a strong govern-
ment. No strong government existed, nor, in the actual condi-
tions of the country, could exist on the lines laid down by the
constitution. France was menaced by civil war within, and by
a coalition of hostile powers without; the discipline of the Terror
was perhaps necessary if she was to be welded into a united force
capable of resisting this double peril; and the revolutionary
leaders saw in the Jacobin organization the only instrument
by which this discipline could be made effective. This is the
apology usually put forward for the Jacobins by republican
writers of later times; they were, it is said (and of some of them
it is certainly true), no mere doctrinaires and visionary sectaries,
but practical and far-seeing politicians, who realized that
" desperate ills need desperate remedies," and, by having the
courage of their convictions, saved the gains of the Revolution
for France.
The Jacobin Club was closed after the fall of Robespierre on
the gth of Thermidor of the year III., and some of its members
were executed. An attempt was made to re-open the club,
which was joined by many of the enemies of the Thermidorians,
but on the 2ist of Brumaire, year III. (Nov. n, 1794), it was
definitively closed. Its members and their sympathizers were
scattered among the caffis, where a ruthless war of sticks and
chairs was waged against them by the young " aristocrats "
known as the jeunesse dorte. Nevertheless the " Jacobins "
survived, in a somewhat subterranean fashion, emerging again
in the club of the Panth6on, founded on the 25th of November
1795, and suppressed in the following February (see BABEUF;
FRANCOIS NOEL). The last attempt to reorganize them was the
foundation of the Reunion d'amis de I'egalitt et de la liberty in
July 1799, which had its headquarters in the Satte du Manege
of the Tuileries, and was thus known as the Club du Manege.
It was patronized by Barras, and some two hundred and fifty
members of the two councils of the legislature were enrolled as
members, including many notable ex- Jacobins. It published a
newspaper called the Journal des Libres, proclaimed the apothe-
osis of Robespierre and Babeuf , and attacked the Directory as a
rdyaute pentarchique. But public opinion was now prepondcr-
atingly moderate or royalist, and the club was violently attacked
in the press and in the streets, the suspicions of the government
were aroused; it had to change its meeting-place from the
Tuileries to the church of the Jacobins (Temple of Peace) in the
Rue du Bac, and in August it was suppressed, after barely a
month's existence. Its members revenged themselves on the
Directory by supporting Napoleon Bonaparte.
Long before the suppression of the Jacobin Club the name of
" Jacobins " had been popularly applied to all promulgators
of extreme revolutionary opinions. In this sense the word
passed beyond the borders of France and long survived the
Revolution. Canning's paper, The A nti- Jacobin, directed against
the English Radicals, consecrated its use in England; and in the
JACOBITE CHURCH— JACOBITES
correspondence of Metternich and other leaders of the repressive
policy which followed the second fall of Napoleon, " Jacobin "
is the term commonly applied to anyone with Liberal tendencies,
even to so august a personage as the emperor Alexander I. of
Russia.
The most important source of information for the history of the
Jacobins is F. A. Aulard's La soci&tk des Jacobins, Recueil de docu-
ments (6 vols., Paris, 1889, &c.), where a critical bibliography will be
found. This collection does not contain all the printed sources —
notably the official Journal of the Club is omitted — but these
sources, when not included, are indicated. The documents pub-
lished are furnished with valuable explanatory notes. See also
W. A. Schmidt, Tableaux de la revolution franqaise (3 vols., Leipzig,
1867-1870), notably for the reports of the secret police, which throw
much light on the actual working of the Jacobin propaganda.
JACOBITE CHURCH. The name of " Jacobites " is first
found in a synodal decree of Nicaea A.D. 787, and was invented
by hostile Greeks for the Syrian Monophysite Church as founded,
or rather restored, by Jacob or James Baradaeus, who was
ordained its bishop A.D. 541 or 543. The Monophysites, who like
the Greeks knew themselves simply as the Orthodox, were
grievously persecuted by the emperor Justinian and the graeciz-
ing patriarchs of Antioch, because they rejected the decrees of
the council of Chalcedon, in which they — not without good reason
— saw nothing but a thinly veiled relapse into those opinions of
Nestorius which the previous council of Ephesus had condemned.
James was born a little before A.D. 500 at Telia or Tela, 55 m.
east of Edessa, of a priestly family, and entered the convent of
Phesilta on Mount Isla. About 528 he went with a fellow-monk
Sergius to Constantinople to plead the cause of his co-religionists
with the empress Theodora, and livid there fifteen years.
Justinian during those years imprisoned, deprived or exiled
most of the recalcitrant clergy of Syria, Mesopotamia, Cilicia,
Cappadocia, and the adjacent regions. Once ordained bishop of
Edessa, with the connivance of Theodora, James, disguised as a
ragged beggar (whence his name Baradaeus, Syriac Burde'ana,
Arabic al- Barddid) , traversed these regions preaching, teaching
and ordaining new clergy to the number, it is said, of 80,000.
His later years were embittered by squabbles with his own clergy,
and he died in 578. His work, however, endured, and in the
middle ages the Jacobite hierarchy numbered 150 archbishops
and bishops under a patriarch and his maphrian. About the
year 728 six Jacobite bishops present at the council of Manazgert
established communion with the Armenians, who equally rejected
Chalcedon; they were sent by the patriarch of Antioch, and
among them were the metropolitan of Urha (Edessa) and the
bishops of Qarhan, Gardman, Nferkert and Amasia. How long
this union lasted is not known. In 1842, when the Rev. G. P.
Badger visited the chief Jacobite centres, their numbers in all
Turkey had dwindled to about 100,000 souls, owing to vast
secessions to Rome. At Aleppo at that date only ten families
out of several hundred remained true to their old faith, and
something like the same proportion at Damascus and Bagdad.
Badger testifies that the Syrian proselytes to Rome were superior
to their Jacobite brethren, having established schools, rebuilt
their churches, increased their clergy, and, above all, having
learned to live with each other on terms of peace and charity.
As late as 1850 there were 150 villages of them in the Jebel Toor
to the north-east of Mardin, 50 in the district of Urfah and
Gawar, and a few in the neighbourhoods of Diarbekr, Mosul and
Damascus. From about 1860, the seceders to Rome were able,
thanks to French consular protection, to seize the majority of
the Jacobite churches in Turkey; and this injustice has contri-
buted much to the present degradation and impoverishment
of the Jacobites.
They used leavened bread in the Eucharist mixed with salt
and oil, and like other Monophysites add to the Trisagion the
words " Who wast crucified for our sake." They venerate
pictures or images, and make the sign of the cross with one
finger to show that Christ had but one nature. Deacons, as in
Armenia, marry before taking priests' orders. Their patriarch
is styled of Antioch, but seldom comes west of Mardin. His
119
maphrian (fertilizer) since 1089 has lived at Mosul and ordains
the bishops. Monkery is common among them, but there are no
nuns. Next to the Roman Uniats (whom they term Rassen or
Venal) they most hate the Nestorian Syrians of Persia. In 1882,
at the instance of the British government, the Turks began to
recognize them as a separate organization.
See M. Klein, Jacobus Baradaeus (Leiden, 1882); Assemani,
Bibl. Or. ii. 62-69, 326 and 331; G. P. Badger, The Nestorians
(London, 1852) ; Rubens Duval, La literature syriaque (Paris, 1899) ;
G. Kriiger, Monophysitische Streitigkeiten (Jena, 1884); Silbernagel,
Verfassung der Kirchen des Orients (Landshut, 1865) ; and G.Wright,
History of Syriac Literature (London, 1894). (F. C. C.)
JACOBITES (from Lat. Jacobus, James), the name given after
the revolution of 1688 to the adherents, first of the exiled English
king James II., then of his descendants, and after the extinction
of the latter in 1807, of the descendants of Charles I., i.e. of the
exiled house of Stuart.
The history of the Jacobites, culminating in the risings of 1715
and 1745, is part of the general history of England (q.v.), and
especially of Scotland (q.v.), in which country they were com-
paratively more numerous and more active, while there was also
a large number of Jacobites in Ireland. They were recruited
largely, but not solely, from among the Roman Catholics, and
the Protestants among them were often identical with the Non-
Jurors. Owing to a variety of causes Jacobitism began to lose
ground after the accession of George I. and the suppression of
the revolt of 1715; and the total failure of the rising of 1745 may
be said to mark its end as a serious political force. In 1765
Horace Walpole said that " Jacobitism, the concealed mother
of the latter (i.e. Toryism), was extinct," but as a sentiment it
remained for some time longer, and may even be said to exist
to-day. In 1750, during a strike of coal workers at Elswick,
James III. was proclaimed king; in 1780 certain persons walked
out of the Roman Catholic Church at Hexham when George III.
was prayed for; and as late as 1784 a Jacobite rising was talked
about. Northumberland was thus a Jacobite stronghold; and
in Manchester, where in 1777 according to an American observer
Jacobitism "is openly professed," a Jacobite rendezvous known
as " John Shaw's Club " lasted from 1735 to 1892. North Wales
was another Jacobite centre. The " Cycle of the White Rose "
— the white rose being the badge of the Stuarts — composed of
members of the principal Welsh families around Wrexham,
including the Williams- Wynns of Wynnstay, lasted from 1710
until some time between 1850 and 1860. Jacobite traditions
also lingered among the great families of the Scottish Highlands;
the last person to suffer death as a Jacobite was Archibald
Cameron, a son of Cameron of Lochiel, who was executed in
1753. Dr Johnson's Jacobite sympathies are well known, and
on the death of Victor Emmanuel I., the ex-king of Sardinia, in
1824, Lord Liverpool wrote to Canning saying " there are those
who think that the ex-king was the lawful king of Great Britain."
Until the accession of King Edward VII. finger-bowls were
not placed upon the royal dinner-table, because in former times
those who secretly sympathized with the Jacobites were in
the habit of drinking to the king over the water. The romantic
side of Jacobitism was stimulated by Sir Walter Scott's Waverley,
and many Jacobite poems were written during the ipth
century.
The chief collections of Jacobite poems are: Charles Mackay's
Jacobite Songs and Ballads of Scotland, 1688-1746, with Appendix of
Modern Jacobite Songs (1861); G. S. Macquoid's Jacobite Songs and
Ballads (1888) ; and English Jacobite Ballads, edited by A. B. Grosart
from the Towneley manuscripts (1877).
Upon the death of Henry Stuart, Cardinal York, the last of
James II.'s descendants, in 1807, the rightful occupant of the
British throne according to legitimist principles was to be found
among the descendants of Henrietta, daughter of Charles I., who
married Philip I., duke of Orleans. Henrietta's daughter, Anne
Marie (1669-1728), became the wife of Victor Amadeus II., duke
of Savoy, afterwards king of Sardinia; her son was King Charles
Emmanuel III., and her grandson Victor Amadeus III. The
latter's son, King Victor Emmanuel I., left no sons, and his eldest
daughter, Marie Beatrice, married Francis IV., duke of Modena,
I2O
JACOBS, C. F. W.— JACOBSEN
whose son Ferdinand (d. 1849) left an only daughter, Marie
Therese (b. 1849). This lady, the wife of Prince Louis of Bavaria,
was in 1910 the senior member of the Stuart family, and accord-
ing to the legitimists the rightful sovereign of Great Britain and
Ireland.
Table showing the succession to the crown of Great Britain and Ireland
according to Jacobite principles.
Charles I. (1600-1649)
Henrietta (1644-1670) =
Philip I., duke of Orleans (1640-1701)
Anne Marie (1669-1728) =
Victor Amadeus II., king of Sardinia (1666-1732)
Charles Emmanuel III.
king of Sardinia (1701-1773)
Victor Amadeus III.
king of Sardinia (1726-1796)
Victor Emmanuel I.
king of Sardinia (1759-1824)
Marie Beatrice (c. 1780-1840) =
Francis IV., duke of Modena (1779-1846)
Ferdinand (1821-1849)
Marie The>ese (b. 1849) =
Louis, prince of Bavaria (b. 1845)
Rupert, prince
of Bavaria (b. 1869)
I
Charles
(b. 1874)
Francis
(b. 1875)
Luitpold Albert Rudolph
(b. 1901) (b. 1905) (b. 1909)
Among the modern Jacobite, or legitimist, societies perhaps the
most important is the" Order of the White Rose, "which has a branch
in Canada and the United States. The order holds that sovereign
authority is of divine sanction, and that the execution of Charles I.
and the revolution of 1688 were national crimes; it exists to study
the history of the Stuarts, to oppose all democratic tendencies, and
in general to maintain the theory that kingship is independent of all
parliamentary authority and popular approval. The order, which
was instituted in 1886, was responsible for the Stuart exhibition of
1889, and has a newspaper, the Royalist. Among other societies
with similar objects in view are the " Thames Valley Legitimist
Club " and the " Legitimist Jacobite League of Great Britain and
Ireland."
See Historical Papers relating to the Jacobite Period, edited by J.
Allardyce (Aberdeen, 1895-1896) ; James Hogg, The Jacobite Relics of
Scotland (Edinburgh, 1819-1821) ; and F. W. Head, The Fallen Stuarts
(Cambridge, 1901). The marquis de Ruvigny has compiled The
Jacobite Peerage (Edinburgh, 1904), a work which purports to give
a list of all the titles and honours conferred by the kings of the
exiled House of Stuart. (A. W. H.*)
JACOBS, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1764-1847),
German classical scholar, was born at Gotha on the 6th of Octo-
ber 1764. After studying philology and theology at Jena and
Gottingen, in 1785 he became teacher in the gymnasium of his
native town, and in 1802 was appointed to an office in the
public library. In 1807 he became classical tutor in the lyceum
of Munich, but, disgusted at the attacks made upon him by
the old Bavarian Catholic party, who resented the introduc-
tion of " north German " teachers, he returned to Gotha in
1810 to take charge of the library and the numismatic cabinet.
He remained in Gotha till his death on the 3oth of March 1847.
Jacobs was an extremely successful teacher; he took great
interest in the affairs of his country, and was a publicist of
no mean order. But his great work was an edition of the
Greek Anthology, with copious notes, in 13 volumes (1798-
1814), supplemented by a revised text from the Codex Palatinus
(1814-1817). He published also notes on Horace, Stobaeus,
Euripides, Athenaeus and the Iliaca of Tzetzes; translations
of Aelian (History of Animals); many of the Greek romances;
Philostratus; poetical versions of much of the Greek Anthology;
miscellaneous essays on classical subjects; and some very suc-
cessful school books. His translation of the political speeches
of Demosthenes was undertaken with the express purpose of
rousing his country against Napoleon, whom he regarded as a
second Philip of Macedon.
See E. F. Wustemann, Friderici Jacobsii laudatio (Gotha, 1848);
C. Bursian, Geschichte der classischen Philologie in Deutschland; and
the appreciative article by C. Regel in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic.
JACOBS CAVERN, a cavern in latitude 36° 35' N., 2 m. E.
of Pineville, McDonald county, Missouri, named after its dis-
coverer, E. H. Jacobs, of Bentonville, Arkansas. It was
scientifically explored by him, in company with Professors
Charles Peabody and Warren K. Moorehead, in 1903. The
results were published in that year by Jacobs in the Benton
County Sun; by C. N. Gould in Science, July 31, 1903; by
Peabody in the Am. Anthropologist, Sept. 1903; and in the Am.
Journ. Archaeology, 1904; and by Peabody and Moorehead, 1904,
as Bulletin I. of the Dept. of Archaeology in Phillips Academy,
Andover, Mass., in the museum of which are exhibits, maps and
photographs.
Jacobs Cavern is one of the smaller caves, hardly more than
a rock-shelter, and is entirely in the " St Joe Limestone " of the
sub-carboniferous age. Its roof is a single flat stratum of lime-
stone; its walls are well marked by lines of stratification; drip-
stone also partly covers the walls, fills a deep fissure at the end
of the cave, and spreads over the floor, where it mingles with an
ancient bed of ashes, forming an ash-breccia (mostly firm and
solid) that encloses fragments of sandstone, flint spalls, flint im-
plements, charcoal and bones. Underneath is the true floor of
the cave, a mass of homogeneous yellow clay, one metre in thick-
ness. It holds scattered fragments of limestone, and is itself the
result of limestone degeneration. The length of the opening is
over 21 metres; its depth 14 metres, and the height of roof above
the undisturbed ash deposit varied from i m. 20 cm. to 2 m.
60 cm. The bone recess at the end was from 50 cm. to 80 cm. in
height. The stratum of ashes was from 50 cm. to I m. 50 cm.
thick.
The ash surface was staked off. into square metres, and the
substance carefully removed in order. Each stalactite, stalag-
mite and pilaster was measured, numbered, and removed in
sections. Six human skeletons were found buried in the ashes.
Seven-tenths of a cubic metre of animal bones were found: deer,
bear, wolf, raccoon, opossum, beaver, buffalo, elk, turkey, wood-
chuck, tortoise and hog; all contemporary with man's occupancy.
Three stone metates, one stone axe, one celt and fifteen hammer-
stones were found. Jacobs Cavern was peculiarly rich in flint
knives and projectile points. The sum total amounts to 419
objects, besides hundreds of fragments, cores, spalls and rejects,
retained for study and comparison. Considerable numbers of
bone or horn awls were found in the ashes, as well as fragments
of pottery, but no " ceremonial " objects.
The rude type of the implements, the absence of fine pottery,
and the peculiarities of the human remains, indicate a race of
occupants more ancient than the " mound-builders." The
deepest implement observed was buried 50 cm. under the stalag-
mitic surface. Dr. Hovey has proved that the rate of stalagmitic
growth in Wyandotte Cave, Indiana, is .0254 cm. annually; and
if that was the rate in Jacobs Cavern, 1968 years would have
been needed for the embedding of that implement. Polished
rocks outside the cavern and pictographs in the vicinity indicate
the work of a prehistoric race earlier than the Osage Indians,
who were the historic owners previous to the advent of the white
man. (H. C. H.)
JACOBSEN, JENS PETER (1847-1883), Danish imaginative
writer, was born at Thisted in Jutland, on the 7th of April 1847 ;
he was the eldest of the five children of a prosperous merchant.
He became a student at the university of Copenhagen in 1868.
As a boy he showed a remarkable turn for science, particularly
for botany. In 1870, although he was secretly writing verses
already, Jacobsen definitely adopted botany as a profession.
He was sent by a scientific body in Copenhagen to report on the
flora of the islands of Anholt and Laeso. About this time the
discoveries of Darwin began to exercise a fascination over him,
and finding them little understood in Denmark, he translated
into Danish The Origin of Species and The Descent of Man. In
JACOB'S WELL— JACOTOT
121
the autumn of 1872, while collecting plants in a morass near
Ordrup, he contracted pulmonary disease. His illness, which
cut him off from scientific investigation, drove him to literature.
He met the famous critic, Dr Georg Brandes, who was struck by
his powers of expression, and under his influence, in the spring
of 1873, Jacobsen began his great historical romance of Marie
Grubbe. His method of composition was painful and elaborate,
and his work was not ready for publication until the close of
1876. In 1879 he was too ill to write at all; but in 1880 an im-
provement came, and he finished his second novel, Niels Lyhne.
In 1882 he published a volume of six short stories, most of them
written a few years earlier, called, from the first of them, Mogens.
After this he wrote no more, but lingered on in his mother's house
at Thisted until the aoth of April 1885. In 1886 his posthumous
fragments were collected. It was early recognized that Jacobsen
was the greatest artist in prose that Denmark has produced.
He has been compared with Flaubert, with De Quincey, with
Pater; but these parallelisms merely express a sense of the intense
individuality of his style, and of his untiring pursuit of beauty in
colour, form and melody. Although he wrote so little, and
crossed the living stage so hurriedly, his influence in the North
has been far-reaching. It may be said that no one in Denmark
or Norway has tried to write prose carefully since 1880 whose
efforts have not been in some degree modified by the example of
Jacobsen's laborious art.
His Samlede Skrifter appeared in two volumes in 1888; in 1899
his letters (Breve) were edited by Edvard Brandes. In 1896 an
English translation of part of the former was published under the
title of Siren Voices: Niels Lyhne, by Miss E. F. L. Robertson.
(E. G.)
JACOB'S WELL, the scene of the conversation between
Jesus and the " woman of Samaria " narrated in the Fourth
Gospel, is described as being in the neighbourhood of an other-
wise unmentioned " city called Sychar." From the time of
Eusebius this city has been identified with Sychem or Shechem
(modern Nablus), and the well is still in existence i^ m. E. of
the town, at the foot of Mt Gerizim. It is beneath one of the
ruined arches of a church mentioned by Jerome, and is reached
by a few rough steps. When Robinson visited it in 1838 it
was 105 ft. deep, but it is now much shallower and often dry.
For a discussion of Sychar as distinct from Shechem see T. K.
Cheyne, art. " Sychar," in Ency. Bibl., col. 4830. It is possible
that Sychar should be placed at Tulul Balata, a mound about i m. W.
of the well (Palestine Exploration Fund Statement, 1907, p. 92 seq.);
when that village fell into ruin the name may have migrated to
'Askar, a village on the lower slopes of Mt Ebal about I J m. E.N.E.
from Nablus and $ m. N. from Jacob's Well. It may be noted
that the difficulty is not with the location of the well, but with the
identification of Sychar.
JACOBUS DE VORAGINE (c. i23o-c. 1298), Italian chronicler,
archbishop of Genoa, was born at the little village of Varazze,
near Genoa, about the year 1230. He entered the" order of the
friars preachers of St Dominic in 1244, and besides preaching
with success in many parts of Italy, taught in the schools of his
own fraternity. He was provincial of Lombardy from 1267 till
1 286, when he was removed at the meeting of the order in Paris.
He also represented his own province at the councils of Lucca
(1288) and Ferrara (1290). On the last occasion he was one of
the four delegates charged with signifying Nicholas IV.'s desire
for the deposition of Munio de Zamora, who had been master
of the order from 1285, and was deprived of his office by a papal
bull dated the I2th of April 1291. In 1288 Nicholas empowered
him to absolve the people of Genoa for their offence in aiding
the Sicilians against Charles II. Early in 1292 the same pope,
himself a Franciscan, summoned Jacobus to Rome, intending
to consecrate him archbishop of Genoa with his own hands.
He reached Rome on Palm Sunday (March 30), only to find
his patron ill of a deadly sickness, from which he died on Good
Friday (April 4). The cardinals, however, "propter honorem
Communis Januae," determined to carry out this consecration
on the Sunday after Easter. He was a good bishop, and espe-
cially distinguished himself by his efforts to appease the civil
discords of Genoa. He died in 1298 or 1299, and was buried
in the Dominican church at Genoa. A story, mentioned by the
chronicler Echard as unworthy of credit, makes Boniface VIII.,
on the first day of Lent, cast the ashes in the archbishop's eyes
instead of on his head, with the words, " Remember that thou
art a Ghibelline, and with thy fellow Ghibellines wilt return to
naught."
Jacobus de Voragine left a list of his own works. Speaking of
himself in his Chronicon januense, he says, " While he was in his
order, and after he had been made archbishop, he wrote many works.
For he compiled the legends of the saints (Legendae sanctorum) in
one volume, adding many things from the Historia triparlita et
scholastica, and from the chronicles of many writers." The other
writings he claims are two anonymous volumes of " Sermons con-
cerning all the Saints " whose yearly feasts the church celebrates.
Of these volumes, he adds, one is very diffuse, but the other short and
concise. Then follow Sermones de omnibus evangeliis dominicalibus
for every Sunday in the year; Sermones de omnibus evangeliis, i.e.
a book of discourses on all the Gospels, from Ash Wednesday to the
Tuesday after Easter; and a treatise called " Marialis, qui totus est
de B. Maria compositus," consisting of about 160 discourses on the
attributes, titles, &c., of the Virgin Mary. In the same work tht
archbishop claims to have written his Chronicon januense in the
second year of his pontificate (1293), but it extends to 1206 or 1297.
To this list Echard adds several other works, such as a defence of the
Dominicans, printed at Venice in 1504, and a Summa virtutum et
vitiorum Guillelmi Peraldi, a Dominican who died about 1250.
Jacobus is also said by Sixtus of Siena (Biblioth. Sacra, lib. ix.) to
have translated the Old and New Testaments into his own tongue.
" But," adds Echard, " if he did so, -the version lies so closely hid
that there is no recollection of it," and it may be added that it is
highly improbable that the man who compiled the Golden Legend
ever conceived the necessity of having the Scriptures in the
vernacular.
His two chief works are the Chronicon januense and the Golden
Legend or Lombardica hystoria. The former is partly printed in
Muratori (Scriptores Rtr. Ital. ix. 6). It is divided into twelve parts.
The first four deal with the mythical history of Genoa from the time
of its founder, Janus, the first king of Italy, and its enlarger, a second
Janus "citizen of Troy", till its conversion to Christianity "about
twenty-five years after the passion of Christ." Part v. professes
to treat of the beginning, the growth and the perfection of the city ;
but of the first period the writer candidly confesses he knows nothing
except by hearsay. The second period includes the Genoese crusading
exploits in the East, and extends to their victory over the Pisans
(c. 1130), while the third reaches down to the days of the author's
archbishopric. The sixth part deals with the constitution of the
city, the seventh and eighth with the duties of rulers and citizens, the
ninth with those of domestic life. The tenth gives the ecclesiastical
history of Genoa from the time of its first known bishop, St Valentine,
" whom we believe to have lived about 530 A.D., " till 1 133, when the
city was raised to archiepiscopal rank. The eleventh contains the
lives of all the bishops in order, and includes the chief events during
their pontificates; the twelfth deals in the same way with the
archbishops, not forgetting the writer himself.
The Golden Legend, one of the most popular religious works of the
middle ages, is a collection of the legendary lives of the greater
saints of the medieval church. The preface divides the ecclesias-
tical year into four periods corresponding to the various epochs of the
world's history, a time of deviation, of renovation, of reconciliation
and of pilgrimage. The book itself, however, falls into five sections:
— (a) from Advent to Christmas (cc. 1-5); (b) from Christmas to
Septuagesima (6-30); (c) from Septuagesima to Easter (31-53);
(d) from Easter Day to the octave of Pentecost (54-76) ; (e) from the
octave of Pentecost to Advent (77-180). The saints' lives are full of
puerile legend, and in not a few cases contain accounts of 13th-
century miracles wrought at special places, particularly with reference
to the Dominicans. The last chapter but one (181), " De Sancto
Pelagio Papa," contains a kind of history of the world from the
middle of the 6th century; while the last (182) is a somewhat
allegorical disquisition, " De Dedicatione Ecclesiae."
The Golden Legend was translated into French by Jean Belet de
Vigny in the I4th century. It was also one of the earliest books
to issue from the press. A Latin edition is assigned to about 1469 ;
and a dated one was published at Lyons in 1473. Many other Latin
editions were printed before the end of the century. A French
translation by Master John Bataillier is dated 1476; Jean de Vigny's
appeared at Paris, 1488 ; an Italian one by Nic. Manerbi (? Venice,
1475); a Bohemian one at Pilsen, 1475-1479, and at Prague, 1495;
Caxton's English versions, 1483, 1487 and 1493; and a German one
in 1489. Several ijjth-century editions of the Sermons are also
known, and the Mariale was printed at Venice in 1497 and at Paris
in 1503.
For bibliography see Potthast, Bibliotheca hist. med. aev. (Berlin,
1896), p. 634; U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources hist. Bio.-bibl.
(Paris, 1905), s.v. " Jacques de Voragine."
JACOTOT, JOSEPH (177(5-1840), French educationist, author
of the method of " emancipation intellectuelle," was born
122
JACQUARD— JADE
at Dijon on the 4th of March 1770. He was educated at the
university of Dijon, where in his nineteenth year he was chosen
professor of Latin, after which he studied law, became advocate,
and at the same time devoted a large amount of his attention
to mathematics. In 1788 he organized a federation of the youth
of Dijon for the defence of the principles of the Revolution;
and in 1792, with the rank of captain, he set out to take part in
the campaign of Belgium, where he conducted himself with
bravery and distinction. After for some time filling the office of
secretary of the " commission d'organisation du mouvement
des armees," he in 1794 became deputy of the director of the
Polytechnic school, and on the institution of the central schools
at Dijon he was appointed to the chair of the " method of
sciences," where he made his first experiments in that mode of
tuition which he afterwards developed more fully. On the
central schools being replaced by other educational institutions,
Jacotot occupied successively the chairs of mathematics and of
Roman law until the overthrow of the empire. In 1815 he was
elected a representative to the chamber of deputies; but after
the second restoration he found it necessary to quit his native
land, and, having taken up his residence at Brussels, he was in
1818 nominated by the Government teacher of the French
language at the university of Louvain, where he perfected into a
system the educational principles which he had already practised
with success in France. His method was not only adopted in
several institutions in Belgium, but also met with some approval
in France, England, Germany and Russia. It was based on
three principles: (i) all men have equal intelligence; (2) every
man has received from God the faculty of being able to instruct
himself; (3) everything is in everything. As regards (i) he
maintained that it is only in the will to use their intelligence that
men differ; and his own process, depending on (3), was to give
any one learning a language for the first time a short passage of
a few lines, and to encourage the pupil to study, first the
words, then the letters, then the grammar, then the meaning,
until a single paragraph became the occasion for learning
an entire literature. After the revolution of 1830 Jacotot
returned to France, and he died at Paris on the 3Oth of
July 1840.
His system was described by him in Enseignement universel,
langue maternelle, Louvain and Dijon, 1823 — which passed through
several editions — and in various other works; and he also advocated
his views in the Journal de I Emancipation inlellectuelle. For a com-
plete list of his works and fuller details regarding his career, see
Biographic de J. Jacotot, by Achille Guillard (Paris, 1860).
JACQUARD, JOSEPH MARIE (1752-1834), French inventor,
was born at Lyons on the 7th of July 1752. On the death of
his father, who was a working weaver, he inherited two looms,
with which he started business on his own account. He did
not, however, prosper, and was at last forced to become a lime-
burner at Bresse, while his wife supported herself at Lyons by
plaiting straw. In 1793 he took part in the unsuccessful defence
of Lyons against the troops of the Convention; but afterwards
served in their ranks on the Rh6ne and Loire. After seeing
some active service, in which his young son was shot down at
his side, he again returned to Lyons. There he obtained a
situation in a factory, and employed his spare time in construct-
ing his improved loom, of which he had conceived the idea
several years previously. In 1801 he exhibited his invention at
the industrial exhibition at Paris; and in 1803 he was summoned
to Paris and attached to the Conservatoire des Arts et M6tiers.
A loom by Jacques de Vaucanson (1700-1782), deposited there,
suggested various improvements in his own, which he gradually
perfected to its final state. Although his invention was fiercely
opposed by the silk-weavers, who feared that its introduction,
owing to the saving of labour, would deprive them of their liveli-
hood, its advantages secured its general adoption, and by 1812
there were 11,000 Jacquard looms in use in France. The loom
was declared public property in 1806, and Jacquard was rewarded
with a pension and a royalty on each machine. He died at
Oullins (Rh6ne) on the 7th of August 1834, and six years later
a statue was erected to him at Lyons (see WEAVING).
JACQUERIE, THE, an insurrection of the French peasantry
which broke out in the lie de France and about Beauvais at the
end of May 1358. The hardships endured by the peasants in
the Hundred Years' War and their hatred for the nobles who
oppressed them were the principal causes which led to the rising,
though the immediate occasion was an affray which took place
on the 28th of May at the village of Saint-Leu between " bri-
gands " (militia infantry armoured in brigandines) and country-
folk. The latter having got the upper hand united with the
inhabitants of the neighbouring villages and placed Guillaume
Karle at their head. They destroyed numerous chateaux in the
valleys of the Oise, the Breche and the Therain, where they
subjected the whole countryside to fire and sword, committing
the most terrible atrocities. Charles the Bad, king of Navarre,
crushed the rebellion at the battle of Mello on the loth of June,
and the nobles then took violent reprisals upon the peasants,
massacring them in great numbers.
See Simeon Luce, Histoire de la Jacquerie (Paris, 1850 and i8os).
(J- V/)
JACTITATION (from Lat. jactitare, to throw out publicly), in
English law, the maliciously boasting or giving out by one party
that he or she is married to the other. In such a case, in order
to prevent the common reputation of their marriage that might
ensue, the procedure is by suit of jactitation of marriage, in which
the petitioner alleges that the respondent boasts that he or she
is married to the petitioner, and prays a declaration of nullity
and a decree putting the respondent to perpetual silence there-
after. Previously to 1857 such a proceeding took place only in
the ecclesiastical courts, but by express terms of the Matrimonial
Causes Act of that year it can now be brought in the probate,
divorce and admiralty division of the High Court. To the suit
there are three defences: (i) denial of the boasting; (2) the
truth of the representations; (3) allegation (by way of estoppel)
that the petitioner acquiesced in the boasting of the respondent.
In Thompson v. Rourke, 1893, Prob. 70, the court of appeal laid
down that the court will not make a decree in a jactitation suit
in favour of a petitioner who has at any time acquiesced in the
assertion of the respondent that they were actually married.
Jactitation of marriage is a suit that is very rare.
JADE, or JAHDE, a deep bay and estuary of the North Sea,
belonging to the grand-duchy of Oldenburg, Germany. The bay,
which was for the most part made by storm-floods in the i3th
and i6th centuries, measures 70 sq. m., and has communication
with the open sea by a fairway, a mile and a half wide, which
never freezes, and with the tide gives access to the largest vessels.
On the west side of the entrance to the bay is the Prussian naval
port of Wilhelmshaven. A tiny stream, about 14 m. long,
also known as the Jade, enters the head of the bay.
JADE, a name commonly applied to certain ornamental stones,
mostly of a green colour, belonging to at least two distinct
species, one termed nephrite and the other jadeite. Whilst the
term jade is popularly used in this sense, it is now usually
restricted by mineralogists to nephrite. The word jade1 is
derived (through Fr. lejade for I'ejade) from Span, ijada (Lat. ilia),
the loins, this mineral having been known to the Spanish con-
querors of Mexico and Peru under the name of piedra de ijada or
yjada (colic stone). The reputed value of the stone in renal
diseases is also suggested by the term nephrite (so named by
A. G. Werner from Gr. vt<j>p6s, kidney), and by its old name
lapis nephriticus.
Jade, in its wide and popular sense, has always been highly
prized by the Chinese, who not only believe in its medicinal
value but regard it as the symbol of virtue. It is known, with
other ornamental stones, under the name of yu or yu-chi (yu-
stone). According to Professor H. A. Giles, it occupies in China
the highest place as a jewel, and is revered as " the quintessence
of heaven and earth." Notwithstanding its toughness or tenacity,
due to a dense fibrous structure, it is wrought into complicated
1 The English use of the word for a worthless, ill-tempered horse,
a " screw," also applied as a term of reproach to a woman, has been
referred doubtfully to the same Spanish source as the O. Sp. ijadear,
meaning to pant, of a broken-winded horse.
forms and elaborately carved. On many prehistoric sites in
Europe, as in the Swiss lake-dwellings, celts and other carved
objects both in nephrite and in jadeite have not infrequently
been found; and as no kind of jade had until recent years been
discovered in situ in any European locality it was held, especially
by Professor L. H. Fischer, of Freiburg im Breisgau, Baden, that
either the raw material or the worked objects must have been
brought by some of the early inhabitants from a jade locality
probably in the East, or were obtained by barter, thus suggesting
a very early trade-route to the Orient. Exceptional interest,
therefore, attached to the discovery of jade in Europe, nephrite
having been found in Silesia, and jadeite or a similar rock in
the Alps, whilst pebbles of jade have been obtained from many
localities in Austria and north Germany, in the latter case
probably derived from Sweden. It is, therefore, no longer
necessary to assign the old jade implements to an exotic origin.
Dr A. B. Meyer, of Dresden, always maintained that the Euro-
pean jade objects were indigenous, and his views have become
generally accepted. Now that the mineral characters of jade
are better understood, and its identification less uncertain, it
may possibly be found with altered peridotites, or with amphibo-
lites, among the old crystalline schists of many localities.
Nephrite, or true jade, may be regarded as a finely fibrous or com-
pact variety of amphibole, referred either to actinolite or to tremolite,
according as its colour inclines to green or white. Chemically it is a
calcium-magnesium silicate, CaMgsCSiOs)*. The fibres are either
more or less parallel or irregularly felted together, rendering the stone
excessively tough ; yet its hardness is not great, being only about 6 or
6-5. The mineral sometimes tends to become schistose, breaking
with a splintery fracture, or its structure may be horny. The specific
gravity varies from 2-9 to 3-18, and is of determinative value, since
jadeite is much denser. The colour of jade presents various shades
of green, yellow and grey, and the mineral when polished has a rather
greasy lustre. Professor F. W. Clarke found the colours due to com-
pounds of iron, manganese and chromium. One of the most famous
localities for nephrite is on the west side of the South Island of New
Zealand, where it occurs as nodules and veins in serpentine and
talcose rocks, but is generally found as boulders. It was known to the
Maoris as pounamu, or " green stone," and was highly prized, being
worked with great labour into various objects, especially the club-
like implement known as the mere, or pattoo-pattoo, and the breast
ornament called hei-tiki. The New Zealand jade, called by old
writers " green talc of the Maoris," is now worked in Europe as an
ornamental stone. The green jade-like stone known in New Zealand
as tangiwai is bowenite, a translucent serpentine with enclosures of
magnesite. The mode of occurrence of the nephrite and bowenite of
New Zealand has been described by A. M. Finlayson (Quart. Jour.
Geol. Soc., 1909, p. 351). It appears that the Maoris distinguished
six varieties of jade. Difference of colour seems due to variations in
the proportion of ferrous silicate in the mineral. According to
Finlayson, the New Zealand nephrite results from the chemical
alteration of serpentine, olivine or pyroxene, whereby a fibrous
amphibole is formed, which becomes converted by intense pressure
and movement into the dense nephrite.
Nephrite occurs also in New Caledonia, and perhaps in some of the
other Pacific islands, but many of the New Caledonian implements
reputed to be of jade are really made of serpentine. From its use
as a material for axe-heads, jade is often known in Germany as
Beilstein (" axe-stone "). A fibrous variety, of specific gravity 3-18,
found in New Caledonia, and perhaps in the Marquesas, was dis-
tinguished'by A. Damour under the name of " oceanic jade."
Much of the nephrite used by the Chinese has been obtained from
quarries in the Kuen-lun mountains, on the sides of the Kara-kash
valley, in Turkestan. The mineral, generally of pale colour, occurs
in nests and veins running through hornblende-schists and gneissose
rocks, and it is notable that when first quarried it is comparatively
soft. It appears to have a wide distribution in the mountains, and
has been worked from very ancient times in Khotan. Nephrite is
said to occur also in the Pamir region, and pebbles are found in the
beds ol many streams. In Turkestan, jade is known as yashm or
yeshm, a word which appears in Arabic as yeshb, perhaps cognate
with taoTTis or jasper. The " jasper " of the ancients may have
included jade. Nephrite is said to have been discovered in 1891 in
the Nan-shan mountains in the Chinese province of Kan-sun, where
it is worked. The great centre of Chinese jade-working is at Peking,
and formerly the industry was active at Su-chow Fu. Siberia
has yielded very fine specimens of dark green nephrite, notably from
the neighbourhood of the Alibert graphite mine, near Batugol, Lake
Baikal. The jade seems to occur as a rock in part of the Sajan
mountain system. New deposits in Siberia were opened up to supply
material for the tomb of the tsar Alexander III. A gigantic mono-
lith exists at the tomb of Tamerlane at Samarkand. The occurrence
of the Siberian jade has been described by Professor L. von Jaczewski.
JADE 123
Jade implements are widely distributed in Alaska and British
Columbia, being found in Indian graves, in old shell-heaps and on
the sites of deserted villages. Dr G. M. Dawson, arguing from the dis-
covery of some boulders of jade iu the Fraser river valley, held that
they were not obtained by barter from Siberia, but were of native
origin; and the locality was afterwards discovered by Lieut. G. M.
Stoney. It is known as the Jade Mountains, and is situated north
of Kowak river, about 150 miles from its mouth. The study of a
large collection of jade implements by Professor F. W. Clarke and
Dr G. P. Merrill proved that the Alaskan jade is true nephrite, not to
be distinguished from that of New Zealand.
Jadeite is a mineral species established by A. Damour in 1863,
differing markedly from nephrite in that its relation lies with the
pyroxenes rather than with the amphiboles. It is an aluminium
sodium silicate, NaAl(SiO3)2, related to spodumene. S. L. Pen-
field showed, by measurement, that jadeite is monoclinic. Its
colour is commonly very pale, and white jadeite, which is the purest
variety, is known as " camphor jade." In many cases the mineral
shows bright patches of apple-green or emerald-green, due to the
presence of chromium. Jadeite is much more fusible than nephrite,
and is rather harder (6-5 to 7), but its most readily determined
character is found in its higher specific gravity, which ranges from
3-20 to 3-41. Some jadeite seems to be a metamorphosed igneous
rock.
The Burmese jade, discovered by a Yunnan trader in the I3th
century, is mostly jadeite. The quarries, described by Dr F. Noet-
ling, are situated on the Uru river, about 120 m. from Mogaung,
where the jadeite occurs in serpentine, and is partly extracted by fire-
setting. It is also found as boulders in alluvium, and when these
occur in a bed of laterite they acquire a red colour, which imparts to
them peculiar value. According to Dr W. G. Bleeck, who visited
the jade country of Upper Burma after Noetling, jadeite occurs at
three localities in the Kachin Hills — Tawmaw, Hweka and Mamon.
The jadeite is known as chauk-sen, and is sent either to China or to
Mandalay, by way of Bhamo, whence Bhamo has come erroneously
to be regarded as a locality for jade. Jadeite occurs in association
with the nephrite of Turkestan, and possibly in some other Asiatic
localities. In certain cases nephrite is formed by the alteration of
jadeite, as shown by Professor J. P. Iddings. The Chinese feits'ui,
sometimes called " imperial jade," is a beautiful green stone, which
seems generally to be jadeite, but it is said that in some cases it
may be chrysoprase. It is named from its resemblance in colour
to the plumage of the kingfisher. The resonant character of jade
has led to its occasional use as a musical stone.
In Mexico, in Central America and in the northern part of South
America, objects of jadeite are common. The Kunz votive adze
from Oaxaca, in Mexico, is now in the American Museum of Natural
History, New York. At the time of the Spanish conquest of Mexico
amulets of green stone were highly venerated, and it is believed that
jadeite was one of the stones prized under the name of chalchihuitl.
Probably turquoise was another stone included under this name, and
indeed any green stone capable of being polished, such as the Amazon
stone, now recognized as a green feldspar, may have been numbered
among the Aztec amulets. Dr Kunz suggests that the chalchihuitl
was jadeite in southern Mexico and Central America, and turquoise
in northern Mexico and New Mexico. He thinks that Mexican
jadeite may yet be discovered in places (Gems and Precious Stones of
Mexico, by G. F. Kunz: Mexico, 1907).
Chloromelanite is Damour's name for a dense, dark mineral which
has been regarded as a kind of jade, and was used for the manufac-
ture of celts found in the dolmens of France and in certain Swiss
lake-dwellings. It is a mineral of spinach-green or dark-green
colour, having a specific gravity of 3-4, or even as high as 3-65, and
may be regarded as a variety of jadeite rich in iron. Chloro-
melanite occurs in the Cyclops Mountains in New Guinea, and is used
for hatchets or agricultural implements, whilst the sago-clubs of the
island are usually of serpentine. Sillimanite, or fibrolite, is a mineral
which, like chloromelanite, was used by the Neolithic occupants of
western Europe, and is sometimes mistaken for a pale kind of jade.
It is an aluminium silicate, of specific gravity about 3-2, distinguished
by its infusibility. The jade tenace of J. R. Haiiy, discovered by
H. B. de Saussure in the Swiss Alps, is now known as saussurite.
Among other substances sometimes taken for jade may be mentioned
prehnite, a hydrous calcium-aluminium silicate, which when polished
much resembles certain kinds of jade. Pectolite has been used, like
jade, in Alaska. A variety of vesuvianite (idocrase) from California,
described by Dr. G. F. Kunz as californite, was at first mistaken for
jade. The name jadeolite has been given by Kunz to a green
chromiferous syenite from the jadeite mines of Burma. The mineral
called bowenite, at one time supposed to be jade, is a hard and tough
variety of serpentine. Some of the common Chinese ornaments
imitating jade are carved in steatite or serpentine, while others are
merely glass. The pate de riz is a fine white glass. The so-called
" pinkjade "is mostly quartz, artificially coloured, and" black jade,"
though sometimes mentioned, has no existence.
An exhaustive description of jade will be found in a sumptuous
work, entitled Investigations and Studies in Jade (New York, 1906).
This work, edited by Dr G. F. Kunz, was prepared in illustration
of the famous jade collection made by Heber Reginald Bishop, and
124
presented by him to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
The work, which is in two folio volumes, superbly illustrated, was
printed privately, and after. 100 copies had been struck off on Ameri-
can hand-made paper, the type was distributed and the material
used for the illustrations was destroyed. The second volume is a
catalogue of the collection, which comprises 900 specimens arranged
in three classes: mineralogical, archaeological and artistic. The
important section on Chinese jade was contributed by Dr S. W.
Bushell, who also translated for the work a discourse on jade —
Yu-shuo by T'ang Jung-tso, of Peking. Reference should also be
made to Heinrich Fischer's Nephrit und Jadett (2nd ed., Stuttgart,
1880), a work which at the date of its publication was almost
exhaustive. . (F. W. R.*)
JAEN, an inland province of southern Spain, formed in 1833 of
districts belonging to Andalusia; bounded on the N. by Ciudad
Real and Albacete, E. by Albacete and Granada, S. by Granada,
and W. by Cordova. Pop. (1900), 474,490; area, 5848 sq. m.
Jaen comprises the upper basin of the river Guadalquivir,, which
traverses the central districts from east to west, and is enclosed
on the north, south and east by mountain ranges, while on the
west it is entered by the great Andalusian plain. The Sierra
Morena, which divides Andalusia from New Castile, extends
along the northern half of the province, its most prominent
ridges being the Loma de Chiclana and the Loma de Ubeda;
the Sierras de Segura, in the east, derive their name from the
river Segura, which rises just within the border; and between
the last-named watershed, its continuation the Sierra del Pozo,
and the parallel Sierra de Cazorla, is the source of the Guadal-
quivir. The loftiest summits in the province are those of the
Sierra Magina (7103 ft.) farther west and south. Apart from
the Guadalquivir the only large rivers are its right-hand tribu-
taries the J&ndula and Guadalimar, its left-hand tributary the
Guadiana Menor, and the Segura, which flows east and south
to the Mediterranean.
In a region which varies so markedly in the altitude of its surface,
the climate is naturally unequal ; and, while the bleak, wind-swept
highlands are only available as sheep-walks, the well-watered and
fertile valleys favour the cultivation of the vine, the olive and! all
kinds of cereals. The mineral wealth of Jaen has been known since
Roman times, and mining is an important industry, with its centre
at Linares. Over 400 lead mines were worked in 1903 ; small quanti-
ties of iron, copper and salt are also obtained. There is some trade
in sawn timber and cloth ; esparto fabrics, alcohol and oil are manu-
factured. The roads, partly owing to the development of mining, are
more numerous and better kept than in most Spanish provinces.
Railway communication is also very complete in the western dis-
tricts, as the main line Madrid-Cordova-Seville passes through them
and is joined south of Linares by two important railways — from
Algeciras and Malaga on the south-west, and from Almeria on the
south-east. The eastern half of Jaen is inaccessible by rail. In the
western half are Jaen, the capital (pop. (1900), 26,434), with Andujar
(16,302), Baeza (14,379), Bailen (7420), Linares (38,245), Marios
_(I7,078) and Ubeda (19,913). Other towns of more than 7000
inhabitants are Alcala la Real, Alcaudete, Arjona, La Carolina and
Pprcuna, in the west; and Cazorla, Quesada, Torredonjimeno,
Villacarillo and Villanueva del Arzobispo, in the east.
JAEN, the capital of the Spanish province of Jaen, on the
Linires-Puente Genii railway, 1500 ft. above the sea. Pop.
(1900), 26,434. Jaen is finely situated on the well-wooded
northern slopes of the Jabalcuz Mountains, overlooking the
picturesque valleys of the Jaen and Guadalbullon rivers, which
flow north into the Guadalquivir. The hillside upon which the
narrow and irregular city streets rise in terraces is fortified with
Moorish walls and a Moorish citadel. Jaen is an episcopal see.
Its cathedral was founded in 1532; and, although it remained
unfinished until late in the i8th century, its main characteristics
are those of the Renaissance period. The city contains many
churches and convents, a library, art galleries, theatres, barracks
and hospitals. Its manufactures include leather, soap, alcohol
and linen; and it was formerly celebrated for its silk. There are
hot mineral springs in the mountains, 2 m. south.
The identification of Jaen with the Roman Aurinx, which has
sometimes been suggested, is extremely questionable. After the
Moorish conquest Jaen was an important commercial centre, under
the name of Jayyan ; and ultimately became capital of a petty king-
dom, which was brought to an end only in 1246 by Ferdinand ifl.
of Castille, who transferred hither the bishopric of Baeza in 1248.
Ferdinand IV. died at Jaen in 1312. In 1712 the city suffered
severely from an earthquake.
JAEN— JAGERNDORF
JAFARABAD, a state of India, in the Kathiawar agency of
Bombay, forming part of the territory of the nawab of Janjira;
area, 42 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 12,097; estimated revenue, £4000.
The town of Jafarabad (pop. 6038), situated on the estuary of a
river, carries on a large coasting trade.
JAFFNA, a town of Ceylon, at the northern extremity of the
island. The fort was described by Sir J. Emerson Tennent as
" the most perfect little military work in Ceylon — a pentagon
built of blocks of white coral." The European part of the town
bears the Dutch stamp more distinctly than any other town in
the island; and there still exists a Dutch Presbyterian church.
Several of the church buildings date from the time of the Portu-
guese. In looi Jaffna had a population of 33,879, while in the
district or peninsula of the same name there were 300,851 persons,
nearly all Tamils, the only Europeans being the civil servants and
a few planters. Coco-nut planting has not been successful of
recent years. The natives grow palmyras freely, and have a
trade in the fibre of this palm. They also grow and export
tobacco, but not enough rice for their own requirements. A
steamer calls weekly, and there is considerable trade. The
railway extension from Kurunegala due north to Jaffna and the
coast was commenced in 1900. Jaffna is the seat of a govern-
ment agent and district judge, and criminal sessions of the
supreme court are regularly held. Jaffna, or, as the natives call
it, Yalpannan, was occupied by the Tamils about 204 B.C., and
there continued to be Tamil rajahs of Jaffna till 1617, when the
Portuguese took possession of the place. As early as 1544 the
missionaries under Francis Xavier had made converts in this
part of Ceylon, and after the conquest the Portuguese main-
tained their proselytizing zeal. They had a Jesuit college, a
Franciscan and a Dominican monastery. The Dutch drove out
the Portuguese in 1658. The Church of England Missionary
Society began its work in Jaffna in 1818, and the American
Missionary Society in 1822.
JAGER, GUSTAV (1832- ), German naturalist and
hygienist, was born at Burg in Wlirttemberg on the 23rd of June
1832. After studying medicine at Tubingen he became a teacher
of zoology at Vienna. In 1868 he was appointed professor of
zoology at the academy of Hohenheim, and subsequently he
became teacher of zoology and anthropology at Stuttgart poly-
technic and professor of physiology at the veterinary school. In
1884 he abandoned teaching and started practice as a physician
in Stuttgart. He wrote various works on biological subjects,
including Die Danvinsche Theorie und Hire Stellung zu Moral und
Religion (1869), Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Zoologie (1871-1878),
and Die Entdeckung der Seele (1878). In 1876 he suggested an
hypothesis in explanation of heredity, resembling the. germ-
plasm theory subsequently elaborated by August Weismann, to
the effect that the germinal protoplasm retains its specific
properties from generation to generation, dividing in each re-
production into an ontogenetic portion, out of which the
individual is built up, and a phylogenetic portion, which is
reserved to form the reproductive material of the mature off-
spring. In Die Normalkleidung als Gesundheilsschulz (1880) he
advocated the system of clothing associated with his name,
objecting especially to the use of any kind of vegetable fibre
for clothes.
JAGERNDORF (Czech, Krnov), a town of Austria, in Silesia,
18 m. N.W. of Troppau by rail. Pop. (1900), 14,675, mostly
German. It is situated on the Oppa and possesses a chateau
belonging to Prince Liechtenstein, who holds extensive estates
in the district. Jagerndorf has large manufactories of cloth,
woollens, linen and machines, and carries on an active trade.
On the neighbouring hill of Burgberg (1420 ft.) are a church,
much visited as a place of pilgrimage, and the ruins of the seat
of the former princes of Jagerndorf. The claim of Prussia to
the principality of Jagerndorf was the occasion of the first
Silesian war (1740-1742), but in the partition, which followed,
Austria retained the larger portion of it. Jagerndorf suffered
severely during the Thirty Years' War, and was the scene of
engagements between the Prussians and Austrians in May 1745
and in January 1779.
JAGERSFONTEIN— JAHANGIR
12$
JAGERSFONTEIN, a town in the Orange Free State, 50 m
N.W. by rail of Springfontein on the trunk line from Cape Town
to Pretoria. Pop. (1004), 5657 — 1293 whites and 4364 coloure<
persons. Jagersfontein, which occupies a pleasant situation on
the open veld about 4500 ft. above the sea, owes its existence to
the valuable diamond mine discovered here in 1870. The firs
diamond, a stone of 50 carats, was found in August of that year
and digging immediately began. The discovery a few weeks
later of the much richer mines at Bultfontein and Du Toits
Pan, followed by the great finds at De Beers and Colesberg
Kop (Kimberley) caused Jagersfontein to be neglected for severa
years. Up to 1887 the claims in the mine were held by a large
number of individuals, but coincident with the efforts to amalga-
mate the interest in the Kimberley mines a similar movement
took place at Jagersfontein, and by 1893 all the claims became
the property of one company, which has a working arrangement
with the De Beers corporation. The mine, which is worked on
the open system and has a depth of 450 ft., yields stones of very
fine quality, but the annual output does not exceed in value
£500,000. In 1909 a shaft 950 ft. deep was sunk with a view to
working the mine on the underground system. Among the
famous stones found in the mine are the " Excelsior " (weighing
971 carats, and larger than any previously discovered) and the
" Jubilee " (see DIAMOND). The town was created a munici-
pality in 1904.
Fourteen miles east of Jagersfontein is Boomplaats, the site
of the battle fought in 1848 between the Boers under A. W.
Pretorius and the British under Sir Harry Smith (see ORANGE
FREE STATE: History).
JAOO, RICHARD (1715-1781), English poet, third son of
Richard Jago, rector of Beaudesert, Warwickshire, was born in
1715. He went up to University College, Oxford, in 1732, and
took his degree in 1736. He was ordained to the curacy of
Snitterfield, Warwickshire, in 1737, and became rector in 1754;
and, although he subsequently received other preferments,
Snitterfield remained his favourite residence. He died there on
the 8th of May 1781. He was twice married. Jago's best-
known poem, The Blackbirds, was first printed in Ha wkes worth's
Adventurer (No. 37, March 13, 1753), and was generally attri-
buted to Gilbert West, but Jago published it in his own name,
with other poems, in R. Dodsley's Collection of Poems (vol. iv.,
1755). In 1767 appeared a topographical poem, Edge Hill, or
the Rural Prospect delineated and moralized; two separate sermons
were published in 1755; and in 1768 Labour and Genius, a Fable.
Shortly before his death Jago revised his poems, and they were
published in 1784 by his friend, John Scott Hylton, as Poems
Moral and Descriptive.
See a notice prefixed to the edition of 1784; A. Chalmers, English
Poets (vol. xvii., 1810); F. L. Colvile, Warwickshire Worthies (1870);
some biographical notes are to be found in the letters of Shenstone
to Jago printed in vol. Hi. of Shenstone 's Works (1769).
JAGUAR (Felis onca), the largest species of the Felidae found
on the American continent, where it ranges from Texas through
Central and South America to Patagonia. In the countries
which bound its northern limit it is not frequently met with, but
in South America it is quite common, and Don Felix de Azara
states that when the Spaniards first settled in the district between
Montevideo and Santa Fe, as many as two thousand were killed
yearly. The jaguar is usually found singly (sometimes in pairs),
and preys upon such quadrupeds as the horse, tapir, capybara,
dogs or cattle. It often feeds on fresh-water turtles; sometimes
following the reptiles into the water to effect a capture, it inserts
a paw between the shells and drags out the body of the turtle by
means of its sharp claws. Occasionally after .having tasted
human flesh, the jaguar becomes a confirmed man-eater. The
cry of this great cat, which is heard at night, and most frequently
during the pairing season, is deep and hoarse in tone, and consists
of the sound pu, pu, often repeated. The female brings forth
from two to four cubs towards the close of the year, which are
able to follow their mother in about fifteen days after birth. The
ground colour of the jaguar varies greatly, ranging from white
to black, the rosette markings in the extremes being but faintly
visible. The general or typical coloration is, however, a rich tan
upon the head, neck, body, outside of legs, and tail near the root.
The- upper part of the head and sides of the face are thickly
marked with small black spots, and the rest of body is covered
with rosettes, formed of rings of black spots, with a black spot in
the centre, and ranged lengthwise along the body in five to seven
rows on each side. These black rings are heaviest along the back.
The lips, throat, breast and belly, the inside of the legs and the
lower sides of tail are pure white, marked with irregular spots of
black, those on the breast being long bars and on the belly and
inside of legs large blotches. The tail has large black spots near
the root, some with light centres, and from about midway of its
length to the tip it is ringed with black. The ears are black
The Jaguar (Felis onca).
behind, with a large buff spot near the tip. The nose and upper
lip are light rufous brown. The size varies, the total length of a
very large specimen measuring 6 ft. 9 in.; the average length,
however, is about 4 ft. from the nose to root of tail. In form
the jaguar is thick-set; it does not stand high upon its legs; and
in comparison with the leopard is heavily built; but its move-
ments are very rapid, and it is fully as agile as its more graceful
relative. The skull resembles that of the lion and tiger, but is
much broader in proportion to its length, and may be identified
by the presence of a tubercle on the inner edge of the orbit.
The species has been divided into a number of local forms,
regarded by some American naturalists as distinct species, but
preferably ranked as sub-species or races.
JAGUARONDI, or YAGUARONDI (Felis jaguarondi), a South
American wild cat, found in Brazil, Paraguay and Guiana, rang-
ing to north-eastern Mexico. This relatively small cat, uniformly
coloured, is generally of some shade of brownish-grey, but in some
ndividuals the fur has a rufous coat, while in others grey pre-
dominates. These cats are said by Don Felix de Azara to keep
to cover, without venturing into open places. They attack tame
wultry and also young fawns. The names jaguarondi and eyra
are applied indifferently to this species and Felis eyra.
JAHANABAD, a town of British India in Gaya district, Bengal,
situated on a branch of the East Indian railway. Pop. (1901),
018. It was once a flourishing trading town, and in 1760 it
'ormed one of the eight branches of the East India Company's
entral factory at Patna. Since the introduction of Manchester
;oods, the trade of the town in cotton cloth has almost entirely
ceased; but large numbers of the Jolaha or Mahommedan weaver
:aste live in the neighbourhood.
JAHANGIR, or JEHANCIR (1560-1627), Mogul emperor of
)elhi, succeeded his father Akbar the Great in 1605. His name
was Salim, but he assumed the title of Jahangir, " Conqueror of
he World," on his accession. It was in his reign that Sir
Thomas Roe came as ambassador of James I., on behalf of the
JAHIZ— JAHN, OTTO
English company. He was a dissolute ruler, much addicted to
drunkenness, and his reign is chiefly notable for the influence
enjoyed by his wife Nur Jahan, " the Light of the World." At
first she influenced Jahangir for good, but surrounding herself
with her relatives she aroused the jealousy of the imperial
princes; and Jahangir died in 1627 in the midst of a rebellion
headed by his son, Khurram or Shah Jahan, and his greatest
general, Mahabat Khan. The tomb of Jahangir is situated in
the gardens of Shahdera on the outskirts of Lahore.
JAHIZ (ABO TTHJIAN 'Aifk IBN BAHR UL- JAHIZ; i.e. " the
man the pupils of whose eyes are prominent ") (d. 869),
Arabian writer. He* spent his life and devoted himself in Basra
chiefly to the study of polite literature. A Mu'tazilite in his
religious beliefs, he developed a system of his own and founded
a sect named after him. He was favoured by Ibn uz-Zaiyat, the
vizier of the caliph Wathiq.
His work, the Kitab ul-Bayan wat-Tabyin, a discursive treatise
on rhetoric, has been published in two volumes at Cairo (1895). The
Kttab td-Mah&sin wal-Addad was edited by G. van Vlotcn as Le
Latre dei beautes et des antitheses (Leiden, 1898) ; the Kitab ul-Bu-Hala.
Le Livre des arares, ed. by the same (Leiden, 1900) ; two other smaller
works, the Excellences of the Turks and the Superiority in Glory of
the Blacks over the Whites, also prepared by the same. The Kilab
ul-llayawun, or " Book of Animals," a philological and literary,
not a scientific, work, was published at Cairo (1906).
(G. W. T.)
JAHN. FRIEDRICH LUDWIO (1778-1852), German peda-
gogue and patriot, commonly called Twmaler (" Father of
Gymnastics "), was born in Lanz on the nth of August 1778.
He studied theology and philology from 1796 to 1802 at Halle,
Gdttingen and Greifswald. After Jena he joined the Prussian
army. In 1809 he went to Berlin, where he became a teacher at
'the Gymnasium zum Grauen as well as at the I'lamann School.
Brooding upon the humiliation of his native land by Napoleon,
he conceived the idea of restoring the spirits of his countrymen
by the development of their physical and moral powers through
the practice of gymnastics. The first Turnplatz, or open-air
gymnasium, was opened by him at Berlin in 1811, and the
movement spread rapidly, the young gymnasts being taught
to regard themselves as members of a kind of gild for the
emancipation of their fatherland. This patriotic spirit was
nourished in no small degree by the writings of Jahn. Early in
1813 he took an active part at Breslau in the formation of the
famous corps of Liitzow, a battalion of which he commanded,
though during the same period he was often employed in secret
service. After the war he returned to Berlin, where he was
appointed state teacher of gymnastics. As such he was a leader
in the formation of the student Burschenschaftcn (patriotic
fraternities) in Jena.
A man of democratic nature, rugged, honest, eccentric and
outspoken, Jahn often came into collision with the reactionary
spirit of the lime, and this conflict resulted in 1819 in the closing
of the Turnplatz and the anest of Jahn himself. Kept in semi-
confinement at the fortress of Kolberg until 1824, he was then
sentenced to imprisonment for two years; but this sentence wa$
reversed in 1825, though he was forbidden to live within ten
miles of Berlin. He therefore took up his residence at Freyburg
on the Unstrut, where he remained until his death, with the
exception of a short period in 1828, when he was exiled to
Colleda on a charge of sedition. In 1840 he was decorated by
the Prussian government with the Iron Cross for bravery in the
wars against Napoleon. In the spring of 1848 he was elected by
the district of Naumburg to the German National Parliament.
Jahn died on the isth of October 1852 in Freyburg, where a
monument was erected in his honour in 1859.
Among his work* are the following : Beretcherung del hochdeiUschen
. Spracksckattes (Leipzig, 1806), Deutsches Volksthum (Lubeck, 1810),
jGMmWdAr (Frankfort, 1614), ffeue RunenbldUer (Naumburg, 1828),
Affrke turn deutscken Vplksthvm (Hildburghauscn, 1833), a"d
SeVbstoerlheidigung (Vindication) (Leipzig, 1863). A complete
edition of hi* work* appeared at Hof in 1884-1887. See the biography
by Schultheix (Berlin, 1894), and Jahn alt Ertieher, by Fried rich
(Munich, 1895).
JAHN, JOHANN (1750-1816), German Orientalist, was born
at Tasswitz, Moravia, on the 1 8th of June 1750. He studied philo-
sophy at Olmiitz, and in 1772 began his theological studies at
the Premonstratensian convent of Bruck, near Znaim. Having
been ordained in 1775, he for a short time held a cure at Mislitz,
but was soon recalled to Bruck as professor of Oriental languages
and Biblical hermeneutics. On the suppression of the convent
by Joseph II. in 1784, Jahn took up similar work at Olmiitz, and
in 1789 he was transferred to Vienna as professor of Oriental
languages, biblical archaeology and dogmatics. In 1792 he
published his Einlcitung ins Alte Testament (2 vols.), which soon
brought him into trouble; the cardinal-archbishop of Vienna laid
a complaint against him for having departed from the traditional
teaching of the Church, e.g. by asserting Job, Jonah, Tobit and
Judith to be didactic poems, and the cases of demoniacal pos-
session in the New Testament to be cases of dangerous disease.
An ecclesiastical commission reported that the views themselves
were not necessarily heretical, but that Jahn had erred in showing
too little consideration for the views of German Catholic theo-
logians in coming into conflict with his bishop, and in raising
difficult problems by which the unlearned might be led astray.
He was accordingly advised to modify his expressions in future.
Although he appears honestly to have accepted this judgment,
the hostility of his opponents did not cease until at last (1806) he
was compelled to accept a canonry at St Stephen's, Vienna,
which involved the resignation of his chair. This step had been
preceded by the condemnation of his Inlroduclio in libros sacros
veteris foederis in compendium redacta, published in 1804, and
also of his Archaeologia biblica in compendium redacta (1805).
The only work of importance, outside the region of mere philo-
logy, afterwards published by him, was the Enchiridion Hermen-
euticae (1812). lie died on the i6th of August 1816.
Besides the works already mentioned, he published Hebrdische
Sprachlehre fur Anfdn^er (1792); Aramdische od. Chaldaische u.
.Syrische SpracUehrefurA nf anger ( 1 793) ; A rabische Sprachlehre(i 796) ;
Elementarbuck der hebr. Sprache (1799); Chaldaische Chrestomathit
(1800); Arabische Chrestomathie (1802); Lexicon arabico-lalinum
chrestomathiae accommodatum (1802); an edition of the Hebrew
Bible (1806); Grammatita linguae hebraicae (1809); a critical com-
mentary on the Messianic passages of the Old Testament ( Vaticinia
propkelarum de Jesu Messia, 1815). In l8?l a collection of Nach-
\rdge appeared, containing six dissertations on Biblical subjects.
The English translation of the Archaeologia by T. C. Upham (1840)
tia* passed through several editions.
JAHN, OTTO (1813-1869), German archaeologist, philologist,
and writer on art and music, was born at Kiel on the i6th of
June 1813. After the completion of his university studies at
Kiel, Leipzig and Berlin, he travelled for three years in France
and Italy; in 1839 he became privatdocent at Kiel, and in 1842
professor-extraordinary of archaeology and philology at Greifs-
wald (ordinary professor 1845). In 1847 he accepted the chair
of archaeology at Leipzig, of which he was deprived in 1851 for
having taken part in the political movements of 1848-1849. In
1855 he was appointed professor of the science of antiquity, and
director of the academical art museum at Bonn, and in 1867 he
was called to succeed E. Gerhard at Berlin. He died at
Gottingen, on the 9th of September 1869.
The following are the most important of his work*: I. Archaeo-
logical: Palamedes (1836); Telephos u. Troilos (1841); Die Gemalde
des Polygnot (1841); Peniheus u. die Mdnaden (1841); Paris u.
Oinone (1844); Die heUeniscke' Kunst (1846); Peitho, die Gdllin der
Oberredung (1847); Uber nnige Darstellungen des Paris- Urteils
(1849); Die Ficoroniscke Cista (1852); Pausaniae descriptio arcts
Athenarum (3rd ed., 1901); DarsleJlunten grieckiscker Dickter auf
Vasenbildern (1861). 2. Philological: Critical editions of Juvenal,
Persiu* and Sulpicia (3rd ed. by F. Bucheler, 1893); Cen*orinus
(1845); Flo'us (1852); Cicero's Brutus Uth ed., 1877); and Orator
(3rd ed., 1869); the Periochae of Livy (1853); the Psyche et Cupido
of Apuleiu* (3rd ed., 1884; jth ed., 1005); Longinus (1867; 3rded.
by J. Vahlcn, 1905). 3. Biographical and aesthetic: ueber Mendels-
sohn's Paulus (1842); Biographie Motor ts, a work of extraordinary
labour, and of great importance for the history of music (3rd ed. by
H. Disters, 1889-1891 ;Eng. trans. by P. D.Town*end,i89i);Liuhnf
Ukland (1863); Uesammelte Aufsdtte uber ifusik (1866); Biograph
iscke A ufsdtte (1866). Hi* Grieckiscke Bilderckroniken wa* publiaoed
after hi* death, by hi* nephew A. Michaelis, who has written an
JAHRUM— JAINS
exhaustive biography in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, xiii.; see
also J. Vahlen, Otto John (i87o);C. Bursia,n,Geschichiederclassischen
Philologie in Deulschland.
JAHRUM, a town and district of Persia in the province of
Pars, S.E. of Shiraz and S.W. of Darab. The district has
thirty-three villages and is famous for its celebrated shdhan
dates, which are exported in great quantities; it also produces
much tobacco and fruit. The water supply is scanty, and most
of the irrigation is by water drawn from wells. The town of
Jahrum, situated about 90 m. S.E. of Shiraz, is surrounded by
a mud-wall 3 m. in circuit which was constructed in 1834. It
has a population of about 15,000, one half living inside and the
other half outside the walls. It is the market for the produce of
the surrounding districts, has six caravanserais and a post office.
JAINS, the most numerous and influential sect of heretics, or
nonconformists to the Brahmanical system of Hinduism, in
India. They are found in every province of upper Hindustan,
in the cities along the Ganges and in Calcutta. But they are
more numerous to the west — in Mewar, Gujarat, and in the upper
part of the Malabar coast — and are also scattered throughout the
whole of the southern peninsula. They are mostly traders, and
live in the towns; and the wealth of many of their community
gives them a social importance greater than would result from
their mere numbers. In the Indian census of 1901 they are
returned as being 1,334,140 in number. Their magnificent
series of temples and shrines on Mount Abu, one of the seven
wonders of India, is perhaps the most striking outward sign of
their wealth and importance.
The Jains are the last direct representatives on the continent
of India of those schools of thought which grew out of the active
philosophical speculation and earnest spirit of religious inquiry
that prevailed in the valley of the Ganges during the 5th and
6th centuries before the Christian era. For many centuries
Jainism was so overshadowed by that stupendous movement,
born at the same time and in the same place, which we call
Buddhism, that it remained almost unnoticed by the side of its
powerful rival. But when Buddhism, whose widely open doors
had absorbed the mass of the community, became thereby
corrupted from its pristine purity and gradually died away, the
smaller school of the Jains, less diametrically opposed to the
victorious orthodox creed of the Brahmans, survived, and in
some degree took its place.
Jainism purports to be the system of belief promulgated by
Vaddhamana, better known by his epithet of Maha-vira (the
great hero), who was a contemporary of Gotama, the Buddha.
But the Jains, like the Buddhists, believe that the same system
had previously been proclaimed through countless ages by each
one of a succession of earlier teachers. The Jains count twenty-
four such prophets, whom they call Jinas, or Tlrthankaras, that
is, conquerors or leaders of schools of thought. It is from this
word Jina that the modern name Jainas, meaning followers of
the Jina, or of the Jinas, is derived. This legend of the twenty-
four Jinas contains a germ of truth. Maha-vira was not an
originator; he merely carried on, with but slight changes, a
system which existed before his time, and which probably owes
its most distinguishing features to a teacher named Parswa, who
ranks in the succession of Jinas as the predecessor of Maha-vira.
Parswa is said, in the Jain chronology, to have been born two
hundred years before Maha-vira (that is, about 760 B.C.); but
the only conclusion that it is safe to draw from this statement is
that Parswa was considerably earlier in point of time than Maha-
vira. Very little reliance can be placed upon the details reported
in the Jain books concerning the previous Jinas in the list of the
twenty-four Tlrthankaras. The curious will find in them many
reminiscences of Hindu and Buddhist legend; and the anti-
quary must notice the distinctive symbols assigned to each, in
order to recognize the statues of the different Jinas, otherwise
identical, in the different Jain temples.
The Jains are divided into two great parties — the Digambaras,
or Sky-clad Ones, and the Svetambaras, or the White-robed
Ones. The latter have only as yet been traced, and that doubt-
fully, as far back as the 5th century after Christ; the former are
127
almost certainly the same as the Niganfhas, who are referred to
in numerous passages of the Buddhist Pali Pitakas, and must
therefore be at least as old as the 6th century B.C. In many of
these passages the Nigan^has are mentioned as contemporaneous
with the Buddha; and details enough are given concerning their
leader Nigantha Nata-putta (that is, the Nigantha of the
Jnatrika clan) to enable us to identify him, without any doubt,
as the same person as the Vaddhamana Maha-vira of the Jain
books. This remarkable confirmation, from the scriptures of a
rival religion, of the Jain tradition is conclusive as to the date
of Maha-vira. The Nigan^has are referred to in one of Asoka's
edicts (Corpus Inscriptionum, Plate xx.). Unfortunately the
account of the teachings of Nigantha Nata-putta given in the
Buddhist scriptures are, like those of the Buddha's teachings
given in the Brahmanical literature, very meagre.
Jain Literature. — The Jain scriptures themselves, though based
on earlier traditions, are not older in their present form than the
5th century of our era. The most distinctively sacred books are
called the forty-five Agatnas, consisting of eleven Angas, twelve
Upangas, ten Pakinnakas, six Chedas, four Mula-sutras and two
other books. Deyaddhi Ganin, who occupies among the Jains a
position very similar to that occupied among the Buddhists by
Buddhaghosa, collected the then existing traditions and teachings
of the sect into' these forty-five Agamas. Like the Buddhist
scriptures, the earlier Jain books are written in a dialect of their
own, the so-called Jaina Prakrit; and it was not till between
A.D. 1000 and npo that the Jains adopted Sanskrit as their literary
language. Considerable progress has been made in the publication
and elucidation of these original authorities. But a great deal
remains yet to be done. The oldest books now in the possession of
the modern Jains purport to go back, not to the foundation of the
existing order in the 6th century B.C., but only to the time of Bhad-
rabahu, three centuries later. The whole of the still older literature,
on which the revision then made was based, the so-called Pumas,
have been lost. And the existing canonical books, while preserving
a great deal that was probably derived from them, contain much
later material. The problem remains to sort out the older from the
later, to distinguish between the earlier form of the faith and its
subsequent developments, and to collect the numerous data for the
general, social, industrial, religious and political history of India.
Professor Weber gave a fairly full and caref ully-drawn-up analysis of
the whole of the more ancient books in the second part of the second
volume of his Catalogue of the_ Sanskrit MSS. at Berlin, published in
1888, and in vols. xvi. and xvii. of his Indische Studien. An English
translation of these last was published first in the Indian Antiquary,
and then separately at Bombay, 1893. Professor Bhandarkar gave
an account of the contents of many later works in his Report on the
Search for Sanskrit MSS., Bombay, 1883. Only a small beginning
has been made in editing and translating these works. The best
precis of a long book can necessarily only deal with the more impor-
tant features in it. And in the choice of what should be included
the precis-writer will often omit the points some subsequent investi-
gator may most especially want. All the older works ought there-
fore to be edited and translated in full and properly indexed. The
Jains themselves have now printed in Bombay a complete edition
of their sacred books. But the critical value of this edition, and of
other editions of separate texts printed elsewhere in India, leaves
much to be desired. Professor Jacobi has edited and translated the
Kalpa Sutra, containing a life of the founder of the Jain order ; but
this can scarcely be older than the 5th century of our era. He has
also edited and translated the Ayaranya Sutta of the Svetambara
Jains. The text, published by the Pali Text Society, is of 140 pages
octavo. The first part of it, about 50 pages, is a very old document
on the Jain views as to conduct, and the remainder consists of
appendices, added at different times, on the same subject. The
older part may go back as early as the 3rd century B.C., and it sets
out more especially the Jain doctrine of tapas or self-mortification, in
contradistinction to the Buddhist view, which condemned asceticism.
The rules of conduct in this book are for members of the order. Dr
Rudolf Hoernle edited and translated an ancient work on the
rules of conduct for lay men, the Uvasaga Dasao.1 Professor Leumann
edited another of the older works, the Aupapatika Sutra^, and a
fourth, entitled the Dasa-vaikalika Satra, both of them published by
the German Oriental Society. Professor Jacobi translated two more,
the Uttaradhydyana and the Sutra Kritanga.1 Finally Dr Barnett
has translated two others in vol. xvii. of the Oriental Translation
Fund (new series, London, 1907). Thus about one-fiftieth part of
these interesting and valuable old records is now accessible to the
European scholar. The sect of the Svetambaras has preserved the
oldest literatures. Dr Hoernle has treated of the early history of
1 Published in the Bibliolheca Indica, Calcutta, 1888.
2 These two, and the other two mentioned above, form vols. i. and
ii. of his Jaina Sutras, published in the Sacred Books of the East
(1884, 1895).
128
JAIPUR
the sect in the Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for 1898.
Several scholars — notably Bhagvanlal Indraji, Mr Lewis Rice and
Hofrath Buhler ' — have treated of the remarkable archaeological
discoveries lately made. • These confirm the older records in many
details, and show that the Jains, in the centuries before the Christian
era, were a wealthy and important body in widely separated parts
of India.
Jainism. — The most distinguishing outward peculiarity of
Maha-vira and of his earliest followers was their practice of
going quite naked, whence the term Digambara. Against this
custom, Gotama, the Buddha, especially warned his followers;
and it is referred to in the well-known Greek phrase, Gymnoso-
phist, used already by Megasthenes, which applies very aptly to
the Niganthas. Even the earliest name Nigantha, which means
" free from bonds," may not be without allusions to this curious
belief in the sanctity of nakedness, though it also alluded to
freedom from the bonds of sin and of transmigration. The statues
of the Jinas in the Jain temples, some of which are of enormous
size, are still always quite naked; but the Jains themselves
have abandoned the practice, the Digambaras being sky-clad at
meal-time only, and the Svetambaras being always completely
clothed. And even among the Digambaras it is only the re-
cluses or Yatis, men devoted to a religious life, who carry out
this practice. The Jain laity — the Sravakas,'oT disciples — do
not adopt it.
The Jain views of life were, in the most important and essen-
tial respects, the exact reverse of the Buddhist views. The
two orders, Buddhist and Jain, were not only, and from the first,
independent, but directly opposed the one to the other. In
philosophy the Jains are the most thorough-going supporters
of the old animistic position. Nearly everything, according to
them, has a soul within its outward visible shape — not only men
and animals, but also all plants, and even particles of earth, and
of water (when it is cold), and fire and wind. The Buddhist
theory, as is well known, is put together without the hypothesis
of " soul " at all. The word the Jains use for soul isjlva, which
means life; and there is much analogy between many of the
expressions they use and the view that the ultimate cells and
atoms are all, in a more or less modified sense, alive. They
regard good and evil and space as ultimate substances which
come into direct contact with the minute souls in everything.
And their best-known position in regard to the points most
discussed in philosophy is Syad-wda, the doctrine that you may
say " Yes " and at the same time " No " to everything. You
can affirm the eternity of the world, for instance, from one point
of view, and at the same time deny it from another; or, at
different times and in different connexions, you may one day
affirm it and another day deny it. This position both leads to
vagueness of thought and explains why Jainism has had so little
influence over other schools of philosophy in India. On the
other hand, the Jains are as determined in their views of asceti-
cism (tapas) as they were compromising in their views of philo-
sophy. Any injury done to the " souls " being one of the worst
of iniquities, the good monk should not wash his clothes (indeed,
the most austere will reject clothes altogether), nor even wash
his teeth, for fear of injuring living things. " Subdue the body,
chastise thyself, weaken thyself, just as fire consumes dry wood."
It was by suppressing, through such self-torture, the influence
on his soul of all sensations that the Jain could obtain
salvation. It is related of the founder himself, the Maha-vira,
that after twelve years' penance he thus obtained Nirvana
(Jacobi, Jaina Sutras, i. 201) before he entered upon his career
as a teacher. And through the rest of his life, till he died at
Pava, shortly before the Buddha, he followed the same habit
of continual self-mortification. The Buddha, on the other
hand, obtained Nirvana in his 35th year, under the Bo tree,
after he had abandoned penance; and through the rest
of his life he spoke of penance as quite useless from his
point of view.
There is no manual of Jainism as yet published, but there is a
1 The Hatthi Gumphi and three other inscriptions at Cuttack
(Leyden, 1885); Sravana Belgola inscriptions (Bangalore, 1889);
Vienna Oriental Journal, vols. ii.-v. ; Epigraphia Indica, vols. i-vii.
great deal of information on various points in the introductions
to the works referred to above. Professor Jacobi, who is the best
authority on the history of this sect, thus sums up the distinction
between the Maha-vira and the Buddha: " Maha-vira was rather
of the ordinary class of religious men in India. He may be
allowed a talent for religious matters, but he possessed not the
genius which Buddha undoubtedly had. . . . The Buddha's
philosophy forms a system based on a few fundamental ideas,
whilst that of Maha-vira scarcely forms a system, but is merely a
sum of opinions (pannattis) on various subjects, no fundamental
ideas being there to uphold the mass of metaphysical matter.
Besides this. . .it is the ethical element that gives to the Buddhist
writings their superiority over those of the Jains. Maha-vira
treated ethics as corollary and subordinate to his metaphysics,
with which he was chiefly concerned."
ADDITIONAL AUTHORITIES. — Bhadrabahu's Kalpa Sutra, the re-
cognized and popular manual of the Svetambara Jains, edited with
English introduction by Professor Jacobi (Leipzig, 1879); Hema-
candra's " Yoga S'astram," edited by Windisch, in the Zeitschrift der
deutschen morg. Ges. for 1874; " Zwei Jaina Stotra," edited in the
Indische Studten, vol. xv. ; Ein Fragment der Bhagavafi, by Professor
Weber; Memoires de I'Academie de Berlin (1866); Nirayavaliya
Sutta, edited by Dr Warren, with Dutch introduction (Amsterdam,
1 879) ; Over de, qodsdienstige en wijsgeerige Begrippen der Jainas, by
Dr Warren (his doctor-dissertation, Zwolle, 1875); Beitrdge zur
Grammatik des Jaina-prakrit, by Dr Edward Miiller (Berlin, 1876);
Colebrooke's Essays, vol. ii. Mr J. Burgess has an exhaustive account
of the Jain Cave Temples (none older than the 7th century) in
Fergusson and Burgess's Cave Temples in India (London, 1880).
See also Hopkins Religions of India (London, 1896), pp. 280-96,
and J. G. BUhler On the Indian Sect of the Jainas, edited by J.
Burgess (London, 1904). (T. W. R. D.)
JAIPUR, or JEYPORE, a city arid native state of India in the
Rajputana agency. The city is a prosperous place of com-
paratively recent date. It derives its name from the famous
Maharaja Jai Singh II., who founded it in 1728. It is built of
pink stucco in imitation of sandstone, and is remarkable for the
width and regularity of its streets. It is the only city in India
that is laid out in rectangular blocks, and it is divided by cross
streets into six equal portions. The main streets are in ft.
wide and are paved, while the city is lighted by gas. The
regularity of plan, and the straight streets with the houses all
built after the same pattern, deprive Jaipur of the charm of the
East, while the painted mud walls of the houses give it the
meretricious air of stage scenery. The huge palace of the
maharaja stands in the centre of the city. Another noteworthy
building is Jai Singh's observatory. The chief industries are in
metals and marble, which are fostered by a school of art, founded
in 1868. There is also a wealthy and enterprising community
of native bankers. The city has three colleges and several
hospitals. Pop. (1001), 160,167. The ancient capital of Jaipur
was Amber.
The STATE OF JAIPUR, which takes its name from the city,
has a total area of 1 5,579 sq.m. Pop. (1901), 2, 658, 666, showing
a decrease of 6 % in the decade. The estimated revenue is
£430,000, and the tribute £27,000. The centre of the state is a
sandy and barren plain 1,600 ft. above sea-level, bounded on the
E. by ranges of hills running north and south. On the N. and
W. it is bounded by a broken chain of hills, an offshoot of the
Aravalli mountains, beyond which lies the sandy desert of
Rajputana. The soil is generally sandy. The hills are more
or less covered with jungle trees, of no value except for fuel.
Towards the S. and E. the soil becomes more fertile. Salt is
largely manufactured and exported from the Sambhar lake,
which is worked by the government of India under an arrange-
ment with the states of Jaipur and Jodhpur. It yields salt of a
very high quality. The state is traversed by the Rajputana
railway, with branches to Agra and Delhi.
The maharaja of Jaipur belongs to the Kachwaha clan of
Rajputs, claiming descent from Rama, king of Ajodhya. The state
is said to have been founded about 1128 by Dhula Rai, from
Gwalior, who with his Kachwahas is said to have absorbed or
driven out the petty chiefs. The Jaipur house furnished to the
Moguls some of their most distinguished generals. Among
them were Man Singh, who fought in Orissa and Assam; Jai
JAISALMER— JAKOB
Singh, commonly known by his imperial title of Mirza Raja,
whose name appears in all the wars of Aurangzeb in the Deccan;
and Jai Singh II., or Sawai Jai Singh, the famous mathema-
tician and astronomer, and the founder of Jaipur city. Towards
the end of the i8th century the Jats of Bharatpur and the chief
of Alwar each annexed a portion of the territory of Jaipur.
By the end of the century the state was in great confusion,
distracted by internal broils and impoverished by the exactions
of the Mahrattas. The disputes between the chiefs of Jaipur
and Jodhpur had brought both states to the verge of ruin, and
Amir Khan with the Pindaris was exhausting the country. By
a treaty in 1818 the protection of the British was extended to
Jaipur and an annual tribute fixed. In 1835 there was a serious
disturbance in the city, after which the British government took
measures to insist upon order and to reform the administration
as well as to support its effective action; and the state has
gradually become well-governed and prosperous. During the
Mutiny of 1857 the maharaja assisted the British in every way
that lay in his power. Maharaja Madho Singh, G. C.S.I. ,G.C.V.O.,
was born in 1861, and succeeded in 1882. He is distinguished
for his enlightened administration and his patronage of art.
He was one of the princes who visited England at the time of
King Edward's coronation in 1902. It was he who started and
endowed with a donation of 15 lakhs, afterwards increased to
20 lakhs, of rupees (£133,000) the " Indian People's Famine
Fund." The Jaipur imperial service transport corps saw service
in the Chitral and Tirah campaigns.
JAISALMER, or JEYSULMERE, a town and native state of
India in the Rajputana agency. The town stands on a ridge
of yellowish sandstone, crowned by a fort, which contains the
palace and several ornate Jain temples. Many of the houses
and temples are finely sculptured. Pop. (1901), 7137. The
area of the state is 16,062 sq. m. In 1901 the population was
73,370, showing a decrease of 37% in ten years, as a con-
sequence of famine. The estimated revenue is about £6000;
there is no tribute. Jaisalmer is almost entirely a sandy waste,
forming a part of the great Indian desert. The general aspect
of the country is that of an interminable sea of sandhills, of all
shapes and sizes, some rising to a height of 150 ft. Those in the
west are covered with phog bushes, those in the east with tufts
of long grass. Water is scarce, and generally brackish; the
average depth of the wells is said to be about 250 ft. There are
no perennial streams, and only one small river, the Kakni, which,
after flowing a distance of 28 m., spreads over a large surface of
flat ground, and forms a lake orjhil called the Bhuj-Jhil. The
climate is dry and healthy. Throughout Jaisalmer only rain-
• crops, such as bajra, joar, moth, til, &c., are grown; spring crops
of wheat, barley, &c., are very rare. Owing to the scant
rainfall, irrigation is almost unknown.
The main part of the population lead a wandering life, grazing
their flocks and herds. Large herds of camels, horned cattle, sheep
and goats are kept. The principal trade is in wool, ghi, camels,
cattle and sheep. The chief imports are grain, sugar, foreign cloth,
piece-goods, &c. Education is at a low ebb. Jain priests are the
chief schoolmasters, and their teaching is elementary. The ruler of
Jaisalmer is styled maharawal. The state suffered from famine in
1897, 1900 and other years, to such an extent that it has had to
incur a heavy debt for extraordinary expenditure. There are no
railways.
The majority of the inhabitants are Bhatti Rajputs, who take their
name from an ancestor named Bhatti, renowned as a warrior when
the tribe were located in the Punjab. Shortly after this the clan
was driven southwards, and found a refuge in the Indian desert,
which was thenceforth its home. Deoraj, a famous prince of
the Bhatti family, is esteemed the real founder of the present
Jaisalmer dynasty, and with him the title of rawal commenced.
In 1156 Jaisal, the sixth in succession from Deoraj, founded the fort
and city of Jaisalmer, and made it his capital. In 1 294 the Bhattis
so enraged the emperor Alfi-ud-din that his army captured and sacked
the fort and city of Jaisalmer, so that for some time it was quite
deserted. After this there is nothing to record till the time of Rawal
Sabal Singh, whose reign marks an epoch in Bhatti history in that he
acknowledged the supremacy of the Mogul emperor Shah Jahan.
The Jaisalmer princes had now arrived at the height of their power,
but from this time till the accession of Rawal Mulraj in 1762 the
fortunes of the state rapidly declined, and most of its outlying
provinces were lost. In 1818 Mulraj entered into political relations
XV. 5
129
with the British. Maharawal Salivahan, born in 1887, succeeded
to the chiefship in 1891.
JAJCE (pronounced Ya/Use), a town of Bosnia, situated on the
Pliva and Vrbas rivers, and at the terminus of a branch railway
from Serajevo, 62 m. S.E. Pop. (1895), about 4000. Jajce
occupies a conical hill, overlooking one of the finest waterfalls
in Europe, where the Pliva rushes down into the Vrbas, 100 ft.
below. The i4th century citadel which crowns this hill is said
to have been built for Hrvoje, duke of Spalato, on the model of
the Castel del' Uovo at Naples; but the resemblance is very
slight, and although both jajce and uovo signify " an egg," the
town probably derives its name from the shape of the hill.
The ruined church of St Luke, said by legend to be the Evan-
gelist's burial place, has a fine Italian belfry, and dates from the
1 5th century. Jezero, 5 m. W. of Jajce, contains the Turkish
fort of Djol-Hissar, or " the Lake-Fort." In this neighbourhood
a line of waterfalls and meres, formed by the Pliva, stretches
for several miles, enclosed by steep rocks and forest-clad moun-
tains. The power supplied by the main fall, at Jajce, is used
for industrial purposes, but the beauty of the town remains
unimpaired.
From 1463 to 1528 Jajce was the principal outwork of eastern
Christendom against the Turks. Venice contributed money for
its defence, and Hungary provided armies; while the pope
entreated all Christian monarchs to avert its fall. In 1463
Mahomet II. had seized more than 75 Bosnian fortresses, includ-
ing Jajce itself; and the last independent king of Bosnia, Stephen
Tomasevic, had been beheaded, or, according to one tradition,
flayed alive, before the walls of jajce, on a spot still called
Kraljeva Polje, the " King's Field." His coffin and skeleton
are still displayed in St Luke's Church. The Hungarians, under
KingMatthiasI., came to the rescue, and reconquered the greater
part of Bosnia during the same year; and, although Mahomet
returned in 1464, he was again defeated at Jajce, and compelled
to flee before another Hungarian advance. In 1467 Hungarian
bans, or military governors, were appointed to rule in north-
west Bosnia, and in 1472 Matthias appointed Nicolaus Ujlaki
king of the country, with Jajce for his capital. This kingdom
lasted, in fact, for 59 years; but, after the death of Ujlaki, in
1492, its rulers only bore the title of ban, and of vojvod. In
1 500 the Turks, under Bajazet II., were crushed at Jajce by the
Hungarians under John Corvinus; and several other attacks were
repelled between 1520 and 1526. But in 1526 the Hungarian
power was destroyed at Mohacs; and in 1528 Jajce was forced
to surrender.
See Brass, " Jajce, die alte Konigstadt Bosniens," in Deutsche
geog. Blatter, pp. 71-85 (Bremen, 1899).
JiJPUR, or JAJPORE, a town of British India, in Cuttack dis-
trict, Bengal, situated on the right bank of the Baitarani river.
Pop. (1901), I2,m. It was the capital of Orissa under the Kesari
dynasty until the nth century, when it was superseded by
Cuttack. In Jajpur are numerous ruins of temples, sculptures,
&c., and a large and beautiful sun pillar.
JAKOB, LUDWIG HEINRICH VON (1750-1827), German
economist, was born at Wettin on the 26th of February 1759.
In 1777 he entered the university of Halle. In 1780 he was
appointed teacher at the gymnasium, and in 1791 professor of
philosophy at the university. The suppression of the university
of Halle having been decreed by Napoleon, Jakob betook himself
to Russia, where in 1807 he was appointed professor of political
economy at Kharkoff, and in 1809 a member of the government
commission to inquire into the finances of the empire. In the
following year he became president of the commission for the
revision of criminal law, and he at the same time obtained an
important office in the finance department, with the rank of
counsellor of state; but in 1816 he returned to Halle to occupy
the chair of political economy. He died at Lauchstadt on the
2znd of July 1827.
Shortly after his first appointment to a professorship in Halle
Jakob had begun to turn his attention rather to the practical than
the speculative side of philosophy, and in 1805 he published at
Halle Lehrbuch der Nationalokonomie, in which he was the first to
5
130
advocate in Germany the necessity of a distinct science dealing
specially with the subject of national wealth. His principal other
works are Grundriss der allgemeinen Logik (Halle, 1 788) ; Grundsatze der
Polizeigesetzgebung und Polizeianstalten (Leipzig, 1809); Einleitung
in das Studium der Staatswissenschaften (Halle, 1819) ; Entwurf eines
Criminalgesetzbuchs fur das russische Reich (Halle, 1818) and
Staatsfinanzwissensctiaft (2 vols., Halle, 1821).
JAKOVA (also written DIAKOVA, GYAKOVO and GJAKO-
VICA), a town of Albania, European Turkey, in the vilayet
of Kossovo; on the river Erenik, a right-hand tributary of the
White Drin. Pop. (1905) about 12,000. Jakova is the chief
town of the Alpine region which extends from the Montenegrin
frontier to the Drin and White Drin. This region has never
been thoroughly explored, or brought under effective Turkish
rule, on account of the inaccessible character of its mountains
and forests, and the lawlessness of its inhabitants — a group of
two Roman Catholic and three Moslem tribes, known collectively
as the Malsia Jakovs, whose official representative resides in
Jakova.
JAKUNS, an aboriginal race of the Malay Peninsula. They
have become much mixed with other tribes, and are found
throughout the south of the peninsula and along the coasts.
The purest types are straight-haired, exhibit marked Mongolian
characteristics and are closely related to the Malays. They are
probably a branch of the Pre-Malays, the " savage Malays " of
A. R. Wallace. They are divided into two groups: (i) Jakuns
of the jungle, (2) Jakuns of the sea or Orang Laut. The latter
set of tribes now comprise the remnants of the pirates or " sea-
gipsies " of the Malaccan straits. The Jakuns, who must be
studied in conjunction with the other aboriginal peoples of the
Malay Peninsula, the SemangsandtheSakais,arenot so dwarfish
as those. The head is round; the skin varies from olive-brown
to dark copper; the face is flat and the lower jaw square. The
nose is thick and short, with wide, open nostrils. The cheek-
bones are high and well marked. The hair has a blue-black tint,
eyes are black and the beard is scanty. The Jakuns live a wild
forest life, and in general habits much resemble the Sakai, being
but little in advance of the latter in social conditions except
where they come into close contact with the Malay peoples.
JALALABAD, or JELLALABAD, a town and province of
Afghanistan. The town lies at a height of 1950 ft. in a plain
on the south side of the Kabul river, 96 m. from Kabul and
76 from Peshawar. Estimated pop., 4000. Between it and
Peshawar intervenes the Khyber Pass, and between it and Kabul
the passes of Jagdalak, Khurd Kabul, &c. The site was chosen
by the emperor Baber, and he laid out some gardens here; but
the town itself was built by his grandson Akbar in A.D. 1560.
It resembles the city of Kabul on a smaller scale, and has one
central bazaar, the streets generally being very narrow. The
most notable episode in the history of the place is the famous
defence by Sir Robert Sale during the first Afghan war, when he
held the town from November 1841 to April 1842. On its
evacuation in 1842 General Pollock destroyed the defences, but
they were rebuilt in 1878. The town is now fortified, surrounded
by a high wall with bastions and loopholes. The province of
Jalalabad is about 80 m. in length by 35 in width, and includes
the large district of Laghman north of the Kabul river, as well
as that on the south called Ningrahar. The climate of Jalalabad
is similar to that of Peshawar. As a strategical centre Jalalabad
is one of the most important positions in Afghanistan, for it
dominates the entrances to the Laghman and theKunar valleys;
commanding routes to Chitral or India north of the Khyber, as
well as the Kabul-Peshawar road.
JALAP, a cathartic drug consisting of the tuberous roots of
/ pomaea Purga, a convolvulaceous plant growing on the eastern
declivities of the Mexican Andes at an elevation of 5000 to
8000 ft. above the level of the sea, more especially about the
neighbourhood of Chiconquiaco, and near San Salvador on the
eastern slope of the Cofre de Perote. Jalap has been known in
Europe since the beginning of the I7th century, and derives its
name from the city of Jalapa in Mexico, near which it grows,
but its botanical source was not accurately determined until
1 829, when Dr. J. R. Coxe of Philadelphia published a description
JAKOVA— JALAP
and coloured figure taken from living plants sent him two years
previously from Mexico. The jalap plant has slender herbaceous
twining stems, with alternately placed heart-shaped pointed
leaves and salver-shaped deep purplish-pink flowers. The
underground stems are slender and creeping; their vertical roots
enlarge and form turnip-shaped tubers. The roots are dug up
in Mexico throughout the year, and are suspended to dry in a
net over the hearth of the Indians' huts, and hence acquire a
smoky odour. The large tubers are often gashed to cause them
to dry more quickly. In their form they vary from spindle-
shaped to ovoid or globular, and in size from a pigeon's egg to a
man's fist. Externally they are brown and marked with small
transverse paler scars, and internally they present a dirty white
Jalap (Ipomaea Purga) ; about half natural size.
resinous or starchy fracture. The ordinary drug is distinguished
in commerce as Vera Cruz jalap, from the name of the port
whence it is shipped.
Jalap has been cultivated for many years in India, chiefly at
Ootacamund, and grows there as easily as a yam, often producing
clusters of tubers weighing over 9 Ib; but these, as they differ in
appearance from the commercial article, have not as yet obtained
a place in the English market. They are found, however, to be
rich in resin, containing 18%. In Jamaica also the plant has
been grown, at first amongst the cinchona trees, but more recently
in new ground, as it was found to exhaust the soil.
Besides Mexican or Vera Cruz jalap, a drug called Tampico
jalap has been imported for some years in considerable quantity.
It has a much more shrivelled appearance and paler colour than
ordinary jalap, and lacks the small transverse scars present in
the true drug. This kind of jalap, the Purga de Sierra Gorda
of the Mexicans, was traced by Hanbury to Ipomaea simulans.
JALAPA— JALISCO
It grows in Mexico along the mountain range of the Sierra Gorda
in the neighbourhood of San Luis de la Paz, from which district
it is carried down to Tampico, whence it is exported. A third
variety of jalap known as woody jalap, male jalap, or Orizaba
root, or by the Mexicans as Purgo macho, is derived from
Ipomaea orizabensis, a plant of Orizaba. The root occurs in
fibrous pieces, which are usually rectangular blocks of irregular
shape, 2 in. or more in diameter, and are evidently portions of a
large root. It is only occasionally met with in commerce.
The dose of jalap is from five to twenty grains, the British Phar-
macopeia directing that it must contain from 9 to II % of the
resin, which is given in doses of two to five grains. One preparation
of this drug is in common use, the Pulvis Jalapae Compositus, which
consists of 5 parts of jalap, 9 of cream of tartar, and I of ginger.
The dose is from 20 grains to a drachm. It is best given in the
maximum dose which causes the minimum of irritation.
The chief constituents of jalap resin are two glucosides — convol-
vulin and jalapin — sugar, starch and gum. Convolvulin constitutes
nearly 20 % of the resin. It is insoluble in ether, and is more active
than jalapin. It is not used separately in medicine. Jalapin is
present in about the same proportions. It dissolves readily in ether,
and has a soft resinous consistence. It may be given in half-grain
doses. It is the active principle of the allied drug scammony.
According to Mayer, the formula of convolvulin is Cs^soOie, and that
of jalapin CsiH50Oi6.
Jalap is a typical hydragogue purgative, causing the excretion of
more fluid than scammony, but producing less stimulation of the
muscular wall of the bowel. For both reasons it is preferable to
scammony. It was shown by Professor Rutherford at Edinburgh
to be a powerful secretory cholagogue, an action possessed by few
hydragogue purgatives. The stimulation of the liver is said to
depend upon the solution of the resin by the intestinal secretion.
The drug is largely employed in cases of Bright 's disease and dropsy
from any cause, being especially useful when the liver shares in the
general venous congestion. It is not much used in ordinary constipa-
tion.
JALAPA, XALAPA, or HALAPA, a city of the state of Vera Cruz,
Mexico, 70 m. by rail N.W. of the port of Vera Cruz. Pop.
(1900), 20,388. It is picturesquely situated on the slopes of the
sierra which separates the central plateau from the tierra caliente
of the Gulf Coast, at an elevation of 4300 ft., and with the Cofre
de Perote behind it rising to a height of 13,419 ft. Its climate
is cool and healthy and the town is frequented in the hot season
by the wealthier residents of Vera Cruz. The city is well built,
in the old Spanish style. Among its public buildings are a fine
old church, a Franciscan convent founded by Cortez in 1556, and
three hospitals, one of which, that of San Juan de Dios, dates
from colonial times. The neighbouring valleys and slopes are
fertile, and in the forests of this region is found the plant (jalap),
which takes its name from the place. Jalapa was for a time the
capital of the state, but its political and commercial importance
has declined since the opening of the railway between Vera
Cruz and the city of Mexico. It manufactures pottery and
leather.
JALAUN, a town and district of British India, in the Allahabad
division of the United Provinces. Pop. of town (1901), 8573.
Formerly it was the residence of a Mahratta governor, but never
the headquarters of the district, which are at Orai.
The DISTRICT OF JALAUN has an area of 1477 sq. m. It lies
entirely within the level plain of Bundelkhand, north of the hill
country, and is almost surrounded by the Jumna and its tribu-
taries the Betwa and Pahuj. The central region thus enclosed
is a dead level of cultivated land, a1 most destitute of trees, and
sparsely dotted with villages. The southern portion presents
almost one unbroken sheet of cultivation. The boundary rivers
form the only interesting feature in Jalaun. The river Non
flows through the centre of the district, which it drains by
innumerable small ravines instead of watering. Jalaun has
suffered much from the noxious kans grass, owing to the spread
of which many villages have been abandoned and their lands
thrown out of cultivation. Pop. (1901), 399,726, showing an
increase of i %. The two largest towns are Kunch (15,888),
and Kalpi (10,139). The district is traversed by the line of the
Indian Midland railway from Jhansi to Cawnpore. A small part
of it is watered by the Betwa canal. Grain, oil-seeds, cotton
and ghi are exported.
In early times Jalaun seems to have been the home of two
Rajput clans, the Chandels in the east and the Kachwahas in
the west. The town of Kalpi on the Jumna was conquered for the
princes of Ghor as early as 1196. Early in the i4th century the
Bundelas occupied the greater part of Jalaun, and even succeeded
in holding the fortified post of Kalpi. That important possession
was soon recovered by the Mussulmans, and passed under the
sway of the Mogul emperors. Akbar's governors at Kalpi
maintained a nominal authority over the surrounding district;
and the Bundela chiefs were in a state of chronic revolt, which
culminated in the war of independence under Chhatar Sal. On
the outbreak of his rebellion in 167 r he occupied a large province
to the south of the Jumna. Setting out from this basis, and
assisted by the Mahrattas, he reduced the whole of Bundelkhand.
On his death he bequeathed one-third of his dominions to his
Mahratta allies, who before long succeeded in annexing the whole
of Bundelkhand. Under Mahratta rule the country was a prey
to constant anarchy and intestine strife. To this period must
be traced the origin of the poverty and desolation which are still
conspicuous throughout the district. In 1806 Kalpi was made
over to the British, and in 1840, on the death of Nana Gobind
Ras, his possessions lapsed to them also. Various interchanges
of territory took place, and in 1856 the present boundaries were
substantially settled. Jalaun had a bad reputation during the
Mutiny. When the news of the rising at Cawnpore reached
Kalpi, the men of the 53rd native infantry deserted their officers,
and in June the Jhansi mutineers reached the district, and began
their murder of Europeans. The inhabitants everywhere
revelled in the licence of plunder and murder which the Mutiny
had spread through all Bundelkhand. and it was not till Septem-
ber 1858 that the rebels were finally defeated.
JALISCO, XALISCO, or GUADALAJARA, a Pacific coast state
of Mexico, of very irregular shape, bounded, beginning on the
N., by the territory of Tepic and the states of Durango, Zacatecas,
Aguas Calientes, Guanajuato, Michoacan, and Colima. Pop.
(1900), 1,153,891. Area, 3 1,846 sq. m. Jalisco is traversed from
N.N.W. to S.S.E. by the Sierra Madre, locally known as the
Sierra de Nayarit and Sierra de Jalisco, which divides the state
into a low heavily forested coastal plain and a high plateau
region, part of the great Anahuac table-land, with an average
elevation of about 5000 ft., broken by spurs and flanking ranges
of moderate height. The sierra region is largely volcanic and
earthquakes are frequent; in the S. are the active volcanoes of
Colima (12, 750 ft.) and theNevadode Colima (14,363) ft.). The
tierra caliente zone of the coast is tropical, humid, and unfavour-
able to Europeans, while the inland plateaus vary from sub-
tropical to temperate and are generally drier and healthful.
The greater part of the state is drained by the Rio Grande de
Lerma (called the Santiago on its lower course) and its tribu-
taries, chief of which is the Rio Verde. Lakes are numerous;
the largest are the Chapala, about 80 m. long by 10 to 35 m. wide,
which is considered one of the most beautiful inland sheets of
water in Mexico, the Sayula and the Magdalena, noted for their
abundance of fish. The agricultural products of Jalisco include
Indian corn, wheat and beans on the uplands, and sugar-cane,
cotton, rice, indigo and tobacco in the warmer districts. Rubber
and palm oil are natural forest products of the coastal zone.
Stock-raising is an important occupation in some of the more
elevated districts. The mineral resources include silver, gold,
cinnabar, copper, bismuth, and various precious stones. There
are reduction works of the old-fashioned type and some manu-
factures, including cotton and woollen goods, pottery, refined
sugar and leather. The commercial activities of the state
contribute much to its prosperity. There is a large percentage
of In'dians and mestizos in the population. The capital is
Guadalajara, and other important towns with their populations
in 1900 (unless otherwise stated) are: Zapotlanejo (20,275), 21 m.
E. by N. of Guadalajara; Ciudad Guzman (17,374 in 1895),
60 m. N.E. of Colima; Lagos (14,716 in 1895), a mining town
100 m. E.N.E. of Guadalajara on the Mexican Central railway;
Tamazula (8.783 in 1895); Sayula (7883); Autlan (7715);
Teocaltiche (8881); Ameca (7212 in 1895), in a fertile agricultural
JALNA— JAMAICA
132
region on the western slopes of the sierras; Cocula (7090 in
1895); and Zacoalco (6516). Jalisco was first invaded by the
Spaniards about 1526 and was soon afterwards conquered by
Nuno de Guzman. It once formed part of the reyno of Nueva
Galicia, which also included Aguas Calientes and Zacatecas. In
1889 its area was much reduced by a subdivision of its coastal
zone, which was set apart as the territory of Tepic.
JALNA, or JAULNA, a town in Hyderabad state, India, on the
Godavari branch of the Nizam's railway, and 210 m. N.E. of
Bombay. Pop. (1901), 20,270. Until 1903 it was a cantonment
of the Hyderabad contingent, originally established in 1827. Its
gardens produce fruit, which is largely exported. On the
opposite bank of the river Kundlika is the trading town of
Kadirabad; pop. (1901), n,i59-
JALPAIGURI, or JULPIGOREE, a town and district of British
India, in the Rajshahi division of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
The town is on the right bank of the river Tista, with a station
on the Eastern Bengal railway about 300 m. due N. of Calcutta.
Pop. (1901), 9708. It is the headquarters of the commissioner
of the division.
The DISTRICT OF JALPAIGURI (organized in 1869) occupies an
irregularly shaped tract south of Darjeeling and Bhutan and
north of the state of Kuch Behar. It includes the Western
Dwars, annexed from Bhutan after the war of 1864-1865. Area,
2,962 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 787,380, an increase of 16% in the
decade. The district is divided into a " regulation " tract, lying
towards the south-west, and a strip of country, about 22 m. in
width, running along the foot of the Himalayas, and known as
the Western Dwars. The former is a continuous expanse of
level paddy fields, only broken by groves of bamboos, palms,
and fruit-trees. The frontier towards Bhutan is formed by the
Sinchula mountain range, some peaks of which attain an elevation
of 6000 ft. It is thickly wooded from base to summit. The
principal rivers, proceeding from west to east, are the Mahan-
anda, Karatoya, Tista, Jaldhaka, Duduya, Mujnai, Tursa,
Kaljani, Raidak, and Sankos. The most important is the
Tista, which forms a valuable means of water communication.
Lime is quarried in the lower Bhutan hills. The Western Dwars
are the principal centre of tea cultivation in Eastern Bengal.
The other portion of the district produces jute. Jalpaiguri is
traversed by the main line of the Eastern Bengal railway to
Darjeeling. It is also served by the Bengal Dwars railway.
JAMAICA, the largest island in the British West Indies. It
lies about 80 m. S. of the eastern extremity of Cuba, between
17° 43' and 18° 32' N. and 76° 10' and 78° 20' W., is 144 m. long,
50 m. in extreme breadth, and has an area of 4207 sq. m. The
coast-line has the form of a turtle, the mountain ridges repre-
senting the back. A mountainous backbone runs through the
island from E. to W., throwing off a number of subsidiary
ridges, mostly in a north-westerly or south-easterly direction.
In the east this range is more distinctly marked, forming the
Blue Mountains, with cloud-capped peaks and numerous
bifurcating branches. They trend W. by N., and are crossed
by five passes at altitudes varying from 3000 to 4000 ft. They
culminate in Blue Mountain Peak (7360 ft.), after which the
heights gradually decrease until the range is merged into the
hills of the western plateau. Two-thirds of the island are
occupied by this limestone plateau, a region of great beauty
broken by innumerable hills, valleys and sink-holes, and covered
with luxuriant vegetation. The uplands usually terminate in
steep slopes or bluffs, separated from the sea, in most cases, by a
strip of level land. On the south coast, especially, the plains
are often large, the Liguanea plain, on which Kingston stands,
having an area of 200 sq. m. Upwards of a hundred rivers and
streams find their way to the sea, besides the numerous tribu-
taries which issue from every ravine in the mountains. These
streams for the most part are not navigable, and in times of flood
they become devastating torrents. In the parish of Portland,
the Rio Grande receives all the smaller tributaries from the west.
In St Thomas in the east the main range is drained by the
Plantain Garden river, the tributaries of which form deep
ravines and narrow gorges. The valley of the Plantain Garden
expands into a picturesque and fertile plain. The Black river
flows through a level country, and is navigable by small craft
for about 30 m. The Salt river and the Cabaritta, also in the
south, are navigable by barges. Other rivers of the south are
the Rio Cobre (on which are irrigation works for the sugar and
fruit plantations), the Yallahs and the Rio Minho; in the north
are the Martha Brae, the White river, the Great Spanish river,
and the Rio Grande. Vestiges of intermittent volcanic action
occur, and there are several medicinal springs. Jamaica has
16 harbours, the chief of which are Port Morant, Kingston, Old
Harbour, Montego Bay, Falmouth, St Ann's Bay, Port Maria
and Port Antonio.
Geology. — The greater part of Jamaica is covered by Tertiary
deposits, but in the Blue Mountain and some of the other ranges the
older rocks rise to the surface. The foundation of the island is
formed by a series of stratified shales and conglomerates, with tuffs
and other volcanic rocks and occasional bands of marine limestone.
The limestones contain Upper Cretaceous fossils, and the whole
series has been strongly folded. Upon this foundation rests un-
conformably a series of marls and limestones of Eocene and early
Oligocene age. Some of the limestones are made of Foraminifera,
together with Radiolaria, and indicate a subsidence to abyssal depths.
Nevertheless, the higher peaks of the island still remained above the
sea. Towards the middle of the Oligocene period, mountain folding
took place on an extensive scale, and the island was raised far above
its present level and was probably connected with the rest of the
Greater Antilles and perhaps with the mainland also. At the same
time plutonic rocks ol various kinds were intruded into the deposits
already formed, and in some cases produced considerable meta-
morphism. During the Miocene and Pliocene periods the island again
sank, but never to the depths which it reached in the Eocene period.
The deposits formed were shallow-water conglomerates, marls and
limestones, with mollusca, brachiopoda, corals, &c. Finally, a
series of successive elevations of small amount, less than 500 ft.
in the aggregate, raised the island to its present level. The terraces
which mark the successive stages in this elevation are well shown in
Montego Bay and elsewhere. The remarkable depressions of the
Cockpit country and the closed basin of the Hector river are similar
in origin to swallow-holes, and were formed by the solution of a
limestone layer resting upon insoluble rocks. The island produces a
great variety of marbles, porphyrites, granite and ochres. Traces of.
gold have been found associated with some of the oxidized copper
ores (blue and green carbonates) in the Clarendon mines. Copper
ores are widely diffused but are very expensive to work ; as are the
lead and cobalt which are also found. Manganese iron ores and a
form of arsenic occur.
Climate. — The climate is one of the island's chief attractions.
Near the coast it is warm and humid, but that of the uplands is
delightfully mild and equable. At Kingston the temperature
ranges from 70-7° to 87-8° F., and this is generally the average
of all the low-lying coast land. At Cinchona, 4907 ft. above
the sea, it varies from 57-5° to 68-5°. The vapours from the
rivers and the ocean produce in the upper regions clouds saturated
with moisture which induce vegetation belonging to a colder
climate. During the rainy seasons there is such an accumulation
of these vapours as to cause a general coolness and occasion
sudden heavy showers, and sometimes destructive floods. The
rainy seasons, in May and October, last for about three weeks,
although, as a rule no month is quite without rain. The fall
varies greatly; while the annual average for the island is 66^3 in.,
at Kingston it is 32-6 in., at Cinchona 105-5 m-> and at some
places in the north-east it exceeds 200 in. The climate of the
Santa Cruz Mountains is extremely favourable to sufferers from
tubercular and rheumatic diseases. Excepting near morasses
and lagoons, the island is very healthy, and yellow fever, once
prevalent, now rarely occurs. In the early part of the i9th
century, hurricanes often devastated Jamaica, but now, though
they pass to the N.E. and S.W. with comparative frequency,
they rarely strike the island itself.
Flora. — The flora is remarkable, showing types from North,
Central, and South America, with a few European forms, besides
the common plants found everywhere in the tropics. Of flowering
plants there are 2180 distinct species, and of ferns 450 species,
several of both being indigenous. The largeness of these numbers
may be to some extent accounted for by differences of altitude,
temperature and humidity. There are many beautiful flowers,
such as the aloe, the yucca, the datura the mountain pride and the
Victoria regia ; and the cactus tribe is well represented. The Sensitive
Plant grows in pastures, and orchids in the woods. There are forest
JAMAICA
trees fit for every purpose; including the ballata, rosewood, satin-
wood, mahogany, lignum vitae, lancewood and ebony. The logwood
and fustic are exported for dyeing. There are also the Jamaica
cedar, and the silk cotton tree (Ceiba Bombax). Pimento (peculiar to
Jamaica) is indigenous, and furnishes the allspice. The bamboo,
coffee and cocoa are well known. Several species of palm abound,
— the macaw, the fan palm, screw palm, and palmetto royal. There
are plantations of coco-nut palm. The other noticeable trees and
plants are the mango, the breadfruit tree, the papaw, the lacebark
tree, and the guava. The Palma Christi, from which castor oil is
made, is a very abundant annual. English vegetables grow in the
hills, and the plains produce plantains, cocoa, yams, cassava, ochra,
beans, pease, ginger and arrowroot. Maize and guinea-corn are
cultivated, and the guinea-grass, accidentally introduced in I75°>
is very valuable for horses and cattle, — so much so that pen-keeping
or cattle farming is a highly profitable occupation. Among the
principal fruits are the orange, shaddock, lime, grape or cluster
fruit, pine-apple, mango, banana, grapes, melons, avocado pear,
breadfruit, and tamarind.
Fauna. — There are fourteen sorts of lampyridae or fireflies,
besides the elaleridae or lantern beetles. There are no venomous
serpents, but numerous harmless snakes and lizards exist. The land-
crab is considered a table delicacy, and the land-turtle also is eaten.
The scorpion and centipede, though poisonous, are not very danger-
ous. Ants, sandflies and mosquitoes swarm in the lowlands. There
are twenty different song-birds, and forty-three varieties of birds
are presumed to be peculiar to the island. The sea and the rivers
swarm with fish. Turtles abound, and the seal, the manatee and
the crocodile are sometimes found. The coral reefs, with their
varied polyps and anemones, the numerous alcyonarians and diverse
coral-dwelling animals are readily accessible to the student, and the
island is also celebrated for the number of species of its land-shells.
People. — The population of the island was estimated in 1905
at 806,690. Jamaica is rich in traces of its former Arawak
inhabitants. Aboriginal petaloid celts and other implements,
flattened skulls and vessels are common, and images are some-
times found in the large limestone caverns of the island. The
present inhabitants, of whom only 2% are white, include
Maroons, the descendants of the slaves of the Spaniards who fled
into the interior when the island was captured by the British;
descendants of imported African slaves; mixed race of British
and African blood; coolies from India; a few Chinese, and the
British officials and white settlers. The Maroons live by them-
selves and are few in number, while the half -castes enter into
trade and sometimes into the professions. The number of white
inhabitants other than British is very small. A negro peasant
population is encouraged, with a view to its being a support
to the industries of the island; but, in many cases a field negro
will not work for his employer more than four days a week. He
may till his own plot of ground on one of the other days or not,
as the spirit moves him, but four days' work a week will keep
him easily. He has little or no care for the future. He has
probably squatted on someone's land, and has no rent to pay.
Clothes he need hardly buy, fuel he needs only for cooking, and
food is ready to his hand for the picking. Unfortunately a
widespread indulgence in predial larceny is a great hindrance
to agriculture as well as to moral progress. But that habits of
thrift are being inculcated is shown by the steady increase in
the accounts in the government savings banks. That gross
superstition is still prevalent is shown by the cases of obeah or
witchcraft that come before the courts from time to time.
Another indication of the status of the negro may be found in
the fact that more than 60% of the births are illegitimate, a
percentage that shows an unfortunate tendency to increase
rather than diminish.
The capital, Kingston, stands on the south-east coast, and near
it is the town of Port Royal. Spanish Town (pop. 5019), the former
capital, is in the parish of St Catherine, Middlesex, uf m. by rail
west of Kingston. Since the removal of the seat of government to
Kingston, the town has gradually sunk in importance. In the
cathedral many of the governors of the island are buried. A marble
statue of Rodney commemorates his victory over the count de
Grasse off Dominica in 1782. Montego Bay (pop. 4803), on the
north-west coast, is the second town on the island, and is also a
favourite bathing resort. Port Antonio (1784) lies between two
secure harbours on the north-east, and owes its prosperity mair.ly
to the development of the trade in fruit, for which it is the chief
place of shipment.
Industries. — Agricultural enterprise falls into two classes — plant-
ing and pen-keeping, i.e. the breeding of horses, mules, cattle and
sheep. The chief products are bananas, oranges, coffee, sugar,
133
rum, logwood, cocoa, pimento, ginger, coco-nuts, limes, nutmegs,
pineapples, tobacco, grape-fruit and mangoes. There is a board of
agriculture, with an experimental station at Hope; there is also an
agricultural society with 26 branches throughout the colony. Bee-
keeping is a growing industry, especially among the peasants. The
land as a rule is divided into small holdings, the vast majority
consisting of five acres and less. The manufactures are few. In
addition to the sugar and coffee estates and cigar factories, there
are tanneries, distilleries, breweries, electric light and gas works,
ironfoundries, potteries and factories for the production of coco-
nut oil, essential oils, ice, matches and mineral waters. There is
an important establishment at Spanish Town for the production of
logwood extract. The exports, more than half of which go to the
United States, mostly comprise fruit, sugar and rum. The United
States also contributes the majority of the imports. More than half
the revenue of the colony is derived from import duties, the remainder
is furnished by excise, stamps and licences. With the exception of
that of the parish boards, there is no direct taxation.
Communications. — In 1900 an Imperial Direct West India Line
of steamers was started by Elder, Dempster & Co., to encourage
the fruit trade with England; it had a subsidy of £40,000, contri-
buted jointly by the Imperial and Jamaican governments. Two
steamers go round the island once a week, calling at the principal
ports, the circuit occupying about 120 hours. A number of sailing
" droghers " also ply from port to port. Jamaica has a number
of good roads and bridle paths; the main roads, controlled by the
public works department, encircle the island, with several branches
from north to south. The parochial roads are maintained by the
parish boards. A railway traverses the island from Kingston in the
south-east to Montego Bay in the north-west, and also branches to
Port Antonio and to Ewarton. Jamaica is included in the Postal
Union and in the Imperial penny post, and there is a weekly mail
service to and from England by the Royal Mail Line, but mails are
also carried by other companies. The island is connected by cable
with the United States via Cuba, and with Halifax, Nova Scotia
via Bermuda.
There is a government savings bank at Kingston with branches
throughout the island, and there are also branches of the Colonial
Bank of London and the Bank of Nova Scotia. The coins in cir-
culation are British gold and silver, but not bronze, instead of which
local nickel is used. United States gold passes as currency. English
weights and measures are used.
Administration, 6*c. — The island is divided into three counties,
Surrey in the east, Middlesex in the centre, and Cornwall
in the west, and each of these is subdivided into five parishes.
The parish is the unit of local government, and has jurisdic-
tion over roads, markets, sanitation, poor relief and water-
works. The management is vested in a parish board, the
members of which are elected. The chairman or custos is
appointed by the governor. The island is administered by
a governor, who bears the old Spanish title of captain-general,
assisted by a legislative council of five ex officio members,
not more than ten nominated members, and fourteen members
elected on a limited suffrage. There is also a privy council
of three ex officio and not more than eight nominated members.
There is an Imperial garrison of about 2000 officers and men,
with headquarters at Newcastle, consisting of Royal Engineers,
Royal Artillery, infantry and four companies of the West India
Regiment. There is a naval station at Port Royal, and the
entrance to its harbour is strongly fortified. In addition there
is a militia of infantry and artillery, about 800 strong.
Previous to 1870 the Church of England was established in
Jamaica, but in that year a disestablishment act was passed
which provided for gradual disendowment. It is still the most
numerous body, and is presided over by the bishop of Jamaica,
who is also archbishop of the West Indies. The Baptists,
134
JAMAICA
Wesleyans, Presbyterians, Moravians and Roman Catholics are
all represented; there is a Jewish synagogue at Kingston, and
the Salvation Army has a branch on the island. The Church of
England maintains many schools, a theological college, a deacon-
esses' home and an orphanage. The Baptists have a theological
college; and the Roman Catholics support a training college for
teachers, two industrial schools and two orphanages. Elemen-
tary education is in private hands, but fostered, since 1867, by
government grants; it is free but not compulsory, although the
governor has the right to compel the attendance of all children
from 6 to 14 years of age in such towns and districts as he may
designate. The teachers in these schools are for the most part
trained in the government-aided training colleges of the various
denominations. For higher education there are the University
College and high school at Hope near Kingston, Potsdam School
in St Elizabeth, the Mice School and Wolmer's Free School in
Kingston, founded (for boys and girls) in 1729, the Montego
Bay secondary school, and numerous other endowed and self-
supporting establishments. The Cambridge Local Examinations
have been held regularly since 1882.
History. — Jamaica was discovered by Columbus on the 3rd
of May 1494. Though he called it Santiago, it has always been
known by its Indian name Jaymaca, " the island of springs,"
modernized in form and pronunciation into Jamaica. Except-
ing that in 1505 Columbus once put in for shelter, the island
remained un visited until 1509, when Diego, the discoverer's
son, sent Don Juan d'Esquivel to take possession, and thence-
forward it passed under Spanish rule. Sant' lago de la Vega, or
Spanish Town, which remained the capital of the island until
1872, was founded in 1523. Sir Anthony Shirley, a British
admiral, attacked the island in 1596, and plundered and burned
the capital, but did not follow up his victory. Upon his retire-
ment the Spaniards restored their capital and were unmolested
until 1635, when the island was again raided by the British under
Colonel Jackson. The period of the Spanish occupation is
mainly memorable for the annihilation of the gentle and peaceful
Arawak Indian inhabitants; Don Pedro d'Esquivel was one of
their cruellest oppressors. The whole island was divided among
eight noble Spanish families, who discouraged immigration to
such an extent that when Jamaica was taken by the British the
white and slave population together did not exceed 3000. Under
the vigorous foreign policy of Cromwell an attempt was made to
crush the Spanish power in the West Indies, and an expedition
under Admirals Penn and Venables succeeded in capturing and
holding Jamaica in 1655. The Spanish were entirely expelled
in 1658. Their slaves then took to the mountains, and down to
the end of the i8th century the disaffection of these Maroons,
as they were called, caused constant trouble. Jamaica con-
tinued to be governed by military authority until 1 66 1, when
Colonel D'Oyley was appointed captain-general and governor-
in-chief with an executive council, and a constitution was
introduced resembling that of England. He was succeeded in
the next year by Lord Windsor, under whom a legislative
council was established. Jamaica soon became the chief resort
of the buccaneers, who not infrequently united the characters
of merchant or planter with that of pirate or privateer. By
the Treaty of Madrid, 1670, the British title to the island was
recognized, and the buccaneers were suppressed. The Royal
African Company was formed in 1672 with a monopoly of the
slave trade, and from this time Jamaica was one of the greatest
slave marts in the world. The sugar-industry was introduced
about this period, the first pot of sugar being sent to London in
1673. An attempt was made in 1678 to saddle the island with
a yearly tribute to the Crown and to restrict the free legisla-
ture. The privileges of the legislative assembly, however, were
restored in 1682; but not till 46 years later was the question of
revenue settled by a compromise by which Jamaica undertook
to settle £8000 (an amount afterwards commuted to £6000) per
annum on the Crown, provided that English statute laws were
made binding in Jamaica. 0
During these years of political struggle the colony was thrice
afflicted by nature. A great earthquake occurred in 1692, when
the chief part of the town of Port Royal, built on a shelving
bank of sand, slipped into the sea. Two dreadful hurricanes
devastated the island in 1712 and 1722, the second of which did
so much damage that the seat of commerce had to be transferred
from Port Royal to Kingston.
The only prominent event in the history of the island during
the later years of the i8th century, was the threatened invasion
by the French and Spanish in 1782, but Jamaica was saved by
the victory of Rodney and Hood off Dominica. The last attempt
'at invasion was made in 1806, when the French were defeated
by Admiral Duckworth. When the slave trade was abolished
the island was at the zenith of its prosperity; sugar, coffee,
cocoa, pimento, ginger and indigo were being produced in large
quantities, and it was the dep6t of a very lucrative trade with the
Spanish main. The anti-slavery agitation in Great Britain
found its echo hi the island, and in 1832 the negroes revolted,
believing that emancipation had been granted. They killed a
number of whites and destroyed a large amount of valuable
property. Two years later the Emancipation Act was passed,
and, subject to a short term of apprenticeship, the slaves were
free. Emancipation left the planters in a pitiable condition
financially. The British government awarded them conpensa-
tion at the rate of £19 per slave, the market value of slaves at
the time being £35, but most of this compensation went into the
hands of the planters' creditors. They were left with over-
worked estates, a poor market and a scarcity of labour. Nor
was this the end of their misfortunes. During the slavery times
the British government had protected the planter by imposing
a heavy differential duty on foreign sugar; but on the introduc-
tion of free trade the price of sugar fell by one-half and reduced
the profits of the already impoverished planter. Many estates,
already heavily mortgaged, were abandoned, and the trade of
the island was at a standstill. Differences between the executive,
the legislature, and the home government, as to the means of
retrenching the public expenditure, created much bitterness.
Although some slight improvement marked the administration
of Sir Charles Metcalfe and the earl of Elgin, when coolie immi-
gration was introduced to supply the scarcity and irregularity
of labour and the railway was opened, the improvement was not
permanent. In 1865 Edward John Eyre became governor.
Financial affairs were at their lowest ebb and the colonial
treasury showed a deficit of £80,000. To meet this difficulty
new taxes were imposed and discontent was rife among the
negroes. Dr Underbill, the secretary of a Baptist organization
known as the British Union, wrote to the colonial secretary in
London, pointing out the state of affairs. This letter became
public in Jamaica, and in the opinion of the governor added in
no small measure to the popular excitement. On the nth of
October 1865 the negroes rose at Morant Bay and murdered the
custos and most of the white inhabitants. The slight encounter
which followed filled the island with terror, and there is no doubt
that many excesses were committed on both sides. The assembly
passed an act by which martial law was proclaimed, and the
legislature passed an act abrogating the constitution.
The action of Governor Eyre, though generally approved
throughout the West Indies, caused much controversy in Eng-
land, and he was recalled. A prosecution was instituted against
him, resulting in an elaborate exposition of martial law by
Chief Justice Cockburn, but the jury threw out the bill and Eyre
was discharged. He was succeeded in the government of
Jamaica by Sir Henry Storks, and under the crown colony
system of government the state of the island made slow but
steady progress. In 1868 the first fruit shipment took place
from Port Antonio, the immigration of coolies was revived, and
cinchona planting was introduced. The method of government
was changed in 1884, when a new constitution, slightly modified
in 1895, was granted to the island.
In the afternoon of the I4th of January 1907 a terrible earth-
quake visited Kingston. Almost every building in the capital
and in Port Royal, and many in St Andrews, were destroyed or
seriously injured. The loss of life was variously estimated, but
probably exceeded one thousand. Among those killed was
JAMAICA— JAMES
Sir James Fergusson, 6th baronet (b. 1832) . The principal shock
was followed by many more of slighter intensity during the
ensuing fortnight and later. On the i7th of January assistance
was brought by three American war-ships under Rear-Admiral
Davis, who however withdrew them on the igth, owing to a
misunderstanding with the governor of the island, Sir Alexander
Swettenham, on the subject of the landing of marines from the
vessels with a view to preserving order. The incident caused
considerable sensation, and led to Sir A. Swettenham's resigna-
tion in the following March, Sir Sydney Olivier, K.C.M.G., being
appointed governor. Order was speedily restored; but the
destructive effect of the earthquake was a severe check to the
prosperity of the island.
See Bryan Edwards, History of the West Indies (London, 1809,
and appendix, 1819) ; P. H. Gosse, Journal of a Naturalist in Jamaica
(London, 1851) and Birds of Jamaica (1847); Jamaica Handbook
(London, annual); Bacon and Aaron, New Jamaica (1890); W. P.
•Livingstone, Black Jamaica (London, 1900), F. Cundall, Bibliotheca
Jamaicensis (Kingston, 1895), and Studies in Jamaica History
(1900); W. J. Gardner, History of Jamaica (New York, 1909). For
geology, see R. T. Hill, " The Geology and Physical Geography of
Jamaica," Bull. Mus. Com. Zool. Harvard, xxxiv. (1899).
JAMAICA, formerly a village of Queens county, Long
Island, New York, U.S.A., but after the ist of January 1898 a
part of the borough of Queens, New York City. Pop. (1890)
5361. It is served by the Long Island railroad, the lines of
which from Brooklyn and Manhattan meet here and then
separate to serve the different regions of the island.1 King's
Park (about 10 acres) comprises the estate of John Alsop King
(1788-1867), governor of New York in 1857-1859, from whose
heirs in 1897 the land was purchased by the village trustees. In
South Jamaica there is a race track, at which meetings are held
in the spring and autumn. The headquarters of the Queens
Borough Department of Public Works and Police are in the
Jamaica town-hall, and Jamaica is the seat of a city training
school for teachers (until 1905 one of the New York State normal
schools). For two guns, a coat, and a quantity of powder and
lead, several New Englanders obtained from the Indians a deed
for a tract of land here in September 1655. In March 1657 they
received permission from Governor Stuyvesant to found a town,
which was chartered in 1660 and was named Rustdorp by
Stuyvesant, but the English called it Jamaica; it was rechar-
tered in 1666, 1686 and 1788. The village was incorporated in
1814 and reincorporated in 1855. In 1665 it was made the seat
of justice of the north riding; in 1683-1788 it was the shire town
of Queens county. With Hempstead, Gravesend, Newtown
and Flushing, also towns of New England origin and type,
Jamaica was early disaffected towards the provincial government
of New York. In 1669 these towns complained that they had
no representation in a popular assembly, and in 1670 they pro-
tested against taxation without representation. The founders
of Jamaica were mostly Presbyterians, and they organized one
of the first Presbyterian churches in America. At the begin-
ning of the War of Independence Jamaica was under the control
of Loyalists; after the defeat of the Americans in the battle
of Long Island (27th August 1776) it was occupied by the
British; and until the end of the war it was the headquarters
of General Oliver Delancey, who had command of all Long
Island.
JAMB (from Fr. jambe, leg), in architecture, the side-post or
lining of a doorway or other aperture. The jambs of a window
outside the frame are called " reveals." Small shafts to doors
and windows with caps and bases are known as " jamb-shafts ";
when in the inside arris of the jamb of a window they are some-
times called " scoinsons."
JAMES (a variant of the name Jacob, Heb. apg, one who
holds by the heel, outwitter, through O. Fr. James, another
form of Jacques, Jaques, from Low Lat. Jacobus; cf. Ital. Jacopo
1 In June 1908 the subway lines of the interborough system of
New York City were extended to the Flatbush (Brooklyn) station
of the Long Island railroad, thus bringing Jamaica into direct
connexion with Manhattan borough by way of the East river
tunnel, completed in the same year.
135
[Jacob], Giacomo [James], Prov. Jacme, Cat. Jaume, Cast.
Jaime), a masculine proper name popular in Christian countries
as having been that of two of Christ's apostles. It has been borne
by many sovereigns and other princes, the most important of
whom are noticed below, after the heading devoted to the
characters in the New Testament, in the following order:
(i) kings of England and Scotland, (2) other kings in the alpha-
betical order of their countries, (3) the " Old Pretender."
The article on the Epistle of James in the New Testament
follows after the remaining biographical articles in which James
is a surname.
JAMES (Gr. 'Id/oo/Jos, the Heb. Ya'akob or Jacob), the name of
several persons mentioned in the New Testament.
1. JAMES, the son of Zebedee. He was among the first who
were called to be Christ's immediate followers (Mark i. 19 seq.;
Matt. iv. 21 seq., and perhaps Luke v. io),and afterwards obtained
an honoured place in the apostolic band, his name twice occupy-
ing the second place after Peter's in the lists (Mark iii. 17; Acts
i. 13), while on at least three notable occasions he was, along with
Peter and his brother John, specially chosen by Jesus to be with
him (Mark v. 37; Matt. xvii. i, xxvi. 37). This same prominence
may have contributed partly to the title " Boanerges " or
" sons of thunder " which, according to Mark iii. 17, Jesus
himself gave to the two brothers. But its most natural inter-
pretation is to be found in the impetuous disposition which would
have called down fire from heaven on the offending Samaritan
villagers (Luke ix. 54), and afterwards found expression, though
in a different way, in the ambitious request to occupy the places
of honour in Christ's kingdom (Mark x. 3 5 seq.) . James is included
among those who after the ascension waited at Jerusalem
(Acts i. 13) for the descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of
Pentecost. And though on this occasion only his name is
mentioned, he must have been a zealous and prominent member
of the Christian community, to judge from the fact that when a
victim had to be chosen from among the apostles, who should be
sacrificed to the animosity of the Jews, it was on James that
the blow fell first. The brief notice is given in Acts xii. i, 2.
Eusebius (Hist. Red. ii. 9) has preserved for us from Clement
of Alexandria the additional information that the accuser of
the apostle " beholding his confession and moved thereby,
confessed that he too was a Christian. So they were both led
away to execution together; and on the road the accuser asked
James for forgiveness. Gazing on him for a little while, he said,
' Peace be with thee,' and kissed him. And then both were
beheaded together."
The later, and wholly untrustworthy, legends which tell of the
apostle's preaching in Spain, and of the translation of his body to
Santiago de Compostela, are to be found in the Acta Sanctorum
(July 25), vi. 1-124; see also Mrs Jameson's Sacred and Legendary
Art, 1.230-241.
2. JAMES, the son of Alphaeus. He also was one of the
apostles, and is mentioned in all the four lists (Matt. x. 3 ; Mark
iii. 18; Luke vi. 15; Acts i. 13) by this name. We know nothing
further regarding him, unless we believe him to be the same as
James " the little."
3. JAMES, the little. He is described as the son of a Mary
(Matt, xxvii. 56; Mark xv. 40), who was in all probability the
wife of Clopas (John xix. 25). And on the ground that Clopas
is another form of the name Alphaeus, this James has been
thought by some to be the same as 2. But the evidence of the
Syriac versions, which render Alphaeus by Chalphai, while
Clopas is simply transliterated Kleopha, makes it extremely
improbable that the two names are to be identified. And as
we have no better ground for finding in Clopas the Cleopas of
Luke xxiv. i8,'we must be content to admit that James the little
is again an almost wholly unknown personality, and has no
connexion with any of the other Jameses mentioned in the New
Testament.
4. JAMES, the father of Judas. There can be no doubt that
in the mention of " Judas of James " in Luke vi. 16 the ellipsis
should be supplied by " the son " and not as in the A.V. by " the
brother" (cf. Luke iii. i, vi. 14; Acts xii. 2, where the word
136
JAMES I.
is inserted). This Judas, known as Thaddaeus by
Matthew and Mark, afterwards became one of the apostles, and
is expressly distinguished by St John from the traitor as " not
Iscariot " (John xiv. 22).
5. JAMES, the Lord's brother. In Matt. xiii. 55 and Mark
vi. 3 we read of a certain James as, along with Joses and Judas
and Simon, a " brother " of the Lord. The exact nature of the
relationship there implied has been the subject of much discussion.
Jerome's view (de vir. ill. 2), that the " brothers " were in reality
cousins, " sons of Mary the sister of the Lord's mother," rests
on too many unproved assumptions to be entitled to much weight,
and may be said to have been finally disposed of by Bishop
Lightfoot in his essay on " The Brothers of the Lord " (Galatians,
pp. 252 sqq., Dissertations on the Apostolic Age, pp. i sqq.). Even
however if we understand the word " brethren " in its natural
sense, it may be applied either to the sons of Joseph by a former
wife, in which case they would be the step-brothers of Jesus,
or to sons born to Joseph and Mary after the birth of Jesus.
The former of these views, generally known as the Epiphanian
view from its most zealous advocate in the 4th century, can
claim for its support the preponderating voice of tradition (see
the catena of references given by Lightfoot, loc. cit., who himself
inclines to this view). On the other hand the Helitidian theory
as propounded by Helvidius, and apparently accepted by Ter-
tullian (cf. adv. Marc. iv. 29), which makes James a brother of
the Lord, as truly as Mary was his mother, undoubtedly seems
more in keeping with the direct statements of the Gospels, and
also with the after history of the brothers in the Church
(see W. Patrick, James the Brother of the Lord, 1906, p. 5).
In any case, whatever the exact nature of James's antecedents,
there can be no question as to the important place which he
occupied in the early Church. Converted to a full belief in the
living Lord, perhaps through the special revelation that was
granted to him (i Cor. xv. 7), he became the recognized head of
the Church at Jerusalem (Acts xii. 17, xv. 13, xxi. 18), and is
called by St Paul (Gal. ii. 9), along with Peter and John, a "pillar"
of the Christian community. He was traditionally the author
of the epistle in the New Testament which bears his name
(see JAMES, EPISTLE OF). From the New Testament we learn
no more of the history of James the Lord's brother, but Eusebius
(Hist. Eccl. ii. 23) has preserved for us from Hegesippus the
earliest ecclesiastical traditions concerning him. By that authority
he is described as having been a Nazarite, and on account of his
eminent righteousness called " Just " and " Oblias." So great
was his influence with the people that he was appealed to by the
scribes and Pharisees for a true and (as they hoped) unfavourable
judgment about the Messiahship of Christ. Placed, to give the
greater publicity to his words, on a pinnacle of the temple, he,
when solemnly appealed to, made confession of his faith, and was
at once thrown down and murdered. This happened immedi-
ately before the siege. Josephus (Antiq. xx. 9, i) tells that it
was by order of Ananus the high priest, in the interval between
the death of Festus and the arrival of his successor Albinus,
that James was put to death; and his narrative gives the idea
of some sort of judicial examination, for he says that along with
some others James was brought before an assembly of judges,
by whom they were condemned and delivered to be stoned.
Josephus is also cited by Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. ii. 23) to the effect
that the miseries of the siege were due to divine vengeance for
the murder of James. Later writers describe James as an
«r«7»«>7ros (Clem. Al. apud Eus. Hist. Ecc. ii. i) and even as an
«ri<7i«>Tros iirurKOTruv (Clem. Horn., ad inil.). According to
Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. vii. 19) his episcopal chair was still shown
at Jerusalem at the time when Eusebius wrote.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — In addition to the relevant literature cited above,
see the articles under the heading " James " in Hastings's Dictionary
of the Bible (Mayor) and Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels (Fulford),
and in the Encycl. Biblica (O. Cone) ; also the introductions to the
Commentaries on the Epistle of James by Mayor and Knowling.
Zahn has an elaborate essay on Briider und Vettern Jesu (" The
Brothers and Cousins of Jesus ") in the Forschuneen zur Geschichte
des neutestamentlichen Kanons, vi. 2 (Leipzig, 1900).
(G. Ml.)
JAMES I. (1566-1625), king of Great Britain and Ireland,
formerly king of Scotland as James VI., was the only child of
Mary Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stewart
Lord Darnley. He was born in the castle of Edinburgh on the
igth of June 1566, and was proclaimed king of Scotland on the
24th of July 1567, upon the forced abdication of his mother.
Until 1578 he was treated as being incapable of taking any real
part in public affairs, and was kept in the castle of Stirling for
safety's sake amid the confused fighting of the early years of his
minority.
The young king was a very weakly boy. It is said that he
could not stand without support until he was seven, and although
he lived until he was nearly sixty, he was never a strong man.
In after life he was a constant and even a reckless rider, but the
weakness in his legs was never quite cured. During a great part
of his life he found it necessary to be tied to the saddle. When
on one occasion in 1621 his horse threw him into the New River
near his palace of Theobalds in the neighbourhood of London,
he had a very narrow escape of being drowned; yet he continued
to ride as before. At all times he preferred to lean on the
shoulder of an attendant when walking. This feebleness of
body, which had no doubt a large share in causing certain
corresponding deficiencies of character, was attributed to the
agitations and the violent efforts forced on his mother by the
murder of her secretary Rizzio when she was in the sixth month
of her pregnancy. The fact that James was a bold rider, in
spite of this serious disqualification for athletic exercise, should
be borne in mind when he is. accused of having been a coward.
The circumstances surrounding him in boyhood were not
favourable to the development of his character. His immediate
guardian or foster-father, the earl of Mar, was indeed an honour-
able man, and the countess, who had charge of the nursing of
the king, discharged her duty so as to win his lasting confidence.
James afterwards entrusted her with the care of his eldest son,
Henry. When the earl died in 1572 his place was well filled by
his brother, Sir Alexander Erskine. The king's education was
placed under the care of George Buchanan, assisted by Peter
Young, and two other tutors. Buchanan, who did not spare the
rod, and the other teachers, who had more reverence for the
royal person, gave the boy a sound training in languages. The
English envoy, Sir Henry Killigrew, who saw him in 1574,
testified to his proficiency in translating from and into Latin and
French. As it was very desirable that he should be trained a
Protestant king, he was well instructed in theology. The
exceptionally scholastic quality of his education helped to give
him a taste for learning, but also tended to make him a pedant.
James was only twelve when the earl of Morton was driven
from the regency, and for some time after he can have been no
more than a puppet in the hands of intriguers and party leaders.
When, for instance, in 1582 he was seized by the faction of
nobles who carried out the so-called raid of Ruthven, which was
in fact a kidnapping enterprise carried out in the interest of the
Protestant party, he cried like a child. One of the conspirators,
the master of Glamis, Sir Thomas Lyon, told him that it was
better " bairns should greet [children should cry] than bearded
men." It was not indeed till 1583, when he broke away from
his captors, that James began to govern in reality.
^For the history of his reign reference may be made to the
articles on the histories of England and Scotland. James's
work as a ruler can be divided, without violating any sound
rule of criticism, into black and white — into the part which was
a failure and a preparation for future disaster, and the part
which was solid achievement, honourable to himself and profit-
able to his people. His native kingdom of Scotland had the
benefit of the second. Between 1583 and 1603 he reduced the
anarchical baronage of Scotland to obedience, and replaced the
subdivision of sovereignty and consequent confusion, which had
been the very essence of feudalism, by a strong centralized
royal authority. In fact he did in Scotland the work which
had been done by the Tudors in England, by Louis XI. in France,
and by Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain. It was the work of all
the strong rulers of the Renaissance. But James not only
JAMES I.
brought his disobedient and intriguing barons to order — that
was a comparatively easy achievement and might well have been
performed by more than one of his predecessors, had their lives
been prolonged — he also quelled the attempts of the Protestants
to found what Hallam has well defined as a " Presbyterian
Hildebrandism." He enforced the superiority of the state over
the church. Both before his accession to the throne-of England
(1603) and afterwards he took an intelligent interest in the
prosperity of his Scottish kingdom, and did much for the pacifica-
tion of the Hebrides, for the enforcement of order on the Bonders,
and for the development of industry. That he did so much al-
though the crown was poor (largely it must be confessed because
he made profuse gifts of the secularized church lands), and
although the armed force at his disposal was so small that to the
very end he was exposed to the attacks of would-be kidnappers
(as in the case of the Gowrie conspiracy of 1600), is proof positive
that he was neither the mere poltroon nor the mere learned fool
he has often been called.
James's methods of achieving ends in themselves honourable
and profitable were indeed of a kind which has made posterity
unjust to his real merits. The circumstances in which he
passed his youth developed in him a natural tendency to craft.
He boasted indeed of his " king-craft " and probably believed
that he owed it to his studies. But it was in reality the resource
of the weak, the art of playing off one possible enemy against
another by trickery, and so deceiving all. The marquis de
Fontenay, the French ambassador, who saw him in the early part
of his reign, speaks of him as cowed by the violence about him.
It is certain that James was most unscrupulous in making promises
which he never meant to keep, and the terror in which he passed
his youth sufficiently explains his preference for guile. He would
make promises to everybody, as when he wrote to the pope in
1584 more than hinting that he would be a good Roman Catholic
if helped in his need. His very natural desire to escape from the
poverty and insecurity of Scotland to the opulent English throne
not only kept him busy in intrigues to placate the Roman
Catholics or anybody else who could help or hinder him, but led
him to behave basely in regard to the execution of his mother
in 1 587. He blustered to give himself an air of courage, but took
good care to do nothing to offend Elizabeth. When the time
came for fulfilling his promises and half-promises, he was -not
able, even if he had been willing, to keep his word to everybody.
The methods which had helped him to success in Scotland did
him harm in England, where his reign prepared the way for the
great civil war. In his southern kingdom his failure was in fact
complete. Although England accepted him as the alternative
to civil war, and although he was received and surrounded with
fulsome flattery, he did not win the respect of his English sub-
jects. His undignified personal appearance was against him, and
so were his garrulity, his Scottish accent, his slovenliness and
his toleration of disorders in his court, but, above all, his favour
for handsome male favourites, whom he loaded with gifts and
caressed with demonstrations of affection which laid him open
to vile suspicions. In ecclesiastical matters he offended many,
who contrasted his severity and rudeness to the Puritan divines
at the Hampton Court conference (1604) with his politeness to
the Roman Catholics, whom he, however, worried by fits and
starts. In a country where the authority of the state had been
firmly established and the problem was how to keep it from
degenerating into the mere instrument of a king's passions, his
insistence on the doctrine of divine right aroused distrust and
hostility. In itself, and in its origin, the doctrine was nothing
more than a necessary assertion of the independence of the state
in face of the " Hildebrandism " of Rome and Geneva alike.
But when Englishmen were told that the king alone had inde-
feasible rights, and that all the privileges of subjects were re-
vocable gifts, they were roused to hostility. His weaknesses cast
suspicion on his best-meant schemes. His favour for his
countrymen helped to defeat his wise wish to bring about a full
union between England and Scotland. His profusion, which had
been bad in the poverty of Scotland and was boundless amid the
wealth of England, kept him necessitous, and drove him to
137
shifts. Posterity can give him credit for his desire to forward
religious peace in Europe, but his Protestant subjects were
simply frightened when he sought a matrimonial alliance with
Spain. Sagacious men among his contemporaries could not
see the consistency of a king who married his daughter Elizabeth
to the elector palatine, a leader of the German Protestants, and
also sought to marry his son to an infanta of Spain. The
king's subservience to Spain was indeed almost besotted. He
could not see her real weakness, and he allowed himself to be
befooled by the ministers of Philip III. and Philip IV. The end
of his scheming was that he was dragged into a needless war with
Spain by his son Charles and his favourite George Villiers, duke
of Buckingham, just before his death on the 5th of March 1625
at his favourite residence, Theobalds.
James married in 1589 Anne, second daughter of Frederick II.,
king of Denmark. His voyage to meet his bride, whose ship
had been driven into a Norwegian port by bad weather, is the
only episode of a romantic character in the life of this very
prosaic member of a poetic family. By this wife James had three
children who survived infancy: Henry Frederick, prince of
Wales, who died in 1612; Charles, the future king; and Elizabeth,
wife of the elector palatine, Frederick V.
Not the least of James's many ambitions was the desire to
excel as an author. He left a body of writings which, though of
mediocre quality as literature, entitle him to a unique place
among English kings since Alfred for width of intellectual
interest and literary faculty. His efforts were inspired by his
preceptor George Buchanan, whose memory he cherished in
later years. His first work was in verse, Essayes of a Prenlise in
the Divine Art of Poesie (Edin. Vautrollier, 1584), containing
fifteen sonnets, " Ane Metaphorical! invention of a tragedie called
Phoenix," a short poem " Of Time," translations from Du
Bartas, Lucan and the Book of Psalms (" out of Tremellius "),
and a prose tract entitled " Ane short treatise, containing some
Reulis and Cautelis to be observit and eschewit in Scottis Poesie."
The volume is introduced by commendatory sonnets, including
one by Alexander Montgomerie. The chief interest of the book
lies in the " Treatise " and the prefatory sonnets " To the
Reader " and " Sonnet decifring the perfyte poete." There is
little originality in this youthful production. It has been sur-
mised that it was compiled from the exercises written when the
author was Buchanan's pupil at Stirling, and that it was directly
suggested by his preceptor's De Prosodia and his annotations on
Vives. On the other hand, it shows intimate acquaintance with
the critical reflections of Ronsard and Du Bellay, and of Gas-
coigne in his Notes of Instruction (1575). In 1591 James pub-
lished Poeticall Exercises at Vacant Houres, including a transla-
tion of the Furies of Du Bartas, his own Lepanlo, and Du Bartas's
version of it, La Lepanthe. His Daemonologie, a prose treatise
denouncing witchcraft and exhorting the civil power to the
/strongest measures of suppression, appeared in 1599. In the
same year he printed the first edition (seven copies) of his
Basilikon Doron, strongly Protestant in tone. A French edition,
specially translated for presentation to the pope, has a disin-
genuous preface explaining that certain phrases (e.g. " papistical
doctrine ") are omitted, because of the difficulty of rendering
them in a foreign tongue. The original edition was, however,
translated by order of the suspicious pope, and was immediately
placed on the Index. Shortly after going to England James
produced his famous Counterblaste to Tobacco (London, 1604),
in which he forsakes his Scots tongue for Southern English.
The volume was published anonymously. James's prose works
(including his speeches) were collected and edited (folio, 1616)
by James Montagu, bishop of Winchester, and were translated
into Latin by the same, hand in a companion folio, in 1619 (also
Frankfort, 1689). A tract, entitled " The True Law of Free
Monarchies," appeared in 1603; "An Apology for the Oath of
Allegiance " in 1607; and a " Declaration du Roy Jacques I. . . .
pour le droit des Rois " in 1615. In 1588 and 1589 James issued
two small volumes of Meditations on some verses of (a) Revela-
tions and (6) i Chronicles. Other two " meditations " were
printed posthumously.
JAMES II.
See T. F. Henderson, James I. and VI. (London, 1904) ; P. Hume
Brown, History of Scotland, vol. ii. (Edinburgh and Cambridge, 1902) ;
and Andrew Lang, History of Scotland, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1902) and
James VI. and the Cowrie Mystery (London, 1902) ; The Register of
the Privy Council of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1877, &c.), vols. ii. to xiii.;
S. R. Gardiner, History of England 1603-1642 (London, 1883-1884).
A comprehensive bibliography will be found in the Cambridge Modern
Hist. iii. 847 (Cambridge, 1904).
For James s literary work, see Edward Arber's reprint of the
Bssayes and Counterblaste (" English Reprints," 1869, &c.) ; R. S.
Rait s Lusus Regius (1900) ; G. Gregory Smith's Elizabethan Critical
Essays (1904), vol. i., where the Treatise is edited for the first time;
A.O. Meyer s" Clemens VI I Lund Jacob I. von England "in Quellen
und Forschungen (Preuss. Hist. Inst.), VII. ii., for an account of the
issues of the Basilikon Doron; P. Hume Brown's George Buchanan
(1890), pp. 250-261, fora sketch of James'sassociation with Buchanan.
JAMES II. (1633-1701), king of Great Britain and Ireland,
second surviving son of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria, was born
at St James's on the isth of October 1633, and created duke of
York in January 1643. During the Civil War James was taken
prisoner by Fairfax (1646), but contrived to escape to Holland
in 1648. Subsequently he served in the French army under
Turenne, and in the Spanish under Cond6, and was applauded
by both commanders for his brilliant personal courage. Re-
turning to England with Charles II. in 1660 he was appointed
lord high admiral and warden of the Cinque Ports. Pepys, who
was secretary to the navy, has recorded the patient industry and
unflinching probity of his naval administration. His victory
over the Dutch in 1665, and his drawn battle with De Ruyter
in 1672, show that he was a good naval commander as well as an
excellent administrator. These achievements won him a repu-
tation for high courage, which, until the close of 1688, was amply
deserved. His private record was not as good as his public. In
December 1660 he admitted to having contracted, under dis-
creditable circumstances, a secret marriage with Anne Hyde
(1637-1671), daughter of Lord Clarendon, in the previous Sep-
tember. Both before and after the marriage he seems to have
been a libertine as unblushing though not so fastidious as Charles
himself. In 1672 he made a public avowal of his conversion to
Roman Catholicism. Charles II. had opposed this project, but
in 1673 allowed him to marry the Catholic Mary of Modena as
his second wife. Both houses of parliament, who viewed this
union with abhorrence, now passed the Test Act, forbidding
Catholics to hold office. In consequence of this James was
forced to resign his posts. It was in vain that he married his
daughter Mary to the Protestant prince of Orange in 1677.
Anti-Catholic feeling ran so high that, after the discovery of the
Popish Plot, he found it wiser to retire to Brussels (1679), while
Shaftesbury and the Whigs planned to exclude him from the
succession. He was lord high commissioner of Scotland (1680-
1682), where he occupied himself in a severe persecution of
the Covenanters. In 1684 Charles, having triumphed over the
Exclusionists, restored James to the office of high admiral by use
of his dispensing power.
James ascended the throne on the i6th of February 1685.
The nation showed its loyalty by its firm adherence to him during
the rebellions of Argyll in Scotland and Monmouth in England
(1685). The savage reprisals on their suppression, in especial
the " Bloody Assizes " of Jeffreys, produced a revulsion of public
feeling. James had promised to defend the existing Church and
government, but the people now became suspicious. James was
not a mere tyrant and bigot, as the popular imagination speedily
assumed him to be. He was rather a mediocre but not alto-
gether obtuse man, who mistook tributary streams for the main
currents of national thought. Thus he greatly underrated the
strength of the Establishment, and preposterously exaggerated
that of Dissent and Catholicism. He perceived that opinion
was seriously divided in the Established Church, and thought
that a vigorous policy would soon prove effective. Hence he
publicly celebrated Mass, prohibited preaching against Catholi-
cism, and showed exceptional favour to renegades from the
Establishment. By undue pressure he secured a decision of
the judges, in the test case of Godden v. Hale (1687), by which he
was allowed to dispense Catholics from the Test Act. Catholics
were now admitted to the chief offices in the army, and to some
important posts in the state, in virtue of the dispensing power of
James. The judges had been intimidated or corrupted, and the
royal promise to protect the Establishment violated. The army
had been increased to 20,000 men and encamped at Hounslow
Heath to overawe the capital. Public alarm was speedily mani-
fested and suspicion to a high degree awakened. In 1687 James
made a bid for the support of the Dissenters by advocating a
system of joint toleration for Catholics and Dissenters. In
April 1687 he published a Declaration of Indulgence — exempting
Catholics and Dissenters from penal statutes. He followed up
this measure by dissolving parliament and attacking the univer-
sities. By an unscrupulous use of the dispensing power he
introduced Dissenters and Catholics into all departments of
state and into the municipal corporations, which were remodelled
in their interests. Then in April 1688 he took the suicidal step
of issuing a proclamation to force the clergy and bishops to read
the Declaration in their pulpits, and thus personally advocate a
measure they detested. Seven bishops refused, were indicted
by James for libel, but acquitted amid the indescribable enthu-
siasm of the populace. Protestant nobles of England, enraged
at the tolerant policy of James, had been in negotiation with
William of Orange since 1687. The trial of the seven bishops,
and the birth of a son to James, now induced them to send
William a definite invitation (June 30, 1688). James remained
in a fool's paradise till the last, and only awakened to his danger
when William landed at Torbay (November 5, 1688) and swept
all before him. James pretended to treat, and in the midst of the
negotiations fled to France. He was intercepted at Faversham
and brought back, but the politic prince of Orange allowed him
to escape a second time (December 23, 1688).
At the end of 1688 James seemed to have lost his old courage.
After his defeat at the Boyne (July i, 1690) he speedily departed
from Ireland, where he had so conducted himself that his English
followers had been ashamed of his incapacity, while French
officers had derided him. His proclamations and policy towards
England during these years show unmistakable traces of the
same incompetence. On the 1 7th of May 1692 he saw the French
fleet destroyed before his very eyes off Cape La Hogue. He was
aware of, though not an open advocate of the " Assassination
Plot," which was directed against William. By its revelation
and failure (February 10, 1696) the third and last serious
attempt of James for his restoration failed. He refused in the
same year to accept the French influence in favour of his candida-
ture to the Polish throne, on the ground that it would exclude him
from the English. Henceforward he neglected politics, and Louis
of France ceased to consider him as a political factor. A mysteri-
ous conversion had been effected in him by an austere Cistercian
abbot. The world saw with astonishment this vicious, rough,
coarse-fibred man of the world transformed into an austere
penitent, who worked miracles of healing. Surrounded by this
odour of sanctity, which greatly edified the faithful, James lived
at St Germain until his death on the I7th of September 1701.
The political ineptitude of James is clear; he often showed
firmness when conciliation was needful, and weakness when
resolution alone could have saved the day. Moreover, though
he mismanaged almost every political problem with which he
personally dealt, he was singularly tactless and impatient of
advice. But in general political morality he was not below his
age, and in his advocacy of toleration decidedly above it. He
was more honest and sincere than Charles II., more genuinely
patriotic in his foreign policy, and more consistent in his religious
attitude. That his brother retained the throne while James
lost it is an ironical demonstration that a more pitiless fate
awaits the ruler whose faults arc of the intellect, than one whose
faults are of the heart.
By Anne Hyde James had eight children, of whom two only,
Mary and Anne, both queens of England, survived their father.
By Mary of Modena he had seven children, among them being
James Francis Edward (the Old Pretender) and Louisa Maria
Theresa, who died at St Germain in 1712. By one mistress,
Arabella Churchill (1648-1730), he had two sons, James, duke of
Berwick, and Henry (1673-1702), titular duke of Albemarle and
JAMES I.— II. OF SCOTLAND
grand prior of France, and a daughter, Henrietta (1667-1730),
who married Sir Henry Waldegrave, afterwards Baron Walde-
grave; and by another, Catherine Sedley, countess of Dorchester
(1657-1717), a daughter, Catherine (d. 1743), who married James
Annesley, 5th earl of Anglesey, and afterwards John Sheffield,
duke of Buckingham and Normanby.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Original Authorities: J. S. Clarke, James II.
Life (London, 1816); James Macpherson, Original Papers (2 vols.,
London, 1775); Gilbert Burnet, Supplement to History, ed. H. C.
Foxcroft (Oxford, 1902); Earl of Clarendon and Earl of Rochester,
Correspondence, vol. ii. (London, 1828) ; John Evelyn, Diary and Cor-
respondence and Life, edited by Bray and Wheatley (London, 1906);
Sir John Reresby, Memoirs, ed. A. Ivatt (1904); Somers Tracts,
vols. ix.-xi. (London, 1823). Modern Works: Lord Acton, Lectures
on Modern History, pp. 195-276 (London, 1906); Moritz Brosch,
Geschichte von England, Bd.viii. (Gotha, 1903) ; Onno Klopp, Der Fall
des Hauses Stuart, Bde. i.-ix. (Vienna, 1875-1878); L. von Ranke,
History of England, vols. iv.-vi. (Oxford, 1875); and Allan Fea,
James 11. and, his Wives (1908).
JAMES I. (1394-1437), king of Scotland and poet, the son of
King Robert III., was born at Dunfermline in July 1394.
After the death of his mother, Annabella Drummond of Stobhall,
in 1402, he was placed under the care of Henry Wardlaw (d. 1440) ,
who became bishop of St Andrews in 1403, but soon his father
resolved to send him to France. Robert doubtless decided upon
this course owing to the fact that in 1402 his elder son, David,
duke of Rothesay, had met his death in a mysterious fashion,
being probably murdered by his uncle, Robert, duke of Albany,
who, as the king was an invalid, was virtually the ruler of Scot-
land. On the way to France, however, James fell into the hands
of some English sailors and was sent to Henry IV., who refused
to admit him to ransom. The chronicler Thomas Walsingham,
says that James's imprisonment began in 1406, while the future
king himself places it in 1404; February 1406 is probably the
correct date. On the death of Robert III. in April 1406 James
became nominally king of Scotland, but he remained a captive
in England, the government being conducted by his uncle,
Robert of Albany, who showed no anxiety to procure his
nephew's release. Dying in 1420, Albany was succeeded as
regent by his son, Murdoch. At first James was confined in the
Tower of London, but in June 1407 he was removed to the castle
at Nottingham, whence about a month later he was taken to
Evesham. His education was continued by capable tutors, and
he not only attained excellence in all manly sports, but became
perhaps more cultured than any other prince of his age. In
person he was short and stout, but well-proportioned and very
strong. His agility was not less remarkable than his strength;
he excelled in all athletic feats which demanded suppleness of
limb and quickness of eye. As regards his intellectual attain-
ments he is reported to have been acquainted with philosophy,
and it is evident from his subsequent career that he had studied
jurisprudence; moreover, besides being proficient in vocal and
instrumental music, he cultivated the art of poetry with much
success. When Henry V. became king in March 1413, James
was again imprisoned in the Tower of London, but soon after-
wards he was taken to Windsor and was treated with great con-
sideration by the English king. In 1420, with the intention of
detaching the Scottish auxiliaries from the French standard, he
was sent to take part in Henry's campaign in France; this move
failed in its immediate object and he returned to England after
Henry's death in 1422. About this time negotiations for the
release of James were begun in earnest, and in September 1423
a treaty was signed at York, the Scottish nation undertaking to
pay a ransom of 60,000 marks " for his maintenance in England."
By the terms of the treaty James was to wed a noble English
lady, and on the I2th of February 1424 he was married at
Southwark to Jane, daughter of John Beaufort, earl of Somerset,
a lady to whom he was faithful through life. Ten thousand
marks of his ransom were remitted as Jane's dowry, and in
April 1424 James and his bride entered Scotland.
With the reign of James I., whose coronation took place at
Scone on the 2ist of May 1424, constitutional sovereignty may
be said to begin in Scotland. By the introduction of a system of
statute law, modelled to some extent on that of England, and
by the additional importance assigned to parliament, the leaven
was prepared which was to work towards the destruction of the
indefinite authority of the king and of the unbridled licence of the
nobles. During the parliament held at Perth in March 1425
James arrested Murdoch, duke of Albany, and his son, Alexander;
together with Albany's eldest son, Walter, and Duncan, earl of
Lennox, who had been seized previously; they were sentenced to
death, and the four were executed at Stirling. In a parliament
held at Inverness in 1427 the king arrested many turbulent
northern chiefs, and his whole policy was directed towards
crushing the power of the nobles. In this he was very successful.
Expeditions reduced the Highlands to order; earldom after
earldom was forfeited; but this vigour aroused the desire for
revenge, and at length cost James his life. Having been warned
that he would never again cross the Forth, the king went to
reside in Perth just before Christmas 1436. Among those whom
he had angered was Sir Robert Graham (d. 1437), who had been
banished by his orders. Instigated by the king's uncle, Walter
Stewart, earl of Atholl (d. 1437), and aided by the royal chamber-
lain, Sir Robert Stewart, and by a band of Highlanders, Graham
burst into the presence of James on the night of the 2oth of
February 1437 and stabbed the king to death. Graham and
Atholl were afterwards tortured and executed. James had
two sons: Alexander, who died young, and James II., who suc-
ceeded to the throne; and six daughters, among them being
Margaret, the queen of Louis XI. of France. His widow, Jane,
married Sir James Stewart, the " black knight of Lome." and
died on the isth of July 1445.
During the latter part of James's reign difficulties arose be-
tween Scotland and England and also between Scotland and the
papacy. Part of the king's ransom was still owing to England;
other causes of discord between the two nations existed, and in
1436 these culminated in a short war. In ecclesiastical matters
James showed himself merciless towards heretics, but his desire
to reform the Scottish Church and to make it less dependent on
Rome brought him into collision with Popes Martin V. and
Eugenius IV.
James was the author of two poems, the Kingis Quair and
Good Counsel (a short piece of three stanzas). The Song of
A bsence, Peblis to the Play and Christis Kirk on the Greene have
been ascribed to him without evidence. The Kingis Quair
(preserved in the Selden MS. B. 24 in the Bodleian) is an allego-
rical poem of the cours d'amour type, written in seven-lined
Chaucerian stanzas and extending to 1379 lines. It was com-
posed during James's captivity in England and celebrates his
courtship of Lady Jane Beaufort. Though in many respects a
Chaucerian pastiche, it not rarely equals its model in verbal and
metrical felicity. Its language is an artificial blend of northern
and southern (Chaucerian) forms, of the type shown in Lancelot
of the Laik and the Quair of Jelusy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The contemporary authorities for the reign of
James I. are Andrew of Wyntoun, The Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland,
edited by D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872-1879); and Walter Bower's
continuation of John of Fordun's Scotichronicon, edited by T. Hearne
(Oxford, 1722). See also J. Pinkerton, History of Scotland (1797);
A. Lang, History of Scotland, vol. i. (1900) ; and G. Burnett, Introduc-
tion to the Exchequer Rolls of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1878-1901). The
Kingis Quair was first printed in the Poetical Remains of James the
First, edited by William Tytler ( 1 783) . Later editions are M orison's
reprint (Perth, 1786) ; J. Sibbald's, in his Chronicle of Scottish Poetry
(1802, vol. i.); Thomson's in 1815 and 1824; G. Chalmers's, in his
Poetic Remains of some of the Scottish Kings (1824) ; Rpgers's Poetical
Remains of King James the First (1873) ; Skeat s edition published
by the Scottish Text Society (1884). An attempt has been made to
dispute James's authorship of the poem, but the arguments elabor-
ated by J. T. T. Brown (The Authorship of the Kingis Quair, Glasgow,
1896) have been convincingly answered by Jusserand in his Jacques
I" d'Ecossefut-il poete ? Elude sur I' authenticity du cahier du roi (Paris,
1897, reprinted from the Revue historique, vol. Ixiv.). See also the full
correspondence in the Athenaeum (July-Aug. 1896 and Dec. 1899);
W. A. Neilson, Origins and Sources of the Court of Love (Boston, 1899)
pp. 152 &c., 235 &c. ; and Gregory Smith, Transition Period (1900),
pp. 40, 41.
JAMES II. (1430-1460), king of Scotland, the only surviving
son of James I. and his wife, Jane, daughter of John Beaufort,
earl of Somerset, was born on the i6th of October 1430. Crowned
140
king at Holyrood in March 1437, shortly after the murder of his
father, he was at first under the guardianship of his mother,
while Archibald, 5th earl of Douglas, was regent of the kingdom,
and considerable power was possessed by Sir Alexander Living-
stone and Sir William Crichton (d. 1454). When about 1439
Queen Jane was married to Sir James Stewart, the knight of
Lome, Livingstone obtained the custody of the young king,
whose minority was marked by fierce hostility between the
Douglases and the Crichtons, with Livingstone first on one side
and then on the other. About 1443 the royal cause was espoused
by William, 8th earl of Douglas, who attacked Crichton in the
king's name, and civil war lasted until about 1446. In July
1449 James was married to Mary (d. 1463), daughter of Arnold,
duke of Gelderland, and undertook the government himself; and
almost immediately Livingstone was arrested, but Douglas
retained the royal favour for a few months more. In 1452, how-
ever, this powerful earl was invited to Stirling by the king, and,
charged with treachery, was stabbed by James and then killed
by the attendants. Civil war broke out at once between James
and the Douglases, whose lands were ravaged; but after the
Scots parliament had exonerated the king, James, the new earl
of Douglas, made his submission. Early in 1455 this struggle
was renewed. Marching against the rebels James gained several
victories, after which Douglas was attainted and his lands for-
feited. Fortified by this success and assured of the support of
the parliament and of the great nobles, James, acting as an
absolute king, could view without alarm the war which had
broken out with England. After two expeditions across the
borders, a truce was made in July 1457, and the king employed
the period of peace in strengthening his authority in the High-
lands. During the Wars of the Roses he showed his sympathy
with the Lancastrian party after the defeat of Henry VI. at
Northampton by attacking the English possessions to the south
of Scotland. It was while conducting the siege of Roxburgh
Castle that James was killed, through the bursting of a cannon,
on the 3rd of August 1460. He left three sons, his successor,
James III., Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany, and John
Stewart, earl of Mar (d. 1479) ; and two daughters. James, who
is sometimes called " Fiery Face," was a vigorous and popular
prince, and, although not a scholar like his father, showed
interest in education. His reign is a period of some importance
in the legislative history of Scotland, as measures were passed
with regard to the tenure of land, the reformation of the
coinage, and the protection of the poor, while the organization
for the administration of justice was greatly improved.
JAMES III. (1451-1488), king of Scotland, eldest son of James
II., was born on the loth of July 1451. Becoming king in 1460
he was crowned at Kelso. After the death of his mother in
1463, and of her principal supporter, James Kennedy, bishop of
St Andrews, two years later, the person of the young king, and
with it the chief authority in the kingdom, were seized by Sir
Alexander Boyd and his brother Lord Boyd, while the latter's
son, Thomas, was created earl of Arran and married to the king's
sister, Mary. In July 1469 James himself was married to
Margaret (d. 1486), daughter of Christian I., king of Denmark and
Norway, but before the wedding the Boyds had lost their power.
Having undertaken the government in person, the king received
the submission of the powerful earl of Ross, and strengthened
his authority in other ways. But his preference for a sedentary
and not for an active life and his increasing attachment to
favourites of humble birth diminished his popularity, and he had
some differences with his parliament. About 1479, probably
with reason both suspicious and jealous, James arrested his
brothers, Alexander, duke of Albany, and John, earl of Mar;
Mar met his death in a mysterious fashion at Craigmillar, but
Albany escaped to France and then visited England, where in
1482 Edward IV. recognized him as king of Scotland by the gift
of the king of England. War broke out with England, but James,
made a prisoner by his nobles, was unable to prevent Albany and
his ally, Richard, duke of Gloucester (afterwards Richard III.),
from taking Berwick and marching to Edinburgh. Peace with
Albany followed, but soon afterwards the duke was again in
JAMES III.— IV. OF SCOTLAND
communication with Edward, and was condemned by the parlia-
ment after the death of the English king in April 1483. Albany's
death in France in 1485 did not end the king's troubles.
His policy of living at peace with England and of arranging
marriages between the members of the royal families of the two
countries did not commend itself to the turbulent section of his
nobles; his artistic tastes and lavish expenditure added to the
discontent, and a rebellion broke out. Fleeing into the north
of his kingdom James collected an army and came to terms with
his foes; but the rebels, having seized the person of the king's
eldest son, afterwards James IV., renewed the struggle. The
rival armies met at the Sauchieburn near Bannockburn, and
James soon fled. Reaching Beaton's Mill he revealed his iden-
tity, and, according to the popular story, was killed on the nth
of June 1488 by a soldier in the guise of a priest who had been
called in to shrive him. He left three sons — his successor, James
IV.; James Stewart, duke of Ross, afterwards archbishop of St
Andrews; and John Stewart, earl of Mar. James was a cultured
prince with a taste for music and architecture, but was a weak
and incapable king. His character is thus described by a chroni-
cler: " He was ane man that loved solitude, and desired nevir to
hear of warre, bot delighted more in musick and policie and
building nor he did in the government of the realme."
JAMES IV. (1473-1513), king of Scotland, eldest son of
James III., was born on the I7th of March 1473. He was nomi-
nally the leader of the rebels who defeated the troops of James
III. at the Sauchieburn in June 1488, and became king when his
father was killed. As he adopted an entirely different policy
with the nobles from that of his father, and, moreover, snowed
great affability towards the lower class of his subjects, among
whom he delighted to wander incognito, few if any of the kings
of Scotland have won such general popularity, or passed a reign
so untroubled by intestine strife. Crowned at Scone a few days
after his accession, James began at once to take an active part
in the business of government. A slight insurrection was easily
suppressed, and a plot formed by some nobles to hand him over
to the English king, Henry VII., came to nothing. In spite of
this proceeding Henry wished to live at peace with his northern
neighbour, and soon contemplated marrying his daughter to
James, but the Scottish king was not equally pacific. When, in
1495, Perkin Warbeck, pretending to be the duke of York,
Edward IV. 's younger son, came to Scotland, James bestowed
upon him both an income and a bride, and prepared to invade
England in his interests. For various reasons the war was
confined to a few border forays. After Warbeck left Scotland
in 1497, the Spanish ambassador negotiated a peace, and in
1502 a marriage was definitely arranged between James and
Henry's daughter Margaret (1489-1541). The wedding took
place at Holyrood in August 1503, and it was this union which
led to the accession of the Stewart dynasty to the English
throne.
About the same time James crushed a rebellion in the western
isles, into which he had previously led expeditions, and parlia-
ment took measures to strengthen the royal authority therein.
At this date too, or a little earlier, the king of Scotland began to
treat as an equal with the powerful princes of Europe, Maximilian
I., Louis XII. and others; sending assistance to his uncle Hans,
king of Denmark, and receiving special marks of favour from
Pope Julius II., anxious to obtain his support. But his position
was weakened when Henry VIII. followed Henry VII. on the
English throne in 1509. Causes of quarrel already existed, and
other causes, both public and private, soon arose between the
two kings; sea-fights took place between their ships, while war
was brought nearer by the treaty of alliance which James con-
cluded with Louis XII. in 1512. Henry made a vain effort to
prevent, or to postpone, the outbreak of hostilities; but urged
on by his French ally and his queen, James declared for war, in
spite of the counsels of some of his advisers, and (it is said) of the
warning of an apparition. Gathering a large and well-armed
force, he took Norham and other castles in August 1513, spending
some time at Ford Castle, where, according to report, he was en-
gaged in an amorous intrigue with the wife of its owner. Then
JAMES V. OF SCOTLAND— JAMES I. OF ARAGON 141
he moved out to fight the advancing English army under
Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey. The battle, which took place
at Flodden, or more correctly, at the foot of Brankston Hill, on
Friday the gth of September 1513, is among the most famous and
disastrous, if not among the most momentous, in the history of
Scotland. Having led his troops from their position of vantage,
the king himself was killed while fighting on foot, together with
nearly all his nobles; there was no foundation for the rumour
that he had escaped from the carnage. He left one legitimate
child, his successor James V., but as his gallantries were numer-
ous he had many illegitimate children, among them (by Marion
Boyd) Alexander Stewart, archbishop of St Andrews and chan-
cellor of Scotland, who was killed at Flodden, and (by Janet
.Kennedy) James Stewart, earl of Moray (d. 1544). One of his
other mistresses was Margaret Drummond (d. 1501).
James appears to have been a brave and generous man, and
a wise and energetic king. According to one account, he was
possessed of considerable learning; during his reign the Scottish
court attained some degree of refinement, and Scotland counted
in European politics as she had never done before. Literature
flourished under the royal patronage, education was encouraged,
and the material condition of the country improved enormously.
Prominent both as an administrator and as a lawgiver, the king
by his vigorous rule did much to destroy the tendencies to inde-
pendence which existed in the Highlands and Islands; but, on
the other hand, his. rash conduct at Flodden brought much
misery upon his kingdom. He was specially interested in his
navy. The tournaments which took place under his auspices
were worthy of the best days of chivalry in France and England.
James shared to the full in the superstitions of the age which was
quickly passing away. He is said to have worn an iron belt as
penance for his share in his father's death; and by his frequent
visits to shrines, and his benefactions to religious foundations,
he won a reputation for piety.
JAMES V. (1512-1542), king of Scotland, son of James IV.,
was born at Linlithgow on the icth of April 1512, and became
king when his father was killed at Flodden in 1513. The regency
was at first vested in his mother, but after Queen Margaret's
second marriage, with Archibald Douglas, 6th earl of Angus, in
August 1514, it was transferred by the estates to John Stewart,
duke of Albany. Henceforward the minority of James was dis-
turbed by constant quarrels between a faction, generally favour-
able to England, under Angus, and the partisans of France
under Albany ; while the queen-mother and the nobles struggled
to gain and to regain possession of the king's person. The
English had not followed up their victory at Flodden, although
there were as usual forays on the borders, but Henry VIII. was
watching affairs in Scotland with an observant eye, and other
European sovereigns were not indifferent to the possibility of
a Scotch alliance. In 1524, when Albany had retired to France,
the parliament declared that James was fit to govern, but that
he must be advised by his mother and a council. This " erec-
tion " of James as king was mainly due to the efforts of Henry
VIII. In 1 5 26 Angus obtained control of the king, and kept him
in close confinement until 1528, when James, escaping from
Edinburgh to Stirling, put vigorous measures in execution
against the earl, and compelled him to flee to England. In 1529
and 1 530 the kfhg made a strong effort to suppress his turbulent
vassals in the south of Scotland; and after several raids and
counter-raids negotiations for peace with England were begun,
and in May 1534 a treaty was signed. At this time, as on pre-
vious occasions, Henry VIII. wished James to marry his daughter
Mary, while other ladies had been suggested by the emperor
Charles V.; but the Scottish king, preferring a French bride,
visited France, and in January 1537 was married at Paris to
Madeleine, daughter of King Francis I. Madeleine died soon after
her arrival in Scotland, and in 1538 James made a much more
important marriage, being united to Mary (1515-1560), daughter
of Claude, duke of Guise, and widow of Louis of Orleans, duke of
Longueville. It was this connexion, probably, which finally
induced James to forsake his vacillating foreign policy, and to
range himself definitely among the enemies of England. In
1536 he had refused to meet Henry VIII. at York, and in the
following year had received the gift of a cap and sword from
Pope Paul III., thus renouncing the friendship of his uncle.
Two plots to murder the king were now discovered, and James
also foiled the attempts of Henry VIII. to kidnap him. Although
in 1540 the English king made another attempt to win the sup-
port, or at least the neutrality, of James for his religious policy,
the relations between the two countries became very unfriendly,
and in 1542 Henry sent an army to invade Scotland. James
was not slow to make reprisals, but his nobles were angry or
indifferent, and on the 25th of November 1542 his forces were
easily scattered at the rout of Solway Moss. This blow preyed
upon the king's mind, and on the I4th of December he died
at Falkland, having just heard of the birth of his daughter. His
two sons had died in infancy, and his successor was his only
legitimate child, Mary. He left several bastards, among them
James Stewart, earl of Murray (the regent Murray), Lord John
Stewart (1531-1563) prior of Coldingham, and Lord Robert
Stewart, earl of Orkney (d. 1592).
Although possessing a weak constitution, which was further
impaired by his irregular manner of life, James showed great
vigour and independence as a sovereign, both in withstanding
the machinations of his uncle, Henry VIII., and in opposing the
influence of the nobles. The persecutions to which heretics
were exposed during this reign were due mainly to the excessive
influence exercised by the ecclesiastics, especially by David
Beaton, archbishop of St Andrews. The king's habit of
mingling with the peasantry secured for him a large amount
of popularity, and probably led many to ascribe to him the
authorship of poems describing scenes in peasant life, Christis
Kirk on the Grene, The Gaberlunzie Man and The Jolly Beggar.
There is no proof that he was the author of any of these poems,
but from expressions in the poems of Sir David Lindsay, who was
on terms of intimacy with him, it appears that occasionally
he wrote verses.
JAMES I., the Conqueror (1208-1276), king of Aragon, son
of Peter II., king of Aragon, and of Mary of Montpellier, whose
mother was Eudoxia Comnena, daughter of the emperor Manuel,
was born at Montpellier on the 2nd of February 1208. His
father, a man of immoral life, was with difficulty persuaded to
cohabit with his wife. He endeavoured to repudiate her, and
she fled to Rome, where she died in April 1213. Peter, whose
possessions in Provence entangled him in the wars between the
Albigenses and Simon of Montfort, endeavoured to placate the
northern crusaders by arranging a marriage between his son
James and Simon's daughter. In 1211 the boy was entrusted
to Montfort's care to be educated, but the aggressions of the
crusaders on the princes of the south forced Peter to take up
arms against them, and he was slain at Muret on the 1 2th of Sep-
tember 1213. Montfort would willingly have used James as a
means of extending his own power. The Aragonese and Cata-
lans, however, appealed to the pope, who forced Montfort to
surrender him in May or June 1214. James was now entrusted
to the care of Guillen de Monredon, the head of the Templars in
Spain and Provence. The kingdom was given over to confusion
till in 1216 the Templars and some of the more loyal nobles
brought the young king to Saragossa. At the age of thirteen he
was married to Leonora, daughter of Alphonso VIII. of Castile,
whom he divorced later on the ground of consanguinity. A son
born of the marriage, Alphonso, was recognized as legitimate,
but died before his father, childless. It was only by slow steps
that the royal authority was asserted, but the young king, who
was of gigantic stature and immense strength, was also astute
and patient. By 1228 he had so far brought his vassals to
obedience, that, he was able to undertake the conquest of the
Balearic Islands, which he achieved within four years. At the
same time he endeavoured to bring about a union of Aragon with
Navarre, by a contract of mutual adoption between himself and
the Navarrese king, Sancho, who was old enough to be his grand-
father. The scheme broke down, and James abstained from a
policy of conquest. He wisely turned to the more feasible
course of extending his dominions at the expense of the decadent
142 JAMES II. OF ARAGON— JAMES (OLD PRETENDER)
Mahommedan princes of Valencia. On the 28th of September
1238 the town of Valencia surrendered, and the whole territory
was conquered in the ensuing years. Like all the princes of his
house, James took part in the politics of southern France. He
endeavoured to form a southern state on both sides of the Pyre-
nees, which should counterbalance the power of France north of
the Loire. Here also his policy failed against physical, social
and political obstacles. As in the case of Navarre, he was too
wise to launch into perilous adventures. By the Treaty of
Corbeil, with Louis IX., signed the nth of May 1258, he frankly
withdrew from conflict with the French king, and contented
himself with the recognition of his position, and the surrender
of antiquated French claims to the overlordship of Catalonia.
During the remaining twenty years of his life, James was much
concerned in warring with the Moors in Murcia, not on his own
account, but on behalf of his son-in-law Alphonso the Wise of
Castile. As a legislator and organizer he occupies a high place
among the Spanish kings. He would probably have been more
successful but for the confusion caused by the disputes in his own
household. James, though orthodox and pious, had an ample
share of moral laxity. After repudiating Leonora of Castile he
married Yolande (in Spanish Violante) daughter of Andrew II.
of Hungary, who had a considerable influence over him. But
she could not prevent him from continuing a long series of
intrigues. The favour he showed his bastards led to protest
from the nobles, and to conflicts between his sons legitimate and
illegitimate. When one of the latter, Fernan Sanchez, who had
behaved with gross ingratitude and treason to his father, was
slain by the legitimate son Pedro, the old king recorded his grim
satisfaction. At the close of his life King James divided his
states between his sons by Yolande of Hungary, Pedro and
James, leaving the Spanish possessions on the mainland to the
first, the Balearic Islands and the lordship of Montpellier to the
second— a division which inevitably produced fratricidal con-
flicts. The king fell very ill at Alcira, and resigned his crown,
intending to retire to the monastery of Poblet, but died at
Valencia on the 27th of July 1276.
King James was the author of a chronicle of his own life, written
or dictated apparently at different times, which is a very fine
example of autobiographical literature. A translation into English
by I . Forster, with notes by Don Pascual de Gayangos, was published
in London in 1883. See also James I. of Aragon, by F. Darwin
Swift (Clarendon Press, 1894), in which are many references to
authorities.
JAMES II. (c. 1260-1327), king of Aragon, grandson of
James I., and son of Peter III. by his marriage with Constance,
daughter of Manfred of Beneventum, was left in 1285 as king of
Sicily by his father. In 1291, on the death of his elder brother,
Alphonso, to whom Aragon had fallen, he resigned Sicily and
endeavoured to arrange the quarrel between his own family and
the Angevine House, by marriage with Blanca, daughter of
Charles of Anjou, king of Naples.
JAMES II. (1243-1311), king of Majorca, inherited the Balearic
Islands from his father James I. of Aragon. He was engaged in
constant conflict with his brother Pedro III. of Aragon, and in
alliance with the French king against his own kin.
JAMES HI. (1315-1349), king of Majorca, grandson of JamesII.,
was driven out of his little state and finally murdered by his
cousin Pedro IV. of Aragon, who definitely reannexed the
Balearic Islands to the crown.
JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766),
prince of Wales, known to the Jacobites as James III. and to
the Hanoverian party as the Old Pretender, the son and heir
of James II. of England, was born in St James's Palace, London,
on the icth of June 1688. The scandalous story that he was a
supposititious child, started and spread abroad by interested
politicians at the time of his birth, has been completely dis-
proved, and most contemporary writers allude to his striking
family likeness to the Royal Stuarts. Shortly before the flight
of the king to Sheerness, the infant prince together with his
mother was sent to France, and afterwards he continued to
reside with his father at the court of St Germain. On the
death of his father, on the i6th of September 1701, he was
immediately proclaimed king by Louis XIV. of France, but a
fantastic attempt to perform a similar ceremony in London so
roused the anger of the populace that the mock pursuivants
barely escaped with their lives. A bill of attainder against
him received the royal assent a few days before the death of
William III. in 1702, and the Princess Anne, half-sister of the
Pretender, succeeded William on the throne. An influential
party still, however, continued to adhere to the Jacobite cause;
but an expedition from Dunkirk planned in favour of James in
the spring of 1708 failed of success, although the French ships
under the comte de Fourbin, with James himself on board,
reached the Firth of Forth in safety. At the Peace of Utrecht
James withdrew from French territory to Bar-le-Duc in Lor-
raine. A rebellion in the Highlands of Scotland was inaugurated,
in September 1715 by the raising of the standard on the braes
of Mar, and by the solemn proclamation of James Stuart, " the
chevalier of St George," in the midst of the assembled clans,
but its progress was arrested in November by the indecisive
battle of Sheriffmuir and by the surrender at Preston. Un-
aware of the gloomy nature of his prospects, the chevalier
landed in December 1715 at Peterhead, and advanced as far
south as Scone, accompanied by a small force under the earl of
Mar; but on learning of the approach of the duke of Argyll, he
retreated to Montrose, where the Highlanders dispersed to the
mountains, and he embarked again for France. A Spanish
expedition sent out in his behalf in 1719, under the direction of
Alberoni, was scattered by a tempest, only two frigates reaching
the appointed rendezvous in the island of Lewis.
In 1718 James had become affianced to the young princess
Maria Clementina Sobieski, grand-daughter of the warrior king
of Poland, John Sobieski. The intended marriage was forbidden
by the emperor, who in consequence kept the princess and her
mother in honourable confinement at Innsbruck in Tirol. An
attempt to abduct the princess by means of a ruse contrived by
a zealous Jacobite gentleman, Charles Wogan, proved successful;
Clementina reached Italy in safety, and she and James were
ultimately married at Montefiascone on the ist of September
1719. James and Clementina were now invited to reside in
Rome at the special request of Pope Clement XL, who openly
acknowledged their titles of British King and Queen, gave them
a papal guard of troops, presented them with a villa at Albano
and a palace (the Palazzo Muti in the Piazza, dei Santi Apostoli)
in the city, and also made them an annual allowance of 12,000
crowns out of the papal treasury. At the Palazzo Muti, which
remained the chief centre of Jacobite intriguing, were born
James's two sons, Charles Edward (the Young Pretender) and
Henry Benedict Stuart. James's married life proved turbulent
and unhappy, a circumstance that was principally due to the hot
temper and jealous nature of Clementina, who soon after Henry's
birth in 1725 left her husband and spent over two years in a
Roman convent. At length a reconciliation was effected, which
Clementina did not long survive, for she died at the early age of
32 in February 1735. Full regal honours were paid to the Stuart
queen at her funeral, and the splendid but tasteless monument
by Pietro Bracchi (1700-1773) in St Peter's was erected to her
memory by order of Pope Benedict XIV.
His wife's death seems to have affected James's health and
spirits greatly, and he now began to grow feeble-and indifferent,
so that the political adherents of the Stuarts were gradually led
to fix their hopes upon the two young princes rather than upon
their father. Travellers to Rome at this period note that James
appeared seldom in public, and that much of his time was given
up to religious exercises; he was divot d, I'excbs, so Charles de
Brosses, an unprejudiced Frenchman, informs us. It was with
great reluctance that James allowed his elder son to leave Italy
for France in 1744; nevertheless in the following year, he per-
mitted Henry to follow his brother's example, but with the news
of Culloden he evidently came to regard his cause as definitely
lost. The estrangement from his elder and favourite son, which
arose over Henry's adoption of an ecclesiastical career, so
embittered his last years that he sank into a moping invalid and
rarely left his chamber. With the crushing failure of the
JAMES, D.— JAMES, H.
" Forty-five " and his quarrel with his heir, the once-dreaded
James soon became a mere cipher in British politics, and his
death at Rome on the 2nd of January 1766 passed almost
unnoticed in London. He was buried with regal pomp in St
Peter's, where Canova's famous monument, erected by Pius VII.
in 1819, commemorates him and his two sons. As to James's
personal character, there is abundant evidence to show that he
was grave, high-principled, industrious, abstemious and dignified,
and that the unflattering portrait drawn of him by Thackeray
in Esmond is utterly at variance with historical facts. Although
a fervent Roman Catholic, he was far more reasonable and liberal
in his religious views than his father, as many extant letters
testify. *
See Earl Stanhope, History of England and Decline of the Last
Stuarts (1853); Calendar of the Stuart Papers at Windsor Castle;
J. H. Jesse, Memories of the Pretenders and their Adherents (1845);
Dr John Doran, " Mann " and Manners at the Court of Florence
. (1876); Relazione della morte di Ciacomo III., Re d' Inghilterra;
and Charles de Brosses, Lettres sur I'ltalie (1885). (H. M. V.)
JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893), English actor, was born in
London, his real name being Belasco. He began his stage
career at an early age, and after 1863 gradually made his way in
humorous parts. His creation, in 1875, of the part of Perkyn
Middlewick in Our Boys made him famous as a comedian, the
performance obtaining for the piece a then unprecedented run
from the i6th of January 1875 till the i8th of April 1879. In
1885 he had another notable success as Blueskin in Little Jack
Sheppard at the Gaiety Theatre, his principal associates being
Fred Leslie and Nellie Farren. His song in this burlesque,
" Botany Bay," became widely popular. In the part of John
Dory in Wild Oats he again made a great hit at the Criterion
Theatre in 1886; and among his other most successful imper-
sonations were Simon Ingot in David Garrick, Tweedie in
Tweedie's Rights, Macclesfield in The Guv'nor, and Eccles in
Caste. His unctuous humour and unfailing spirits made him a
great favourite with the public. He died on the 2nd of October
1893.
JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFORD (1799-1860), English
novelist, son of Pinkstan James, physician, was born in George
Street, Hanover Square, London, on the 9th of August 1799.
He was educated at a private school at Putney, and afterwards
in France. He began to write early, and had, according to his
own account, composed the stories afterwards published as
A String of Pearls before he was seventeen. As a contributor
to newspapers and magazines, he came under the notice of
Washington Irving, who encouraged him to produce his Life of
Edward the Black Prince (1822). Richelieu was finished in 1825,
and was well thought of by Sir Walter Scott (who apparently
saw it in manuscript), but was not brought out till 1829. Per-
haps Irving and Scott, from their natural amiability, were
rather dangerous advisers for a writer so inclined by nature to
abundant production as James. But he took up historical
romance writing at a lucky moment. Scott had firmly estab-
lished the popularity of the style, and James in England, like
Dumas in France, reaped the reward of their master's labours as
well as of their own. For thirty years the author of Richelieu
continued to pour out novels of the same kind though of varying
merit. His works in prose fiction, verse narrative, and history
of an easy kind are said to number over a hundred, most of them
being three-volume novels of the usual length. Sixty-seven are
catalogued in the British Museum. The best examples of his
style are perhaps Richelieu (1829); Philip Augustus (1831);
Henry Masterton, probably the best of all (1832); Mary of
Burgundy (1833); Darnley (1839); Corse de Leon (1841); The
Smuggler (1845). His poetry does not require special mention,
nor does his history, though for a short time during the reign of
William IV. he held the office of historiographer royal. After
writing copiously for about twenty years, James in 1850 went
to America as British Consul for Massachusetts. He was
consul at Richmond, Virginia, from 1852 to 1856, when he was
appointed to a similar post at Venice, where he died on the 9th
of June 1860.
H3
James has been compared to Dumas, and the comparison
holds good in respect of kind, though by no means in respect
of merit. Both had a certain gift of separating from the
picturesque parts of history what could without much difficulty
be worked up into picturesque fiction, and both were possessed
of a ready pen. Here, however, the likeness ends. Of purely
literary talent James had little. His plots are poor, his descrip-
tions weak, his dialogue often below even a fair average, and he
was deplorably prone to repeat himself. The " two cavaliers "
who in one form or another open most of his books have passed '
into a proverb, and Thackeray's good-natured but fatal parody
of Barbazure is likely to outlast Richelieu and Darnley by many
a year. Nevertheless, though James cannot be allowed any very
high rank among novelists, he had a genuine narrative gift, and,
though his very best books fall far below Les trois mousquelaires
and La reine Margot, there is a certain even level of interest to
be found in all of them. James never resorted to illegitimate
methods to attract readers, and deserves such credit as may be
due to a purveyor of amusement who never caters for the less
creditable tastes of his guests.
His best novels were published in a revised form in 21 volumes
(1844-1849).
JAMES, HENRY (1843- ), American author, was born in
New York on the isth of April 1843. His father was Henry James
(1811-1882), a theological writer of great originality, from whom
both he and his brother Professor William James derived their
psychological subtlety and their idiomatic, picturesque English.
Most of Henry's boyhood was spent in Europe, where he studied
under tutors in England, France and Switzerland. In 1860 he
returned to America, and began reading law at Harvard, only
to find speedily that literature, not law, was what he most cared
for. His earliest short tale, " The Story of a Year," appeared
in 1865, in the Atlantic Monthly, and frequent stories and
sketches followed. In 1869 he again went to Europe, where he
subsequently made his home, for the most part living in London,
or at Rye in Sussex. Among his specially noteworthy works
are the following: Watch and Ward (1871); Roderick Hudson
(1875); The American (1877); Daisy Miller (1878); French Poets
and Novelists (1878); A Life of Hawthorne (1879); The Portrait
of a Lady (1881); Portraits of Places (1884); The Bostonians
(1886); Partial Portraits (1888); The Tragic Muse (1890);
Essays in London (1893) ; The Two Magics (1898) ; The Awkward
Age (1898); The Wings of the Dove (1902); The Ambassadors
(1903);' The Golden Bowl (1904); English Hours (1905); The
American Scene (1907); The High Bid (1909); Italian Hours
(1909).
As a novelist, Henry James is a modern of the moderns both in
subject matter and in method. He is entirely loyal to contem-
porary life and reverentially exact in his transcription of the
phase. His characters are for the most part people of the world
who conceive of life as a fine art and have the leisure to carry out
their theories. Rarely are they at close quarters with any ugly
practical task. They are subtle and complex with the subtlety
and the complexity that come from conscious preoccupation with
themselves. They are specialists in conduct and past masters
in casuistry, and are full of variations and shadows of turning.
Moreover, they are finely expressive of milieu; each belongs
unmistakably to his class and his race; each is true to inherited
moral traditions and delicately illustrative of some social code.
To reveal the power and the tragedy of life through so many
minutely limiting and apparently artificial conditions, and by
means of characters who are somewhat self-conscious and are
apt to make of life only a pleasant pastime, might well seem an
impossible task. Yet it is precisely in this that Henry James
is pre-eminently successful. The essentially human is what he
really cares for, however much he may at times seem preoccupied
with the technique of his art or with the mask of conventions
through which he makes the essentially human reveal itself.
Nor has " the vista of the spiritual been denied him." No more
poignant spiritual tragedy has been recounted in recent fiction
than the story of Isabel Archer in The Portrait of a Lady.
His method, too, is as modern as his subject matter. He early
144
JAMES, J. A.— JAMES OF HEREFORD, BARON
fell in love with the " point of view," and the good and the bad
qualities of his work all f9llow from this literary passion. He is
a very sensitive impressionist, with a technique that can fix the
most elusive phase of character and render the most baffling
surface. The skill is unending with which he places his char-
acters in such relations and under such lights that they flash out
in due succession their continuously varying facets. At times he
may seem to forget that a character is something incalculably
. more than the sum of all its phases; and then his characters
tend to have their existence, as Positivists expect to have their
immortality, simply and solely in the minds of other people.
But when his method is at its best, the delicate phases of char-
acter that he transcribes coalesce perfectly into clearly defined
and suggestive images of living, acting men and women. Doubt-
less, there is a certain initiation necessary for the enjoyment of
Mr James. He presupposes a cosmopolitan outlook, a certain
interest in art and in social artifice, and no little abstract
curiosity about the workings of the human mechanism. But for
speculative readers, for readers who care for art in life as well
as for life in art, and for readers above all who want to encounter
and comprehend a great variety of very modern and finely
modulated characters, Mr James holds a place of his own,
unrivalled as an interpreter of the world of to-day.
For a list of the short stories of Mr Henry James, collections of
them in volume form, and other works, see bibliographies by F. A.
King, in The Novels of Henry James, by Elisabeth L. Gary (New York
and London, 1905), and by Le Roy Phillips, A Bibliography of the
Writings of Henry James (Boston, Mass., 1906). In 1909 an edition
de luxe of Henry James's novels was published in 24 volumes.
JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859), English Nonconformist
divine, was born at Blandford, Dorsetshire, on the 6th of June
1785. At the close of his seven years' apprenticeship to a linen-
draper at Poole he decided to become a preacher, and in 1802
he went to David Bogue's training institution at Gosport.
A year and a half later, on a visit to Birmingham, his preaching
was so highly esteemed by the congregation of Carr's Lane
Independent chapel that they invited him to exercise his
ministry amongst them; he settled there in 1805, and was or-
dained in May 1806. For several years his success as a preacher
was comparatively small; but he jumped into popularity about
1814, and began to attract large crowds wherever he officiated.
At the same time his religious writings, the best known of which
are The Anxious Inquirer and An Earnest Ministry, acquired
a wide circulation. James was a typical Congregational preacher
of the early igth century, massive and elaborate rather than
original. His preaching displayed little or nothing of Calvinism,
the earlier severity of which had been modified in Birmingham
by Edward Williams, one of his predecessors. He was one
of the founders of the Evangelical Alliance and of the Congrega-
tional Union of England and Wales. Municipal interests appealed
strongly to him, and he was also for many years chairman of
Spring Hill (afterwards Mansfield) College. He died at Birming-
ham on the ist of October 1859.
A collected edition of James's works appeared in 1860-1864. See
A Review of the Life and Character of J. Angell James (1860), by J.
Campbell, and Life and Letters of J. A. James (1861), edited by his
successor, R. W. Dale, who also contributed a sketch of his predecessor
to Pulpit Memorials (1878).
JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573-1629), English librarian, was born
at Newport, Isle of Wight. He was educated at Winchester and
New College, Oxford, and became a fellow of New College in
1593. His wide knowledge of books, together with his skill in
deciphering manuscripts and detecting literary forgeries, secured
him in 1602 the post of librarian to the library founded in that
year by Sir Thomas Bodley at Oxford. At the same time he
was made rector of St Aldate's, Oxford. In 1605 he compiled a
classified catalogue of the books in the Bodleian Library, but in
1620 substituted for it an alphabetical catalogue. The arrange-
ment in 1610, whereby the Stationers' Company undertook to
supply the Bodleian Library with every book published, was
James's suggestion. Ill health compelled him to resign his post
in 1620, and he died at Oxford in August 1629.
JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827), English naval historian, author
of the Naval History of Great Britain from the Declaration of War
by France in 1793 to the Accession of George IV., practised as
a proctor in the admiralty court of Jamaica between 1801 and
1813. He was in the United States when the war of 1812 broke
out, and was detained as a prisoner, but escaped to Halifax.
His literary career began by letters to the Naval Chronicle over
the signature of " Boxer." In 1816 he published An Inquiry into
the Merits of the Principal Naval Actions between Great Britain
and the United States. In this pamphlet, which James reprinted
in 1817, enlarged and with a new title, his object was to prove
that the American frigates were stronger than their British
opponents nominally of the same class. In 1819 he began his
Naval History, which appeared in five volumes (1822-1824), and
was reprinted in six volumes (1826). It is a monument of pains-
taking accuracy in all such matters as dates, names, tonnage,
armament and movements of ships, though no attempt is ever
made to show the connexion between the various movements.
James died on the 28th of May 1827 in London, leaving a widow
who received a civil list pension of £100.
An edition of the Naval History in six vojumes, with additions and
notes by Capt. F. Chamier, was published in 1837, and a further one
in 1886. An edition epitomized by R. O'Byrne appeared in 1888,
and an Index by C. G. Toogood was issued by the Navy Records
Society in 1895.
JAMES, WILLIAM (1842-1910), American philosopher, son
of the Swedenborgian theologian Henry James, and brother of
the novelist Henry James, was born on the nth of January 1842
at New York City. He graduated M.D. at Harvard in 1870. Two
years after he was appointed a lecturer at Harvard in anatomy
and physiology, and later in psychology and philosophy. Subse-
quently he became assistant professor of philosophy (1880-1885),
professor (1885-1889), professor of psychology (1880-1897) and
professor of philosophy (1897-1907). In 1890-1901 he delivered
the Gifford lectures on natural religion at the university of
Edinburgh, and in 1908 the Hibbert lectures at Manchester
College, Oxford. With the appearance of his Principles of
Psychology (2 vols.,'i8oo), James at once stepped into the front
rank of psychologists as a leader of the physical school, a position
which he maintained not only by the brilliance of his analo-
gies but also by the freshness and unconventionality of his
style. In metaphysics he upheld the idealist position from the
empirical standpoint. Beside the Principles of Psychology,
which appeared in a shorter form in 1892 (Psychology), his chief
works are: The Will to Believe (1897); Human Immortality
(Boston, 1898); Talks to Teachers (1899); The Varieties of
Religious Experience (New York, 1902); Pragmatism — a New
Name for some Old Ways of Thinking (1907); A Pluralistic
Universe (1909; Hibbert lectures), in which, though he still
attacked the hypothesis of absolutism, he admitted it as a
legitimate alternative. He received honorary degrees from
Padua (1893), Princeton (1896), Edinburgh (1902), Harvard
(1905). He died on the 27th of August 1910.
JAMES OF HEREFORD, HENRY JAMES, IST BARON
(1828- ), English lawyer and statesman, son of P. T. James,
surgeon, was born at Hereford on the 3oth of October 1828, and
educated at Cheltenham College. A prizeman of the Inner
Temple, he was called to the bar in 1852 and joined the Oxford
circuit, where he soon came into prominence. In 1867 he was
made " postman " of the court of exchequer, and in 1869 became
a Q.C. At the general election of 1868 he obtained a seat in
parliament for Taunton as a Liberal, by the unseating of Mr
Serjeant Cox on a scrutiny in March 1869, and he kept the seat
till 1885, when he was returned for Bury. He attracted atten-
tion in parliament by his speeches in 1872 in the debates on the
Judicature Act. In 1873 (September) he was made solicitor-
general, and ' in November attorney -general, and knighted;
and when Gladstone returned to power in 1880 he resumed his
office. He was responsible for carrying the Corrupt Practices
Act of 1 883. On Gladstone's conversion to Home Rule, Sir Henry
James parted from him and became one of the most influential
of the Liberal Unionists: Gladstone had offered him the lord
chancellorship in 1886, but he declined it; and the knowledge
JAMES, EPISTLE OF
of the sacrifice he had made in refusing to follow his old chief
in his new departure lent great weight to his advocacy of the
Unionist cause in the country. He was one of the leading
counsel for The Times before the Parnell Commission, and
from 1892 to 1895 was attorney-general to the prince of Wales.
From 1895 to 1902 he was a member of the Unionist ministry
as chancellor for the duchy of Lancaster, and in 1895 he was made
a peer as Baron James of Hereford. In later years he was a
prominent opponent of the Tariff Reform movement, adhering
to the section of Free Trade Unionists.
JAMES, EPISTLE OF, a book of the New Testament. The
superscription (Jas. i. i) ascribes it to that pre-eminent " pillar "
(Gal. ii. 9) of the original mother church who later came to be
regarded in certain quarters as the " bishop of bishops " (Epist.
of James to Clement, ap. Clem. Horn. Superscription). As such
he appears in a position to address an encyclical to " the twelve
tribes of the dispersion "; for the context (i. 18, v. 7 seq.) and
'literary relation (cf. i Pet. i. i, 3, 23-25) prove this to be a figure
for the entire new people of God, without the distinction of carnal
birth, as Paul had described " the Israel of God " (Gal. vi. 16),
spiritually begotten, like Isaac, by the word received in faith
(Gal. iii. 28 seq., iv. 28; Rom.ix. 6-9, iv. 16-18). This idea of the
spiritually begotten Israel becomes current after i Pet., as
appears in John i. 11-13, "i- 3~8; Barn. iv. 6, xiii. 13; 2 Clem,
ii. 2, &c.
The interpretation which takes the expression " the twelve
tribes " literally, and conceives the brother of the Lord as sending
an epistle written in the Greek language throughout the Christian
world, but as addressing Jewish Christians only (so e.g. Sieffert,
s.v. " Jacobus im N.T." in Hauck, Realencykl. ed. 1900, vol. viii.),
assumes not only such divisive interference as Paul might justly
resent (cf. Gal. ii. i-io), but involves a strange idea of conditions.
Were worldliness, tongue religion, moral indifference, the
distinctive marks of the Jewish element? Surely the rebukes
of James apply to conditions of the whole Church and not
sporadic Jewish-Christian conventicles in the Greek-speaking
world, if any such existed.
It is at least an open question whether the superscription
(connected with that of Jude) be not a later conjecture prefixed
by some compiler of the catholic epistles, but of the late date
implied in our interpretation of ver. i there should be small
dispute. Whatever the currency in classical circles of the epistle
as a literary form, it is irrational to put first in the development
of Christian literature a general epistle, couched in fluent, even
rhetorical, Greek, and afterwards the Pauline letters, which both
as to origin and subsequent circulation were a product of urgent
conditions. The order consonant with history is (i) Paul's
"letters" to "the churches of " a province (Gal. i. 2; 2 Cor. i. i);
(2) the address to " the elect of the dispersion " in a group of the
Pauline provinces (i Pet. i. i); (3) the address to " the twelve
tribes of the dispersion " everywhere (Jas. i. i ; cf. Rev. vii. 2-4).
James, like i John, is a homily, even more lacking than i John
in every epistolary feature, not even supplied with the customary
epistolary farewell. The superscription, if original, compels us
to treat the whole writing as not only late but pseudonymous.
If prefixed by conjecture, to secure recognition and authority
for the book, even this was at first a failure. The earliest trace
of any recognition of it is in Origen (A.D. 230) who refers to it
as " said to be from James " ((fcpo/jeyr) fi 'Ia/uo/3ov 'ETrtoroXi?),
seeming thus to regard ver. i as superscription rather than part
of the text. Eusebius (A.D. 325) classifies it among the disputed
books, declaring that it is regarded as spurious, and that not
many of the ancients have mentioned it. Even Jerome
(A.D. 390), though personally he accepted it, admits that it was
" said to have been published by another in the name of James."
The Syrian canon of the Peshitta was the first to admit it.
Modern criticism naturally made the superscription its starting-
point, endeavouring first to explain the contents of the writing on
this theory of authorship, but generally reaching the conclusion that
the two do not agree. Conservatives as a rule avoid the implication
of a direct polemic against Paul in ii. 14-26, which would lay open the
author to the bitter accusations launched against the interlopers of
2 Cor. x.-xiii., by dating before the Judaistic controversy. Other
HS
critics regard the very language alone as fatal to such a theory of
date, authorship and circle addressed. The contents, ignoring the
conflict of Jew and Gentile, complaining of worldiness and tongue-
religion (cf. I John iii. 17 seq. with James ii. 14-16) suggest a much
later date than the death of James (A.D. 62-66). They also require a
different character in the author, if not also a different circle of
readers from those addressed in i. I.
The prevalent conditions seem to be those of the Greek church of
the post-apostolic period, characterized by worldiness of life, pro-
fession without practice, and a contentious garrulity of teaching
(l John iii. 3-10, 18; I Tim. i. 6 seq., vi. 3-10; 2 Tim. iii. 1-5, iv. 3 seq.).
The author meets these with the weapons commanded for the pur-
pose in I Tim. vi. 3, but quite in the spirit of one of the " wise men "
of the Hebrew wisdom literature. His gospel is .completely denation-
alized, humanitarian; but, while equally universalistic, is quite
unsympathetic towards the doctrine and the mysticism of Paul.
He has nothing whatever to say of the incarnation, life, example,
suffering or resurrection of Jesus, and does not interest himself in
the doctrines of Christ's person, which were hotly debated up to this
time. The absence of all mention of Christ (with the single exception
of ii. I, where there is reason to think the words rin&v 'ITJO-OU Xpiarou
interpolated) has even led to the theory, ably but unconvincingly
maintained by Spitta, that the writing is a mere recast of a Jewish
moralistic writing like the Two Ways. The thoughts are loosely
strung together: yet the following seems to be the general framework
on which the New Testament preacher has collected his material.
1. The problem of evil (i. 1-193). Outward trials are for our
development through aid of divinely given " wisdom " (2-11).
Inward (moral) trials are not to be imputed to God, the author of all
good, whose purpose is the moral good of his creation (12-193;
cf. I John i. 5).
2. The righteousness God intends is defined in the eternal moral
law. It is a product of deeds, not words (i. i9b-27).
3. The " royal law " of love is violated by discrimination against
the poor (ii. 1-13) ; and by professions of faith barren of good works
(14-26).
4. The true spirit of wisdom appears not in aspiring to teach, but
in goodness and meekness of life (ch. iii.). Strife and self-exaltation
are fruits of a different spirit, to be resisted and overcome by humble
prayer for more grace (iv. I— 10).
5. God's judgment is at hand. The thought condemns censori-
ousness (iv. II et seq.), presumptuous treatment of life (13-17), and
the tyranny of the rich (v. 1-6). It encourages the believer to
patient endurance to the end without murmuring or imprecations
(7-12). It impels the church to diligence in its work of worship,
care and prayer (13-18), and in the reclamation of the erring (19-20).
The use made by James of earlier material is as important for
determining the terminus a quo of its own date as the use of it by
later writers for the terminus ad quern. Acquaintance with the
evangelic tradition is apparent. It is conceived, however, more in
the Matthaean sense of " commandments to be observed " (Matt,
xxviii. 20) than the Pauline, Markan and Johannine of the drama of
the incarnation and redemption. There is no traceable literary
contact with the synoptic gospels. Acquaintance, however, with
some of the Pauline epistles " must be regarded as incontestably
established " (O. Cone, Ency. Bibl. ii. 2323). Besides scattered
reminiscences of Romans, I Corinthians and Galatians, enumerated
in the article referred to, the section devoted to a refutation of the
doctrine of " justification by faith apart from works " undeniably
presupposes the Pauline terminology. Had the author been con-
sciously opposing the great apostle to the Gentiles he would probably
have treated the subject less superficially. What he really opposes
is the same ultra-Pauline moral laxity which Paul himself had
found occasion to rebuke among would-be adherents in Corinth
(i Cor. vi. I2;viii. 1—3, II, 12; x. 23 seq., 32 seq.) and which appears
still more marked in the pastoral epistles and I John. In rebuking
it James unconsciously retracts the misapplied Pauline principle
itself. To suppose that the technical terminology of Paul, including
even his classic example of the faith of Abraham, could be employed
here independently of Rom. ii. 21-23, '"• 2^, iv. I ; Gal. ii. 16, iii. 6,
is to pass a judgment which in every other field of literary criticism
would be at once repudiated. To imagine it current in pre-Pauline
Judaism is to misconceive the spirit of the synagogue. l To make
James the coiner and Paul the borrower not only throws back James
to a date incompatible with the other phenomena, but implies a
literary polemic tactlessly waged by Paul against the head of the
Jerusalem church. Acquaintance with Hebrews is only slightly less
probable, for James ii. 25 adds an explication of the case of Rahab
also, cited in Heb. xi. 31 along with Abraham as an example of
justification by faith only, to his correction of the Pauline scriptural
argument. The question whether James is dependent on I Peter
or conversely is still actively disputed. As regards the superscription
1 Nothing adduced by Lightfoot (Comm. on Gal. Exc. " The faith
of Abraham ") justifies the unsupported and improbable assertion
that the quotation James ii. 21 seq. " was probably in common use
among the Jews to prove that orthodoxy of doctrine sufficed for
salvation " (Mayor, s.v. " James, Epistle of " in Hasting's Diet.
Bible, p. 546).
146
JAMES, EPISTLE OF
the relation has been defined above. Dependence on Revelation
95—120) — „
i Clem. xlix. 5 and xxx. 2 ; but as both passages are also found in
I Peter (iv. 8, v. 5), the latter may be the common source. Clement's
further development of the cases of Abraham and Rahab, however,
adding as it does to the demonstration of James from Scripture of
their justification " by works and not by faith only," that the
particular good work which " wrought with the faith " of Abraham
and Rahab to their justification was "hospitality" (l Clem, x.-xii.)
seems plainly to presuppose James. Priority is more difficult to
establish in the case of Hermas (A. p. 120-140), where the contacts
are undisputed (cf. James iv. 7, 12 with Mand. xii. 5, 6; Sim. ix. 23).1
The date (A.D. 95-120) implied by the literary contacts of
James of course precludes authorship by the Lord's brother,
though this does not necessarily prove the superscription later
still. The question whether the writing as a whole is pseudony-
mous, or only the superscription a mistaken conjecture by the
scribe of Jude i is of secondary importance. A date about
100-120 for the substance of the writing is accepted by the
majority of modern scholars and throws real light upon the
author's endeavour. Pfleiderer in pointing out the similarities
of James and the Shepherd of Hermas declares it to be " certain
that both writings presuppose like historical circumstances, and,
from a similar point of view, direct their admonitions to their
contemporaries, among whom a lax worldly-mindedness and
unfruitful theological wrangling threatened to destroy the
religious life." * Holtzmann has characterized this as " the
right visual angle " for the judgment of the book. Questions as
to the obligation of Mosaism and the relations of Jew and Gentile
have utterly disappeared below the horizon. Neither the
attachment to the religious forms of Judaism, which we are
informed was characteristic of James, nor that personal relation
to the Lord which gave him his supreme distinction, are indicated
by so much as a single word. Instead of being written in
Aramaic, as it would almost necessarily be if antecedent to the
Pauline epistles, or even in the Semitic style characteristic of
the older and more Palestinian elements of the New Testament
we have a Greek even more fluent than Paul's and metaphors
and allusions (i. 17, iii. 1-12) of a type more like Greek rhetoric
than anything else in the New Testament. Were we to judge
by the contacts with Hebrews, Clement of Rome and Hermas
and the similarity of situation evidenced in the last-named,
Rome would seem the most natural place of origin. The history
of the epistle's reception into the canon is not opposed to this;
for, once it was attributed to James, Syria would be more likely
to take it up, while the West, more sceptical, if not better
informed as to its origin, held back; just as happened in the
case of Hebrews.
It is the author's conception of the nature of the gospel which
mainly gives us pause in following this pretty general disposition
of modern scholarship. With all the phenomena of vocabulary
and style which seem to justify such conceptions as von Soden's
that c. iii. and iv. n-v. 6 represent excerpts respectively from
the essay of an Alexandrian scribe, and a triple fragment of
Jewish apocalypse, the analysis above given will be found the
exponent of a real logical sequence. We might almost admit a
resemblance in form to the general literary type which Spitta
adduces. The term " wisdom " in particular is used in the special
and technical sense of the " wise men " of Hebrew literature
(Matt, xxiii. 34), the sense of " the wisdom of the just " of Luke
i. 17. True, the mystical sense given to the term in one of the
sources of Luke, by Paul and some of the Church fathers, is not
present. While the gospel is pre-eminently the divine gift of
" wisdom," " wisdom " is not personified, but conceived pri-
marily as a system of humanitarian ethics, i. 21-25, and only
secondarily as a spiritual effluence, imparting the regenerate
disposition, the " mind that was in Christ Jesus," iii. 13-18.
And yet for James as well as for Paul Christ is " the wisdom of
•On the contacts in general see Moffat, Hist. N.T.* p. 578, on
relation to Clem. R. see Bacon, " Doctrine of Faith in Hebrews,
James and Clement of Rome," in Jour, of Bib. Lit., 1900, pp. 12-21.
* Das Urchrislenthum, 868, quoted by Cone, loc. cit.
God." The difference in conception of the term is similar to that
between Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom of Solomon. Our
author, like'Paul, expects the hearers of the word to be " a kind
of first-fruits to God of his creation." (i. 18 cf. i Pet. i. 23), and
bids them depend upon the gift of grace (1.5, iv. 5 seq.), but for
the evils of the world he has no remedy but the patient endurance
of the Christian philosopher (i. 2-18). For the faithlessness
(Sul/vxia i- 6-8; cf. Didache and Hermas), worldliness (ii. 1-13)
and hollow profession (ii. 14-26) of the church life of his time,
with its " theological wrangling " (iii. 1-12), his remedy is again
the God-given, peaceable spirit of the Christian philosopher
(iii. 13-18), which is the antithesis of the spirit of self-seeking
and censoriousness (iv. 1-12), and which appreciates the pettiness
of earthly life with its sordid gains and its unjust distribution of
wealth (iv. I3~v. 6). This attitude of the Christian stoic will
maintain the individual in his patient waiting for the expected
" coming of the Lord " (v. 7-11); while the church sustains its
official functions of healing and prayer, and reclamation of the
erring (v. i3-2o).3 For this conception of the gospel and of the
officially organized church, our nearest analogy is in Matthew,
or rather in the blocks of precepts of the Lord which after
subtraction of the Markan narrative framework are found to
underlie our first gospel. It may be mere coincidence that the
material in Matthew as well as in the Didache seems to be
arranged in five divisions, beginning with a commendation of
the right way, and ending with warnings of the judgment, while
the logical analysis of James yields something similar; but of
the affinity of spirit there can be no doubt.
The type of ethical thought exemplified in James has been
called Ebionite (Hilgenfeld). It is clearly manifest in the
humanitarianism of Luke also. But with the possible exception
of the prohibition of oaths there is nothing which ought to suggest
the epithet. The strong sense of social wrongs, the impatience
with tongue-religion, the utter ignoring of ceremonialism, the
reflection on the value and significance of " life," are distinctive
simply of the " wisdom " writers. Like these our author holds
himself so far aloof from current debate of ceremonial or doctrine
as to escape our principal standards of measurement regarding
place and time. Certain general considerations, however, are
fairly decisive. The prolonged effort, mainly of English scholar-
ship, to vindicate the superscription, even on the condition of
assuming priority to the Pauline epistles, grows only increasingly
hopeless with increasing knowledge of conditions, linguistic and
other, in that early period. The moralistic conception of the
gospel as a " law of liberty," the very phrase recalling the
expression of Barn, ii., " the new law of Christ, which is without
the yoke of constraint," the conception of the church as
primarily an ethical society, its functions already officially dis-
tributed, suggest the period of the Didache, Barnabas and
Clement of Rome. Independently of the literary contacts we
should judge the period to be about A.D. 100-120. The con-
nexions with the Pauline epistles are conclusive for a date later
than the death of James; those with Clement and Hermas are
perhaps sufficient to date it as prior to the former, and suggest
Rome as the place of origin. The connexions with wisdom-
literature favour somewhat the Hellenistic culture of Syria,
as represented for example at Antioch.
The most important commentaries on the epistle are those of
Matt. Schneckenburger (1832), K. G. W. Theile (1833), J. Kern
(1838), G. H. Ewald (1870), C. F. D. Erdmann (1881), H. v. Soden
(1898), J. B. Mayor (1892) and W. Patrick (1906). The pre-Pauline
date is championed by B. Weiss (Introd.), W. Beyschlag (Meyer's
Commentary), Th.Zahn(/n/rod.),J.B.MayorandW. Patrick. J.V.
Bartlet (Ap. Age, pp. 217-250) pleads for it, and the view is still
common among English interpreters. F. K. Zimmer (Z. iv. Th., 1893)
showed the priority of Paul, with many others. A. Hilgenfeld (Einl.)
8 The logical relation of v. 12 to the context is problematical.
P.erhaps it may be accounted for by the order of the compend pi
Christian ethics the writer was following. Cf. Matt. v. 34~37 'n
relation to Matt. v. 12 (cf. ver. 10) and yi. 19 sqq. [c(. ver. 2, and
iv. 13 seq.). The non-charismatic conception of healing, no longer the
" gift " of some layman in the community (i Cor. xii. 9 seq.) but a
function of " the elders " (i Tim. iv. 14), is another indication of
comparatively late date.
JAMESON, A. B.— JAMESON, L. S.
and A. C. McGiffert (Ap. Age) place it in the period of Domitian ; Baur
(Ch. History), Schwegler (Nachap. Zeitalt.), Zeller, Volkmar (Z. w.
Th.), Hausrath (Ap. Age), H. I. Holtzmann (EM.), Julicher (EM.),
Usteri (St. u. Kr., 1889), W. Bruckner (Chron.), H. v. Soden (Hand-
comm.) and A. Harnack (Chron.) under Hadrian. A convenient
synopsis of results will be found in J. MofFat, Historical New Test?
(pp. 576-581), and in the articles s.v. " James " in Encycl. Bibl. and
the Bible Dictionaries. (B. W. B.)
JAMESON, ANNA BROWNELL (1794-1860), British writer,
was born in Dublin on the 1 7th of May 1794. Her father, Denis
Brownell Murphy (d. 1842), a miniature and enamel painter,
removed to England in 1798 with his family, and eventually
settled at Hanwell, near London. At sixteen years of age Anna
became governess in the family of the marquis of Winchester.
In 1821 she was engaged to Robert Jameson. The engagement
was broken off, and Anna Murphy accompanied a young pupil
to Italy, writing in a fictitious character a narrative of what she
saw and did. This diary she gave to a bookseller on condition
' of receiving a guitar if he secured any profits. Colburn ulti-
mately published it as The Diary of an Ennuyee (1826), which
attracted much attention. The author was governess to the
children of Mr Littleton, afterwards Lord Hatherton, from 1821
to 1825, when she married Robert Jameson. The marriage
proved unhappy; when, in 1829, Jameson was appointed puisne
judge in the island of Dominica the couple separated without
regret, and Mrs Jameson visited the Continent again with her
father.
The first work which displayed her powers of original thought
was her Characteristics of Women (1832). These analyses of
Shakespeare's heroines are remarkable for delicacy of critical
insight and fineness of literary touch. They are the result of a
penetrating but essentially feminine mind, applied to the study
of individuals of its own sex, detecting characteristics and
defining differences not perceived by the ordinary critic and en-
tirely overlooked by the general reader. German literature and
art had aroused much interest in England, and Mrs Jameson
paid her first visit to Germany in 1833. The conglomerations of
hard lines, cold colours and pedantic subjects which decorated
Munich under the patronage of King Louis of Bavaria, were new
to the world, and Mrs Jameson's enthusiasm first gave them an
English reputation.
In 1836 Mrs Jameson was summoned to Canada by her husband,
who had been appointed chancellor of the province of Toronto.
He failed to meet her at New York, and she was left to make her
way alone at the worst season of the year to Toronto. After
six months' experiment she felt it useless to prolong a life far
from all ties of family happiness and opportunities of usefulness.
Before leaving, she undertook a journey to the depths of the
Indian settlements in Canada; she explored Lake Huron, and
saw much of emigrant and Indian life unknown to travellers,
which she afterwards embodied in her Winter Studies and Summer
Rambles. She returned to England in 1838. At this period
Mrs Jameson began making careful notes of the chief private art
collections in and near London. The result appeared in her
Companion to the Private Galleries (1842), followed in the same
year by the Handbook to the Public Galleries. She edited the
Memoirs of the Early Italian Painters in 1845. In the same year
she visited her friend Ottilie von Goethe. Her friendship with
Lady Byron dates from about this time and lasted for some
seven years; it was brought to an end apparently through Lady
Byron's unreasonable temper. A volume of essays published
in 1846 contains one of Mrs Jameson's best pieces of work, The
House of Titian. In 1847 she went to Italy with her niece and
subsequent biographer (Memoirs, 1878), Geraldine Bate (Mrs
Macpherson), to collect materials for the work on which her
reputation rests — her series of Sacred and Legendary Art. The
time was ripe for such contributions to the traveller's library.
The Ada Sanctorum and the Book of the Golden Legend had had
their readers, but no one had ever pointed out the connexion
between these tales and the works of Christian art. The way
to these studies had been pointed out in the preface to Kugler's
Handbook of Italian Painting by Sir Charles Eastlake, who had
intended pursuing the subject himself. Eventually he made
over to Mrs Jameson the materials and references he had
collected. She recognized the extent of the ground before her
as a mingled sphere of poetry, history, devotion and art. She
infected her readers with her own enthusiastic admiration;
and, in spite of her slight technical and historical equipment,
Mrs. Jameson produced a book which thoroughly deserved its
great success.
_ She also took a keen interest in questions affecting the educa-
tion, occupations and maintenance of her own sex. Her early
essay on The Relative Social Position of Mothers and Governesses
was the work of one who knew both sides; and in no respect does
she more clearly prove the falseness of the position she describes
than in the certainty with which she predicts its eventual reform.
To her we owe the first popular enunciation of the principle of
male and female co-operation in works of mercy and education.
In her later years she took up a succession of subjects all bearing
on the same principles of active benevolence and the best ways
of carrying them into practice. Sisters of charity, hospitals,
penitentiaries, prisons and workhouses all claimed her interest
— all more or less included under those definitions of " the com-
munion of love and communion of labour " which are inseparably
connected with her memory. To the clear and temperate forms
in which she brought the results of her convictions before her
friends in the shape of private lectures — published as Sisters of
Charity (1855) and The Communion of Labour (1856) — may be
traced the source whence later reformers and philanthropists
took counsel and courage.
Mrs Jameson died on the i;th of March 1860. She left the
last of her Sacred and Legendary Art series in preparation. It
was completed, under the title of The History of Our Lord in Art,
by Lady Eastlake.
JAMESON (or JAMESONE), GEORGE (c. 1587-1644), Scottish
portrait-painter, was born at Aberdeen, where his father was
architect and a member of the guild. After studying painting
under Rubens at Antwerp, with Vandyck as a fellow pupil, he
returned in 1620 to Aberdeen, where he was married in 1624 and
remained at least until 1630, after which he took up his residence
in Edinburgh. He was employed by the magistrates of Edin-
burgh to copy several portraits of the Scottish kings for presen-
tation to Charles I. on his first visit to Scotland in 1633, and the
king rewarded him with a diamond ring from his own finger.
This circumstance at once established Jameson's fame, and he
soon found constant employment in painting the portraits of
the Scottish nobility and gentry. He also painted a portrait
of Charles, which he declined to sell to the magistrates of
Aberdeen for the price they offered. He died at Edinburgh in
1644.
JAMESON, LEANDER STARR (1853- ), British colonial
statesman, son of R. W. Jameson, a writer to the signet in Edin-
burgh, was born at Edinburgh in 1853, and was educated for the
medical profession at University College Hospital, London
(M.R.C.S. 1875; M.D. 1877). After acting as house physician,
house surgeon and demonstrator of anatomy, and showing
promise of a successful professional career in London, his health
broke down from overwork in 1878, and he went out to South
Africa and settled down in practice at Kimberley. There he
rapidly acquired a great reputation as a medical man, and,
besides numbering President Kruger and the Matabele chief
Lobengula among his patients, came much into contact with Cecil
Rhodes. In 1888 his influence with Lobengula was successfully
exerted to induce that chieftain to grant the concessions to the
agents of Rhodes which led to the formation of the British South
Africa Company; and when the company proceeded to open up
Mashonaland, Jameson abandoned his medical practice and joined
the pioneer expedition of 1890. From this time his fortunes
were bound up with Rhodes's schemes in the north. Imme-
diately after the pioneer column had occupied Mashonaland,
Jameson, with F. C. Selous and A. R. Colquhoun, went east to
Manicaland and was instrumental in securing the greater part
of that country, to which Portugal was laying claim, for the
Chartered Company. In 1891 Jameson succeeded Colquhoun
as administrator of Rhodesia. The events connected with his
148
JAMESON, R.~ JAMESTOWN
vigorous administration and the wars with the Matabele are
narrated under RHODESIA. At the end of 1894 " Dr Jim "
(as he was familiarly called) came to England and was feted on
all sides; he was made a C.B., and returned to Africa in the
spring of 1895 with enhanced prestige. On the last day of that
year the world was startled to learn that Jameson, with a force
of 600 men, had made a raid into the Transvaal from Mafeking
in support of a projected rising in Johannesburg, which had been
connived at by Rhodes at the Cape (see RHODES and TRANS-
VAAL). Jameson's force was compelled to surrender at Doorn-
kop, receiving a guarantee that the lives of all would be spared;
he and his officers were sent to Pretoria, and, after a short delay,
during which time sections of the Boer populace clamoured for
the execution of Jameson, President Kruger on the surrender
of Johannesburg (January 7) handed them over to the British
government for punishment. They were tried in London under
the Foreign Enlistment Act in May 1896, and Dr Jameson
was sentenced to fifteen months' inprisonment at Holloway.
He served a year in prison, and was then released on account of
ill health. He still retained the affections of the white popula-
tion of Rhodesia, and subsequently returned there in an un-
official capacity. He was the constant companion of Rhodes on
his journeys up to the end of his life, and when Rhodes died in
May 1902 Jameson was left one of the executors of his will. In
1003 Jameson came forward as the leader of the Progressive
(British) party in Cape Colony; and that party being victorious
at the general election in January- February 1904, Jameson
formed an administration in which he took the post of prime
minister. He had to face a serious economic crisis and strenu-
ously promoted the development of the agricultural and pastoral
resources of the colony. He also passed a much needed Redis-
tribution Act, and in the session of 1906 passed an Amnesty Act
restoring the rebel voters to the franchise. Jameson, as prime
minister of Cape Colony, attended the Colonial conference held
in London in 1907. In September of that year the Cape parlia-
ment was dissolved, and as the elections for the legislative
council went in favour of the Bond, Jameson resigned office,
3ist of January 1008 (see CAPE COLONY: History). In 1908 he
was chosen one of the delegates from Cape Colony to the inter-
colonial convention for the closer union of the South African
states, and he took a prominent part in settling the terms on
which union was effected in 1009. It was at Jameson's sugges-
tion that the Orange River Colony was renamed Orange Free
State Province.
JAMESON, ROBERT (1774-1854), Scottish naturalist and
mineralogist, was born at Leith on the nth of July 1774- He
became assistant to a surgeon in his native town; but, having
studied natural history under Dr John Walker in 1792 and 1793,
he felt that his true province lay in that science. He went
in 1800 to Freiberg to study for nearly two years under Werner,
and spent two more in continental travel. In 1804 he succeeded
Dr Walker as regius professor of natural history in Edinburgh
university, and became perhaps the first eminent exponent in
Great Britain of the Wernerian geological system; but when he
found that theory untenable, he frankly announced his conver-
sion to the views of Hut ton. As a teacher, Jameson was remark-
able for his power of imparting enthusiasm to his students, and
from his class-room there radiated an influence which gave a
marked impetus to the study of geology in Britain. His energy
also, by means of government aid, private donation and persona
outlay, amassed a great part of the splendid collection whicl
new occupies the natural history department of the Roya
Scottish Museum in Edinburgh. In 1819 Jameson, with Sir
David Brewster, started the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal
which after the tenth volume remained under his sole conduct
till his death, which took place in Edinburgh on the igth o
April 1854. His bust now stands in the hall of the Edinburgh
University library.
Jameson was the author of Outline of the Mineralogy of the Shetland
Islands and of the Island of Arran (1798), incorporated with Miner
alogy of the Scottish Isles (1800) ; Mineralogical Description of Scotland
vof i. pt. I. (Dumfries, 1805); this was to have been the first of a
series embracing all Scotland; System of Mineralogy (3 vols., 1804-
808; 3rd ed., 1820); Elements of Geognosy (1809); Mineralogical
"ravels through the Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland Islands (2 vols.,
.813); and Manual of Mineralogy (1821); besides a number of
ccasional papers, of which a list will be found in the Edinburgh New
philosophical Journal for July 1854, along with a portrait and bio-
raphical sketch of the author.
JAMESTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Stutsman
county, North Dakota, U.S.A., on the James River, about
93 m. W. of Fargo. Pop. (1900), 2853, of whom 587 were
oreign-bom; (1905) 5093; (1910) 4358. Jamestown is served
by the Northern Pacific railway, of which it is a division head-
quarters. At Jamestown is St John's Academy, a school for
_jirls, conducted by the Sisters of St Joseph. The state
lospital for the insane is just beyond the city limits. The city
s the commercial centre of a prosperous farming and stock-
raising region in the James River valley, and has grain-elevators
and flour-mills. Jamestown was first settled in 1873, near Fort
Seward, a U.S. military post established in 1872 and abandoned
n 1877, and was chartered as a city in 1883.
JAMESTOWN, a city of Chautauqua county, New York,
U.S.A., at the S. outlet of Chautauqua Lake, 68 m. S. by W. of
Buffalo. Pop. (1900), 22,892, of whom 7270 were foreign-born,
mostly Swedish; (1910 census) 31.29?- It is served by the
Erie and the Jamestown, Chautauqua & Lake Erie railways,
ay electric lines extending along Lake Chautauqua to Lake Erie
on the N. and to Warren, Pennsylvania, on the S., and by
summer steamboat lines tn Lake Chautauqua. Jamestown is
situated among the hills of Chautauqua county, and is a popular
summer resort. There is a free public library. A supply of
natural gas (from Pennsylvania) and a fine water-power combine
to render Jamestown a manufacturing centre of considerable
importance. In 1905 the value of its factory products was
$10,349,752, an increase of 33-9% since 1900. The city owns
and operates its electric-lighting plant and its water-supply
system, the water, of exceptional purity, being obtained from
artesian wells 4 m. distant. Jamestown was settled in 1810,
was incorporated in 1827, and was chartered as a city in 1886.
The city was named in honour of James Prendergast, an early
settler.
JAMESTOWN, a former village in what is now James City
county, Virginia, U.S.A., on Jamestown Island, in the James
River, about 40 m. above Norfolk. It was here that the first
permanent English settlement in America was founded on the
I3th of May 1607, that representative government was inau-
gurated on the American Continent in 1619, and that negro
servitude was introduced into the original thirteen colonies, also
in 1619. In Jamestown was the first Anglican church built in
America. The settlement was in a low marshy district which
proved to be unhealthy; it was accidentally burned in January
1608, was almost completely destroyed by Nathaniel Bacon in
September 1676, the state house and other buildings were again
burned in 1698, and after the removal of the seat of government
of Virginia from Jamestown to the Middle Plantations (now
Williamsburg) in 1699 the village fell rapidly into decay. Its
population had never been large: it was about 490 in 1609, and
183 in 1623; the mortality was always very heavy. By the
middle of the igth century the peninsula on which Jamestown
had been situated had become an island, and by 1900 the James
River had worn away the shore but had hardly touched the
territory of the " New Towne " (1619), immediately E. of the
first settlement; almost the only visible remains, however, were
the tower of the brick church and a few gravestones. In 1900
the association for the preservation of Virginia antiquities, to
which the site was deeded in 1893, induced the United States
government to build a wall to prevent the further encroachment
of the river; the foundations of several of the old buildings have
since been uncovered, many interesting relics have been found,
and in 1907 there were erected a brick church (which is as far
as possible a reproduction of the fourth one built in 1630-1647),
a marble shaft marking the site of the first settlement, another
shaft commemorating the first house of burgesses, a bronze
monument to the memory of Captain John Smith, and another
monument to the memory of Pocahontas. At the head of
JAMI— JAMRUD
Jamestown peninsula Cornwallis, in July 1781, attempted to trick
the Americans under Lafayette and General Anthony Wayne by
displaying a few men on the peninsula and concealing the
principal part of his army on the mainland; but when Wayne
discovered the trap he made first a vigorous charge, and then
a retreat to Lafayette's line. Early in the Civil War the Con-'
federates regarded the site (then an island) as of such strategic
importance that (near the brick church tower and probably near
the site of the first fortifications by the original settlers) they
erected heavy earthworks upon it for defence. (For additional
details concerning the early history of Jamestown, see VIRGINIA:
History.)
The founding at Jamestown of the first permanent English-
speaking settlement in America was celebrated in 1907 by the
Jamestown tercentennial exposition, held on grounds at
Sewell's Point on the shore of Hampton Roads. About twenty
foreign nations, the federal government, and most of the states
' of the union took part in the exposition.
See L. G. Tyler, The Cradle of the Republic: Jamestown and James
River (Richmond, 2nd ed., 1906); Mrs R. A. Pryor, The Birth of the
Nation: Jamestown, 1607 (New York, 1907); and particularly
S. H. Yonge, The Site of Old " James Towne," 1607-1698 (Richmond,
1904), embodying the results of the topographical investigations of
the engineer in charge of the river-wall built in 1900-1901.
jAMI (NUR-ED-DIN 'ABD-UR-RAHMAN IBN A^MAD) (1414-
1492), Persian poet and mystic, was born at Jam in Khorasan,
whence the name by which he is usually known. In his poems
he mystically utilizes the connexion of the name with the same
'word meaning " wine-cup." He was the last great classic poet
of Persia, and a pronounced mystic of the Sufic philosophy.
His three diwans (1470-1491) contain his lyrical poems and
odes; among his prose writings the chief is his Baharistdn
("Spring-garden") (1487); and his collection of romantic
poems, Haft Aurang (" Seven Thrones "), contains the Salaman
•wa Absdl and his Yusuf wa Zallkha (Joseph and Potiphar's
wife).
On Jami's life and works see V. von Rosenzweig, Biographische
Notizen ilber Mewlana Abdurrahman Dschami (Vienna, 1840); Gore
Ouseley, Biographical Notices of Persian Poets (1846); W. N. Lees,
A Biographical Sketch of the Mystic Philosopher and Poet Jami
(Calcutta, 1859); E. Beauyois s.v. Djami in Nouyelle Biographie
generate; arid H. Ethe' in Geigerand Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen
Philologie, ii. There are English translations of the Baharistan by
E. Rehatsek (Benares, 1887) and Sorabji Fardunji (Bombay, 1899);
of Salaman wa Absal by Edward FitzGerald (1856, with a notice
01 Jami's life) ; of Yusuf wa Zallkha by R. T. H. Griffith (1882) and
A. Rogers (1892); also selections in English by F. Hadland Davis,
The Persian Mystics: Jami (1908). (See also PERSIA : Literature.)
JAMIESON, JOHN (1759-1838), Scottish lexicographer, son
of a minister, was born in Glasgow, on the 3rd of March 1759.
He was educated at Glasgow University, and subsequently
attended classes in Edinburgh. After six years' theological
study, Jamieson was licensed to preach in 1789 and became
pastor of an Anti-burgher congregation in Forfar; and in 1797
he was called to the Anti-burgher church in Nicolson Street,
Edinburgh. The union of the Burgher and Anti-burgher sections
of the Secession Church in 1820 was largely due to his exertions.
He retired from the ministry in 1830 and died in Edinburgh
on the I2th of July 1838.
Jamieson's name stands at the head of a tolerably long list of
works in the Bibliotheca britannica; but by far his most important
book is the laborious and erudite compilation, best described by
its own title-page: An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Lan-
guage; illustrating the words in their different significations by examples
from Ancient and Modern Writers; shewing their Affinity to those of
other Languages, and especially the Northern' explaining many terms
which though now obsolete in England -were formerly common to both
countries; and elucidating National Rites, Customs and Institutions in
their Analogy to those of other nations; to which is prefixed a Disserta-
tion on the Origin of the Scottish Language. This appeared in 2 vols.,
4to, at Edinburgh in 1808, followed in 1825 by a Supplement, m
2 vols., 410, in which he was assisted by scholars in all parts of the
country. A revised edition by Longmuir and Donaldson was issued
in 1879-1887.
JAMIESON, ROBERT (c. 1780-1844), Scottish antiquary, was
born in Morayshire. In 1806 he published a collection of
Popular Ballads and Songs from Tradition, Manuscript and
149
Scarce Editions. Two pleasing lyrics of his own were included.
Scott, through whose assistance he received a government post
at Edinburgh, held Jamieson in high esteem and pointed out
his skill in discovering the connexion between Scandinavian
and Scottish legends. Jamieson's work preserved much oral
tradition which might otherwise have been lost. He was
associated with Henry Weber and Scott in Illustrations oj
Northern Antiquities (1814). He died on the 24th of September
1844.
JAMKHANDI, a native state of India, in the Deccan division
of Bombay, ranking as one of the southern Mahratta Jagirs.
Area, 524 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 105,357; estimated revenue,
£37,000; tribute, £1300. The chief is a Brahman of the
Patwardhan family. Cotton, wheat and millet are produced,
and cotton and silk cloth are manufactured, though not exported.
The town of JAMKHANDI, the capital, is situated 68 m. E. of
Kolhapur. Pop. (IJQOI), 13,029.
•JAMMU, or JUMMOO, the capital of the state of Jammu and
Kashmir in Northern India, on the river Tavi (Ta-wi) , a tributary
of the Chenab. Pop. (1901), 36,130. The town and palace stand
upon the right bank of the river; the fort overhangs the left
bank at an elevation of 150 ft. above the stream. The lofty '
whitened walls of the palace and citadel present a striking
appearance from the surrounding country. Extensive pleasure
grounds and ruins of great size attest the former prosperity of
the city when it was the seat of a Rajput dynasty whose
dominions extended into the plains and included the modern
district of Sialkot. It was afterwards conquered by the Sikhs,
and formed part of Ranjit Singh's dominions. After his death
it was acquired by Gulab Singh as the nucleus of .his dominions,
to which the British added Kashmir in 1846. It is connected
with Sialkot in the Punjab by a railway 16 m. long. In 1898 the
town was devastated by a fire, which destroyed most of the
public offices.
The state of Jammu proper, as opposed to Kashmir, consists
of a submontane tract, forming the upper basin of the Chenab.
Pop. (1901), 1,521,307, showing an increase of 5% in the decade.
A land settlement has recently been introduced under British
supervision.
JAMNIA ('la/ma or 'Ia.fj.vela), the Greek form of the Hebrew
name Jabneel — i.e. " God causeth to build " (Josh. xv. n) — or
Jabneh (2 Chron. xxvi. 6), the modern Arabic YEBNA, a town of
Palestine, on the border between Dan and Judah, situated 13 m.
S. of Jaffa, and 4 m. E.-of the seashore. The modern village
stands on an isolated sandy hillock, surrounded by gardens
with olives to the north and sand-dunes to the west. It con-
tains a small crusaders' church, now a mosque. Jamnia
belonged to the Philistines, and Uzziah of Judah is said to have
taken it (2 Chron. xxvi. 6). In Maccabean times Joseph and
Azarias attacked it unsuccessfully (i Mace. v. 55-62; 2 Mace,
xii. 8 seq. is untrustworthy). Alexander Jannaeus subdued it, and
under Pompey it became Roman. It changed hands several
times, is mentioned by Strabo (xvi. 2) as being once very
populous, and in the Jewish war was taken by Vespasian. The
population was mainly Jewish (Philo, Leg. ad Gaium, § 30), and
the town is principally famous as having been the seat of the
Sanhedrin and the religious centre of Judaism from A.D. 70 to
135. It sent a bishop to Nicaea in 325. In 1144 a crusaders'
fortress was built on the hill, which is often mentioned under
the name Ibelin. There was also a Jabneel in Lower Galilee
(Josh. xix. 33), called later Caphar Yama, the present village
Yemma, 8 m. S. of Tiberias; and another fortress in Upper
Galilee was named Jamnia (Josephus, Vita, 37). Attempts
have been made to unify these two Galilean sites, but without
success.
JAMRUD, a fort and cantonment in India, just beyond the
border of Peshawar district, North-West Frontier Province,
situated at the mouth of the Khyber Pass, io| m. W. of Peshawar
city, with which it js connected by a branch railway. It was
occupied by Hari Singh, Ranjit Singh's commander in 1836;
but in April 1837 Dost Mahommed sent a body of Afghans to
attack it. The Sikhs gained a doubtful victory, with the loss of
150
their general. During the military operations of 1878-79
Jamrud became a place of considerable importance as the
frontier outpost on British territory towards Afghanistan, and
it was also the base of operations for a portion of the Tirah
campaign in 1897-1898. It is the headquarters of the Khyber
Rifles, and the collecting station for the Khyber tolls. Pop.
(1901), 1848.
JAMS AND JELLIES. In the article FOOD PRESERVATION
it is pointed out that concentrated sugar solution inhibits the
growth of organisms and has, therefore, a preservative action.
The preparation of jams and jellies is based upon that fact. All
fresh and succulent fruit contains a large percentage of water,
amounting to at least four-fifths of the whole, and a compara-
tively small proportion of sugar, not exceeding as a rule from
10 to 15%. Such fruit is naturally liable to decomposition
unless the greater proportion of the water is removed or the
percentage of sugar is greatly increased. The jams and jellies
of commerce are fruit preserves containing so much added sugar
that the total amount of sugar forms about two-thirds of the
weight of the articles. All ordinary edible fruit can be and is
made into jam. The fruit is sometimes pulped and stoned,
sometimes used whole and unbroken; oranges are sliced or
shredded. For the preparation of jellies only certain fruit is
suitable, namely such as contains a peculiar material which on
boiling becomes dissolved and on cooling solidifies with the
formation of a gelatinous mass. This material, often called
pectin, occurs mainly in comparatively acid fruit, like goose-
berries, currants and apples, and is almost absent from straw-
berries and raspberries. It is chemically a member of the group
of carbohydrates, is closely allied with vegetable gums abun-
dantly formed by certain sea-weeds and mosses (agar-agar and
Iceland moss), and is probably a mixture of various pentoses.
Pentoses are devoid of food-value, but, like animal gelatine,
with which they are in no way related, can form vehicles for
food material. Some degree of gelatinization is aimed at also
in jams; hence to such fruits as have no gelatinizing power an
addition of apple or gooseberry juice, or even of Iceland moss or
agar-agar, is made. Animal gelatin is very rarely used.
The art of jam and jelly making was formerly domestic, but
has become a very large branch of manufacture. For the
production of a thoroughly satisfactory conserve the boiling-
down must be carried out very rapidly, so that the natural
colour of the fruit shall be little affected. Considerable experi-
ence is required to stop at the right point; too short boiling
leaves an excess of water, leading to fermentation, while over-
concentration promotes crystallization of the sugar. The
manufactured product is on that account, as a rule,more uniform
and bright than the domestic article. The finish of the boiling
is mostly judged by rule of thumb, but in some scientifically
conducted factories careful thermometric observation is em-
ployed. Formerly jams and jellies consisted of nothing but
fruit and sugar; now starch-glucose is frequently used by
manufacturers as an ingredient. This permits of the production
of a slightly more aqueous and gelatinous product, alleged also
to be devoid of crystallizing power, as compared with the home-
made article. The addition of starch-glucose is not held to be
an adulteration. Aniline colours are very frequently used by
manufacturers to enhance the colour, and the effect of an excess
of water is sought to be counteracted by the addition of some
salicylic acid or other preservative. There has long been, and
still exists to some extent, a popular prejudice in favour of sugar
obtained from the sugar-cane as compared with that of the
sugar-beet. This prejudice is absolutely baseless, and enormous
quantities of beet-sugar are used in the boiling of jam. Adul-
teration in the gross sense, such as a substantial addition of
coarse pulp, like that of turnips or mangolds,very rarely occurs;
but the pulp of apple and other cheap fruit is often admixed
without notice to the purchaser. The use of colouring matters
and preservatives is discussed at length in the article
ADULTERATION. (O. H.*)
JANESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Rock County,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., situated on both sides of the Rock river,
JAMS AND JELLIES— JANIN
70 m. S.W. of Milwaukee and 90 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop.
(1900), 13,185, of whom 2409 were foreign-born; (1910
census), 13,894. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western
and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by electric
lines connecting with Madison and Beloit, Wis., and Rockford,
Illinois. The Rock river is not commercially navigable at this
point, but furnishes valuable water-power for manufacturing
purposes. The city is picturesquely situated on bluffs above
the river. Janesville is the centre of the tobacco trade of the
state, and has various manufactures. The total value of the
city's factory product in 1905 was $3,846,038, an increase of
20-8 % since 1900. Its public buildings include a city hall,
court house, post office, city hospital and a public library. It
is the seat of a school for the blind, opened as a private institu-
tion in 1849 and taken over by the state in 1850, the first
charitable institution controlled by the state, ranking as one of
the most successful of its kind in the United States. The first
settlement was made here about 1834. Janesville was named
in honour of Henry F. Janes, an early settler, and was chartered
as a city in 1853.
JANET, PAUL (1823-1899), French philosophical writer, was
born in Paris on the 3oth of April 1823. He was professor of
moral philosophy at Bourges (1845-1848) and Strassburg (1848-
1857), and of logic at the lycee Louis-le-Grand, Paris (185 7-1 864).
In 1864 he was appointed to the chair of philosophy at the Sor-
bonne, and elected a member of the academy of the moral and
political sciences. He wrote a large number of books and articles
upon philosophy, politics and ethics, on idealistic lines : La
Famille, Hisloire de la philosophic dans I'antiquili el dans le
temps moderne, Hisloire de la science politigue, Philosophic de la
Revolution Franfaise, &c. They are not characterized by much
originality of thought. In philosophy he was a follower of
Victor Cousin, and through him of Hegel. His principal work
in this line, Theorie de la morale, is little more than a somewhat
patronizing reproduction of Kant. He died in October 1899.
JANGIPUR, or JAHANGIRPUR, a town of British India, in
Murshidabad district, Bengal, situated on the Bhagirathi.
Pop. (1901), 10,921. The town is said to have been founded by
the Mogul emperor Jahangir. During the early.years of British
rule it was an important centre of the silk trade, and the site of
one of the East India Company's commercial residencies. Jangi-
pur is now best known as the toll station for registering all the
traffic on the Bhagiralhi. The number of boats registered
annually is about 10,000.
JANIN, JULES GABRIEL (1804-1874), French critic, was born
at St Etienne (Loire) on the i6th of February 1804, and died
near Paris on the igth of June 1874. His father was a lawyer,
and he was well educated, first at St Etienne, and then at the
lycee Louis-le-Grand in Paris. He betook himself to journalism
very early, and worked on the Figaro, the Quolidienne, &c., until
in 1830 he became dramatic critic of the Journal des Debals.
Long before this, however, he had made a considerable literary
reputation, for which indeed his strange novel L'Ane mart el la
fcmme guillotinSe (1829) would have sufficed. La Confession
(1830), which followed, was less remarkable in substance but
even more so in style; and in Barnave (1831) he attacked the
Orleans family. From the day, however, when Janin became
the theatrical critic of the Debats, though he continued to write
books indefatigably, he was to most Frenchmen a dramatic
critic and nothing more. He was outrageously inconsistent, and
judged things from no general point of view whatsoever, though
his judgment was usually good-natured. Few journalists have
ever been masters of a more attractive fashion of saying the first
thing that came into their heads. After many years of feuilleton
writing he collected some of his articles in the work called
Hisloire de la litltrature dramalique en France (1853-1858), which
by no means deserves its title. In 1865 he made his first attempt
upon the Academy, but was not successful till five years later.
Meanwhile he had not been content with hisfeuilletons, written
persistently about all manner of things. No one was more in
request with the Paris publishers for prefaces, letterpress to
illustrated books and such trifles. He travelled (picking up in
JANISSARIES
one of his journeys a curious windfall, a country house at Lucca,
in a lottery), and wrote accounts of his travels; he wrote numer-
ous tales and novels, and composed many other works, of which
by far the best is the Fin d'un monde et du neveu dc Rameau
(1861), in which, under the guise of a sequel to Diderot's master-
piece, he showed his great familiarity with the late i8th century.
He married in 1841; his wife had money, and he was always in
easy circumstances. In the early part of his career he had
many quarrels, notably one with Felix Pyat (1810-1889), whom
he prosecuted successfully for defamation of character. For
the most part his work is mere improvisation, and has few ele-
ments of vitality except a light and vivid style. His (Euvres
choisies (12 vols., i875-i878)were edited by A. de la Fitzeliere.
A study on Janin with a bibliography was published by A. Pie'dag-
nel in 1874. See also Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, ii. and v.,
and Gustave Planche, Portraits litteraires.
JANISSARIES (corrupted from Turkish yeni cheri, new
troops), an organized military force constituting until 1826 the
standing army of the Ottoman empire. At the outset of her
history Turkey possessed no standing army. All Moslems
capable of bearing arms served as a kind of volunteer yeomanry
known as akinjis; they were summoned by public criers, or, if
the occasion required it, by secret messengers. It was under
Orkhan that a regular paid army was first organized: the soldiers
were known as yaya or piyade. The result was unsatisfactory,
as the Turcomans, from whom these troops were recruited, were
unaccustomed to fight on foot or to submit to military discipline.
Accordingly in 1330, on the advice of Chendereli Kara Khalil,
the system known as devslmrme or forced levy, was adopted,
whereby a certain number of Christian youths (at first 1000)
were every year taken from their parents and, after undergoing
a period of apprenticeship, were enrolled as yeni cheri or new
troops. The venerable saint Haji Bektash, founder of the Bek-
tashi dervishes, blessed the corps and promised them victory;
he remained ever after the patron saint of the janissaries.
At first the corps was exclusively recruited by the forced levy
of Christian children, for which purpose the officer known as
tournaji-bashi, or head-keeper of the cranes, made periodical
tours in the provinces. The fixed organization of the corps
dates only from Mahommed II., and its regulations were subse-
quently modified by Suleiman I. In early days all Christians
were enrolled indiscriminately; later those from Albania, Bosnia
and Bulgaria were preferred. The recruits while serving their
apprenticeship were instructed in the principles of the faith by
khojas, but according to D'Ohsson (vii. 327) they were not obliged
to become Moslems.
The entire corps, commanded by the aga of the janissaries,
was known as the ojak (hearth) ; it was divided into ortas or
units of varying numbers; the oda (room) was the name given to
the barracks in which the janissaries were lodged. There were,
after the reorganization of Suleiman I., 196 ortas of three classes,
viz. the jemaat, comprising 101 ortas, the beuluk, 61 ortas, and
the sekban, or seimen, 34 ortas; to these must be added 34 ortas
of ajami or apprentices. The strength of the orta varied greatly,
sometimes being as low as 100, sometimes rising considerably
beyond its nominal war strength of 500. The distinction
between the different classes seems to have been principally in
name; in theory the jemaat, or yaya beiler, were specially charged
with the duty of frontier-guards; the beuluks had the privilege
of serving as the sultan's guards and of keeping the sacred banner
in their custody.
Until the accession of Murad III. (1574) the total effective
of the janissaries, including the ajami or apprentices, did not
exceed 20,000. In 1582 irregularities in the mode of admission
to the ranks began. Soon parents themselves begged to have
their children enrolled, so great were the privileges attaching
to the corps; later the privilege of enlistment was restricted to
the children or relatives of former janissaries; eventually the
regulations were much relaxed, and any person was admitted,
only negroes being excluded. In 1591 the ojak numbered
48,688 men. Under Ibrahim (1640-1648) it was reduced by
Kara Mustafa to 17,000; but it soon rose again, and at the
accession of Mahommed IV. (1648), the accession-bakshish was
distributed to 50,000 janissaries. During the war of 1683-1698
the rules for admission were suspended, 30,000 recruits being
received at one time, and the effective of the corps rising to
70,000; about 1805 it numbered more than 112,000; it went
on increasing until the destruction of the janissaries, when it
reached 135,000. It would perhaps be more correct to say that
these are the numbers figuring on the pay-sheets, and that they
doubtless largely exceed the total of the men actually serving in
the ranks.
Promotion to the rank of warrant officer was obtained by
long or distinguished service; it was by seniority up to the rank
of odabashi, but odabashis were promoted to the rank of chorbaji
(commander of an orta) solely by selection. Janissaries advanced
in their own orta, which they left only to assume the command of
another. Ortas remained permanently stationed in the fortress
towns in which they were in garrison, being displaced in time of
peace only when some violent animosity broke out between two
companies. There were usually 12 in garrison at Belgrade,
14 at Khotin, 16 at Widdin, 20 at Bagdad, &c. The commander
was frequently changed. A new chorbaji was usually appointed
to the command of an orta stationed at a frontier post; he was
then transferred elsewhere, so that in course of time he passed
through different provinces.
In time of peace the janissary received no pay. At first his
war pay was limited to one aspre per diem, but it was eventually
raised to a minimum of three aspres, while veterans received as
much as 29 aspres, and retired officers from 30 to 120. The aga
received 24,000 piastres per annum; the ordinary pay of a
commander was 120 aspres per diem. The aga and several of
his subordinates received a percentage of the pay and allowance
of the troops; they also inherited the property of deceased
janissaries. Moreover, the officers profited largely by retaining
the names of dead or fictitious janissaries on the pay-rolls.
Rations of mutton, bread and candles were furnished by the
government, the supply of rice, butter and vegetables being at
the charge of the commandant. The rations would have been
entirely inadequate if the janissaries had not been allowed,
contrary to the regulations, to pursue different callings, such as
those of baker, butcher, glazier, boatman, &c. At first the
janissaries bore no other distinctive mark save the white felt
cap. Soon the red cap with gold embroidery was substituted.
Later a uniform was introduced, of which the distinctive mark
was less the colour than the cut of the coat and the shape of the
head-dress and turban. The only distinction in the costume of
commanding officers was in the colour of their boots, those of
the beuluks being red while the others were yellow; subordinate
officers wore black boots.
The fundamental laws of the janissaries, which were very
early infringed, were as follows: implicit obedience to their
officers; perfect accord and union among themselves; abstinence
from luxury, extravagance and practices unseemly for a soldier
and a brave man; observance of the rules of Haji Bektash and
of the religious law; exclusion from the ranks of all save those
properly levied; special rules for the infliction of the death-
penalty; promotion to be by seniority; janissaries to be
admonished or punished by their own officers only; the infirm
and unfit to be pensioned; janissaries were not to let their
beards grow, not to marry, nor to leave their barracks, nor to
engage in trade; but were to spend their time in drill and in
practising the arts of war.
In time of peace the state supplied no arms, and the janissaries
on service in the capital were armed only with clubs; they were
forbidden to carry any arm save a cutlass, the only exception
being at the frontier-posts. In time of war the janissaries
provided their own arms, and these might be any which took
their fancy. However, they were induced by rivalry to procure
the best obtainable and to keep them in perfect order. The
banner of the janissaries was of white silk on which verses from
the Koran were embroidered in gold. This banner was planted
beside the aga's tent in camp, with four other flags in red cases,
and his three horse-tails. Each orta had its flag, half-red and
152
half-yellow, placed before the tent of its commander. Each
orta had two or three great caldrons used for boiling the soup
and pilaw; these were under the guard of subordinate officers.
A particular superstition attached to them: if they were lost
in battle all the officers were disgraced, and the orta was no
longer allowed to parade with its caldrons in public ceremonies.
The janissaries were stationed in most of the guard-houses of
Constantinople and other large towns. No sentries were on
duty, but rounds were sent out two or three times a day. It was
customary for the sultan or the grand vizier to bestow largess on
an orta which they might visit.
The janissaries conducted themselves with extreme violence
and brutality towards civilians. They extorted money from
them on every possible pretext: thus, it was their duty to sweep
the streets in the immediate vicinity of their barracks, but they
forced the civilians, especially if rayas, to perform this task or
to pay a bribe. They were themselves subject to severe corporal
punishments; if these were to take place publicly the ojak was
first asked for its consent.
At first a source of strength to Turkey as being the only well-
organized and disciplined force in the country, the janissaries
soon became its bane, thanks to their lawlessness and exactions.
One frequent means of exhibiting their discontent was to set
fire to Constantinople; 140 such fires are said to have been
caused during the 28 years of Ahmed III.'s reign. The janis-
saries were at all times distinguished for their want of respect
towards the sultans; their outbreaks were never due to a real
desire for reforms of abuses or of misgovernment,but were solely
caused to obtain the downfall of some obnoxious minister.
The first recorded revolt of the janissaries is in 1443, on the
occasion of the second accession of Mahommed II., when they
broke into rebellion at Adrianople. A similar revolt happened
at his death, when Bayazid II. was forced to yield to their
demands and thus the custom of the accession-bakshish was
established; at the end of his reign it was the janissaries who
forced Bayazid to summon Prince Selim and to hand over the
reins of power to him. During the Persian campaign of Selim I.
they mutinied more than once. Under Osmanll. their disorders
reached their greatest height and led to the dethronement and
murder of the sultan. It would be tedious to recall all their acts
of insubordination. Throughout Turkish history they were made
use of as instruments by unscrupulous and ambitious statesmen,
and in the iyth century they had become a praetorian guard in
the worst sense of the word. Sultan Selim III. in despair
endeavoured to organize a properly drilled and disciplined force,
under the name of nizam-i-jedid, to take their place; for some
time the janissaries regarded this attempt in sullen silence; a
curious detail is that Napoleon's ambassador Sebastian! strongly
dissuaded the sultan from taking this step. Again serving as
tools, the janissaries dethroned Selim III. and obtained the
abolition of the nizam-i-jedid. But after the successful revo-
lution of Bairakdar Pasha of Widdin the new troops were re-
established and drilled: the resentment of the janissaries rose to
such a height that they attacked the grand vizier's house, and
after destroying it marched against the sultan's palace. They
were repulsed by cannon, losing 600 men in the affair (1806).
But such was the excitement and alarm caused at Constantinople
that the nizam-i-jedid, or sekbans as they were now called, had
to be suppressed. During the next 20 years the misdeeds and tur-
bulence of the janissaries knew no bounds. Sultan Mahmud II.,
powerfully impressed by their violence and lawlessness at his
accession, and with the example of Mehemet Ali's method of
suppressing the Mamlukes before his eyes, determined to rid
the state of this scourge; long biding his time, in 1825 he decided
to form a corps of regular drilled troops known as eshkenjis. A
Jetva was obtained from the Sheikh-ul-Islam to the effect that
it was the duty of Moslems to acquire military science. The
imperial decree announcing the formation of the new troops was
promulgated at a grand council, and the high dignitaries present
(including certain of the principal officers of the janissaries who
concurred) undertook to comply with its provisions. But the
janissaries rose in revolt, and on the loth of June 1826, began
JANIUAY— JAN MAYEN
to collect on the Et Meidan square at Constantinople; at mid-
night they attacked the house of the aga of janissaries, and,
finding he had made good his escape, proceeded to overturn the
caldrons of as many ortas as they could find, thus forcing the
troops of those ortas to join the insurrection. Then they pillaged
and robbed throughout the town. Meanwhile the government
was collecting its forces; the ulema, consulted by the sultan,
gave the following fetva: " If unjust and violent men attack
their brethren, fight against the aggressors and send them before
their natural judge ! " On this the sacred standard of the
prophet was unfurled, and war was formally declared against
these disturbers of order. Cannon were brought against the Et
Meidan, which was surrounded by troops. Ibrahim Aga, known
as Kara Jehennum, the commander of the artillery, made a last
appeal to the janissaries to surrender; they refused, and fire was
opened upon them. Such as 'escaped were shot down as they
fled; the barracks where many found refuge were burnt; those
who were taken prisoner were brought before the grand vizier
and hanged. Before many days were over the corps had ceased
to exist, and the janissaries, the glory of Turkey's early days and
the scourge of the country for the last two centuries, had passed
for ever from the page of her history.
See M. d'Ohsson, Tableaux de Vempire ottoman (Paris, 1787-
1820); Ahmed Vefyk, Lehj6-i-osmani& (Constantinople, 1290-1874);
A. DjeVad Bey, £.tat militaire ottoman (Constantinople, 1885).
JANIUAY, a town of the province of Iloilo, Panay, Philippine
Islands, on the Suague river, about 20 m. W.N.W. of Iloilo, the
capital. Pop. (1903), 27,399, including Lambunao (6661)
annexed to Janiuay in 1903. The town commands delightful
views of mountain and valley scenery. An excellent road
connects it with Pototan, about 10 m. E. The surrounding
country is hilly but fertile and well cultivated, producing rice,
sugar, tobacco, vegetables (for the Iloilo market), hemp and
Indian corn. The women weave and sell beautiful fabrics of
pina, silk, -cotton and abaca. The language is Panay-Visayan.
Janiuay was founded in 1578; it was first established in the
mountains and was subsequently removed to its present site.
JANJIRA, a native state of India, in the Konkan division of
Bombay, situated along the coast among the spurs of the
Western Ghats, 40 m. S. of Bombay city. Area, 324 sq. m.
Pop. (1901), 85,414, showing an increase of 4% in the decade.
The estimated revenue is about £37,000; there is no tribute.
The chief, whose title is Nawab Sahib, is by descent a Sidi or
Abyssinian Mahommedan; and his ancestors were for many
generations admirals of the Mahommedan rulers of the Deccan.
The state, popularly known as Habsan ( = Abyssinian), did not
come under direct subordination to the British until 1870. It
supplies sailors and fishermen, and also firewood, to Bombay,
with which it is in regular communication by steamer.
The Nawab of Janjira is also chief of the state of JAFARABAD
(f.t.).
JAN MAYEN, an arctic island between Greenland and the
north of Norway, about 71° N. 8° W. It is 34 m. long and 9 in
greatest breadth, and is divided into two parts by a narrow
isthmus. The island is of volcanic formation and mountainous,
the highest summit being Beerenberg in the north (8350 ft.).
Volcanic eruptions have been observed. Glaciers are fully
developed. Henry Hudson discovered the island in 1607 and
called it Hudson's Tutches or Touches. Thereafter it was
several times observed by navigators who successively claimed
its discovery and renamed it. Thus, in 1611 or the following
year whalers from Hull named it Trinity Island; in 1612 Jean
Vrolicq, a French whaler, called it lie de Richelieu; and in 1614
Joris Carolus named one of its promontories Jan Meys Hoek
after the captain of one of his ships. The present name of the
island is derived from this, the claim of its discovery by a Dutch
navigator, Jan Mayen, in 1611, being unsupportable. The
island is not permanently inhabited, but has been frequently
visited by explorers, sealers and whalers; and an Austrian
station for scientific observations was maintained here for a
year in 1882-1883. During this period a mean temperature of
27-8° F. was recorded.
JANSEN— JANSENISM
JANSEN, CORNELIUS (1585-1638), bishop of Ypres, and father
of the religious revival known as Jansenism, was born of humble
Catholic parentage at Accoy in the province of Utrecht on the
28th of October 1585. In 1602 he entered the university of
Louvain, then in the throes of a violent conflict between the
Jesuit, or scholastic, party and the followers of Michael Baius,
who swore by St Augustine. Jansen ended by attaching himself
strongly to the latter party, and presently made a momentous
friendship with a like-minded fellow-student, Du Vergier de
Hauranne, afterwards abbot of Saint Cyran. After taking his
degree he went to Paris, partly to recruit his health by a change
of scene, partly to study Greek. Eventually he joined Du
Vergier at his country home near Bayonne, and spent some years
teaching at the bishop's college. All his spare time was spent
in studying the early Fathers with Du Vergier, and laying plans
for a reformation of the Church. In 1616 he returned to Louvain,
to take charge of the college of St Pulcheria, a hostel for Dutch
students of theology. Pupils found him a somewhat choleric
and exacting master and academic society a great recluse.
However, he took an active part in the university's resistance
to the Jesuits; for these had established a theological school of
their own in Louvain, which was proving a formidable rival to
the official faculty of divinity. In the hope of repressing their
encroachments, Jansen was sent twice to Madrid, in 1624 and
1626; the second time he narrowly escaped the Inquisition. He
warmly supported the Catholic missionary bishop of Holland,
Rovenius, in his contests with the Jesuits, who were trying to
evangelize that country without regard to the bishop's wishes.
He also crossed swords more than once with the Dutch Presby-
terian champion, Voetius, still remembered for his attacks on
Descartes. Antipathy to the Jesuits brought Jansen no nearer
Protestantism; on the contrary, he yearned to beat these by
their own weapons, chiefly by showing them that Catholics
could interpret the Bible in a manner quite as mystical and
pietistic as theirs. This became the great object of his lectures,
when he was appointed regius professor of scriptural interpre-
tation at Louvain in 1630. Still more was it the object of his
Augustinus, a bulky treatise on the theology of St Augustine,
barely finished at the time of his death. Preparing it had been
his chief occupation ever since he went back to Louvain. But
Jansen, as he said, did not mean to be a school-pedant all his
life; and there were moments when he dreamed political dreams.
He looked forward to a time when Belgium should throw off the
Spanish yoke and become an independent Catholic republic on
the model of Protestant Holland. These ideas became known
to his Spanish rulers, and to assuage them he wrote a philippic
called the Mars gallicus (1635), a violent attack on French
ambitions generally, and on Richelieu's indifference to inter-
national Catholic interests in particular. The Mars gallicus
did not do much to help Jansen's friends in France, but it
more than appeased the wrath of Madrid with Jansen himself;
in 1636 he was appointed bishop of Ypres. Within two years he
was cut off by a sudden illness on the 6th of May 1638; the
Augustinus, the book of his life, was published posthumously in
1640.
Full details as to Jansen's career will be found in Reuchlin's
Geschichte von PortRoyal (Hamburg, i839),vol.i. See also Jansenius
by the Abb6s Callawaert and Nols (Louvain, 1893). (Sx C.)
JANSENISM, the religious principles laid down by Cornelius
Jansen in his Augustinus. This was simply a digest of the teach-
ing of St Augustine, drawn up with a special eye to the needs of
the 1 7th century. In Jansen's opinion the church was suffering
from three evils. The official scholastic theology was anything
but evangelical. Having set out to embody the mysteries of
faith in human language, it had fallen a victim to the excellence
of its own methods; language proved too strong for mystery.
.Theology sank into a branch of dialectic; whatever would not fit
in with a logical formula was cast aside as useless. But average
human nature does not take kindly to a syllogism, and theology
had ceased to have any appreciable influence on popular religion.
Simple souls found their spiritual pasture in little mincing " devo-
tions "; while robuster minds built up for themselves a natural
moralistic religion, quite as close to Epictetus as to Christianity.
All these three evils were attacked by Jansen. As against the
theologians, he urged that in a spiritual religion experience, not
reason, must be our guide. As against the stoical self-sufficiency
of the moralists, he dwelt on the helplessness of man and his
dependence on his maker. As against the ceremonialists, he
maintained that no amount of church-going will save a man,
unless the love of God is in him. But this capacity for love no
one can give himself. If he is born without the religious instinct,
he can only receive it by going through a process of " conver-
sion." And whether God converts this man or that depends on
his good pleasure. Thus Jansen's theories of conversion melt
into predestination; although, in doing so, they somewhat
modify its grimness. Even for the worst miscreant there is
hope — for who can say but that God may yet think fit to convert
him? Jansen's thoughts went back every moment to his two
spiritual heroes, St Augustine and St Paul, each of whom had
been " the chief of sinners."
Such doctrines have a marked analogy to those of Calvin; but
in many ways Jansen differed widely from the Protestants. He
vehemently rejected their doctrine of justification by faith; con-
version might be instantaneous, but it was only the beginning of a
long and gradual process of justification. Secondly, although
the one thing necessary in religion was a personal relation of
the human soul to its maker, Jansen held that that relation
was only possible in and through the Roman Church. Herein
he was following Augustine, who had managed to couple together
a high theory of church authority and sacramental grace with a
strongly personal religion. But the circumstances of the I7th
century were not those of the 5th; and Jansen landed his follow-
ers in an inextricable confusion. What were they to do, when
the outward church said one thing, and the inward voice said
another? Some time went by, however, before the two authori-
ties came into open conflict. Jansen's ideas were popularized in
France by his friend Du Vergier, abbot of St Cyran; and he
dwelt mainly on the practical side of the matter — on the necessity
of conversion and love of God, as the basis of the religious life.
This brought him into conflict with the Jesuits, whom he accused
of giving absolution much too easily, without any serious inquiry
into the dispositions of their penitent. His views are expounded
at length by his disciple, Antoine Arnauld, in a book on Frequent
Communion (1643). This book was the first manifestation of
Jansenism to the general public in France, and raised a violent
storm. But many divines supported Arnauld; and no official
action was taken against his party till 1649. In that year the
Paris University condemned five propositions from Jansen's
Augustinus, all relative to predestination. This censure, backed
by the signatures of eighty-five bishops, was sent up to Rome for
endorsement; and in 1653 Pope Innocent X. declared all five
propositions heretical.
This decree placed the Jansenists between two fires; for
although the five propositions only represented one side of
Jansen's teaching, it was recognized by both parties that the
whole question was to be fought out on this issue. Under the
leadership of Arnauld, who came of a great family of lawyers,
the Jansenists accordingly took refuge in a series of legal tactics.
Firstly, they denied that Jansen had meant the propositions in
the sense condemned. Alexander VII. replied (1656) that his
predecessor had condemned them in the sense intended by their
author. Arnauld retorted that the church might be infallible
in abstract questions of theology; but as to what was passing
through an author's mind it knew no more than any one else.
However, the French government supported the pope. In
1656 Arnauld was deprived of his degree, in spite of Pascal's
Provincial Letters (1656-1657), begun in an attempt to save him
(see PASCAL; CASUISTRY). In 1661 a formulary, or solemn
renunciation of Jansen, was imposed on all his suspected
followers; those who would not sign it went into hiding, or
to the Bastille. Peace was only restored under Clement IX.
in 1669.
This peace was treated by Jansenist writers as a triumph;
really it was the beginning of their downfall. They had set out
*S4
to reform the Church of Rome; they ended by having to fight
hard for a doubtful foothold within it. Even that foothold soon
gave way. Louis XIV\ was a fanatic for uniformity, civil and
religious; the last thing he was likely to tolerate was a handful
of eccentric recluses, who believed themselves to be in special
touch with Heaven, and therefore might at any moment set their
conscience up against the law. During the lifetime of his cousin,
Madame de Longueville, the great protectress of the Jansenists,
Louis stayed his hand; on her death (1670) the reign of severity
began. That summer Arnauld, who had spent the greater part
of his life in hiding, was forced to leave France for good.
Six years later he was joined in exile by Pasquier Quesnel
who succeeded him as leader of the party. Long before his
flight from France Quesnel had published a devotional commen-
tary— Reflexions morales sur le Nouveau Testament — which had
gone through many editions without exciting official suspicion.
But in 1695 Louis Antoine de Noailles, bishop of Chalons, was
made archbishop of Paris. He was known to be very hostile to
the Jesuits, and at Chalons had more than once expressed
official approval of QuesnePs Reflexions. So the Jesuit party
determined to wreck archbishop and book at the same time.
The Jansenists played into their hands by suddenly raising (1701)
in the Paris divinity school the question whet her it was necessary
to accept the condemnation of Jansen with interior assent, or
whether a " respectful silence " was enough. Very soon ecclesi-
astical France was in a blaze. In 1703 Louis XIV. wrote to
Pope Clement XL, proposing that they should take joint action
to make an end of Jansenism for ever. Clement replied in 1705
with a bull condemning respectful silence. This measure only
whetted Louis's appetite. He was growing old and increasingly
superstitious; the affairs of his realm were going from bad to
worse; he became frenziedly anxious to propitiate the wrath of
his maker by making war on the enemies of the Church. In 1 7 1 1
he asked the pope for a second, and still stronger bull, that
would tear up Jansenism by the roots. The pope's choice of a
book to condemn fell on Quesnel's Reflexions; in 1713 appeared
the bull Unigenitus, anathematizing no less than one-hundred-
and-one of its propositions. Indeed, in his zeal against the
Jansenists the pope condemned various practices in no way
peculiar to their party; thus, for instance, many orthodox
Catholics were exasperated at the heavy blow he dealt at popular
Bible reading. Hence the bull met with much opposition from
Archbishop de Noailles and others who did not call themselves
Jansenists. In the midst of the conflict Louis XIV. died
(September 1715); but the freethinking duke of Orleans, who
succeeded him as regent, continued after some wavering to
support the bull. Thereupon four bishops appealed against it
to a general council; and the country became divided into
"appellants" and " acceptants" (1717). The regent's disrepu-
table minister, Cardinal Dubois, patched up an abortive truce in
1720, but the appellants promptly " re-appealpd " against it.
During the next ten years, however, they were slowly crushed,
and in 1730 the Unigenilus was proclaimed part and parcel of
the law of France. This led to a great quarrel with the judges,
who were intensely Gallican in spirit (see GALLICANISM), and had
always regarded the Unigenilus as a triumph of ultramontanism.
The quarrel dragged indefinitely on through the i8th century,
though the questions at issue were really constitutional and
political rather than religious.
Meanwhile the most ardent Jansenists had followed Quesnel
to Holland. Here they met with a warm welcome from the
Dutch Catholic body, which had always been in close sympathy
with Jansenism, although without regarding itself as formally
pledged to the Augustinus. But it had broken loose from Rome
in 1702, and was now organizing itself into an independent
church (see UTRECHT). The Jansenists who remained in France
had meanwhile fallen on evil days. Persecution usually begets
hysteria in its victims; and the more extravagant members of the
party were far advanced on the road which leads to apocalyptic
prophecy and " speaking with tongues." About 1728 the
" miracles of St M6dard " became the talk of Paris. This was
the cemetery where was buried Francois de Paris, a young
JANSSEN, C.— JANSSEN, J.
Jansenist deacon of singularly holy life, and a perfervid opponent
of the Unigenitus. All sorts of miraculous cures were believed
to have been worked at his tomb, until the government closed
the cemetery in 1732. This gave rise to the famous epigram:
De par le roi, defense a Dieu
De faire miracle en ce lieu.
On the miracles soon followed the rise of the so-called Convul-
sionaries. These worked themselves up, mainly by the use of
frightful self-tortures, into a state of frenzy, in which they
prophesied and cured diseases. They were eventually disowned
by the more reputable Jansenists, and were severely repressed
by the police. But in 1772 they were still important enough for
Diderot to enter the field against them. Meanwhile genuine
Jansenism survived in many country parsonages and convents,
and led to frequent quarrels with the authorities. Only one of
its latter-day disciples, however, rose to real eminence; this was
the Abbe Henri Gregoire, who played a considerable part in the
French Revolution. A few small Jansenist congregations still
survive in France; and others have been started in connexion
with the Old Catholic Church in Holland.
LITERATURE. — For the 17th century see the Port Royal of
Sainte-Beuve (5th ed., Paris, 1888) in six volumes. See also H.
Reuchlin, Geschichte von Port Royal (2 vols., Hamburg, 1839-1844),
and C. Beard, Port Royal (2 vols., London, 1861). No satisfactory
Roman Catholic history of the subject exists, though reference may
be made to Count Joseph de Maistre's De I'eglise gallicane (last ed.,
Lyons, 1881). On the Jansenism of the i8th century no single work
exists, though much information will be found in the Gallican
Church of Canon Jervis (2 vols., London, 1872). For a series of
excellent sketches see also Seche, Les Dernier s Jansenistes (3 vols.,
Paris, 1891). A more detailed list of books bearing on the subject
will be found in the 5th volume of the Cambridge Modern History;
and I. Paquier's Le Jansenisme (Paris, 1909) may also be consulted.
(ST C.)
JANSSEN, or JANSEN (sometimes JOHNSON), CORNELIUS
(1593-1664), Flemish painter, was apparently born in London,
and baptized on the I4th of October 1593. There seems no
reason to suppose, as was formerly stated, that he was born at
Amsterdam. He worked in England from 1618 to 1643, and
afterwards retired to Holland, working at Middelburg, Am-
sterdam, The Hague and Utrecht, and dying at one of the last two
places about 1664. In England he was patronized by James I.
and the court, and under Charles I. he continued to paint the
numerous portraits which adorn many English mansions and
collections. Janssen's pictures, chiefly portraits, are dis-
tinguished by clear colouring, delicate touch, good taste and
careful finish. He generally painted upon panel, and often
worked on a small scale, sometimes producing replicas of his
larger works. A characteristic of his style is the very dark
background, which throws the carnations of his portraits into
rounded relief. In all probability his earliest portrait (1618)
was that of John Milton as a boy of ten.
JANSSEN, JOHANNES (1820-1891), German historian, was
born at Xanten on the loth of April 1829, and was educated
as a Roman Catholic at Munster, Louvain, Bonn and Berlin,
afterwards becoming a teacher of history at Frankfort-on-the-
Main. He was ordained priest in 1860; became a member of
the Prussian Chamber of Deputies in 1875; and in 1 880 was made
domestic prelate to the pope and apostolic pronotary. He died
at Frankfort on the 24th of December 1891. Janssen was a
stout champion of the Ultramontane party in the Roman
Catholic Church. His great work is his Geschichte des deutschen
Volkes sett dem Ausgang des Mittelalters (8 vols., Freiburg, 1878-
1 894) . In this book he shows himself very hostile to the Reforma-
tion, and attempts to prove that the Protestants were responsible
for the general unrest in Germany during the i6th and i?th
centuries. The author's partisanship led to some controversy,
and Janssen wrote An meine Kriliker (Freiburg, 1882) and
Bin zweites Wort an meine Kriliker (Freiburg, 1883) in reply to.
the Janssens Geschichle des deutschen Volkes (Munich, 1883) of
M. Lenz, and other criticisms.
The Geschichte, which has passed through numerous editions, has
been continued and improved by Ludwig Pastor, and the greater part
of it has been translated into English by M. A. Mitchell and A. M.
JANSSEN, P. J. C.— JANUS
Christie (London, 1896, fol.). Of his other works perhaps the most
important are: the editing of Frankfurts Reichskorrespondenz, 1376-
1519 (Freiburg, 1863-1872); and of the Leben, Briefs und tteinere
Schriften of his friend J. F. Bohmer (Leipzig, 1868); a monograph,
Schiller als Historiker (Freiburg, 1863); and Zeit- und Lebensbilder
(Freiburg, 1875).
See L. Pastor, Johannes Janssen (Freiburg, 1893) ; F. Meister, hnn-
nerung an Johannes Janssen (Frankfort, 1896) ; Schwann, Johannes
Janssen und die Geschichte der deutschen Reformation (Munich, 1892).
JANSSEN, PIERRE JULES CfiSAR (1824-1907), French
astronomer, was born in Paris on the 22nd of February 1824,
and studied mathematics and physics at the faculty of sciences.
He taught at the lycee Charlemagne in 1853, and in the school
of architecture 1865-1871, but his energies were mainly devoted
to various scientific missions entrusted to him. Thus in 1857
he went to Peru in order to determine the magnetic equator;
ih 1861-1862 and 1864, he studied telluric absorption in the solar
spectrum in Italy and Switzerland; in 1867 he carried out
optical and magnetic experiments at the Azores; he successfully
observed both transits of Venus, that of 1874 in Japan, that of
1882 at Oran in Algeria; and he took part in a long series of
solar eclipse-expeditions, e.g. to Trani (1867), Guntoor (1868),
Algiers (1870), Siam (1875), the Caroline Islands (1883), and to
Alcosebre in Spain (1905). To see the eclipse of 1870 he escaped
from besieged Paris in a balloon. At the great Indian eclipse
of 1868 he demonstrated the gaseous nature of the red promi-
nences, and devised a method of observing them under ordinary
daylight conditions. One main purpose of his spectroscopic
inquiries was to answer the question whether the sun contains
oxygen or not. An indispensable preliminary was the virtual
elimination of oxygen-absorption in the earth's atmosphere,
and his bold project of establishing an observatory on the top of
Mont Blanc was prompted by a perception of the advantages to
be gained by reducing the thickness of air through which
observations have to be made. This observatory, the founda-
tions of which were fixed in the snow that appears to cover the
summit to a depth of ten metres, was built in September 1893,
and Janssen, in spite of his sixty-nine years, made the ascent
and spent four days taking observations. In 1875 he was
appointed director of the new astrophysical observatory estab-
lished by the French government at Meudon, and set on
foot there in 1876 the remarkable series of solar photographs
collected in his great Atlas de photographies solaires (1904)-
The first volume of the Annales de I'observatoire de Meudon
was published by him in 1896. He died at Paris on the 23rd of
December 1907.
See A. M. Clerke, Hist, of Astr. during the ipth Century (1903) ;
H. Macpherson, Astronomers of To-Day (1905).
JANSSENS (or JANSENS), VICTOR HONORIUS (1664-1739),
Flemish painter, was born at Brussels. After seven years in
the studio of an obscure painter named Volders, he spent four
years in the household of the duke of Holstein. The next eleven
years Janssens passed in Rome, where he took eager advantage
of all the aids to artistic study, and formed an intimacy with
Tempesta, in whose landscapes he frequently inserted figures.
Rising into popularity, he painted a large number of cabinet
historical scenes; but, on his return to Brussels, the claims of
his increasing family restricted him almost entirely to the larger
and more lucrative size of picture, of which very many of the
churches and palaces of the Netherlands contain examples. In
1718 Janssens was invited to Vienna, where he stayed three
years, and was made painter to the emperor. The statement
that he visited England is based only upon the fact that certain
fashionable interiors of the time in that country have been
attributed to him. Janssen's colouring was good, his touch
delicate and his taste refined.
JANSSENS (or JANSENS) VAN NUYSSEN, ABRAHAM (1567-
1632), Flemish painter, was born at Antwerp in 1567. He
studied under Jan Snellinck, was a " master " in 1602, and in
1607 was dean of the master-painters. Till the appearance of
Rubens he was considered perhaps the best historical painter
of his time. The styles of the two artists are not unlike. In
correctness of drawing Janssens excelled his great contemporary;
in bold composition and in treatment of the nude he equalled
him; but in faculty of colour and in general freedom of dis-
position and touch he fell far short. A master of chiaroscuro,
he gratified his taste for strong contrasts of light and shade
in his torchlights and similar effects. Good examples of this
master are to be seen in the Antwerp museum and the Vienna
gallery. The stories of his jealousy of Rubens and of his
dissolute life are quite unfounded. He died at Antwerp in
1632.
JANUARIUS, ST, or SAN GENNARO, the patron saint of
Naples. According to the legend, he was bishop of Benevento,
and flourished towards the close of the 3rd century. On the
outbreak of the persecution by Diocletian and Maximian, he
was taken to Nola and brought before Timotheus, governor of
Campania, on account of his profession of the Christian religion.
After various assaults upon his constancy, he was sentenced to
be cast into the fiery furnace, through which he passed wholly
unharmed. On the following day, along with a number of fellow
martyrs, he was exposed to the fury of wild beasts, which,
however, laid themselves down in tame submission at his feet.
Timotheus, again pronouncing sentence of death, was struck
with blindness, but immediately healed by the powerful inter-
cession of the saint, a miracle which converted nearly five
thousand men on the spot. The ungrateful judge, only roused
to further fury by these occurrences, caused the execution of
Januarius by the sword to be forthwith carried out. The body
was ultimately removed by the inhabitants of Naples to that
city, where the relic became very famous for its miracles, espe-
cially in counteracting the more dangerous eruptions of Vesuvius.
Whatever the difficulties raised by his Acta, the cult of St
Januarius, bishop and martyr, is attested historically at Naples
as early as the 5th century (Biblioth. hagiog. latina, No. 6558).
Two phials preserved in the cathedral are believed to contain the
blood of the martyr. The relic is shown twice a year — in May
and September. On these occasions the substance contained
in the phial liquefies, and the Neapolitans see in this phenomenon
a supernatural manifestation. The " miracle of St Januarius "
did not occur before the middle of the isth century.
A great number of saints of the name of Januarius are
mentioned in the martyrologies. The best-known are the
Roman martyr (festival, the loth of July), whose epitaph was
written by Pope Damasus (De Rossi, Bullettino, p. 17, 1863),
and the martyr of Cordova, who forms along with Faustus and
Martialis the group designated by Prudentius (Peristephanon,
iv. 20) by the name of tres coronae. The festival of these
martyrs is celebrated on the ijth of October.
See Acta sanctorum, September, vi. 761-891; G. Scherillo,
Esame di tin codice greco pubblicato nel tomo secondo della bibliotheca
casinensis (Naples, 1876); G. Taglialatela, Memorie storico-critiche
del culto del sangue di S. Gennaro (Naples, 1893), which contains
many facts, but little criticism ; G. Albini, Sulla mobilitd dei liquidi
viscosi non omogemi (Societa reale di Napoli, Rendiconti, 2nd series,
vol. iv., 1890) ; Acta sanctorum, October, vi. 187-193. (H. DE.)
JANUARY, the first month in the modern calendar, consisting
of thirty-one days. The name (Lat. Januarius) is derived from
the two-faced Roman god Janus, to whom the month was
dedicated. As doorkeeper of heaven, as looking both into the
past and the future, and as being essentially the deity who
busied himself with the beginnings of all enterprises, he was
appropriately made guardian of the fortunes of the new year.
The consecration of the month took place by an offering of meal,
salt, frankincense and wine, each of which was new. The
Anglo-Saxons called January Wulfmonath, in allusion to the
fact that hunger then made the wolves bold enough to come into
the villages. The principal festivals of the month are: New
Year's Day; Feast of the Circumcision; Epiphany; Twelfth-
Day; and Conversion of St Paul (see CALENDAR).
JANUS, in Roman mythology one of the principal Italian
deities. The name is generally explained as the masculine form
of Diana (Jana), and Janus as originally a god of light and day,
who gradually became the god of the beginning and origin of
all things. According to some, however, he is simply the god
i56
JAORA--JAPAN
[GEOGRAPHY
of doorways (januae) and in this connexion is the patron of all
entrances and beginnings. According to Mommsen, he was
" the spirit of opening," and the double-head was connected
with the gate that opened both ways. Others, attributing to
him an Etruscan origin, regard him as the god of the vault of
heaven, which the Etruscan arch is supposed to resemble. The
rationalists explained him as an old king of Latium, who built
a citadel for himself on the Janiculum. It was believed that
his worship, which was said to have existed as a local cult before
the foundation of Rome, was introduced there by Romulus,
and that a temple was dedicated to him by Numa. This temple,
in reality only an arch or gateway (Janus geminus) facing east
and west, stood at the north-east end of the forum. It was open
during war and closed during peace (Livy i. 19); it was shut only
four times before the Christian era. A possible explanation is,
that it was considered a bad omen to shut the city gates while
the citizens were outside fighting for the state; it was necessary
that they should have free access to the city, whether they
returned victorious or defeated. Similarly, the door of a
private house was kept open while the members of the family
were away, but when all were at home it was closed to keep
out intruders. There was also a temple of Janus near the theatre
of Marcellus, in the forum olitorium, erected by Gaius Duilius
(Tacitus, Ann. ii. 49), if not earlier.
The beginning of the day (hence his epithet Matutinus), of
the month, and of the year (January) was sacred to Janus; on
the gth of January the festival called Agonia was celebrated in
his honour. He was invoked before any other god at the
beginning of any important undertaking; his priest was the Rex
Sacrorum, the representative of the ancient king in his capacity
as religious head of the state. All gateways, housedoors and
entrances generally, were under his protection; he was the
inventor of agriculture (hence Consivius, " he who sows or
plants "), of civil laws, of the coining of money and of religious
worship. He was worshipped on the Janiculum as the protector
of trade and shipping; his head is found on the as, together
with the prow of a ship. He is usually represented on the
earliest coins with two bearded faces, looking in opposite
directions; in the time of Hadrian the number of faces is in-
creased to four. In his capacity as porter or doorkeeper he
holds a staff in his right hand, and a key (or keys) in his left; as
such he is called Patulcius (opener) and Clusius (closer). His
titles Curiatius, Patricius, Quirinus originate in his worship in
the gentes, the curiae and the state, and have no reference to
any special functions or characteristics. In late times, he is
both bearded and unbearded; in place of the staff and keys, the
fingers of his right hand show the number 300 (CCC.), those of
his left the number of the remaining days of the year (LXV.).
According to A. B. Cook (Classical Review, xviii. 367), Janus
is only another form of Jupiter, the name under which he was
worshipped by the pre-Latin (aboriginal) inhabitants of Rome;
after their conquest by the Italians, Janus and Jana took their
place as independent divinities by the side of the Italian Jupiter
and Juno. He considers it probable that the three-headed
Janus was a triple oak-god worshipped in the form of two
vertical beams and a cross-bar (such as the ligillum sororium,
for which see HORATII); hence also the door, consisting of two
lintels and side-posts, was sacred to Janus. The three-headed
type may have been the original, from which the two-headed
and four-headed types were developed. J. G. Frazer (The
Early History of the Kingship, pp. 214, 285), who also identifies
Janus with Jupiter, is of opinion that Janus was not originally
a doorkeeper, but that the door was called after him, not vice
versa. Janua may be an adjective, janua foris meaning a door
with a symbol of Janus close by the chief entrance, to serve as
a protection for the house; then janua alone came to mean a door
generally, with or without the symbol of Janus. The double
head may have been due to the desire to make the god look both
ways for greater protection. By J. Rhys (Hibberl Lectures,
1886, pp. 82, 94) Janus is identified with the three-faced (some-
times three-headed) Celtic god Cernunnus, a chthonian divinity,
compared by Rhys with the Teutonic Heimdal, the warder of
the gods of the under- world; like Janus, Cernunnus and Heimdal
were considered to be the Jons et origo of all things.
See S. Linde, De Jano summo romanorum deo (Lund, 1891);
J. S. Speyer, " Le Dieu remain Janus," in Revue de I'histoire des
religions (xxvi., 1892); G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romer
(1902); W. Deecke, Etruskische Forschungen, vol. ii.; W. Warde
Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (1899),
pp. 282-290; articles in W. H. Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie and
Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des Antiquites; J. Toutain,
Etudes de Mythologie (1909). On other jani (arched passages) in
Rome, frequented by business men and money changers, see
O. Richter, Topographic der Stadt Rom (1901). (J. H. F.)
JAORA, a native state of Central India, in the Malwa agency.
It consists of two isolated tracts, between Ratlam and Neemuch.
Area, with the dependencies of Piplauda and Pant Piplauda,
568 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 84,202. The estimated revenue is
£57,000; tribute, £9000. The chief, whose title is nawab, is
a Mahommedan of Afghan descent. The state was confirmed
by the British government in 1818 by the Treaty of Mandsaur.
Nawab Mahommed Ismail, who died in 1895, was an honorary
major in the British army. His son, Iftikhar Ah' Khan, a minor
at his accession, was educated in the Daly College at Indore, with
a British officer for his tutor, and received powers of administra-
tion in 1906. The chief crops are millets, cotton, maize and
poppy. The last supplies a large part of the Malwa opium of
commerce. The town of JAORA is on the Rajputana-Malwa
railway, 20 m. N. of Ratlam. Pop. (1901), 23,854. It is well
laid, out, with many good modern buildings, and has a high
school and dispensary. To celebrate Queen Victoria's Diamond
Jubilee, the Victoria Institute and a zenana dispensary were
opened in 1898.
JAPAN, an empire of eastern Asia, and one of the great powers
of the world. The following article is divided for convenience
into ten sections: — I. GEOGRAPHY; II. THE PEOPLE; III.
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE; IV. ART; V. ECONOMIC CONDI-
TIONS; VI. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION; VII. RELIGION;
VIII. FOREIGN INTERCOURSE; IX. DOMESTIC HISTORY; X.
THE CLAIM OF JAPAN.
I. — GEOGRAPHY
The continent of Asia stretches two arms into the Pacific
Ocean, Kamchatka in the north and Malacca in the south,
between which lies a long cluster of islands
constituting the Japanese empire, which covers
37° 14' of longitude and 29° ii' of latitude. On the
extreme north are the Kuriles (called by the Japanese Chishima,
or the "myriad isles"), which extend to 156° 32' E. and to
50° 56' N. ; on the extreme south is Formosa (called by the
Japanese Taiwan), which extends to 122° 6' E., and to 21° 45'
N. There are six large islands, namely Sakhalin (called by the
Japanese Karafulo); Yezo or Ezo (which with the Kuriles is
designated Hokkaido, or the north-sea district); Nippon (the
"origin of the sun"), which is the main island; Shikoku (the
" four provinces "), which lies on the east of Nippon; Kiushiu
or Kyushu (the " nine provinces "), which lies on the south of
Nippon, and Formosa, which forms the most southerly link of
the chain. Formosa and the Pescadores were ceded to Japan
by China after the war of 1894-1895, and the southern half of
Sakhalin — the part south of 50° N. — was added to Japan by
cession from Russia in 1905. Korea, annexed in August 1910,
is separately noticed.
Coast-line. — The following table shows the numbers, the lengths
of coast-line, and the areas of the various groups of islands, only
those being indicated that have a coast-line of at least I ri (2j m.),
or that, though smaller, are inhabited ; except in the case of Formosa
and the Pescadores, where the whole numbers are given : —
Nippon
Isles adjacent to Nippon
Shikoku
Isjcs adjacent to Shikoku
Kiushiu
Isles adjacent to Kiushiu
Length of
Number, coast in
miles.
4.765-03
1,275-09
1,100-85
548-12
I
167
I
75
i
150
2,101-28
2,405-06
Area
in square
miles.
99.373-57
470-30
6,461-39
175-40
13,778-68
1,821-85
8 of Korea, : \.3f0rthemsHetm.-gydngi z. South-
Key to the Province
— Btun-gyong " "r — '
JAPABT
AHD KOREA.
Scale 1: 7,500,000
.
; 4. Southern Pfiyo ny - ctn*
-; .aTi.!.oTU[-wv, 8.Western Chu
9. Eastern, Chung - chong ; ID. Northern JfyoTig- sang; TLSou
Ifyd'ruj- sartfff 12.3fbrthern, Chel-la,, 1Z. Southern, Chdl-l
Political Colouring :
Russian dU Korea
KriVrenrrs ;uul ahln-i
,W>j
Ken : K.,Knnt
in,), mutt
Provincial, ttt\,i-<t/nfttts t
, t'tt/tti',V
/>rf'initt\ i- tfrm.f unit
. n,,rh»nr ,
\,>h»ri . Snn ) mini ) ". /
ir! Kn^mcd hy J
jpon.
wZ- thus; Free ports tints-
lht-7iouses e&c.i.
»7fcf - ffata.,Minatff,
if., j-iwrf Ko, lake.;
ut.un . I'D, anchorage;
'o, tslanA; Wan,, bar-
Copvri-Sht in Uie United States of America , 1910
by The Encyclopaedia Britannlca Co.
GEOGRAPHY]
Number.
Yezo
Isles adjacent to Yezo .
Sakhalin (Karafuto) . .
Sado
Okishima
Isles adjacent to Okishima
Awaji
Isles adjacent to Awaji
Iki
Isles adjacent to Iki
Tsushima
Isles adjacent to Tsushima
Riukiu (or Luchu) Islands
Kuriles (Chishima) .
Bonin (Ogasawara Islands)
Taiwan (Formosa) .
Isles adjacent to Formosa .
Pescadores (Hoko-tS) .
I
13
5
55
3i
20
I
7
12
Length of
coast in
miles.
110-24
Unsurveyed
130-05
182-27
3-09
94-43
5-32
86-47
4-41
409-23
118-80
768-74
1,496-23
I74-65
73I-3I
i28-32Not
98-67
Area
in square
miles.
30,148-41
30-5I
12,487-64
335-92
130-40
0-06
217-83
0-83
50-96
0-47
261-72
4-58
935-18
6,159-42
26-82
I3429-3I
surveyed
85-50
Totals 549 18,160-98 173,786-75
If the various smaller islands be included, a total of over 3000 is
reached, but there has not been any absolutely accurate enumeration.
It will be observed that the coast-line is very long in proportion
to the area, the ratio being I m. of coast to every 9-5 m. of area.
The Pacific Ocean, which washes the eastern shores, moulds their
outline into much greater diversity than does the Sea of Japan
which washes the western shores. Thus the Pacific sea-board
measures 10,562 m. against 2887 m. for that of the Japan Sea. In
depth of water, too, the advantage is on the Pacific side. There the
bottom slopes very abruptly, descending precipitously at a point not
far from the north-east coast of the main island, where soundings have
shown 4655 fathoms. This, the deepest sea-bed in the world, is
called the Tuscarora Deep, after the name of the United States'
man-of-war which made the survey. The configuration seems to
point to a colossal crater under the ocean, and many of the earth-
quakes which visit Japan appear to have their origin in this sub-
marine region. On the other hand, the average depth of the Japan
Sea is only 1200 fathoms, and its maximum depth is 3200. The
east coast, from Cape Shiriya (Shiriyazaki) in the north to Cape
Inuboye (Inuboesaki) near Tokyo Bay, though abounding in small
indentations, has only two large bays, those of Sendai and Matsu-
shima ; but southward from Tokyo Bay to Cape Satta (Satanomisaki)
in Kiushiu there are many capacious inlets which offer excellent
anchorage, as the Gulf of Sagami (Sagaminada), the Bays of Suruga
(Surugawan), Ise (Isenumi) and Osaka, the Kii Channel, the Gulf
of Tosa (Tosonada), &c. Opening into both the Pacific and the
Sea of Japan and separating Shikoku and Kiushiu from the main
island as well as from each other, is the celebrated Inland Sea, one
of the most picturesque sheets of water in the world. Its surface
measures 1325 sq. m.; it has a length of 255 m. and a maximum
width of 56 m. ; its coast-lines aggregate 700 m. ; its depth is nowhere
more than 65 fathoms, and it is studded with islands which present
scenery of the most diverse and beautiful character. There are
four narrow avenues connecting this remarkable body of water with
the Pacific and the Japan Sea; that on the west, called Shimonoseki
Strait, has a width of 3000 yds., that on the south, known as
Hayamoto Strait, is 8 m. across; and the two on the north, Yura
and Naruto Straits, measure 3000 and 1500 yds. respectively. It
need scarcely be said that these restricted approaches give little
access to the storms which disturb the seas outside. More broken
into bays and inlets than any other part of the coast is the western
shore of Kiushiu. Here three promontories — Nomo, Shimabara
and Kizaki — enclose a large bay having on its shores Nagasaki, the
great naval port of Sasebo, and other anchorages. On the south of
Kiushiu the Bay of Kagoshima has historical interest, and on the
west are the bays of Ariakeno-ura and Yatsushiro. To the north
of Nagasaki are the bays of Hakata, Karatsu and Imari. Between
this coast and the southern extremity of the Korean peninsula are
situated the islands of Iki and Tsushima, the latter being only
30 m. distant from the peninsula. Passing farther north, the shore-
line of the main island along the Japan Sea is found to be compara-
tively straight and monotonous, there being only one noteworthy
indentation, that of Wakasa-wan, where are situated the naval port
of Maizuru and the harbour of Tsuruga, the Japanese point of
communication with the Vladivostok terminus of the Trans;Asian
railway. From this harbour to Osaka Japan's waist measures only
77 m., and as the great lake of Biwa and some minor sheets of water
break the interval, a canal may be dug to join the Pacific and the
Sea of Japan. Yezo is not rich in anchorages. Uchiura (Volcano
Bay), Nemuro (Walfisch) Bay and Ishikari Bay are the only remark-
able inlets. As for Formosa, the peculiarity of its outline is that the
eastern coast falls precipitously into deep water, while the western
slopes slowly to shelving bottoms and shoals. The Pescadores
Islands afford the best anchorage in this part of Japan.
Mountains.— The Japanese islands are traversed from north to
south by a range of mountains which sends out various lateral
JAPAN 157
branches. Lofty summits are separated by comparatively low
passes, which lie at the level of crystalline rocks and schists consti-
tuting the original uplands upon which the summits have been piled
by volcanic action. The scenery among the mountains is generally
soft. Climatic agencies have smoothed and modified everything
rugged or abrupt, until an impression of gentle undulation rather
than of grandeur is suggested. Nowhere is the region of eternal
snow reached, and masses of foliage enhance the gentle aspect of
the scenery and glorify it in autumn with tints of striking brilliancy.
Mountain alternates with valley, so that not more than one-eighth
of the country's entire area is cultivable.
The king of Japanese mountains is Fuji-yama or Fuji-san (peer-
less mount), of which the highest point (Ken-ga-mine) is 12,395 ft.
above sea-level. The remarkable grace of this moun- _ .,
tain's curve — an inverted catenary — makes it one
of the most beautiful in the world, and has obtained for it
a prominent place in Japanese decorative art. Great streams of
lava flowed from the crater in ancient times. The course of one is
still visible to a distance of 15 m. from the summit, but the rest are
covered, for the most part, with deep deposits of ashes and scoriae.
On the south Fuji slopes unbroken to the sea, but on the other
three sides the plain from which it rises is surrounded by mountains,
among which, on the north and west, a series of most picturesque
lakes has been formed in consequence of the rivers having been
dammed by ashes ejected from Fuji's crater. To a height of some
1500 ft. the slopes of the mountain are cultivated; a grassy moor-
land stretches up the next 2500 ft. ; then follows a forest, the upper
edge of which climbs to an altitude of nearly 8000 ft., and finally
there is a wide area of ashes and scoriae. There is entire absence
of the Alpine plants found abundantly on the summits of other high
mountains in Japan, a fact due, doubtless, to the comparatively
recent activity of the volcano. The ascent of Fuji presents no
difficulties. A traveller can reach the usual point of departure,
Gotemba, by rail from Yokohama, and thence the ascent and descent
may be made in one day by a pedestrian.
The provinces of Hida and Etchiu are bounded on the east by a
chain of mountains including, or having in their immediate vicinity,
the highest peaks in Japan after Fuji. Six of these
summits rise to a height of 9000 ft. or upwards, and The
constitute the most imposing assemblage of mountains Japanese
in the country. The ridge runs due north and south Alps.
through 60 to 70 m., and has a width of 5 to lorn. It
is mostly of granite, only two of the mountains — Norikura and
Tateyama — showing clear traces of volcanic origin. Its lower
flanks are clothed with forests of beech, conifers and oak. Farther
south, in the same range, stands Ontake (10,450 ft.), the second
highest mountain in Japan proper (as distinguished from Formosa) ;
and other remarkable though not so lofty peaks mark the same
regions. This grand group of mountains has been well called the
" Alps of Japan," and a good account of them may be found in The
Japanese Alps (1896) by the Rev. W. Weston. On the summit of
Ontake are eight large and several small craters, and there also may
be seen displays of trance and " divine possession," such as are
described by Mr Percival Lowell in Occult Japan (1895).
Even more picturesque, though less lofty, than the Alps of Japan,
are the Nikko mountains, enclosing the mausolea of the two greatest
of the Tokugawa shoguns. The highest of these are
Shirane-san (7422ft.), Nantai-san (8169 ft.), Nyoh6- The Nikko
zan (8100 ft.), and Omanago (7546 ft.). They are Mountains.
clothed with magnificent vegetation, and everywhere
they echo the voices of waterfalls and rivulets.
In the north of the main island there are no peaks of remarkable
height. The best known are Chiokai-zan, called " Akita-Fuji "
(the Fuji of the Akita province), a volcano 7077 ft.
high, which was active as late as 1861 ; Ganju-san Mountains
(6791 ft.), called also " Nambu-Fuji " or Iwate-zan, of the North.
remarkable for the beauty of its logarithmic curves;
Iwaki-san (5230 ft.), known as Tsugaru-Fuji, and said by some to
be even more imposing than Fuji itself; and the twin mountains
Gassan (6447 ft.) and Haguro-san (5600 ft.). A little farther south,
enclosing the fertile plain of Aizu (Aizu-taira, as it is called) several
important peaks are found, among them being lide-san (6332 ft.);
Azuma-yama (7733 ft.), which, after a long interval of quiescence,
has given many evidences of volcanic activity during recent years;
Nasu-dake (6296 ft.), an active volcano; and Bandai-san (6037 ft.).
A terrible interest attaches to the last-named mountain, for, after
having remained quiet so long as to lull the inhabitants of the neigh-
bouring district into complete security, it suddenly burst into fierce
activity on the I5th of July 1888, discharging a vast avalanche of
earth and rock, which dashed down its slopes like an inundation,
burying four hamlets, partially destroying seven villages, killing
461 people and devastating an area of 27 sq. m.
In the province of Kozuke, which belongs to the central part of
the main island, the noteworthy mountains are Asama-yama (8136
ft.), one of the best known and most violently active .,„,„,,,„.,„,
<• T At* • t f J'lOUnialOS OT
volcanoes of Japan; Akagi-san, a circular range of j^gzute> #a/
peaks surrounding the basin of an old crater and rising andShl'oano.
to a height of 6210 ft.; the Haruna group, celebrated
for scenic beauties, and Myogi-san, a cluster of pinnacles which,
though not rising higher than 3880 ft., offer scenery which dispels
iS8
JAPAN
the delusion that nature as represented in the classical pictures
(bunjingwa) of China and Japan exists only in the artist's imagina-
tion. Farther south, in the province of Kai (Koshiu), and separating
two great rivers, the Fuji-kawa and the Tenriu-gawa, there lies a
range of hills with peaks second only to those of the Japanese Alps
spoken of above. The principal elevations in this range are Shirane-
san — with three summits, N6dori (9970 ft.), Ai-no-take (10,200 ft.)
and Kaigane (10,330 ft.) — and Hoozan (9550 ft.). It will be observed
that all the highest mountains of Japan form a species of belt across
the widest part of the main island, beginning on the west with the
Alps of Etchiu, Hida and Shinano, and ending on the east with
Fuji-yama. In all the regions of the main island southward of this
belt the only mountains of conspicuous altitude are Omine (6169 ft.)
and Odai-gaharazan (5540 ft.) in Yamato and Daisen or Oyama
(5951 ft.) in Hoki.
r * t i The island of Shikoku has no mountains of notable
SftttoiI/7 magnitude. The highest is Ishizuchi-zan (7727 ft.), but
there are several peaks varying from 3000 to 6000 ft.
Kiushiu, though abounding in mountain chains, independent or
connected, is not remarkable for lofty peaks. In the neighbourhood of
„ . . Nagasaki, over the celebrated solfataras of Unzen-take
(called also Onsen) stands an extinct volcano, whose
summit, Fugen-dake, is 4865 ft. high. More notable
is Aso-take, some 20 m. from Kumamoto; for, though the highest of
its five peaks has an altitude of only 5545 ft., it boasts the largest
crater in the world, with walls nearly 2000 ft. high and a basin from
10 to 14 m. in diameter. Aso-take is still an active volcano, but its
eruptions during recent years have been confined to ashes and dust.
Only two other mountains in Kiushiu need be mentioned — a volcano
(3743 ft.) on the island Sakura-jima, in the extreme south; and
Kinshima-yama (5538 ft.), on the boundary of Hiuga, a mountain
specially sacred in Japanese eyes, because on its eastern peak
(Talcachiho-dake) the god Ninigi descended as the forerunner of the
first Japanese sovereign, Jimmu.
Among the mountains of Japan there are three volcanic ranges,
namely, that of the Kuriles, that of Fuji, and that of Kirishima.
Vokaaoes ^UJ' ls t'le most remarkable volcanic peak. The
Japanese regard it as a sacred mountain, and numbers
of pilgrims make the ascent in midsummer. From 500 to 600 ft.
is supposed to be the depth of the crater. There are neither sul-
phuric exhalations nor escapes of steam at present, and it would seem
that this great volcano is permanently extinct. But experience
in other parts of Japan shows that a long quiescent crater may at
any moment burst into disastrous activity. Within the period
of Japan's written history several eruptions are recorded the last
having been in 1707, when the whole summit burst into flame, rocks
were shattered, ashes fell to a depth of several inches even in Yedo
(Tokyo), 60 m. distant, and the crater poured forth streams of lava.
Among still active volcanoes the following are the best known : —
Name of Volcano.
Remarks.
Forms southern wall of a laree ancient
crater now occupied by a lake (Shikotsu).
A little steam still issues from several
smaller cones on the summit of the ridge,
as well as from one, called Eniwa, on the
northern side.
Noboribetsu (Yezo) In a state of continuous activity, with
1148. frequent detonations and rumblings. The
crater is divided by a wooded rock-wall.
The northern part is occupied by a steaming
lake, while the southern part contains
numerous solfataras and boiling springs.
(Yezo) The ancient crater-wall, with a lofty
Height in feet.
Tarumai (Yezo) 2969.
Komagatakc
3822.
Esan 2067.
Agatsuma
„ 5230.
Bandai-san
6037.
pinnacle on the western side, contains a
low new cone with numerous steaming rifts
and vents. In a serious eruption in 1856
the S.E. flank of the mountain and the
country side in that direction were denuded
of trees.
A volcano-promontory at the Pacific end
of the Tsugaru Strait : a finely formed cone
surrounded on three sides by the sea, the
crater breached on the land side. The
central vent displays considerable activity,
while the rocky walls are stained with red,
yellow and white deposits from numerous
minor vents.
(Iwaki) Erupted in 1903 and killed two geolo-
gists.
(Iwashiro) Erupted in 1888 after a long period of
quiescence. The outbreak was preceded
by an earthquake of some severity, after
which about 20 explosions took place. A
huge avalanche of earth and rocks buried
the Nagase Valley with its villages and
inhabitants, and devastated an area of
over 27 sq. m. The number of lives lost
was 461 ; four hamlets were completely
Bandai-san (Iwashiro)
6037 — (cont.).
Azuma-yama (Fuku-
shima) 7733.
Nasu (Tochigi) 6296.
Shirane (Nikko) 7422.
Shirane (Kai) 10,330.
Unzen (Hizen) 4865.
Aso-take (Higo) 5545.
Kaimon (Kagoshima
Bay) 3041.
Sakura-jima (Kago-
shima Bay) 3743.
Kiri-shima (Kagoshima
Ba?) 5538-
Izuno Oshima (Vries
Island) (Izu) 2461.
[GEOGRAPHY
entombed with their inhabitants and cattle;
seven villages were partially wrecked;
forests were levelled or the trees entirely
denuded of bark; rivers were blocked up,
and lakes v/ere formed. The lip of the
fracture is now marked by a line of steaming
vents.
Long considered extinct, but has erupted
several times since 1893, the last explosion
having been in 1900, when 82 sulphur-
diggers were killed or injured; ashes were
thrown to a distance of 5m. .accumulating in
places to a depth of 5 ft. ; and a crater 300 ft.
in diameter, and as many in depth, was
formed on the E. side of the mountain. This
crater is still active. The summit-crater is
occupied by a beautiful lake. On the
Fukushima (E.) side of the volcano rises
a large parasitic cone, extinct.
Has both a summit and a lateral crater,
which are apparently connected and per-
petually emitting steam. At or about the
main vents are numerous solfataras. The
whole of the upper part of the cone consists
of grey highly acidic lava. At the base is a
thermal spring, where baths have existed
since the 7th century.
The only remaining active vent of the
once highly volcanic Nikko district. Erup-
tion in 1889.
Eruption in 1905, when the main crater
was enlarged to a length of 3000 ft. It is
divided into three parts, separated by walls,
and each containing a lake, of which the
middle one emits steam and the two ithers
are cold. The central lake, during the
periods of eruption (which are frequent),
displays a geyser-like activity. These lakes
contain free sulphuric acid, mixed with iron
and alum.
A triple-peaked volcano in the solfatara
stage, extinct at the summit, but displaying
considerable activity at its base in the
form of numerous fumaroles and boiling
sulphur springs.
Remarkable for the largest crater in the
world. It measures 10 m. by 15, and
rises almost symmetrically to a height of
about 2000 ft., with only one break
through which the river Shira flows. The
centre is occupied by a mass of peaks, on
the W. flank of which lies the modern active
crater. Two of the five compartments into
which it is divided by walls of deeply
striated vojcanic ash are constantly emitting
steam, while a new vent displaying great
activity has been opened at the base of the
cone on the south side. Eruptions have
been recorded since the earliest days of
Japanese history. In 1884 the ejected dust
and ashes devastated farmlands through
large areas. An outbreak in 1894 produced
numerous rifts in the inner walls from which
steam and smoke have issued ever since.
One of the most beautiful volcanoes of
Japan, known as the Satsuma-Fuji. The
symmetry of the cone is marred by a con-
vexity on the seaward (S.) side. This
volcano is all but extinct.
An island-volcano, with several parasitic
cones (extinct), on the N. and E. sides.
At the summit are two deep craters, the
southern of which emits steam. Grass
grows, however, to the very edges of the
crater. The island is celebrated for ther-
mal springs, oranges and daikon (radishes),
which sometimes grow to a weight of 70 to.
A volcanic range of which Takachiho,
the only active cone, forms the terminal
(S.E.) peak. Thecrater.situated on theS.W.
side of the volcano, lies some 500 ft. below
the summit-peak. It is of remarkably
regular formation, and the floor is pierced
by a number of huge fumaroles whence
issue immense volumes of steam.
The volcano on this island is called
Mihara. There is a double crater, the outer
being almost complete. The diameter of
the outer crater, within which rises the
modern cone to a height of 500 ft. above
GEOGRAPHY]
JAPAN
Izuno Oshima (Vries the surrounding floor, is about 2 m.; while
Island) (Izu) 2461 — the present crater, which displays incessant
(cont.). activity, has itself a diameter of J m.
Asama (Ise) 8136. The largest active volcano in Japan.
An eruption in 1783, with a deluge of
lava, destroyed an extensive forest and
overwhelmed several villages. The present
cone is the third, portions of two concentric
crater rings remaining. The present crater
is remarkable for the absolute perpendicu-
larity of its walls, and has an immense depth
— from 600 to 800 ft. It is circular, f m.
in circumference, with sides honeycombed
and burned to a red hue.
Some of the above information is based upon Mr. C. E. Bruce-
Mitford's valuable work (see Geog. Jour., Feb. 1908, &c.).
Earthquakes. — Japan is subject to marked displays of seismic
violence. One steadily exercised influence is constantly at work,
for the shores bordering the Pacific Ocean are slowly though appre-
ciably rising, while on the side of the Japan Sea a corresponding sub-
sidence is taking place. Japan also experiences a vast number of
petty vibrations not perceptible without the aid of delicate instru-
ments. But of earthquakes proper, large or small, she has an excep-
tional abundance. Thus in the thirteen years ending in 1897 — that is
to say, the first period when really scientific apparatus for recording
purposes was available — she was visited by no fewer than 17,750
shocks, being an average of something over 3! daily. The frequency
of these phenomena is in some degree a source of security, for the
minor vibrations are believed to exercise a binding effect by removing
weak cleavages. Nevertheless the annals show that during the
three centuries before 1897 there were 108 earthquakes sufficiently
disastrous to merit historical mention. If the calculation be carried
farther back — as has been done by the seismic disaster investigation
committee of Japan, a body of scientists constantly engaged in
studying these phenomena under government auspices, — it is found .
that, since the country's history began to be written in the 8th cen-
tury A.D., there have been 2006 major disturbances; but inasmuch
as 1489 of these occurred before the beginning of the Tokugawa
administration (early in the I7th century, and therefore in an era
when methods of recording were comparatively defective), exact
details are naturally lacking. The story, so far as it is known, may
be gathered from the following table : —
Date A.D. Region. Houses Deaths,
destroyed.
684 . . . Southern part of Tosa ... — (*)
869 ... Mutsu — (*)
1361 . . . Kioto
1498 . . . Tokaido 2,000 (3)
1569 Bungo 700
(in which province Tokyo is situated) and Sagami have been most
subject to disturbance.
Plains. — Japan, though very mountainous, has many extensive
plains. The northern island — Yezo — contains seven, and there are
as many more in the main and southern islands, to say nothing of
flat lands of minor dimensions. The principal are given in the
following table : —
Name. Situation. Area. Remarks.
Tokachi plain . . Yezo. 744,000 acres.
Ishikari . . do. 480,000
Kushiro . . do. 1,229,000
Nemuro . . do. 320,000
Kitami . . do. 230,000
Hidaka . . do. 200,000
Teshio . . do. 180,000
Echigo . . Main Island. Unascertained.
Sendai . . do. do.
Kwanto , . . do. do. In this plain lie the
capital.Tokyo, and the
town of Yokohama. It
supports about 6 mil-
lions of people.
Mino-Owari,, .. do. do. Has l^ million inhabi-
tants.
Kinai „ . . do. do. Has the cities of
Osaka, Kioto and Kobe,
and 2% million people.
Tsukushi ,, .. Kiushiu. do. The chief coalfield of
Japan.
Rivers. — Japan is abundantly watered. Probably no country in
the world possesses a closer network of streams, supplemented by
canals and lakes. But the quantity of water carried seawards
varies within wide limits; for whereas, during the rainy season in
summer and while the snows of winter are melting in spring, great
volumes of water sweep down from the mountains, these broad
rivers dwindle at other times to petty rivulets trickling among a
waste of pebbles and boulders. Nor are there any long rivers,
and all are so broken by shallows and rapids that navigation is
generally impossible except by means of flat-bottomed boats
drawing only a few inches. The chief rivers are given in the follow-
ing table: —
Length
in miles. Source. Mouth.
Ishikari-gawa . . 275 Ishikari-dake . . . Otaru.
Sh-inano-gawa . .215 Kimpu-san . . . Niigata.
Teshio-gawa . . 192 Teshio-take . . . Sea of Japan.
Tone-gawa . .177 Monju-zan, Kozuke . Choshi (Shi-
mosa).
1596 Kioto 2,000
Mogami-gawa . . 151 Dainichi-dake(Uzen). Sakata.
1605 (31/1) . Pacific Coast 5.000
1611 (27/9) . Aizu 3.7°°
1614 (2/12) . Pacific Coast (N.E.) . . . 1,700
1662 (i6/6) Kioto 5,5°° 500
Yoshino-gawa . . 149 Yahazu-yama (Tosa). ' Tokushima
(Awa).
Kitakami-gawa . 146 Nakayama-dake Ishinomaki
(Rikuchiu) (Rikuzen).
1666 (a/a) . Echigo 1,500
1694 (19/2) . Ugo 2,760 390
1703 (30/12) . Tokyo 20,162 5,233
Tenriu-gawa . . 136 Suwako (Shinano) . Totomi Bay.
Go-gawa or Iwa-
megawa . . . 122 Maruse-yama (Bingo) Iwami Bay.
1707 (28/10) . Pacific Coast of Kiushiu and
Shikoku 29,000 4,900
1751 (20/5) . Echigo 9.!O° i.7°°
1766 (8/3) . Hirosaki 7,500 1,335
1792 (10/2) . Hizen and Higo .... 12,000 15,000
1828 (18/2) Echigo H.75O 1,443
Abukuma-gawa . 122 Asahi-take (Iwashiro) Matsushima Bay.
Tokachi-gawa . .120 Tokachi-dake . . . Tokachi Bay.
Sendai-gawa . .112 Kunimi-zan (Hiuga) . Kumizaki (Sat-
suma).
Oi-gawa . . .112 Shirane-san (Kai). . Suruga Bay.
Kiso-gawa . . .112 Kiso-zan (Shinano) . Bay of Isenumi.
1844 (8/5) Echigo . . . 34.OOO 12,000
Ara-kawa . . . 104 Chichibu-yama . . Tokyo Bay..
1854 (6/7) . Yamato, Iga, Ise . . . . 5,000 2,400
1854 (23/12) . Tokaido (Shikoku) . . . 60,000 3,000
1855 (n/ii) Yedo (Tokyo) 50,000 6,700
Naga-gawa . . . 102 Nasu-yama (Shimo- Naka-no-minato
tsuke) .... (Huachi).
1891 (28/10) Mino, Owari 222,501 7,273
Lakes and Waterfalls. — Japan has many lakes, remarkable for
1894 (22/10) . Shonai 8,403 726
1896 (15/6) . Sanriku I3.°73 27,122
1896 (31/8) . Ugo, Rikuchu 8,996 209
1906 (12/2) . Formosa 5.556 1,228
(i) An area of over 1,200,000 acres swallowed up by the sea.
(2) Tidal wave killed thousands of people.
(3) Hamana lagoon formed.
In the capital (Tokyo) the average yearly number of shocks
throughout the 26 years ending in 1906 was 96, exclusive of minor
vibrations, but during the 50 years then ending there were only two
severe shocks (1884 and 1894), and they were not directly responsible
for any damage to life or limb. The Pacific coast of the Japanese
islands is more liable than the western shore to shocks disturbing a
wide area. Apparent proof has been obtained that the shocks
occurring in the Pacific districts originate at the bottom of the sea —
the Tuscarora Deep is supposed to be the centre of seismic activity
— and they are accompanied in most cases by tidal waves. It would
seem that of late years Tajima, Hida, Kozuke and some other regions
in central Japan have enjoyed the greatest immunity, while Musashi
the beauty of their scenery rather than for their extent. Some
are contained in alluvial depressions in the river valleys ; others have
been formed by volcanic eruptions, the ejecta damming the rivers
until exits were found over cliffs or through gorges. Some of these
lakes have become favourite summer resorts for foreigners. To that
category belong especially the lakes of Hakone, of Chiuzenji, of Shoji,
of Inawashiro, and of Biwa. Among these the highest is Lake
Chiuzenji, which is 4375 ft. above sea-level, has a maximum depth
of 93 fathoms, and empties itself at one end over a fall (Kegon) 250 ft.
high. The Shoji lakes lie at a height of 3160 ft., and their neigh-
bourhood abounds in scenic charms. Lake Hakone is at a height
of 2428 ft.; Inawashiro, at a height of 1920 ft. and Biwa at a
height of 328 ft. The Japanese associate Lake Biwa (Omi) with
eight views of special loveliness( Omi-no-hakkei) . Lake Suwa, in Shi-
nano, which is emptied by the Tenriu-gawa, has a height of 2624 ft.
In the vicinity of many of these mountain lakes thermal springs,
with remarkable curative properties, are to be found. (F. BY.)
Geology. — It is a popular belief that the islands of Japan consist
for the most part of volcanic rocks. But although this conception
might reasonably be suggested by the presence of many active and
i6o
JAPAN
[GEOGRAPHY
extinct volcanoes, Professor J. Milne has pointed out that it is
literally true of the Kuriles alone, partially true for the northern
half of the Main Island and for Kiushiu, and quite incorrect as
applied to the southern half of the Main Island and- to Shikoku.
This authority sums up the geology of Japan briefly and succinctly
as follows (in Things Japanese, by Professor Chamberlain) : " The
backbone of the country consists of primitive gneiss and schists.
Amongst the latter, in Shikoku, there is an extremely interesting
rock consisting largely of piedmontite. Overlying these amongst
the Palaeozoic rocks, we meet in many parts of Japan with slates
and other rocks possibly of Cambrian or Silurian age. Trilobites
have been discovered in Rikuzen. Carboniferous rocks are repre-
sented by mountain masses of Fusulina and other limestones. There
is also amongst the Palaeozoic group an interesting series of red
slates containing Radiolaria. Mesozoic rocks are represented by
slates containing Ammonites and Monotis, evidently of Triassic age,
rocks containing Ammonites Bucklandi of Liassic age, a series of
beds rich in plants of Jurassic age, and beds of Cretaceous age
containing Trigonia and many other fossils. The Cainozoic or
Tertiary system forms a fringe round the coasts of many portions
of the empire. It chiefly consists of stratified volcanic tuffs rich in
coal, lignite, fossilized plants and an invertebrate fauna. Diatoma-
ceous earth exists at several places in Yezo. In the alluvium which
covers all, the remains have been discovered of several species of
elephant, which, according to Dr Edmund Naumann, are of Indian
origin. The most common eruptive rock is andesite. Such rocks
as basalt, diorite and trachyte are comparatively rare. Quartz
porphyry, quartzless porphyry, and granite are largely developed."
Drs von Richthofen and Rein discuss the subject in greater detail.
They have pointed out that in the mountain system of Japan there
are three main lines. One runs from S.W. to N.E. ; another from
S.S.W. to N.N.E., and the third is meridional. These they call
respectively the " southern schist range," the " northern schist
range," and the " snow range," the last consisting mainly of old
crystalline massive rocks. The rocks predominating in Japan fall
also into three groups. They are, first, plutonic rocks, especially
granite; secondly, volcanic rocks, chiefly trachyte and dolerite;
and thirdly, palaeozoic schists. On the other hand, limestone and
sandstone, especially of the Mesozoic strata, are strikingly deficient.
The strike of the old crystalline rocks follows, in general, the main
direction of the islands (S.W. to N.E.). They are often overlain
by schists and quartzites, or broken through by volcanic masses.
" The basis of the islands consist of granite, syenite, diorite, dia-
base and related kinds of rock, porphyry appearing comparatively
seldom. Now the granite, continuing for long distances, forms the
prevailing rock; then, again, it forms the foundation for thick strata
of schist and sandstone, itself only appearing in valleys of erosion
and river boulders, in rocky projections on the coasts or in the
ridges of the mountains. ... In the composition of many moun-
tains in Hondo (the main island) granite plays a prominent part. . . .
It appears to form the central mass which crops up in hundreds of
places towards the coast and in the interior. Old schists, free from
fossils and rich in quartz, overlie it in parallel chains through the
whole length of the peninsula, especially in the central and highest
ridges, and bear the ores of Chu-goku (the central provinces),
principally copper pyrites and magnetic pyrites. These schist
ridges rich in quartz show, to a depth of 20 metres, considerable
disintegration. The resulting pebble and quartz-sand is very un-
productive, and supports chiefly a poor underwood and crippled
pines with widely spreading roots which seek their nourishment afar.
In the province of Settsu granite everywhere predominates, which
may be observed also in the railway cuttings between Hiogo and
Osaka, as well as in the temples and walls of these towns. The
waterfalls near Kobe descend over granite walls and the mikageishi
(stone of Mileage), famous throughout Japan, is granite from
Settsu. ... In the hill country on the borders of Ise, Owari,
Mikawa and Totomi, on the one side, and Omi, Mino and Shinano,
on the other, granite frequently forms dark grey and much dis-
integrated rock-projections above schist and diluvial quartz pebbles.
The feldspar of a splendid pegmatite and its products of disintegra-
tion on the borders of Owari, Mino and Mikawa form the raw material
of the very extensive ceramic industry of this district, with its
chief place, Seto. Of granite are chiefly formed the meridional
mountains of Shinano. Granite, diorite and other plutonic rocks hem
in the winding upper valleys of the Kisogawa, the Saiga wa (Shinano
river) and many other rivers of this province, their clear water
running over granite. Also in the hills bordering on the plain of
Kwanto these old crystalline rocks are widely spread. Farther
northwards they give way again, as in the south, to schists and erup-
tive rocks. Yet even here granite may be traced in many places.
Of course it is not always a pure granite; even hablit and granite-
porphyry are found here and there. Thus, for instance, near Nikko
in the upper valley of the Daiya-gawa, and in several other places
in the neighbouring mountains, a granite-porphyry appears with
large, pale, flesh-coloured crystals of orthoclase, dull tricfinic felspar,
quartz and hornblende." " From the mine of Ichinokawa in
Shikoku come the wonderful crystals of antimonite, which form
such conspicuous objects in the mineralogical cabinets of Europe."
(Rein's Japan and Milne in Things Japanese.) The above con-
ditions suggest the presence of tertiary formations, yet only the
younger groups of that formation appear to be developed. Nor is
there any sign of moraines, glacier-scorings or other traces of the
ice-age.
The oldest beds which have yielded fossils in any abundance
belong to the Carboniferous System. The Trias proper is repre-
sented by truly marine deposits, while the Rhaetic beds contain
plant remains. The Jurassic and Cretaceous beds are also in part
marine and in part terrestrial. During the whole of the Mesozoic
era Japan appears to have lain on or near the margin of the Asiatic
continent, and the marine deposits are confined for the most part
to the eastern side of the islands.
The igneous rocks occur at several geological horizons, but the
great volcanic eruptions did not begin until the Tertiary period.
The existing volcanoes belong to four separate arcs or chains. On
the_ south is the arc of the Luchu islands, which penetrates into
Kiu Shiu. In the centre there is the arc of the Izu-no-Shichito
islands, which is continued into Hondo along the Fossa Magna. In
North Hondo the great Bandai arc forms the axis of the island and
stretches into Yezo (Hokkaido). Finally in the east of Yczo rise
the most westerly volcanoes of the Kurile chain. The lavas and
ashes ejected by these volcanoes consist of liparite, dacite, andesite
and basalt.
Structurally Japan is divided into two regions by a depression
(the " Fossa Magna " of Naumann) which stretches across the
island of Hondo from Shimoda to Nagano. The depression is marked
by a line of volcanoes, including Fuji, and is in part buried beneath
the products of their eruptions. It is supposed to be due to a great
fault along its western margin. South and west of the Fossa Magna
the beds are thrown into folds which run approximately parallel
to the general direction of the coast, and two zones may be recog-
nized— an outer, consisting of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic beds, and an
inner, consisting of Archaean and Palaeozoic rocks, with granitic
intrusions. Nearly along the boundary between the two zones lie
the inland seas of south Japan. Towards the Fossa Magna the
folds bend northwards.
North and east of the Fossa Magna the structure is concealed, to
a very large extent, by the outpourings of the volcanoes which form
so marked a feature in the northern part of Hondo. But the founda-
tion on which the volcanoes rest is exposed along the eas*- coast of
Hondo (in the Kwanto, Abukuma and Kitakami hills), and also in
the island of Yezo. This foundation consists of Archean, Palaeozoic
and Mesozoic beds folded together, the direction of the folds being
N. by W. to S. by E., that is to say, slightly oblique to the general
direction of this part of the island. Towards the Fossa Magna the
folds bend sharply round until they are nearly parallel to the Fossa
itself. (P. LA.)
It has been abundantly demonstrated by careful observations
that the east coasts of Japan are slowly rising. This phenomenon
was first noticed in the case of the plain on which
stands the capital, Tokyo. Maps of sufficiently trust- 7?°
worthy accuracy show that in the llth century
Tokyo Bay penetrated much more deeply in a northern direction
than it does now; the point where the city's main river (Sumida
or Arakawa) enters the sea was considerably to the north of its
present position, and low-lying districts, to-day thickly populated,
were under water. Edmund Naumann was the discoverer of these
facts, and his attention was first drawn to them by learning that an
edible sea-weed, which flourishes only in salt water, is called Asakusa-
nori, from the place (Asakusa) of its original provenance, which
now lies some 3 m. inland. Similar phenomena were found in
Sakhalin by Schmidt and on the north-east coast of the main island
by Rein, and there can be little doubt that they exist at other places
also. Naumann has concluded that " formerly Tokyo Bay stretched
further over the whole level country of Shimosa and Hitachi and
northwards as far as the plain of Kwanto extends;" that " the
mountain country of Kasusa-Awa emerged from it an island, and
that a current ran in a north-westerly direction between this island
and the northern mountain margin of the present plain toward the
north-east into the open ocean."
Mineral Springs. — The presence of so many active volcanoes is
partially compensated by a wealth of mineral springs. Since many
of these thermal springs possess great medicinal value, Japan may
become one of the world's favourite health-resorts. There are more
than a hundred spas, some hot, some cold, which, being easily
accessible and highly efficacious, are largely visited by the Japanese.
The most noteworthy are as follows : —
Name of Spa.
Arima .
Asama .
Asamushi
Atami
Beppu .
Bessho .
Dogo
Hakone .
Higashi-yama .
Ikao
Isobe
Kusatsu.
Prefecture. Quality. Temp., F°.
Hiogo . . Salt 100
Nagano . Pure in — 127
Aomori . Salt 134 — 168
Shizuoka . do 131 — 226
Oita . . Carbonic Acid .... 109 — 132
Nagano . Pure or Sulphurous . . 108 — 113
Ehime . Pure 70 — no
Kanagawa Pure, Salt or Sulphurous 98 — 168
Fukushima Pure or Salt .... 117 — 144
Gumma . Salt in — 127
do. . do Cold
do. . Sulphurous .... 127 — 148
GEOGRAPHY]
Name of Spa.
Nasu
Noboribetsu
Shibu . . .
Chiuzenji
Takarazuka
Ureshino
Unzen .
Wagura .
Yamashiro .
Yunoshima .
JAPAN
161
Prefecture.
Tochigi
Ishikari
Nagano
Shizuoka .
Hiogo
Saga . .
Nagasaki .
Ishikawa .
do. .
Hiogo
Quality.
Sulphurous
do. ...
Salt .......
Carbonate of Soda and
Sulphur ....
Carbonic Acid
do. . .
Sulphurous
Salt
do
do
Temp., F°.
. 162 — 172
125
114—185
Cold
230
158—204
180
165
104—134
Climate. — The large extension of the Japanese islands in a
northerly and southerly direction causes great varieties of climate.
General characteristics are hot and humid though short summers,
and long, cold and clear winters. The equatorial currents produce
conditions differing from those existing at C9rresponding latitudes
on the neighbouring continent. In Kiushiu, Shikoku and the
southern half of the main island, the months of July and August
alone are marked by oppressive heat at the sea-level, while in ele-
•vated districts a cool and even bracing temperature may always be
found, though the direct rays of the sun retain distressing power.
Winter in these districts does not last more than two months, from
the end of December to the beginning of March; for although the
latter month is not free from frost and even snow, the balminess of
spring makes itself plainly perceptible. In the northern half of
the main island, in Yezo and in the Kuriles, the cold is severe during
the winter, which lasts for at least four months, and snow falls some-
times to great depths. Whereas in Tokyo the number of frosty nights
during a year does not average much over 60, the corresponding
number in Sapporo on the north-west of Yezo is 145. But the
variation of the thermometer in winter and summer being con-
siderable— as much as 72° F. in Tokyo — the climate proves some-
what trying to persons of weak constitution. On the other hand,
the mean daily variation is in general less than that in other countries
having the same latitude: it is greatest in January, when it reaches
18° F., and least in July, when it barely exceeds 9° F. The monthly
variation is very great in March, when it usually reaches 43° F.
During the first 40 years of the Meiji era numerous meteorological
stations were established. Reports are constantly forwarded by
meteorology te'egraPn to tne central observatory in Tokyo, which
^^' issues daily statements of the climatic conditions
during the previous twenty-four hours, as well as forecasts for
the next twenty-four. The whole country is divided into districts
for meteorological purposes, and storm-warnings are issued when
necessary. At the most important stations observations are taken
every hour; at the less important, six observations daily; and at the
least important, three observations. From the record of three de-
cades the following yearly averages of temperature are obtained : —
Taihoku (in Formosa) .
Nagasaki (Kiushiu) .
Kobe (Main Island) .
Osaka (Main Island)
Okayama (Main Island)
Nagoya (Main Island) .
Sakai (Main Island) .
Tokyo (Capital) .
Kioto (Main Island)
Niigata (Main Island)
Ishinomaki (Main Island)
Aomori (Main Island) .
Sapporo (Yezo) .
71
60
59
59
58
58
58
57
57
55
52
50
44
The following table affords data for comparing the climatesof Peking,
Shanghai, Hakodate, Tokyo and San Francisco: —
Mean
Longitude. Latitude. Temp., F°.
Peking .... n6°29'E. 39° 57' N. 53
Shanghai . . . 121° 20' E. 3I°I2'N. 59
Hakodate . . . 140° 45' E. 4i°46'N. 47
Tokyo .... 138° 47' E. 35° 41' N. 57
San Francisco . . 122° 25' E. 37° 48' N. 56
Mean Temp, of
Hottest Month.
Hottest Month.
Peking . .
Shanghai
Hakodate
Tokyo
San Francisco
Peking.
Shanghai
Hakodate
Tokyo
San Francisco
. July 80
.do 84
. August 71
do 79
. September 63
Mean Temp, of
Coldest Month. Coldest Month.
. January 22
do. 26
do 28
do 36
do 49
There are three wet seasons in Japan : the first, from the middle of
April to the beginning of May; the second, from the middle of June
to the beginning of July; and the third, from early in _
September to early in October. The dog days (doyo)
are from the middle of July till the second half of August. Septem-
ber is the wettest month; January the driest. During the four
months from November to February inclusive only about 18%
of the whole rain for the year falls. In the district on the east
of the main island the snowfall is insignificant, seldom attaining a
depth of more than four or five inches and generally melting in a few
days, while bright, sunny skies are usual. But in the mountainous
provinces of the interior and in those along the western coast, deep
snow covers the ground throughout the whole winter, and the sky is
usually wrapped in a veil of clouds. These differences are due to the
action of the north-westerly wind that blows over Japan from
Siberia. The intervening sea being comparatively warm, this wind
arrives at Japan having its temperature increased and carrying
moisture which it deposits as snow on the western faces of the
Japanese mountains. Crossing the mountains and descending
their eastern slopes, the wind becomes less saturated and warmer,
so that the formation of clouds ceases. Japan is emphatically
a wet country so far as quantity of rainfall is concerned, the average
for the whole country being 1570 mm. per annum. Still there are
about four sunny days for every three on which rain or snow falls, the
.actual figures being 150 days of snow or rain and 215 daysof sunshine.
During the cold season, which begins in October and ends in April,
northerly and westerly winds prevail throughout Japan. They come
from the adjacent continent of Asia, and they de- „,.
velop considerable strength owing to the fact that
there is an average difference of some 22 mm. between the
atmospheric pressure (750 mm.) in the Pacific and that (772 mm.)
in the Japanese islands. But during the warm season, from
May to September, these conditions of atmospheric pressure are
reversed, that in the Pacific rising to 767 mm. and that in Japan
falling to 750 mm. Hence throughout this season the prevailing
winds are light breezes from the west and south. A comparison
of the force habitually developed by the wind in various parts
of the islands shows that at Suttsu in Yezo the average strength
is 9 metres per second, while Izuhara in the island Tsu-shima,
Kumamoto in Kiushiu and Gifu in the east centre of the main
island stand at the bottom of the list with an average wind velocity
of only 2 metres. A calamitous atmospheric feature is the periodical
arrival of storms called " typhoons (Japanese tai-fu or " great
wind "). These have their origin, for the most part, in the China
Sea, especially in the vicinity of Luzon. Their season is from June
to October, but they occur in other months also, and they develop a
velocity of 5 19 75 m. an hour. The meteorological record for ten
years ended 1905 shows a total of 120 typhoons, being an average
of 12 annually. September had 14 of these phenomena, March II
and April 10, leaving 85 for the remaining 9 months. But only 65
out of the whole number developed disastrous force. It is particu-
larly unfortunate that September should be the season of greatest
typhoon frequency, for the earlier varieties of rice flower in that
month and a heavy storm does much damage. Thus, in 1902 — by
no means an abnormal year — statistics show the following disasters
owing to typhoons: casualties to human life, 3639; ships and
boat's lost, 3244; buildings destroyed wholly or partially, 695,062;
land inundated, 1,071,575 acres; roads destroyed, 1236 m. ; bridges
washed away, 13, 685 ; embankments broken, 705 m. ; crops damaged,
8,712,655 bushels. The total loss, including cost of repairs, was
estimated at nearly 3 millions sterling, which may be regarded as an
annual average.
Flora. — The flora of Japan has been carefully studied by many
scientific men from Siebold downwards. Foreigners visiting Japan
are immediately struck by the affection of the people for flowers,
trees and natural beauties of every kind. In actual wealth of
blossom or dimensions of forest trees the Japanese islands cannot
claim any special distinction. The spectacles most admired by all
classes are the tints of the foliage in autumn and theglory of flowering
trees in the spring. In beauty and variety of pattern and colour
the autumnal tints are unsurpassed. The colours pass from deep
brown through purple to yellow and white, thrown into relief by the
dark green of non-deciduous shrubs and trees. Oaks and wild
prunus, wild vines and sumachs, various kinds of maple, the dodan
(Enkianthus Japonicus Hook.) — a wonderful bush which in autumn
develops a hue of ruddy red — birches and other trees, all add
multitudinous colours to the brilliancy of a spectacle which is
further enriched by masses of feathery bamboo. The one defect
is lack of green sward. The grass used for Japanese lawns loses its
verdure in autumn and remains from November to March a greyish-
brown blot upon the scene. Spring is supposed to begin in February
when, according to the old calendar, the new year sets in, but the
only flowers then in bloom are the camellia japonica and some kinds
of daphne. The former — called by the Japanese tsubaki — may
often be seen glowing fiery red amid snow, but the pink (otome
tsubaki), white (shiro-tsubaki) and variegated (shibon-no-tsubaki)
kinds do not bloom until March or April. Neither the camellia nor
the daphne is regarded as a refined flower: their manner of shedding
their blossoms is too unsightly. Queen of spring flowers is the plum
(ume). The tree lends itself with peculiar readiness to the skilful
xv. 6
162
JAPAN
[FLORA AND FAUNA
manipulation of the gardener, and is by him trained into shapes of
remarkable grace. Its pure white or rose-red blossoms, heralding
the first approach of genial weather, are regarded with special
favour and are accounted the symbol of unassuming hardihood.
The cherry (sakura) is even more esteemed. It will not suffer any
training, nor does it, like the plum, improve by pruning, but the
sunshine that attends its brief period of bloom in April, the magni-
ficence of its flower-laden boughs and the picturesque flutter of its
falling petals, inspired an ancient poet to liken it to the " soul of
Yamato " (Japan), and it has ever since been thus regarded. The
wild peach (mono) blooms at the same time, but attracts little atten-
tion. All these trees — the plum, the cherry and the peach — bear no
fruit worthy of the name, nor do they excel their Occidental repre-
sentatives in wealth of blossom, but the admiring affection they
inspire in Japan is unique. Scarcely has the cherry season passed
when that of the wistaria (fuji) comes, followed by the azalea (tsutsuji)
and the iris (shobu), the last being almost contemporaneous with the
peony (botan), which is regarded by many Jaoan se as the king of
flowers and is cultivated assiduously. A species of weeping maple
(shidare-momiji) dresses itself in peachy-red foliage and is trained
into many picturesque shapes, though not without detriment to its
longevity. Summer sees the lotus (renge) convert wide expanses
of lake and river into sheets of white and red blossoms; a compara-
tively flowerless interval ensues until, in October and November,
the chrysanthemum arrives to furnish an excuse for fashionable
gatherings. With the exception of the dog-days and the dead of
winter, there is no season when flowers cease to be an object of
attention to the Japanese, nor does any class fail to participate in
the sentiment. There is similar enthusiasm in the matter of gardens.
From the loth century onwards the art of landscape gardening
steadily grew into a science, with esoteric as well as exoteric aspects,
and with a special vocabulary. The underlying principle is to
reproduce nature's scenic beauties, all the features being drawn to
scale, so that however restricted the space, there shall be no violation
of proportion. Thus the artificial lakes and hills, the stones forming
rockeries or simulating solitary crags, the trees and even the bushes
are all selected or manipulated so as to fall congruously into the
general scheme. If, on the one hand, huge stones are transported
hundreds of miles from sea-shore or river-bed where, in the lapse of
long centuries, waves and cataracts have hammered them into
strange shapes, and if the harmonizing of their various colours and
the adjustment of their forms to environment are studied with pro-
found subtlety, so the training and tending of the trees and shrubs
that keep them company require much taste and much toil. Thus
the red pine (aka-matsu or pinus densiflora), which is the favourite
garden tree, has to be subjected twice a year to a process of spray-
dressing which involves the careful removal of every weak or aged
needle. One tree occupies the whole time of a gardener for about ten
days. The details are endless, the results delightful. But it has to
be clearly understood that there is here no mention of a flower-
garden in the Occidental sense of the term. Flowers are cultivated,
but for their own sakes, not as a feature of the landscape garden.
If they are present, it is only as an incident. This of course does not
apply to shrubs which blossom at their seasons and fall always into
the general scheme of the landscape. Forests of cherry-trees, plum-
trees, magnolia trees, or hiyaku-jikko (Lagerslroemia indica), banks of
azalea, clumps of hydrangea, groups of camellia — such have their
permanent places and their foliage adds notes of colour when their
flowers have fallen. But chrysanthemums, peonies, roses and so
forth, are treated as special shows, and are removed or hidden when
out of bloom. There is another remarkable feature of the Japanese
gardener's art. He dwarfs trees so that they remain measurable
only by inches after their age has reached scores, even hundreds, of
years, and the proportions of leaf, branch and stem are preserved
with fidelity. The pots in which these wonders of patient skill are
grown have to be themselves fine specimens of the keramist's craft,
and as much as £200 is sometimes paid fora notably well trained tree.
There exists among many; foreign observers an impression that
Japan is comparatively poor in wild-flowers; an impression probably
due to the fact that there are no flowery meadows or lanes. Besides,
the flowers are curiously wanting in fragrance. Almost the only nota-
ble exceptions are the mokusei (Osmanlhus fraerans), the daphne and
the magnolia. Missing the perfume-laden air of the Occident, a visitor
is prone to infer paucity of blossoms. But if some familiar European
flowers are absent, they are replaced by others strange to Western
eyes — a wealth of lespedeza and Indigo-fera\ a vast variety of lilies;
graceful grasses like the eulalia and the ominameshi (Patrtna scabio-
saefolia); the richly-hued Pyrus japonica • azaleas, dicryillas and
deutzias; the kikyo (Platycodon grandiflorum), the giboshi (Funkia
ovata), and many another. The same is true of Japanese forests.
It has been well said that " to enumerate the constituents and
inhabitants of the Japanese mountain-forests would be to name at
least half the entire flora."
According to Franchet and Savatier Japan possesses:
FJ
Dicotyledonous plants .
Monocotyledonous plants .
Higher Cryptogamous plants .
'amilies. Genera. Species.
121 795 1934
28 202 613
5 38 196
Vascular plants 154
i°35
2743
The investigations of Japanese botanists are adding constantly to
the above number, and it is not likely that finality will be reached
for some time. According to a comparison made by A. Gray with
regard to the numbers of genera and species respectively represented
in the forest trees of four regions of the northern hemisphere, the
following is the case : —
Atlantic Forest-region of N. America . 66 genera and 155 species.
Pacific Forest-region of N. America . 31 genera and 78 species.
Japan and Manchuria Forest-region . 66 genera and 168 species.
Forests of Europe 33 genera and 85 species.
While there can be no doubt that the luxuriance of Japan's flora
is due to rich soil, to high temperature and to rainfall not only
plentifu-1 but well distributed over the whole year, the wealth and
variety of her trees and shrubs must be largely the result of immi-
gration. Japan has four insular chains which link her to the
neighbouring continent. On the south, the Riukiu Islands bring
her within reach of Formosa and the Malayan archipelago; on the
west, Oki, Iki, and Tsushima bridge the sea between her and Korea;
on the north-west Sakhalin connects her with the Amur region;
and on the north, the Kuriles form an almost continuous route to
Kamchatka. By these paths the germs of Asiatic plants were carried
over to join the endemic flora of the country, and all found suitable
homes amid greatly varying conditions of climate and physiography.
Fauna. — Japan is an exception to the general rule that continents
are richer in fauna than are their neighbouring islands. It has
been said with truth that " an industrious collector of beetles,
butterflies, neuroptera, &c., finds a greater number of species in a
circuit of some miles near Tokyo than are exhibited by the whole
British Isles."
Of mammals 50 species have been identified and catalogued.
Neither the lion nor the tiger is found. The true Carnivora are three
only, the bear, the dog and the marten. Three species of bears are
scientifically recognized, but one of them, the ice-bear (Ursus
maritimus), is only an accidental visitor, carried down by the Arctic
current. In the main island the black bear (kuma, Ursus japonicus)
alone has its habitation, but the island of Yezo has the great brown
bear (called shi-guma, oki-kuma oraka-kuma), the " grisly " of North
America. The bear does not attract much popular interest in Japan.
Tradition centres rather upon the fox (kitsune) and the badger
(mujina), which are credited with supernatural powers, the former
being worshipped as the messenger of the harvest god, while the
latter is regarded as a mischievous rollicker. Next to these comes
the monkey (saru), which dwells equally among the snows of the
north and in the mountainous regions of the south. Saru enters
into the composition of many place-names, an evidence of the
people's familiarity with the animal. There are ten species of bat
(komori) and seven of insect-eaters, and prominent in this class are
the mole (mugura) and the hedgehog (hari-nezumi) . Among the
martens there is a weasel (itachi), which, though useful as a rat-
killer, has the evil repute of being responsible for sudden and
mysterious injuries to human beings; there is a river-otter (kawa-
uso), and there is a sea-otter (rakko) which inhabits the northern
seas and is highly valued for its beautiful pelt. The rodents are
represented by an abundance of rats, with comparatively few mice,
and by the ordinary squirrel, to which the people give the name of
tree-rat (ki-nezumi), as well as the flying squirrel, known as the
momo-dori (peach-bird) in the north, where it hides from the light
in hollow tree-trunks, and in the south as the ban-tori (or bird of
evening). There are no rabbits, but hares (usagi) are to be found
in very varying numbers, and those of one species put on a white
coat during winter. The wild boar (shishi or ii-no-shishi) does not
differ appreciably from its European congener. Its flesh is much
relished, and for some unexplained reason is called by its vendors
" mountain-whale " (yama-kujira). A very beautiful stag (shika),
with eight-branched antlers, inhabits the remote woodlands, and
there are five species of antelope (kamo-shika) which are found in
the highest and least accessible parts of the mountains. Domestic
animals have for representatives the horse (uma), a small beast with
little beauty of form though possessing much hardihood and endu-
rance; the ox (ushi), mainly a beast of burden or draught; the pig
(buta), very occasionally; the dog (inu), an unsightly and useless
brute; the cat (neko), with a stump in lieu of a tail; barndoor fowl
(niwa-tori), ducks (ahiro) and pigeons (hato). The turkey (shichi-
mencho) and the goose (gacho) have been introduced but are little
appreciated as yet.
Although so-called singing birds exist in tolerable numbers, those
worthy of the name of songster are few. Eminently first is a species
of nightingale (uguisu), which, though smaller than its congener of
the West, is gifted with exquisitely modulated flute-like notes of
considerable range. The uguisu is a dainty bird in the matter of
temperature. After May it retires from the low-lying regions and
gradually ascends to higher altitudes as midsummer approaches.
A variety of the cuckoo called hototogisu (Cuculus poliocephalus) in
imitation of the sound of its voice, is neard as an accompaniment of
the uguisu, and there are also three other species, the kakkddori
(Cuculus canorus), the tsutsu-dori (C. himalayanus] , and the masu-
hakari, orjuichi (C. hyperythrus). To these the lark, hibari (Alauda
japonica), joins its voice, and the cooing of the pigeon (hato) is
supplemented by the twittering of the ubiquitous sparrow (suzume).
FAUNA]
JAPAN
163
while over all are heard the raucous caw of the raven (karasu) and
the harsh scream of the kite (tombi), between which and the raven
there is perpetual feud. The falcon (taka), always an honoured bird
in Japan, where from time immemorial hawking has been an aristo-
cratic pastime, is common enough, and so is the sparrow-hawk
(hai-taka) , but the eagle (washi) affects solitude. Two English
ornithologists, Blakiston and Pryer, are the recognized authorities
on the birds of Japan, and in a contribution to the Transactions of
the Asiatic Society of Japan (vol. x.) they have enumerated 359
species. Starlings (muku-dori) are numerous, and so are the wag-
tail (sekirei), the swallow (tsubame) the martin (ten), the woodchat
(mozu) and the jay (kakesu or kashi-dori), but the magpie (togarasu),
though common in China, is rare in Japan. Blackbirds and thrushes
are not found, nor any species of parrot, but on the other hand, we
have the hoopoe (yatsugashira), the red-breast (komadori), the blue-
bird (ruri), the wren (miso-sazai), the golden-crested wren (itadaki),
the golden-eagle (inu-washi), the finch (hiwa), the longtailed rose-
finch (benimashiko) , the ouzel — brown (akahara), dusky (tsugumi)
and water (kawa-garasu) — the kingfisher (kawasemi), the crake
(kuina) and the tomtit (kara). Among game-birds there are the
quail (uzura), the heathcock (ezo-racho), the ptarmigan (ezo-raicho
or ezo-yama-dori) , the woodcock (hodo-shigi) , the snipe (ta-shigi) — •
with two special species, the solitary snipe (yama-shigi) and the
painted snipe (tama-shigi) — and the pheasant (kiji). Of the last
there are two species, the kiji proper, a bird presenting no remark-
able features, and the copper pheasant, a magnificent bird with
plumage of dazzling beauty. Conspicuous above all others, not
only for grace of form but also for the immemorial attention paid
to them by Japanese artists, are the crane (tsuru) and the heron
(sagi). Of the crane there are seven species, the stateliest and most
beautiful being the Grus japonensis (tancho or tancho-zuru) , which
stands some 5 ft. high and has pure white plumage with a red crown,
black tail-feathers and black upper neck. It is a sacred bird, and
it shares with the tortoise the honour of being an emblemof longevity.
The other species are the demoiselle crane (anewa-zuru) , the black
crane (kuro-zuru or nezumi-zuru, i.e. Grus cinerea) , the Grus leucauchen
(mana-zuru), the Grus monachus (nabe-zuru), and the white crane
(shiro-zuru) . The Japanese include in this category the stork
(kozuru), but it may be said to have disappeared from the island.
The heron (sagi) constitutes a charming feature in a Japanese land-
scape, especially the silver heron (shira-sagi) , which displays its
brilliant white plumage in the rice-fields from spring to early
autumn. The night-heron (goi-sagi) is very common. Besides
these waders there are plover (chidori) ; golden (muna-guro or ai-
guro) ; gray (daizen) ; ringed (shiro-chidori) ; spur-winged (keri) and
Harting's sand-plover (ikaru-chidori) ; sand-pipers — green (ashiro-
shigi) and spoon-billed (hera-shigi) — and water-hens (ban). Among
swimming birds the most numerous are the gull (kamome), of which
many varieties are found; the cormorant (u) — which is trained by
the Japanese for fishing purposes — and multitudinous flocks of
wild-geese (gan) and wild-ducks (kamo), from thebeautifulmandarin-
duck (oshi-dori), emblem of conjugal fidelity, to teal (kogamo) and
widgeon (hidori-gamo) of several species. Great preserves of wild-
duck and teal used to be a frequent feature in the parks attached to
the feudal castles of old Japan, when a peculiar method of netting
the birds or striking them with falcons was a favourite aristocratic
pastime. A few of such preserves still exist, and it is noticeable
that in the Palace-moats of Tokyo all kinds of water-birds, attracted
by the absolute immunity they enjoy there, assemble in countless
numbers at the approach of winter and remain until the following
spring, wholly indifferent; to the close proximity of the city.
Of reptiles Japan has only 30 species, and among them is included
the marine turtle (umi-game) which can scarcely be said to frequent
her waters, since it is seen only at rare intervals on the southern
coast. This is even truer of the larger species (the shogakubo*, i.e.
Chelonia cephalo). Both are highly valued for the sake of the shell,
which has always been a favourite material for ladies' combs and
hairpins. By carefully selecting certain portions and welding
them together in a perfectly flawless mass, a pure amber-coloured
object is obtained at heavy cost. Of the fresh-water tortoise there
are two kinds, the suppon (Trionyx japonica) and the kame-no-ko
(Emys vulgaris japonica). The latter is one of the Japanese emblems
of longevity. It is often depicted with a flowing tail, which appendix
attests close observation of nature; for the mino-game, as it is called,
represents a tortoise to which, in the course of many scores of years,
confervae have attached themselves so as to form an appendage of
long green locks as the creature swims about. Sea-snakes occasion-
ally make their way to Japan, being carried thither by the Black
Current (Kuro Shiwo) and the monsoon, but they must be regarded
as merely fortuitous visitors. There are 10 species of land-snakes
(hebi), among which one only (the mamushi, or Trigonocephalus
Blomhoffi) is venomous. The others for the most part frequent
the rice-fields and live upon frogs. The largest is the aodaishp
(Elaphis virgatus), which sometimes attains a length of 5 ft., but is
quite harmless. Lizards (tokage), frogs (kawazu or kaeru), toads
(ebogayeru) and newts (imori) are plentiful, and much curiosity
attaches to a giant salamander (sansho-uwo, called also hazekai and
other names according to localities), which reaches to a length of
5 ft., and (according to Rein) is closely related to the Andrias
Scheuchzeri of the Oeningen strata.
The seas surrounding the Japanese islands may be called a resort
of fishes, for, in addition to numerous species which abide there
permanently, there are migatory kinds, coming and going with the
monsoons and with the great ocean streams that set to and from the
shores. In winter, for example, when the northern monsoon begins
to blow, numbers of denizens of the Sea of Okhotsk swim southward
to the more genial waters of north Japan ; and in summer the Indian
Ocean and the Malayan archipelago send to her southern coasts a
crowd of emigrants which turn homeward again at the approach of
winter. It thus falls out that in spite of the enormous quantity of
fish consumed as food or used as fertilizers year after year by the
Japanese, the seas remain as richly stocked as ever. Nine orders of
fishes have been distinguished as the piscifauna of Japanese waters.
They may be found carefully catalogued with all their included
species in Rein's Japan, and highly interesting researches by Japan-
ese physiographists are recorded in the Journal of the College of
Science of the Imperial University of Tokyo. Briefly, the chief
fish of Japan are the bream (tai), the perch (suzuki), the mullet (bora),
the rock-fish (hatatate), the grunter (oni-o-koze) , the mackerel (saba),
the sword-fish (tachi-uwo), the wrasse (kusabi), the haddock (tara),
the flounder (karei), and its congeners the sole (hirame) and the
turbot (ishi-garei), the shad (namazu), the salmon (shake), the masu,
the carp (koi), thefuna, the gold fish (kingyo), the gold carp (higoi),
the loach (dojo), the herring («» 'shin), the iwashi(Clupeamelanosticta),
the eel (unagi), the conger eel (anago), the coffer-fish (hako-uwo),
the/ttgw (Telrodon), the ai (Plecoglossus altivelis), the sayori (Hemir-
amphus sayori), the shark (same), the dogfish (manuka-zame) , the
ray (e), the sturgeon (cho-zame) and the maguro (Thynnus sibi)
The insect life of Japan broadly corresponds with thatof temperate
regions in Europe. But there are also a number of tropical species,
notably among butterflies and beetles. The latter — for which the
generic term in Japan is mushi or kaichu — include some beautiful
species, from the " jewel beetle " (tama-mushi) , the " gold beetle "
(kogane-mushi) and the Chrysochroa fulgidissima, which glow and
sparkle with the brilliancy of gold and precious stones, to the jet
black Melanauster chinensis, which seems to have been fashioned
out of lacquer spotted with white. There is also a giant nasicornous
beetle. Among butterflies (chocho) Rein gives prominence to the
broad-winged kind (Papilio), which recall tropical brilliancy. One
(Papilio macilentus) is peculiar to Japan. Many others seem to be
practically identical with European species. That is especially true
of the moths (yacho), 100 species of which have been identified with
English types. There are seven large silk-moths, of which two only
(Bombyx mori and Antheraea yama-mai) are employed in producing
silk. Fishing lines are manufactured from the cocoons of the
genjiki-mushi (Caligula japonica), which is one of the commonest
moths in the islands. Wasps, bees and hornets, generically known
as hachi, differ little from their European types, except that they are
somewhat larger and more sluggish. The gad-fly (abu), the house-
fly (hai), the mosquito (ka), the flea (nomi) and occasionally the bed-
bug (called by the Japanese kara-mushi because it is believed to be
imported from China), are all fully represented, and the dragon-fly
(tombo) presents itself in immense numbers at certain seasons.
Grasshoppers (batta) are abundant, and one kind (inago), which
frequent the rice-fields when the cereal is ripening, are caught and
fried in oil as an article of food. On the moors in late summer the
mantis (kama-kiri-mushi) is commonly met with, and the cricket
(kurogi) and the cockroach abound. Particularly obtrusive is the
cicada (semi), of which there are many species. Its strident voice
is heard most loudly at times of great heat, when the song of the
birds is hushed. The dragon-fly and the cicada afford ceaseless
entertainment to the Japanese boy. He catches them by means of
a rod smeared with bird-lime, and then tying a fine string under their
wings, he flies them at its end. Spiders abound, from a giant species
to one of the minutest dimensions, and the tree-bug is always ready
to make a destructive lodgment in any sickly tree-stem. The
scorpion (sasori) exists but is not poisonous.
Japanese rivers and lakes are the habitation of several — seven or
eight — species of freshwater crab (kani), which live in holes on the
shore and emerge in the day-time, often moving to considerable
distances from their homes. Shrimps (kawa-ebi) also are found in
the rivers and rice-fields. These shrimps as well as a large species
of crab — mokuzo-gani — serve the people as an article of food, but
the small crabs which live in holes have no recognized raison d' etre.
In Japan, as elsewhere, the principal Crustacea are found in the sea.
Flocks of lupa and other species swim in the wake of the tropical
fishes which move towards Japan at certain seasons. Naturally
these migratory crabs are not limited to Japanese waters. Milne
Edwards has identified ten species which occur in Australian seas
also, and Rein mentions, as belonging to the same category,
the " helmet-crab " or " horse-shoe crab " (kabutp-gani; Limulus
longispina Hoeven). Very remarkable is the giant faka-ashi —
long legs (Macrocheirus Kaempferi), which has legs ij metres long
and is found in the seas of Japan and the Malay archipelago. There
is no lobster on the coasts of Japan, but there are various species
of cray-fish (Palinurus and Scyllarus) the principal of which, under
the names of ise-ebi (Palinurus japonicus) and kuruma-ebi (Petiaeus
canaliculatus) are greatly prized as an article of diet.
Already in 1882, Dunker in his Index Molluscorum Maris Japonici
enumerated nearly 1200 species of marine molluscs found in the
164
JAPAN
[POPULATION
Japanese archipelago, and several others have since then been added
to the list. As for the land and fresh-water molluscs, some 200 of
which are known, they are mainly kindred with those of China and
Siberia, tropical and Indian forms being exceptional. There are
57 species of Helix (maimaitsuburi, dedemushi, katatsumuri orkwagyu)
and 25 of Claus ilia (kiseru-gai or pipe-snail), including the two
largest snails in Japan, namely the Cl. Martensi and the Cl. Yoko-
hamensis, which attain to a length of 58 mm. and 44 mm. respec-
tively. The mussel (i-no-kai) is well represented by the species
numa-gai (marsh-mussel), karasu-gai (raven-mussel), kamisori-gai
(razor-mussel), shijimi-no-kai (Corbicula), of which there are nine
species, &c. Unlike the land-molluscs, the great majority of Japanese
sea-molluscs are akin to those of the Indian Ocean and the Malay
archipelago. Some of them extend westward as far as the Red Sea.
The best known and most frequent forms are the asari (Tapes
philippinarum) , the hamaguri (Meretrix lusoria), the baka (Mactra
sulcataria), the aka-gai (Scapharca inflata), the kaki (oyster), the
awabi (Haliotis japonica), the sazae (Turbo cornutus), the hora-gai
(Tritonium tritonius), &c. Among the cephalopods several are of
great value as articles of food, e.g. the surume (Onychotheuthis
Banksii), the tako (octopus), the shuiako (Eledone), the ika (Sepia)
and the tako-fune (Argonauta).
Greeff enumerates, as denizens of Japanese seas, 26 kinds of sea-
urchins (gaze or uni) and 12 of starfish (hitode or tako-no-makura).
These, like the mollusca, indicate the influence of the Kuro Shiwo
and the south-west monsoon, for they have close affinity with species
found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. For edible purposes the
most valuable of the Japanese echinoderms is the sea-slug or beche
demer (namako), which is greatly appreciated and forms an important
staple of export to China. Rein writes: " Very remarkable in con-
nexion with the starfishes is the occurrence of Asterias rubens on
the Japanese coast. This creature displays an almost unexampled
frequency and extent of distribution in the whole North Sea, in the
western parts of the Baltic, near the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Green-
land and the English coasts, so that it may be regarded as a charac-
teristic North Sea echinoderm form. Towards the south this star-
fish disappears, it seems, completely; for it is not yet known with
certainty to exist either in the Mediterranean or in the southern
parts of the Atlantic Ocean. In others also Asterias rubens is not
known — and then it suddenly reappears in Japan. Archaster
typicus has a pretty wide distribution over the Indian Ocean; other
Asteridae of Japan, on the other hand, appear to be confined to its
shores."
Japan is not rich in corals and sponges. Her most interesting
contributions are crust-corals (Gorgonidae, Corallium, Isis, &c.),
and especially flint-sponges, called by the Japanese hoshi-gai and
known as " glass-coral " (Hyalonema sieboldf). These last have not
been found anywhere except at the entrance of the Bay of TokyS
at a depth of some 200 fathoms.
II.— THE PEOPLE
Population. — The population was as follows on the 3ist of
December 1907: — Population
per
Population. Males. Females. Totals. sq. m.
24,601,658 24,172,627 48,774,285 330
1,640,778 1,476,137 3,116,915 224
7,175 3,631 10,806 6-1
Japan proper . .
Formosa (Taiwan)
Sakhalin
Totals
26,249,611 25,652,395 51,902,006
The following table shows the
quadrennial periods between 1891
Year.
1891 .
1895 .
1899 .
1903 .
1907 .
Males.
20,563,416
21,345,75°
22,330,112
23,601,640
24,601,658
Females.
20,155,261
20,004,870
21,930,540
23,131,236
24,172,627
rate of increase in the four
and 1907 in Japan proper: —
Average Population
Totals, increase per
per cent. sq. m.
40,718,677 1-09 272
42,270,620 1-09 286
44,260,652 1-14 299
46,732,876 1.54 316
48,774,285 1-13 330
The population of Formosa (Taiwan) during the ten-year
period 1898-1907 grew as follows: —
Average
Year. Males. Females. Totals, increase
per cent
1898 . . 1,307,428 1,157,539 2,464,967
1902 . . 1,513,280 1,312,067 2,825,347 2-70
1907 . . 1,640,778 1,476,137 3,"6,9I5 2-37
Population
per
sq. m.
182
209
224
According to quasi-historical records, the population of the empire
in the year A.D. 610 was 4,988,842, and m 736 it had grown to
8,631 ,770. It is impossible to say how much reliance may be placed
on these figures, but from the i8th century, when the name of every
subject had to be inscribed on the roll of a temple as a measure
against his adoption of Christianity, a tolerably trustworthy census
could always be taken. The returns thus obtained show that from
the year 1723 until 1846 the population remained almost stationary,
the figure in the former year being 26,065,422, and that in the latter
year 26,907,625. There had, indeed, been five periods of declining
population in that interval of 124 years, namely, the periods 1738-
1744, 1759-1762, 1773-1774, 1791-1792, and 1844-1846. But after
1872, when the census showed a total of 33,110,825, the population
grew steadily, its increment between 1872 and 1898 inclusive, a period
of 27 years, being 10,649,990. Such a rate of increase invests the
question of subsistence with great importance. In former times the
area of land under cultivation increased in a marked degree. Returns
prepared at the beginning of the loth century showed 2 j million acres
under crops, whereas the figure in 1834 was over 8 million acres. But
the development of means of subsistence has been outstripped by
the growth of population in recent years. Thus, during the period
between 1899 and 1907 the population received an increment of
1 1 -6% whereas the food-producing area increased by only 4-4%.
This discrepancy caused anxiety at one time, but large fields suitable
for colonization have been opened in Sakhalin, Korea, Manchuria
and Formosa, so that the problem of subsistence has ceased to be
troublesome. The birth-rate, taking the average of the decennial
period ended 1907, is 3-05% of the population, and the death-rate
is 2-05. Males exceed females in the ratio of 2% approximately.
But this rule does not hold after the age of 65, where for every 100
females only 83 males are found. The Japanese are of low stature
as compared with the inhabitants of Western Europe: about 16%
of the adult males are below 5 ft. But there are evidences of
steady improvement in this respect. Thus, during the period of ten
years between 1893 and 1902, it was found that the percentage of
recruits of 5 ft. 5 in. and upward grew from 10-09 to 12-67, the rate
of increase having been remarkably steady ; and the percentage of
those under 5 ft. declined from 20-21 to 16-20.
Towns. — There are in Japan 23 towns having a population of
over 50,000, and there are 76 having a population of over 20,000.
The larger towns, their populations and the growth of the latter
during the five-year period commencing with 1898 were as follow: —
Tokyo .
Osaka . .
Kioto . .
Nagoya
Kobe . .
Yokohama
Hiroshima
Nagasaki .
Kanazawa
Sendai .
Hakodate .
Fukuoka .
Wakayama
Tokushima
Kumamoto
Toyama
Okayama .
Otaru .
Kagoshima
Niigata
Sakai .
Sapporo
Kure .
Sasebo
URBAN POPULATIONS
1898.
1,440,121
- - - - 821,235
• • - - 353-139
. . . . 244,145
. . . . 215,780
. . . . 193-762
. . . . 122,306
. . . . 107,422
• • • • 83.595
- - . . 83,325
78,040
66,190
. . . . 63,667
. . . . 61,501
. . . . 61,463
59,558
. . . . 58,025
. . . . 56,961
• . . . 53-481
- . - - 53-366
. . . . 50,203
1903.
i,795-i28
988,200
379.404
284,829
283,839
324,776
"3.545
151,727
97,548
93.773
84,746
70,107
67,908
62,998
55.2J7
86,276
80,140
79,746
58,384
58,821
55,304
62,825
52,607
The growth of Kure and Sasebo is attributable to the fact that they
have become the sites of large ship-building yards, the property of
the state.
The number of houses in Japan at the end of 1903, when the census
was last taken, was 8,725,544, the average number of inmates in
each house being thus 5-5.
Physical Characteristics. — The best authorities are agreed that
the Japanese people do not differ physically from their Korean
and Chinese neighbours as much as the inhabitants of northern
Europe differ from those of southern Europe. It is true that the
Japanese are shorter in slature than either the Chinese or the
Koreans. Thus the average height of the Japanese male is
only 5 ft. 3} in., and that of the female 4 ft. zoj in., whereas in
the case of the Koreans and the northern Chinese the correspond-
ing figures for males are 5 ft. 5} in. and 5 ft. 7 in. respectively.
Yet in other physical characteristics the Japanese, the Koreans
CHARACTERISTICS]
JAPAN
165
and the Chinese resemble each other so closely that, under
similar conditions as to costume and coiffure, no appreciable
difference is apparent. Thus since it has become the fashion for
Chinese students to flock to the schools and colleges of Japan,
there adopting, as do their Japanese fellow-students, Occidental
garments and methods of hairdressing, the distinction of nation-
ality ceases to be perceptible. The most exhaustive anthro-
pological study of the Japanese has been made by Dr E. Baelz
(emeritus professor of medicine in the Imperial University of
Tokyo), who enumerates the following sub-divisions of the race
inhabiting the Japanese islands. The first and most important
is the Manchu-Korean type; that is to say, the type which prevails
in north China and in Korea. This is seen specially among the
upper classes in Japan. Its characteristics are exceptional
tallness combined with slenderness and elegance of figure; a face
somewhat long, without any special prominence of the cheek-
bones but having more or less oblique eyes; an aquiline nose;
a slightly receding chin; largish upper teeth; a long neck; a
narrow chest; a long trunk, and delicately shaped, small hands
with long, slender fingers. The most plausible hypothesis is that
men of this type are descendants of Korean colonists who, in
prehistoric times, settled in the province of Izumo, on the west
coast of Japan, having made their way thither from the Korean
peninsula by the island of Oki, being carried by the cold current
which flows along the eastern coast of Korea. The second type
is the Mongol. It is not very frequently found in Japan, per-
haps because, under favourable social conditions, it tends to
pass into the Manchu-Korean type. Its representative has a
broad face, with prominent cheek-bones, oblique eyes, a nose
more or less flat and a wide mouth. The figure is strongly and
squarely built, but this last characteristic can scarcely be called
typical. There is no satisfactory theory as to the route by which
the Mongols reached Japan, but it is scarcely possible to doubt
that they found their way thither at one time. More important
than either of these types as an element of the Japanese nation
is the Malay. Small in stature, with a well-knit frame, the cheek-
bones prominent, the face generally round, the nose and neck
short, a marked tendency to prognathism, the chest broad and
well developed, the trunk long, the hands small and delicate —
this Malay type is found in nearly all the islands along the east
coast of the Asiatic continent as well as in southern China and
in the extreme south-west of Korean peninsula. Carried
northward by the warm current known as the Kuro Shiwo, the
Malays seem to have landed in Kiushiu — the most southerly
of the main Japanese islands — whence they ultimately pushed
northward and conquered their Manchu-Korean predecessors,
the Izumo colonists. None of the above three, however, can be
regarded as the earliest settlers in Japan. Before them all was
a tribe of immigrants who appear to have crossed from north-
eastern Asia at an epoch when the sea had not yet dug broad
channels between the continent and the adjacent islands.
These people — the Ainu — are usually spoken of as the aborigines
of Japan. They once occupied the whole country, but were
gradually driven northward by the Manchu-Koreans and the
Malays, until only a mere handful of them survived in the
northern island of Yezo. Like the Malay and the Mongol types
they are short and thickly built, but unlike either they have
prominent brows, bushy locks, round deep-set eyes, long diver-
gent lashes, straight noses and much hair on the face and the
body. In short, the Ainu suggest much closer affinity with
Europeans than does any other of the types that go to make up
the population of Japan. It is not to be supposed, however,
that these traces of different elements indicate any lack of homo-
geneity in the Japanese race. Amalgamation has been com-
pletely effected in the course of long centuries, and even the
Ainu, though the small surviving remnant of them now live
apart, have left a trace upon their conquerors.
The typical Japanese of the present day has certain marked
physical peculiarities. In the first place, the ratio of the height
of his head to the length of his body is greater than it is in Euro-
peans. The Englishman's head is often one-eighth of the length
of his body or even less, and in continental Europeans, as a rule,
the ratio does not amount to one-seventh; but in the Japanese
it exceeds the latter figure. In all nations men of short stature
have relatively large heads, but in the case of the Japanese there
appears to be some racial reason for the phenomenon. Another
striking feature is shortness of legs relatively to length of trunk.
In northern Europeans, the leg is usually much more than one-
half of the body's length, but in Japanese the ratio is one-half
or even less; so that whereas the Japanese, when seated, looks
almost as tall as a European, there may be a great difference
between their statures when both are standing. This special
feature has been attributed to the Japanese habit of kneeling
instead of sitting, but investigation shows that it is equally
marked in the working classes who pass most of their time stand-
ing. In Europe the same physical traits — relative length of
head and shortness of legs — distinguish the central race (Alpine)
from the Teutonic, and seem to indicate an affinity between the
former and the Mongols. It is in the face, however, that we
find specially distinctive traits, namely, in the eyes, the eye-
lashes, the cheekbones and the beard. Not that the eyeball
itself differs from that of an Occidental. The difference consists
in the fact that " the socket of the eye is comparatively small and
shallow, and the osseous ridges at the brows being little marked,
the eye is less deeply set than in the European. In fact, seen in
profile, forehead and upper lip often form an unbroken line."
Then, again, the shape of the eye, as modelled by the lids, shows
a striking peculiarity. For whereas the open eye is almost
invariably horizontal in the European, it is often oblique in the
Japanese on account of the higher level of the upper corner.
" But even apart from obliqueness, the shape of the corners is
peculiar in the Mongolian eye. The inner corner is partly
or entirely covered by a fold of the upper lid continuing more
or less into the lower lid. This fold often covers also the
whole free rim of the upper lid, so that the insertion of the eye-
lashes is hidden " and the opening between the lids is so narrowed
as to disappear altogether at the moment of laughter. As for
the eye-lashes, not only are they comparatively short and sparse,
but also they converge instead of diverging, so that whereas in a
European the free ends of the lashes are further distant from
each other than their roots, in a Japanese they are nearer to-
gether. Prominence of cheekbones is another special feature,
but it is much commoner in the lower than in the upper classes,
where elongated faces may almost be said to be the rule. Finally,
there is marked paucity of hair on the face of the average Japan-
ese— apart from the Ainu — and what hair there is is nearly
always straight. It is not to be supposed, however, that because
the Japanese is short of stature and often finely moulded, he
lacks either strength or endurance. On the contrary, he possesses
both in a marked degree, and his deftness of finger is not less
remarkable than the suppleness and activity of his body.
Moral Characteristics. — The most prominent trait of Japanese
disposition is gaiety of heart. Emphatically of a laughter-
loving nature, the Japanese passes through the world with a
smile on his lips. The petty ills of life do not disturb his equa-
nimity. He takes them as part of the day's work, and though he
sometimes grumbles, rarely, if ever, does he repine. Excep-
tional to this general rule, however, is a mood of pessimism
which sometimes overtakes youths on the threshold of manhood.
Finding the problem of life insolvable, they abandon the attempt
to solve it and take refuge in the grave. It seems as though
there were always a number of young men hovering on the brink
of such suicidal despair. An example alone is needed finally to
destroy the equilibrium. Some one throws himself over a
cataract or leaps into the crater of a volcano, and ^immediately
a score or two follow. Apparently the more picturesquely
awful the manner of the demise, the greater its attractive force.
The thing is not a product of insanity, as the term is usually
interpreted; letters always left behind by the victims prove
them to have been in full possession of their reasoning faculties
up to the last moment. Some observers lay the blame at the
door of Buddhism, a creed which promotes pessimism by beget-
ting the anchorite, the ascetic and the shuddering believer in
seven hells. But Buddhism did not formerly produce such
i66
JAPAN
[CHARACTERISTICS
incidents, and, for the rest, the faith of Shaka has little sway
over the student mind in Japan. The phenomenon is modern:
it is not an outcome of Japanese nature nor yet of Buddhist
teaching, but is due to the stress of endeavouring to reach the
standards of Western acquirement with grievously inadequate
equipment, opportunities and resources. In order to support
himself and pay his academic fees many a Japanese has to fall
into the ranks of the physical labourer during a part of each day
or night. Ill-nourished, over-worked and, it may be, disap-
pointed, he finds the struggle intolerable and so passes out into
the darkness. But he is not a normal type. The normal type is
light-hearted and buoyant. One naturally expects to find, and
one does find, that this moral sunshine is associated with good
temper. The Japanese is exceptionally serene. Irascibility is
regarded as permissible in sickly children only: grown people
are supposed to be superior to displays of impatience. But
there is a limit of imperturbability, and when that limit is
reached, the subsequent passion is desperately vehement. It
has been said that these traits go to make the Japanese soldier
what he is. The hardships of a campaign cause him little suffer-
ing since he never frets over them, but the hour of combat finds
him forgetful of everything save victory. In the case of the
military class — and prior to the Restoration of 1867 the term
" military class " was synonymous with " educated class "-
this spirit of stoicism was built up by precept on a solid basis of
heredity. The samurai (soldier) learned that his first charac-
teristic must be to suppress all outward displays of emotion.
Pain, pleasure, passion and peril must all find him unperturbed.
The supreme test, satisfied so frequently as to be commonplace,
was a shocking form of suicide performed with a placid mien.
This capacity, coupled with readiness to sacrifice life at any
moment on the altar of country, fief or honour, made a remark-
ably heroic character. On the other hand, some observers hold
that the education of this stoicism was effected at the cost of the
feelings it sought to conceal. In support of that theory it is
pointed out that the average Japanese, man or woman, will re-
count a death or some other calamity in his own family with a
perfectly calm, if not a smiling, face. Probably there is a measure
of truth in the criticism. Feelings cannot be habitually hidden
without being more or less blunted. But here another Japanese
trait presents itself — politeness. There is no more polite nation
in the world than the Japanese. Whether in real courtesy of
heart they excel Occidentals may be open to doubt, but in all
the forms of comity they are unrivalled. Now one of the car-
dinal rules of politeness is to avoid burdening a stranger with the
weight of one's own woes. Therefore a mother, passing from the
chamber which has just witnessed her paroxysms of grief, will
describe calmly to a stranger — especially a foreigner — the death
of her only child. The same suppression of emotional display
in public is observed in all the affairs of life. Youths and
maidens maintain towards each other a demeanour of reserve
and even indifference, from which it has been confidently affirmed
that love does not exist in Japan. The truth is that in no other
country do so many dual suicides occur — suicides of a man and
woman who, unable to be united in this world, go to a union
beyond the grave. It is true, nevertheless, that love as a prelude
to marriage finds only a small place in Japanese ethics. Mar-
riages in the great majority of cases are arranged with little
reference to the feelings of the parties concerned. It might be
supposed that conjugal fidelity must suffer from such a custom.
It does suffer seriously in the case of the husband, but emphati-
cally not in the case of the wife. Even though she be cog-
nisant— as she often is — of her husband's extra-marital relations,
she abates nothing of the duty which she has been taught to
regard as the first canon of female ethics. From many points of
view, indeed, there is no more beautiful type of character than
that of the Japanese woman. She is entirely unselfish; exqui-
sitely modest without being anything of a prude; abounding in
intelligence which is never obscured by egoism; patient in the
hour of suffering; strong in time of affliction; a faithful wife; a
loving mother; a good daughter; and capable, as history shows,
of heroism rivalling that of the stronger sex. As to the question
of sexual virtue and morality in Japan, grounds for a conclusive
verdict are hard to find. In the interests of hygiene prostitution
is licensed, and that fact is by many critics construed as proof of
tolerance. But licensing is associated with strict segregation,
and it results that the great cities are conspicuously free from
evidences of vice, and that the streets may be traversed by women
at all hours of the day and night with perfect impunity and with-
out fear of encountering offensive spectacles. The ratio of
marriages is approximately 8-46 per thousand units of the popu-
lation, and the ratio of divorces is 1-36 per thousand. There are
thus about 1 6 divorces for every hundred marriages. Divorces take
place chiefly among the lower orders, who frequently treat marriage
merely as a test of a couple's suitability to be helpmates in the
struggles of life. If experience develops incompatibility of temper
or some other mutually repellent characteristic, separation
follows as a matter of course. On the other hand , divorces among
persons of the upper classes are comparatively rare, and divorces
on account of a wife's unfaithfulness are almost unknown.
Concerning the virtues of truth and probity, extremely con-
flicting opinions have been expressed. The Japanese samurai
always prided himself on having " no second word." He never
drew his sword without using it; he never gave his word without
keeping it. Yet it may be doubted whether the value attached
in Japan to the abstract quality, truth, is as high as the value
attached to it in England, or whether the consciousness of having
told a falsehood weighs as heavily on the heart. Much depends
upon the motive. Whatever may be said of the upper class, it
is probably true that the average Japanese will not sacrifice
expediency on the altar of truth. He will be veracious only so
long as the consequences are not seriously injurious. Perhaps
no more can be affirmed of any nation. The "white lie " of the
Anglo-Saxon and the hoben no uso of the Japanese are twins.
In the matter of probity, however, it is possible to speak with
more assurance. There is undoubtedly in the lower ranks of
Japanese tradesmen a comparatively large fringe of persons
whose standard of commercial morality is defective. They are
descendants of feudal days when the mercantile element, being
counted as the dregs of the population, lost its self-respect.
Against this blemish — which is in process of gradual correction
— the fact has to be set that the better class of merchants, the
whole of the artisans and the labouring classes in general, obey
canons of probity fully on a level with the best to be found else-
where. For the rest, frugality, industry and patience charac-
terize all the bread-winners; courage and burning patriotism are
attributes of the whole nation.
There are five qualities possessed by the Japanese in a marked
degree. The first is frugality. From time immemorial the
great mass of the people have lived in absolute ignorance of
luxury in any form and in the perpetual presence of a necessity
to economize. Amid these circumstances there has emerged
capacity to make a little go a long way and to be content with
the most meagre fare. The second quality is endurance. It is
born of causes cognate with those which have begotten frugality.
The average Japanese may be said to live without artificial heat;
his paper doors admit the light but do not exclude the cold.
His brazier barely suffices to warm his hands and his face.
Equally is he a stranger to methods of artificial cooling. He
takes the frost that winter inflicts and the fever that summer
brings as unavoidable visitors. The third quality is obedience;
the offspring of eight centuries passed under the shadow of mili-
tary autocracy. Whatever he is authoritatively bidden to do,
that the Japanese will do. The fourth quality is altruism. In
the upper classes the welfare of the family has been set above the
interests of each member. The fifth quality is a genius for detail.
Probably this is the outcome of an extraordinarily elaborate
system of social etiquette. Each generation has added some-
thing to the canons of its predecessor, and for every ten points
preserved not more than one has been discarded. An instinctive
respect for minutiae has thus been inculcated, and has gradually
extended to all the affairs of life. That this accuracy may some-
times degenerate into triviality, and that such absorption in
trifles may occasionally hide the broad horizon, is conceivable.
LANGUAGE] JAPAN
But the only hitherto apparent evidence of such defects is an
excessive clinging to the letter of the law; a marked reluctance
to exercise discretion; and that, perhaps, is attributable rather to
the habit of obedience. Certainly the Japanese have proved them-
selves capable of great things, and their achievements seem to
have been helped rather than retarded by their attention to detail.
III. — LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Language. — Since the year 1820, when Klaproth concluded that
the Japanese language had sprung from the Ural-Altaic stock,
philologists have busied themselves in tracing its affinities. If the
theories hitherto held with regard to the origin of the. Japanese
people be correct, close relationship should exist between the
Japanese and the Korean tongues, and possibly between the
Japanese and the Chinese. Aston devoted much study to the
former question, but although he proved that in construction the
two have a striking similarity, he could not find any correspond-
ing likeness in their vocabularies. As far back as the beginning
of the Christian era the Japanese and the Koreans could not hold
intercourse without the aid of interpreters. If then the languages
of Korea and Japan had a common stock, they must have
branched off from it at a date exceedingly remote. As for the
languages of Japan and China, they have remained essentially
different throughout some twenty centuries in spite of the fact
that Japan adopted Chinese calligraphy and assimilated Chinese
literature. Mr K. Hirai has done much to establish his theory
that Japanese and Aryan had a common parent. But nothing
has yet been substantiated. Meanwhile an inquirer is confronted
by the strange fact that of three neighbouring countries between
which frequent communication existed, one (China) never
deviated from an ideographic script; another (Korea) invented
an alphabet, and the third (Japan) devised a syllabary. Anti-
quaries have sought to show that Japan possessed some
form of script before her first contact with either Korea or
China. But such traces of prehistoric letters as are supposed
to have been found seem to be corruptions of the Korean
alphabet rather than independent symbols. It is commonly
believed that the two Japanese syllabaries — which, though
distinct in form, have identical sounds — were invented by
Kukai (790) and Kibi Daijin (760) respectively. But the
evidence of old documents seems to show that these syllabaries
had a gradual evolution and that neither was the outcome of a
single scholar's inventive genius.
The sequence of events appears to have been this: — Japan's
earliest contact with an oversea people was with the Koreans, and
she made some tentative efforts to adapt their alphabet to the
expression of her own language. Traces of these efforts survived
and inspired the idea that the art of writing was practised by the
Japanese before. the opening of intercourse with their continents,
neighbours. Korea, however, had neither a literary nor an ethica
message to deliver, and thus her script failed to attract much atten-
tion. Very different was the case when China presented her noble
code of Confucian philosophy and the literature embodying it
The Japanese then recognized a lofty civilization and placed them-
selves as pupils at its feet, learning its script and deciphering its
books. Their veneration extended to ideographs. At first they
adapted them frankly to their own tongue. For example, the
ideographs signifying rice or metal or water in Chinese were used to
convey the same ideas in Japanese. Each ideograph thus came to
have two sounds, one Japanese, the other Chinese— e.g. the ideo
graph for rice had for Japanese sound kome and for Chinese sound bei
Nor was this the whole story. There were two epochs in Japan'
study of the Chinese language: first, the epoch when she receivec
Confucianism through Korea; and, secondly, the epoch when she
began to study Buddhism direct from China. Whether the sound
that came by Korea were corrupt, or whether the interval separatin;
these epochs had sufficed to produce a sensible difference of pronun
ciation in China itself, it would seem that the students of Buddhism
who flocked from Japan to the Middle Kingdom during the Sui era
(A.D. 589-619) insisted on the accuracy of the pronunciation ac
quired there, although it diverged perceptibly from the pronuncia
tion already recognized in Japan. Thus, in fine, each word cam
to have three sounds — two Chinese, known as the kan and the go
and one Japanese, known as the kun. For example : —
" KAN " " GO " JAPANESE
SOUND. SOUND. SOUND. MEANING.
Sei Jo Koe Voice
Nen Zen Toshi Year
Jinkan Ningen Hitonoaida Human being.
167
s to which of the first two methods of pronunciation had chro-
ological precedence, the weight of opinion is that the kan came later
han the go. Evidently this triplication of sounds had many dis-
dvantages, but, on the other hand, the whole Chinese language may
e said to have been grafted on the Japanese. Chinese has the
videst capacity of any tongue ever invented. It consists of thou-
ands of monosyllabic roots, each having a definite meaning. These
monosyllables may be used singly or combined, two, three or four
t a time, so that the resulting combinations convey almost any
onceivable shades of meaning. Take, for example, the word
electricity." The very idea conveyed was wholly novel in Japan.
Jut scholars were immediately able to construct the following : —
Den.
Ki
Denki.
Dempo.
Dento.
Indenki.
Yodenki.
Netsudenki.
Ryudo-denki. Ryudo = fluid.
Denwa. Wa= conversation.
Ho — tidings.
To = lamp.
/n = the negative principle.
Yo = the positive principle.
Lightning.
Exhalation.
Electricity.
Telegram.
Electric light.
Negative electricity.
Positive electricity.
Thermo-electricity.
Dynamic-electricity.
Telephone.
Every branch of learning can thus be equipped with a vocabulary.
5otent, however, as such a vehicle is for expressing thought, its
deographic script constitutes a great obstacle to general acquisition,
and the Japanese soon applied themselves to minimizing the difficulty
)y substituting a phonetic system. Analysis showed that all the
required sounds could be conveyed with 47 syllables, and having
selected the ideographs that corresponded to those sounds, they
reduced them, first, to forms called hiragana, and, secondly, to still
more simplified forms called katakana.
Such, in brief, is the story of the Japanese language. When we
come to dissect it, we find several striking characteristics. First,
the construction is unlike that of any European tongue : all qualifiers
precede the words they qualify, except prepositions which become
aostpositions. Thus instead of saying " the house of Mr Smith
s in that street," a Japanese says " Smith Mr of house that street
n is." Then there is no relative pronoun, and the resulting com-
plication seems great to an English-speaking person, as the following
illustration will show: —
JAPANESE. ENGLISH.
Zenaku wo saiban sum tame no The unique standard which
Virtue vice-judging sake of is used for judging virtue or
mochiitaru yuitsu no hyojun wa vice is benevolent conduct
used unique standard solely.
jiai no koi tada
benevolence of conduct only
kore nomi.
this alone.
It will be observed that in the above sentence there are two untrans-
lated words, wo and wa. These belong to a group of four auxiliary
particles called te ni wo ha (or wa}, which serve to mark the cases of
nouns, te (or de) being the sign of the instrumental ablative; ni that
of the dative; wo that of the objective, and wa that of the nomina-
tive. These exist in the Korean language also, but not in any other
tongue. There are also polite and ordinary forms of expression,
often so different as to constitute distinct languages; and there
are a number of honorifics which frequently discharge the duty of
pronouns. Another marked peculiarity is that active agency is
never attributed to neuter nouns. A Japanese does not say " the
poison killed him " but " he died on account of the poison;" nor
does he say " the war has caused commodities to appreciate," but
" commodities have appreciated in consequence of the war." That
the language loses much force owing to this limitation cannot be
denied : metaphor and allegory are almost completely banished.
The difficulties that confront an Occidental who attempts to learn
Japanese are enormous. There are three languages to be acquired :
first, the ordinary colloquial; second, the polite colloquial; and,
third, the written. The ordinary colloquial differs materially from
its polite form, and both are as unlike the written form as modern
Italian is unlike ancient Latin. "Add to this," writes Professor
B. H. Chamberlain, " the necessity of committing to memory two
syllabaries, one of which has many variant forms, and at least two
or three thousand Chinese ideographs, in forms standard and cursive
— ideographs, too, most of which are susceptible of three or four
different readings according to circumstance, — add, further, that all
these kinds of written symbols are apt to be encountered pell mell
on the same page, and the task of mastering Japanese becomes almost
Herculean." In view of all this there is a strong movement in
favour of romanizing the Japanese script : that is to say, abolishing
the ideograph and adopting in its place the Roman alphabet. But
while every one appreciates the magnitude of the relief that would
thus be afforded, there has as yet been little substantial progress.
A language which has been adapted from its infancy to ideographic
transmission cannot easily be fitted to phonetic uses.
Dictionaries. — F. Brinkley, An Unabridged Japanese-English
Dictionary (Tokyo, 1896) ; Y. Shimada, English-Japanese Dictionary,
(Tokyo, 1897); Webster's Dictionary, trans, into Japanese, (Tokyo,
i68
JAPAN
[LITERATURE
1899) ; J. H. Gubbins, Dictionary of Chinese-Japanese Words (3 vols.,
•London, 1889); J. C. Hepburn, Japanese-English and English-
Japanese Dictionary (London, 1903) ; E. M. Satow and I. Masakata,
English- Japanese Dictionary (London, 1904).
Literature. — From the neighbouring continent the Japanese
derived the art of transmitting ideas to paper. But as to
the date of that acquisition there is doubt. An authenticated
work compiled A.D. 720 speaks of historiographers having been
appointed to collect local records for the first time in 403,
from which it is to be inferred that such officials had already
existed at the court. There is also a tradition that some kind
of general history was compiled in 620 but destroyed by fire
in 645. At all events, the earliest book now extant dates from
712. Its origin is described in its preface. When the emperor
Temmu (673-686) ascended the throne, he found that there did
not exist any revised collection of the fragmentary annals of the
chief families. He therefore caused these annals to be collated.
There happened to be among the court ladies one Hiyeda no Are,
who was gifted with an extraordinary memory. Measures were
taken to instruct her in the genuine traditions and the old lan-
guage of former ages, the intention being to have the whole ulti-
mately dictated to a competent scribe. But the emperor died
before the project could be consummated, and for twenty-five
years Are's memory remained the sole depository of the collected
annals. Then, under the auspices of the empress Gemmyo, the
original plan was carried out in 712, Yasumaro being the scribe.
The work that resulted is known as the Kojiki (Record of Ancient
Matters). It has been accurately translated by Professor B. H.
Chamberlain (Transactions oj the Asiatic Society of Japan, vol.x.),
who, in a preface justly regarded by students of Japan as an
exegetical classic, makes the pertinent comment: " Taking the
word Altaic in its usual acceptation, viz. as the generic name of
all the languages belonging to the Manchu, Mongolian, Turkish
and Finnish groups, not only the archaic, but the classical,
literature of Japan carries us back several centuries beyond the
earliest extant documents of any other Altaic tongue." By the
term " archaic " is to be understood the pure Japanese language
of earliest times, and by the term " classical " the quasi-Chinese
language which came into use for literary purposes when Japan
appropriated the civilization of her great neighbours. The
Kojiki is written in the archaic form: that is to say, the language
is the language of old Japan, the script, although ideographic, is
used phonetically only, and the case-indicators are represented
by Chinese characters having the same sounds. It is a species of
saga, setting forth not only the heavenly beginnings of the Japan-
ese race, but also the story of creation, the succession of the
various sovereigns and the salient events of their reigns, the
whole interspersed with songs, many of which may be attributed
to the 6th century, while some doubtless date from the fourth or
even the third. This Kojiki marks the parting of the ways.
Already by the time of its compilation the influence of Chinese
civilization and Chinese literature had prevailed so greatly in
Japan that the next authentic work, composed only eight years
later, was completely Chinese in style and embodied Chinese
traditions and Chinese philosophical doctrines, not distinguishing
them from their Japanese context. This volume was called the
Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan). It may be said to have wholly
supplanted its predecessor in popular favour, for the classic style
— that is to say, the Chinese — had now come to be regarded as
the only erudite script. The Chronicles re-traversed much of the
ground already gone over by the Record, preserving many of the
songs in occasionally changed form, omitting some portions,
supplementing others, and imparting to the whole such an
exotic character as almost to disqualify the work for a place in
Japanese literature. Yet this was the style which thenceforth
prevailed among the litterati of Japan. " Standard Chinese soon
became easier to understand than archaic Japanese, as the former
alone was taught in the schools, and the native language changed
rapidly during the century or two that followed the diffusion
of the foreign tongue and civilization " (CHAMBERLAIN). The
neglect into which the Kojiki fell lasted until the I7th century.
Almost simultaneously with its appearance in type (1644)
and its consequent accessibility, there arose a galaxy of
scholars under whose influence the archaic style and the ancient
Japanese traditions entered a period of renaissance. The story
of this period and of its products has been admirably told by Sir
Ernest Satow (" Revival of Pure Shinto," Proceedings oj the
Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. iii.), whose essay, together with
Professor Chamberlain's Kojiki, the same author's introduction
to The Classical Poetry of the Japanese, and Mr W. G. Aston's
Nihongi, are essential to every student of Japanese literature.
To understand this i7th century renaissance, knowledge of one
fact is necessary, namely, that about the year A.D. 810, a cele-
brated Buddhist priest, Kukai, who had spent several years
studying in China, compounded out of Buddhism, Confucianism
and Shinto a system of doctrine called Ryobu Shinto (Dual
Shinto), the prominent tenet of which was that the Shinto deities
were merely transmigrations of Buddhist divinities. By this
device Japanese conservatism was effectually conciliated, and
Buddhism became in fact the creed of the nation, its positive
and practical precepts entirely eclipsing the agnostic intuition-
alism of Shinto. Against this hybrid faith several Japanese
scholars arrayed themselves in the I7th and i8th centuries, the
greatest of them being Mabuchi and Motoori. The latter's
magnum opus, Kojikiden (Exposition of the Record of Ancient
Matters), declared by Chamberlain to be " perhaps the most
admirable work of which Japanese erudkion can boast," con-
sists of 44 large volumes, devoted to elucidating the Kojiki and
resuscitating the Shinto cult as it existed in the earliest days.
This great work of reconstruction was only one feature of the
literary activity which marked the i7th and i8th centuries,
when, under Tokugawa rule, the blessing of long-unknown
peace came to the nation. lyeyasu himself devoted the last
years of his life to collecting ancient manuscripts. In his
country retreat at Shizuoka he formed one of the richest libraries
ever brought together in Japan, and by will he bequeathed the
Japanese section of it to his eighth son, the feudal chief of
Owari, and the Chinese section to his ninth son, the prince of
Kishu, with the result that under the former feudatory's auspices
two works of considerable merit were produced treating of ancient
ceremonials and supplementing the Nihongi. Much more
memorable, however, was a library formed by lyeyasu's grand-
son the feudal chief of Mito (1662-1700), who not only collected
a vast quantity of books hitherto scattered among Shinto and
Buddhist monasteries and private houses, but also employed
a number of scholars to compile a history unprecedented in
magnitude, the Dai-Nihon-shi. It consisted of 240 volumes, and
it became at once the standard in its own branch of literature.
Still more comprehensive was a book emanating from the same
source and treating of court ceremonials. It ran to more than
500 volumes, and the emperor honoured the work by bestowing
on it the title Reigi Ruiten (Rules of Ceremonials). These com-
pilations together with the Nikon Gwaishi (History of Japan
Outside the Court), written by Rai Sanyo and published in 1827,
constituted the chief sources of historical knowledge before the
Meiji era. Rai Sanyo devoted twenty years to the preparation
of his 22 volumes and took his materials from 259 Japanese and
Chinese works. But neither he nor his predecessors recognized
in history anything more than a vehicle for recording the mere
sequence of events and their relations, together with some account
of the personages concerned. Their volumes make profoundly
dry reading. Vicarious interest, however, attaches to the pro-
ductions of the Mito School on account of the political influence
they exercised in rehabilitating the nation's respect for the throne
by unveiling the picture of an epoch prior to the usurpations
of military feudalism. The struggles of the great rival clans,
replete with episodes of the most tragic and stirring character,
inspired quasi-historical narrations of a more popular character,
which often took the form of illuminated scrolls. But it was not
until the Meiji era that history, in the modern sense of the term,
began to be written. During recent times many students have
turned their attention to this branch of literature. Works of
wide scope and clear insight have been produced, and the
Historiographers' section in the Imperial University of TokyO
LITERATURE]
JAPAN
169
has been for several years engaged in collecting and collating
materials for a history which will probably rank with anything
of the kind in existence.
In their poetry above everything the Japanese have remained
impervious to alien influences. It owes this conservation to its
_ prosody. Without rhyme, without variety of metre,
without elasticity of dimensions, it is also without
known counterpart. To alter it in any way would be to deprive
it of all distinguishing characteristics. At some remote date a
Japanese maker of songs seems to have discovered that a peculiar
and very fascinating rhythm is produced by lines containing
5 syllables and 7 syllables alternately. That is Japanese poetry
(uta or tanka). There are generally five lines: the first and third
consisting of 5 syllables, the second, fourth and fifth of 7, making a
total of 31 in all. The number of lines is not compulsory : sometimes
they may reach to thirty, forty or even more, but the alternation of
5 and 7 syllables is compulsory. The most attenuated form of all
is the hokku (or haikai) which consists of only three lines, namely,
17 syllables. Necessarily the ideas embodied in such a narrow
vehicle must be fragmentary. Thus it results that Japanese poems
are, for the most part, impressionist ; they suggest a great deal more
than they actually express. Here is an example: —
Momiji-ha wo
Kaze ni makasete
Miru yori mo
Hakanaki mono wa
Inochi nari keri
More fleeting than the glint of
l-withered leaf wind-blown, the
thing called life.
There is no English metre with this peculiar cadence.
It is not to be inferred that the writers of Japan, enamoured as
they were of Chinese ideographs and Chinese style, deliberately ex-
cluded everything Chinese from the realm of poetry. On the contrary,
many of them took pleasure in composing versicles to which Chinese
words were admitted and which showed something of the " parallel-
ism " peculiar to Chinese poetry, since the first ideograph of the last
line was required to be identical with the final ideograph. But
rhyme was not attempted, and the syllabic metre of Japan was
§ reserved, the alternation of 5 and 7 being, however, dispensed with,
uch couplets were called shi to distinguish them from the pure
Japanese uta, or tanka. The two greatest masters of Japanese poetry
were Hitomaro and Akahito, both of the early 8th century, and next
to them stands Tsurayuki, who flourished at the beginning of the
loth century, and is not supposed to have transmitted his mantle
to any successor. The choicest productions of the former two with
those of many other poets were brought together in 756 and embodied
in a book called the Manyoshu (Collection of a Myriad Leaves). The
volume remained unique until the beginning of the loth century, when
(A.D. 905) Tsurayuki and three coadjutors compiled the Kokinshu
(Collection of Odes Ancient and Modern) , the first of twenty-one similar
anthologies between the nth and the I5th centuries, which con-
stitute the Niju-ichi Dai-shu (Anthologies of the One-and-Twenty
Reigns). If to these we add the Hyaku-ninshfi (Hundred Odes by a
Hundred Poets) brought together by Teika Kyo in the I3th century,
we have all the classics of Japanese poetry. For the composition
of the uta gradually deteriorated from the end of the 9th century,
when a game called uta-awase became a fashionable pastime, and
aristocratic men and women tried to string together versicles of 31
syllables, careful of the form and careless of the thought. The
uta-awase, in its later developments, may not unjustly be compared
to the Occidental game of bouts-rimes. The poetry of the nation
remained immovable in the ancient groove until very modern times,
when, either by direct access to the originals or through the medium
of very defective translations, the nation became acquainted with
the masters of Occidental song. A small coterie of authors, headed
by Professor Toyama, then attempted to revolutionize Japanese
poetry by recasting it on European lines. But the project failed
signally, and indeed it may well be doubted whether the Japanese
language can be adapted to such uses.
It was under the auspices of an empress (Suiko) that the first
historical manuscript is said to have been compiled in 620. It was
under the auspices of an empress (Gemmyo) that the
Record of Ancient Matters was transcribed (712) from the
lips of a court lady. And it was under the auspices of an
I it t 1 empress that the Chronicles of Japan were composed
" (720). To women, indeed, from the 8th century onwards
may be said to have been entrusted the guardianship of the pure
Japanese language, the classical, or Chinese, form being adopted by
men. The distinction continued throughout the ages. To this day the
spoken language of Japanese women is appreciably simpler and softer
than that of the men, and to this day while the educated woman uses
the hiragana syllabary in writing, eschews Chinese rrords and rarely
pens an ideograph, the educated man employs the ideograph
entirely, and translates his thoughts as far as possible into the
mispronounced Chinese words without recourse to which it would
be impossible for him to discuss any scientific subject, or even to
refer to the details of his daily business. Japan was thus enriched
with two works of very high merit, the Genji Monogatari (c. 1004)
and the Makura no Zoshi (about the same date). The former, by
Influence
of Women
Murasaki no Shikibu — probably a pseudonym — was the first novel
composed in Japan. Before her time there had been many mono-
gatari (narratives), but all consisted merely of short stories, mythical
or quasi-historical, whereas Murasaki no Shikibu did for Japan what
Fielding and Richardson did for England. Her work was " a prose
epic of real life," the life of her hero, Genji. Her language is graceful
and natural, her sentiments are refined and sober; and, as Mr Aston
well says, her " story flows on easily from one scene of real life to
another, giving us a varied and minutely detailed picture of life and
society in Kioto, such as we possess for no other country at the same
period." The Makura no Zoshi (Pillow Sketches), like the Genji
Monogatari, was by a noble lady — Sei Shonagon — but it is simply a
record of daily events and fugitive thoughts, though not in the form
of a diary. The book is one of the most natural and unaffected
compositions ever written. Undesignedly it conveys a wonderfully
realistic picture of aristocratic life and social ethics in Kioto at the
beginning of the nth century. " If we compare it with anything
that Europe has to show at this period, it must be admitted that it
is indeed a remarkable work. What a revelation it would be if
we had the court life of Alfred's or Canute's reign depicted to us in
a similar way ? "
The period from the early part of the I4th century to the opening
of the 1 7th is generally regarded as the dark age of Japanese litera-
ture. The constant wars of the time left their impress _,, „
upon everything. To them is due the fact that the '"euar
two principal works compiled during this epoch were, ge'
one political, the other quasi-historical. In the former, Jinkoshdto-
ki (History of the True Succession of the Divine Monarchs), Kitabatake
Chikafusa (1340) undertook to prove that of the two sovereigns
then disputing for supremacy in Japan, Go-Daigo was the rightful
monarch; in the latter, Taihei-ki (History of Great Peace), Kojima
(1370) devoted his pages to describing the events of contempo-
raneous history. Neither work can be said to possess signal literary
merit, but both had memorable consequences. For the Jinkoshoto-ki,
by its strong advocacy of the mikado's administrative rights as
against the usurpations of military feudalism, may be said to have
sowed the seeds of Japan's modern polity; and the Taihei-ki, by
its erudite diction, skilful rhetoric, simplification of old gram-
matical constructions and copious interpolation of Chinese words,
furnished a model for many imitators and laid the foundations
of Japan's 19th-century style. The Taihei-ki produced another
notable effect; it inspired public readers who soon developed into
historical raconteurs; a class of professionals who are almost as
much in vogue to-day as they were 500 years ago. Belonging to
about the same period as the Jinkoshoto-ki, another classic occupies
a leading place in Japanese esteem. It is the Tsure-zure-gusa
(Materials for Dispelling Ennui), by Kenko-boshi, described by Mr
Aston as one of the most delightful oases in Japanese literature;
a collection of short sketches, anecdotes and essays on all imaginable
subjects, something in the manner of Selden's Table Talk."
The so-called dark age of Japanese literature was not entirely
unproductive : it gave the drama (No) to Japan. Tradition ascribes
the origin of the drama to a religious dance of a panto- fheOrama
mimic character, called Kagura and associated with
Shinto ceremonials. The No, however, owed its development
mainly to Buddhist influence. During the medieval era of inter-
necine strife the Buddhist priests were the sole depositaries of literary
talent, and seeing that, from the close of the lAth century, the
Shinto mime (Kagura) was largely employed by the military class
to invoke or acknowledge the assistance of the gods, the monks of
Buddha set themselves to compose librettos for this mime, and the
performance, thus modified, received the name of No. Briefly
speaking, the No was a dance of the most stately character, adapted
to the incidents of dramas '.' which embrace within their scope a
world of legendary lore, of quaint fancies and of religious sentiment."
Their motives were chiefly confined to such themes as the law of
retribution to which all human beings are subjected, the transitori-
ness of life and the advisability of shaking off from one's feet the dust
of this sinful world. But some were of a purely martial nature.
This difference is probably explained by the fact that the idea of
thus modifying the Kagura had its origin in musical recitations
from the semi-romantic semi-historical narratives of the I4th cen-
tury. Such recitations were given by itinerant Bonzes, and it is
easy to understand the connexion between them and the No. Very
soon the No came to occupy in the estimation of the military class a
position similar to that held by the tanka as a literary pursuit, and
the gagaku as a musical, in the Imperial court. All the great aristo-
crats not only patronized the No but were themselves ready to take
part in it. Costumes of the utmost magnificence were worn, and
the chiselling of masks for the use of the performers occupied scores
of artists and ranked as a high glyptic accomplishment. There are
335 classical dramas of this kind in a compendium called the Yokyoka
Tsuge, and many of them are inseparably connected with the names
of Kwanami Kiyotsugu (1406) and his son Motokiyo (1455), who are
counted the fathers of the art. For a moment, when the tide of
Western civilization swept over Japan, the No seemed likely to be
permanently submerged. But the renaissance of nationalism
(kokusui hoson) saved the venerable drama, and owing to the
exertions of Prince Iwakura, the artist Hosho Kuro and Umewaka
Minoru, it stands as high as ever in popular favour. Concerning the
1 7o JAPAN
five schools into which the No is divided, their characteristics and
their differences — these are matters of interest to the initiated alone.
The Japanese are essentially a laughter-loving people. They are
highly susceptible of tragic emotions, but they turn gladly to the
_ _ brighter phases of life. Hence a need was soon felt
e arcs. ^ something to dispel the pessimism of the No, and
that something took the form of comedies played in the interludes
of the No and called Kyogen (mad words). The Kyogen needs no
elaborate description : it is a pure farce, never immodest or vulgar.
The classic drama No and its companion the Kyogen had two
children, the Joruri and the Kabuki. They were born at the close
The Theatre °^ tn.e I°t'1 centurv an^ tney owed their origin to the
'growing influence of the commercial class, who asserted
a right to be amused but were excluded from enjoyment of the
aristocratic No and the Kyogen. The Joruri is a dramatic ballad,
sung or recited to the accompaniment of the samisen and in unison
with the movements of puppets. It came into existence in Kioto
and was thence transferred to Yedo (Tokyo), where the greatest of
Japanese playwrights, Chikamatsu Monzaempn (1653-1724), and a
musician of exceptional talent, Takemoto Gidayu, collaborated to
render this puppet drama a highly popular entertainment. It
flourished for nearly 200 years in Yedo, and is still occasionally
performed in Osaka. Like the No the Joruri dealt always with
sombre themes, and was supplemented by the Kabuki (farce).
This last owed its inception to a priestess who, having abandoned
her holy vocation at the call of love, espoused dancing as a means of
livelihood and trained a number of girls for the purpose. The law
presently interdicted these female comedians (onna-kabuki) in the
interests of public morality, and they were succeeded by " boy
comedians " (wakashu-kabuki) who simulated women's ways and
were vetoed in their turn, giving place to yaro-kabuki (comedians
with queues). Gradually the Kabuki developed the features of a
genuine theatre; the actor and the playwright were discriminated,
and, the performances taking the form of domestic drama (Wagoto
and Sewamono) or historical drama (Aragolo or Jidaimono), actors
of perpetual fame -sprang up, as Sakata Tojuro and Ichikawa
Danjinrp (1660-1704). Mimetic posture-dances (Shosagoto) were
always introduced as interludes; past and present indiscriminately
contributed to the playwright's subjects; realism was carried to
extremes; a revolving stage and all mechanical accessories were
supplied ; female parts were invariably taken by males, who attained
almost incredible skill in these simulations; a chorus — relic of the
No — chanted expositions of profound sentiments or thrilling inci-
dents; and histrionic talent of the very highest order was often
displayed. But the Kabuki-za and its yakusha (actors) remained
always a plebeian institution. No samurai frequented the former
or associated with the latter. With the introduction of Western
civilization in modern times, however, the theatre ceased to be
tabooed by the aristocracy. Men and women of all ranks began to
visit it ; the emperor himself consented (1887) to witness a perform-
ance by the great stars of the stage at the private residence of Marquis
Inouye ; a dramatic reform association was organized by a number of
prominent noblemen and scholars; drastic efforts were made to
purge the old historical dramas of anachronisms and inconsistencies,
and at length a theatre (the Yuraku-za) was built on purely European
lines, where instead of sitting from morning to night witnessing
one long-drawn-out drama with interludes of whole farces, a visitor
may devote only a few evening-hours to the pastime. The Shosa-
foto has not been abolished, nor is there any reason why it should be.
t has graces and beauties of its own. There remains to be noted
the incursion of amateurs into the histrionic realm. In former times
the actor's profession was absolutely exclusive in Japan. Children
were trained to wear their fathers' mantles, and the idea that a non-
professional could tread the hallowed ground of the stage did not
enter any imagination. But with the advent of the new regimen in
Meiji days there arose a desire for social plays depicting the life of the
modern generation, and as these " croppy dramas " (zampatsu-
mono) — so called in allusion to the European method of cutting the
hair close — were not included in the repertoire of the orthodox
theatre, amateur troupes (known as soshi-yakusha) were organized
to fill the void. Even Shakespeare has been played by these ama-
teurs, and the abundant wit ol the Japanese is on the way to enrich
the stage with modern farces of unquestionable merit.
The Tokugawa era (1603-1867), which popularized the drama, had
other memorable effects upon Japanese literature. Yedo, the sho-
gun's capital, displaced Kioto as the centre of literary
activity. Its population of more than a million, includ-
ing all sorts and conditions of men — notably wealthy
merchants and mechanics — constituted a new audience
to which authors had to address themselves; and an
unparalleled development of mental activity necessitated wholesale
drafts upon the Chinese vocabulary. To this may be attributed the
appearance of a groupof men \nvtv;na.skiingakusha (Chinese scholars).
The most celebrated among them were: Fujiwara Seikwa (1560-
1619), who introduced his countrymen to the philosophy of Chu-Hi;
Hayashi Rasan (1583-1657), who wrote 170 treatises on scholastic
and moral subjects; Kaibara Ekken (1630-1714), teacher of a fine
system of ethics; Arai Hakuseki (1657-1725), historian, philosopher,
statesman and financier: and Muro Kiuso.the second great exponent
of Chu-Hi's philosophy. " Japan owes a profound debt of gratitude
Literature
of the
Tokugawa
Era.
[LITERATURE
to the kangakusha of that time. For their day and country they were
emphatically the salt of earth." But naturally not all were believers
in the same philosophy. The fervour of the followers of Chu-Hi
(the orthodox school) could not fail to provoke opposition. Thus
some arose who declared allegiance to the idealistic intuitionalism
of Wang Yang-ming, and others advocated direct study of the works
of Confucius and Mencius. Connected with this rejection of Chu-
Hi were such eminent names as those of Ito Junsai (1627-1718),
Ito Togai (1617-1736), Ogyu Sorai (1666-1728) and Dazai Shuntai
(1679-1747). These Chinese scholars made no secret of their
contempt for Buddhism, and in their turn they were held in aversion
by the Buddhists and the Japanese scholars (wagakusha), so that the
second half of the i8th century was a time of perpetual wrangling
and controversy. The worshippers at the shrine of Chinese philo-
sophy evoked a reactionary spirit of nationalism, just as the excessive
worship of Occidental civilization was destined to do in the igth
century.
Apart from philosophical researches and the development of
the drama, as above related, the Tokugawa era is remarkable for
folk-lore, moral discourses, fiction and a peculiar form of poetry.
This last does not demand much attention. Its principal variety
is the haikai, which is nothing more than a tanka shorn of its con-
cluding fourteen syllables, and therefore virtually identical with the
hokku, already described. The name of Basho is immemorially
associated with this kind of lilliputian versicle, which reached the
extreme of impressionism. A more important addition to Japanese
literature was made in the I7th century in the form of children's
tales (Otogibanashi). They are charmingly simple and graceful,
and they have been rendered into' English again and again since the
beginning of the Meiji era. But whether they are to be regarded as
genuine folk-lore or merely as a branch of the fiction of the age when
they first appeared in book form, remains uncertain. Of fiction
proper there was an abundance. The pioneer of this kind of litera-
ture is considered to have been Saikaku (1641-1693), who wrote
sketches of every-day life as he saw it, short tales of some merit
and novels which deal with the most disreputable phases of human
existence. His notable successors in the same line were two men of
Kioto, named Jisho (1675-1745) and Kiseki (1666-1716). They had
their own publishing house, and its name Ilachimonji-ya (figure-of-
eight store) came to be indelibly associated with this kind of litera-
ture. But these men did little more than pave the way for the true
romantic novel, which first took shape under the hand of Santo
Kyoden (1761-1816), and culminated in the works of Bakin, Tane-
hiko, Samba, Ikku, Shunsui and their successors. Of nearly all the
books in this class it may be said that they deal largely in sensation-
alism and pornography, though it does not follow that their language
is either coarse or licentious. The life of the virtuous Japanese
woman being essentially uneventful, these romancists not unnatur-
ally sought their female types among dancing-girls and courtesans.
The books were profusely illustrated with wood-cuts and chromo-
xylographs from pictures of the ukiyoe masters, who, like the play-
wright, the actor and the romancer, ministered to the pleasure of
the " man in the street." Brief mention must also be made of two
other kinds of books belonging to this epoch ; namely, the Shingaku-
sho (ethical essays) and the Jitsuroku-mono (true records). The
latter were often little more than historical novels founded on facts;
and the former, though nominally intended to engraft the doctrines
of Buddhism and Shinto upon the philosophy of China, were really
of rationalistic tendency.
Although the incursions made into Chinese philosophy and the
revival of Japanese traditions during the Tokugawa Epoch contri-
buted materially to the overthrow of feudalism and
the restoration of the Throne's administrative power, The Mel/I
the immediate tendency of the last two events was to "'
divert the nation's attention wholly from the study of either
Confucianism or the Record of Ancient Matters. A universal thirst
set in for Occidental science and literature, so that students
occupied themselves everywhere with readers and grammars
modelled on European lines rather than with the Analects or the
Kojiki. English at once became the language of learning. Thus
the three colleges which formed the nucleus of the Imperial Univer-
sity of Tokyo were presided over by a graduate of Michigan College
(Professor Toyama), a member of the English bar (Professor
Hozumi) and a graduate of Cambridge (Baron Kikuchi). If Japan
was eminently fortunate in the men who directed her political
career at that time, she was equally favoured in those that presided
over her literary culture. Fukuzawa Yukichi, founder of the
Keio Gijuku, now one of Japan's four universities, did more than
any of his contemporaries by writing and speaking to spread a
knowledge of the West, its ways and its thoughts, and Nakamura
Keiu laboured in the same cause by translating Smiles's Self-help
and Mill's Representative Government. A universal geography (by
Uchida Masao) ; a history of nations (by Mitsukuri Rinsho); a
translation of Chambers1! Encyclopaedia by the department of
education; Japanese renderings of Herbert Spencer and of Guizot
and Buckle — all these madethcirappcaranceduringthe first fourteen
years of the epoch. The influence of politics may be strongly
traced in the literature of that time, for the first romances produced
by the new school were all of a political character: Keikoku Hitlun
(Model for Statesmen, with Epaminondas for hero) by Yano Fumio;
NEWSPAPERS]
Setchubai(Plum-bhssoms in snow) and Kwakwan-o (Nightingale Among
Flowers) by Suyehiro. This idea of subserving literature to political
ends is said to have been suggested by Nakae Tokusuke's translation
of Rousseau's Central social. The year 1882 saw Julius Caesar in a
Japanese dress. The translator was Tsubouchi Shoyo, one of the
greatest writers of the Meiji era. His Shosetsu Shinsui (Essentials
of a Novel) was an eloquent plea for realism as contrasted with the
artificiality of the characters depicted by Bakin, and his own works
illustrative of this theory took the public by storm. He also brought
out the first literary periodical published in Japan, namely, the
Waseda Bungaku, so called because Tsubouchi was professor of
literature in the Waseda Universrty, an institution founded by Count
Okuma, whose name cannot be omitted from any history of Meiji
literature, not as an author but as a patron. As illustrating the
rapid development of familiarity with foreign authors, a Japanese
retrospect of the Meiji era notes that whereas Macaulay s Essays
were in the curriculum of the Imperial University in 1881-1882, they
were studied, five or six years later, in secondary schools, and pupils
of the latter were able to read with understanding the works of
Goldsmith, Tennyson and Thackeray. Up to Tsubouchi's time the
Meiji literature was all in the literary language, but there was then
formed a society calling itself Kenyusha, some of whose associates —
' as Bimyosai — used the colloquial language in their works, while
others — as Koyo, Rohan, &c. — went back to the classical diction
of the Genroku era (1655-1703). Rohan isoneof the most renowned
of Japan's modern authors, and some of his historical romances have
had wide vogue. Meanwhile the business of translating went on
apace. Great numbers of European and American authors were
rendered into Japanese-^Calderon, Lytton, Disraeli, Byron, Shake-
speare, Milton, Turgueniev, Carlyle, Daudet, Emerson, Hugo, Heine,
De Quincey, Dickens, Korner, Goethe— -their name is legion and their
influence upon Japanese literature is conspicuous. In 1888 a
special course of German literature was inaugurated at the Imperial
University, and with it is associated the name of Mori Ogai, Japan's
most faithful interpreter of German thought and speech. Virtually
every literary magnate of the Occident has found one or more inter-
preters in modern Japan. Accurate reviewers of the era have
divided it into periods of two or three years each, according to the
various groups of foreign authors that were in vogue, and every year
sees a large addition to the number of Japanese who study the
masterpieces of Western literature in the original.
Newspapers, as the term is understood in the West, did not exist
in old Japan, though block-printed leaflets were occasionally issued
to describe some specially stirring event. Yet the
Newspapers Japanese were not entirely unacquainted with
and journalism. During the last decades of the factory at
Periodicals. Deshima the Dutch traders made it a yearly custom to
submit to the governor of Nagasaki selected extracts
from newspapers arriving from Batavia, and these extracts, having
been translated into Japanese, were forwarded to the court in Yedo
together with their originals. To such compilations the name of
Oranda fusetsu-sho (Dutch Reports) was given. Immediately after
the conclusion of the first treaty in 1857, the Yedo authorities
instructed the office for studying foreign books (Bunsho torishirabe-
dokoro) to translate excerpts from European and American journals.
Occasionally these translations were copied for circulation among
officials, but the bulk of the people knew nothing of them. Thus the
first real newspaper did not see the light until 1861, when a Yedo
publisher brought out the Batavia News, a compilation of items
from foreign newspapers, printed on Japanese paper from wooden
blocks. Entirely devoid of local interest, this journal did not
survive for more than a few months. It was followed, in 1864, by
the Shimbun-shi (News), which was published in Yokohama, with
Kishida Ginko for editor and John Hiko for sub-editor. The latter
had been cast away, many years previously, on the coast of the
United States and had become a naturalized American citizen. He
retained a knowledge of spoken Japanese, but the ideographic script
was a sealed book to him, and his editorial part was limited to oral
translations from American journals which the editor committed
to writing. The Shimbun-shi essayed to collect domestic news as
well as foreign. It was published twice a month and might possibly
have created a demand for its wares had not the editor and sub-
editor left for America after the issue of the loth number. The
example, however, had now been set. During the three years that
separated the death of the Shimbun-shi from the birth of the Meiji
era (October 1867) no less than ten quasi-journals made their
appearance. They were in fact nothing better than inferior maga-
zines, printed from wood-blocks, issued weekly or monthly, and
giving little evidence of enterprise or intellect, though connected
with them were the names of men destined to become famous in the
world of literature, as Fukuchi Genichiro, Tsuji Shinji (afterwards
Baron Tsuji) and Suzuki Yuichi. These publications attracted little
interest and exercised no influence. Journalism was regarded as a
mere pastime. The first evidence of its potentialities was furnished
by the Koko Shimbun (The World) under the editorship of Fukuchi
Genichiro and Sasano Dempei. To many Japanese observers it
seemed that the restoration of 1867 had merely transferred the ad-
ministrative authority from the Tokugawa Shogun to the clans of
Satsuma and Choshu. The Koko Shimbun severely attacked the
two clans as specious usurpers. It was not in the mood of Japanese
JAPAN 171
officialdom at that time to brook such assaults. The Koko Shimbun
was suppressed; Fukuchi was thrust into prison, and all journals
or periodicals except those having official sanction were vetoed.
At the beginning of 1868 only two newspapers remained in the field.
Very soon, however, the enlightened makers of- modern Japan
appreciated the importance of journalism, and in 1871 the Shimbun
Zasshi (News Periodical) was started under the auspices of the
illustrious Kido. Shortly afterwards there appeared in Yokohama —
whence it was subsequently transferred to Tokyo — the Mainichi
Shimbun (Daily News), the first veritable daily and also the first
journal printed with movable types and foreign presses. Its editors
were Numa Morikage, Shimada Saburo and Koizuka Ryu, all des-
tined to become celebrated not only in the field of journalism but
also in that of politics. It has often been said of the Japanese that
they are slow in forming a decision but very quick to act upon it.
This was illustrated in the case of journalism. In iSyothe country
possessed only two quasi-journals, both under official auspices. In
1875 it possessed over 100 periodicals and daily newspapers. The
most conspicuous were the Nichi Nichi Shimbun (Daily News), the
Yubin Hochi (Postal Intelligence), the Choya Shimbun (Government
and People News), the Akebono Shimbun (The Dawn), and the
Mainichi Shimbun (Daily News). These were called " the five
great journals." The Nichi Nichi Shimbun had an editor of con-
spicuous literary ability in Fukuchi Genichiro, and the Hochi Shim-
bun, its chief rival, received assistance from such men as Yano
Fumio, Fujita Makichi, Inukai Ki and Minoura Katsundo. Japan
had not yet any political parties, but the ferment that preceded
their birth was abroad. The newspaper press being almost entirely
in the hands of men whose interests suggested wider opening of the
door to official preferment, nearly all editorial pens were directed
against the government. So strenuous did this campaign become
that, in 1875, a press law was enacted empowering the minister of
home affairs and the police to suspend or suppress a journal and to
fine or imprison its editor without public trial. Many suffered under
this law, but the ultimate effect was to invest the press with new
popularity, and very soon the newspapers conceived a device which
effectually protected their literary staff, for they employed " dummy
editors " whose sole function was to go to prison in lieu of the true
editor.
Japanese journalistic writing in these early years of Meiji was
marred by extreme and pedantic classicism. There had not yet
been any real escape from the tradition which assigned the crown
of scholarship to whatever author drew most largely upon the
resources of the Chinese language and learning. The example set
by the Imperial court, and still set by it, did not tend to correct
this style. The sovereign, whether speaking by rescript or by
ordinance, never addressed the bulk of his subjects. His words
were taken from sources so classical as to be intelligible to only the
highly educated minority. The newspapers sacrificed theiraudience
to their erudition and preferred classicism to circulation. Their
columns were thus a sealed book to the whole of the lower middle
classes and to the entire female population. The Yomiuri Shimbun
(Buy and Read News) was the first to break away from this perni-
cious fashion. Established in 1875, it adopted a style midway
between the classical an,d the colloquial, and it appended the
syllabic characters to each ideograph, so that its columns became
intelligible to every reader of ordinary education. It was followed
by the Yeiri Shimbun (Pictorial Newspaper), the first to insert illus-
trations and to publish feuitteton romances. Both of these journals
devoted space to social news, a radical departure from the austere
restrictions observed by their aristocratic contemporaries.
The year 1881 saw the nation divided into political parties and
within measured distance of constitutional government. Thence-
forth the great majority of the newspapers and perio-
dicals ranged themselves under the nag of this or that Bra of
party. An era of embittered polemics ensued. The Political
journals, while fighting continuously against each Parties.
other's principles, agreed in attacking the ministry,
and the latter found it necessary to establish organs of its own which
preached the German system of state autocracy. Editors seemed to
be incapable of rising above the dead level of political strife, and
their utterances were not relieved even by a semblance of fairness.
Readers turned away in disgust, and journal after journal passed
out of existence. The situation was saved by a newspaper which
from the outset of its career obeyed the best canons of journalism.
Born in 1882, the Jiji Shi-npo (Times) enjoyed the immense advan-
tage of having its policy controlled by one of the greatest thinkers
of modern Japan, Fukuzawa Yukichi. Its basic principle was
liberty of the individual, liberty of the family and liberty of the
nation; it was always found on the side of broad-minded justice, and
it derived its materials from economic, social and scientific sources.
Other newspapers of greatly improved character followed the Jiji
Shimpo, especially notable among them being the Kokumin Shimbun.
In the meanwhile Osaka, always pioneer in matters of commercial
enterprise, had set the example of applying the force of capital to
journalistic development. Tokyo journals were all
on a literary or political basis, but the Osaka Asahi Commercial
Shimbun (Osaka Rising Sun News) was purely a Journalism.
business undertaking. Its proprietor, Maruyama
Ryuhei, spared no expense to obtain news from all quarters of the
172 JAPAN
world, and for the first time the Japanese public learned what stores
of information may be found in the columns of a really enterprising
journal. Very soon the Asahi had a keen competitor in the Osakc
Mainichi Shimbun (Osaka Daily News) and these papers ultimately
crushed all jivals in Osaka. In 1888 Maruyama established another
Asahi in Tokyo, and thither he was quickly followed by his Osaka
rival, which in Tokyo took the name of Mainichi Dempo (Daily
Telegraph). These two newspapers now stand alone as purveyors
of copious telegraphic news, and in the next rank, not greatly lower
comes the Jiji Shimpo.
With the opening of the diet in 1890, politics again obtruded
themselves into newspaper columns, but as practical living issues
now occupied attention, readers were no longer wearied by the
abstract homilies of former days. Moreover, freedom of the press
was at length secured. Already (1887) the government had volun-
tarily made a great step in advance by divesting itself of the right
to imprison or fine editors by executive order. But it reserved the
power of suppressing or suspending a newspaper, and against that
reservation a majority of the lower house voted, session after session,
only to see the bill rejected by the peers, who shared the govern-
ment's opinion that to grant a larger measure of liberty would
certainly encourage licence. Not until 1897 was this opposition
fully overcome. A new law, passed by both houses and confirmed
by the emperor, took from the executive all power over journals,
except in cases of lese majeste, and nothing now remains of the
former arbitrary system except that any periodical having a political
complexion is required to deposit security varying from 175 to 1000
yen. The result has falsified all sinister forebodings. A much more
moderate tone pervades the writings of the press since restrictions
were entirely removed, and although there are now 1775 journals
and periodicals published throughout the empire, with a total annual
circulation of some 700 million copies, intemperance of language,
such as in former times would have provoked official interference, is
practically unknown to-day. Moreover, the best Japanese editors have
caught with remarkable aptitude the spirit of modern journalism.
But a few years ago they used to compile laborious essays, in which
the inspiration was drawn from Occidental text-books, and the alien
character of the source was hidden under a veneer of Chinese
aphorisms. To-day they write terse, succinct, closely-reasoned
articles, seldom diffuse, often witty; and generally free from extra-
vagance of thought or diction. Incidentally they are hastening
the assimilation of the written and the spoken languages (geribun
itchi) which may possibly prelude a still greater reform, abolition
of the ideographic script. Yet, with few exceptions, the profession
[ART
Art.
that, whereas 2767 journals and periodicals were started between
1889 and 1894 (inclusive), no less than 2465 ceased publishing. The
largest circulation recorded in 1908 was about 1 50,000 copies daily,
and the honour of attaining that exceptional figure belonged to the
Osaka Asahi Shimbun. (p. 3y_)
IV. — JAPANESE ART
Painting and Engraving. — In Japanese art the impressionist
element is predominant. Pictures, as the term is understood in
Europe, can scarcely be said to have existed at
any time in Japan. The artist did not depict
emotion: he depicted the subjects that produce
emotion. Therefore he took his motives from nature rather
than from history; or, if he borrowed from the latter, what
he selected was a scene, not the pains or the passions of its
actors. Moreover, he never exhausted his subject, but was
always careful to leave a wide margin for the imagination of the
spectator. This latter consideration sometimes impelled him to
represent things which, to European eyes, seem trivial or insig-
nificant, but which really convey hints of deep significance. In
short, Japanese pictures are like Japanese poetry: they do not
supply thought but only awaken it. Often their methods show
conventionalism, but it is conventionalism so perfect and free
in its allurements that nature seems to suggest both the motive
and the treatment. Thus though neither botanically nor orni-
thologically correct, their flowers and their birds show a truth
to nature, and a habit of minute observation in the artist, which
cannot be too much admired. Every blade of grass, each leaf
and feather, has been the object of loving and patient study.
It has been rashly assumed by some writers that the Japanese
do not study from nature. All their work is an emphatic pro-
test against this supposition. It can in fact be shown con-
clusively that the Japanese have derived all their fundamental
The highest rate of subscription to a daily journal is twelve
shillings per annum, and the usual charge for advertisement is
from 7d. to one shilling per line of 22 ideographs (about nine words).
ideas of symmetry, so different from ours, from a close study of
nature and her processes in the attainment of endless variety.
A special feature of their art is that, while often closely and
minutely imitating natural objects, such as birds, flowers and
fishes, the especial objects of their predilection and study, they
frequently combine the facts of external nature with a conven-
tional mode of treatment better suited to their purpose. During
the long apprenticeship that educated Japanese serve to acquire
the power of writing with the brush the complicated charac-
ters borrowed from Chinese, they unconsciously cultivate the
habit of minute observation and the power of accurate
imitation, and with these the delicacy of touch and freedom of
hand which only long practice can give. A hair's-breadth devia-
tion in a line is fatal to good calligraphy, both among the Chinese
and the Japanese. When they come to use the pencil in drawing,
they already possess accuracy of eye and free command of the
brush. Whether a Japanese art-worker sets himself to copy
what he sees before him or to give play to his fancy in combining
what he has seen with some ideal in his mind, the result shows
perfect facility of execution and easy grace in all the lines.
The beauties of the human form never appealed to the Jap-
anese artist. Associating the nude solely with the performance
of menial tasks, he deemed it worse than a solecism to transfer
such subjects to his canvas, and thus a wide field of motive was
closed to him. On the other hand, the draped figure received
admirable treatment from his brush, and the naturalistic school
of the I7th, i8th and ipth centuries reached a high level of skill
in depicting men, women and children in motion. Nor has there
ever been a Japanese Landseer. Sosen's monkeys and badgers
constitute the one possible exception, but the horses, oxen, deer,
tigers, dogs, bears, foxes and even cats of the best Japanese
artists were ill drawn and badly modelled. In the field of land-
scape the Japanese painter fully reached the eminence on which
his great Chinese masters stood. He did not obey the laws of
linear perspective as they are formulated in the Occident, nor
did he show cast shadows, but his aerial perspective and his
foreshortening left nothing to be desired. It has been suggested
that he deliberately eschewed chiaroscuro because his pictures,
destined invariably to hang in an alcove, were required to be
equally effective from every aspect and had also to form part of
a decorative scheme. But the more credible explanation is that
he merely followed Chinese example in this matter, as he did also
in linear perspective, accepting without question the curious
canon that lines converge as they approach the spectator.
It is in the realm of decorative art that the world has chiefly
benefited by contact with Japan. Her influence is second only
to that of Greece. Most Japanese decorative designs
consist of natural objects, treated sometimes in a more ^°ra""»
or less conventional manner, but always distinguished
by delicacy of touch, graceful freedom of conception and delight-
fully harmonized tints. Perhaps the admiration which the
Japanese artist has won in this field is due not more to his wealth
of fancy and skilful adaptation of natural forms, than to his
individuality of character in treating his subjects. There is
complete absence of uniformity and monotony. Repetition
without any variation is abhorrent to every Japanese. He will
not tolerate the stagnation and tedium of a dull uniformity by
mechanical reproduction. His temperament will not let him
endure the labour of always producing the same pattern. Hence
the repetition of two articles exactly like each other, and,
generally, the division of any space into equal parts are
nstinctively avoided, as nature avoids the production of any
two plants, or even any two leaves of the same tree, which in
all points shall be exactly alike.
The application of this principle in the same free spirit is the
secret of much of the originality and the excellence of the decora-
ive art of Japan. Her artists and artisans alike aim at symmetry,
not by an equal division of parts, as we do, but rather by a cer-
tain balance of corresponding parts, each different from the
other, and not numerically even, with an effect of variety and
reedom from formality. They seek it, in fact, as nature attains
the same end. If we take for instance the skins of animals that
JAPAN
PAINTING
(These illustrations are reproduced by permission of the Kokka Company, Tokyo, Japan.)
PLATE I.
XV. 172.
PLATE II.
JAPAN
PAINTING
ART]
are striped or spotted, we have the best possible illustration of
nature's methods in this direction. Examining the tiger or the
leopard, in all the beauty of their symmetrical adornment, we do
not see in any one example an exact repetition of the same
stripes or spots on each side of the mesial line. They seem to be
alike, and yet are all different. The line of division along the
spine, it will be observed, is not perfectly continuous or defined,
but in part suggested; and each radiating stripe on either side
is full of variety in size, direction, and to some extent in colour
and depth of shade. Thus nature works, and so, following in
her footsteps, works the Japanese artist. The same law pre-
vailing in all nature's creation, in the plumage of birds, the paint-
ing of butterflies' wings, the marking of shells, and in all the
infinite variety and beauty of the floral kingdom, the lesson is
constantly renewed to the observant eye. Among flowers the
orchids, with all their fantastic extravagance and mimic imita-
tions of birds and insects, are especially prolific in examples of
symmetrical effects without any repetition of similar parts or
divisions into even numbers.
The orchids may be taken as offering fair types of the Japanese
artist's ideal in all art work. And thus, close student of nature's
processes, methods, and effects as the Japanese art workman is,
he ever seeks to produce humble replicas from his only art
master. Thus he proceeds in all his decorative work, avoiding
studiously the exact repetition of any lines and spaces, and all
diametrical divisions, or, if these be forced upon him by the shape
of the object, exercising the utmost ingenuity to disguise the
fact, and train away the eye from observing the weak point,
as nature does in like circumstances. Thus if a lacquer box in
the form of a parallelogram is the object, Japanese artists will not
divide it in two equal parts by a perpendicular line, but by a
diagonal, as offering a more pleasing line and division. If the
box be round, they will seek to lead the eye away from the naked
regularity of the circle by a pattern distracting attention, as,
for example, by a zigzag breaking the circular outline, and sup-
ported by other ornaments. A similar feeling is shown by them
as colourists, and, though sometimes eccentric and daring in
their contrasts, they never produce discords in their chromatic
scale. They have undoubtedly a fine sense of colour, and a
similarly delicate and subtle feeling for harmonious blending of
brilliant and sober hues. As a rule they prefer a quiet and
refined style, using full but low-toned colours. They know the
value of bright colours, however, and how best to utilize them,
both supporting and contrasting them with their secondaries and
complementaries.
The development of Japanese painting may be divided into
the following six periods, each signalized by a wave of progress.
(i) From the middle of the 6th to the middle of the
D/v/s/on Q^ centurv : tne naturalization of Chinese and Chino-
Periods. Buddhist art. (2) From the middle of the 9th to the
middle of the isth century: the establishment of great
native schools under Kose no Kanaoka and his descendants and
followers, the pure Chinese school gradually falling into neglect.
(3) From the middle of the isth to the latter part of the iyth
century: the revival of the Chinese style. (4) From the latter
part of the i7th to the latter part of the i8th century: the estab-
lishment of a popular school. (5) From the latter part of the
1 8th to the latter part of the igth century: the foundation of a
naturalistic school, and the first introduction of European influ-
ence into Japanese painting; the acme and decline of the popular
school. (6) From about 1875 to the present time: a period of
transition.
Tradition refers to the advent of a Chinese artist named
Nanriu, invited to Japan in the 5th century as a painter of the
Imperial banners, but of the labours and influence of
tms man and of l"s descendants we have no record.
The real beginnings of the study of painting and sculp-
ture in their higher branches must be dated from the introduction
of Buddhism from China in the middle of the 6th century, and
for three centuries after this event there is evidence that the
practice of the arts was carried on mainly by or under the
instruction of Korean and Chinese immigrants.
JAPAN 1 73
The paintings of which we have any mention were almost limited
to representations of Buddhist masters of the Tang dynasty (618-
905), notably Wu Tao-zu (8th century), of whose genius romantic
stories are related. The oldest existing work of this period is a
mural decoration in the hall of the temple of HoryO-ji, Nara,
attributed to a Korean priest named Dpnch6, who lived in Japan
in the 6th century; and this painting, in spite of the destructive
effects of time and exposure, shows traces of the same power of line,
colour and composition that stamps the best of the later examples
of Buddhist art.
The native artist who crested the first great wave of
Japanese painting was a court noble named Kose no Kanaoka,
living under the patronage of the emperor Seiwa
(850-859) and his successors down to about the end of
the pth century, in the midst of a period of peace and
culture. Of his own work few, if any, examples have reached us;
and those attributed with more or less probability to his hand are
all representations of Buddhist divinities, showing a somewhat
formal and conventional design, with a masterly calligraphic
touch and perfect harmony of colouring. Tradition credits him
with an especial genius for the delineation of animals and land-
scape, and commemorates his skill by a curious anecdote of a
painted horse which left its frame to ravage the fields, and was
reduced to pictorial stability only by the sacrifice of its eyes. He
left a line of descendants extending far into the 1 5th century, all
famous for Buddhist pictures, and some engaged in establishing
a native style, the Wa-gwa-ryu.
At the end of the gth century there were two exotic styles of
painting, Chinese and Buddhist, and the beginning of a native
style founded upon these. All three were practised by the same
artists, and it was not until a later period that each became the
badge of a school.
The Chinese style (Kara-ryu), the fundamental essence of all
Japanese art, has a fairly distinct history, dating back to the
introduction of Buddhism into China (A. D. 62), and it
is said to have been chiefly from the works of Wu
Tao-zu, the master of the 8th century, that Kanaoka *v*'
drew his inspiration. This early Chinese manner, which lasted
in the parent country down to the end of the I3th century, was
characterized by a virile grace of line, a grave dignity of composi-
tion, striking simplicity of technique, and a strong but incomplete
naturalistic ideal. The colouring, harmonious but subdued in
tone, held a place altogether secondary to that of the outline,
and was frequently omitted altogether, even in the most famous
works. Shadows and reflections were ignored, and perspective,
approximately correct for landscape distances, was isometrical for
near objects, while the introduction of a symbolic sun or moon
lent the sole distinction between a day and a night scene. The art
was one of imperfect evolution, but for thirteen centuries it was the
only living pictorial art in the world, and the Chinese deserve the
honour of having created landscape painting. The materials used
were water-colours, brushes, usually of deer-hair, and a surface of
unsized paper, translucid silk or wooden panel. The chief motives
were landscapes of a peculiarly wild and romantic type, animal life,
trees and flowers, and figure compositions drawn from Chinese and
Buddhist history and Taoist legend; and these, together with the
grand aims and strange shortcomings of its principles and the
limited range of its methods, were adopted almost without change
by Japan. It was a noble art, but unfortunately the rivalry of the
Buddhist and later native styles permitted it to fall into comparative
neglect, and it was left for a few of the faithful, the most famous of
whom was a priest of the I4th century named Kawo, to preserve it
from inanition till the great Chinese renaissance that lent its stamp
to the next period. The reputed founder of Japanese caricature may
also be added to the list. He was a priest named Kakuyu, but
better known as the abbot of Toba, who lived in the 1 2th century.
An accomplished artist in the Chinese manner, he amused himself and
his friends by burlesque sketches, marked by a grace and humour
that his imitators never equalled. Later, the motive of the Toba
pictures, as such caricatures were called, tended to degenerate, and
the elegant figures of Kakuyu were replaced by scrawls that often
substituted indecency and ugliness for art and wit. Some of the
old masters of the Yamato school were, however, admirable in their
rendering of the burlesque, and in modern times Kyosai, the last of
the Hokusai school, outdid all his predecessors in the riotous origin-
ality of his weird and comic fancies. A new phase of the art now
lives in the pages of the newspaper press.
The Buddhist style was probably even more ancient than the
Chinese, for the scheme of colouring distinctive of the Buddhist
picture was almost certainly of Indian origin; brilliant „ ....
and decorative, and heightened by a lavish use of "" . '
gold, it was essential to the effect of a picture destined av«<
for the dim light of the Buddhist temple. The style was applied
only to the representations of sacred personages and scenes, and
JAPAN
FART
as the traditional forms and attributes of the Brahmanic and
Buddhist divinities were mutable only within narrow limits,
the subjects seldom afforded scope for originality of design or
observation of nature. The principal Buddhist painters down to
the I4th century were members of the Kose, Takuma and Kasuga
lines, the first descended from Kanaoka, the second from Takuma
Tam6uji (ending loth century), and the third from Fujiwara no
Motomitsu (nth century). The last and greatest master of the
school was a priest named Meicho, better known as Cho Densu, the
Japanese Fra Angelico. It is to him that Japan owes the possession
of some of the most stately and most original works in her art,
sublime in conception, line and colour, and deeply instinct with the
religious spirit. He died in 1427, at the age of seventy-six, in the
seclusion of the temple where he had passed the whole of his days.
The native style, Yamato or Wa-gwa-ryu, was an adaptation of
Chinese art canons to motives drawn from the court life, poetry
Native ant^ stor'es °f °'d Japan. It was undoubtedly prac-
Siyle. tised by the Kose line, and perhaps by their prede-
cessors, but it did not take shape as a school until the
beginning of the nth century under Fujiwara no Motomitsu,
who was a pupil of Kose no Kinmochi; it then became known
as Yamalo-ryu, a title which two centuries later was changed to
that of Tosa, on the occasion of one of its masters, Fujiwara no
Taunetaka, assuming that appellation as a family name. The
Yamato-Tosa artists painted in all styles, but that which was the
speciality of the school, to be found in nearly all the historical rolls
bequeathed to us by their leaders, was a lightjy-touched outline
filled in with flat and bright body-colours, in which verdigris-green
played a great part. The originality of the motive did not prevent
the adoption of all the Chinese conventions, and of some new ones
of the artist's own. The curious expedient of spiriting away the
roof of any building of which the artist wished to show the interior
was one of the most remarkable of these. Amongst the foremost
names of the school are those of Montomitsu (nth century), No-
Inizane (l3th century), Tsunetaka (i3th century), Mitsunobu (l5th
and l6th centuries), his son Mitsushige, and Mitsuoki (i7th century).
The struggle between the Taira and Minamoto clans for the power
that had long been practically abandoned by the Imperial line
lasted through the nth and the greater part of the I2th centuries,
ending only with the rise of Yoritomo to the shogunate in 1185.
These internecine disturbances had been unfavourable to any new
departure in art, except in matters appertaining to arms and armour,
and the strife between two puppet emperors for a shadow of authority
in the I4th century brought another distracting element. It was
not until the triumph of the northern dynasty was achieved through
the prowess of an interested champion of the Ashikaga clan that the
culture of ancient Japan revived. The palace of the Ashikaga
shoguns then replaced the Imperial court as the centre of patronage
of art and literature and established a new era in art history.
Towards the close of the Ashikaga shogunate painting entered
on a new phase. Talented representatives of the Kose, Takuma
and Tosa lines maintained the reputation of the
Period. native and Buddhist schools, and the long-neglected
Chinese school was destined to undergo a vigorous
revival. The initiation of the new movement is attributed to a
priest named J6setsu, who lived in the early part of the isth
century, and of whom little else is known. It is not even certain
whether he was of Chinese or Japanese birth; he is, however,
believed by some authorities to have been the teacher of three
great artists — Shubun, SesshQ and Kano Masanobu — who be-
came the leaders of three schools: Shubun, that of the pure
Chinese art of the Sung and Yuan dynasties (loth and I3th
centuries); Sesshu, that of a modified school bearing his name;
and Masanobu, of the great Kano school, which has reached to
the present day. The qualities of the new Chinese schools
were essentially those of the older dynasties: breadth, sim-
plicity, a daringly calligraphic play of brush that strongly
recalled the accomplishments of the famous scribes, and a
colouring that varied between sparing washes of flat local tints
and a strength and brilliancy of decorative effort that rivalled
even that of the Buddhist pictures. The motives remained
almost identical with those of the Chinese masters, and so
imbued with the foreign spirit were many of the Japanese
disciples that it is said they found it difficult to avoid
introducing Chinese accessories even into pictures of native
scenery.
SesshQ (1421-1507) was a priest who visited China and studied
painting there for several years, at length returning in 1469, dis-
appointed with the living Chinese artists, and resolved to strike out
a style of his own, based upon that of the old masters. He was the
boldest and most original of Japanese landscape artists, leaving
powerful and poetic records of the scenery of his own land as well
as that of China, and trusting more to the sure and sweeping stroke
of the brush than to colour. Shubun was an artist of little less
power, but he followed more closely his exemplars, the Chinese
masters of the I2th and I3th centuries; while Kano Masanobu
(1424-1520), trained in the love of Chinese art, departed little from
the canons he had learned from Josetsu or Oguri Sotan. It was left
to his more famous son, Motonobu, to establish the school which
bears the family name. Kano Motonobu (l477-I559) was one
of the greatest Japanese painters, an eclectic of genius, who excelled
in every style and every branch of his art. His variety was in-
exhaustible, and he remains to this day a model whom the most
distinguished artists are proud to imitate. The names of the cele-
brated members of this long line are too many to quote here, but the
most accomplished of his descendants was Tanyu, who died in 1674,
at the age of seventy-three. The close of this long period brought
a new style of art, that of the Korin school. Ogata Korin (1653-
1716) is claimed by both the Tosa and Kano schools, but his work
bears more resemblance to that of an erratic offshoot of the Kano
line named Sotatsu than to the typical work of the academies. He
was an artist of eccentric originality, who achieved wonders in bold
decorative effects in spite of a studied contempt for detail. As a
lacquer painter he left a strong mark upon the work of his con-
temporaries and successors. His brother and pupil, Kenzan,
adopted his style, and left a reputation as a decorator of pottery
hardly less brilliant than Korin's in that qf lacquer; and a later
follower, Hoitsu (1762-1828), greatly excelled the master in delicacy
and refinement, although inferior to him in vigour and invention.
Down to the end of this era painting was entirely in the hands of a
patrician caste — courtiers, priests, feudal nobles and their military
retainers, all men of high education and gentle birth, living in a
polished circle. It was practised more as a phase of aesthetic
culture than with any utilitarian views. It was a labour of loving
service, untouched by the spirit of material gain, conferring upon
the work of the older masters a dignity and poetic feeling which we
vainly seek in much of the later work. Unhappily, but almost inevit-
ably, over-culture led to a gradual falling-off from the old virility.
The strength of Meicho, Sesshu, Motonobu and Tanyu gave place
to a more or less slavish imitation of the old Japanese painters and
their Chinese exemplars, till the heirs to the splendid traditions of
the great masters preserved little more than their conventions and
shortcomings. It was time for a new departure, but there seemed
to be no sufficient strength left within the charmed circle of the
orthodox schools, and the new movement was fated to come from
the masses, whose voice had hitherto been silent in the art world.
A new era in art began in the latter half of the I7th century
with the establishment of a popular school under an embroiderer's
draughtsman named Hishigawa Moronobu (c. 1646- Fourth
1713). Perhaps no great change is ever entirely a Period:
novelty. The old painters of the Yamato-Tosa line
had frequently shown something of the daily life
around them, and one of the later scions of the school, named
Iwasa Matahei, had even made a speciality of this class of
motive; but so little is known of Matahei and his work that
even his period is a matter of dispute, and the few pictures
attributed to his pencil are open to question on grounds of
authenticity. He probably worked some two generations before
the time of Moronobu, but there is no reason to believe that his
labours had any material share in determining the creation and
trend of the new school.
Moronobu was a consummate artist, with all the delicacy and
calligraphic force of the best of the Tosa masters, whom he un-
doubtedly strove to emulate in style; and his pictures are not only
the most beautiful but also the most trustworthy records of the h'fe
of his time. It was not to his paintings, however, that he owed his
greatest influence, but to the powerful impulse he gave to the
illustration of books and broadsides by wood-engravings. It is
true that illustrated books were known as early as 1608, if not before,
but they were few and unattractive, and did little to inaugurate
the great stream of ehon, or picture books, that were to take so large
a share in the education of his own class. It is to Moronobu that
Japan owes the popularization of artistic wood-engravings, for
nothing before his series of xylographic albums approached his best
work in strength and beauty, and nothing since has surpassed it.
Later there came abundant aid to the cause of popular art, partly
from pupils of the Kano and Tosa schools, but mainly from the
artisan class. Most of these artists were designers for books and
broadsides by calling, painters only on occasion, but a few of them
did nothing for the engravers. Throughout the whole of this
period, embracing about a hundred years, there still continued to
work, altogether apart from the men who were making the success
of popular art, a large number of able painters of the Kano, Tosa
and Chinese schools, who multiplied pictures that had every merit
except that of originality. These men, living in the past, paid little
attention to the great popular movement, which seemed to be quite
outside their social and artistic sphere and scarcely worthy of
ART]
JAPAN
Fifth
Period;
Natural-
istic
School.
cultured criticism. It was in the middle of the i8th century that
the decorative, but relatively feeble, Chinese art of the later Ming
period found favour in Japan and a clever exponent in a painter
named Ryurikyo It must be regarded as a sad decadence from the
old Chinese ideals, which was further hastened, from about 1765,
by the popularity of the southern Chinese style. This was a weak
affectation that found its chief votaries amongst literary men
ambitious of an easily earned artistic reputation. The principal
Japanese supporter of this school was Taigado (1722-1775), but the
volume of copies of his sketches, Taigado sansui juseki, published
about 1870, is one of the least attractive albums ever printed in
Japan.
The fifth period was introduced by a movement as momentous
as that which stamped its predecessor — the foundation of a
naturalistic school under a group of men outside the
orthodox academical circles. The naturalistic principle
was by no means a new one; some of the old Chinese
masters were naturalistic in a broad and noble manner,
and their Japanese followers could be admirably and
•minutely accurate when they pleased; but too many of the
latter were content to construct their pictures out of fragmentary
reminiscences of ancient Chinese masterpieces, not presuming to
see a rock, a tree, an ox, or a human figure, except through
Chinese spectacles. It was a farmer's son named Okyo, trained
in his youth to paint in the Chinese manner, who was first bold
enough to adopt as a canon what his predecessors had only
admitted under rare exceptions, the principle of an exact
imitation of nature. Unfortunately, even he had not all the
courage of his creed, and while he would paint a bird or a fish
with perfect realism, he no more dared to trust his eyes in
larger motives than did the most devout follower of Shubun or
Motonobu. He was essentially a painter of the classical schools,
with the speciality of elaborate reproduction of detail in certain
sections of animal life, but fortunately this partial concession
to truth, emphasized as it was by a rare sense of beauty, did
large service.
Okyo rose into notice about 1775, and a number of pupils flocked
to his studio in Shijo Street, Kioto (whence Shijo school). Amongst
these the most famous were Goshun (1742-1811), who is sometimes
regarded as one of the founders of the school; Sosen (1757-1821), an
animal painter of remarkable_ power, but especially celebrated for
pictures of monkey life; Shuho, the younger brother of the last, also
an animal painter; Rosetsu (1755-1799), the best landscape painter
of his school; Keibun, a younger brother of Goshun, and some later
followers of scarcely less fame, notably Hoyen, a pupil of Keibun;
Tessan, an adopted son of Sosen; Ippo and Yosai (1788-1878), well
known for a remarkable set of volumes, the Zenken kojitsu, con-
taining a long series of portraits _of ancient Japanese celebrities.
Ozui and Ojyu, the sons of Okyo, painted in the style of their
father, but failed to attain great eminence. Lastly, amongst the
associates of the Shijo master was the celebrated Ganku (1798-
1837), who developed a special style of his own, and is sometimes
regarded as the founder of a distinct school. He was, however,
greatly influenced by Okyo's example, and his sons, Gantai, Ganryo,
and Gantoku or Renzan, drifted into a manner almost indistin-
guishable from that of the Shijo school. .
It remains only to allude to the European school, if school it
can be called, founded by Kokan and Denkichi, two contem-
poraries of Okyo. These artists, at first educated in
Seftoo/"" one of the native schools, obtained from a Hollander
in Nagasaki some training in the methods and prin-
ciples of European painting, and left a few oil paintings in which
the laws of light and shade and perspective were correctly
observed. They were not, however, of sufficient capacity to
render the adopted manner more than a subject of curiosity,
except to a few followers who have reached down to the present
generation. It is possible that the essays in perspective found
in the pictures of Hokusai, Hiroshige, and some of the popular
artists of the igth century, were suggested by Kokan's drawings
and writings.
The sixth period began about 1875, when an Italian artist was
engaged by the government as a professor of painting in the
Engineering College at Tokyo. Since that time some
distinguished European artists have visited Japan,
and several Japanese students have made a pilgrim-
age to Europe to see for themselves what lessons may be
gained from Western art. These students, confronted by a
Sixth
Period.
strong reaction in favour of pure Japanese art, have fought man-
fully to win public sympathy, and though their success is not yet
crowned, it is not impossible that an Occidental school may ulti-
mately be established. Thus far the great obstacle has been
that pictures painted in accordance with Western canons are
not suited to Japanese interiors and do not appeal to the taste
of the most renowned Japanese connoisseurs. Somewhat more
successful has been an attempt — inaugurated by Hashimoto
Gaho and Kawabata Gyokusho — to combine the art of the West
with that of Japan by adding to the latter the chiaroscuro and
the linear perspective of the former. If the disciples of this
school could shake off the Sesshu tradition of strong outlines and
adopt the Kano Motonobu revelation of modelling by mass
only, their work would stand on a high place. But they, too,
receive little encouragement. The tendency of the time is
conservative in art matters.
A series of magnificent publications has popularized art and its
best products in a manner such as could never have been anticipated.
The Kokka, a monthly magazine richly and beautifully illustrated
and edited by Japanese students, has reached its 223rd number;
the Shimbi Daikan, a colossal album containing chromoxylographic
facsimiles of celebrated examples in every branch of art, has been
completed in 20 volumes; the masterpieces of Korin and Motonobu
have been reproduced in similar albums; the masterpieces of the
Ukiyo-e are in process of publication, and it seems certain that the
Japanese nation will ultimately be educated to such a knowledge
of its own art as will make for permanent appreciation. Meanwhile
the intrepid group of painters in oil plod along unflinchingly, having
formed themselves into an association (the hakuba-kai) which gives
periodical exhibitions, and there are, in Tokyo and Kioto, well-
organized and flourishing art schools which receive a substantial
measure of state aid, as well as a private academy founded by
Okakura with a band of seceders from the hybrid fashions of the
Gaho system. Altogether the nation seems to be growing more
and more convinced that its art future should not wander far from
the lines of the past. (W. AN. ; F. BY.)
Although a little engraving on copper has been practised in
Japan of late years, it is of no artistic value, and the only
branch of the art which calls for recognition is the Eagraviag-
cutting of wood-blocks for use either with colours or
without. This, however, is of supreme importance, and as its
technique differs in most respects from the European practice,
it demands a somewhat detailed description.
The wood used is generally that of the cherry-tree, sakura, which
has a grain of peculiar evenness and hardness. It is worked plank-
wise to a surface parallel with the grain, and not across it. A design
is drawn by the artist, to whom the whole credit of the production
generally belongs, with a brush on thin paper, which is then pasted
face downwards on the block. The engraver, who is very rarely
the designer, then cuts the outlines into the block with a knife,
afterwards removing the superfluous wood with gouges and chisels.
Great skill is shown in this operation, which achieves perhaps the
finest facsimile reproduction of drawings ever known without the
aid of photographic processes. A peculiar but highly artistic
device is that of gradually rounding off the surfaces where necessary,
in order to obtain in printing a soft and graduated mass of colour
which does not terminate too abruptly. In printing with colours
a separate block is made in this manner for each tint, the first con-
taining as a rule the mere lines of the composition, and the others
providing for the masses of tint to be applied. In all printing
the paper is laid on the upper surface of the block, and the impres-
sion rubbed off with a circular pad, composed of twisted cord within
a covering of paper cloth and bamboo-leaf, and called the baren. In
colour-printing, the colours, which are much the same as those in
use in Europe, are mixed, with rice-paste as a medium, on the block
for each operation, and the power of regulating the result given by
this custom to an intelligent craftsman (who, again, is neither the
artist nor the engraver) was productive in the best period of very
beautiful and artistic effects, such as could never have been obtained
by any mechanical device. A wonderfully accurate register, or
successive superposition of each block, is got mainly by the skill of
the printer, who is assisted only by a mark defining one corner and
another mark showing the opposite side limit.
The origins of this method of colour-printing are obscure. It
has been practised to some extent in China and Korea, but there
is no evidence of its antiquity in these countries. It appears
to be one of the few indigenous arts of Japan. But before
accepting this conclusion as final, one must not lose sight of the
fact that the so-called chiaroscuro engraving was at the height
of its use in Italy at the same time that embassies from the
Christians in Japan visited Rome, and that it is thus possible
iy6
JAPAN
[ART
that the suggestion at least may have been derived from Europe.
The fact that no traces of it have been discovered in Japan would
be easily accounted fort when it is remembered that the examples
taken home would almost certainly have been religious pictures,
would have been preserved in well-known and accessible places,
and would thus have been entirely destroyed in the terrible and
minute extermination of Christianity by Hideyoshi at the begin-
ning of the i yth century. Japanese tradition ascribes the inven-
tion of colour-printing to Idzumiya Gonshiro, who, about the
end of the i7th century, first made use of a second block to apply
a tint of red (beni) to his prints. Sir Ernest Satow states more
definitely that " Sakakibara attributes its origin to the year
1695, when portraits of the actor Ichikawa Danjiuro, coloured by
this process, were sold in the streets of Yedo for five cash apiece."
The credit of the invention is also given to Torii Kiyonobu, who
worked at about this time, and, indeed, is said to have made the
prints above mentioned. But authentic examples of his work
now remaining, printed in three colours, seem to show a tech-
nique too complete for an origin quite so recent. However, he
is the first artist of importance to have produced the broadsheets
— for many years chiefly portraits of notable actors, historical
characters and famous courtesans — which are the leading and
characteristic use to which the art was applied. Pupils, the
chief of whom were Kiyomasa, Kiyotsume, Kiyomitsu, Kiyonaga
and Kiyomine, carried on his tradition until the end of the i8th
century, the three earlier using but few colours, while the works
of the two last named show a technical mastery of all the capa-
bilities of the process.
The next artist of importance is Suzuki Harunobu (worked c. 1760-
1780), to whom the Japanese sometimes ascribe the invention of the
process, probably on the grounds of an improvement in his technique,
and the fact that he seems to have been one of the first of the colour-
print makers to attain great popularity. Katsukawa Shunsho
(d. 1792) must next be mentioned, not only for the beauty of his
own work, but because he was the first master of Hokusai; then
Yeishi (worked c. 1781-1800), the founder of the Hosoda school;
Utamaro (1754-1806), whose prints of beautiful women were col-
lected by Dutchmen while he was still alive, and have had in our
own day a vogue greater, perhaps, than those of any other of his
fellows; and Toyokuni I. (1768-1825), who especially devoted him-
self to broadsheet portraits of actors and dramatic scenes. The
greatest of all the artists of the popular school was, however,
Hokusai (1760-1849). His most famous series of broadsheets is
the Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji (1823-1829), which, in spite of the
conventional title, includes at least forty-six. His work is catalogued
in detail by E. de Goncourt. At the beginning of the J9th century
the process was technically at its greatest height, and in the hands
of the great landscape artist, Hiroshige I., as well as the pupils of
Toyokuni I. — Kunisada and Kuniyosni — and those of Hokusai, it
at first kept up an excellent level. But an undue increase in the
number of blocks used, combined with the inferiority of the im-
ported colours and carelessness or loss of skill in printing, brought
about a rapid decline soon after 1840. This continued until the old
traditions were well-nigh exhausted, but since 1880 there has been
a distinct revival. The prints of the present day are cut with great
skill, and the designs are excellent, though both these branches seem
to lack the vigour of conception and breadth of execution of the
older masters. The colours now used are almost invariably of
cheap German origin, and though they have a certain prettincss —
ephemeral, it is to be feared — they again can not compare with the
old native productions. Among workers in this style, Yoshitoshi
(d. c. 1898) was perhaps the best. Living artists in 1908 included
Toshihide, Miyagawa Shuntci, Yoshiu Chikanobu — one of the elder
generation — Tomisuka Yeishu, Toshikata and Gekko. Formerly
the colour-print artist was of mean extraction and low social position,
but he now has some recognition at the hands of the professors of
more esteemed branches of art. This change is doubtless due_in
part to Occidental appreciation of the products of his art, which
were formerly held in little honour by his own countrymen, the place
assigned to them being scarcely higher than that accorded to
magazine illustrations in Europe and America. But it is also
largely 'due to his displays of unsurpassed skill in preparing xylo-
graphs for the beautiful artpublications issued by the Shimbi Shdin
and the Kokka company. These xylographs prove that the Japanese
art-artisan of the present day was not surpassed by the greatest of
his predecessors in this line. (E. F. S.; F. BY.)
The history of the illustrated book in Japan may be said
to begin with the Ise monogatari, a romance first published in
the loth century, of which an edition adorned with woodcuts
appeared in 1608. In the course of the I7th century many other
works of the same nature were issued, including some in which
the cuts were roughly coloured by hand; but the execution of
these is not as good as contemporary European work. The date
of the first use of colour-printing in Japanese book illus-
.. » -r ^ *• 11.* f J • r HOOK luUS*
tration is uncertain. In 1667 a collection of designs for tfatiom
kimono (garments) appeared, in which inks of several
colours were made use of; but these were only employed in turn
for single printings, and in no case were two of them used on
the same print. It is certain, however, that the mere use of
coloured inks must soon have suggested the combination of
two or more of them, and it is probable that examples of this
will be discovered much earlier in date than those known at
present.
About the year 1680 Hishigawa Moronobu achieved a great popu-
larity for woodcut illustration, and laid the foundations of the
splendid school which followed. The names of the engravers who
cut his designs are not known, and in fact the reputation of these
craftsmen is curiously subordinated to that of the designers in all
Japanese work of the kind. With Moronobu must be associated
Okumura Masanobu, a little later perhaps in date, whose work is
also of considerable value. During the ensuing thirty years numerous
illustrated books appeared, including the earliest yet known which
are illustrated by colour-printing. Nishikawa Sukenobu (1671-
1751) illustrated a very large number of books, many of which were
not published until after his death. With him may be associated
Ichio Shumboku (d. c. 1773) and Tsukioka Tange (1717-1786), the
latter of whom made the drawings for many of the meisho or guide-
books which form so interesting and distinctive a branch of Japanese
illustration. The work of Tachibana Morikuni (1670-1748) is also
of great importance. The books illustrated by the men of this
school were mainly collections of useful information, guide-books,
romances and historical and religious compilations; but much of
the best of their work is to be found in the collections of pictorial
designs, very often taken from Chinese sources, which were produced
for the use of workers in lacquer, pottery and similar crafts. These,
both for design and for skill of cutting, hold their own with the best
work of European wood-cutting of any period. The development
of the art of Japanese colour-printing naturally had its effect on
book-illustration, and the later years of the 1 8th and the earlier
of the igth century saw a vast increase of books illustrated by this
process. The subjects also now include a new series of landscapes
and views drawn as seen by the designers, and not reproductions of
the work of other men; and also sketches of scenes and characters
of every-day life and of the folk-lore in which Japan is so rich.
Among the artists of this period, as of all others in Japan, Hokusai
(1760-1849) is absolutely pre-eminent. His greatest production
in book-illustration was the Mangwa, a collection of sketches which
cover the whole ground of Japanese life and legend, art and handi-
craft. It consists of fifteen volumes, which appeared at intervals
from 1812 to 1875, twelve being published during his life and the
others from material left by him. Among his many other works
may be mentioned the Azuma Asobi (Walks round Yedo, 1799). Of
his pupils, Hokkei (1780-1856) and Kyosai were the greatest. Most
of the artists, whose main work was the designing of broadsheets,
produced elaborately illustrated books; and this series includes
specimens of printing in colours from wood-blocks, which for
technique have never been excelled. Among them should be men-
tioned Shunsho (Sei.ro bijin awase kagami, 1776); Utamaro (Seiro
nenjyu gyoji, 1804) ; Toyokuni I. ( Yakusha kono teikishiwa, 1801) ; as
well as Harunobu Yeishi (Onna sanjyu rokkasen, 1798), Kitap Masan-
obu and Tachibana Minko, each of whom produced beautiful work
of the same nature. In the period next following, the chief artists
were Keisai Yeisen (Keisai so-gwa, 1832) and Kikuchi Yosai (Zenken
kojitsu), the latter of whom ranks perhaps as highly as any of the
artists who confined their work to black and white. The books
produced in the period 1880-1908 in Japan are still of high technical
excellence. The colours are, unfortunately, of cheap European
manufacture ; and the design, although quite characteristic and often
beautiful, is as a rule merely pretty. The engraving is as good as
ever. Among the book-illustrators of pur own generation must be
again mentioned Kyosai; Kono Bairei (d. 1895), whose books of
birds — the Bairei hyakucho ewafu (1881 and 1884) and Yuaka-no-
tsuki (1889) — are unequalled of their kind; Imao Keinen, who also
issued a beautiful set of illustrations of birds and flowers (Keinen
kwacho gwafu), engraved by Tanaka Jirokichi and printed by Miki
Nisaburo (1891-1892) ; and Watanabe Seitci, whose studies of similar
subjects have appeared in Seitei kwacho gwafu (1890-1891) and the
Bijutsu sekai (1894), engraved by Goto Tokujiro. Mention should
also be made of several charming series of fairy tales, of which that
published in English by the Kobunsha in Tokyo in 1885 is perhaps
the best. In their adaptation of modern processes of illustration
the Japanese are entirely abreast of Western nations, the chromo-
lithographs and other reproductions in the Kokka, a periodical
record of Japanese works of art (begun in 1889), in the superb
albums of the Shimbi Shdin, and in the publications of Ogawa being
of quite a high order of merit. (E. F. S. ; F. By.)
Sculpture and Carving. — Sculpture in wood and metal is of
JAPAN
PLATE III.
PLATE IV
JAPAN
PAINTING
FIG. 9.— PLUM TREES AND STREAM-SCREEN ON GOLD GROUND. By Korin (1661-1716)
FIG. io.— PEACOCKS. By Ganku (1749-1838;.
Historical
Sketch.
ART]
ancient date in Japan. Its antiquity is not, indeed, comparable
to that of ancient Egypt or Greece, but no country besides Japan
can boast a living and highly developed art that has
numbered upwards of twelve centuries of unbroken
and brilliant productiveness. Setting aside rude
prehistoric essays in stone and metal, which have special interest
for the antiquary, we have examples of sculpture in wood and
metal, magnificent in conception and technique, dating from
the earliest periods of what we may term historical Japan; that
is, from near the beginning of the great Buddhist propaganda
under the emperor Kimmei (540-571) and the princely hierarch,
Shotoku Taishi (573-621). Stone has never been in favour in
Japan as a material for the higher expression of the sculptor's
art.
The first historical period of glyptic art in Japan reaches from
the end of the 6th to the end of the i2th century, culminating
in the work of the great Nara sculptors, Unkei and
nis PUP'! Kwaikei. Happily, there are still preserved
in the great temples of Japan, chiefly in the ancient
capital of Nara, many noble relics of this period.
The place of honour may perhaps be conferred upon sculptures
in wood, representing the Indian Buddhists, Asangha and Vasa-
bandhu, preserved in the Golden Hall of Kofuku-ji, Nara. These
are attributed to a Kamakura sculptor of the 8th or oth century,
and in simple and realistic dignity of pose and grand lines of com-
position are worthy of comparison with the works of ancient Greece.
With these may be named the demon lantern-bearers, so perfect
in the grotesque treatment of the diabolical heads and the accurate
anatomical forms of the sturdy body and limbs; the colossal temple
guardians of the great gate of Todai-ji, by Unkei and Kwaikei (nth
century), somewhat conventionalized, but still bearing evidence of
direct study from nature, and inspired with intense energy of action ;
and the smaller but more accurately modelled temple guardians in
the Saikondo, Nara, which almost compare with the " fighting
gladiator " in their realization of menacing strength. The " goddess
of art " of Akishino-dera, Nara, attributed to the 8th century, is
the most graceful and least conventional of female sculptures in
Japan, but infinitely remote from the feminine conception of the
Greeks. The wooden portrait of Vimalakirtti, attributed to Unkei,
at Kofuku-ji, has some of the qualities of the images of the two
Indian Buddhists. The sculptures attributed to Jocno, the founder
of the Nara school, although powerful in pose and masterly in
execution, lack the truth of observation seen in some of the earlier
and later masterpieces.
The most perfect of the ancient bronzes is the great image of
Bhaicha-djyaguru in the temple of Yakushi-ji, Nara, attributed to
a Korean monk of the 7th century, named Giogi. The bronze
image of the same divinity at Horyu-ji, said to have been cast at
the beginning of the 7th century by Tori Busshi, the grandson of a
Chinese immigrant, is of good technical quality, but much inferior
in design to the former. The colossal Nara Daibutsu (Vairocana) at
Todai-ji, cast in 749 by a workman of Korean descent, is the largest
of the great bronzes in Japan, but ranks far below the Yakushi-ji
image in artistic qualities. The present head, however, is a later
substitute for the original, which was destroyed by fire.
The great Nara school of sculpture in wood was founded in the
early part of the nth century by a sculptor of Imperial descent
named Jocho, who is said to have modelled his style upon that of
the Chinese wood-carvers of the Tang dynasty ; his traditions were
maintained by descendants and followers down to the beginning of
the I3th century. All the artists of this period were men of aristo-
cratic rank and origin, and were held distinct from the carpenter-
architects of the imposing temples which were to contain their
works.
Sacred images were not the only specimens of glyptic art pro-
duced in these six centuries; reliquaries, bells, vases, incense-
burners, candlesticks, lanterns, decorated arms and armour, and
many other objects, showing no less mastery of (design and execution,
have reached us. Gold and silver had been applied to the adornment
of helmets and breastplates from the 7th century, but it was in the
I2th century that the decoration reached the high degree of elabo-
ration shown us in the armour of the Japanese Bayard, Yoshitsune,
which is still preserved at Kasuga, Nara.
Wooden masks employed in the ancient theatrical performances
were made from the 7th century, and offer a distinct and often
grotesque phase of wood-carving. Several families of experts have
been associated with this class of sculpture, and their designs have
been carefully preserved and imitated down to the present day.
The second period in Japanese glyptic art extends from the
beginning of the i3th to the early part of the I7th century.
The great struggle between the Taira and Minamoto clans had
ended, but the militant spirit was still strong, and brought
work for the artists who made and ornamented arms and armour.
Second
Period.
Third
Period.
JAPAN 177
The Miyochins, a line that claimed ancestry from the 7th century,
were at the head of their calling, and their work in iron breast-
plates and helmets, chiefly in repousse, is still un-
rivalled. It was not until the latter half of the i5th
century that there came into vogue the elaborate decor-
ation of the sword, a fashion that was to last four hundred years.
The metal guard (tsuba), made of ironorpreciousalloy, wasadorned
with engraved designs, often inlaid with gold and silver. The free
end of the hilt was crowned with a metallic cap or pommel (kashira),
the other extremity next the tsuba was embraced by an oval ring
(fuchi), and in the middle was affixed on each side a special ornament
called the menuki, all adapted in material and workmanship to
harmonize with the guard. The kodzuka, or handle of a little knife
implanted into the sheath of the short sword or dagger, was also
of metal and engraved with like care. The founder of the first
great line of tsuba and menuki artists was Goto Yujo (1440-1512), a
friend of the painter Kano Motonobu, whose designs he adopted.
Many families of sword artists sprang up at a later period, furnishing
treasures for the collector even down to the present day, and their
labours reached a level of technical mastery and refined artistic
judgment almost without parallel in the art industries of Europe.
Buddhist sculpture was by no means neglected during this period,
but there are few works that call for special notice. The most
noteworthy effort was the casting by Ono Goroy6mon in 1252 of the
well-known bronze image, the Kamakura Daibutsu.
The third period includes the I7th, i8th and the greater part
of the igth centuries. It was the era of the artisan artist. The
makers of Buddhist images and of sword ornaments
carried on their work with undiminished industry
and success, and some famous schools of the latter
arose during this period. The Buddhist sculptors, however,
tended to grow more conventional and the metal-workers more
naturalistic as the i8th century began to wane. It was in con-
nexion with architecture that the great artisan movement began.
The initiator was Hidari Jingoro (1594-1652), at first a simple
carpenter, afterwards one of the most famous sculptors in the
land of great artists. The gorgeous decoration of the mausoleum
of lyeyasu at Nikko, and of the gateway of the Nishi Hongwan
temple at Kioto, are the most striking instances of his handiwork
or direction.
The pillars, architraves, ceilings, panels, and almost every avail-
able part of the structure, are covered with arabesques and sculp-
tured figures of dragons, lions, tigers, birds, flowers, and even pic-
torial compositions with landscapes and figures, deeply carved in
solid or open work — the wood sometimes plain, sometimes overlaid
with pigment and gilding, as in the panelled ceiling of the chapel of
lyeyasu in Tokyo. The designs for these decorations, like those of
the sword ornaments, were adopted from the great schools of paint-
ing, but the invention of the sculptor was by no means idle. From
this time the temple carvers, although still attached to the carpen-
ters' guild, took a place apart from the rest of their craft, and the
genius of Hidari Jingoro secured for one important section of the
artisan world a recognition like that which Hishigawa Moronobu,
the painter and book-illustrator, afterwards won for another.
A little later arose another art industry, also emanating from
the masses. The use of tobacco, which became prevalent in the
1 7th century, necessitated the pouch. In order to suspend this
from the girdle there was employed a kind of button or toggle —
the netsuke. The metallic bowl and mouthpiece of the pipe
offered a tempting surface for embellishment, as well as the clasp
of the pouch; and the netsuke, being made of wood, ivory or
other material susceptible of carving, also gave occasion for art
and ingenuity.
The engravers of pipes, pouch clasps, and the metallic discs
(kagami-buia) attached to certain netsuke, sprang from the same
class and were not less original. They worked, too, with a skill little
inferior to that of the Gotos, Naras, and other aristocratic sculptors
of sword ornaments, and often with a refinement which their relative
disadvantages in education and associations render especially remark-
able. The netsuke and the pipe, with all that pertained to it, were
for the commoners what the sword-hilt and guard were for the gentry.
Neither class cared to bestow jewels upon their persons, but neither
spared thought or expense in the embellishment of the object they
most loved. The final manifestation of popular glyptic art was the
okimono, an ornament pure and simple, in which utility was alto-
gether secondary in intention to decorative effectj Its manufacture
as a special branch of art work dates from the rise of the naturalistic
school of painting and the great expansion of the popular school
under the Katsugawa, but the okimono formed an occasional amuse-
ment of the older glyptic artists. Some of the most exquisite and
i78
most ingenious of these earlier productions, such as the magnificent
iron eagle in the South Kensington Museum, the wonderful articu-
lated models of crayfish, dragons, serpents, birds, that are found in
many European collections, came from the studios of the Miyochins;
but these were the play of giants, and were not made as articles of
commerce. The new artisan makers of the okimono struck out a
line for themselves, one influenced more by the naturalistic and
popular schools than by the classical art, and the quails of Kamejo,
the tortoises of Seimin, the dragons of Toun and Toryu, and in recent
years the falcons and the peacocks of Suzuki Chokichi, are the joy of
the European collector. The best of these are exquisite in workman-
ship, graceful in design, often strikingly original in conception, and
usually naturalistic in ideal. They constitute a phase of art in which
Japan has few rivals.
The present generation is more systematically commercial in
its glyptic produce than any previous age. Millions of commer-
cial articles in metal-work, wood and ivory flood the European
markets, and may be bought in any street in Europe at a small
price, but they offer a variety of design and an excellence of
workmanship which place them almost beyond Western compe-
tition. Above all this, however, the Japanese sculptor is a
force in art. He is nearly as thorough as his forefathers, and
maintains the same love of all things beautiful; and if he cannot
show any epoch-making novelty, he is at any rate doing his best
to support unsurpassed the decorative traditions of the past.
History has been eminently careful to preserve the names
and records of the men who chiselled sword furniture. The
s»ord- sword being regarded as the soul of the samurai,
making every one who contributed to its manufacture,
Famine*. whetjier as forger of the blade or sculptor of the
furniture, was held in high repute. The Goto family worked
steadily during 14 generations, and its igth century representa-
tive— Goto Ichijo — will always be remembered as one of the
family's greatest experts. But there were many others whose
productions fully equalled and often excelled the best efforts
of the Goto. The following list gives the names and periods of
the most renowned families: —
_ (It should bej noted that the division by centuries indicates the
time of a family's origin. In a great majority of cases the represen-
tatives of each generation worked on through succeeding centuries).
I5th and i6th Centuries.
Miyochin; Goto; Umetada; Muneta; Aoki; Soami; Nakai.
i?th Century.
Kuwamura; Mizuno; Koichi; Nagayoshi;
Kuninaga; Yoshishige; Katsugi; Tsuji;
Muneyoshi; Tadahira; Shoami; Hosono;
Yokoya; Nara; Okada; Okamoto; Kinai; Akao;
Yoshioka; Hirata; Nomura; Wakabayashi; Inouye;
Yasui; Chiyo; Kancko; Uemura; Iwamoto.
l8th Century.
Gorobei; Shoemon; Kikugawa; Yasuyama; Noda; Tamagawa;
Fujita; Kikuoka; Kizaemon; Hamano; Omori; Okamoto; Rashi-
waya; Kusakari; Shichibei; I to.
iQth Century.
Natsuo; Ishiguro; Yanagawa; Honjo; Tanaka; Okano; Kawara-
bayashi; Oda; and many masters of the Omori, Hamano and
Iwamoto families, as well as the five experts, Shuraku, Temmin,
Ryumin, Minjo and Minkoku. (W. AN.; F. BY.)
There is a radical difference between the points of view of
the Japanese and the Western connoisseur in estimating the
Japaaene merits of sculpture in metal. The quality of the
Palatal chiselling is the first feature to which the Japanese
directs his attention; the decorative design is the
prime object of the Occidental's attention. With very rare
exceptions, the decorative motives of Japanese sword furniture
were always supplied by painters. Hence it is that the
Japanese connoisseur draws a clear distinction between the
decorative design and its technical execution, crediting the
former to the pictorial artist and the latter to the sculptor.
He detects in the stroke of a chisel and the lines of a graving
tool subjective beauties which appear to be hidden from the
great majority of Western dilettanti. He estimates the rank
of a specimen by the quality of the chisel-work. The Japanese
kinzoku-shi (metal sculptor) uses thirty-six principal classes of
chisel, each with its distinctive name, and as most of these
classes comprise from five to ten sub-varieties, his cutting
and graving tools aggregate about two hundred and fifty.
JAPAN [ART
Scarcely less important in Japanese eyes than the chiselling
of the decorative design itself is the preparation of the field to
which it is applied. There used to be a strict canon The Fle,a
with reference to this in former times. Namako for
(fish-roe) grounds were essential for the mountings Sculptured
of swords worn on ceremonial occasions, the ishime Decoratloa-
(stone-pitting) oijimigaki (polished) styles being considered less
aristocratic.
Namako is obtained by punching the whole surface — except the
portion carrying the decorative design — into a texture of micro-
scopic dots. The first makers of namako did not aim at regularity in
the distribution of these dots- they were content to produce the
effect of millet-seed sifted haphazard over the surface. But from
the isth century the punching of the dots in rigidly straight lines
came to be considered essential, and the difficulty involved was so
great that namako-making took its place among the highest technical
achievements of the sculptor. When it is remembered that the
punching tool was guided solely by the hand and eye, and that three
or more blows of the mallet had to be struck for every dot, some
conception may be formed of the patience and accuracy needed to
produce these tiny protuberances in perfectly straight lines, at
exactly equal intervals and of absolutely uniform size. Namako
disposed in straight parallel lines originally ranked at the head of this
kind of work. But a new kind was introduced in the l6th century.
It was obtained by punching the dots in intersecting lines, so
arranged that the dots fell uniformly into diamond-shaped groups
of five each. This is called go-no-me-namako, because of its resem-
blance to the disposition of chequers in the Japanese game of go.
A century later, the daimyo namako was invented, in which lines of
dots alternated with lines of polished ground. Ishime may be briefly
described as diapering. There is scarcely any limit to the inge-
nuity and skill of the Japanese expert in diapering a metal surface.
It is not possible to enumerate here even the principal styles of
ishime, but mention may be made of the zara-maki (broad-cast), in
which the surface is finely but irregularly pitted after the manner
of the face of a stone; the nashi-ji (pear-ground), in which we have
a surface like the rind of a pear; the hari-ishime (needle ishime),
where the indentations are so minute that they seem to have been
made with the point of a needle ; the gama-ishime, which is intended
to imitate the skin of a toad; the tsuya-ishime, produced with a
chisel sharpened so that its traces have a lustrous appearance; the
ore-kuchi (broken-tool), a peculiar kind obtained with a jagged tool;
and the gozamt, which resembles the plaited surface of a fine straw
mat.
Great importance has always been attached by Japanese experts
to the patina of metal used for artistic chiselling. It was mainly
for the sake of their patina that value attached to the
remarkable alloys shakudo (3 parts of gold to 97 of
copper) and shibuichi (i part of ^ilver to 3 of copper;. Neither
metal, when it emerges from the furnace, has any beauty, shakudo
being simply dark-coloured copper and shibuichi pale gun-metal.
But after proper treatment1 the former develops a glossy black
patina with violet sheen, and the latter shows beautiful shades of
grey with silvery lustre. Both these compounds afford delicate,
unobtrusive and effective grounds for inlaying with gold, silver
and other metals, as well as for sculpture, whether incised or in
relief. Copper, too, by patina-producing treatment, is made to
show not merely a rich golden sheen with pleasing limpidity, but
also red of various hues, from deep coral to light vermilion, several
shades of grey, and browns of numerous tones from dead-leaf to
chocolate. Even greater value has always been set upon the patina
of iron, and many secret recipes were preserved in artist families
for producing the fine, satin-like texture so much admired by all
connoisseurs.
In Japan, as in Europe, three varieties of relief carving are distin-
guished— otto (laka-bori), mezzo (chiiniku-bori) and basso (usuniku-
bori). In the opinion of the Japanese expert, these styles ., th .
hold the same respective rank as that occupied by the *£,,
three kinds of ideographic script in caligraphy. High relief
carving corresponds to the kaisho, or most classical form of writing;
medium relief to the gyosho, or semi-cursive style; and low relief to
the sosho or grass character. With regard to incised chiselling, the
commonest form is kebori (hair-carving), which may be called engrav-
ing, the lines being of uniform thickness and depth. Very beautiful
results are obtained by the kebori method, but incomparably the
finest work in the incised class is that known as kata-kiri-bori. In
this kind of chiselling the Japanese artist can claim to be unique as
well as unrivalled. Evidently the idea of the great Yokoya experts,
the originators of the style, was to break away from the somewhat
formal monotony of ordinary engraving, where each line performs
exactly the same function, and to convert the chisel into an artist's
1 It is first boiled in a lye obtained by lixiviating wood ashes; it
is next polished with charcoal powder; then immersed in plum
vinegar and salt; then washed with weak lye and placed in a tub
of water to remove all traces of alkali, the final step being to digest
in a boiling solution of copper sulphate, verdigris and water.
ART]
brush instead of using it as a common cutting tool. They succeeded
admirably. In the kata-kiri-bori every line has its proper value
in the pictorial design, and strength and directness become cardinal
elements in the strokes of the burin just as they do in the brush-
work of the picture-painter. The same fundamental rule applied,
too, whether the field of the decoration was silk, paper or metal.
The artist's tool, be it brush or burin, must perform its task by one
effort. There must be no appearance of subsequent deepening, or
extending, or re-cutting or finishing. Kata-kiri-bori by a great
expert is a delight. One is lost in astonishment at the nervous yet
perfectly regulated force and the unerring fidelity of every trace of
the chisel. Another variety of carving much affected by artists
of the I7th century, and now largely used, is called shishi-ai-bori
or niku-ai-bori. In this style the surface of the design is not raised
above the general plane of the field, but an effect of projection is
obtained either by recessing the whole space immediately surround-
ing the design, or by enclosing the latter in a scarped frame. Yet
another and very favourite method, giving beautiful results, is to
model the design on both faces of the metal so as to give a sculpture
in the round. The fashion is always accompanied by chiselling
& jour (sukashi-bori) , so that the sculptured portions stand out in
. their entirety.
Inlaying with gold or silver was among the early forms of
decoration in Japan. The skill developed in modern times is at
... least equal to anything which the past can show, and
nay *• (.[^ results produced are much more imposing. There
are two principal kinds of inlaying: the first called hon-zogan (true
inlaying), the second nunome-zogan (linen-mesh inlaying). As to
the former, the Japanese method does not differ from that seen
in the beautiful iron censers and vases inlaid with gold which the
Chinese produced from the Suen-te era (1426-1436). In the surface
of the metal the workman cuts grooves wider at the base than at the
top, and then hammers into them gold or silver wire. Such a process
presents no remarkable features, except that it has been carried by
the Japanese to an extraordinary degree of elaborateness. The
nunome-zogan is more interesting. Suppose, for example, that the
artist desires to produce an inlaid diaper. His first business is to
chisel the surface in lines forming the basic pattern of the design.
Thus, for a diamond-petal diaper the chisel is carried across the face
of the metal horizontally, tracing a number of parallel bands
divided at fixed intervals by ribs which are obtained by merely
straightening the chisel and striking it a heavy blow. The same
process is then repeated in another direction, so that the new bands
cross the old at an angle adapted to the nature of the design. Several
independent chisellings may be necessary before the lines of the
diaper emerge clearly, but throughout the whole operation no
measurement of any kind is taken, the artist being guided entirely
by his hand and eye. The metal is then heated, not to redness, but
sufficiently to develop a certain degree of softness, and the workman,
taking a very thin sheet of gold (or silver), hammers portions of it
into the salient points of the design. In ordinary cases this is the
sixth process. The seventh is to hammer gold into the outlines of
the diaper; the eighth, to hammer it into the pattern filling the
spaces between the lines, and the ninth and tenth to complete the
details. Of course the more intricate the design the more numerous
the processes. It is scarcely possible to imagine a higher effort of
hand and eye than this nunome-zogan displays, for while intricacy
and elaborateness are carried to the very extreme, absolute mechani-
cal accuracy is obtained. Sometimes in the same design we see gold
of three different hues, obtained by varying the alloy. A third kind
of inlaying, peculiar to Japan, is sumi-zogan (ink-inlaying), so called
because the inlaid design gives the impression of having been painted
with Indian ink beneath the transparent surface of the metal. The
difference between this process and ordinary inlaying is that for
sumi-zogan the design to be inlaid is fully chiselled out of an indepen-
dent block of metal with sides sloping so as to be broader at the
base than at the top. The object which is to receive the decoration
is then channelled in dimensions corresponding to those of the design
block, and the latter having been fixed in the channels, the surface
is ground and polished until an intimate union is obtained between
the inlaid design and the metal forming its field. Very beautiful
effects are thus produced, for the design seems to have grown up to
the surface of the metal field rather than to have been planted in it.
Shibuichi inlaid with shakudo used to be the commonest combination
of metals in this class of decoration, and the objects usually depicted
were bamboos, crows, wild-fowl under the moon, peony sprays and
so forth.
A variety of decoration much practised by early experts, and
carried to a high degree of excellence in modern times, is mokume-ji
Wood- (wood-grained ground). The process in this case is to
grained take a thin plate of metal and beat it into another plate
Grounds °^ simi'ar metal, so that the two, though welded together,
retain their separate forms. The mass, while still hot, is
coated with hena-tsuchi (a kind of marl) and rolled in straw ash, in
which state it is roasted over a charcoal fire raised to glowing heat
with the bellows. The clay having been removed, another plate of
the same metal is beaten in, and the same process is repeated. This
is done several times, the number depending on the quality of grain-
ing that the expert desires to produce. The manifold plate is then
heavily punched from one side, so that the opposite face protrudes in
JAPAN I79
broken blisters, which are then hammered down until each becomes a
centre of wave propagation. In fine work the apex of the blister is
ground off before the final hammering. Iron was the metal used
exclusively for work of this kind down to the l6th century, but
various metals began thenceforth to be combined. Perhaps the
choicest variety is gold graining in a shakudo field. By repeated
hammering and polishing the expert obtains such control of the
wo'od-grain pattern that its sinuosities and eddies seem to have
developed symmetry without losing anything of their fantastic
grace. There are other methods of producing mokume-ji.
It has been frequently asserted by Western critics that the
year (1876) which witnessed the abolition of sword-wearing in
Japan, witnessed also the end of her artistic metal- Modem and
work. That is a great mistake. The art has merely Ancient
developed new phases in modern times. Not only are stja-
its masters as skilled now as they were in the days of the Goto,
the Nara, the Yokoya and the Yanagawa celebrities, but also
their productions must be called greater in many respects and
more interesting than those of their renowned predecessors.
They no longer devote themselves to the manufacture of sword
ornaments, but work rather at vases, censers, statuettes,
plaques, boxes and other objects of a serviceable or ornamental
nature. All the processes described above are practised by
them with full success, and they have added others quite as
remarkable.
Of these, one of the most interesting is called kiribame (insertion).
The decorative design having been completely chiselled in the round,
is then fixed in a field of a different metal, in which a design of
exactly similar outline has been cut out. The result is that the
picture has no blank reverse. For example, on the surface of a
shibuichi box-lid we see the backs of a flock of geese chiselled in
silver, and when the lid is opened, their breasts and the under-sides
of their pinions appear. The difficulty of such work is plain. Micro-
scopic accuracy has to be attained in cutting out the space for the
insertion of the design, and while the latter must be soldered firmly
in its place, not the slightest trace of solder or the least sign of
junction must be discernible between the metal of the inserted
picture and that of the field in which it is inserted. Suzuki Gensuke
rs the inventor of this method. He belongs to a class of experts
called uchimono-shi (hammerers) who perform preparatory work
for glyptic artists in metal. The skill of these men is often wonder-
ful. Using the hammer only, some of them can beat out an intricate
shape as truly and delicately as a sculptor could carve it with his
chisels. Ohori Masatoshi, an uchimono-shi of Aizu (d. 1897), made
a silver cake-box in the form of a sixteen-petalled chrysanthemum.
The shapes of the body and lid corresponded so intimately that,
whereas the lid could be slipped on easily and smoothly without any
attempt to adjust its curves to those of the body, it always fitted so
closely that the box could be lifted by grasping the lid only.
Another feat of his was to apply a lining of silver to a shakudo box
by shaping and hammering pnly, the fit being so perfect that the
lining clung like paper to every part of the box. Suzuki Gensuke
and Hirata Soko are scarcely less expert. The latter once exhibited
inTokyo a silver game-cock with soft plumage and surface modelling
of the most delicate character. It had been made by means of the
hammer only. Suzuki's kiribame process is not to be confounded
with the kiribame-zogan (inserted inlaying) of Toyoda Koko, also a
modern artist. The gist of the latter method is that a design
chiselled d jovr has its outlines veneered with other metal which
serves to emphasize them. Thus, having pierced a spray of flowers
in a thin sheet of shibuichi, the artist fits a slender rim of gold, silver
or shakudo to the petals, leaves and stalks, so that an effect is
produced of transparent blossoms outlined in gold, silver or purple.
Another modern achievement — also due to Suzuki Gensuke — is
maze-gane (mixed metals). It is a singular conception, and the
results obtained depend largely on chance. Shibuichi and shakudo
are melted separately, and when they have cooled just enough not
to mingle too intimately, they are cast into a bar which is subse-
quently ' beaten flat. The plate thus obtained shows accidental
clouding, or massing of dark tones, and these patches are taken as
the basis of a pictorial design to which final character is given by
inlaying with gold and silver, and by kata-kiri sculpture. Such
pictures partake largely of the impressionist character, but they
attain much beauty in the hands of the Japanese artist with his
extensive repertoire of suggestive symbols. A process resembling
maze-gane, but less fortuitous, is shibuichi-doshi (combined shibui-
chi), which involves beating together two kinds of shibuichi and then
adding a third variety, after which the details of the picture are
worked in as in the case of maze-gane. The charm of these methods
is that certain parts of the decorative design seem to float, not on
the surface of the metal, but actually within it, an admirable effect
of depth and atmosphere being thus produced. Mention must also
be made of an extraordinarily elaborate and troublesome process
invented by Kajima Ippu, a great artist of the present day. It is
called logi-dashi-zogan (ground-out inlaying). In this exquisite and
i8o
JAPAN
[ART
ingenious kind of work the design appears to be growing up from the
depths of the metal, and a delightful impression of atmosphere and
water is obtained. A1J these processes, as well as that of repouss£, in
which the Japanese have excelled frpm_a remote period, are now
practised with the greatest skill in Tokyo, Kioto, Osaka and Kana-
zawa. At the art exhibitions held twice a year in the principal
cities there may be seen specimens of statuettes, alcove ornaments,
and household utensils which show that the Japanese worker in
metals stands more indisputably than ever at the head of the world's
artists in that field. The Occident does not yet appear to have
full realized the existence of such talent in Japan; partly perhaps
because its displays in former times were limited chiefly to sword-
furniture, possessing little interest for the average European or
American; and partly because the Japanese have not yet learned
to adapt their skill to foreign requirements. They confine themselves
at present to decorating plaques, boxes and cases for cigars or
cigarettes, and an occasional tea or coffee service; but the whole
domain of salvers, dessert-services, race-cups and so on remains
virtually unexplored. Only within the past few years have stores
been established in the foreign settlements for the sale of silver
utensils, and already the workmanship on these objects displays pal-
pable signs of the deterioration which all branches of Japanese art
have undergone in the attempt to cater for foreign taste. In a general
sense the European or American connoisseur is much less exacting
than the Japanese. Broad effects of richness and splendour
captivate the former, whereas the latter looks for delicacy of finish,
accuracy of detail and, above all, evidences of artistic competence.
It is nothing to a Japanese that a vase should be covered with pro-
fuse decoration of flowers and foliage: he requires that every
blossom and every leaf shall be instinct with vitality, and the
comparative costliness of fine workmanship does not influence his
choice. But if the Japanese sculptor adopted such standards in
working for foreign patrons, his market would be reduced to very
narrow dimensions. He therefore adapts himself to his circum-
stances, and, using the mould rather than the chisel, produces
specimens which snow tawdry handsomeness and are attractively
cheap. It must be admitted, however, that even though foreign
appreciative faculty were sufficiently educated, the Japanese artist
in metals would still labour under the great difficulty of devising
shapes to take the place of those which Europe and America have
learned to consider classical.
Bronze is called by the Japanese kara-kane, a term signify-
ing " Chinese metal " and showing clearly the source from
which knowledge of the alloy was obtained. It is a
^™"y*c copper-lead-tin compound, the proportions of its con-
stituents varying from 72 to 88 % of copper, from 4
to 20 % of lead and from 2 to 8 % of tin. There are also present
small quantities of arsenic and antimony, and zinc is found gener-
ally as a mere trace, but sometimes reaching to 6 %. Gold is
supposed to have found a place in ancient bronzes, but its
presence has never been detected by analysis, and of silver not
more than 2 % seems to have been admitted at any time. Mr W.
Gowland has shown that, whatever may have been the practice of
Japanese bronze makers in ancient and medieval eras, their suc-
cessors in later days deliberately introduced arsenic and antimony
into the compound in order to harden the bronze without impair-
ing its fusibility, so that it might take a sharper impression of
the mould. Japanese bronze is well suited for castings, not only
because of its low melting-point, great fluidity and capacity for
taking sharp impressions, but also because it has a particularly
smooth surface and readily develops a fine patina. One variety
deserves special mention. It is a golden yellow bronze, called
sentcku — this being the Japanese pronunciation of Suen-te, the
era of the Ming dynasty of China when this compound was
invented. Copper, tin, lead and zinc, mixed in various propor-
tions by different experts, are the ingredients, and the beautiful
golden hues and glossy texture of the surface are obtained by
patina-producing processes, in which branch of metal-work the
Japanese show altogether unique skill.
From the time when they began to cast bronze statues, Japanese
experts understood how to employ a hollow, removable core round
which the metal was run in a skin just thick enough for strength
without waste of material ; and they also understood the use of wax
for modelling purposes. In ordinary circumstances, a casting thus
obtained took the form of a shell without any break of continuity.
But for very large castings the process had to be modified. The
great image of _Lochana Buddha at Nara, for example, would
measure 138 ft. in height were it standing erect, and its weight is
about 550 tons. The colossal Amida at Kamakura has a height
only 3 ft. less. It would have been scarcely possible to cast such
statues in one piece in situ, or, if cast elsewhere, to transport them
and elevate them on their pedestals. The plan pursued was to
build them up gradually in their places by casting segment after
segment. Thus, for the Nara Dai-butsu, the mould was constructed
in a series of steps ascending 12 in. at a time, until the head and
neck were reached, which, of course, had to be cast in one shell,
12 ft. high.
The term " parlour bronzes " serves to designate objects for
domestic use, as flower-vases, incense-burners and alcove orna-
ments. Bronze-casters began to turn their attention to these
objects about the middle of the I7th century. The art of casting
bronze reached its culmination in the hands of a group of great
experts — Seimin, Toun, Masatune, Teijo, Somin, Keisai, Takusai,
Gido, Zenryusai and Hotokusai — who flourished during the second
half of the l8th century and the first half of the igth. Many
brilliant specimens of these men's work survive, their general
features being that the motives are naturalistic, that the quality
of the metal is exceptionally fine, that in addition to beautifully
clear casting obtained by highly skilled use of the ceru-perduta
process, the chisel was employed to impart delicacy and finish to
the design, and that modelling in high relief is most successfully
introduced. But it is a mistake to assert, as many have asserted,
that after the era of the above ten masters — the latest of whom,
Somin, ceased to work in 1871 — no bronzes comparable with theirs
were cast. Between 1875 and 1879 some of the finest bronzes ever
produced in Japan were turned out by a group of experts working
under the business name of Sanseisha. Started by two brothers,
Oshima Katsujiro (art-name Joun) and Oshima Yasutaro (art-
name Shokaku), this association secured the services of a number of
skilled chisellers of sword-furniture, who had lost their occupation
by the abandonment of sword-wearing. Nothing could surpass the
delicacy of the works executed at the Sanseisha's atelier in Tokyo,
but unfortunately such productions were above the standard of the
customers for whom they were intended. Foreign buyers, who
alone stood in the market at that time, failed to distinguish the fine
and costly bronzes of Joun, Shokaku and their colleagues from cheap
imitations which soon began to compete with them, so that ulti-
mately the Sanseisha had to be closed. This page in the modern
history of Japan's bronzes needs little alteration to be true of her
applied art in general. Foreign demand has shown so little dis-
crimination that experts, finding it impossible to obtain adequate
remuneration for first-class work, have been obliged to abandon the
field altogether, or to lower their standard to the level of general
appreciation, or by forgery to cater for the perverted taste which
attaches unreasoning value to age. Joun has produced, and is
thoroughly capable of producing, bronzes at least equal to the best of
Seimin s masterpieces, yet he has often been induced to put Seimin's
name on objects for the sake of attracting buyers who attach more
value to cachet than to quality. If to the names of Joun and his bril-
liant pupil Ryuki we add those of Suzuki Chokichi, Okazaki Sessei,
Hasegawa Kumazo, Kanaya Gorosaburo and Jomi Eisuke, we have
a group of modern bronze-casters who unquestionably surpass the
ten experts beginning with Seimin and ending with Somin. Okazaki
Sessei has successfully achieved the casting of huge panels carrying
designs in high relief; and whether there is question of patina or of
workmanship, Jomi Eisuke has never been surpassed.
Occidental influence has been felt, of course, in the field of modern
bronze-casting. At a school of art officially established in Tokyo
jn 1873 under the direction of Italian teachers — a school which owed
its signal failure partly to the incompetence and intemperate
behaviour of some of its foreign professors, and partly to a strong
renaissance of pure Japanese classicism— -one of the few accomplish-
ments successfully taught was that of modelling in plaster and
chiselling in marble after Occidental methods. Marble statues are
out of place in the wooden buildings as well as in the parks of Japan,
and even plaster busts or groups, though less incongruous perhaps,
have not yet found favour. Hence the skill undoubtedly possessed
by several graduates of the defunct art school has to be devoted
chiefly to a subordinate purpose, namely, the fashioning of models
for metal-casters. To this combination of modellers in European
style and metal-workers of such force as Suzuki and Okazaki, Japan
owes various memorial bronzes and effigies which are gradually
finding a place in her parks, her museums, her shrines or her private
houses. There is here little departure from the well-trodden paths
of Europe. Studies in drapery, prancing steeds, ideal poses, heads
with fragments of torsos attached (in extreme violation of true art),
crouching beasts of prey — all the stereotyped styles are reproduced.
The imitation is excellent.
Among the artists of early times it is often difficult to dis-
tinguish between the carver of wood and the caster of bronze.
The latter sometimes made his own models in wax, Carviagin
sometimes chiselled them in wood, and sometimes had Wood and
recourse to a specialist in wood-carving. The group Ivofy-
of splendid sculptors in wood that graced the nth, izth and I3th
centuries left names never to be forgotten, but undoubtedly
many other artists of scarcely less force regarded bronze-casting
as their principal business. Thus the story of wood-carving is
very difficult to trace. Even in the field of architectural
JAPAN
SCULPTURE
PLATE V.
FIG. ii.— VAJRA MALLA. By Unkei (i3th century)- FIG. 12.— STATUE OF ASANGA (i2th century, artist unknown).
XV. 180.
FIG. 13.— STATUES OF BUDDHA AMI'TABHA AND TWO BODHISATTVAS (7th century).
PLATE VI.
JAPAN
METAL WORK AND LACQUER
ARCHITECTURE]
JAPAN
181
decoration for interiors, tradition tells us scarcely anything about
the masters who carved such magnificent works as those seen in
the Kioto temples, the Tokugawa mausolea, and some of the old
castles. There are, however, no modern developments of such
work to be noted. The ability of former times exists and is
exercised in the old way, though the field for its employment has
been greatly narrowed.
When Japanese sculpture in wood or ivory is spoken of, the first
idea that presents itself is connected with the netsuke, which, of all
the art objects found in Japan, is perhaps the most
Netsuke essentially Japanese. If Japan had given us nothing
Carvers. but the netsuke, we should still have no difficulty in
differentiating the bright versatility of her national
genius from the comparatively sombre, mechanic and unimaginative
temperament of the Chinese. But the netsuke may now be said to
be a thing of the past. The inro (medicine-box), which it mainly
served to fix in the girdle, has been driven out of fashion by the new
civilization imported from the West, and artists who would have
carved netsuke in former times now devote their chisels to statuettes
and alcove ornaments. It is not to be inferred, however, though it
is a favourite assertion of collectors, that no good netsuke have been
made in modern times. That theory is based upon the fact that
after the opening of the country to foreign intercourse in 1857,
hundreds of inferior specimens of netsuke were chiselled by inexpert
hands, purchased wholesale by treaty-port merchants, and sent to
New York, London and Paris, where, though they brought profit
to the exporter, they also disgusted the connoisseur and soon earned
discredit for their whole class. But in fact the glyptic artists of
Tokyo, Osaka and Kioto, though they now devote their chisels
chiefly to works of more importance than the netsuke, are in no sense
inferior to their predecessors of feudal days, and many beautiful
netsuke bearing their signatures are in existence. As for the
modern ivory statuette or alcove ornament, of which great numbers
are now carved for the foreign market, it certainly stands on a plane
much higher than the netsuke, since anatomical defects which
escape notice in the latter owing to its diminutive size, become
obtrusive in the former.
One of the most remarkable developments of figure sculpture in
modern Japan was due to Matsumoto Kisaburo (1830-1869). He
carved human figures with as much accuracy as though
J .. .. they were destined for purposes of surgical demonstra-
ausuc {jon Considering that this man had neither art educa-
'' tion nor anatomical instruction, and that he never
enjoyed an opportunity of studying from a model in a studio,
his achievements were remarkable. He and the craftsmen of the
school he established completely refute the theory that the anatomi-
cal solecisms commonly seen in the works of Japanese sculptors
are due to faulty observation. Without scientific training of any
kind Matsumoto and his followers produced works in which the eye
of science cannot detect any error. But it is impossible to admit
within the circle of high-art productions these wooden figures of
everyday men and women, unrelieved by any subjective element,
and owing their merit entirely to the fidelity with which their con-
tours are shaped, their muscles modelled, and their anatomical
proportions preserved. They have not even the attraction of being
cleanly sculptured in wood, but are covered with thinly lacquered
muslin, which, though doubtless a good preservative, accentuates
their puppet-like character. Nevertheless, Matsumoto's figures
marked an epoch in Japanese wood sculpture. Their vivid realism
appealed strongly to the taste of the average foreigner. A consider-
able school of carvers soon began to work in the Matsumoto style,
and hundreds of their productions have gone to Europe and America,
finding no market in Japan.
Midway between the Matsumoto school and the pure style
approved by the native taste in former times stand a number
of wood-carvers headed by Takamura Koun, who
occupies in the field of sculpture much the same place
as that held by Hashimoto Gaho in the realm of
painting. Koun carves figures in the round which
not only display great power of chisel and breadth of style, but also
tell a story not necessarily drawn from the motives of tjie classical
school. This departure from established canons must be traced to
the influence of the short-lived academy of Italian art established
by the Japanese government early in the Meiii era. In the fore-
front of the new movement are to be found men like Yoneharu Unkai
and Shinkai Taketaro; the former chiselled a figure of Jenner for
the Medical Association of Japan when they celebrated the centenary
of the great physician, and the latter has carved life-size effigies of
two Imperial princes who lost their lives in the war with China (1894-
95). The artists of the Koun school, however, do much work which
appeals to emotions in general rather than to individual memories.
Thus Arakawa Reiun, one of Koun's most brilliant pupils, has
exhibited a figure of a swordsman in the act of driving home a
furious thrust. The weapon is not shown. Reiun sculptured
simply a man poised on the toes of one foot, the other foot raised,
the arm extended, and the body straining forward in strong yet
elastic muscular effort. A more imaginative work by the same
The Seml-
forelga
School.
artist is a figure of a farmer who has just shot an eagle that swooped
upon his grandson. The old man holds his bow still raised. Some
of the eagle's feathers, blown to his side, suggest the death of the
bird ; at his feet lies the corpse of the little boy, and the horror,
grief and anger that such a tragedy would inspire are depicted with
striking realism in the farmer's face. Such work has very close
affinities with Occidental conceptions. The chief distinguishing
feature is that the glyptic character is preserved at the expense of
surface finish. The undisguised touches of the chisel tell a story
of technical force and directness which could not be suggested by
perfectly smooth surfaces. To subordinate process to result is the
European canon; to show the former without marring the latter is
the Japanese ideal. Many of Koun's sculptures appear unfinished
to eyes trained in Occidental galleries, whereas the Japanese
connoisseur detects evidence of a technical feat in their seeming
roughness.
Architecture. — From the evidence of ancient records it appears
that before the 5th century the Japanese resided in houses of
a very rude character. The sovereign's palace itself
was merely a wooden hut. Its pillars were thrust D
into the ground and the whole framework — con-
sisting of posts, beams, rafters, door-posts and window-frames
— was tied together with cords made by twisting the long
fibrous stems of climbing plants. The roof was thatched, and
perhaps had a gable at each end with a hole to allow the
smoke of the wood fire to escape. Wooden doors swung on
a kind of hook; the windows were mere holes in the walls.
Rugs of skins or rush matting were used for sitting on, and
the whole was surrounded with a palisade. In the middle
of the sth century two-storeyed houses seem to have been built,
but the evidence on the subject is slender. In the 8tb century,
however, when the court was moved to Nara, the influence of
Chinese civilization made itself felt. Architects, turners, tile-
makers, decorative artists and sculptors, coming from China
and from Korea, erected grand temples for the worship of Buddha
enshrining images of much beauty and adorned with paintings
and carvings of considerable merit. The plan of the city itself
was taken from that of the Chinese metropolis. A broad central
avenue led straight to the palace, and on either side of it ran four
parallel streets, crossed at right angles by smaller thoroughfares.
During this century the first sumptuary edict ordered that the
dwellings of all high officials and opulent civilians should have
tiled roofs and be coloured red, the latter injunction being evi-
dently intended to stop the use of logs carrying their bark.
Tiles thenceforth became the orthodox covering for a roof, but
vermilion, being regarded as a religious colour, found no favour
in private dwellings. In the Qth century, after the capital had
been established at Kioto, the palace of the sovereigns and the
mansions of ministers and nobles were built on a scale of unpre-
cedented grandeur. It is true that all the structures of the time
had the defect of a box-like appearance. Massive, towering
roofs, which impart an air of stateliness even to a wooden build-
ing and yet, by their graceful curves, avoid any suggestion of
ponderosity, were still confined to Buddhist edifices. The
architect of private dwellings attached more importance to
satin-surfaced boards and careful joinery than to any appearance
of strength or solidity.
Except for the number of buildings composing it, the palace had
little to distinguish it from a nobleman's mansion. The latter
consisted of a principal hall, where the master of the house lived, ate
and slept, and of three suites of chambers, disposed on the north,
the east and the west of the principal hall. In the northern suite
the lady of the house dwelt, the eastern and western suites being
allotted to other members of the family. Corridors joined the prin-
cipal hall to the subordinate edifices, for as yet the idea had not
been conceived of having more than one chamber under the same
roof. The principal hall was usually 42 ft. square. Its centre was
occupied by a " parent chamber," 30 ft. square, around which ran
an ambulatory and a veranda, each 6 ft. _ wide. The parent
chamber and the ambulatory were ceiled, sometimes with interlacing
strips of bark or broad laths, so as to produce a plaited effect;
sometimes with plain boards. The veranda had no ceiling. Sliding
doors, a characteristic feature of modern Japanese houses, had
not yet come into use, and no means were provided for closing the
veranda, but the ambulatory was surrounded by a wall of latticed
timber or plain boards, the lower half of which could be removed
altogether, whereas the upper half, suspended from hooks, could be
swung upward and outward. Privacy was obtained by blinds of
182
JAPAN
[ARCHITECTURE
split bamboo, and the parent chamber was separated from the
ambulatory by similar bamboo blinds with silk cords for raising
or lowering them, or by curtains. The thick rectangular mats of
uniform size which, fitting together so as to present a level unbroken
surface, cover the floor of all modern Japanese houses, were not yet
in use: floors were boarded, having only a limited space matted.
This form of mansion underwent little modification until the 1 2th
century, when the introduction of the Zen sect of Buddhism with its
contemplative practice called for greater privacy. Interiors were
then divided into smaller rooms by means of sliding doors covered
with thin rice-paper, which permitted the passage of light while
obstructing vision; the hanging lattices were replaced by wooden
doors which could be slid along a groove so as to be removable in
the daytime, and an alcove was added in the principal chamber
for a sacred picture or Buddhist image to serve as an object of
contemplation for a devotee while practising the rite of abstraction.
Thus the main features of the Japanese dwelling-house were evolved,
and little change took place subsequently, except that the brush
of the painter was freely used for decorating partitions, and in
aristocratic mansions unlimited care was exercised in the choice
of rare woods.
The Buddhist temple underwent little change at Japanese
bands except in the matter of decoration. Such as it was in>
Buddhist outline when first erected in accordance with Chinese
Temple models, such it virtually remained, though in later
Architecture. times an the resources of the sculptor and the
painter were employed to beautify it externally and internally.
" The building, sometimes of huge dimensions, is invariably sur-
rounded by a raised gallery, reached by a flight of steps in the centre
of the approach front, the balustrade of which is a continuation of
the gallery railing. This gallery is sometimes supported upon a
deep system of bracketing, corbelled out from the feet of the main
pillars. Within this raised gallery, which is sheltered by the over-
sailing eaves, there is, in the larger temples, a columned loggia passing
rouna the two sides and the front of the building, or, in some cases,
placed on the facade only. The ceilings of the loggias are generally
sloping, with richly carved roof-timbers showing below at intervals;
and quaintly carved braces connect the outer pillars with the main
posts of the building. Some temples are to be seen in which the
ceiling of the loggia is boarded flat and decorated with large paintings
of dragons in black and gold. The intercolumniation is regulated
by a standard of about six or seven feet, and the general result of
the treatment of columns, wall-posts, &c., is that the whole mural
space, not filled in with doors or windows, is divided into regular
oblong panels, which sometimes receive plaster, sometimes boarding
and sometimes rich framework and carving or painted panels.
Diagonal bracing or strutting is nowhere to be found, and in many
cases mortises and other joints are such as very materially to
weaken the' timbers at their points of connexion. It would seem
that only the immense weight of the roofs and their heavy projec-
tions prevent a collapse of some of these structures in high winds.
The principal facade of the temple is filled in one, two or three com-
partments with hinged doors, variously ornamented and folding
outwards, sometimes in double folds. From these doorways, gener-
ally left open, the interior light is principally obtained, windows, as
the term is generally understood, being rare. An elaborate cornice
of wooden bracketing crowns the walls, forming one of the principal
ornaments of the building. The whole disposition of pillars, posts,
brackets and rafters is harmonically arranged according to some
measure of the standard of length. A very important feature of
the facade is the portico or porch-way, which covers the principal
steps and is generally formed by producing the central portion of
the main roof over the steps and supporting such projection upon
isolated wooden pillars braced together near the top with horizontal
ties, carved, moulded and otherwise fantastically decorated. Above
these ties are the cornice brackets and beams, corresponding in
general design to the cornice of the walls, and the intermediate space
is filled with open carvings of dragons or other characteristic designs.
The forms of roof are various, but mostly they commence in a steep
slope at the top, gradually flattening towards the eaves so as to
produce a slightly concave appearance, this concavity being ren-
dered more emphatic by the tilt which is given to the eaves at the
four corners. The appearance of the ends of the roof is half hip,
half gable. Heavy; ribs of tile-cresting with large terminals are
carried along the ridge and the slope of the gable. The result of
the whole is very picturesque, and has the advantage of looking
equally satisfactory from any point of view. The interior arrange-
ment of wall columns, horizontal beams and cornice bracketing
corresponds with that on the outside. The ceiling is invariably
boarded and subdivided by ribs into small rectangular coffers.
Sometimes painting is introduced into these panels and lacquer and
metal clasps are added to the ribs. When the temple is of very
large dimensions an interior peristyle of pillars is introduced to
assist in supporting the roof, and in such cases each pillar carries
profuse bracketing corresponding to that of the cornice. The
construction of the framework of the Japanese roof is such that the
weights all act vertically; there is no thrust on the outer walls,
and every available point of the interior is used as a means of
support.
" The floor is partly boarded and partly matted. Theshrines, altars
and oblatory tables are placed at the back in the centre, and there
are often other secondary shrines at the sides. In temples of the
best class the floor of the gallery and of the central portion of the
main building from entrance to altar are richly lacquered; in those
of inferior class they are merely polished by continued rubbing."
— (J. Conder, in the Proceedings of the Royal Institute of British
Architects.)
None of the magnificence of the Buddhist temple belongs
to the Shinto shrine. In the case of the latter conservatism has
been absolute from time immemorial. The shrines shiato
of Ise, which may be called the Mecca of Shinto Architec-
devotees, are believed to present to-day precisely the *"'*•
appearance they presented in 478, when they were moved thither
in obedience to a revelation from the Sun-goddess. It has been
the custom to rebuild them every twentieth year, alternately on
each of two sites set apart for the purpose, the features of the old
edifice being reproduced in the new with scrupulous accuracy.
They are enlarged replicas of the primeval wooden hut described
above, having rafters with their upper ends crossed; thatched or
shingled roof; boarded floors, and logs laid on the roof-ridge at right
angles for the purpose of binding the ridge and the rafters firmly
together. A thatched roof is imperative in the orthodox shrine,
but in modern days tiles or sheets of copper are sometimes substi-
tuted. At Ise, however, no such novelties are tolerated. The
avenue of approach generally passes under a structure called torii.
Originally designed as a perch for fowls which sang to the deities at
daybreak, this torii subsequently came to be erroneously regarded
as a gateway characteristic of the Shinto shrine. It consists of two
thick trunks placed upright, their upper ends mortised into a hori-
zontal log which projects beyond them at either side. The structure
derives some grace from its extreme simplicity.
Textile Fabrics and Embroidery. — In no branch of applied art
does the decorative genius of Japan show more attractive results
than in that of textile fabrics, and in none has there been more
conspicuous progress during recent years. Her woven and em-
broidered stuffs have always been beautiful; but in former times
few pieces of size and splendour were produced, if we except the
curtains used for draping festival cars and the hangings of
temples. Tapestry, as it is employed in Europe, was not
thought of, nor indeed could the small hand-looms of the period
be easily adapted to such work. All that has been changed,
however. Arras of large dimensions, showing remarkable
workmanship and grand combinations of colours, is now manu-
factured in Ki6to, the product of years of patient toil on the part
of weaver and designer alike. Kawashima of Kioto has acquired
high reputation for work of this kind. He inaugurated the
new departure a few years ago by copying a Gobelin, but it may
safely be asserted that no Gobelin will bear comparison with the
pieces now produced in Japan.
The most approved fashion of weaving is called tsuzure-ori
(linked-weaving) ; that is to say, the cross threads are laid in with
the fingers and pushed into their places with a comb by hand, very
little machinery being used. The threads extend only to the outlines
of each figure, and it follows that every part of the pattern has a rim
of minute holes like pierced lines separating postage stamps in a
sheet, the effect being that the design seems to hang suspended in
the ground — linked into it, as the Japanese term implies.' A
specimen of this nature recently manufactured by Kawashima's
weavers measured 20 ft. by 13, and represented the annual festival
at the Nikko mausolea. The chief shrine was shown, as were also
the gate a«d the long flight of stone steps leading up to it, several
other buildings, the groves of cryptomeria that surround the
mausolea, and the festival procession. All the architectural and
decorative details, all the carvings and colours, all the accessories —
everything was wrought in silk, and each of the 1500 figures forming
the procession wore exactly appropriate costume. Even this wealth
of detail, remarkable as it was, seemed less surprising than the fact
that the weaver had succeeded in producing the effect of atmosphere
and aerial perspective. Through the graceful cryptomerias distant
mountains and the still more distant sky could be seen, and between
the buildings in the foreground and those in the middle distance
atmosphere appeared to be perceptible. Two years of incessant
labour with relays of artisans working steadily throughout the
twenty-four hours were required to finish this piece. Naturally
1 This method is some 300 years old. It is by no means a modern
invention, as some writers have asserted.
CERAMICS]
JAPAN
183
such specimens are not produced in large numbers. Next in decora-
tive importance to tsuzure-ori stands yuzen birodo, commonly
known among English-speaking people as cut velvet. Dyeing by
the yuzen process is an innovation of modern times. The design
is painted on the fabric, after which the latter is steamed, and the
picture is ultimately fixed by methods which are kept secret. The
soft silk known as habutaye is a favourite ground for such work, but
silk crape also is largely employed. No other method permits the
decorator to achieve such fidelity and such boldness of draughtsman-
ship. The difference between the results of the ordinary and the
yuzen processes of dyeing is, in fact, the difference between a sten-
cilled sketch and a finished picture. In the case of cut velvet, the
yuzen process is supplemented as follows: The cutter, who works
at an ordinary wooden bench, has no tool except a small sharp
chisel with a V-shaped point. This chisel is passed into an iron
pencil having at the end guards, between which the point of the
chisel projects, so that it is impossible for the user to cut beyond a
certain depth. When the velvet comes to him, it already carries a
coloured picture permanently fixed by the' yuzen process, but the
wires have not been withdrawn. It is, in fact, velvet that has
passed through all the usual stages of manufacture except the
cutting of the thread along each wire and the withdrawal of the
wires. The cutting artist lays the piece of unfinished velvet on his
bench, and proceeds to carve into the pattern with his chisel, just
as though he were shading the lines of the design with a steel pencil.
When the pattern is lightly traced, he uses his knife delicately ; when
the lines are strong and the shadows heavy, he makes the point
pierce deeply. In short, the little chisel becomes in his fingers a
painter's brush, and when it is remembered that, the basis upon which
he works being simply a thread of silk, his hand must be trained to
such delicacy of muscular effort as to be capable of arresting the
edge of the knife at varying depths within the diameter of the tiny
filament, the difficulty of the achievement will be understood. Of
course it is to be noted that the edge of the cutting tool is never
allowed to trespass upon a line which the exigencies of the design
require to be solid. The veining of a cherry petal, for example, the
tessellation of a carp's scales, the serration of a leaf 'sedge — all these
lines remain intact, spared by the cutter's tool, while the leaf itself,
or the petal, or the scales of the fish, have the threads forming them
cut so as to show the velvet nap and to appear in soft, low relief.
In one variety of this fabric, a slip of gold foil is laid under each wire,
and left in position after the wire is withdrawn, the cutting tool
being then used with freedom in some parts of the design, so that the
gold gleams through the severed thread, producing a rich and
suggestive effect. Velvet, however, is not capable of being made
the basis for pictures so elaborate and microscopically accurate as
those produced by the yuzen process on silk crape or habutaye.
The rich-toned, soft plumage of birds or the magnificent blending
of colours in a bunch of peonies or chrysanthemums cannot be
obtained with absolute fidelity on the ribbed surface of velvet.
The embroiderer's craft has been followed for centuries in
Japan with eminent success, but whereas it formerly ranked
with dyeing and weaving, it has now come to. be
regarded as an art. Formerly the embroiderer was
content to produce a pattern with his needle, now he paints a
picture. So perfectly does the modern Japanese embroiderer
elaborate his scheme of values that all the essential elements of
pictorial effects — chiaroscuro, aerial perspective and atmosphere
are present in his work. Thus a graceful and realistic school
has replaced the comparatively stiff and conventional style of
former times.
Further, an improvement of a technical character was recently
made, which has the effect of adding greatly to the durability of
these embroideries. Owing to the use of paper among the threads
of the embroidery and sizing in the preparation of the stuff forming
the ground, every operation of folding used to cause perceptible
injury to a piece, so that after a few years it acquired a crumpled
and dingy appearance. But by the new method embroiderers now
succeed in producing fabrics which defy all destructive influences
— except, of course, dirt and decay.
Ceramics. — All research proves that up to the I2th century of
the Christian era the ceramic ware produced in Japan was of a
very rude character. The interest attaching to it is
historical rather than technical. Pottery was certainly
manufactured from an early date, and there is evi-
dence that kilns existed in some fifteen provinces in the icth
century. But although the use of the potter's wheel had long
been understood, the objects produced were simple utensils to
contain offerings of rice, fruit and fish at the austere ceremonials
of the Shinto faith, jars for storing seeds, and vessels for common
domestic use. In the i3th century, however, the introduction of
tea from China, together with vessels for infusing and serving it,
revealed to the Japanese a new conception of ceramic possibilities,
Embroidery.
Early
Period.
for the potters of the Middle Kingdom had then (Sung dynasty)
fully entered the road which was destined to carry them ulti-
mately to a high pinnacle of their craft. It had long been cus-
tomary in Japan to send students to China for the purpose of
studying philosophy and religion, and she now (1223) sent a
potter, Kato Shirozaemon, who, on his return, opened a kiln at
Seto in the province of Owari, and began to produce little
jars for preserving tea and cups for drinking it. These
were conspicuously superior to anything previously manufac-
tured. Kato is regarded as the father of Japanese ceramics.
But the ware produced by him and his successors at the
Seto kilns, or by their contemporaries in other parts of the
country, had no valid claim to decorative excellence. Nearly
three centuries elapsed before a radically upward movement
took place, and on this occasion also the inspiration came
from China. In 1520 a potter named Gorodayu Goshonzui
(known to posterity as Shonzui) made his way to Fuchow and
thence to King-te-chen, where, after five years' study, he acquired
the art of manufacturing porcelain, as distinguished from pottery,
together with the art of applying decoration in blue under the
glaze. He established his kiln at Arita in Hizen, and the event
marked the opening of the second epoch of Japanese ceramics.
Yet the new departure then made did not lead far. The exis-
tence of porcelain clay in Hizen was not discovered for many
years, and Shonzui's pieces being made entirely with kaolin
imported from China, their manufacture ceased after his death,
though knowledge of the processes learned by him survived and
was used in the production of greatly inferior wares. The third
clearly differentiated epoch was inaugurated by the discovery of
true kaolin at Izumi-yama in Hizen, the discoverer being one of
the Korean potters who came to Japan in the train of Hide-
yoshi's generals returning from the invasion of Korea, and the
date of the discovery being about 1605. Thus much premised,
it becomes possible to speak in detail of the various wares for
which Japan became famous.
The principal kinds of ware are Hizen, Kioto, Satsuma,
Kutani, Owari, Bizen, Takatori, Banko, Izumo and Yatsushiro.
There are three chief varieties of Hizen ware, namely, (l) the
enamelled porcelain of Arita — the " old Japan " of European collec-
tors; (2) the enamelled porcelain of Nabeshima; and Hlzea
(3) the blue and white, or plain white, porcelain of
Hirado. The earliest manufacture of porcelain — as distinguished
from pottery — began in the opening years of the l6th century, but
its materials were exotic. Genuine Japanese porcelain dates from
about a century later. The decoration was confined to blue under
the glaze, and as an object of art the ware possessed no special merit.
Not until the year 1620 do we find any evidence of the style for
which Arita porcelain afterwards became famous, namely, decora-
tion with vitrifiable enamels. The first efforts in this direction were
comparatively crude; but before the middle of the 1 7th century,
two experts — Goroshichi and Kakiemon — carried the art to a point
of considerable excellence. From that time forward the Arita
factories turned out large quantities of porcelain profusely decorated
with blue under the glaze and coloured enamels over it. Many
pieces were exported by the Dutch, and some also were specially
manufactured to their order. Specimens of the latter are still
preserved in European collections, where they are classed as genuine
examples of Japanese ceramic art, though beyond question their
style of decoration was greatly influenced by Dutch interference.
The porcelains of Arita were carried to the neighbouring town of
Iman for sale and shipment. Hence the ware came to be known to
Japanese and foreigners alike as Imari-yaki (yaki = anything baked ;
hence ware).
The Nabeshima porcelain — so called because of its production at
private factories under the special patronage of Nabeshima Naoshige,
feudal chief of Hizen — was produced at Okawachiyama.
It differed from Imari-yaki in the milky whiteness and Nabeshima.
softness of its glaze, the comparative sparseness of its
enamelled decoration, and the relegation of blue sous couverte to an
entirely secondary place. This is undoubtedly the finest jewelled
porcelain in Japan; the best examples leave nothing to be desired.
The factory's period of excellence began about the year 1680, and
culminated at the close of the 1 8th century.
The Hirado porcelain — so called because it enjoyed the special
patronage of Matsuura, feudal chief of Hirado — was produced at
Mikawa-uchi-yama, but did not attain excellence until Hirado.
the middle of the i8th century, from which time until
about 1830 specimens of rare beauty were produced. They were
decorated with blue under the glaze, but some were pure white
with exquisitely chiselled designs incised or in relief. The production
184
JAPAN
[CERAMICS
was always scanty, and, owing to official prohibitions, the ware did
not find its way into the general market.
The history of Kioto ware — which, being for the most part faience,
belongs to an entirely different category from the Hizen porcelains
Ki'to spoken of above — is the history of individual ceramists
rather than of special manufactures. Speaking broadly,
however, four different varieties are usually distinguished. They
are raku-yaki, awata-yaki, iwakura-yaki and kiyomizu-yaki.
Raku-yaki is essentially the domestic faience of Japan; for,
being entirely hand-made and fired at a very low temperature,
Raku 'ts manufacture offers few difficulties, and has conse-
quently been carried on by amateurs in their own
homes at various places throughout the country. The raku-yaki
of Kioto is the parent of all the rest. It was first produced by a
Korean who emigrated to Japan in the early part of the l6th cen-
tury. But the term raku-yaki did not come into use until the close
of the century, when Chojiro (artistic name, Choryu) received from
Hideyoshi (the Taiko) a seal bearing the ideograph raku, with which
he thenceforth stamped his productions. Thirteen generations of the
same family carried on the work, each using a stamp with the same
ideograph, its calligraphy, however, differing sufficiently to be identi-
fied by connoisseurs. The faience is thick and clumsy, having soft,
brittle and very light pate. The staple type has black glaze showing
little lustre, and m choice varieties this is curiously speckled and
pitted with red. Salmon-coloured, red, yellow and white glazes
are also found, and in late specimens gilding was added. The raku
faience owed much of its popularity to the patronage of the tea
clubs. The nature of its paste and glaze adapted it for the infusion
of powdered tea, and its homely character suited the austere canons
of the tea ceremonies.
Awata-yaki is the best known among the ceramic productions of
Kioto. There is evidence to show that the art_of decoration with
. t enamels over the glaze reached Kioto from Hizen in
the middle of the iyth century. Just at that time
there flourished in the Western capital a potter of remarkable ability,
called Nomura Seisuke. He immediately utilized the new method,
and produced many beautiful examples of jewelled faience, having
close, hard p&te, yellowish-white, or brownish-white, glaze covered
with a network of fine crackle, and sparse decoration in pure full-
bodied colours — red, green, gold and silver. He worked chiefly
at Awata, and thus brought that factory into prominence. Nomura
Seisuke, or Ninsei as he is commonly called, was one of Japan's
greatest ceramists. Genuine examples of his faience have always
been highly prized, and numerous imitations were subsequently
produced, all stamped with the ideograph Ninsei. After Ninsei's
time, the most renowned ceramists of the Awata factories were
Kenzan (1688-1740); Ebisei, a contemporary of Kenzan; Dohachi
(1751-1763), who subsequently moved to Kiyomizu-zaka, another
part of Kioto, the faience of which constitutes the Kiyomizu-yaki
mentioned above; Kinkozan (1745-1760); Hozan (1690-1721);
Taizan (1760-1800); Bizan (1810-1838); and Tanzan, who was still
living in 1909. It must be noted that several of these names, as
Kenzan, Dohachi, Kinkozan, Hozan and Taizan, were not limited to
one artist. They are family names, and though the dates we have
given indicate the eras of the most noted ceramists in each family,
amateurs must not draw any chronological conclusion from the mere
fact that a specimen bears such and such a name.
The origin of the Iwakura-yaki is somewhat obscure, and its
Iwatun. h'storv' at an early date, becomes confused with that
of the Awata yaki, from which, indeed, it does not materi-
ally differ.
In the term Kiy5mizu-yaki may be included roughly all the faience
of Kioto, with the exception of the three varieties described above.
KiyomUu ^he d'st'nction between Kiyomizu, Awata and Iwa-
kura is primarily local. They are parts of the same
city, and if their names have been used to designate particular
classes of pottery, it is not because the technical or decorative
features of each class distinguish it from the other two, but chiefly
for the purpose of identifying the place of production. On the
slopes called Kiyomizu-zaka and Gojo-zaka lived a number of
ceramists, all following virtually the same models with variations
due to individual genius. The principal Kiyomizu artists were:
Ebisei, who moved from Awata to GojS-zaka in 1688; Eisen and
Rokubei, pupils of Ebisei; Mokubei, a pupil of Eisen, but more
celebrated than his master; Shuhei (1790-1810), Kentei (1782-
1820), and Zengoro Hozen, generally known as Eiraku (1790-1850).
Eisen was the first to manufacture porcelain (as distinguished from
faience) in Kioto, and this branch of the art was carried to a high
standard of excellence by Eiraku, whose speciality was a rich coral-
red glaze with finely executed decoration in gold. The latter cera-
mist excelled also in the production of purple, green and yellow
glazes, which he combined with admirable skill and taste. Some
choice ware of the latter type was manufactured by him in Kishu,
by order of the feudal chief of that province. It is known as Kaira-
ku-yen-yaki (ware of the Kairaku park).
No phrase is commoner in the mouths of Western collectors than
"Old Satsuma"; no ware is rarer in Western collections. Nine
Smttuma hundred and ninety-nine pieces out of every thousand
that do duty as genuine examples of this prince of
faiences are simply examples of the skill of modern forgers. In
point of fact, the production of faience decorated with gold and
coloured enamels may be said to have commenced at the beginning
of the igth century in Satsuma. Some writers maintain that it
did actually commence then, and that nothing of the kind had
existed there previously. Setting aside, however, the strong improb-
ability that a style of decoration so widely practised and so highly
esteemed could have remained unknown during a century and a
half to experts working for one of the most puissant chieftains in
Japan, we have the evidence of trustworthy traditions and written
records that enamelled faience was made by the potters at Tat-
sumonji — the principal factory of Satsuma-ware in early days — as
far back as the year 1676. Mitsuhisa, then feudal lord of Satsuma,
was a munificent patron of art. He summoned to his fief the painter
Tangen — a pupil of the renowned Tanyu, who died in 1674 — and
employed him to paint faience or to furnish designs for the ceramists
of Tatsumonji. The ware produced under these circumstances
is still known by the name of Satsuma Tangen. But the number of
specimens was small. Destined chiefly for private use or for pre-
sents, their decoration "was delicate rather than rich, the colour
chiefly employed being brown, or reddish brown, under the glaze,
and the decoration over the glaze being sparse and chaste. Not until
the close of the l8th century or the beginning of the igth did the
more profuse fashion of enamelled decoration come to be largely
employed. It was introduced by two potters who had visited
Kioto, and there observed the ornate methods so well illustrated
in the wares of Awata and Kiyomizu. At the same time a strong
impetus was given to the production of faience at Tadeno — then the
chief factory in Satsuma — owing to the patronage of Shimazu
Tamanobu, lord of the province. To this increase in production
and to the more elaborate application of verifiable enamels may be
attributed the erroneous idea that Satsuma faience decorated with
gold and coloured enamels had its origin at the close of the i8th
century. For all the purposes of the ordinary collector it may be
said to have commenced then, and to have come to an end about
1860 ; but for the purposes of the historian we must look farther back.
The ceramic art in Satsuma owed much to the aid of a number of
Korean experts who settled there after the return of the Japanese
forces from Korea. One of these men, Boku Heii, discovered
(1603) clay fitted for the manufacture of white craquelk faience.
This was the subsequently celebrated Satsuma-yaki. But in Boku's
time, and indeed as long as the factories flourished, many other
kinds of faience were produced, the principal having rich black or
flamb& glazes, while a few were green or yellow monochromes.
One curious variety, called same-yaki, had glaze chagrined like the
skin of a shark. Most of the finest pieces of enamelled faience
were the work of artists at the Tadeno factory, while the best speci-
mens of other kinds were by the artists of Tatsumonji.
The porcelain of Kutani is among those best known to Western
collectors, though good specimens ofthe old ware have always been
scarce. Its manufacture dates from the close of the 1 7th „. .
century, when the feudal chief of Kaga took the industry
under his patronage. There were two principal varieties of the ware :
ao-Kutani, so called because of a green (ao) enamel of great brilliancy
and beauty which was largely used in its decoration, and Kutani
with painted and enamelled p&te varying from hard porcelain to
pottery. Many of the pieces are distinguished by a peculiar creamy
whiteness of glaze, suggesting the idea that they were intended to
imitate the soft-paste wares of China. The enamels are used to
delineate decorative subjects and are applied in masses, the principal
colours being green, yellow and soft Prussian blue, all brilliant and
transparent, with the exception of the last which is nearly opaque.
In many cases we find large portions of the surface completely
covered with green or yellow enamel overlying black diapers or
scroll patterns. The second variety of Kutani ware may often be
mistaken for " old Japan " (i.e. Imari porcelain). The most charac-
teristic examples of it are distinguishable, however, by the prepon-
derating presence of a peculiar russet red, differing essentially from
the full-bodied and comparatively brilliant colour of the Arita
pottery. Moreover, the workmen of Kaga did not follow the Arita
precedent of massing blue under the glaze. In the great majority
of cases they did not use blue at all in this position, and when they
did, its place was essentially subordinate. They also employed
silver freely for decorative purposes, whereas we rarely find it thus
used on " old Japan " porcelain.
About the time (1843) of the ao-Kutani revival, a potter called
lida Hachiroemon introduced a style of decoration which subse-
quently came to be regarded as typical of all Kaga procelains.
Taking the Eiraku porcelains of Kioto as models, Hachiroemon
employed red grounds with designs traced on them in gold. The
style was not absolutely new in Kaga. We find similar decoration
on old and choice examples of Kutani-yaki. But the character of
the old red differs essentially from that of the modern manufacture —
the former being a soft, subdued colour, more like a bloom than an
enamel ; the latter a glossy and comparatively crude pigment.
In Hachiroemon's time and during the twenty years following the
date of his innovation, many beautiful examples of elaborately
decorated Kutani porcelain were produced. The richness, profusion
and microscopic accuracy of their decoration could scarcely have been
surpassed; but, with very rare exceptions, their lack of delicacy of
technique disqualifies them to rank as fine porcelains.
JAPAN
LACQUER
PLATE VII.
XV. 184.
PLATE VIII.
JAPAN
POTTERY AND PORCELAIN
wS.
o
OS
U
c
I
s
X
m
a
w
u
2
•a
I
|
X
U
S
u
o
*— i
33
U
o
u
CERAMICS]
JAPAN
185
It was at the little village of Seto, some five miles from Nagoya,
the chief town of the province of Owari, or Bishu, that the celebrated
_ . Kato Shirozaemon made the first Japanese faience
worthy to be considered a technical success. Shiro-
zaemon produced dainty little tea-jars, ewers and other cha-no-
yu utensils. These, being no longer stoved in an inverted posi-
tion, as had been the habit before Shirozaemon's time, were not
disfigured by the bare, blistered lips of their predecessors. Their
pdte was close and well-manufactured pottery, varying in colour
from dark brown to russet, and covered with thick, lustrous glazes
— black, amber-brown, chocolate and yellowish grey. These glazes
were not monochromatic: they showed differences of tint, and
sometimes marked varieties of colour; as when chocolate-brown
passed into amber, or black was relieved by streaks and clouds of
grey and dead-leaf red. This ware came to be known as Toshirn-
yaki, a term obtained by combining the second syllable of Kato
with the two first of Shirozaemon. A genuine example of it is at
present worth many times its weight in gold to Japanese dilettanti,
though in foreign eyes it is little more than interesting. Shirozaemon
was succeeded at the kiln by three generations of his family, each
representative retaining the name of Toshiro, and each distinguish-
ing himself by the excellence of his work. Thenceforth Seto became
the headquarters of the manufacture of cha-no-yu utensils, and many
of the tiny pieces turned out there deserve high admiration, their
technique being perfect, and their mahogany, russet-brown, amber
and buff glazes showing wonderful lustre and richness. Seto, in
fact, acquired such a widespread reputation for its ceramic pro-
ductions that the term seto-mono (Seto article) came to be used
generally for all pottery and porcelain, just as " China " is in the
West. Seto has now ceased to be a pottery-producing centre, and
has become the chief porcelain manufactory of Japan. The porce-
lain industry was inaugurated in 1807 by Tamikichi, a local cera-
mist, who had visited Hizen and spent three years there studying
the necessary processes. Owari abounds in porcelain stone; but
it does not occur in constant or particularly simple forms, and as
the potters have not yet learned to treat their materials scientifically,
their work is often marred by unforeseen difficulties. For many
years after Tamikichi's processes had begun to be practised, the
only decoration employed was blue under the glaze. Sometimes
Chinese cobalt was used, sometimes Japanese, and sometimes a
mixture of both. To Kawamoto Hansuke, who flourished about
1830—1845, belongs the credit of having turned out the richest and
most attractive ware of this class. But, speaking generally, Japanese
blues do not rank on the same decorative level with those of China.
At Arita, although pieces were occasionally turned out of which
the colour could not be surpassed in purity and brilliancy, the
general character of the blue sous couverte was either thin or dull.
At Hirado the ceramists affected alighter and more delicatetone than
that of the Chinese, and, in order to obtain it, subjected the choice
pigment of the Middle Kingdom to refining processes of great severity.
The Hirado blue, therefore, belongs to a special aesthetic category.
But at Owari the experts were content with an inferior colour,
and their blue-and-white porcelains never enjoyed a distinguished
reputation, though occasionally we find a specimen of great merit.
Decoration with vitrifiable enamels over the glaze, though it
began to be practised at Owari about the year 1840, never became
a speciality of the place. Nowadays, indeed, numerous examples
of porcelains decorated in this manner are classed among Owari
products. But they receive their decoration, almost without
exception, in Tokyo or Yokohama, where a large number of artists,
called e-tsuke-shi, devote themselves entirely to porcelain-painting.
These men seldom use vitrifiable enamels, pigments being much
more tractable and less costly. The dominant feature of the designs
is pictorial. They are frankly adapted to Western taste. Indeed,
of this porcelain it may be said that, from the monster pieces of
blue-and-white manufactured at Seto — vases six feet high and
garden pillar-lamps half as tall again do not dismay the Bishu
ceramist — to tiny coffee-cups decorated in Tokyo, with their
delicate miniatures of birds, flowers, insects, fishes and so forth,
everything indicates the death of the old severe aestheticism. To
such a depth of debasement had the ceramic art fallen in Owari, that
before the happy renaissance of the past ten years, Nagoya dis-
credited itself by employing porcelain as a base for cloisonnd enamel-
ling. Many products of this vitiated industry have found their
way into the collections of foreigners.
Pottery was produced at several hamlets in Bizen as far back as
the I4th century, but ware worthy of artistic notice did not make its
appearance until the close of the i6th century, when
Blzea. the Tajip himself paid a visit to the factory at Imbe.
Thenceforth utensils for the use of the tea clubs began to be
manufactured. This Bizen-yaki was red stoneware, with thin
diaphanous glaze. Made of exceedingly refractory clay, it under-
went stoving for more than three weeks, and was consequently
remarkable for its hardness and metallic timbre. Some fifty years
later, the character of the choicest Bizen-yaki underwent a marked
change. It became slate-coloured or bluish-brown faience, with
pdte as fine as pipe-clay, but very hard. In the ao-Bizen (blue
Bizen), as well as in the red variety, figures of mythical beings and
animals, birds, fishes and other natural objects, were modelled with
a degree of plastic ability that can scarcely be spoken of in too high
terms. Representative specimens are truly admirable — every line,
every contour faithful. The production was very limited, and good
pieces soon ceased to be procurable except at long intervals and
heavy expense. The Bizen-yaki familiar to Western collectors is
comparatively coarse brown or reddish brown, stoneware, modelled
rudely, though sometimes redeemed by touches of the genius never
entirely absent from the work of the Japanese artisan-artist. Easy
to be confounded with it is another ware of the same type manu-
factured at Shidoro in the province of Totomi.
The Japanese potters could never vie with the Chinese in the
production of glazes : the wonderful monochromes and polychromes
of the Middle Kingdom had no peers anywhere. In
Japan they were most closely approached by the faience Takatori.
of Takatori in the province of Chikuzen. In its early days the
ceramic industry of this province owed something to the assistance
of Korean experts who settled there after the expedition of 1592.
But its chief development took place under the direction of Igarashi
Jizaemon, an amateur ceramist, who, happening to visit Chikuzen
about 1620, was taken under the protection of the chief of the
fief and munificently treated. Taking the renowned yao-pien-yao,
or " transmutation ware " of China as a model, the Takatori potters
endeavoured, by skilful mixing of colouring materials, to reproduce
the wonderful effects of oxidization seen in the Chinese ware.
They did not, indeed, achieve their ideal, but they did succeed
in producing some exquisitely lustrous glazes of the flambe type,
rich transparent brown passing into claret colour, with flecks or
streaks of white and clouds of " iron dust." The pdte of this
faience was of the finest description, and the technique in every
respect faultless. Unfortunately, the best experts confined them-
selves to working for the tea clubs, and consequently produced only
insignificant pieces, as tea-jars, cups and little ewers. During the
1 8th century, a departure was made from these strict canons. From
this period date most of the specimens best known outside Japan —
cleverly modelled figures of mythological beings and animals covered
with lustrous variegated glazes, the general colours being grey or
buff, with tints of green, chocolate, brown and sometimes blue.
A ware of which considerable quantities have found their way
westward of late years in the Awaji-yaki, so called from the island
of Awaji where it is manufactured in the village of Iga.
It was first produced between the years 1830 and 1840 Awall.
by one Kaju Mimpei, a man of considerable private means who
devoted himself to the ceramic art out of pure enthusiasm. His
story is full of interest, but it must suffice here to note the results
of his enterprise. Directing his efforts at first to reproducing the
deep green and straw-yellow glazes of China, he had exhausted almost
his entire resources before success came, and even then the public
was slow to recognize the merits of his ware. Nevertheless he
persevered, and in 1838 we find him producing not only green and
yellow monochromes, but also greyish white and mirror-black
glazes of high excellence. So thoroughly had he now mastered the
management of glazes that he could combine yellow, green, white
and claret colour in regular patches to imitate tortoise-shell. Many
of his pieces have designs incised or in relief, and others are skilfully
decorated with gold and silver. Awaji-yaki, or Mimpei-yaki as it
is often called, is generally porcelain, but we occasionally find speci-
mens which may readily be mistaken for Awata faience.
Banko faience is a universal favourite with foreign collectors.
The type generally known to them is exceedingly light ware, for the
most part made of light grey, unglazed clay, and having
hand-modelled decoration in relief. But there are Baako.
numerous varieties. Chocolate or dove-coloured grounds with deli-
cate diapers in gold and engobe; brown or black faience with white,
yellow and pink designs incised or in relief; pottery curiously
and deftly marbled by combinations of various coloured clays —
these and many other kinds are to be found, all, however, presenting
one common feature, namely, skilful finger-moulding and a slight
roughening of the surface as though it had received the impression
of coarse linen or crape before baking. This modern banko-yaki is
produced chiefly at Yokkaichi in the province of Ise. It is entirely
different from the original banko-ware made in Kuwana, in the same
province, by Numanami Gozaemon at the close of the i8th century.
Gpzaemon was an imitator. He took for 'his models the raku
faience of Kioto, the masterpieces of Ninsei and Kenzan, the rococo
wares of Korea, the enamelled porcelain of China, and the blue-and-
white ware of Delft. He did not found a school, simply because he
had nothing new to teach, and the fact that a modern ware goes by
the same name as his productions is simply because his seal — the'
inscription on which (banko, everlasting) suggested the name of
the ware — subsequently (1830) fell into the hands of one Mori
Yusetsu, who applied it to his own ware. Mori Yusetsu, however,
had more originality than Numanami. He conceived the idea of
shaping his pieces by putting the mould inside and pressing the clay
with the hand into the matrix. Tlie consequence was that his
wares received the design on the inner as well as the outer surface,
and were moreover thumb-marked — essential characteristics of the
banko-yaki now so popular.
Among a multitude of other Japanese wares, space allows us to
mention only two, those of Izumo and Yatsushiro. The
chief of the former is faience, having light grey, close Izumo.
pdte and yellow or straw-coloured glaze, with or without crackle,
i86
JAPAN
[CERAMICS
to which is applied decoration in gold and green enamel. Another
variety has chocolate glaze, clouded with amber and necked with
gold dust. The former faience had its origin at the close of the
I7th century, the latter at the close of the l8th; but the Izumo-
yaki now procurable is a modern production.
The Yatsushiro faience is a production of the province of Higo,
where a number of Korean potters settled at the close of the
1 7th century. It is the only Japanese ware in which the
characteristics of a Korean original are unmistakably pre-
served. Its diaphanous, pearl-grey glaze, uniform, lustrous and finely
crackled, overlying encaustic decoration in white slip, the fineness
of its warm reddish pdte, and the general excellence of its technique,
have always commanded admiration. It is produced now in con-
siderable quantities, but the modern ware falls far short of its
predecessor.
Many examples of the above varieties deserve the enthusiastic
admiration they have received, yet they unquestionably belong
to a lower rank of ceramic achievements than the choice produc-
tions of Chinese kilns. The potters of the Middle Kingdom,
from the early eras of the Ming dynasty down to the latest years
of the i8th century, stood absolutely without rivals as makers
of porcelain. Their technical ability was incomparable — though
in grace of decorative conception they yielded the palm to the
Japanese — and the representative specimens they bequeathed
to posterity remained, until quite recently, far beyond the imita-
tive capacity of European or Asiatic experts. As for faience
and pottery, however, the Chinese despised them in all forms,
with one notable exception, the yi-hsing-yao, known in the
Occident as boccaro. Even the yi-hsing-yao, too, owed much of
its popularity to special utility. It was essentially the ware of
the tea-drinker. If in the best specimens exquisite modelling,
wonderful accuracy of finish and pdtes of interesting tints are
found, such pieces are, none the less, stamped prominently with
the character of utensils rather than with that of works of art.
In short, the artistic output of Chinese kilns in their palmiest
days was, not faience or pottery, but porcelain, whether of soft
or hard paste. Japan, on the contrary, owes her ceramic distinc-
tion in the main to her faience. A great deal has been said by
enthusiastic writers about the famille chrysanlhemo-ptonienne of
Imari and the genre Kakiemon of Nabeshima, but these porce-
lains, beautiful as they undoubtedly are, cannot be placed on the
same level with the kwan-yao and famille rose of the Chinese
experts. The Imari ware, even though its thick biscuit and
generally ungraceful shapes be omitted from the account, shows
no enamels that can rival the exquisitely soft, broken tints of
the famille rose; and the Kakiemon porcelain, for all its rich
though chaste contrasts, lacks the delicate transmitted tints of
the shell-like kwan-yao. So, too, the blue-and-white porcelain
of Hirado, though assisted by exceptional tenderness of sous-pdte
colour, by milk-white glaze, by great beauty of decorative
design, and often by an admirable use of the modelling or graving
tool, represents a ceramic achievement palpably below the soft
paste kai-pien-yao of King-te-chen. It is a curious and inter-
esting fact that this last product of Chinese skill remained
unknown in Japan down to very recent days. In the eyes of
a Chinese connoisseur, no blue-and-white porcelain worthy of
consideration exists, or ever has existed, except the kai-pien-yao,
with its imponderable pdte, its wax-like surface, and its rich,
glowing blue, entirely free from superficiality or garishness and
broken into a thousand tints by the microscopic crackle of the.
glaze. The Japanese, although they obtained from their neigh-
bour almost everything of value she had to give them, did not
know this wonderful ware, and their ignorance is in itself sufficient
to prove their ceramic inferiority. There remains, too, a wide
domain in which the Chinese developed high skill, whereas the
Japanese can scarcely be said to have entered it at all; namely,
the domain of monochromes and polychromes, striking every
note of colour from the richest to the most delicate; the domain
of truite undflambi glazes, of yo-pien-yao (transmutation ware),
and of egg-shell with incised or translucid decoration. In all
that region of achievement the Chinese potters stood alone and
seemingly unapproachable. The Japanese, on the contrary,
made a specialty of faience, and in that particular line they
reached a high standard of excellence. No faience produced
either in China or any other Oriental country can dispute the
palm with really representative specimens of Satsuma ware.
Not without full reason have Western connoisseurs lavished
panegyrics upon that exquisite production. The faience of the
Kioto artists never reached quite to the level of the Satsuma in
quality of pdte and glowing mellowness of decoration; their
materials were slightly inferior. But their skill as decorators
was as great as its range was wide, and they produced a multi-
tude of masterpieces on which alone Japan's ceramic fame might
safely be rested.
When the mediatization of the fiefs, in 1871, terminated
the local patronage hitherto extended so munificently to
artists, the Japanese ceramists gradually learned change of
that they must thenceforth depend chiefly upon the style after
markets of Europe and America. They had to theRestora-
appeal, in short, to an entirely new public, and
how to secure its approval was to them a perplexing problem.
Having little to guide them, they often interpreted Western
taste incorrectly, and impaired their own reputation in a
corresponding degree. Thus, in the early years of the Meiji
era, there was a period of complete prostitution. No new
skill was developed, and what remained of the old was
expended chiefly upon the manufacture of meretricious
objects, disfigured by excess of decoration and not relieved
by any excellence of technique. In spite of their artistic
defects, these specimens were exported in considerable
numbers by merchants in the foreign settlements, and their first
cost being very low, they found a not unremunerative market.
But as European and American collectors became better ac-
quainted with the capacities of the pre-Meiji potters, the great
inferiority of these new specimens was recognized, and the prices
commanded by the old wares gradually appreciated. What then
happened was very natural: imitations of the old wares were
produced, and having been sufficiently disfigured by staining and
other processes calculated to lend an air of rust and age, they
were sold to ignorant persons, who laboured under the singu-
lar yet common hallucination that the points to be looked for in
specimens from early kilns were, not technical excellence, deco-
rative tastefulness and richness of colour, but dinginess, imper-
fections and dirt; persons who imagined, in short, that defects
which they would condemn at once in new porcelains ought to be
regarded as merits in old. Of course a trade of that kind, based
on deception, could not have permanent success. One of the
imitators of " old Satsuma " was among the first to perceive
that a new line must be struck out. Yet the earliest results of
his awakened perception helped to demonstrate still further the
depraved spirit that had come over Japanese art. For he applied
himself to manufacture wares having a close affinity with the
shocking monstrosities used for sepulchral purposes in ancient
Apulia, where fragments of dissected satyrs, busts of nymphs or
halves of horses were considered graceful excrescences for the
adornment of an amphora or a pithos. This Makuzu faience,
produced by the now justly celebrated Miyagawa Shozan of Ota
(near Yokohama), survives in the form of vases and pots having
birds, reptiles, flowers, Crustacea and so forth plastered over
the surface — specimens that disgrace the period of their manu-
facture, and represent probably the worst aberration of Japanese
ceramic conception.
A production so degraded as the early Makuzu faience could
not possibly have a lengthy vogue. Miyagawa soon began to
cast about for a better inspiration, and found it in Adoption of
the monochromes and polychromes of the Chinese Chinese
Kang-hsi and Yung-cheng kilns. The extraordinary Models-
value attaching to the incomparable red glazes of China, not
only in the country of their origin but also in the United States,
where collectors showed a fine instinct in this matter, seems to
have suggested to Miyagawa the idea of imitation. He took for
model the rich and delicate " liquid-dawn " monochrome, and
succeeded in producing some specimens of considerable merit.
Thenceforth his example was largely followed, and it may now be
said that the tendency of many of the best Japanese ceramists
is to copy Chinese chefs-d'oeuvre. To find them thus renewing
CERAMICS]
JAPAN
187
their reputation by reverting to Chinese models, is not only
another tribute to the perennial supremacy of Chinese porce-
lains, but also a fresh illustration of the eclectic genius of Jap-
anese art. All the products of this new effort are porcelains
proper. Seven kilns are devoted, wholly or in part, to the new
wares: belonging to Miyagawa Shozan of Ota, Seifu Yohei of
Kioto, Takemoto Hayata and Kato Tomojiro of Tokyo, Higuchi
Haruzane of Hirado, Shida Yasukyo of Kaga and Kato Masukichi
of Seto.
Among the seven ceramists here enumerated, Seifu of Kioto
probably enjoys the highest reputation. If we except the ware of
S Ifa I Satsuma, it may be said that nearly all the fine faience
of Japan was manufactured formerly in Kioto. Nomura
Ninsei, in the middle of the ijth century, inaugurated
a long era of beautiful productions with his cream-like " fish-roe "
craquele glazes, carrying ,rich decoration of clear and brilliant
vitrifiable enamels. It was he who gave their first really artistic
impulse to the kilns of Awata, Mizoro and Iwakura, whence so
many delightful specimens of faience issued almost without inter-
ruption until the middle of the igth century and continue to
issue to-day. The three Kenzan, of whom the third died in 1820;
Ebisei; the four Dohachi, of whom the fourth was still alive
in 1909; the Kagiya family, manufacturers of the celebrated
Kinkozan ware; Hozan, whose imitations of Delft faience and his
pdte-sur-pdte pieces with fern-scroll decoration remain incomparable;
Taizan Yohei, whose ninth descendant of the same name now pro-
duces fine specimens of Awata ware for foreign markets; Tanzan
Yoshitaro and his son Rokuro, to whose credit stands a new departure
in the form of faience haying pdte-sur-pdte decoration of lace patterns,
diapers and archaic designs executed in low relief with admirable
skill and minuteness; the two Bizan, renowned for their represen-
tations of richly apparelled figures as decorative motives; Rokubei,
who studied painting under Maruyama Okyo and followed the
naturalistic style of that great artist; Mokubei, the first really
expert manufacturer of translucid porcelain in Kioto; Shuhei,
Kintei, and above all, Zengoro Hozen, the celebrated potter of
Eiraku wares — these names and many others give to Kioto ceramics
an eminence as well as an individuality which few other wares of
Japan can boast. Nor is it to be supposed that the ancient capital
now lacks great potters. Okamura Yasutaro, commonly called
Shozan, produces specimens which only a very acute connoisseur
can distinguish from the work of Nomura Ninsei; Tanzan Rokuro's
half-tint enamels and soft creamy glazes would have stood high in
any epoch; Taizan Yohei produces Awata faience not inferior to
that of former days; Kagiya Sobei worthily supports the reputation
of the Kinkozan ware; Kawamoto Eijiro has made to the order of
a well-known Kioto firm many specimens now figuring in foreign
collections as old masterpieces; and I to Tozan succeeds in decorating
faience with seven colours sous couverte (black, green, blue, russet-
red, tea-brown, purple and peach), a feat never before accomplished.
It is therefore an error to assert that Kioto has no longer a title
to be called a great ceramic centre. Seifu Yohei, however, has the
special faculty of manufacturing monochromatic and jewelled
porcelain and faience, which differ essentially from the traditional
Kioto types, their models being taken directly from China. But a
sharp distinction has to be drawn between the method of Seifu and
that of the other six ceramists mentioned above as following Chinese
fashions. It is this, that whereas the latter produce their chromatic
effects by mixing the colouring matter with the glaze, Seifu paints
the biscuit with a pigment over which he runs a translucid colourless
glaze. The Kioto artist's process is much easier than that of his
rivals, and although his monochromes are often of most pleasing
delicacy and fine tone, they do not belong to the same category of
technical excellence as the wares they imitate. From this judg-
ment must be excepted, however, his ivory-white and celadon wares,
as well as his porcelains decorated with blue, or blue and red sous
couverte, and with vitrifiable enamels over the glaze. In these five
varieties he is emphatically great. It cannot be said, indeed, that
his celadon shows the velvety richness of surface and tenderness of
colour that distinguished the old Kuang-yao and Lungchuan-yao
of China, or that he has ever essayed the moss-edged crackle of the
beautiful Ko-yao. But his celadon certainly equals the more modern
Chinese examples from the Kang-hsi and Yung-cheng kilns. As for
his ivory-white, it distinctly surpasses the Chinese Ming Chen-yao
in every quality except an indescribable intimacy of glaze and
pdte which probably can never be obtained by either Japanese or
European methods.
Miyagawa Shozan, or Makuzu, as he is generally called, has never
followed Seifu's example in descending from the difficult manipu-
lation of coloured glazes to the comparatively simple
Mtyag. a process o{ pamted biscuit. This comment does not
refer to the use of blue and red sous couverte. In that
class of beautiful ware the application of pigment to the unglazed
pdte is inevitable, and both Seifu and Miyagawa, working on
the same lines as their Chinese predecessors, produce porcelains
that almost rank with choice Kang-hsi specimens, though they
have not yet mastered the processes sufficiently to employ
them in the manufacture of large imposing pieces or wares of
moderate price. But in the matter ot true monochromatic and
polychromatic glazes, to Shozan belongs the credit of having
inaugurated Chinese fashions, and if he has never fully succeeded in
achieving lang-yao (sang-de-boeuf), chi-hung (liquid-dawn red),
chiang-tou-hung (bean-blossom red, the " peach-blow " of American
collectors), or above all pin-kwo-tsing (apple-green with red bloom),
his efforts to imitate them have resulted in some very interesting
pieces.
Takemoto and Kato of Tokyo entered the field subsequently to
Shozan, but followed the same models approximately. Takemoto,
however, has made a speciality of black glazes, his
aim being to rival the Sung Chien-yao, with its glaze J° , ,
of mirror-black or raven's-wing green, and its leveret t*ramlsts-
fur streaking or russet-moss dappling, the prince of all wares in the
estimation of the Japanese tea-clubs. Like Shozan, he is still very far
from his original, but, also like Shozan, he produces highly meritorious
pieces in his efforts to reach an ideal that will probably continue to
elude him for ever. Of Kato there is not much to be said. He has
not succeeded in winning great distinction, but he manufactures
some very delicate monochromes, fully deserving to be classed among
prominent evidences of the new departure. Tokyo was never a
centre of ceramic production. Even during the 300 years of its
conspicuous prosperity as the administrative capital of the Toku-
gawa shoguns, it had no noted factories, doubtless owing to the
absence of any suitable potter's clay in the immediate vicinity.
Its only notable production of a ceramic character was the work
of Miura Kenya (1830-1843), who followed the methods of the cele-
brated Haritsu (1688-1704) of Kioto in decorating plain or lacquered
wood with mosaics of raku faience having coloured glazes. Kenya
was also a skilled modeller of figures, and his factory in the Iir.ado
suburb obtained a considerable reputation for work of that nature.
He was succeeded by Tozawa Benshi, an old man of over seventy
in 1909, who, using clay from Owari or Hizen, has turned out many
porcelain statuettes of great beauty. But although the capital
of Japan formerly played only an insignificant part in Japanese
ceramics, modern Tokyo has an important school of artist-artisans.
Every year large quantities of porcelain and faience are sent from
the provinces to the capital to receive surface decoration, and in
wealth of design as well as carefulness of execution the results are
praiseworthy. But of the pigments employed nothing very lauda-
tory could be said until very recent times. They were generally
crude, of impure tone, and without depth or brilliancy. Now, how-
ever, they have lost these defects and entered a period of consider-
able excellence. Figure-subjects constitute the chief feature of the
designs. A majority of the artists are content to copy old pictures
of Buddha's sixteen disciples, the seven gods of happiness, and other
similar assemblages of mythical or historical personages, not only
because such work offers large opportunity for the use of striking
colours and the production of meretricious effects, dear to the eye
of the average Western householder and tourist, but also because
a complicated design, as compared with a simple one, has the advan-
tage of hiding the technical imperfections of the ware. Of late there
have happily appeared some decorators who prefer to choose their
subjects from the natural field in which their great predecessors
excelled, and there is reason to hope that this more congenial and
more pleasing style will supplant its modern usurper. The best
known factory in Tokyo for decorative purposes is the Hyochi-en.
It was established in the Fukagawa suburb in 1875, with the imme-
diate object of preparing specimens for the first Tokyo exhibition
held at that time. Its founders obtained a measure of official aid,
and were able to secure the services of some good artists, among
whom may be mentioned Obanawa and Shimauchi. The porcelains
of Owari and Arita naturally received most attention at the hands of
the Hyochi-en decorators, but there was scarcely one of the principal
wares of Japan upon which they did not try their skill, and if a piece
of monochromatic Minton or Sevres came in their way, they under-
took to improve it by the addition of designs copied from old masters
or suggested by modern taste. The cachet of the Fukagawa
atelier was indiscriminately applied to all such pieces, and has
probably proved a source of confusion to collectors. Many other
factories for decoration were established from time to time in
Tokyo. Of these some still exist; others, ceasing to be profitable,
have been abandoned. On the whole, the industry may now be
said to have assumed a domestic character. In a house, presenting
no distinctive features whatsoever, one finds the decorator with a
cupboard full of bowls and vases of glazed biscuit, which he adorns,
piece by piece, using the simplest conceivable apparatus and a meagre
supply of pigments. Sometimes he fixes the decoration himself,
employing for that purpose a small kiln which stands in his back
garden; sometimes he entrusts this part of the work to a factory.
As in the case of everything Japanese, there is no pretence, no useless
expenditure about the process. Yet it is plain that this school of
Tokyo decorators, though often choosing their subjects badly, ha\e
contributed much to the progress of the ceramic art during the past
few years. Little by little there has been developed a degree of skill
which compares not unfavourably with the work of the old masters.
Table services of Owari porcelain — the ware itself excellently
manipulated and of almost egg-shell fineness — pre now decorated
with floral scrolls, landscapes, insects, birds, figure-subjects and all
JAPAN
[CERAMICS
sorts of designs, chaste, elaborate or quaint; and these services,
representing so much artistic labour and originality, are sold for
prices that bear no due ratio to the skill required in their manu-
facture.
There is only one reservation to be made in speaking of the
modern decorative industry of Japan under its better aspects.
In Tokyo, Kioto, Yokohama and Kobe — in all of which places
decorating ateliers (etsuke-dokoro) , similar to those of Tokyo, have
been established in modern times — the artists use chiefly pigments,
seldom venturing to employ vitrifiable enamels. That the results
achieved with these different materials are not comparable is a fact
which every connoisseur must admit. The glossy surface of a porce-
lain glaze is ill fitted for rendering artistic effects with ordinary
colours. The proper field for the application of these is the biscuit,
in which position the covering glaze serves at once to soften and to
preserve the pigment. It can scarcely be doubted that the true
instincts of the ceramist will ultimately counsel him to confine his
decoration over the glaze to vitrifiable enamels, with which the
Chinese and Japanese potters of former times obtained such brilliant
results. But to employ enamels successfully is an achievement
demanding special training and materials not easy to procure or to
prepare. The Tokyo decorators are not likely, therefore, to change
their present methods immediately.
An impetus was given to ceramic decoration by the efforts of a
new school, which owed its origin to Dr G. Wagener, an eminent
German expert formerly in the service of the Japanese government.
Dr Wagener conceived the idea of developing the art of decoration
under the glaze, as applied to faience. Faience thus decorated has
always been exceptional in Japan. Rare specimens were produced
in Satsuma and Kioto, the colour employed being chiefly blue,
though brown and black were used in very exceptional instances.
The difficulty of obtaining clear, rich tints was nearly prohibitive,
and though success, when achieved, seemed to justify the effort,
this class of ware never received much attention in Japan. By
careful selection and preparation of pate, glaze and pigments, Dr
Wagener proved not only that the manufacture was reasonably
feasible, but also that decoration thus applied to pottery possesses
unique delicacy and softness. Ware manufactured by his direction
at the Tokyo school of technique (shokko gakko), under the name of
asahi-yaki, ranks among the interesting productions of modern
Japan. The decorative colour chiefly employed is chocolate brown,
which harmonizes excellently with the glaze. But the ware has
never found favour in Japanese eyes, an element of unpleasant
garishness being imparted to it by the vitreous appearance of the
glaze, which is manufactured according to European methods.
The modern faience of I to Tozan of Kioto, decorated with colour
under the glaze, is incomparably more artistic than the Tokyo
asahi-yaki, Trom which, nevertheless, the Kioto master doubtless
borrowed some ideas. The decorative industry in Tokyo owed
much also to the kosho-kaisha, an institution started by Wakai and
Matsuo in 1873, with official assistance. Owing to the intelligent
patronage of this company, and the impetus given to the ceramic
trade by its enterprise, the style of the Tokyo etsuke was much im-
proved and the field of their industry extended. It must be acknow-
ledged, however, that the T6ky6 artists often devote their skill to
purposes of forgery, and that their imitations, especially of old
Satsuma-yaki, are sometimes franked by dealers whose standing
should forbid such frauds. In this context it may be mentioned
that, of late years.-decoration of a remarkably microscopic character
has been successfully practised in Kioto, Osaka and Kobe, its
originator being Meisan of Osaka. Before dismissing the subject
of modern Tokyo ceramics, it may be added that Kato Tomataro,
mentioned above in connexion with the manufacture of special
glazes, has also been very successful in producing porcelains deco-
rated with blue sous couverte at his factory in the Koishikawa
suburb.
Higuchi of Hirado is to be classed with ceramists of the new school
on account of one ware only, namely, porcelain having translucid
... decoration, the so-called grains of rice ' of American
"" f collectors, designated hotaru-de (firefly style) in Japan.
iVmFfm Or f*L_4, L— _ _ ,.1. :„„. »,f _ II
Hirado.
That, however, is an achievement of no small con-
sequence, especially since it had never previously
been essayed outside China. The Hirado expert has not yet attained
technical skill equal to that of the Chinese. He cannot, like them,
cover the greater part of a specimen's surface with a lacework of
transparenc decoration, exciting wonder that p&te deprived so greatly
of continuity could have been manipulated without accident. But
his artistic instincts are higher than those of the Chinese, and there is
reasonable hope that in time he may excel their best works. In
other respects the Hirado factories do not produce wares nearly
so beautiful as those manufactured there between 1759 and 1840,
when the Hirado-yaki stood at the head of all Japanese porcelain
on account of its pure, close-grained p&te, its lustrous milk-white
glaze, and the soft clear blue oT its carefully executed decoration.
The Owari potters were slow to follow the lead of Miyagawa
Shozan and Seifu Y6hei. At the industrial exhibition in Kioto
('^95) tne nrst results of their efforts were shown,
attracting attention at once. In medieval times Owari
was celebrated for faience glazes of various colours,
much affected by the tea-clubs, but its staple manufacture from the
Wfnol
beginning of the igth century was porcelain decorated with blue
under the glaze, the best specimens of which did not approach their
Chinese prototypes in fineness of pate, purity of glaze or richness of
colour. During the first twenty-five years of the Meiji era the
Owari potters sought to compensate the technical and artistic
defects of their pieces by giving them magnificent dimensions; but
atthe Tokyo industrial exhibition (1891) they were able to contribute
some specimens showing decorative, plastic and graving skill of no
mean order. Previously to that time, one of the Seto experts,
Kato Gosuke, had developed remarkable ability in the manufacture
of celadon, though in that field he was subsequently distanced by
Seifu of Kioto. Only lately did Owari feel the influence of the new
movement towards Chinese types. Its potters took flambe glazes
for models, and their pieces possessed an air of novelty that attracted
connoisseurs. But the style was not calculated to win general
popularity, and the manufacturing processes were too easy to
occupy the attention of great potters. On a far higher level stood
egg-shell porcelain, remarkable examples of which were sent from
Seto to the Kioto industrial exhibition of 1895. Chinese potters
of the Yung-lo era (1403-1414) enriched their country with a quantity
of ware to which the name of totai-ki (bodiless utensil) was given on
account of its wonderfully attenuated p&te. The finest specimens of
this porcelain had incised decoration, sparingly employed but adding
much to the beauty of the piece. In subsequent eras the potters of
King-te-chcn did not fail to continue this remarkable manufacture,
but its only Japanese representative was a porcelain distinctly
inferior in more than one respect, namely, the egg-shell utensils
of Hizen and Hirado, some of which had finely woven basket-cases
to protect their extreme fragility. The Seto experts, however, are
now making bowls, cups and vases that rank nearly as high as
the celebrated Yung-lo totai-ki. In purity of tone and velvet-
like gloss of surface there is distinct inferiority on the side of the
Japanese ware, but in thinness of p&te it supports comparison, and
in profusion and beauty of incised decoration it excels its Chinese
original.
Latest of all to acknowledge the impulse of the new departure
have been the potters of Kaga. For many years their ware enjoyed
the credit, or discredit, of being the most lavishly deco- ware /
rated porcelain in Japan. It is known to Western collectors K
as a product blazing with red and gold, a very degenerate
offspring of the Chinese Ming type, which Hozen of Kioto reproduced
so-beautifully at the beginning of the igth century under the name
of eiraku-yaki. Undoubtedly the best specimens of this kinran-de
(brocade) porcelain of Kaga merit praise and admiration; but, on
the whole, ware so gaudy could not long hold a high place in public
esteem. The Kaga potters ultimately appreciated that defect.
They still manufacture quantities of tea and coffee sets, and dinner
or dessert services of red-and-gold porcelain for foreign markets;
but about 1885 some of them made zealous and patient efforts to
revert to the processes that won so much fame for the old Kutani-
yaki with its grand combinations of rich, lustrous, soft-toned glazes.
The attempt was never entirely successful, but its results restored
something of the Kaga kilns' reputation. Since 1895, again, a
totally new departure has been made by Morishita Hachizaemon,
a ceramic expert, in conjunction with Shida Yasukyo, president of
the Kaga products joint stock company (Kaga bussan kabushiki
kaisha) and teacher in the Kaga industrial school. The line chosen
by these ceramists is purely Chinese. Their great aim seems to be
the production of the exquisite Chinese monochromes known as
u-kwo-tien-lsing (blue of the sky after rain) and yueh-peh (clair-de-
lune). But they also devote much attention to porcelains decorated
with blue or red sous couverte. Their work shows much promise,
but like all fine specimens of the Sino-Japanese school, the prices
are too high to attract wide custom.
The sum of the matter is that the modern Japanese ceramist,
after many efforts to cater for the taste of the Occident,
evidently concludes that his best hope consists in Summa
devoting all his technical and artistic resources to
reproducing the celebrated wares of China. In explanation of
the fact that he did not essay this route in former times, it may
be noted, first, that he had only a limited acquaintance with the
wares in question; secondly, that Japanese connoisseurs never
attached any value to their countrymen's imitation of Chinese
porcelains so long as the originals were obtainable; thirdly, that
the ceramic art of China not having fallen into its present state
of decadence, the idea of competing with it did not occur to out-
siders; and fourthly, that Europe and America had not deve-
loped their present keen appreciation of Chinese masterpieces.
Yet it is remarkable that China, at the close of the ipth century,
should have again furnished models to Japanese eclecticism.
Lacquer. — Japan derived the art of lacquering from China
(probably about the beginning of the 6th century), but she
ultimately carried it far beyond Chinese conception. At first
her experts confined themselves to plain black lacquer. From
LACQUER]
JAPAN
189
the early part of the 8th century they began to ornament it
with dust of gold or mother-of-pearl, and throughout the Heian
epoch (gth to i2th century) they added pictorial designs, though
of a formal character, the chief motives being floral subjects,
arabesques and scrolls. All this work was in the style known as
hira-makie (flat decoration) ; that is to say, having the decorative
design in the same plane as the ground. In the days of the great
dilettante Yoshimasa (1449-1490), lacquer experts devised a
new style, taka-ma-kie, or decoration in relief, which immensely
augmented the beauty of the ware, and constituted a feature
altogether special to Japan. Thus when, at the close of the
1 6th century, the Taiko inaugurated the fashion of lavishing all
the resources of applied art on the interior decoration of castles
and temples, the services of the lacquerer were employed to an
extent hitherto unknown, and there resulted some magnificent
work on friezes, coffered ceilings, door panels, altar-pieces and
cenotaphs. This new departure reached its climax in the Toku-
gawa mausolea of Yedo and Nikko, which are enriched by the
possession of the most splendid applications of lacquer decora-
tion the world has ever seen, nor is it likely that anything of
comparable beauty and grandeur will be again produced in the
same line. Japanese connoisseurs indicate the end of the lyth
century as the golden period of the art, and so deeply rooted is
this belief that whenever a date has to be assigned to any
specimen of exceptionally fine quality, it is unhesitatingly
referred to the time of Joken-in (Tsunayoshi).
Among the many skilled artists who have practised this beautiful
craft since the first on record, Kiyohara Nonsuye (c. 1169), may be
mentioned Koyetsu (1558-1637) and his pupils, who are especially
noted for their inro (medicine-cases worn as part of the costume) ;
Kajikawa Kinjiro (c. 1680), the founder of the great Kajikawa
family, which continued up to the igth century ; and Koma Kyuhaku
(d. 1715), whose pupils and descendants maintained his traditions
for a period of equal length. Of individual artists, perhaps the most
notable is Ogata Korin (d. 1716), whose skill was equally great in
the arts of painting and pottery. He was the eldest son of an artist
named Ogato Soken, and studied the styles of the Kano and Tosa
schools successively. Among the artists who influenced him were
KanoTsunenobu, Nomura Sotatsu and Koyetsu. His lacquer-ware is
distinguished for a bold and at times almost eccentric impressionism,
and his use of inlay is strongly characteristic. Ritsuo (1663—1747),
a pupil and contemporary of Korin, and like him a potter and
painter also, was another lacquerer of great skill. Then followed
Hanzan, the two Shiome, Yamamoto Shunsho and his pupils,
Yamada Joka and Kwanshosai Toyo (late l8th century). In the
beginning of the igth century worked Shokwasai, who frequently
collaborated with the metal-worker Shibayama, encrusting his
lacquer with small decorations in metal by the latter.
No important new developments have taken place during modern
times in Japan's lacquer manufacture. Her artists follow the old
Modern waVs faithfully ; and indeed it is not easy to see how
Work they could do better. On the other hand, there has
not been any deterioration; all the skill of former days
is still active. The contrary has been repeatedly affirmed by foreign
critics, but no one really familiar with modern productions can
entertain such a view. Lacquer-making, however, being essentially
an art and not a mere handicraft, has its eras of great_ masters and
its seasons of inferior execution. Men of the calibre of Koyetsu Korin,
Ritsuo, Kajikawa and Mitsutoshi must be rare in any age, and the
epoch when they flourished is justly remembered with enthusiasm.
But the Meiji era has had its Zeshin, and it had in 1909 Shirayama
Fukumatsu, Kawanabe Itcho, Ogawa Shomin, Uematsu Homin,
Shibayama Soichi, Morishita Morihachi and other lesser experts, all
masters in designing and execution. Zeshin, shortly before he died,
indicated Shirayama Fukumatsu as the man upon whom his mantle
should descend, and that the judgment of this really great craftsman
was correct cannot be denied by any one who has seen the works
of Shirayama. He excels in his representations of landscapes and
waterscapes, and has succeeded in transferring to gold-lacquer
panels tender and delicate pictures of nature's softest moods — pic-
tures that show balance, richness, harmony and a fine sense of
decorative proportion. Kawanabe Itcho is celebrated for his
representations of flowers and foliage, and Morishita Morihachi
and Asano Saburo (of Kaga) are admirable in all styles, but especially,
perhaps, in the charming variety called togi-dashi (ground down),
which is pre-eminent for its satin-like texture and for the atmosphere
of dreamy softness that pervades the decoration. The togi-dashi
design, when finely executed, seems to hang suspended in the velvety
lacquer or to float under its silky surface. The magnificent sheen and
richness of the pure kin-makie (gold lacquer) are wanting, but in
their place we have inimitable tenderness and delicacy.
The only branch of the lacquerer's art that can be said to have
...
"'
shown any marked development in the Meiji era is that in which
parts of the decorative scheme consist of objects in gold, silver,
shakudo, shibuichi, iron, or, above all, ivory or mother-
of pearl. It might indeed be inferred, from some of
the essays published in Europe on the subject of Japan's „*„
ornamental arts, that this application of ivory and
mother-of-pearl holds a place of paramount importance. Such
is not the case. Cabinets, fire-screens, plaques and boxes resplen-
dent with gold lacquer grounds carrying elaborate and profuse
decoration of ivory and mother-of-pearl ' are not objects that appeal
to Japanese taste. They belong essentially to the catalogue of
articles called into existence to meet the demand of the foreign
market, being, in fact, an attempt to adapt the lacquerer's art to
decorative furniture for European houses. On the whole it is a
successful attempt. The plumage of gorgeously-hued birds, the
blossoms of flowers (especially the hydrangea), the folds of thick
brocade, microscopic diapers and arabesques, are built up with tiny
fragments of iridescent shell, in combination with silver-foil, gold-
lacquer and coloured bone, the whole producing a rich and sparkling
effect. In fine specimens the workmanship is extraordinarily
minute, and every fragment of metal, shell, ivory or bone, used to
construct the decorative scheme, -is imbedded firmly in its place.
But in a majority of cases the work of building is done by means of
paste and glue only, so that the result lacks durability. The employ-
ment of mother-of-pearl to< ornament lacquer grounds dates from a
period as remote as the 8th century, but its use as a material for
constructing decorative designs began in the I7th century, and was
due to an expert called Shibayama, whose descendant, Shibayama
Soichi, has in recent years been associated with the same work in
Tokyo.
In the manufacture of Japanese lacquer there are three processes.
The first is the extraction and preparation of the lac; the second,
its application; and the third, the decoration of the Proce
lacquered surface. The lac, when taken from an incision
in the trunk of the Rhus vernicifera (urushi-no-ki) , contains approxi-
mately 70% of lac_acid, 4% of gum arable, 2% of albumen, and
24 % of water. It is strained, deprived of its moisture, and receives
an admixture of gamboge, cinnabar, acetous protoxide or some
other colouring matter. The object to be lacquered, which is
generally made of thin white pine, is subjected to singularly thorough
and painstaking treatment, one of the processes being to cover it
with a layer of Japanese paper or thin hempen cloth, which is fixed
by means of a pulp of rice-paste and lacquer. In this way the danger
of warping is averted, and exudations from the wooden surface are
prevented from reaching the overlaid coats of lacquer. Numerous
operations of luting, sizing, lacquering, polishing, drying, rubbing
down, and so on, are performed by the nurimono-shi, until, after
many days' treatment, the object emerges with a smooth, lustre-
like dark-grey or coloured surface, and is ready to pass into the hands
of the makie-shi, or decorator. The latter is an artist; those who
have performed the preliminary operations are merely skilled arti-
sans. The makie-shi may be said to paint a picture on the surface
of the already lacquered object. He takes for subject a landscape,
a seascape, a battle-scene, flowers, foliage, birds, fishes, insects — in
short, anything. This he sketches in outline with a paste of white
lead, and then, having filled in the details with gold and colours, he
superposes a coat of translucid lacquer, which is finally subjected
to careful polishing. If parts of the design are to be in relief, they
are built up with a putty of black lacquer, white lead, camphor and
lamp-black. In all fine lacquers gold predominates so largely that
the general impression conveyed by the object is one of glow and
richness. It is also an inviolable rule that every part must show
beautiful and highly finished work, whether it be an external or an
internal part. The makie-shi ranks almost as high as the pictorial
artist in Japanese esteem. He frequently signs his works, and a
great number of names have been thus handed down during the
past two centuries.
Cloisonni Enamel. — Cloisonne enamel is essentially of modern
development in Japan. The process was known at an early
period, and was employed for the purpose of subsidiary
decoration from the close of the i6th century, but not until the
i gth century did Japanese experts begin to manufacture
the objects known in Europe as "enamels;" that is to say,
vases, plaques, censers, bowls, and so forth, having their surface
covered with vitrified pastes applied either in the champlevi or the
cloisonne style. It is necessary to insist upon this fact, because
it has been stated with apparent authority that numerous speci-
mens which began to be exported from 1865 were the outcome
of industry commencing in the i6th century and reaching its
point of culmination at the beginning of the i8th. There is
not the slenderest ground for such a theory. The work began in
1838, and Kaji Tsunekichi of Owari was its originator. During
20 years previously to the reopening of the country in 1858,
1 Obtained from the shell of the Halictis.
i go JAPAN
cloisonne enamelling was practised in the manner now understood
by the term; when foreign merchants began to settle in Yoko-
hama, several experts were working skilfully in Owari after the
methods of Kaji Tsunekichi. Up to that time there had been
little demand for enamels of large dimensions, but when the
foreign market called for vases, censers, plaques and such things,
no difficulty was found in supplying them. Thus, about the
year 1865, there commenced an export of enamels which had no
prototypes in Japan, being destined frankly for European and
American collectors. From a technical point of view these
specimens had much to recommend them. The base, usually of
copper, was as thin as cardboard; the cloisons, exceedingly fine
and delicate, were laid on with care and accuracy; the colours
were even, and the designs showed artistic judgment. Two
faults, however, marred the work — first, the shapes were clumsy
and unpleasing, being copied from bronzes whose solidity
justified forms unsuited to thin enamelled vessels; secondly,
the colours, sombre and somewhat impure, lacked the glow and
mellowness that give decorative superiority to the technically
inferior Chinese enamels of the later Ming and early Tsing eras.
Very soon, however, the artisans of Nagoya (Owari), Yokohama
and Tokyo — where the art had been taken up — found that
faithful and fine workmanship did not pay. The foreign mer-
chant desired many and cheap specimens for export, rather than
few and costly. There followed then a period of gradual decline,
and the enamels exported to Europe showed so much inferiority
that they were supposed to be the products of a widely different
era and of different makers. The industry was threatened with
extinction, and would certainly have dwindled to insignificant
dimensions had not a few earnest artists, working in the face of
many difficulties and discouragements, succeeded in striking out
new lines and establishing new standards for excellence.
Three clearly differentiated schools now (1875) came into existence.
One, headed by Namikawa Yasuyuki of Kioto, took for its objects
the utmost delicacy and perfection of technique, rich-
[COMMUNICATIONS
. ness of decoration, purity of design and harmony of
colour. The thin clumsily-shaped vases of the Kaji
school, with their uniformly distributed decoration of diapers,
scrolls and arabesques in comparatively dull colours, ceased alto-
gether to be produced, their place being taken by graceful specimens,
technically flawless, and carrying designs not only free from stiffness,
but also executed in colours at once rich and soft. This school may
be subdivided, Kioto representing one branch, Nagoya, Tokyo and
Yokohama the other. In the products of the Kioto branch the
decoration generally covered the whole surface of the piece; in the
products of the other branch the artist aimed rather at pictorial
effect, placing the design in a monochromatic field of low tone. It
is plain that such a method as the latter implies great command of
coloured pastes, and, indeed, no feature of the manufacture is more
conspicuous than the progress made during the period 1880-1900
in compounding and tiring verifiable enamels. Many excellent
examples of cloisonn6 enamel have been produced by each branch
of this school. There has been nothing like them in any other
country, and they stand at an immeasurable distance above the
works of the early Owari school represented by Kaji Tsunekichi
and his pupils and colleagues.
The second of the mddern schools is headed by Namikawa Sosuke
of Tokyo. It is an easily traced outgrowth of the second branch of the
Clotsonless ^rst school just described, for one can readily under-
['•namels stand that from placing the decorative design in a
monochromatic field of low tone, which is essentially
a pictorial method, development would proceed in the direction
of concealing the mechanics of the art in order to enhance the
pictorial effect. Thus arose the so-called " cloisonless enamels "
(musenjippd). They are not always without cloisons. The design
is generally framed at the outset with a ribbon of thin metal,
precisely after the manner of ordinary cloisonne^ ware. But as
the work proceeds the cloisons are hidden — unless their presence
is necessary to give emphasis to the design — and the final result is
a picture in vitrified enamels.
The characteristic productions of the third among the modern
schools are monochromatic and translucid enamels. All students
of the ceramic art know that the monochrome porce-
°"l *" lains of China owe their beauty to the fact that the
T" . colour is in the glaze, not under it. The ceramist
finds no difficulty in applying a uniform coat of pig-
ment to porcelain biscuit, and covering the whole with a diaphanous
glaze. The colour is fixed and the glaze set by secondary firing at a
lower temperature than that necessary for hardening the pAte.
Such porcelains, however, lack the velvet-like softness and depth of
tone so justly prized in the genuine monochrome, where the glaze
itself contains the colouring matter, pdte and glaze being fired
simultaneously at the same high temperature. It is apparent that
a vitrified enamel may be made to perform, in part at any rate, the
function of a porcelain glaze. Acting upon that theory, the experts
of Tokyo and Nagoya have produced many very beautiful speci-
mens of monochrome enamel — yellow (canary or straw), rose du
Barry, liquid-dawn, red, aubergine purple, green (grass or leaf),
dove-grey and lapis lazuli blue. The pieces do not quite reach the
level of Chinese monochrome porcelains, but their inferiority is not
marked. The artist's great difficulty is to hide the metal base
completely. A monochrome loses much of its attractiveness when
the colour merges into a metal rim, or when the interior of a vase
is covered with crude unpolished paste. But to spread and fix the
enamel so that neither at the rim nor in the interior shall there be
any break of continuity, or any indication that the base is copper,
not porcelain, demands quite exceptional skill.
The translucid enamels of the modern school are generally
associated with decorative bases. In other words, a suitable design
is chiselled in the metal base so as to be visible through 7-rans|uc/d
the diaphanous enamel. Very beautiful effects of broken Enamei
and softened lights, combined with depth and delicacy of
colour, are thus obtained. But the decorative designs which lend
themselves to such a purpose are not numerous. A gold base deeply
chiselled in wave-diaper and overrun with a paste of aubergine
purple is the most pleasing. A still higher achievement is to apply
to the chiselled base designs executed in coloured enamels, finally
covering the whole with translucid paste. Admirable results are
thus produced; as when, through a medium of cerulean blue, bright
goldfish and blue-backed carp appear swimming in silvery waves,
or brilliantly plumaged birds seem to soar among fleecy clouds. The
artists of this school show also much skill in using enamels for the
purposes of subordinate decoration — suspending enamelled butter-
flies, birds or floral spravs, among the reticulations of a silver
vase chiselled & jour; or filling with translucid enamels parts of a
decorative scheme sculptured in iron, silver, gold or shakudo.
V. — ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
Communications. — From the conditions actually existing in
the 8th century after the Christian era the first compilers of
Japanese history inferred the conditions which might #oa(fsan</
have existed in the 7th century before that era. One Posts la
of their inferences was that, in the early days, com- Early
munication was by water only, and that not until les'
549 B.C. did the most populous region of the empire — the
west coast — come into possession of public roads. Six hundred
years later, the local satraps are represented as having received
instructions to build regular highways, and in the 3rd century
the massing of troops for an over-sea expedition invested
roads with new value. Nothing is yet heard, however, about
posts. These evidences of civilization did not make their
appearance until the first great era of Japanese reform, the
Taika period (645-650), when stations were established along
the principal highways, provision was made of post-horses,
and a system of bells and checks was devised for distinguishing
official carriers. In those days ordinary travellers were required
to carry passports, nor had they any share in the benefits of
the official organization, which was entirely under the control of
the minister of war. . Great difficulties attended the movements
of private persons. Even the task of transmitting to the
central government provincial taxes paid in kind had to be dis-
charged by specially organized parties, and this journey from the
north-eastern districts to the capital generally occupied three
months. At the close of the 7th century the emperor Mommu is
said to have enacted a law that wealthy persons living near the
highways must supply rice to travellers, and in 745 an empress
(Koken) directed that a stock of medical necessaries must be
kept at the postal stations. Among the benevolent acts attri-
buted to renowned Buddhist priests posterity specially remembers
their efforts to encourage the building of roads and bridges. The
great emperor Kwammu (782-806) was constrained to devote
a space of five years to the reorganization of the whole system of
post-stations. Owing to the anarchy which prevailed during
the loth, nth and izth centuries, facilities of communication
disappeared almost entirely, even for men of rank a long journey
involved danger of starvation or fatal exposure, and the pains
and perils of travel became a household word among the people.
Yoritomo, the founder of feudalism at the close of the I2th century,
was too great a statesman to underestimate the value of roads and
RAILWAYS]
posts. The highway between his stronghold, Kamakura, and the
Imperial city, Kioto, began in his time to develop features which
ultimately entitled it to be called one of the finest roads in the world.
But after Yoritomo's death the land became once more an armed
camp, in which the rival barons discouraged travel beyond the
limits of their own domains. Not until the Tokugawa family
obtained military control of the whole empire (1603), and, fixing its
capital at Yedo, required the feudal chiefs to reside there every
second year, did the problem of roads and post-stations force itself
once more on official attention. Regulations were now strictly
enforced, fixing the number of horses and carriers available at each
station, the loads to be carried by them and their charges, as well as
the transport services that each feudal chief was entitled to demand
and the fees he had to pay in return. Tolerable hostelries now came
into existence, but they furnished only shelter, fuel and the coarsest
kind of food. By degrees, however, the progresses of the feudal
chiefs to and from Yedo, which at first were simple and economical,
developed features of competitive magnificence, and the importance
of good roads and suitable accommodation received increased
attention. This found expression in practice in 1663. A system
more elaborate than anything antecedent was then introduced under
the name of " flying transport." Three kinds of couriers operated.
The first class were in the direct employment of the shogunate.
They carried official messages between Yedo and Osaka — a distance
of 348 miles — in four days by means of a well organized system of
relays. The second class maintained communications between the
fiefs and the Tokugawa court as well as their own families in Yedo,
for in the alternate years of a feudatory's compulsory residence in
that city his family had to live there. The third class were main-
tained by a syndicate of 13 merchants as a private enterprise for
transmitting letters between the three great cities of Kioto, Osaka
and Yedo and intervening places. This syndicate did not undertake
to deliver a letter direct to an addressee. The method pursued
was to expose letters and parcels at fixed places in the vicinity of
their destination, leaving the addressees to discover for themselves
that such things had arrived. Imperfect as this system was, it
represented a great advance from the conditions in medieval
times.
The nation does not seem to have appreciated the deficiencies of
the syndicate's service, supplemented as it was by a network of
waterways which greatly increased the facilities for transport.
After the cessation of civil wars under the sway of the Tokugawa, the
building and improvement of roads went on steadily. It is not too
much to say, indeed, that when Japan opened her doors to foreigners
in the middle of the igth century, she possessed a system of roads
some of which bore striking testimony to her medieval greatness.
The most remarkable was the Tokaido (eastern-seaway),
tr isx so ca"ed because it ran eastward along the coast from
Tokalas. Kioto. This great highway, 345m. long, connected Osaka
and Kioto with Yedo. The date of its construction is not recorded,
but it certainly underwent signal improvement in the I2th and I3th
centuries, and during the two and a half centuries of Tokugawa sway
in Yedo. A wide, well-made and well-kept avenue, it was lined
throughout the greater part of its length by giant pine-trees, render-
ing it the most picturesque highway in the world. lyeyasu, the
founder of the Tokugawa dynasty of shoguns, directed that his
body should be interred at Nikko, a place of exceptional beauty,
consecrated eight hundred years previously. This meant an exten-
sion of the Tokaido (under a different name) nearly a hundred miles
northward, for the magnificent shrines erected then at Nikko and
the periodical ceremonies thenceforth performed there demanded a
correspondingly fine avenue of approach. The original Tokaido
was taken for model, and Yedo and Nikko were joined by a_highway
flanked by rows of cryptomeria. Second only to the Tokaido is
the Nakasendo (mid-mountain road), which also was
._ constructed to join Kioto with Yedo, but follows an
inland course through the provinces of Yamashiro,
Omi, Mino, Shinshu, Kotzuke and Musashi. Its length is 340 m.,
and though not flanked by trees or possessing so good a bed as the
Tokaido, it is nevertheless a sufficiently remarkable highway. A
third road, the OshOkaido runs northward from Yedo
(now Tokyo) to Aomori on the extreme north of the
' main island, a distance of 445 m., and several lesser
highways give access to other regions.
The question of road superintendence received early attention
from the government of the restoration. At a general assembly
Modern of local Prefects held at Tokyo in June 1875 it was
Super- decided to classify the different roads throughout the
intendence empire, and to determine the several sources from
of Road*. wnjch the sums necessary for their maintenance and
repair should be drawn. After several days' discussion all roads
were eventually ranged under one or other of the following
heads: —
I. National roads, consisting of —
Class i. Roads leading from Tokyo to the various treaty
ports.
The
Oshukaldo.
JAPAN 191
Class 2. Roads leading from Tokyo to the ancestral shrines
in the province of Ise, and also to the cities or to
military stations.
Class 3. Roads leading from Tokyo to the prefectural offices,
and those forming the lines of connexion between
cities and military stations.
II. Prefectural roads, consisting of —
Class i. Roads connecting different prefectures, or leading
from military stations to their outposts.
Class 2. Roads connecting the head offices of cities and
prefectures with their branch offices.
Class 3. Roads connecting noted localities with the chief
town of such neighbourhoods, or leading to seaports
convenient of access.
III. Village roads, consisting of —
Class i. Roads passing through several localities in
succession, or merely leading from one locality to
another.
Class 2. Roads specially constructed for the convenience
of irrigation, pasturage, mines, factories, &c., in
accordance with measures determined by the people
of the locality.
Class 3. Roads constructed for the benefit of Shinto
shrines, Buddhist temples, or to facilitate the culti-
vation of rice-fields and arable land.
Of the above three headings, it was decided that all national
roads should be maintained at the national expense, the regu-
lations for their up-keep being entrusted to the care of the prefec-
tures along the line of route, and the cost incurred being paid
from the Imperial treasury. Prefectural roads are maintained
by a joint contribution from the government and from the par-
ticular prefecture, each paying one-half of the sum needed.
Village roads, being for the convenience of local districts alone,
are maintained at the expense of such districts under the general
supervision of the corresponding prefecture. The width of
national roads was determined at 42 ft. for class i, 36 ft. for class
2, and 30 ft. for class 3 ; the prefectural roads were to be from
24 to 30 ft., and the dimensions of the village roads were optional,
according to the necessity of the case.
The vehicles chiefly employed in ante-Meiji days were ox-carriages,
norimono, kago and carts drawn by hand. Ox-carriages were used
only by people of the highest rank. They were often vehicles
constructed of rich lacquer; the curtains suspended in
front were of the finest bamboo workmanship, with thick cords and
tassels of plaited silk, and the draught animal, an ox of handsome
proportions, was brilliantly caparisoned. The care and expense
lavished upon these highly ornate structures would have been deemed
extravagant even in medieval Europe. They have passed entirely
out of use, and are now to be seen in museums only, but the type
still exists in China. The norimono resembled a miniature house
slung by its roof-ridge from a massive pole which projected at either
end sufficiently to admit the shoulders of a carrier. It, too, was
frequently of very ornamental nature and served to carry aristocrats
or officials of high position. -The kago was the humblest of all
conveyances recognized as usable by the upper classes. It was an
open palanquin, V-shaped in cross section, slung from a pole which
rested on the shoulders of two bearers. Extraordinary skill and
endurance were shown by the men who carried the norimono and
the kago, but none the less these vehicles were both profoundly un-
comfortable. They have now been relegated to the warehouses of
undertakers, where they serve as bearers for folks too poor to employ
catafalques, their place on the roads and in the streets having been
completely taken by the jinrikisha, a two-wheeled _.
vehicle pulled by one or two men who think nothing f-nrijt/-sfta
of running 20 m. at the rate of 6 m. an hour. The '
jinrikisha was devised by a Japanese in 1870, and since then it has
come into use throughout the whole of Asia eastward of the Suez
Canal. Luggage, of course, could not be carried by norimono or
kago. It was necessary to have recourse to packmen, packhorses
or baggage-carts drawn by men or horses. All these still exist and
are as useful as ever within certain limits. In the cities and towns
horses used as beasts of burden are now shod with iron, but in rural
or mountainous districts straw shoes are substituted, a device which
enables the animals to traverse rocky or precipitous roads with
safety.
Railways. — It is easy to understand that an enterprise like
railway construction, requiring a great outlay of capital with
returns long delayed, did not at first commend itself to the Jap-
anese, who were almost entirely ignorant of co-operation as a
factor of business organization. Moreover, long habituated to
snail-like modes of travel, the people did not rapidly appreciate
the celerity of the locomotive. Neither the ox-cart, the norimono,
nor the kago covered a daily distance of over 20 m. on the average,
192
and the packhorse was even slower. Amid such conditions the
idea of railways would have been slow to germinate had not a
catastrophe furnished some impetus. In 1869 a rice-famine
occurred in the southern island, Kiushiu, and while the cereal
was procurable abundantly in the northern provinces, people in
the south perished of hunger owing to lack of transport facilities.
Sir Harry Parkes, British representative in Tokyo, seized this
occasion to' urge the construction of railways. Ito and Okuma,
then influential members of the government, at once recognized
the wisdom of his advice. Arrangements were made for a loan
of a million sterling in London on the security of the customs
revenue, and English engineers were engaged to lay a line
between Tokyo and Yokohama (18 m.). Vehement voices of
opposition were at once raised in private and official circles alike,
all persons engaged in transport business imagined themselves
threatened with ruin, and conservative patriots detected loss of
national independence in a foreign loan. So fierce was the an-
tagonism that the military authorities refused to permit opera-
tions of survey in the southern suburb of Tokyo, and the road
had to be laid on an embankment constructed in the sea. Ito
and Okuma, however, never flinched, and they were ably sup-
ported by Marquis M. Inouye and M. Mayejima. The latter
published, in 1870, the first Japanese work on railways, advoca-
ting the building of lines from Tokyo to Kioto and Osaka; the
former, appointed superintendent of the lines, held that post for
30 years, and is justly spoken of as " the father of Japanese
railways."
September 1872 saw the first official opening of a railway (the
Tokyo- Yokohama line) in Japan, the ceremony being performed by
the emperor himself, a measure which effectually silenced all further
opposition. Eight years from the time of turning the first sod saw
71 m. of road open to traffic, the northern section being that between
Tokyo and Yokohama, and the southern that between Kioto and
Kobe. A period of interruption now ensued, owing to domestic
troubles and foreign complications, and when, in 1878, the govern-
ment was able to devote attention once again to railway problems,
it found the treasury empty. Then for the first time a public works
loan was floated in the home market, and about £300,000 of the
total thus obtained passed into the hands of the railway bureau,
which at once undertook the building of a road from Kioto to the
shore of Lake Biwa, a work memorable as the first line built in Japan
without foreign assistance.1 During all this time private enterprise
had remained wholly inactive in the matter of railways, and it
became a matter of importance to rouse the people from this apathetic
attitude. For the ordinary process of organizing a joint-stock
company and raising share-capital the nation was not yet prepared.
But shortly after the abolition of feudalism there had come into the
possession of the former feudatories state loan-bonds amounting
to some 1 8 millions sterling, which represented the sum granted by
the treasury in commutation of the revenues formerly accruing to
these men from their fiefs. Already events had shown that the
feudatories, quite devoid of business experience, were not unlikely
to dispose of these bonds and devote the proceeds to unsound enter-
prises. Prince Iwakura, one of the leaders of the Meiji statesmen,
persuaded the feudatories to employ a part of the bonds as capital
for railway construction, and thus the first private railway company
was formed in Japan under the name Nippon tetsudo kaisha (Japan
railway company), the treasury guaranteeing 8% on the paid-up
capital for a period of 15 years. Some time elapsed before this
example found followers, but ultimately a programme was elaborated
and carried out having for its basis a grand trunk line extending
the whole length of the main island from Aomori on the north to
Shimonoseki on the south, a distance of 1 153 m. ; and a continuation
of the same line throughout the length of the southern island of
Kiushiu, from Moji on the north — which lies on the opposite side of
the strait from Shimonoseki — to Kagftshima on the south, a distance
of 232} m. ; as well as a line from Moji to Nagasaki, a distance
of 1634 m. Of this main road the state undertook to build the
central section (376 m.), between Toky5 and Kobe (via Kioto);
the Japan railway company undertook the portion (457 m.) north-
ward of Toky8 to Aomori ; the Sanyo railway company undertook
the portion (320 m.) southward of T6ky6 to Shimonoseki; and the
Kiushiu railway company undertook the lines in Kiushiu. The
whole line is now in operation. The first project was to carry the
Tokyo-Kioto line through the interior of the island so as to secure
it against enterprises on the part of a maritime enemy. Such
engineering difficulties presented themselves, however, that the
coast route was ultimately chosen, and though the line through the
1 In 1877 there were 120 English engineers, drivers and foremen
in the service of the railway bureau. Three years later only three
advisers remained.
JAPAN [RAILWAYS
interior was subsequently constructed, strategical considerations
were not allowed completely to govern its direction.
When this building of railways began in Japan, much discussion
was taking place in England and India as to the relative advantages
of the wide and narrow gauges, and so strongly did the arguments
in favour of the latter appeal to the English advisers of the Japanese
government that the metre gauge was chosen. Some fitful efforts
made in later years to change the system proved unsuccessful. The
lines are single, for the most part ; and as the embankments, the
cuttings, the culverts and the bridge-piers have not been constructed
for a double line, any change now would be very costly. The
average speed of passenger trains in Japan is 18 m. an hour, the
corresponding figure over the metre-gauge roads in India being
16 m., and the figure for English parliamentary trains from 19 to
28 m. British engineers surveyed the routes for the first lines and
superintended the work of construction, but within a few years the
Japanese were able to dispense with foreign aid altogether, both
in building and operating their railways. They also construct
carriages, wagons and locomotives, and they may therefore be
said to have become entirely independent in the matter of railways,
for a government iron-foundry at Wakamatsu in Kiushiu is able
to manufacture steel rails.
The total length of lines open for traffic at the end of March 1906
was 4746 m., 1470 m. having been built by the state and 3276 by
private companies; the former at a cost of 16 millions sterling for
construction and equipment, and the latter at a cost of 25 millions.
Thus the expenditure by the state averaged £10,884 Per m'le' a"d
that by private companies, £7631. This difference is explained by
the facts that the state lines having been the pioneers, portions of
them were built before experience had indicated cheap methods;
that a very large and costly foreign staff was employed on these
roads in the early days, whereas no such item appeared in the
accounts of private lines; that extensive works for the building of
locomotives and rolling stock are connected with the government's
roads, and that it fell to the lot of the state to undertake lines in
districts presenting exceptional engineering difficulties, such dis-
tricts being naturally avoided by private companies. The gross
earnings of all the lines during the fiscal year 1905-1906 were 7 mil-
lions sterling, approximately, and the gross expenses (including the
payment of interest on loans and debentures) were under 3^ millions,
so that there remained a net profit of 3$ millions, being at the rate
of a little over 8J% on the invested capital. The facts that the
outlays averaged less than 47% of the gross income, and that
accidents and irregularities are not numerous, prove that Japanese
management in this kind of enterprise is efficient.
When the fiscal year 1906-1907 opened, the number of private
companies was no less than 36, owning and operating 3276 m. of
railway. To say that this represented an average ., a .
of 91 m. per company is to convey an over-favourable , .?" .
idea, for, as a matter of fact, i§ of the companies £*,' ""
averaged less than 24 m. Anything like efficient co- Kailwavs
operation was impossible in such circumstances, and
constant complaints were heard about delays in transit and undue
expense. The defects of divided ownership had long suggested the
expediency of nationalization, but not until 1906 could the diet be
induced to give its consent. On March 31 of that year, a railway
nationalization law was promulgated. It enacted that, within a
period of 10 years from 1906 to 1915, the state should purchase the
17 principal private roads, which had a length of 2812 m., and whose
cost of construction and equipment had been 23$ millions sterling.
The original scheme included 15 other railways, with an aggregate
mileage of only 353 m. ; but these were eliminated as being lines of
local interest only. The actual purchase price of the 17 lines was
calculated at 43 millions sterling (about double their cost price), on the
following basis: (a) An amount equal to 20 times the sum obtained
by multiplying the cost of construction at the date of purchase by
the average ratio of the profit to the cost of construction during the
six business terms of the company from the second half-year of
1902 to the first half-year of 1905. (b) The amount of the actual
cost of stored articles converted according to current prices thereof
into public loan-bonds at face value, except in the case of articles
which had been purchased with borrowed money. The government
agreed to hand over the purchase money within 5 years from the
date of the acquisition of the lines, in public loan-bonds bearing 5%
interest calculated at their face value; the bonds to be redeemed
out of the net profits accruing from the purchased railways. It was
calculated that this redemption would be effected in a period of
32 years, after which the annual profit accruing to the state from
the lines would be 5! millions sterling. But the nationalization
scheme, though apparently the only effective method of linking
together and co-ordinating an excessively subdivided system of lines,
lias proved a source of considerable financial embarrassment. For
when the state constituted itself virtually the sole owner of railways,
it necessarily assumed responsibility for extending them so that they
should suffice to meet the wants of a nation numbering some 50
millions. Such extension could be effected only by borrowing money.
Now the government was pledged by the diet in 1907 to an expendi-
ture of 1 1 J millions (spread over 8 years) for extending the old state
system of roads, and an expenditure of 6J millions (spread over 12
years) for improving them. But from the beginning of that year, a •
MARITIME. COMMUNICATIONS]
JAPAN
193
period of extreme commercial and financial depression set in, and
the treasury had to postpone all recourse to loans for whatever
gurpose, so that railway progress was completely checked in the
eld alike of the original and the acquired state lines. Moreover,
all securities underwent such sharp depreciation that, on the one
hand, the government hesitated to hand over the bonds representing
the purchase-price of the railways, lest such an addition to the
volume of stocks should cause further depreciation, and, on the other,
the former owners of the nationalized lines found the character of
their bargain greatly changed. In these circumstances the govern-
ment decided to take a strong step, namely, to place the whole of
the railways owned by it — the original state lines as well as those
nationalized — in an account independent of the regular budget, and
to devote their entire profits to works of extension and improve-
ment, supplementing the amount with loans from the treasury when
necessary.
In the sequel of the war of 1904-5 Japan, with China's consent,
acquired from Russia the lease of the portion of the South-Manchuria
railway (see MANCHURIA) between Kwang-cheng-tsze
S°" •. * (Chang-chun) on the north and Tairen (Dalny), Port
Maachuna Arthur and Niuchwang on the south— a total length
Railway, Q^ ^Q m ^ tjlg ciose of jgpg this rOad was handed
over to a joint-stock company with a capital of 20 millions sterling,
the government contributing 10 millions in the form of the road and
its associated properties; the public subscribing 2 millions, and the
company being entitled to issue debentures to the extent of 8 millions,
the principal and interest of these debentures being officially guar-
anteed. Four millions' worth of debentures were issued in London
in 1907 and 4 millions in 1908. This company's programme is not
limited to operating the railway. It also works coal-fields at Yentai
and Fushun; has a line of steamers plying between Tairen and
Shanghai; and engages in enterprises of electricity, warehousing
and the management of houses and lands within zones 50 /*' (17 m.)
wide on either side of the line. The government guarantees 6 %
interest on the capital paid up by the general public.
Not until 1905 did Japan come into possession of an electric
railway. It was a short line of 8 m., built in Kioto for the purposes
. of a domestic exhibition held in that city. Thence-
forth this class of enterprise grew steadily in favour,
Hallways. SQ ^^ jn l^i there were 16 companies with an
aggregate capital of 8 millions sterling, having 165 m. open to traffic
and 77 m. under construction. Fifteen other companies with an
aggregate capital of 3 millions had also obtained charters. The
principal of these is the Tokyo railway company, with a subscribed
capital of 6 millions (3? paid up), 9pJ m. of line open and 149 m.
under construction. In 1907 it carried 153 million passengers, and
its net earnings were £300,000.
The traditional story of prehistoric Japan indicates that the
first recorded emperor was an over-sea invader, whose followers
must therefore have possessed some knowledge of
Maritime ship-building and navigation. But in what kind of
<Zatiw"?'~ craft they sailed and how thev handled them, there is
nothing to show clearly. Nine centuries later, but still
500 years before the era of surviving written annals, an empress
is said to have invaded Korea, embarking her forces at Kobe
(then called Takekura) in 500 vessels. In the middle of the 6th
century we read of a general named Abe-no-hirafu who led a
flotilla up the Amur river to the invasion of Manchuria (then
called Shukushin). All these things show that the Japanese
of the earliest era navigated the high sea with some skill, and at
later dates down to medieval times they are found occasionally
sending forces to Korea and constantly visiting China in vessels
which seem to have experienced no difficulty in making the
voyage. The i6th century was a period of maritime activity
so marked that, had not artificial checks been applied, the Japan-
ese, in all probability, would have obtained partial command of
Far-Eastern waters. They invaded Korea ; their corsairs harried
the coasts of China; two hundred of their vessels, sailing under
authority of the Taiko's vermilion seal, visited Siam, Luzon,
Cochin China and Annam, and they built ships in European
style which crossed the Pacific to Acapulco. But this spirit of
adventure was chilled at the close of the i6th century and early
in the I7th, when events connected with the propagation of
Christianity taught the Japanese to believe that national
safety could not be secured without international isolation. In
1638 the ports were closed to all foreign ships except those flying
the flag of Holland or of China, and a strictly enforced edict
forbade the building of any vessel having a capacity of more than
500 koku (150 tons) or constructed for purposes of ocean naviga-
tion. Thenceforth, with rare exceptions, Japanese craft confined
xv. 7
themselves to the coastwise trade. Ocean-going enterprise
ceased altogether.
Things remained thus until the middle of the igth century,
when a growing knowledge of the conditions existing in the West
warned the Tokugawa administration that continued isolation
would be suicidal. In 1853 the law prohibiting the construction
of sea-going ships was revoked and the Yedo government built
at Uraga a sailing vessel of European type aptly called the
Phoenix " (" Howo Maru ")• Just 243 years had elapsed since
the founder of the Tokugawa dynasty constructed Japan's first
ship after a foreign model, with the aid of an English pilot, Will
Adams. In 1853 Commodore M. C. Perry made his appearance,
and thenceforth everything conspired to push Japan along the
new path. The Dutch, who had been proximately responsible
for the adoption of the seclusion policy in the 1 7 th century, now
took a prominent part in promoting a liberal view. They sent
to the Tokugawa a present of a man-of-war and urged the vital
necessity of equipping the country with a navy. Then followed
the establishment of a naval college at Tsukiji in Yedo, the
building of iron-works at Nagasaki, and the construction at
Yokosuka of a dockyard destined to become one of the greatest
enterprises of its kind in the East. This last undertaking bore
witness to the patriotism of the Tokugawa rulers, for they reso-
lutely carried it to completion during the throes of a revolution
which involved the downfall of their dynasty. Their encourage-
ment of maritime enterprise had borne fruit, for when, in 1867,
they restored the administration to the Imperial court, 44
ocean-going ships were found among their possessions and 94
were in the hands of the feudatories, a steamer and 20 sailing
vessels having been constructed in Japan and the rest purchased
abroad.
If the Tokugawa had been energetic in this respect, the new
government was still more so. It caused the various maritime
carriers to amalgamate into one association called the Nippon-
koku yubinjokisen kalsha (Mail SS. Company of Japan), to which
were transferred, free of charge, the steamers, previously the
property of the Tokugawa or the feudatories, and a substantial
subsidy was granted by the state. This, the first steamship com-
pany ever organized in Japan, remained in existence only four
years. Defective management and incapacity to compete with
foreign-owned vessels plying between the open ports caused its
downfall (1875). Already, however, an independent company
had appeared upon the scene. Organized and controlled by a
man (Iwasaki Yataro) of exceptional enterprise and business
faculty, this Mitsubishi kaisha (three lozenge company, so called
from the design on its flag), working with steamers chartered
from the former feudatory of Tosa, to which clan Iwasaki
belonged, proved a success from the outset, and grew with each
vicissitude of the state. For when (1874) the Meiji government's
first complications with a foreign country necessitated the des-
patch of a mih'tary expedition to Formosa, the administration
had to purchase 63 foreign steamers for transport purposes, and
these were subsequently transferred to the mitsubishi company
together with all the vessels (17) hitherto in the possession of
the Mail SS. Company, the Treasury further granting to the
mitsubishi a subsidy of £50,000 annually. Shortly afterwards
it was decided to purchase a service maintained by the Pacific
Mail SS. Company with 4 steamers between Yokohama and
Shanghai, and money for the purpose having been lent by the
state to the mitsubishi, Japan's first line of steamers to a foreign
country was firmly established, just 20 years after the law
interdicting the construction of ocean-going vessels had been
rescinded.
The next memorable event in this'chapter of history occurred in
1877, when the Satsuma clan, eminently the most powerful and most
warlike among all the former feudatories, took the field in open
rebellion. For a time the fate of the government hung in the balance,
and only by a flanking movement over-sea was the rebellion crushed.
This strategy compelled the purchase of IO foreign steamers, and
these too were subsequently handed over to the mitsubishi company,
which, in 1880, found itself possessed of 32 ships aggregating 25,600
tons, whereas all the other vessels of foreign type in the country
totalled only 27 with a. tonnage of 6500. It had now become
Year.
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906 .
1907
194 JAPAN
apparent that the country could not hope to meet emergencies which
might at any moment arise, especially in connexion with Korean
affairs, unless the development of the mercantile marine proceeded
more rapidly. Therefore in 1881 the formation of a new company
was officially promoted. It had the name of the kyodo unyu kaisha
(Union Transport Company) ; its capital was about a million sterling ;
it received a large subsidy from the state, and its chief purpose was
to provide vessels for military uses and as commerce-carriers.
Japan had now definitely embraced the policy of entrusting to
private companies rather than to the state the duty of acquiring a
fleet of vessels capable of serving as transports or auxiliary cruisers
in time of war. But there was now seen the curious spectacle of
two companies (the Mitsubishi and the Union Transport) com-
peting in the same waters and both subsidized by the treasury.
After this had gone on for four years, the two companies were amal-
gamated (1885) into the Nippon yusen kaisha (Japan Mail SS. Com-
pany) with a capital of £1,100,000 and an annual subsidy of £88,000,
fixed on the basis of 8 % of the capital. Another company had
come into existence a few months earlier. Its fleet consisted of
100 small steamers, totalling 10,000 tons, which had hitherto been
competing in the Inland Sea.
Japan now possessed a substantial mercantile marine, the rate of
whose development is indicated by the following figures : —
Year. Steamers. Sailing Vessels. Totals.
Number. Tons. Number. Tons. Number. Tons.
'870 .... 35 15.498 .. ii.. 2,454 •• 46 17,952
1892 . 642 122,300 .. 780 46,065 .. 1,422 168,365
Nevertheless, only 23 % of the exports and imports was transported
in Japanese bottoms in 1892, whereas foreign steamers took 77%.
This discrepancy was one of the subjects discussed in the first session
of the diet, but a bill presented by the government for encouraging
navigation failed to obtain parliamentary consent, and in 1893 the
Japan Mail SS. Company, without waiting for state assistance,
opened a regular service to Bombay mainly for the purpose of carrying
raw cotton from India to supply the spinningindustry which had now
assumed great importance in Japan. Thus the rising sun flag flew
for the first time outside Far-Eastern waters. Almost immediately
after the establishment of this line, Japan had to engage in war with
China, which entailed the despatch of some two hundred thousand
men to the neighbouring continent and their maintenance there
for more than a year. All the country's available shipping resources
did not suffice for this task. Additional vessels had to be purchased
or chartered, and thus, by the beginning of 1896, the mercantile
marine of Japan had grown to 809 steamers of 373,588 tons, while
the sailing vessels had diminished to 644 of 44,000 tons.
In 1897 there occurred an event destined to exercise a potent
influence on the fortunes not only of Japan herself but also of her
mercantile marine. No sooner had she exchanged with China
ratifications of a treaty of peace which seemed to prelude a long
period of tranquillity, than Russia, Germany and France ordered her
to restore all the continental territory ceded to her by China. Japan
then recognized that her hope of peace was delusive, and that she
must be prepared to engage in a struggle incomparably more serious
than the one_from which she had iust emerged. Determined that
when the crucial moment came she should not be found without ample
means for transporting her armies, the government, under the
leadership of Prince Ito and with the consent of the diet, enacted,
in March 1896 laws liberally encouraging ship-building and naviga-
tion. Under the navigation law " any Japanese suoject or any
commercial company whose partners or shareholders were all Japan-
ese subjects, engaged in carrying passengers and cargo between
Japan and foreign countries or between foreign ports, in their own
vessels, which must be of at least 1000 tons and registered in the
shipping list of the Empire, became entitled to subsidies propor-
tionate to the distance run and the tonnage of the vessels ; and
under the ship-building law, bounties were granted for the construc-
tion of iron or steel vessels of not less than 700 tons gross by any
Japanese subject or any commercial company whose partners and
shareholders were all Japanese. The effect of this legislation
was marked. In the period of six years ended 1902, no less than 835
vessels of 455,000 tons were added to the mercantile marine, and the
treasury found itself paying encouragement money which totalled
six hundred thousand pounds annually. Ship-building underwent
remarkable development. Thus, while in 1870 only 2 steamers
aggregating 57 tons had been constructed in Japanese yards, 53
steamers totalling 5380 tons and 193 sailing vessels of 17,873 tons
were launched in 1900. By the year 1907 Japan had 216 private
ship yards and 42 private docks/ and while the government yards
were able to build first-class line-of-battle ships of the largest size,
the private docks were turning out steamers of 9000 tons burden.
When war broke out with Russia in 1904, Japan had 567,000 tons
of steam shipping, but that stupendous struggle obliged her to
materially augment even this great total. In operations connected
with the war she lost 71,000 tons, but on the other hand, she built
1 The largest is the mitsubishi at Nagasaki. It has a length of
722 ft. Next stands the kawasaki at Kobe, and in the third place
is the uraga.
(MARITIME COMMUNICATIONS
27,000 tons at home and bought 177,000 abroad, so that the net
increase to her mercantile fleet of steamers was 133,000 tons. The
following table shows the growth of her marine during the ten years
ending 1907: —
Steamers.
Number.
Gross
Tonnage.
1130
477.430
1221
5IO,O07
1329
543.365
1395
583,532
1441
610,445
1570
663,220
1815
798,240
1988
939.749
2103
1,041,569
2139
1,115,880
Sailing
Vessels.
Totals.
Number.
Gross
Tonnage.
Number.
Gross
Tonnage.
1914
170,194
3044
648,324
3322
286,923
4543
467,930
3850
320,572
5179
863,937
4026
336,528
5471
92O,O6O
3907
336,154
5348
946,600
3934
328,953
5504
992,173
3940
329,125
5755
1.127.365
4132
336,571
6170
1,276,320
4547
353,356
6700
1 .395.925
4728
365,559
6867
1,481,439
Year.
1898 .
1899 .
1900 .
1901 .
1902 .
1903 .
1904
1905 -
1906 .
1907 .
With regard to the development of ship-building in Japanese
yards the following figures convey information : —
NUMBERS OF VESSELS BUILT IN JAPAN AND NUMBERS
PURCHASED ABROAD
Built in Japan.
Purchased abroad.
Steamers. Sailing Vessels. Steamers. Sailing Vessels.
479
554
653
754
813
855
947
1028
1150
1301
2771
3302
3559
3585
5304
3324
3508
3859
4033
194
'99
206
215
220
233
277
357
387
419
9
12
I
6
8
8
ii
ii
12
In the building of iron and steel ships the Japanese are obliged
to import much of the material used, but a large steel-foundry has
been established under government auspices at Wakamatsu in
Kiushiu, that position having been chosen on account of comparative
proximity to the Taiya iron mine in China, where the greater part
of the iron ore used for the foundry is procured.
Simultaneously with the growth of the mercantile marine there
has been a marked development in the number of licensed mariners;
that is to say, seamen registered by the government
as having passed the examination prescribed by law. Seamen.
In 1876 there were only 4 Japanese subjects who satisfied that
definition as against 74 duly qualified foreigners holding responsible
positions. In 1895 the numbers were 4135 Japanese and 835
foreigners, and ten years later the corresponding figures were 16,886
and 349 respectively. In 1904 the ordinary seamen of the mercan-
tile marine totalled 202,710.
There are in Japan various institutions where the theory and
practice of navigation are taught. The principal of these is the
Tokyo shosen gakko (Tokyo mercantile marine college,
established in 1875), where some 600 of the men now «"ica'">» »'
scrying as officers and engineers have graduated. Well Marlaers-
equipped colleges exist also in seven other places, all having been
established with official co-operation. Mention must be made of
a mariners' assistance association (kaiin ekizai-kai, established in
1800) which acts as a kind of agency for supplying mariners to ship-
owners, and of a distressed mariners' relief association (suinan
kyusai-kai) which has succoured about a hundred thousand seamen
since its establishment in 1899.
The duty of overseeing all matters relating to the maritime
carrying trade devolves on the department of state for communica-
tions, and is delegated by the latter to one of its „
bureaus (the Kwansen-kyoku, or ships superintendence ?
bureau), which, again, is divided into three sections:^"1
one for inspecting vessels, one for examining mariners,
and one for the general control of all shipping in Japanese waters.
For the better discharge of its duties this bureau parcels out the
empire into 4 districts, having their headquarters at Tokyo, Osaka,
Nagasaki and Hakodate; and these four districts are in turn sub-
divided into 1 8 sections, each having an office of marine affairs
(kwaiji-kyoku).
Competition between Japanese and foreign ships in the carriage
of the country's over-sea trade soon began to assume appreciable
dimensions. Thus, whereas in 1891 the portion carried
in Japanese bottoms was only ij millions sterling Competition
against 12$ millions carried by foreign vessels, the *•**•*•
1 • Japanese
to 39% in 1902. The prospect suggested by this record caused
some uneasiness, which was not allayed by observing that while
the tonnage of Japanese vessels in Chinese ports was only 2 %
POSTS AND TELEGRAPHS]
JAPAN
'95
in 1896 as compared with foreign vessels, the former figure grew to
16% in 1902; while in Korean ports Japanese steamers almost
monopolized the carrying trade, leaving only 18% to their foreign
rivals, and even in Hong-Kong the tonnage of Japanese ships
increased from 3% in 1896 to 13% in 1900. In 1898 Japan stood
eleventh on the list of the thirteen principal maritime countries of the
world, but in 1907 she rose to the fifth place. Her principal company,
the Nippon yusen kaisha, though established as lately as 1885, now
ranks ninth in point of tonnage among the 21 leading maritime
companies of the world. This company was able to supply 55 out of
a total fleet of 207 transports furnished by all the steamship com-
panies of Japan for military and naval purposes during the war
with Russia in 1904-5. It may be noted in conclusion that the
development of Japan's steam-shipping during the five decades
ended 1907 was as follows: —
Tons.
At the end of 1868 17,952
At the end of 1878 63,468
At the end of 1888 197,365
At the end of 1898 648,324
At the end of 1907 1,115,880
There are 33 ports in Japan open as places of call for foreign
«».- D * steamers. Their names with the dates of their open-
\jpcn t ons. • r 11
ing are as follow : —
Name. Date of Opening.
Yokohama 1859
Kobe
Niigata .
Osaka
Yokkaichi
Shimonoseki
Itozaki .
Taketoyo
Shimizu .
Tsuruga .
Nanao
Fushiki .
Sakai
Hamada
1868
1867
1899
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Miyazu do.
Aomori 1906
Nagasaki, 1859
Moji
Hakata .
Karatsu .
Kuchinotsu
Misumi
1899
do.
do.
do.
do.
Suminoye 1906
Izuhara
Sasuna
Shikami
Nafa
Otaru
Kushiro .
Mororan .
Hakodate
Kelung ,
Tamsui .
Takow
Anping .
1899
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
1865
1899
do.
do.
do.
Situation.
Main Island.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Kiushiu.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Tsushima.
do.
do.
Riukiu.
Yezo.
do.
do.
do.
Formosa.
do.
do.
do.
Emigration. — Characteristic of the Japanese is a spirit of
adventure: they readily emigrate to foreign countries if any
inducement offers. A strong disposition to exclude them has
displayed itself in the United States of America, in Australasia
and in British Columbia, and it is evident that, since one nation
cannot force its society on another at the point of the sword,
this anti-Asiatic prejudice will have to be respected, though it
has its origin in nothing more respectable than the jealousy of
the labouring classes. One result is an increase in the number
of Japanese emigrating to Korea, Manchuria and S. America.
The following table shows the numbers residing at various places
outside Japan in 1904 and 1906 respectively: —
Number in Number in
Place. 1904. 1906.
China 9,417 27,126
Korea 31,093 100,000
Manchuria 43,823
Hong-Kong 600 756
Singapore 1,292 1,428
British India 413 530
Europe 183 697
Number in
Place. 1904.
United States of America . . 33,849
Canada 3,838
Mexico 456
S. America I)496
Philippines 2,652
Hawaii 65,008
Australasia 71,129
Number in
1906.
130,228
5,088
1,294
2,500
2,185
64,319
3,274
Foreign Residents. — The number of foreigners residing in
Japan and their nationalities in 1889, 1899 and 1906, respec-
tively, were as follow: —
Americans
British
1889.
899
1,701
Russians .
French
Portuguese
Germans .
Chinese .
Koreans .
63
335
108
550
4,975
8
1899.
1,296
2,013
'34
463
158
532
6,372
1 88
1906.
1,650
2,155
211
540
*65
670
12,425
254
There are also small numbers of Dutch, Peruvians, Belgians,
Swiss, Italians, Danes, Swedes, Austrians, Hungarians, &c.
This slow growth of the foreign residents is remarkable when
contrasted with the fact that the volume of the country's foreign
trade, which constitutes their main business, grew in the same
period from 135 millions sterling to 92 millions.
Posts and Telegraphs. — The government of the Restoration
did not wait for the complete abolition of feudalism before
organizing a new system of posts in accordance with modern
needs. At first, letters only were carried, but before the close
of 1871 the service was extended so as to include newspapers,
printed matter, books and commercial samples, while the area
was extended so as to embrace all important towns between
Hakodate in the northern island of Yezo and Nagasaki in the
southern island of Kiushiu. Two years later this field was
closed to private enterprise, the state assuming sole charge of
the business. A few years later saw Japan in possession of an
organization comparable in every respect with the systems
existing in Europe. In 1892 a foreign service was added.
Whereas in 1871 the number of post-offices throughout the
empire was only 179, it had grown to 6449 in 1907, while the
mail matter sent during the latter year totalled 1254 millions
(including 15 millions of parcels), and 67,000 persons were en-
gaged in handling it. Japan labours under special difficulties
for postal purposes, owing to the great number of islands included
in the empire, the exceptionally mountainous nature of the
country, and the wide areas covered by the cities in proportion
to the number of their inhabitants. It is not surprising to find,
therefore, that the means of distribution are varied. The state
derives a net revenue of 5 million yen approximately from its
postal service. It need scarcely be added that the system of
postal money-orders was developed part passu with that of
ordinary correspondence, but in this context one interesting fact
may be noted, namely, that while Japan sends abroad only some
£25,000 annually to foreign countries through the post, she
receives over £450,000 from her over-sea emigrants.
Japan at the time of the Restoration (1867) was not entirely with-
out experience which prepared her for the postal money-order
system. Some 600 years ago the idea of the bill of
exchange was born in the little town of Totsugawa
(Yamato province), though it did not obtain much
development before the establishment of the Tokugawa
shogunate in the I7th century. The feudal chiefs, having then to
transmit large sums to Yedo for the purposes of their compulsory
residence there, availed themselves of bills of exchange, and the
shogun's government, which received considerable amounts in
Osalca, selected ten brokers to whom the duty of effecting the transfer
of these funds was entrusted. Subsequently the 10 chosen brokers
were permitted to extend their services to the general public, and a
recent Japanese historian notes that Osaka thus became the birth-
place of banking business in Japan. Postal money-orders were
therefore easily appreciated at the time of their introduction in
1875. This was not true of the postal savings bank, however, an
institution which came into existence in the same year. It was
196
JAPAN
[AGRICULTURE
altogether a novel idea that the public at large, especially the lower
sections of it, should entrust their savings to the government for
safe keeping, especially as the minimum and maximum deposited
at one time were fixed at such petty sums as 10 sen (2jd.) and 50 sen
(is.), respectively. Indeed, in the circumstances, the fact that
£1500 was deposited in the first year must be regarded as notable.
Subsequently deposits were taken in postage stamps, and arrange-
ments were effected for enabling depositors to pay money to distant
creditors through the bank by merely stating the destination and
the amount of the nearest post office. In 1908 the number of
depositors in the post office savings bank was 8217, and their
deposits exceeded 10 millions sterling. Thirty per cent, of the
depositors belonged to the agricultural classes, 13 to the commercial
and only 6 to the industrial.
Rapid communication by means of beacons was not unknown
in ancient Japan, but code-signalling by the aid of flags was not
_ . . introduced until the 1 7th century and was probably
' suggested by observing the practice of foreign mer-
chantmen. Its use, however, was peculiar. The central office stood
at Osaka, between which city and many of the principal provincial
towns rudely constructed towers were placed at long distances, and
from one to another of these intelligence as to the market price of
rice was flashed by flag-shaking, the signals being read with tele-
scopes. The Japanese saw a telegraph for the first time in 1854,
when Commodore Perry presented a set of apparatus to the shogun,
and four years later the feudal chief of Satsuma (Shimazu Nariakira)
caused wires to be erected within the enclosure of his castle. The
true value of electric telegraphy was first demonstrated to the
Japanese in connexion with an insurrection in 1877, under the leader-
ship of Saigo, the favourite of this same Shimazu Nariakira. Before
that time, however, a line of telegraph had been put up between
Tokyo and Yokohama (18 m.) and a code of regulations had been
enacted. Sudden introduction to such a mysterious product of
foreign science created superstitious dread in the minds of a few of
the lower orders, and occasional attempts were made at the outset
to wreck the wires. In 1886 the postal and telegraph offices were
amalgamated and both systems underwent large development.
Whereas the length of wires at the end of the fourth year after the
introduction of the system was only 53 m., and the number of
messages 20,000, these figures had grown in 1907 to 95,623 and
25 millions, respectively. Several cables are included in these latter
figures, the longest being that to Formosa (1229 m.). Wireless
telegraphy be^an to come into general use in 1908, when several
vessels belonging to the principal steamship companies were
equipped with the apparatus. It had already been employed for
some years by the army and navy, especially during the war with
Russia, when the latter service installed a new system, the joint
invention of Captain Tonami of the navy, Professor S. Kimura of
the naval college and Mr M. Matsushiro of the department of com-
munications. The telegraph service in Japan barely pays the cost
of operating and maintenance.
The introduction of the telephone into Japan took place in 1877,
but it served official purposes solely during 13 years, and even when
T i h a (l89°) '.* was placed at the disposal of the general
public its utilities found at first few appreciators.
But this apathy soon yielded to a mood of eager employment, and
the resources 01 the government (which monopolized the enterprise)
proved inadequate to satisfy public demand. Automatic telephones
were ultimately set up at many places in the principal towns and
along the most frequented highways. The longest distance
covered was from TokyO to Osaka (348 m.). In 1907 Japan had
140,440 m. of telephone wires, 262 exchanges, 159 automatic
telephones, and the approximate number of messages sent was
1 60 millions. The telephone service pays a net revenue of about
£100,000 annually.
Agriculture. — The gross area of land in Japan — excluding
Formosa and Sakhalin — is 89,167,880 acres, of which 53,487,022
acres represent the property of the crown, the state and the
communes, the rest (35,680,868 acres) being owned by private
persons. Of the grand total the arable lands represent 15,301,297
acres. With regard to the immense expanse remaining unpro-
ductive, experts calculate that if all lands inclined at less
than 15° be considered cultivable, an area of 10,684,517 acres
remains to be reclaimed, though whether the result would repay
the cost is a question hitherto unanswered. The cultivated
lands are thus classified, namely, wet fields (called also paddy
fields or rice lands), 6,871,437 acres; dry fields (or upland farms),
5,741,745 acres, and others, 2,688,115 acres.
Paddy fields are to be seen in every valley or dell where farming
is practicable; they are divided into square, oblong or triangular
Rke plots by grass-grown ridges a few inches in height
and on an average a foot in breadth — the rice being
planted in the soft mud thus enclosed. Narrow pathways intersect
these rice-valleys at intervals, and rivulets (generally flowing
between low banks covered with clumps of bamboo) feed ditches
cut for purposes of irrigation. The fields are generally kept
under water to a depth of a few inches while the crops are young,
but are drained immediately before harvesting. They are then dug
up, and again flooded before the second crop is planted out. The
rising grounds which skirt the rice-land are tilled by the hoe, and
produce Indian corn, millet and edible roots. The well-wooded
slopes supply the peasants with timber and firewood. Thirty-six
per cent, of the rice-fields yield two crops yearly. The seed is sown
in small beds, and the seedlings are planted out in the fields after
attaining the height of about 4 in. The finest rice is produced in the
fertile plains watered by the Tonegawa in the province of Shimosa,
but the grain of Kaga and of the two central provinces of Settsu
and Harima is also very good.
Not only does rice form the chief food of the Japanese but also
the national beverage, called sake, is brewed from it. In colour
the best sake resembles very pale sherry; the taste „ .
is rather acid. None but the finest grain is used in
its manufacture. Of sake there are many varieties, from the best
quality down to shiro-zake or " white sake," and the turbid sort,
drunk only in the poorer districts, known as nigori-zake; there is
also a sweet sort, called mirin.
The various cereal and other crops cultivated in Japan, the areas
devoted to them and the annual production are shown in the
following table : —
1898. 1902. 1906.
Acres. Acres. Acres.
Rice 7,044,060 7,117,990 7,246,982
Barley 1,649,240 1,613,270 1,674,595
Rye 1,703,410 1,688,635 1,752,095
Wheat 1,164,020 1,210,435 1,107,967
Millet 693,812 652,492 594,280
Beans i,5°3.395 1,488,600 1,478,345
Buckwheat .... 450,100 414,375 402,575
Rape-seed .... 377.o?o 392,612 352,807
Potatoes 92,297 105,350 140,197
Sweet Potatoes . . . 668,130 693,427 717,620
Cotton 100,720 51,750 24,165
Hemp 62,970 42,227 34,845
Indigo (leaf) . . . 122,180 92,982 40,910
Sugar Cane
1903.
41,750
1905-
43,308
1906.
45,o87
It is observable that no marked increase is taking place in the
area under cultivation, and that the business of growing cotton,
hemp and indigo is gradually diminishing, these staples being sup-
plied from abroad. In Germany and Italy the annual additions
made to the arable area average 8 % whereas in Japan the figure is
only 5%. Moreover, of the latter amount the rate for paddy fields
is only 3-3 % against 7-9 % in the case of upland farms. This means
that the population is rapidly outgrowing its supply of Jiome-
produced rice, the great food-stuff of the nation, and the price of
that cereal consequently shows a steady tendency to appreciate.
Thus whereas the market value was 53. sd. per bushel in 1901,
it rose to 6s. <jd. in 1906.
Scarcely less important to Japan than the cereals she raises are her
silk and tea, both of which find markets abroad. Her production of
the latter staple does not show any sign of marked _„.
development, for though tea is almost as essential an _
article of diet in Japan as rice, its foreign consumers are
practically limited to the United States and their demand does not
increase. The figures for the lo-year period ended 1906 are as
follow : —
Area under cultiva- Tea produced
tion (acres). (Ib av.).
1897 147,230 70,063,076
1901 122,120 57,975,486
1906 126,125 58,279,286
Sericulture, on the contrary, shows steady development year by
year. The demand of European and American markets has very
elastic limits, and if Japanese growers are content with moderate,
but still substantial, gains they can .find an almost unrestricted sale
in the West. The development from 1886 to 1906 was as follows: —
Average from 1886 to 1889
1895
1900
1905
1906
Raw silk produced
'yearly (Ib).
8,739,273
• 19,087,310
. 20,705,644
. 21,630,829
. 24,215,324
The chief silk-producing prefectures in Japan, according to the order
of production, are Nagano, Gumma, Yamanashi, Fukushima,
Aichi and Saitama. At the close of 1906 there were 3843 filatures
throughout the country, and the number of families engaged in
sericulture was 397,885.
Lacquer, vegetable wax and tobacco are also important staples
of production. The figures for the ten-year period, 1897 to 1906,
are as follow : —
MINERALS]
Lacquer Vegetable Tobacco
(lb). wax (ft). (Ib).
1897 344,267 25,850,790 110,572,925
1906 668,266 39,714,661 101,718,592
While the quantity of certain products increases, the number of
filatures and factories diminishes, the inference being that industries
are coming to be conducted on a larger scale than was formerly the
case. Thus in sericulture the filatures diminished from 4723 in
1897 to 3843 in 1906; the number of lacquer factories from 1637 to
1123 at the same dates, and the number of wax factories from 2619
to 1929.
It is generally said that whereas more than 60% of Japan's
entire population is engaged in agriculture, she remains far behind
the progressive nations of Europe in the application
Agricultural o{ scjentific principles to farming. Nevertheless if we
Improve- ^a|_e for un;t tj,e average value of the yield per hectare
ments. jn jtaiyi we obtain the following figures: —
Yield per hectare
Italy too
India 51
Germany 12 1
France 122
Egypt 153
Japan . . ... 213
In the realm of agriculture, as in all departments of modern
Japan's material development, abundant traces are found of official
activity. Thus, in the year 1900, the government enacted laws
designed to correct the excessive subdivision of farmers' holdings;
to utilize unproductive areas lying between cultivated fields; to
straighten roads; to facilitate irrigation; to promote the use of
machinery; to make known the value of artificial fertilizers; to
conserve streams and to prevent inundations. Further, in order
to furnish capital for the purposes of farming, 46 agricultural
and commercial banks — one in each prefecture — were established
with a central institution called the hypothec bank which
assists them to collect funds. A Hokkaido colonial bank and
subsequently a bank of Formosa were also organized, and a law
was framed to encourage the formation of co-operative societies
which should develop a system of credit, assist the business of
sale and purchase and concentrate small capitals. Experimental
stations were another official creation. Their functions were to
carry on investigations relating to seeds, diseases of cereals, insect
pests, stock-breeding, the use of implements, the manufacture of
agricultural products and cognate matters. Encouragement by
grants in aid was also given to the establishment of similar experi-
mental farms by private persons in the various prefectures, and such
farms are now to be found everywhere. This official initiative, with
equally successful results, extended to the domain of sericulture and
tea-growing. There are two state sericultural training institutions
where not only the rearing of silk-worms and the management of
filatures are taught, but also experiments are made; and these
institutions, like the state agricultural stations, have served as models
for institutes on the same lines under private auspices. A silk-
conditioning house at Yokohama; experimental tea-farms; laws
to prevent and remove diseases of plants, cereals, silkworms
and cattle, and regulations to check dishonesty in the matter of
fertilizers, complete the record of official efforts in the realm of
agriculture during the Meiji era.
One of the problems of modern Japan is the supply of cattle.
With a rapidly growing taste for beef — which, in former days, was
not an article of diet — there is a slow but steady
jj diminution in the stock of cattle. Thus while the num-
' her of the latter in 1897 was 1,214,163, out of which
total 158,504 were slaughtered, the corresponding figures in 1906
were 1,190,373 and 167,458, respectively. The stock of sheep
(3500 in 1906) increases slowly, and the stocks of goats (58,694 in
1897 and 74,750 in 1906) and swine (206,217 in 1897 and 284,708 in
1906) grow with somewhat greater rapidity, but mutton and pork
do not suit Japanese taste, and goats are kept mainly for the sake of
their milk. The government has done much towards the improve-
ment of cattle and horses by importing bulls and sires, but, on the
whole, the mixed breed is not a success, and the war with Russia
in 1904-5 having clearly disclosed a pressing need of heavier horses
for artillery and cavalry purposes, large importations of Australian,
American and European cattle are now made, and the organization
of race-clubs has been encouraged throughout the country.
Forests. — Forests occupy an area of 55 millions of acres, or 60%
of the total superficies of Japan, and one-third of that expanse,
namely, 18 million acres, approximately, is the property of the state.
It cannot be said that any very practical attempt has yet been made
to develop this source of wealth. The receipts from forests stood
at only 13 million yen in the budget for 1907-1908, and even that
figure compares favourably with the revenue of only 3 millions
derived from the same source in the fiscal year 1904-1905. This
failure to utilize a valuable asset is chiefly due to defective communi-
cations, but the demand for timber has already begun to increase.
In 1907 a revised forestry law was promulgated, according to which
the administration is competent to prevent the destruction of
forests and to cause the planting of plains and waste-lands, or the
JAPAN 197
re-planting of denuded areas. A plan was also elaborated for
systematically turning the state forests to valuable account, while,
at the same time, providing for their conservation.
Fisheries. — From ancient times the Japanese have been great
fishermen. The seas that encircle their many-coasted islands teem
with fish and aquatic products, which have always constituted an
essential article of diet. Early in the 1 8th century, the Tokugawa
administration, in pursuance of a policy of isolation, interdicted the
construction of ocean-going ships, and the people's enterprise in the
matter of deep-sea fishing suffered a severe check. But shortly after
the Restoration in 1867, not only was this veto rescinded, but also
the government, organizing a marine bureau and a marine products
examination office, took vigorous measures to promote pelagic
industry. Then followed the formation of the marine products
association under the presidency of an imperial prince. Fishery
training schools were the next step; then periodical exhibitions of
fishery and marine products; then the introduction and improvement
of fishing implements; and then by rapid strides the area of opera-
tions widened until Japanese fishing boats of improved types came
to be seen in Australasia, in Canada, in the seas of Sakhalin, the
Maritime Province, Korea and China ; in the waters of Kamchatka
and in the Sea of Okhotsk. No less than 9000 fishermen with 2000
boats capture yearly about £300,000 worth of fish in Korean waters;
at least 8000 find a plentiful livelihood off the coasts of Sakhalin
and Siberia, and 200 Japanese boats engage in the salmon-fishing
of the Fraser River. In 1893, the total value of Japanese marine
products and fish captured did not exceed ij millions sterling,
whereas in 1906 the figure had grown to sJ millions, to which must
be added 3^ millions of manufactured marine products. Fourteen
kinds of fish represent more than 50% of the whole catch, namely,
(in the order of their importance) bonito (katsuo), sardines (iwashi),
pagrus (tot), cuttle-fish and squid (tako and ika), mackerel (saba),
yellow tail (buri), tunny-fish (maguro), prawns (ebi), sole (karei),
grey mullet (bora), eels (unagi), salmon (shake), sea-ear (awabi) and
carp (koi). Altogether 700 kinds of aquatic products are known in
Japan, and 400 of them constitute articles of diet. Among manu-
factured aquatic products the chief are (in the order of their impor-
tance) dried bonito, fish guano, dried cuttle-fish, dried and boiled
sardines, dried herring and dried prawns. The export of marine
products amounted to £900,000 in 1906 against £400,000 ten years
previously; China is the chief market. As for imports, they were
insignificant at the beginning of the Meiji era, but by degrees a
demand was created for salted fish, dried sardines (for fertilizing),
edible sea-weed, canned fish and turtle-shell, so that whereas the
total imports were only £1600 in 1868, they grew to over £400,000
in 1906.
Minerals. — Crystalline schists form the axis of Japan. They
run in a general direction from south-west to north-east, with chains
starting east and west from Shikoku. On these schists rocks of
every age are superimposed, and amid these somewhat complicated
geological conditions numerous minerals occur. Precious stones,
however, are not found, though crystals of quartz and antimony
as well as good specimens of topaz and agate are not infrequent.
Gold occurs in quartz veins among schists, paleozoic or volcanic
rocks and in placers. The quantity obtained is not large, but it
shows tolerably steady development, and may possibly
be much increased by more generous use of capital and
larger recourse to modern methods.
The value of the silver mined is approximately equal to that of
the gold. It is found chiefly in volcanic rocks (especially tuff), in
the form of sulphide, and it is usually associated with _„
gold, copper, lead or zinc.
Much more important in Japan's economics than either of the
precious metals is copper. Veins often showing a thickness of from
70 to 80 ft., though of poor quality (2 to 8%), are found c
bedded in crystalline schists or paleozoic sedimentary
rocks, but the richest (10 to 30%) occur in tuff and other volcanic
rocks.
There have not yet been found any evidences that Japan is rich •
in iron ores. Her largest known deposit (magnetite) occurs at
Kamaishi in Iwate prefecture, but the quantity of pig- .
iron produced from the ore mined there does not exceed
37,000 tons annually, and Japan is obliged to import from the
neighbouring continent the greater part of the iron needed by her
for ship-building and armaments.
Considerable deposits of coal exist, both anthracite and bituminous.
The former, found chiefly at Amakusa, is not greatly inferior to the
Cardiff mineral; and the latter — obtained in abundance c .
in Kiushiu and Yezo — is a brown coal of good medium
quality. Altogether there are 29 coal-fields now actually worked
in Japan, and she obtained an important addition to her sources of
supply in the sequel to the war with Russia, when the Fushun mines
near Mukden, Manchuria, were transferred to her. During the lo
years ending in 1906, the market value of the coal mined in Japan
grew from less than 2 millions sterling to over 6 millions.
Petroleum also has of late sprung into prominence on the list of
her mineral products. The oil-bearing strata — which occur mainly
in tertiary rocks — ^extend from Yezo to Formosa, but ,- . fc
the principal are in Echigo, which yields the greater
part of the petroleum now obtained, the Yezo and Formosa wells
Gold.
198
JAPAN
[INDUSTRIES
being still little exploited. The quantity of petroleum obtained
in Japan in 1897 was 9 million gallons, whereas the quantity
obtained in 1906 was 55 millions.
Japanese mining enterprise was more than trebled during the
decade 1897 to 1906, for the value of the minerals taken out in the
former year was only 31 millions sterling, whereas the corresponding
figure for 1906 was n millions. The earliest mention of gold-
mining in Japan takes us back to the year A.D. 696, and by the i6th
century the country had acquired the reputation of being rich in
gold. During the days of her medieval intercourse with the outer
world, her stores of the precious metals were largely reduced, for
between the years 1602 and 1766, Holland, Spam, Portugal and
China took from her 313,800 ft (troy) of gold and 11,230,000 ft of
silver.
Copper occupied a scarcely less important place in Old Japan.
From a period long anterior to historic times this metal was
employed to manufacture mirrors and swords, and the introduction
of Buddhism in the 6th century was quickly followed by the
casting of sacred images, many of which still survive. Finding in
the 1 8th century that her foreign intercourse not only had largely
denuded her of gold and silver, but also threatened to denude her
of copper, Japan set a limit (3415 tons) to the yearly export of the
latter metal. After the resumption of administrative power by the
emperor in 1867, attention was quickly directed to the question of
mineral resources; several Western experts were employed to
conduct surveys and introduce Occidental mining methods, and ten
of the most important mines were worked under the direct auspices
of the state in order to serve as object lessons. Subsequently these
mines were all transferred to private hands, and the government
now retains possession of only a few iron and coal mines whose
products are needed for dockyard and arsenal purposes. The
following table shows the recent progress and present condition of
mining industry in Japan : —
1897
1901
1906
1897
1901
1906
1897
1901
1906
The number of mine empjoyees in 1907 was 190,000, in round
numbers; the number of mining companies, 189; and the aggregate
paid-up capital, 10 millions sterling.
Industries. — In the beginning of the Meiji era Japan was
practically without any manufacturing industries, as the term
is understood in the Occident, and she had not so much as one
joint-stock company. At«the end of 1006, her joint-stock com-
panies and partnerships totalled 9329, their paid up capital
exceeded 100 millions sterling, and their reserves totalled 26
millions. It is not to be inferred, however, from the absence
of manufacturing organizations 50 years ago that such pursuits
were deliberately eschewed or despised in Japan. On the con-
trary, at the very dawn of the historical epoch we find that sec-
tions of the people took their names from the work carried on by
them, and that specimens of expert industry were preserved in
the sovereign's palace side by side with the imperial insignia.
Further, skilled artisans from the neighbouring continent
always found a welcome in Japan, and when Korea was success-
fully invaded in early times, one of the uses which the victors
made of their conquest was to import Korean weavers and dyers.
Subsequently the advent of Buddhism, with its demand for
images, temples, gorgeous vestments and rich paraphernalia,
gave a marked impulse to the development of artistic industry,
which at the outset took its models from China, India and Greece,
but gradually, while assimilating many of the best features of
the continental schools, subjected them to such great modifi-
cations in accordance with Japanese genius that they ceased
to retain more than a trace of their originals. From the gth
GOLD
SILVER
COPPER
LEAD
Quantity,
oz.
34.553
82,517
90,842
Value.
£
136,834
330,076
363.715
Quantity.
oz.
i ,809,805
1,824,842
2,623,212
Value.
£
208,200
211,682
243.9H
Quantity.
Tons.
19.722
26,495 i
37.254 3
Value.
£
869,266
,625,244
,007,992
Quantity.
Tons.
746
1,744
2,721
Value.
£
10,343
24,640
IRON
COAL
PETROLEUM
SULPHUR
Quantity.
Tons.
35.178
46,456
85,203
Value.
£
103.559
123,701
268,911
Quantity.
Tons.
5,229,662
9.025,325
12,980,103
Value.
£
1.899,592
3,060,931
6,314,400
%iantity.
aliens.
9,248,800
39.351.960
55.i35.88o
Value. Quantity.
£ Tons.
44.389 13,138
227,841 16,007
314,550 27,406
Value.
33,588
38,612
61,386
ANTIMONY
MANGANESE
OTHERS
Quantity.
Tons.
1,133
529
293
Value.
£
27.362
13.481
22,862
Quantity.
Tons.
I3.'75
15.738
12,322
Value.
£
8,758
10,846
51.365
Value.
£
3,863
3,450
4L338
Total
3
5
10
Values.
£
,345,662
,670,508
century luxurious habits prevailed in Kioto under the sway of
the Fujiwara regents, and the imperial city's munificent patron-
age drew to its precincts a crowd of artisans. But these were
not industrials, in the Western sense of the term, and, further,
their organization was essentially domestic, each family select-
ing its own pursuit and following it from generation to genera-
tion without co-operation or partnership with any outsider.
The establishment of military feudalism in the I2th century
brought a reaction from the effeminate luxury of the metropolis,
and during nearly 300 years no industry enjoyed large popularity
except that of the armourer and the sword-smith. No sooner,
however, did the prowess of Oda Nobunaga and, above all, of
Hideyoshi, the taiko, bring within sight a cessation of civil war
and the unification of the country, than the taste for beautiful
objects and artistic utensils recovered vitality. By degrees there
grew up among the feudal barons a keen rivalry in art industry,
and the shogun's court in Yedo set a standard which the feuda-
tories constantly strove to attain. Ultimately, in the days
immediately antecedent to its fall, the shogun's administration
sought to induce a more logical system by encouraging local
manufacturers to supply local needs only, leaving to Kioto and
Yedo the duty of catering to general wants.
But before this reform had approached maturity, the second
advent of Western nations introduced to Japan the products of
an industrial civilization centuries in advance of her own from
the point of view of utility, though nowise superior in the
application of art. Immediately
the nation became alive to the
Value, necessity of correcting its own in-
feriority in this respect. But the
people being entirely without
o'60 m°dels for organization, without
financial machinery and with-
out the idea of joint stock
enterprise, the government had
33,588 to choose between entering the
38,612 field as an instructor, and leaving
61,386 the nation to struggle along an
arduous and expensive way
to tardy development. There
could be no question as to which
course w°uld conduce more to
tfle general advantage, and thus,
in days immediately subse-
quent to the resumption of administrative power by the emperor,
the spectacle was seen of official excursions into the domains of
silk-reeling, cement-making, cotton and silk spinning, brick-
burning, printing and book-binding, soap-boiling, type-casting
and ceramic decoration, to say nothing of their establishing
colleges and schools where all branches of applied science were
taught. Domestic exhibitions also were organized, and speci-
mens cf the country's products and manufactures were sent
under government auspices to exhibitions abroad. On the other
hand, the effect of this new departure along Western lines could
not but be injurious to the old domestic industries of the country,
especially to those which owed their existence to tastes and tra-
ditions now regarded as obsolete. Here again the government
came to the rescue by establishing a firm whose functions were
to familiarize foreign markets with the products of Japanese
artisans, and to instruct the latter in adaptations likely to appeal
to Occidental taste. Steps were also taken for training women
as artisans, and the government printing bureau set the example
of employing female labour, an innovation which soon developed
large dimensions. In short, the authorities applied themselves
to educate an industrial disposition throughout the country, and
as soon as success seemed to be in sight, they gradually trans-
ferred from official to private direction the various model enter-
prises, retaining only such as were required to supply the needs
of the state.
The result of all this effort was that whereas, in the beginning of
the Meiji era, Japan had virtually no industries worthy of the name,
she possessed in 1896 — that is to say, after an interval of 25 years
COMMERCE]
of effort — no less than 4595 industrial and commercial companies,
joint stock or partnership, with a paid-up capital of 40 millions
sterling. Her development during the decade ending in 1906 is
shown in the following table : —
Reserves
Number of Paid-up capital (millions
companies, (millions sterling).
1897 6,113 53
1901 8,602 83
1906 9,329 107
sterling).
6
12
26
What effect this development exercised upon the country's over-sea
trade may be inferred from the fact that, whereas the manufactured
goods exported in 1870 were nil, their value in 1901 was 8 millions
sterling, and in 1906 the figure rose to over 20 millions. In the
following table are given some facts relating to the principal in-
dustries in which foreign markets are interested : —
COTTON YARNS
Spindles.
Operatives.
Quantity
produced.
Remarks.
Male.
Female.
1897
1901
1906
768,328
1,181,762
1,425,406
9.933
13.481
13.032
35,059
49,540
59.281
ft
216,913,196
274,861,380
383.359,113
This is a wholly
new industry in
Japan. It had
no existence be-
fore the Meiji era.
WOVEN GOODS
Looms.
Operatives.
Market value
of products.
Remarks.
Male.
Female.
1897
1901
1906
947,134
719,550
736,828
54-1 '9
43,172
40,886
987,110
747,946
751,605
Millions sterling.
19
24
36
It is observable
that a decrease
in the number of
operatives is con-
current with an
increase of pro-
duction.
MATCHES
Families
engaged.
Operatives.
Quantity
produced.
Value.
Remarks.
Male.
Female.
Gross.
£
This is an
1897
269
21,447
26,277
24,038,960
654,849
altogether
1901
261
5,656
16,504
32,901,319
926,689
new indus-
1906
250
5,468
18,721
54,802,293
1,551,698
try. Japan-
ese matches
now hold the
leading place
in all Far-
Eastern mar-
kets.
FOREIGN PAPER (as distinguished from Japanese)
Factories. 1
Operatives.
Quantity
produced.
Value.
Remarks.
Male.
Female.
1897
1901
1906
9
13
22
164
2.635
3-774
109
i,397
1,778
ft
46,256,649
113,348,340
218,022,434
£
300,662
714,094
1,415,778
Had not
Japanese fac-
tories been
established all
thispapermust
have been im-
ported.
In the field of what may be called minor manufactures — as ceramic
wares, lacquers, straw-plaits, &c. — there has been corresponding
growth, for the value of these productions increased from ij millions
sterling in 1897 to 3$ millions in 1906. But as these manufactures
do not enter into competition with foreign goods in either Eastern
or Western markets, they are interesting only as showing the
development of Japan's producing power. They contribute
nothing to the solution of the problem whether Japanese industries
are destined ultimately to drive their foreign rivals from the markets
of Asia, if not to compete injuriously with them even in Europe and
JAPAN 1 99
America. Japan seems to have one great advantage over Occidental
countries : she possesses an abundance of dexterous and exception-
ally cheap labour. It has been said, indeed, that this latter advan-
tage is not likely to be permanent, since the wages of labour and the
cost of living are fast increasing. The average cost of labour doubled
in the interval between 1895 and 1906, but, on the other hand, the
number of manufacturing organizations doubled in the same time,
while the amount of their paid-up capital nearly trebled. As to the
necessaries of life, if those specially affected by government mono-
polies be excluded, the rate of appreciation between 1900 and 1906
averaged about 30%, and it thus appears that the cost of living is
not increasing with the same rapidity as the remuneration earned
by labour. The manufacturing progress of the nation seems, there-
fore, to have a bright future, the only serious impediment being
deficient capital. There is abundance of coal, and steps have been
taken on a large scale to utilize the many excellent opportunities
which the country offers for developing electricity by water-power.
The fact that Japan's exports of raw silk amount to more than
12 millions sterling, while she sends over-sea only 3J millions'
worth of silk fabrics, suggests some marked inferiority Silt-
on the part of her weavers. But the true explanation weaving.
seems to be that her distance from the Occident handicaps her
in catering for the changing fashions of the West. There cannot
be any doubt that the skill of Japanese weavers was at one time
eminent. The sun goddess herself, the predominant figure in
the Japanese pantheon, is said to have practised weaving; the
names of four varieties of woven fabrics were known in pre-
historic times; the 3rd century of the Christian era saw the arrival
of a Korean maker of cloth; after him came an influx of Chinese
who were distributed throughout the country to improve the arts
of sericulture and silk-weaving; a sovereign (Yuriaku) of the 5th
century employed 92 groups of naturalized Chinese for similar pur-
poses; in 421 the same emperor issued a decree encouraging the cul-
ture of mulberry trees and calling for taxes on silk and cotton;
the manufacture of textiles was directly supervised by the consort
of this sovereign; in 645 a bureau of weaving was established;
many other evidences are conclusive as to the great antiquity of the
art of silk and cotton weaving in Japan.
The coming of Buddhism in the 6th century contributed not a little
to the development of the art, since not only did the priests require
for their own vestments and for the decoration of temples silken
fabrics of more and more gorgeous description, but also these holy
men themselves, careful always to keep touch with the continental
developments of their faith, made frequent voyages to China,
whence they brought back to Japan a knowledge of whatever
technical or artistic improvements the Middle Kingdom could show.
When Kioto became the permanent metropolis of the empire, at
the close of the 8th century, a bureau was established for weaving
brocades and rich silk stuffs to be used in the palace. This preluded
an era of some three centuries of steadily developing luxury in Kioto ;
an era when an essential part of every aristocratic mansion's furni-
ture was a collection of magnificent silk robes for use in the sumptuous
No. Then, in the isth century came the " Tea Ceremonial, when
the brocade mountings of a picture or the wrapper of a tiny tea-jar
possessed an almost incredible value, and such skill was attained by
weavers and dyers that even fragments of the fabrics produced by
them command extravagant prices to-day. Kioto always remained,
and still remains, the chief producing centre, and to such a degree
has the science of colour been developed there that no less than 4000
varieties of tint are distinguished. The sense of colour, indeed, seems
to have been a special endowment of the Japanese people from the
earliest times, and some of the combinations handed down from
medieval times are treasured as incomparable examples. During
the long era of peace under the Tokugawa administration the cos-
tumes of men and women showed an increasing tendency to richness
and beauty. This culminated in the Genroku epoch (1688-1700),
and the aristocracy of the present day delight in viewing histrionic
performances where the costumes of that age and of its rival, the
Momoyama (end of the l6th century) are reproduced.
It would be possible to draw up a formidable catalogue of the
various kinds of silk fabrics manufactured in Japan before the open-
ing of the Meiji era, and the signal ability of her weavers has derived
a new impulse from contact with the Occident. Machinery has
been largely introduced, and though the products of hand-looms
still enjoy the reputation of greater durability, there has unquestion-
ably been a marked development of producing power. Japanese
looms now turn out about 17 millions sterling of silk textiles, of
which less than 4 millions go abroad. Nor is increased quantity
alone to be noted, for at the factory of Kawashima in Kioto Gobelins
are produced such as have never been rivalled elsewhere.
Commerce in Tokugawa Times. — The conditions existing in
Japan during the two hundred and fifty years prefatory to the
modern opening of the country were unfavourable to the develop-
ment alike of national and of international trade. As to the
former, the system of feudal government exercised a crippling
influence, for each feudal chief endeavoured to check the exit
of any kind of property from his fief, and free interchange of
2oo JAPAN
commodities was thus prevented so effectually that cases are
recorded of one feudatory's subjects dying of starvation while
those of an adjoining fief enjoyed abundance. International
commerce, on the other hand, lay under the veto of the central
government, which punished with death anyone attempting
to hold intercourse with foreigners. Thus the fiefs practised a
policy of mutual seclusion at home, and united to maintain a
policy of general seclusion abroad. Yet it was under the feudal
system that the most signal development of Japanese trade took
place, and since the processes of that development have much
historical interest they invite close attention.
[COMMERCE
As the bulk of a feudal chief's income was paid in rice, arrange-
ments had to be made for sending the grain to market and trans-
mitting its proceeds. This was effected originally by establishing
in Osaka stores ( kura-yashiki) , under the charge of samurai, who
received the rice, sold it to merchants in that city and remitted the
proceeds by official carriers. But from the middle of the JJtn
century these stores were placed in the charge of tradesmen to whom
was given the name of kake-ya (agent). They disposed of the
products entrusted to them by a fief and held the money, sending
it by monthly instalments to an appointed place, rendering yearly
accounts and receiving commission at the rate of from 2 to 4 A.
They had no special licence, but they were honourably regarded and
often distinguished by an official title or an hereditary pension.
In fact a kake-ya, of such standing as the Mitsui and the Konoike
families, was, in effect, a banker charged with the finances of several
fiefs. In Osaka the method of sale was uniform. Tenders were
invited, and these having been opened in the presence of all the store
officials and kake-ya, the successf uj tenderers had to deposit bargain-
money, paying the remainder within ten days, and thereafter becom-
ing entitled to take delivery of the rice in whole or by instalments
within a certain time, no fee being charged for storage. A similar
system existed in Yedo, the shogun'* capital. Out of the custom ol
deferred delivery developed the establishment of exchanges where
advances were made against sale certificates, and purely speculative
transactions came into vogue. There followed an experience
common enough in the West at one time: public opinion rebelk
against these transactions in margins on the ground that they tended
to enhance the price of rice. Several of the brokers were arrested
and brought to trial ; marginal dealings were thenceforth forbidden,
and a system of licences was inaugurated in Yedo, the number of
licensee! dealers' being restricted to 108. ...
The system of organized trading companies had its origin in the
1 2th century, when, the number of merchants admitted within the
confines of Yedo being restricted, it became necessary for those not
obtaining that privilege to establish some mode of co-operation,
and there resulted the formation of companies with representatives
stationed in the feudal capital and share-holding members in the
provinces. The Ashikaga shoguns developed this restriction by
selling to the highest bidder the exclusive right of engaging in a
particular trade, and the Tokugawa administration had recourse
to the same practice. But whereas the monopolies instituted by
the Ashikaga had for sole object the enrichment of the exchequer,
the Tokugawa regarded it chiefly as a means of obtaining worthy
representatives in each branch of trade. The first licences were
issued in Yedo to keepers of bath-houses in the middle of the I7th
century. As the city grew in dimensions these licences increased
in value, so that pawnbrokers willingly accepted them in pledge
for loans. Subsequently almanack-sellers were obliged to take
out licences, and the system was afterwards extended to money-
changers. ,
It was to the fishmongers, however, that the advantages of
commercial organization first presented themselves vividly. I he
greatest fish-market in Japan is at Nihon-bashi in Tokyo (formerly
Yedo). It had its origin in the needs of the Tokugawa court.
When Iveyasu (founder of the Tokugawa dynasty) entered Yedo
in 1590, his train was followed by some fishermen of Settsu, to
whom he granted the privilege of plying their trade in the adjacent
seas, on condition that they furnished a supply of their best nsh
for the use of the garrison. The remainder they offered for sale
at Nihon-bashi. Early in the 1 7th century one Sukegoro of Yamato
province (hence called Yamato-ya) went to Yedo and organized the
fishmongers into a great gild. Nothing is recorded about this
man's antecedents, though his mercantile genius entitles him to
historical notice. He contracted for the sale of all the fish obtained
in the neighbouring seas, advanced money to the fishermen on the
security of their catch, constructed preserves for keeping the fish
alive until they were exposed in the market, and enrolled all the
dealers in a confederation which ultimately consisted of 391 whole-
sale merchants and 246 brokers. The main purpose of Sukegoro's
system was to prevent the consumer from dealing direct with the
producer. Thus in return for the pecuniary accommodation
granted to fishermen to buy boats and nets they were required to
give every fish they caught to the wholesale merchant from whom
they had received the advance; and the latter, on his side, had to
sell in the open market at prices fixed by (he confederation. A
somewhat similar system applied to vegetables, though in this case
the monopoly was never so close.
It will be observed that this federation of fishmongers approxi-
mated closely to a trust, as the term is now understood ; that is to
say, an association of merchants engaged in the same branch of
trade and pledged to observe certain rules in the conduct of their
business as well as to adhere to fixed rates. The idea was extended
to nearly every trade, 10 monster confederations being organized
in Yedo and 24 in Osaka. These received official recognition,
and contributed a sum to the exchequer under the euphonious
name of " benefit money," amounting to nearly £20,000 annually.
They attained a high state of prosperity, the whole of the cities
supplies passing through their hands.2 No member of a confedera-
tion was permitted to dispose of his licence except to a near relative,
and if anyone not on the roll of a confederation engaged in the same
business he became liable to punishment at the hands of the officials.
In spite of the limits thus imposed on the transfer of licences, one
of these documents commanded from £80 to £6,400, and in the
beginning of the igth century the confederations, or gilds, had
increased to 68 in Yedo, comprising 1195 merchants. The gild
system extended to maritime enterprise also. In the beginning of
the 1 7th century a merchant of Sakai (near Osaka) established a
junk service between Osaka and Yedo, but this kind of business did
not attain any considerable development until the close of that
century, when 10 gilds of Yedo and 24 of Osaka combined to
organize a marine-transport company for the purpose of conveying
their own merchandise. Here also the principle of monopoly was
strictly observed, no goods being shipped for unaffiliated merchants.
This carrying trade rapidly assumed large dimensions. The number
of junks entering Yedo rose to over 1500 yearly. They raced from
port to port, just as tea-clippers from China to Europe used to race
in recent times, and troubles incidental to their rivalry became so
serious that it was found necessary to enact stringent rules. Each
junk-master had to subscribe a written oath that he would comply
strictly with the regulations and observe the sequence of sailing as
determined by lot. The junks had to call en route at Uraga for the
purpose of undergoing official examination. The order of their
arrival there was duly registered, and the master making the best
record throughout the year received a present in money as well as a
complimentary garment, and became the shippers' favourite next
season.
Operations relating to the currency also were brought under the
control of gilds. The business of money-changing seems to have been
taken up as a profession from the beginning of the isth century,
but it was then in the hands of pedlars who carried strings of copper
cash which they exchanged for gold or silver coins, then in rare
circulation, or for parcels of gold dust. From the early part of the
I7th century exchanges were opened in Yedo, and in 1718 the men
engaged in this business formed a gild after the fashion of the time.
Six hundred of these received licences, and no unlicensed person
was permitted to purchase the avocation. Four representatives
of the chief exchange met daily and fixed the ratio between gold
and silver, the figure being then communicated to the various
exchanges and to the shogun s officials. As for the prices of gold or
silver in terms of copper or bank-notes, 24 representatives of the
exchanges met every evening, and, in the presence of an official
censor, settled the figure for the following day and recorded the
amount of transactions during the past 24 hours, full information
on these points being at once sent to the city governors and the
street elders.
The exchanges in their ultimate form approximated very closely
to the Occidental idea of banks. They not only bought gold, silver
and copper coins, but they also received money on deposit, made
loans and issued vouchers which played a very important part in
commercial transactions. The voucher seems to have come into
existence in Japan in the I4th century. It originated in the Yoshino
market of Yamato province, where the hilly nature of the district
rendered the carriage of copper money so arduous that rich mer-
chants began to substitute written receipts and engagements
which quickly became current. Among these documents there
was a " joint voucher " (kumiai-fuda), signed by several persons,
any one of whom might be held responsible for its redemption.
This had large vogue, but it did not obtain official recognition until
1636, when the third Tokugawa shogun selected 30 substantial
merchants and divided them into 3 gilds, each authorized to issue
vouchers, provided that a certain sum was deposited by way ol
security. Such vouchers were obviously a form of bank-note.
Their circulation by the exchange came about in a similar manner.
During many years the treasure of the shogun and of the feudal
1 They were called fuda-sashi (ticket -holders), a term derived
from the fact that rice-vouchers were usually held in a split bamboo
which was thrust into a pile of rice-bags to indicate their buyer.
2 In 1725, when the population of Yedo was about three-quarters
of a million, the merchandise that entered the city was 861,893 bags
of rice; 795,856 casks of sake; 132,892 casks of soy (fish-sauce)
18,209,987 bundles of fire-wood; 809,790 bags of charcoal; o°.81
tubs of oil; 1,670,850 bags of salt and 3.6i3.5°o PICCCS of cotton
cloth.
COMMERCE]
JAPAN
201
chiefs was carried to Yedo by pack-horses and coolies of the regular
postal service. But the costliness of such a method led to the selec-
tion in 1691 of I o exchange agents who were appointed bankers to the
Tokugawa government and were required to furnish money within
30 days of the date of an order drawn on them. These agents went
by the name of the " ten-men gild." Subsequently the firm of
Mitsui was added, but it enjoyed the special privilege of being allowed
150 days to collect a specified amount. The gild received moneys
on account of the Tokugawa or the feudal chiefs at provincial
centres, and then made its own arrangements for cashing the
cheques drawn upon it by the shogun or the daimyS in Yedo. If
coin happened to be immediately available, it was employed to cash
the cheques; otherwise the vouchers of the gild served instead. It
was in Osaka, however, that the functions of the exchanges acquired
fullest development. That city has exhibited, in all eras, a remark-
able aptitude for trade. Its merchants, as already shown, were not
only entrusted with the. duty of selling the rice and other products
of the surrounding fiefs, but also they became depositories of the
proceeds, which they paid out on account of the owners in whatever
sums the latter desired. Such an evidence of official confidence
greatly strengthened their credit, and they received further en-
couragement from the second Tokugawa shogun (1605-1623) and from
Ishimaru Sadatsugu, governor of the city in 1661. He fostered
wholesale transactions, sought to introduce a large element of credit
into commerce by instituting a system of credit sales; took measures
to promote the circulation of cheques; inaugurated market sales of
gold and silver and appointed ten chiefs of exchange who were
empowered to oversee the business of money-exchanging in general.
These ten received exemption from municipal taxation and were
permitted to wear swords. Under them were 22 exchanges forming
a gild, whose members agreed to honour one another's vouchers and
mutually to facilitate business. Gradually they elaborated a regular
system of banking, so that, in the middle of the i8th century, they
issued various descriptions of paper-orders for fixed sums payable at
certain places within fixed periods; deposit notes redeemable on
the demand of an indicated person or his order; bills of exchange
drawn by A upon B in favour of C (a common form for use in
monthly or annual settlements) ; promissory notes to be paid at a
future time, or cheques payable at sight, for goods purchased ; and
storage orders engaging to deliver goods on account of which earnest
money had been paid. These last, much employed in transactions
relating to rice and sugar, were generally valid for a period of 3 years
and 3 months, were signed by a confederation of exchanges or mer-
chants on joint responsibility, and guaranteed the delivery of
the indicated merchandise independently of all accidents. They
passed current as readily as coin, aand advances could always be
obtained against them from pawnbrokers.
All these documents, indicating a well-developed system of
credit, were duly protected by law, severe penalties being inflicted
for any failure to implement the pledges they embodied. The
merchants of Yedo and Osaka, working on the system of trusts here
described, gradually acquired great wealth and fell into habits of
marked luxury. It is recorded that they did not hesitate to pay
£5 for the first bonito of the season and £11 for the first egg-fruit.
Naturally the spectacle of such extravagance excited popular dis-
content. Men began to grumble against the so-called " official
merchants " who, under government auspices, monopolized every
branch of trade; and this feeling grew almost uncontrollable in 1836,
when rice rose to an unprecedented price owing to crop failure.
Men loudly ascribed that state of affairs to regrating on the part of
the wholesale companies, and murmurs similar to those raised at
the close of the igth century in America against the trust system
began to reach the ears of the authorities perpetually. The cele-
brated Fujita Toko of Mito took up the question. He argued that
the monopoly system, since it included Osaka, exposed the Yedo
market to all the vicissitudes of the former city, which had then
lost much of its old prosperity.
Finally, in 1841, the shpgun's chief minister, Mizuno Echizen-no-
Kami, withdrew all trading licences, dissolved the gilds and pro-
claimed that every person should thenceforth be free to engage in
any commerce without let or hindrance. This recklessly drastic
measure, vividly illustrating the arbitrariness of feudal officialdom,
not only included the commercial gilds, the shipping gilds, the
exchange gilds and the land transport gilds, but was also carried to
the length of forbidding any company to confine itself to wholesale
dealings. The authorities further declared that in times of scarcity
wholesale transactions must be abandoned altogether and retail
business alone carried on, their purpose being to bring retail and
wholesale prices to the same level. The custom of advancing money
to fishermen or to producers in the provincial districts was inter-
dicted; even the fuda-sashi might no longer ply their calling, and
neither bath-house keepers nor hairdressers were allowed to combine
for the purpose of adopting uniform rates of charges. But this ill-
judged interference produced evils greater than those it was intended
to remedy. The gilds had not really been exacting. Their organi-
zation had reduced the cost of distribution, and they had provided
facilities of transport which brought produce within quick and cheap
reach of central markets.
Ten years' experience showed that a modified form of the old
system would conduce to public interests. The gilds were re-
established, licence fees, however, being abolished, and no limit
set to the number of firms in a gild. Things remained thus until
the beginning of the Meiji era (1867), when the gilds shared the
cataclysm that overtook all the country's old institutions.
Japanese commercial and industrial life presents another feature
which seems to suggest special aptitude for combination. In mercan-
tile or manufacturing families, while the eldest son always succeeded
to his father's business, not only the younger sons but also the appren-
tices and employees, after they had served faithfully for a number
of years, expected to be set up as branch houses under the auspices
of the principal family, receiving a place of business, a certain amount
of capital and the privilege of using the original house-name. Many
an old-established firm thus came to have a plexus of branches all
serving to extend its business and strengthen its credit, so that the
group held a commanding position in the business world. It will
be apparent from the above that commercial transactions on a large
scale in pre-Meiji days were practically limited to the two great
cities of Yedo and Osaka, the people in the provincial fiefs having
no direct association with the gild system, confining themselves, for
the most part, to domestic industries on a small scale, and not being
allowed to extend their business beyond the boundaries of the fief
to which they belonged.
Foreign Commerce during the Meiji Era. — If Japan's industrial
development in modern times has been remarkable, the same
may be said even more emphatically about the development
of her over-sea commerce. This was checked at first not
only by the unpopularity attaching to all intercourse with out-
side nations, but also by embarrassments resulting from the
difference between the silver price of gold in Japan and its silver
price in Europe, the precious metals being connected in Japan by
a ratio of i to 8, and in Europe by a ratio of i to 15. This
latter fact was the cause of a sudden and violent appreciation of
values; for the government, seeing the country threatened with
loss of all its gold, tried to avert the catastrophe by altering and
reducing the weights of the silver coins without altering their
denominations, and a corresponding difference exhibited itself,
as a matter of course, in the silver quotations of commodities.
Another difficulty was the attitude of officialdom. During several
centuries Japan's over-sea trade had been under the control of
officialdom, to whose coffers it contributed a substantial revenue.
But when the foreign exporter entered the field under the con-
ditions created by the new system, he diverted to his own pocket
the handsome profit previously accruing to the government; and
since the latter could not easily become reconciled to this loss of
revenue, or wean itself from its traditional habit of interference
in affairs of foreign commerce, and since the foreigner, on his
side, not only desired secrecy in order to prevent competition,
but was also tormented by inveterate suspicions of Oriental
espionage, not a little friction occurred from time to time.
Thus the scanty records of that early epoch suggest that trade
was beset with great difficulties, and that the foreigner had to
contend against most adverse circumstances, though in truth his
gains amounted to 40 or 50%.
The chief staples of the early trade were tea and silk. It
happened that just before Japan's raw silk became available for
export, the production of that article in France and Tea and
Italy had been largely curtailed owing to a novel sut~
disease of the silkworm. Thus, when the first bales of Japanese
silk appeared in London, and when it was found to possess
qualities entitling it to the highest rank, a keen demand sprang
up. Japanese green tea also, differing radically in flavour and
bouquet from the black tea of China, appealed quickly to
American taste, so that by the year 1907 Japan found herself
selling to foreign countries tea to the extent of ij millions ster-
ling, and raw silk to the extent of iz| millions. This remarkable
development is typical of the general history of Japan's foreign
trade in modern times. Omitting the first decade and a half,
the statistics for which are imperfect, the volume of the trade
grew from 5 millions sterling in 1873 — 3 shillings per head of the
population — to 93 millions in 1907 — or 38 shillings per head. It
was not a uniform growth. The period of 35 years divides itself
conspicuously into two eras: the first, of 15 years (1873-1887),
during which the development was from 5 millions to 9-7 mil-
lions, a ratio of i to 2, approximately; the second, of 20 years
(1887-1907), during which the development was from 9-7
millions to 93 millions, a ratio of -i to 10.
202
JAPAN
[GOVERNMENT
That a commerce which scarcely doubled itself in the first
fifteen years should have grown nearly tenfold in the next
twenty is a fact inviting attention. There are two principal
causes: one general, the other special. The general cause was
that several years necessarily elapsed before the nation's material
condition began to respond perceptibly to the improvements
effected by the Meiji government in matters of administration,
taxation and transport facilities. Fiscal burdens had been
reduced and security of life and property obtained, but railway
building and road-making, harbour construction, the growth of
posts, telegraphs, exchanges and banks, and the development
of a mercantile marine did not exercise a sensible influence on
the nation's prosperity until 1884 or 1885. From that time the
country entered a period of steadily growing prosperity, and from
that time private enterprise may be said to have finally started
upon a career of independent activity. The special cause which,
from 1885, contributed to a marked growth of trade was the
resumption of specie payments. Up to that time the treasury's
fiat notes had suffered such marked fluctuations of specie
value that sound or successful commerce became very difficult.
Against the importing merchant the currency trouble worked
with double potency. Not only did the gold with which he
purchased goods appreciate constantly in terms of the silver
for which he sold them, but the silver itself appreciated sharply
and rapidly in terms of the fiat notes paid by Japanese con-
sumers. Cursory reflection may suggest that these factors
should have stimulated exports as much as they depressed
imports. But such was not altogether the case in practice.
For the exporter's transactions were hampered by the possibility
that a delay of a week or even a day might increase the pur-
chasing power of his silver in Japanese markets by bringing
about a further depreciation of paper, so that he worked timidly
and hesitatingly, dividing his operations as minutely as possible
in order to take advantage of the downward tendency of the fiat
notes. Not till this element of pernicious disturbance was
removed did the trade recover a healthy tone and grow so
lustily as to tread closely on the heels of the foreign commerce
of China, with her 300 million inhabitants and long-established
international relations.
Japan's trade with the outer world was built up chiefly by the
energy and enterprise of the foreign middleman. He acted the
The Foreign part of an almost ideal agent. As an exporter,
Middleman, jjjg command of cheap capital, his experience, his
knowledge of foreign markets, and his connexions enabled him
to secure sales such as must have been beyond reach of the
Japanese working independently. Moreover, he paid to native
consumers ready cash for their staples, taking upon his own
shoulders all the risks of finding markets abroad. As an importer,
he enjoyed, in centres of supply, credit which the Japanese
lacked, and he offered to native consumers foreign produce
brought to their doors with a minimum of responsibility on their
part. Finally, whether as exporters or importers, foreign
middlemen always competed with each other so keenly that their
Japanese clients obtained the best possible terms from them.
Yet the ambition of the Japanese to oust them cannot be re-
garded as unnatural. Every nation must desire to carry on its
own commerce independently of alien assistance; and moreover,
the foreign middleman's residence during many years within
Japanese territory, but without the pale of Japanese sovereignty,
invested him with an aggressive character which the anti-
Oriental exclusiveness of certain Occidental nations helped to
accentuate. Thus from the point of view of the average Japan-
ese there are several reasons for wishing to dispense with alien
middlemen, and it is plain that these reasons are operative; for
whereas, in 1888, native merchants carried on only 12% of the
country's over-sea trade without the intervention of the foreign
middlemen, their share rose to 35% in 1899 and has since been
slowly increasing.
Analysis of Japan's foreign trade during the Meiji era shows that
_. duringthe35-yearperiodendingin igoy.importsexceeded
exports in 21 years and exports exceeded imports in 14
years. This does not suggest a very badly balanced
trade. But closer examination accentuates the difference, for
when the figures are added, it is found that the excesses of exports
aggregated only 1 1 millions sterling, whereas the excesses of imports
totalled 71 millions, there being thus a so-called " unfavourable
balance " of 60 millions over all. The movements of specie do not
throw much light upon this subject, for they are complicated by
large imports of gold resulting from war indemnities and foreign
loans. Undoubtedly the balance is materially redressed by the
expenditures of the foreign communities in the former settlements,
of foreign tourists visiting Japan and of foreign vessels engaged in
the carrying trade, as well as by the earnings of Japanese vessels
and the interest on investments made by foreigners. Nevertheless
there remains an appreciable margin against Japan, and it is probably
to be accounted for by the consideration that she is still engaged
equipping herself for the industrial career evidently lying before her.
The manner in which Japan's over-sea trade was divided
in 1907 among the seven foreign countries princi-
pally engaged in it may be seen from the following
table : —
Ex
£(»
oorts
lillioi
to Imports
is). £ (milli
8.
6;
> from
ons).
2
II
I
I
4
3
7|
45
ij
Trade with
Various
Countries.
Total
(millions).
22
15
United States
China .
Great Britain
British India • If 7i 9
Germany . . I 4^ 6
France . . 4 5
Korea ... 3$ if 5
Among the 33 open ports of Japan, the first place belongs to
Yokohama in the matter of foreign trade, and Kobe ranks second.
The former far outstrips the latter in exports, but the case is reversed
when imports are considered. As to the percentages of the whole
trade standing to the credit of the five principal ports, the following
figures may be consulted: — Yokohama, 40%; Kobe, 35-6; Osaka,
10; Moji, 5; and Nagasaki, 2.
VI. — GOVERNMENT, ADMINISTRATION, &c.
Emperor and Princes. — At the head of the Japanese State
stands the emperor, generally spoken of by foreigners as the
mikado (honourable gate1), a title comparable with sublime
porte and by his own subjects as tenshi (son of heaven) or
tenno (heavenly king). The emperor Mutou Hito (q.v.) was the
I2ist of his line, according to Japanese history, which reckons
from 660 B.C., when Jimmu ascended the throne. But as written
records do not carry us back farther than A.D. 712, the reigns
and periods of the very early monarchs are more or less apocry-
phal. Still the fact remains that Japan has been ruled by an
unbroken dynasty ever since the dawn of her history, in which
respect she is unique among all the nations in the world. There
are four families of princes of the blood, from any one of which a
successor to the throne may be taken in default of a direct heir:
Princes Arisugawa, Fushimi, Kanin and Higashi Fushimi.
These families are all direct descendants of emperors, and their
heads have the title of shinno (prince of the blood), whereas the
other imperial princes, of whom there are ten, have only the
second syllable of shinno (pronounced wo when separated from
shin). Second and younger sons of a shinno are all wo, and eldest
sons lose the title shin and become wd from the fifth generation.
The Peerage. — In former times there were no Japanese titles
of nobjlity, as the term is understood in the Occident. Nobles
there were, however, namely, kuge, or court nobles, descendants
of younger sons of emperors, and daimyo (great name), some of
whom could trace their lineage to mikados; but all owed their
exalted position as feudal chiefs to military prowess. The
Meiji restoration of 1867 led to the abolition of the daimyos as
feudal chiefs, and they, together with the kuge, were merged
into one class called kwazoku (flower families), a term correspond-
ing to aristocracy, all inferior persons being heimin (ordinary
folk). In 1884, however, the five Chinese titles of ki (prince),
kO (marquis), haku (count), shi (viscount) and dan (baron) were
introduced, and patents were not only granted to the ancient
nobility but also conferred on men who had rendered conspicuous
public service. The titles are all hereditary, but they descend
to the firstborn only, younger children having no distinguishing
appellation. The first list in 1884 showed n princes, 24 mar-
quises, 76 counts, 324 viscounts and 74 barons. After the war
with China (1894-95) the total grew to 716, and the war with
1 Some derive this term from mika, an ancient Japanese term for
" great," and to, " place."
LEGISLATURE]
Russia (1904-5) increased the number to 912, namely, 15 princes,
39 marquises, 100 counts, 376 viscounts and 382 barons.
Household Department. — The Imperial household department is
completely differentiated from the administration of state affairs
It includes bureaux of treasury, forests, peerage and hunting, as
well as boards of ceremonies and chamberlains, officials of the
empress's household and officials of the crown prince's household
The annual allowance made to the throne is £300,000, and the
Imperial estate comprises some 12,000 acres of building land
3,850,000 acres of forests, and 300,000 acres of miscellaneous lands,
the whole valued at some 19 millions sterling, but probably not
yielding an income of more than £200,000 yearly. Further, the
household owns about 3 millions sterling (face value) of bonds and
shares, from which a revenue of some £250,000 is derived, so thai
the whole income amounts to three-quarters of a million sterling
approximately. Out of this the households of the crown prince and
all the Imperial princes are supported; allowances are granted at the
time of conferring titles of nobility; a long list of charities receive
liberal contributions, and considerable sums are paid to encourage
art and education. The emperor himself is probably one of the most
frugal sovereigns that ever occupied a throne.
Departments of State. — There are nine departments of state
presided over by ministers — foreign affairs, home affairs, finance,
war, navy, justice, education, agriculture and commerce, com-
munications. These ministers form the cabinet, which is
presided over by the minister president of state, so that its
members number ten in all. Ministers of state are appointed by
the emperor and are responsible to him alone. But between the
cabinet and the crown stand a small body of men, the survivors
of those by whose genius modern Japan was raised to her present
high position among the nations. They are known as " elder
statesmen " (genro). Their proved ability constitutes an invalu-
able asset, and in the solution of serious problems their voice
may be said to be final. At the end of 1909 four of these
renowned statesmen remained — Prince Yamagata, Marquises
Inouye and Matsukata and Count Okuma. There is also a privy
council, which consists of a variable number of distinguished
men — in 1909 there were 29, the president being Field-Marshal
Prince Yamagata. Their duty is to debate and advise upon all
matters referred to them by the emperor, who sometimes attends
their meetings in person.
Civil Officials. — The total number of civil officials was 137,819
in 1906. It had been only 68,876 in 1898, from which time it grew
regularly year by year. The salaries and allowances paid out of
the treasury every year on account of the civil service are 4 millions
sterling, approximately, and the annual emoluments of the principal
officials are as follow: — Prime minister, £960; minister of a depart-
ment, £600; ambassador, £500, with allowances varying from
£2200 to £3000; president of privy council, £500; resident-general
in Seoul, £600; governor-general of Formosa, £600; vice-minister,
£400; minister plenipotentiary, £400, with allowances from £1000
to £1700; governor of prefecture, £300 to £360; judge of the court
of cassation, £200 to £500; other judges, £60 to £400; professor of
imperial university, from £80 to £160, with allowances from £40 to
£120; privy councillor, £400; director of a bureau, £300; &c.
Legislature. — The first Japanese Diet was convoked the 29th
of November, 1890. There are two chambers, a house of
peers (kizoku-in) and a house of representatives (shugi-in).
Each is invested with the same legislative power.
The upper chamber consists of four classes of members.
They are, first, hereditary members, namely, princes and mar-
quises, who are entitled to sit when they reach the age of 25;
secondly, counts, viscounts and barons, elected — after they have
attained their 25th year — by their respective orders in the maxi-
mum ratio of one member to every five peers; thirdly, men of
education or distinguished service who are nominated by the
emperor; and, fourthly, representatives of the highest tax-
payers, elected, one for each prefecture, by their own class.
The minimum age limit for non-titled members is 30, and it is
provided that their total number must not exceed that of the
titled members. The house was composed in 1909 of 14 princes
of the blood, 15 princes, 39 marquises, 17 counts, 69 viscounts,
56 barons, 124 Imperial nominees, and 45 representatives of the
highest tax-payers — that is to say, 210 titled members and 169
non-titled.
The lower house consists of elected members only. Origin-
ally the property qualification was fixed at a minimum annual
payment of 303. in direct taxes (i.e. taxes imposed by the central
JAPAN 203
government), but in 1900 the law of election was amended, and
the property qualification for electors is now a payment of £i
in direct taxes, while for candidates no qualification is required
either as to property or as to locality. Members are of two
kinds, namely, those returned by incorporated cities and those
returned by prefectures. In each case the ratio is one member
for every 130,000 electors, and the electoral district is the city
or prefecture.
Voting is by ballot, one man one vote, and a general election
must take place once in 4 years for the house of represen-
tatives, and once in 7 years for the house of peers. The house of
representatives, however, is liable to be dissolved by order of
the sovereign as a disciplinary measure, in which event a general
election must be held within 5 months from the date of disso-
lution, whereas the house of peers is not liable to any such treat-
ment. Otherwise the two houses enjoy equal rights and privi-
leges, except that the budget must first be submitted to the
representatives. Each member receives a salary of £200; the
president receives £500, and the vice-president £300. The
presidents are nominated by the sovereign from three names
submitted by each house, but the appointment of a vice-presi-
dent is within the independent right of each chamber. The
lower house consists of 379 members, of whom 75 are returned by
the urban population and 304 by the rural. Under the original
property qualification the number of franchise-holders was only
453,474, or 11-5 to every 1000 of the nation, but it is now
1,676,007, or 15-77 to every 1000. By the constitution which
created the diet freedom of conscience, of speech and of public
meeting, inviolability of domicile and correspondence, security
from arrest or punishment except by due process of law, perma-
nence of judicial appointments and all the other essential ele-
ments of civil liberty were granted. In the diet full legislative
authority is vested: without its consent no tax can be imposed,
increased or remitted; nor can any public money be paid out
except the salaries of officials, which the sovereign reserves the
right to fix at will. In the emperor are vested the prerogatives
of declaring war and making peace, of concluding treaties, of
appointing and dismissing officials, of approving and promul-
gating laws, of issuing urgent ordinances to take the temporary
place of laws, and of conferring titles of nobility.
Procedure of the Diet. — It could scarcely have been expected
that neither tumult nor intemperance would disfigure the proceed-
ings of a diet whose members were entirely without parliamentary
experience, but not without grievances to ventilate, wrongs (real or
fancied) to avenge, and abuses to redress. On the whole, however,
there has been a remarkable absence of anything like disgraceful
licence. The politeness, the good temper, and the sense of dignity
which characterize the Japanese, generally saved the situation when
it threatened to degenerate into a " scene." Foreigners entering
the house of representatives in Tokyo for the first time might easily
misinterpret some of its habits. A number distinguishes each
member. It is painted in white on a wooden indicator, the latter
being fastened by a hinge to the face of the member's desk. When
present he sets the indicator standing upright, and lowers it when
leaving the house. Permission to speak is not obtained by catching
the president's eye, but by calling out the aspirant's number, and as
members often emphasize their calls by hammering their desks with
the indicators, there are moments of decided din. But, for the rest,
orderliness and decorum habitually prevail. Speeches have to be
made from a rostrum. There are few displays of oratory oreloquence.
The Japanese formulates his views with remarkable facility. He is
absolutely free from gaucherfe or self-consciousness when speaking
n public : he can think on his feet. But his mind does not usually
jusy itself with abstract ideas and subtleties of philosophical or
religious thought. Flights of fancy, impassioned bursts of sentiment,
appeals to the heart rather than to the reason of an audience, are
devices strange to his mental habit. He can be rhetorical, but not
eloquent. Among all the speeches hitherto delivered in the Japanese
diet it would be difficult to find a passage deserving the latter epithet.
From the first the debates were recorded verbatim. Years before
:he date fixed for the promulgation of the constitution, a little band
of students elaborated a system of stenography and adapted it to
:he Japanese syllabary. Their labours remained almost without
recognition or remuneration until the diet was on the eve of meeting,
when it was discovered that a competent staff of shorthand reporters
could be organized at an hour's notice. Japan can thus boast that,
alone among the countries of the world, she possesses an exact record
of the proceedings of her Diet from the moment when the first word
was spoken within its walls.
204
A special feature of the Diet's procedure helps to discourage
oratorical displays. Each measure of importance has to be submitted
to a committee, and not until the latter's report has been received
does serious debate take place. But in ninety-nine cases out of
every hundred the committee's report determines the attitude of the
house, and speeches are felt to be more or less superfluous. One
result of this system is that business is done with a degree of celerity
scarcely known in Occidental legislatures. For example, the meetings
of the house of representatives during the session 1896-1897 were 32,
and the number of hours occupied by the sittings aggregated 116.
Yet the result was 55 bills debated and passed, several of them
measures of prime importance, such as the gold standard bill, the
budget and a statutory tariff law. It must be remembered that
although actual sittings of the houses are comparatively few and
brief, the committees remain almost constantly at work from morning
to evening throughout the twelve weeks of the session's duration.
Divisions of the Empire. — The earliest traditional divisions of
Japan into provinces was made by the emperor Seimu (131-190),
in whose time the sway of the throne did not extend farther north
than a line curving from Sendai Bay, on the north-east coast of the
main island, to the vicinity of Niigata (one of the treaty ports),
on the north-west coast. The region northward of this line was then
occupied by barbarous tribes, of whom the Ainu (still to be found
in Yezo) are probably the remaining descendants. The whole
country was then divided into thirty-two provinces. In the 3rd
century the empress Jingo, on her return from her victorious expedi-
tion against Korea, portioned out the empire into five home provinces
and seven circuits, in imitation of the Korean system. By the
emperor Mommu (696-707) some of the provinces were subdivided
so as to increase the whole number to sixty-six, and the boundaries
then fixed by him were re-surveyed in the reign of the emperor
Shomu (723-756). The old division is as follows ': —
I. The Go-kinai or " five home provinces " i.e. those lying imme-
diately around Kyoto, the capital, viz.: —
JAPAN [DIVISIONS
7. The Saikaido, or " western-sea circuit," which comprised
Yamashiro, also called Joshu
Yamato „ Washu
Kawachi Kashu
Izumi, also called Senshu
Settsu Sesshu
II. The seven circuits, as follow: —
I. The Tokaido, or " eastern-sea circuit,
fifteen provinces, viz. : —
1st
Shima
Owari
Mikawa
Totomi
Suruga
Itu
IshQ
Seishu
Shinshu
Bishu
Sanshu
Enshu
Sunshii
Dzushu
Kai
Sagami
Musashi
Awa
Kazusa
Shimdsa
Hitachi
which comprised
Kdshyu
Soshyu
Bushyu
Boshu
Soshu
S6shu
Joshu
a. The Tdzandd, or "eastern-mountain circuit," which com-
prised eight provinces, viz. : —
Omi
Mino
Hida
Shinano
Goshu
Noshu
Hishu
Shinshu
Kozuke
Shimotsuke
Mutsu
Dewa
Joshu
Yashu
Oshu
UshQ
3. The Hokurikudo, or " northern-land circuit," which com-
prised seven provinces, viz. : —
Wakasa or Jakushu Etchiu or EsshQ
Echizen „ EsshQ Echigo „ EsshQ
Kaga „ Kashu Sado (island) ,, Sashu
Noto „ N6shu
4. The Sanindd, or " mountain-back circuit," which com-
prised eight provinces, viz. : —
Tamba or TanshQ Hdki or HakushQ
Tango „ TanshQ Izumo „ Unshu
Tajtma „ TanshQ Iwami „ Sekishu
Inaba „ Inshu Oki (group of islands)
5. The Sanyodo, or " mountain-front circuit," which com-
prised eight provinces, viz. : —
Marima or Banshu Bingo or Bishu
Mimasaka „ Snkushu Aki ,, Geisha
Bizen „ Bishu Suwo „ Boshu
Bitchiu „ Bishu Nagato . ,. Chdshu
6. The Nankaidd, or " southern-sea circuit," which com-
prised six provinces, viz. : —
Kii
or
Kishu
Sanuki
or
SanshQ
Awaji
(island)
M
TanshQ
lyo
Yoshu
Awa
It
A shit
Tosa
ii
Toshu
1 The names given in italics are those more commonly used.
Those in the first column are generally of pure native derivation ;
those in the second column are composed of the Chinese word shu,
a " province," added to the Chinese pronunciation of one of the
characters with which the native name is written. In a few cases
both names are used.
Higo or Hishu
Hiuga „ Nisshu
Osumi „ Gushu
Satsuma ,, Sasshu
nine provinces, viz : —
Chikuzen or Chikushu
Chikugo „ Chikushu
Buzen „ Hoshu
Bungo „ Hoshu
Hizen „ Hishu
III. The two islands, viz.: —
I. Tsushima or Taishu \ 2. Iki or Ishu
Upon comparing the above list with a map of Japan, it will be
seen that the main island contains the Go-kinai, Tokaido, Tozando,
Hokurikudo, Sanindo, Sanyodo, and one province (Kishu) of the
Nankaido. Omitting also the island of Awaji, the remaining
provinces of the Nankaido give the name Shikoku (the " four
provinces ") to the island in which they lie; while Saikaido coincides
exactly with the large island Kiushiu (the " nine provinces ").
In 1868, when the rebellious nobles of Oshu and Dewa, in the
Tozando, had submitted to the emperor, those two provinces were
subdivided, Dewa into.Uzen and Ugo, and Oshu into Iwaki, Iwashiro,
Rikuzen, Rikuchu and Michinoku (usually called Mutsu). This
increased the old number of provinces from sixty-six to seventy-one.
At the same time there was created a new circuit, called the Hokkaido,
or " northern-sea circuit," which comprised the eleven provinces
into which the large island of Yezo was then divided (viz. Oshima,
Shiribeshi, I shikari, Teshibo, Kitami, Iburi, Hiaka.Tokachi, Kushiro,
and Nemuro) and the Kurile Islands (Chishima).
Another division of the old sixty-six provinces was made by
taking as a central point the ancient barrier of Osaka on the frontier
of Omi and Yamashiro, — the region lying on the east, which consisted
of thirty-three provinces, being called Kwanto, or " east of the
barrier," the remaining thirty-three provinces on the west being
styled Kwansei, or " west of the barrier." At the present time,
however, the term Kwanto is applied to only the eight provinces
of Musashi, Sagami, Kozuke, Shimotsuke, Kazusa, Shimdsa, Awa
and Hitachi, — all lying immediately to the east of the old barrier of
Hakone, in Sagami.
Chu-goku, or " central provinces," is a name in common use for
the Sanindo and Sanyodo taken together. Saikoku, or " western
provinces," is another name for Kiushiu, which in books again is
frequently called Chinsei.
Local Administrative Divisions. — For purposes of local admin-
istration Japan is divided into 3 urban prefectures (/«), 43 rural
prefectures (ken), and 3 special dominions (cho), namely Formosa,
Hokkaido and South Sakhalin. Formosa and Sakhalin not having
been included in Japan's territories until 1895 and 1905, respectively,
are still under the military control of a governor-general, and belong,
therefore, to an administrative system different from that prevailing
throughout the rest of the country. The prefectures and Hokkaido
are divided again into 638 sub-prefectures (gun or kori) ; 60 towns
(ski); 125 urban districts (cho) and 12,274 rural districts (son).
The three urban prefectures are Tokyo, Osaka and Kioto, and the
urban and rural districts are distinguished according to the number
of houses they contain. Each prefecture is named after its chief
town, with the exception of Okinawa, which is the appellation of a
group of islands called also Riukiu (Luchu). The following table
shows the names of the prefectures, their areas, populations, number
of sub-prefectures, towns and urban and rural divisions: —
ui ui tn
Prefecture.
T6ky5 . .
Kanagawa .
Saitama
Chiba . .
Ibaraki
Tochigi
Gumma
Nagano
Yamanashi
Shizuoka .
Aichi .
Miye .
Gifu . .
Shiga . .
Fukui .
Ishikawa .
Toyama
The
Niigata
Fuicushima
Miyagi.
Yamagata
Akita .
Area in
sq. m.
749-76
927-79
J-585-30
1-943-85
2,235-67
2,854-14
2,427-21
5,088-41
1,727-50
3,002-76
1,864-17
2,196-56
4,001-84
I-540-30
1,621-50
1,611-59
1,587-80
above 17
4.9I4-55
5-042-57
3-223-11
3-576-89
4.493-84
Population,
1,795,128 >
776,642
1,174,094
1-273-387
1,131.556
788,324
774,654
1,237.584
498,539
1,199.805
I.59I.357
495.389
996,062
712,024
633,840
392,905
785.554
prefectures form
1,812,289
1.057,971
835.830
829,210
775,077
A
</) 0.
8
ii
9
12
1
II
16
9
13
19
15
18
12
II
8
8
Central
16
\l
ii
9
Japan.
20
19
45
30
38
22
38
74
19
42
12
9
16
31
47
37
3'
24
42
• This is not the population of the city proper, but that of the
urban prefecture.
ARMY]
Prefecture.
Iwate
Aomori
Area in
sq. m.
5.359-17
3,617-89
Population.
726,380
612,171
13
&
£
i
2
.
Q
The above 7 prefectures form Northern Japan.
23
9
20
13
18
16
29
29
27
10
Kioto . . 1,767-43 931.576' 1 8 i
Osaka . . 689-69 1,311,909' 9 2
Nara . . 1,200-46 538,507 10 i
Wakayama 1,851-29 681,572 7 i
Hiogo . . 3.318-31 1,667,226 25 2
Okayama . 2,509-04 1,132,000 19 i
Hiroshima . 3,103-84 1,436,415 16 3
Yamaguchi 1,324-34 986,161 n i
Shimane . 2,597-48 721,448 16 i 14
Tottori . . 1,335-99 418,929 6 i 8
The above 10 prefectures form Southern Japan.
Tokushima . 1,616-82 699,398 10 i 2
Kagawa . 976-46 700,462 7 2 12
Ehime . . 2,033-57 997,48l 12 I 18
Kochi . . 2,720-13 616,549 6 i 14
The above 4 prefectures form the island of Shikoku.
Nagasaki . 1,401-49 821,323 9 2 15
Saga . . 984-07 621,011 8 i 7
Fukuoka . 1,894-14 1,362,743 19 4 38
Kumamoto 2,774-20 1,151,401 12 i 33
Oita . . . 2,400-27 839,485 12 28
Miyazaki . 2,904-54 454,7°7 8 — 9
Kagoshima . 3,589-76 1,104,631 12 I —
Okinawa . 935-1 8 469,203 52 —
The above 8 prefectures form Kiushiu.
Hokkaido . 36,328-34 610,155 88 3
I
.J
gQ
(3
217
159
260
289
142
215
403
383
420
215
276
227
137
1 66
283
183
288
127
34°
331
251
9i
380
52
456
local
19
Local Administrative System. — In the system of
administration full effect is given to the principle of popular
representation. Each prefecture (urban or rural), each sub-
prefecture, each town and each district (urban or rural) has its
local assembly, the number of members being fixed in proportion
to the population. There is no superior limit of number in the
case of a prefectural assembly, but the inferior limit is 30.
For a town assembly, however, the superior limit is 60 and the
inferior 30; for a sub-prefectural assembly the corresponding
figures are 40 and 15, and for a district assembly, 30 and 8.
These bodies are all elective. The property qualification for
the franchise in the case of prefectural and sub-prefectural
assemblies is an annual payment of direct national taxes to the
amount of 3 yen; and in the case of town and district assem-
blies, 2 yen; while to be eligible for election to a prefectural
assembly a yearly payment of 10 yen of direct national taxes
is necessary; to a sub-prefectural assembly, 5 yen, and to a town
or district assembly, 2 yen. Under these qualifications the
electors aggregate 2,009,745, and those eligible for election total
919,507. In towns and districts franchise-holders are further
divided into classes with regard to their payment of local taxes.
Thus for town electors there are three classes, differentiated by
the following process: On the list of ratepayers the highest are
checked off until their aggregate payments are equal to one-
third of the total taxes. These persons form the first class.
Next below them the persons whose aggregate payments repre-
sent one-third of the total amount are checked off to form the
second class, and all the remainder form the third class.
Each class elects one-third of the members of assembly.
In the districts there are only two classes, namely, those
whose payments, in order from the highest, aggregate one-
half of the total, the remaining names on the list being placed
in the second class. Each class elects one-half of the members.
This is called the system of o-jinushi (large landowners) and is
found to work satisfactorily as a device for conferring represen-
tative rights in proportion to property. The franchise is with-
held from all salaried local officials, from judicial officials, from
ministers of religion, from persons who, not being barristers by
profession, assist the people in affairs connected with law courts
or official bureaux, and from every individual or member of a
1 This is not the population of the city proper, but that of the
urban prefecture.
JAPAN 205
company that contracts for the execution of public works or the
supply of articles to a local administration, as well as from persons
unable to write their own names and the name of the candidate
for whom they vote. Members of assembly are not paid.
For prefectural and sub-prefectural assemblies the term is four
years; for town and district assemblies, six years, with the pro-
vision that one-half of the members must be elected every third
year. The prefectural assemblies hold one session of 30 days
yearly; the sub-prefectural assemblies, one session of not more
than 14 days. The town and district assemblies have no fixed
session; they are summoned by the mayor or the head-man when
their deliberations appear necessary, and they continue in session
till their business is concluded.
The chief function of the assemblies is to deal with all questions
of local finance. They discuss and vote the yearly budgets; they
pass the settled accounts; they fix the local taxes within a max'imum
limit which bears a certain ratio to the national taxes; they make
representations to the minister for home affairs ; they deal with the
fixed property of the locality; they raise loans, and so on. It is
necessary, however, that they should obtain the consent of the
minister for home affairs, and sometimes of the minister of finance
also, before disturbing any objects of scientific, artistic or historical
importance; before contracting loans; before imposing special taxes
or passing the normal limits of taxation; before enacting new local
regulations or changing the old; before dealing with grants in aid
made by the central treasury, &c. The governor of a prefecture,
who is appointed by the central administration, is invested with
considerable power. He oversees the carrying out of all works
undertaken at the public expense; he causes bills to be drafted for
discussion by an assembly; he is responsible for the administration
of the funds and property of the prefecture; he orders payments
and receipts; he directs the machinery for collecting taxes and fees;
he summons a prefectural assembly, opens it and closes it, and has
competence to suspend its session should such a course seem
necessary. Many of the functions performed by the governor with
regard to prefectural assemblies are discharged by a head-man
(gun-cho) in the case of sub-prefectural assemblies. This head-man
is a salaried official appointed by the central administration. He
convenes, opens and closes the sub-prefectural assembly; he may
require it to reconsider any of its financial decisions that seem
improper, explaining his reasons for doing so, and should the
assembly adhere to its original view, he may refer the matter to
the governor of the prefecture. On the other hand, the assembly
is competent to appeal to the home minister from the governor s
decision. The sub-prefectural head-man may also take upon him-
self, in case of emergency, any of the functions falling within the
competence of the sub-prefectural assembly, provided that he
reports the fact to the assembly and seeks its sanction at the earliest
possible opportunity. In each district also there is a head-man,
but his post is always elective and generally non-salaried. He
occupies towards a district assembly the same position that the sub-
prefecture head-man holds towards a sub-prefectural assembly.
Over the governors stands the minister for home affairs, who dis-
charges general duties of superintendence and sanction, has com-
petence to delete any item of a local budget, and may, with the
emperor's consent, order the dissolution of a local assembly, provided
that steps are taken to elect and convene another within three
months.
The machinery of local administration is completed by councils,
of which the governor of a prefecture, the mayor2 of a town, or
the head-man of a sub-prefecture or district, is ex officio president,
and the councillors are partly elective, partly nominated by the
central government. The councils may be said to stand in an
executive position towards the local legislatures, namely, the
assemblies, for the former give effect to the measures voted by the
latter, take their place in case of emergency and consider questions
submitted by them. This system of local government has now been
in operation since 1885, and has been found to work well. It con-
stitutes a thorough method of political education for the people.
In feudal days popular representation had no existence, but a very
effective chain of local responsibility was manufactured by dividing
the people — apart from tne samurai — into groups of five families,
which were held jointly liable for any offence committed by one
of their members. Thus it cannot be said that the people were
altogether unprepared for this new system.
The Army. — The Japanese — as distinguished from the abori-
ginal inhabitants of Japan — having fought their way into the
country, are naturally described in their annals as The Ancient
a nation of soldiers. The sovereign is said to have System.
been the commander-in-chief and his captains were known as
o-omi and o-muraji, while the duty of serving in the ranks
devolved on all subjects alike. This information is indeed
J The mayor of a town (shicho) is nominated by the minister for
home affairs from three men chosen by the town assembly.
206
JAPAN
[ARMY
derived from tradition only, since the first written record goes
back no further than 712. We are justified, however, in believing
that at the close of the 7th century of the Christian era, when the
empress Jito sat upon the throne, the social system of the Tang
dynasty of China commended itself for adoption; the distinc-
tion of civil and military is said to have been then established
for the first time, though it probably concerned officials only. Cer-
tain officers received definitely military commissions, as generals,
brigadiers, captains and so on; a military office (hydbu-sho) was
organized, and each important district throughout the empire
had its military division (gundan). One- third — some say one-
fourth — of the nation's able-bodied males constituted the army.
Tactically there was a complete organization, from the squad of
5 men to the division of 600 horse and 400 foot. Service was for
a defined period, during which taxes were remitted, so that
military duties always found men ready to discharge them.
Thus the hereditary soldier — afterwards known as the samurai or
bushi — did not yet exist, nor was there any such thing as an
exclusive right to carry arms. Weapons of war, the property
of the state, were served out when required for fighting or for
training purposes.
At the close of the 8th century stubborn insurrections on the
part of the aborigines gave new importance to the soldier.
The conscription list had to be greatly increased, and it came to
be a recognized principle that every stalwart man should bear
arms, every weakling become a bread-winner. Thus, for the
first time, the distinction between " soldier " and " working
man " * received official recognition, and in consequence of the
circumstances attending the distinction a measure of contempt
attached to the latter. The next stage of development had its
origin in the assumption of high offices of state by great families,
who encroached upon the imperial prerogatives, and appropri-
ated as hereditary perquisites posts which should have remained
in the gift of the sovereign. The Fujiwara clan, taking all the
civil offices, resided in the capital, whereas the military posts fell
to the lot of the Taira and the Minamoto, who, settling in the
provinces and being thus required to guard and police the out-
lying districts, found it expedient to surround themselves with
men who made soldiering a profession. ' These latter, in their
turn, transmitted their functions to their sons, so that there
grew up in the shadow of the great houses a number of military
families devoted to maintaining the power and promoting the
interests of their masters, from whom they derived their own
privileges and emoluments.
From the middle of the loth century, therefore, the terms
samurai and bushi acquired a special significance, being applied
to themselves and their followers by the local magnates, whose
power tended more and more to eclipse even that of the throne,
and finally, in the 1 2th century, when the Minamoto brought the
whole country under the sway of military organization, the
privilege of bearing arms was restricted to the samurai. Thence-
forth the military class entered upon a period of administrative
and social superiority which lasted, without serious interruption,
until the middle of the ipth century. But it is to be observed
that the distinction between soldier and civilian, samurai and
commoner, was not of ancient existence, nor did it arise from any
question of race or caste, victor or vanquished, as is often
supposed and stated. It was an outcome wholly of ambitious
usurpations, which, relying for success on force of arms, gave
practical importance to the soldier, and invested his profession
with factitious honour.
The bow was always the chief weapon of the fighting-man in
Japan. " War " and " bow-and-arrow " were synonymous terms.
Tradition tells how Tametomo shot an arrow through
** the crest of his brother's helmet, in order to recall
the youth's allegiance without injuring him; how Nasuno Michitaka
discharged a shaft that severed the stem of a fan swayed .by the
1 The term hyaku-sko, here translated " working man," means
literally " one engaged in any of the various callings " apart from
military service. In a later age a further distinction was established
between the agriculturist, the artisan, and the trader, and the word
hynku-sho then came to carry the signification of " husbandman "
only.
wind ; how Mutsuru, ordered by an emperor to rescue a fish from the
talons of an osprey without killing bird or fish, cut off the psprey's
feet with a crescent-headed arrow so that the fish dropped into the
palace lake and the bird continued its flight; and there are many
similar records of Japanese skill with the weapon. Still better
authenticated were the feats performed at the thirty-three-span
halls " in Kioto and Yedo, where the archer had to shoot an arrow
through the whole length of a corridor 128 yards long and only 16 ft.
high. Wada Daihachi, in the I7th century, succeeded in sending
8133 arrows from end to end of the corridor in 24 consecutive hours,
being an average of over 5 shafts per minute; and Masatoki, in 1852,
made 5383 successful shots in 20 hours, more than 4 a minute. The
lengths of the bow and arrow were determined with reference to the
capacity of the archer. In the case of the bow, the unit of measure-
ment was the distance between the tips of the thumb and the little
finger with the hand fully stretched. Fifteen of these units gave the
length of the bow — the maximum being about 7i ft. The unit for
the arrow was from 12 to 15 hand-breadths, or from 3 ft. to 3J ft.
Originally the bow was of unvarnished boxwood or zelkowa; but
subsequently bamboo alone came to be employed. Binding with
cord or rattan served to strengthen the bow, and for precision of
flight the arrow had three feathers, an eagle's wing being most
esteemed for that purpose, and after it, in order, that of the copper
pheasant, the crane, the adjutant and the snipe.
Next in importance to the bow came the sword, which is often
spoken of as the samurai's chief weapon, though there can be no
doubt that during long ages it ranked after the bow. It was a
single-edged weapon remarkable for its three exactly similar curves —
edge, face-line and back; its almost imperceptibly convexed blade;
its admirable tempering; its consummately skilled forging; its
razor-like sharpness; its cunning distribution of weight, giving a
maximum efficiency of stroke. The ipth century saw this weapon
carried to perfection, and it has been inferred that only from that
epoch did the samurai begin to esteem his sword as the greatest
treasure he possessed, and to rely on it as his best instrument of
attack and defence. But it is evident that the evolution of such
a blade must have been due to an urgent, long-existing demand, and
that the katana came as the sequel of innumerable efforts on the part
of the sword-smith and generous encouragement on that of the
soldier. Many pages of Japanese annals and household traditions
are associated with its use. In every age numbers of men devoted
their whole lives to acquiring novel skill in swordsmanship. Many
of them invented systems of their own, differing from one another
in some subtle details unknown to any save the master himself and
his favourite pupils. Not merely the method of handling the weapon
had to be studied. Associated with sword-play was an art variously
known as shinobi, yawara, and jujutsu, names which imply the
exertion of muscular force in such a manner as to produce a maximum
of effect with a minimum of effort, by directing an adversary's
strength so as to become auxiliary to one's own. ft was an essential
element of the expert's art not only that he should be competent
to defend himself with any object that happened to be within reach,
but also that without an orthodox weapon he should be capable of
inflicting fatal or disabling injury on an assailant. In the many
records of great swordsmen instances are related of men seizing a
piece of firewood, a brazier-iron, or a druggist's pestle as a weapon
of offence, while, on the other side, an umbrella, an iron fan or even
a pot-lid served for protection. The samurai had to be prepared
for every emergency. Were he caught weaponless by a number of
assailants, his art of yawara was supposed to supply him with
expedients for emerging unscathed. Nothing counted save the
issue. The methods of gaining victory or the circumstances attend-
ing defeat were scarcely taken into consideration. The true samurai
had to rise superior to all contingencies. Out of this perpetual
effort on the part of hundreds of experts to discover and perfect
novel developments of swordsmanship, there grew a habit which
held its vogue down to modern times, namely, that when a man had
mastered one style of sword-play in the school of a teacher, he set
himself to study all others, and for that purpose undertook a tour
throughout the provinces, challenging every expert, and, in the event
of defeat, constituting himself the victor's pupil. The sword
exercised a potent influence on the life of the Japanese nation. The
distinction of wearing it, the rights that it conferred, the deeds
wrought with it, the fame attaching to special skill in its use, the
superstitions connected with it, the incredible value set upon a fine
blade, the honours bestowed on an expert sword-smith, the tradi-
tions that had grown up around celebrated weapons, the profound
study needed to be a competent judge of a sword's qualities — all
these things conspired to give the katana an importance beyond the
limits of ordinary comprehension. A samurai carried at least two
swords, a long and a short. Their scabbards of lacquered wood
were thrust into his girdle, not slung from it, being fastened in their
place by cords of plaited silk. Sometimes he increased the number
of swords to three, four or even five, before going into battle, and
this array was supplemented by a dagger carried in the bosom. The
short sword was not employed in the actual combat. Its use was
to cut off an enemy's head after overthrowing him, and it also served
a defeated soldier in his last resort — suicide. In general the long
sword did not measure more than 3 ft., including the hilt; but some
were 5 ft. long, and some 7. Considering that the scabbard, being
WEAPONS]
JAPAN
fastened to the girdle, had no play, the feat of drawing one of these
very long swordls demanded extraordinary aptitude.
Spear and glaive were also ancient Japanese weapons. The oldest
form of spear was derived from China. Its handle measured about
6 ft. and its blade 8 in., and it had sickle-shaped horns at the junction
of blade and hilt (somewhat resembling a European ranseur). This
weapon served almost exclusively for guarding palisades and gates.
In the I4th century a true lance came into use. Its length varied
greatly, and it had a hog-backed blade tempered almost as finely
as the sword itself. This, too, was a Chinese type, as was also the
glaive. The glaive (naginata, long sword) was a scimitar-like blade,
some 3 ft. in length, fixed on a slightly longer haft. Originally the
warlike monks alone employed this weapon, but from the I2th
century it found much favour among military men. Ultimately,
however, its use may be said to have been limited to women and
priests. The spear, however, formed a useful adjunct of the sword,
for whereas the latter could not be used except by troops in very
loose formation, the former served for close-order fighting.
Japanese armour (gusoku) may be broadly described as plate
armour, but the essential difference between it and the European
Armour. tyP6 was that, whereas the latter took its shape from the
body, the former neither resembled nor was intended to
resemble ordinary garments. Hence the only changes that occurred
in Japanese armour from generation to generation had their origin
in improved methods of construction. In general appearance it
differed from the panoply of all other nations, so that, although to
its essential parts we may apply with propriety the European terms
— helmet, corselet, &c. — individually and in combination these parts
were not at all like the originals of those names. Perhaps the
easiest way of describing the difference is to say that whereas a
European knight seemed to be clad in a suit of metal clothes, a
Japanese samurai looked as if he wore protective curtains. The
Japanese armour was, in fact, suspended from, rather than fitted
to, the person. Only one of its elements found a counterpart in the
European suit, namely, a tabard, which, in the case of men of rank,
was made of the richest brocade. Iron and leather were the chief
materials, and as the laminae were strung together with a vast
number of coloured cords — silk or leather — an appearance of con-
siderable brilliancy was produced. Ornamentation did not stop
there. Plating and inlaying with gold and silver, and finely wrought
decoration in chiselled, inlaid and repousst work were freely applied.
On the whole, however, despite the highly artistic character of its
ornamentation, the loose, pendulous nature of Japanese armour
detracted greatly from its workmanlike aspect, especially when the
horo was added— ^ curious appendage in the shape of a curtain of
fine transparent silk, which was either stretched in front between the
horns of the helmet and the tip of the bow, or worn on the shoulders
and back, the purpose in either case being to turn the point of an
arrow. A true samurai observed strict rules of etiquette with
regard even to the garments worn under his armour, and it was part
of his soldierly capacity to be able to bear the great weight of the
whole without loss of activity, a feat impossible to any untrained
man of modern days. Common soldiers were generally content
with a comparatively light helmet and a corselet.
The Japanese never had a war-horse worthy to be so called. The
mis-shapen ponies which carried them to battle showed qualities of
War-horses, hardiness and endurance, but were so deficient in
' stature and massiveness that when mounted by a man
in voluminous armour they looked painfully puny. Nothing is
known of the early Japanese saddle, but at the beginning of
historic times it approximated closely to the Chinese type. Subse-
quently a purely Japanese shape was designed. It consisted of a
wooden frame so constructed that a padded numnah could be
fastened to it. Galled backs or withers were unknown with such a
saddle: it fitted any horse. The stirrup, originally a simple affair
resembling that of China and Europe, afterwards took the form of a
shoe-sole with upturned toe. Both stirrups and saddle-frame were
often of beautiful workmanship, the former covered with rich gold
lacquer, the latter inlaid with gold or silver. In the latter part of
the military epoch chain-armour was adopted for the horse, and its
head was protected by a monster-faced mask of iron.
Flags were used in battle as well as on ceremonial occasions.
Some were monochrome, as the red and white flags of the Taira
Early and the Minamoto clans in their celebrated struggle
strategy during the 1 2th century; and some were streamers
and factes-emblazoned with figures of the sun, the moon, a dragon,
a tiger and so forth, or with religious legends. Fans with iron
ribs were carried by commanding officers, and signals to advance
or retreat were given by beating drums and metal gongs and blow-
ing conches. During the military epoch a campaign was opened
or a contest preluded by a human sacrifice to the god of war, the
victim at this rite of blood (chi-matsuri) being generally a prisoner
or a condemned criminal. Although ambuscades and surprises
played a large part in ah1 strategy, pitched battles were the
general rule, and it was essential that notice of an intention to
attack should be given by discharging a singing arrow. Thereafter
207
the assaulting army, taking the word from its commander, raised
a shout of " Ei! Ei! " to which the other side replied, and the
formalities having been thus satisfied, the fight commenced.
In early medieval days tactics were of the crudest descrip-
tion. An army consisted of a congeries of little bands, each
under the order of a chief who considered himself independent,
and instead of subordinating his movements to a general plan,
struck a blow wherever he pleased. From time immemorial
a romantic value has attached in Japan to the first of anything:
the first snow of winter; the first water drawn from the well on
New Year's Day; the first blossom of the spring; the first note
of the nightingale. So in war the first to ride up to the foe or
the wielder of the first spear was held in high honour, and a
samurai strove for that distinction as his principal duty. It
necessarily resulted, too, not only from the nature of the weapons
employed, but also from the immense labour devoted by the
true samurai to perfecting himself in their use, that displays of
individual prowess were deemed the chief object in a battle.
Some tactical formations borrowed from China were familiar in
Japan, but their intelligent use and their modification to suit the
circumstances of the time were inaugurated only by the great
captains of the isth and i6th centuries. Prior to that epoch a
battle resembled a gigantic fencing match. Men fought a's
individuals, not as units of a tactical formation, and the engage-
ment consisted of a number of personal duels, all in simultaneous
progress. It was the samurai's habit to proclaim his name and
titles in the presence of the enemy, sometimes adding from his
own record or his father's any details that might tend to
dispirit his hearers. Then some one advancing to cross weapons
with him would perform the same ceremony of self-introduction,
and if either found anything to upbraid hi the other's ante-
cedents or family history, he did not fail to make loud reference
to it, such a device being counted efficacious as a means of dis-
turbing an adversary's sang-froid, though the principle under-
lying the mutual introduction was courtesy. The duellists
could reckon on finishing their fight undisturbed, but the victor
frequently had to endure the combined assault of a number of
the comrades or retainers of the vanquished. Of course a
skilled swordsman did not necessarily seek a single combat; he
was equally ready to ride into the thick of the fight without dis-
crimination, and a group of common soldiers never hesitated
to make a united attack upon a mounted officer if they found him
disengaged. But the general feature of a battle was individual
contests, and when the fighting had ceased, each samurai pro-
ceeded to the tent1 of the commanding officer and submitted
for inspection the heads of those whom he had killed.
The disadvantage of such a mode of fighting was demonstrated
for the first time when the Mongols invaded Japan in 1274.
The invaders moved in phalanx, guarding themselves
with pavises, and covering their advance with a
host of archers shooting clouds of poisoned arrows.2
When a Japanese samurai advanced singly and challenged one
of them to combat, they opened their ranks, enclosed the chal-
lenger and cut him to pieces. Many Japanese were thus slain,
and it was not until they made a concerted movement of attack
that they produced any effect upon the enemy. But although
the advantage of massing strength seems to have been recognized,
the Japanese themselves did not adopt the formation which the
Mongols had shown to be so formidable. Individual prowess
continued to be the prominent factor in battles down to a com-
paratively recent period. The great captains Takeda Shingen
and Uyesugi Kenshin are supposed to have been Japan's pioneer
tacticians. They certainly appreciated the value of a formation
in which the action of the individual should be subordinated to
the unity of the whole. But when it is remembered that fire-
arms had already been in the hands of the Japanese for several
years, and that they had means of acquainting themselves with
1 A tent was simply a space enclosed with strips of cloth or silk,
on which was emblazoned the crest of the commander. It had no
covering.
1 The Japanese never at any time of their history used poisoned
arrows; they despised them as depraved and inhuman weapons.
Change of
Tactics.
208
JAPAN
[SAMURAI
the tactics of Europe through their intercourse with the Dutch,
it is remarkable that the changes attributed to Takeda and
Uyesugi were not more drastic. Speaking broadly, what they
did was to organize a column with the musqueteers and archers
in front; the spearmen and swordsmen in the second line; the
cavalry in the third line; the commanding officer in the rear,
and the drums and standards in the centre. At close quarters
the spear proved a highly effective weapon, and in the days of
Hideyoshi (1536-1598) combined flank and front attacks by
bands of spearmen became a favourite device. The importance
of a strong reserve also received recognition, and in theory, at all
events, a tolerably intelligent system of tactics was adopted.
But not until the close of the i7th century did the doctrine of
strictly disciplined action obtain practical vogue. . Yamaga
Soko is said to have been the successful inculcator of this prin-
ciple, and from his time the most approved tactical formation
was known as the Yamagaryii (Yamaga style), though it showed
no other innovation than strict subordination of each unit to the
general plan.
Although, tactically speaking, the samurai was everything and
the system nothing before the second half of the I7th century,
and although strategy was chiefly a matter of decep-
Prtacipies. l'on' surprises and ambushes, it must not be supposed
that there were no classical principles. The student
of European military history searches in vain for the rules and
maxims of war so often invoked by glib critics, but the student
of Japanese history is more successful. Here, as in virtually
every field of things Japanese, retrospect discovers the ubi-
quitous Chinaman. The treatises of Sung and 'Ng (called in Japan
Son and Go) Chinese generals of the third century after Christ,
were the classics of Far-Eastern captains through all generations.
(See The Book of War, tr. E. F. Calthrop, 1908.) Yoshitsune, in
the 1 2th century, deceived a loving girl to obtain a copy of
Sung's work which her father had in his possession, and Yamaga,
•in the I7th century, when he set himself to compose a book on
tactics, derived his materials almost entirely from the two
Chinese monographs. These treatises came into the hands of
the Japanese in the 8th century, when the celebrated Kibi no
Mabi went to study civilization in China, just as his successors
of the igth century went to study a new civilization in Europe
and America. Thenceforth Son and Go became household
words among Japanese soldiers. Their volumes were to the
samurai what the Mahayana was to the Buddhist. They were
believed to have collected whatever of good had preceded them,
and to have forecast whatever of good the future might produce.
The -character of their strategic methods, somewhat analogous
to those of iSth-century Europe, may be gathered from the
following: —
" An army undertaking an offensive campaign must be twice as
numerous as the enemy. A force investing a fortress should be
numerically ten times the garrison. When the adversary holds
high ground, turn his flank; do not deliver a frontal attack. When
he has a mountain or a river behind him, cut his lines of communica-
tion. If he deliberately assumes a position from which victory is
his only escape, hold him there, but do not molest him. If you can
surround him, leave one route open for his escape, since desperate
men fight fiercely. When you have to cross a river, put your advance-
guard and your rear-guard at a distance from the banks. When
the enemy has to cross a river, let him get well engaged in the
operation before you strike at him. In a march, make celerity your
first object. Pass no copse, enter no ravine, nor approach any
thicket until your scouts have explored it fully."
Such precepts are multiplied; but when these ancient authors
discuss tactical formations, they do not seem to have contem-
plated anything like rapid, well-ordered changes of mobile,
highly trained masses of men from one formation to another,
or their quick transfer from point to point of a battlefield. The
basis of their tactics is The Book of Changes. Here again is
encountered the superstition that underlies nearly all Chinese
and Japanese institutions: the superstition that took captive
even the great mind of Confucius. The positive and the nega-
tive principles; the sympathetic and the antipathetic elements;
cosmos growing out of chaos; chaos re-absorbing cosmos — on
such fancies they founded their tactical system. The result was
a phalanx of complicated organization, difficult to manoeuvre
and liable to be easily thrown into confusion. Yet when Yamaga
in the lyth century interpreted these ancient Chinese treatises,
he detected in them suggestions for a very shrewd use of
the principle of echelon, and applied it to devise formations
which combined much of the frontal expansion of the line with
the solidity of the column. More than that cannot be said for
Japanese tactical genius. The samurai was the best fighting
unit in the Orient — probably one of the best fighting units the
world ever produced. It was perhaps because of that excellence
that his captains remained indifferent tacticians.
In estimating the military capacity of the Japanese, it is
essential to know something of the ethical code of the samurai,
the bushido (way of the warrior) as it was called. A ethics
typical example of the rules of conduct prescribed of the
by feudal chieftains is furnished in the code of Kato Samumi.
Kiyomasa, a celebrated general of the i6th century: —
Regulations for Samurai of every Rank; the Highest and Lowest alike.
1. The routine of service must be strictly observed. From
6 a.m. military exercises shall be practised. Archery, gunnery and
horsemanship must not be neglected. If any man shows excep-
tional proficiency he shall receive extra pay.
2. Those that desire recreation may engage in hawking, deer-
hunting or wrestling.
3. With regard to dress, garments of cotton or pongee shall be
worn. Any man incurring debts owing to extravagance of costume
or living shall be considered a law-breaker. If, however, being
zealous in the practice of military arts suitable to his rank, he desires
to hire instructors, an allowance may be granted to him for that
purpose.
4. The staple of diet shall be unhulled rice. At social entertain-
ments one guest for one host is the proper limit. Only when men
are assembled for military exercises shall many dine together.
5. It is the duty of every samurai to make himself acquainted
with the principles of his craft. Extravagant displays of adornment
are forbidden in battle.
6. Dancing or organizing dances is unlawful ; it is likely to betray
sword-carrying men into acts of violence. Whatever a man does
should be done with his heart. Therefore for the soldier military
amusements alone are suitable. The penalty for violating this
provision is death by suicide.
7. Learning shall be encouraged. Military books must be read.
The spirit of loyalty and filial piety must be educated before all
things. Poem-composing pastimes are not to be engaged in by
samurai. To be addicted to such amusements is to resemble a
woman. A man born a samurai should live and die sword in hand.
Unless he is thus trained in time of peace, he will be useless in the
hour of stress. To be brave and warlike must be his invariable
condition.
8. Whosoever finds these rules too severe shall be relieved from
service. Should investigation show that any one is so unfortunate
as to lack manly qualities, he shall be singled out and dismissed
forthwith. The imperative character of these instructions must
not be doubted.
The plainly paramount purpose of these rules was to draw a
sharp line of demarcation between the samurai and the courtiers
living in Kioto. The dancing, the couplet-composing, the sump-
tuous living and the fine costumes of the officials frequenting
the imperial capital were strictly interdicted by the feudatories.
Frugality, fealty and filial piety — these may be called the funda-
mental virtues of the samurai. Owing to the circumstances out
of which his caste had grown, he regarded all bread-winning
pursuits with contempt, and despised money. To be swayed in
the smallest degree by mercenary motives was despicable in his
eyes. Essentially a stoic, he made self-control the ideal of his
existence, and practised the courageous endurance of suffering
so thoroughly that he could without hesitation inflict on his own
body pain of the most horrible description. Nor can the courage
of the samurai justly be ascribed to bluntness of moral sensibility
resulting from semi-savage conditions of life. From the 8th
century onwards the current of existence in Japan set with
general steadiness in the direction of artistic refinement and
voluptuous luxury, amidst which men could scarcely fail to
acquire habits and tastes inconsistent with acts of high courage
and great endurance. The samurai's mood was not a product
of semi-barbarism, but rather a protest against emasculating
civilization. He schooled himself to regard death by his own
hand as a normal eventuality. The story of other nations shows
SAMURAI]
epochs when death was welcomed as a relief and deliberately
invited as a refuge from the mere weariness of living. But
wherever there has been liberty to choose, and leisure to employ,
a painless mode of exit from the world, men have invariably
selected it. The samurai, however, adopted in humkiri (dis-
embowelment) a mode of suicide so painful and so shocking
that to school the mind to regard it with indifference and
perform it without flinching was a feat not easy to conceive.
Assistance was often rendered by a friend who stood ready to
decapitate the victim immediately after the stomach had been
gashed; but there were innumerable examples of men who con-
summated the tragedy without aid, especially when the sacrifice
of life was by way of protest against the excesses of a feudal
chief or the crimes of a ruler, or when some motive for secrecy
existed. It must be observed that the suicide of the samurai
was never inspired by any doctrine like that of Hegesias.
Death did not present itself to him as a legitimate means of
escaping from the cares and disappointments of life. Self-
destruction had only one consolatory aspect, that it was the
soldier's privilege to expiate a crime with his own sword, not
under the hand of the executioner. It rested with his feudal
chief to determine his guilt, and his peremptory duty was never
to question the justice of an order to commit suicide, but to
obey without murmur or protest. For the rest, the general
motives for suicide were to escape falling into the hands of a
victorious enemy, to remonstrate against some official abuse
which no ordinary complaint could reach, or, by means of a
dying protest, to turn a liege lord from pursuing courses injurious
to his reputation and his fortune. This last was the noblest
and by no means the most infrequent reason for suicide. Scores
of examples are recorded of men who, with everything to make
existence desirable, deliberately laid down their lives at the
prompting of loyalty. Thus the samurai rose to a remarkable
height of moral nobility. He had no assurance that his death
might not be wholly fruitless, as indeed it often proved. If the
sacrifice achieved its purpose, if it turned a liege lord from evil
courses, the samurai could hope that his memory would be
honoured. But if the lord resented such a violent and con-
spicuous mode of reproving his excesses, then the faithful vassal's
retribution would be an execrated memory and, perhaps,
suffering for his family and relatives. Yet the deed was per-
formed again and again. It remains to be noted that the
samurai entertained a high respect for the obligations of truth;
" A bushi has no second word," was one of his favourite mottoes.
However, a reservation is necessary here. The samurai's
doctrine was not truth for truth's sake, but truth for the sake
of the spirit of uncompromising manliness on which he based all
his code of morality. A pledge or a promise must never be
broken, but the duty of veracity did not override the interests
or the welfare of others. Generosity to a defeated foe was also
one of the tenets of the samurai's ethics. History contains
many instances of the exercise of that quality.
Something more, however, than a profound conception of
duty was needed to nerve the samurai for sacrifices such as he
seems to have been always ready to make. It is true
tnat JaPanese parents of the military class took pains
to familiarize their children of both sexes from very
tender years with the idea of self-destruction at any time.
But superadded to the force of education and the incentive of
tradition there was a transcendental influence. Buddhism
supplied it. The tenets of that creed divided themselves,
broadly speaking, into two doctrines, salvation by faith and
salvation by works, and the chief exponent of the latter prin-
ciple is the sect which prescribes meditation as the vehicle of
enlightenment. Whatever be the mental processes induced by
this rite, those who have practised it insist that it leads finally
to a state of absorption, in which the mind is flooded by an illu-
mination revealing the universe in a new aspect, absolutely free
from all traces of passion, interest or affection, and showing,
written across everything in flaming letters, the truth that for
him who has found Buddha there is neither birth nor death,
growth nor decay. Lifted high above1 his surroundings, he is
JAPAN 209
prepared to meet every fate with indifference. The attainment
of that state seems to have been a fact in the case both of the
samurai of the military epoch and of the Japanese soldier to-day.
The policy of seclusion adopted by the Tokugawa adminis-
tration after the Shimabara insurrection included an order that
no samurai should acquire foreign learning. Abolition of
Nevertheless some knowledge could not fail to the Samurai.
filter in through the Dutch factory at Deshima, and thus, a few
years before the advent of the American ships, Takashima
Shuhan, governor of Nagasaki, becoming persuaded of the fate
his country must invite if she remained oblivious of the world's
progress, memorialized the Yedo government in the sense that,
unless Japan improved her weapons of war and reformed her
military system, she could not escape humiliation such as had
just overtaken China. He obtained small arms and field-guns
of modern type from Holland, and, repairing to Yedo with a
company of men trained according to the new tactics, he offered
an object lesson for the consideration of the conservative
officials. They answered by throwing him into prison. But
Egawa, one of his retainers, proved a still more zealous reformer,
and his foresight being vindicated by the appearance of the
American war-vessels in 1853, he won the government's confi-
dence and was entrusted with the work of planning and building
forts at Shinagawa and Shimoda. At Egawa's instance rifles
and cannon were imported largely from Europe, and their manu-
facture was commenced in Japan, a powder-mill also being estab-
lished with machinery obtained from Holland. Finally, in
1862, the shogun's government adopted the military system of
the West, and organized three divisions of all arms, with a total
strength of 13,600 officers and men. Disbanded at the fall of
the. shogunate in 1867, this force nevertheless served as a model
for a similar organization under the imperial government, and
in the meanwhile the principal fiefs had not been idle, some — as
Satsuma — adopting English tactics, others following France or
Germany, and a few choosing Dutch. There appeared upon the
stage at this juncture a great figure in the person of Omura
Masujiro, a samurai of the Choshu clan. He established Japan's
first military school at Kioto in 1868; he attempted to substitute
for the hereditary soldier conscripts taken from all classes of the
people, and he conceived the plan of dividing the whole empire
into six military districts. An assassin's dagger removed him
on the threshold of these great reforms, but his statue now
stands in Tokyo and his name is spoken with reverence by all
his countrymen. In 1870 Yamagata Aritomo (afterwards
Field-Marshal Prince Yamagata) and Saigo Tsugumichi (after-
wards Field-Marshal Marquis Saigo) returned from a tour of
military inspection in Europe, and in 187^ they organized a
corps of Imperial guards, taken from the three clans which had
been conspicuous in the work of restoring the administrative
power to the sovereign, namely, the clans of Satsuma, Choshu
and Tosa. They also established garrisons in Tokyo, Sendai,
Osaka and Kumamoto, thus placing the military authority in
the hands of the central government. Reforms followed quickly.
In 1872, the hydbusho, an office which controlled all matters
relating to war, was replaced by two departments, one of war
and one of the navy, and, in 1873, an imperial decree substituted
universal conscription for the system of hereditary militarism.
Many persons viewed this experiment with deep misgiving.
They feared that it would not only alienate the samurai, but also
entrust the duty of defending the country to men unfitted by
tradition and custom for such a task, namely, the farmers,
artisans and tradespeople, who, after centuries of exclusion from
the military pale, might be expected to have lost all martial spirit.
The government, however, was not deterred by these appre-
hensions. It argued that since the distinction of samurai and
commoner had not originally existed, and since the former was
a product simply of accidental conditions, there was no valid
reason to doubt the military capacity of the people at large.
The justice of this reasoning was put to a conclusive test a few
years later. Originally the period of service with the colours
was fixed at 3 years, that of service with the first and second
reserves being 2 years each. One of the serious difficulties
2IO
JAPAN
[ARMY
encountered at the outset was that samurai conscripts were too
proud to stand in the ranks with common rustics or artisans,
and above all to obey the commands of plebeian officers. But
patriotism soon overcame this obstacle. The whole country —
with the exception of the northern island, Yezo — was parcelled
out into six military districts (headquarters Tokyo, Osaka,
Nagoya, Sendai, Hiroshima and Kumamoto) each furnishing a
division of all arms and services. There was also from 1876 a
guards division in Tokyo. The total strength on a peace footing
was 3 1 ,680 of all arms, and on a war footing, 46,3 50. The defence
of Yezo was entrusted to a colonial militia. It may well be
supposed that to find competent officers for this army greatly
perplexed its organizers. The military school — now in Tokyo
but originally founded by Omura in Kioto — had to turn out
graduates at high pressure, and private soldiers who showed any
special aptitude were rapidly promoted to positions of command.
French military instructors were engaged, and the work of
translating manuals was carried out with all celerity. In 1877,
this new army of conscripts had to endure a crucial test: it had
to take the field against the Satsuma samurai, the very flower
of their class, who in that year openly rebelled against the Tokyo
'government. The campaign lasted eight months; as there had
not yet been time to form the reserves, the Imperial forces were
soon seriously reduced in number by casualties in the field and
by disease, the latter claiming many victims owing to defective
commissariat. It thus became necessary to have recourse to
volunteers, but as these were for the most part samurai, the
expectation was that their hereditary instinct of fighting would
compensate for lack of training. That expectation was not
fulfilled. Serving side by side in the field, the samurai volun-
teer and the heimin1 regular were found to differ by precisely
the degree of their respective training. The fact was thus
finally established that the fighting qualities of the farmer and
artisan reached as high a standard as those of the bushi.
Thenceforth the story of the Japanese army is one of steady pro-
gress and development. In 1878, the military duties of the empire
were divided among three offices: namely, the army department,
the general staff and the inspection department, while the six
divisions of troops were organized into three army corps.
In 1879, the total period of colour and reserve service became 10
years. In 1883 the period was extended to 12 years, the list of
exemptions was abbreviated, and above all substitution was no
longer allowed. Great care was devoted to the training of officers;
promotion went by merit, and at least ten of the most promising
officers were sent abroad every year to study. A comprehensive
system of education for the rank and file was organized. Great
difficulty was experienced in procuring horses suitable for cavalry,
and indeed the Japanese army long remained weak in this arm.
hi 1886, the whole littoral of the empire was divided into five
districts, each with its admiralty and its naval port, and the army
being made responsible for coast defence, a battery construction
corps was formed. Moreover, an exhaustive scheme was elaborated
to secure full co-operation between the army and navy. In 1888
the seven divisions of the army first found themselves prepared to
take the field, and, in 1893, a revised system of mobilization was
sanctioned, to be put into operation the following year, for the Chino-
Japanese War (q.v.). At this period the division, mobilized for
service in the field, consisted of 12 battalions of infantry, 3 troops of
cavalry, 4 batteries of field and 2 of mountain artillery, 2 companies
of sappers and train, totalling 18,492 of all arms with 5633 horses.
The guards had only 8 battalions and 4 batteries (held). The
field army aggregatea over 120,000, with 168 field and 72 mountain
guns, and the total of all forces, field, garrison and depdt, was 220,580
of all arms, with 47,220 horses and 294 guns. Owing, however, to
various modifications necessitated by circumstances, the numbers
actually on duty were over 240,000, with 6495 non-combatant
employees and about 100,000 coolies who acted as carriers. The
infantry were armed with the M unit a single-loader rifle, but the
field artillery was inferior, and the only two divisions equipped with
magazine rifles and smokeless powder never came into action.
The experiences gained in this war bore large fruit. The total term
of service with the colours and the reserves was slightly increased ;
the colonial militia of Yezo (Hokkaido) was organized as a seventh
line division ; 5 new divisions were added, bringing the whole number
of divisions to 13 (including the guards) ; a mixed brigade was
stationed in Formosa (then newly added to Japan's dominions) ;
a high military council composed of field-marshals was created;
the cavalry was brigaded; the garrison artillery was increased;
strenuous efforts were made to improve the education of officers and
1 The general term for commoners as distinguished from samurai.
men ; and lastly, sanitary arrangements underwent much modification.
An arsenal had been established in Tokyo, in 1868, for the manufac-
ture of small arms and small-arm ammunition; this was followed
by an arsenal in Osaka for the manufacture of guns and gun-ammuni-
tion; four powder factories were opened, and in later years big-gun
factories at Kure and Mororan. Japan was able to make 12-inch
guns in 1902, and her capacity for this kind of work was in 1909
second to none. She has her own patterns of rifle and field gun,
so that she is independent of foreign aid so far as armaments are
concerned. In 1900, she sent a force to North China to assist in
the campaign for the relief of the foreign legations in Peking, and
on that occasion her troops were able to observe at first hand the
qualities and methods of European soldiers. In 1904 took place
the great war with Russia (see RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR). After the
war important changes were made in the direction of augmenting
and improving the armed forces. The number of divisions was
increased to 19 (including the guards), of which one division is for
service in Korea and one for service in Manchuria. Various technical
corps were organized, as well as horse artillery, heavy field artiljery
and machine-gun units. The field-gun was replaced by a quick-
firer manufactured at Osaka, and much attention was given to the
question of remounts — for, both in the war with China and in that with
Russia, the horsing of the cavalry had been poor. Perhaps the most
far-reaching change in all armies of late years is the shortening
of the term of service with the colours to 2 years for the infantry,
3 years remaining the rule for other arms. This was adopted by
Japan after the war, the infantry period of service with the reserves
being extended to 14$ years, and of course has the effect of greatly
augmenting the potential war strength. As to this, figures are kept
secret, nor can any accurate approximation be attempted without
danger of error. Rough estimates of Japan's war strength have, how-
ever, been made, giving 550,000 as the war strength of the first line
army, plus 34,000 for garrisons overseas and 150,000 special reserves
(hoju); 370,000 second line or kobi, and 110,000 for the fully trained
portion of the territorial forces, or Kokumin-hei. All these branches
can further draw upon half-trained elements to the number of about
800,000 to replace losses. Japan's available strength in the last
resort for home defence was recently (1909) stated by the Russian
Navoye Vremya at 3,000,000. In 20 years, when the present system
has produced its full effect, the first line should be 740,000 strong,
the second line 780,000, and the third line about 3,850,000 (3,000,000
untrained and 850,000 partly trained). Details can be found in
Journal of the R. United Service Institution, Dec. i9O9-Jan. 1910.
At 20 years of age every Japanese subject, of whatever status,
becomes liable for military service. But the difficulty of making
service universal in the case of a growing population is „ . .
felt here as in Europe, and practically the system has K
elements of the old-fashioned conscription. Tne minimum height is
5-2 ft. (artillery and engineers, 5-4 ft.). There are four principal kinds
of service^, namely, sen-ice with the colours (genyeki), for two years;
service with the first reserves (yobi), for 7$ years; service with the
second reserves (kobi), for 7 years; and service with the territorial
troops (ko kumin-hei) up to the age of 40. Special reserve (hoju)
takes up men who, though liable for conscription and medically quali-
fied, have escaped the lot for service with the colours. It consists of
two classes, one of men remaining in the category of hoju for 7$
years, the other for I J year, before passing into the territorial army.
Their purpose is similar to that of special or ersatz reserves elsewhere.
The first class receives the usual short initial training. Men of the
second class, in ordinary circumstances, pass, after their ij year's
inability, to the territorial army untrained. As for the first and
second general reserves (yobi and kobi), each is called out twiceduring
its full term for short " refresher " courses. After reaching the
territorial army a man is relieved from all further training. The
total number of youths eligible for conscription each year is about
435.OOO, but the annual contingent for full service is not much more
than 100,000. Conscripts in the active army may be discharged
before the expiration of two years if their conduct and aptitude are
exceptional. .
A youth is exempted if it be clearly established 2 that his family
is dependent upon his earnings. Except for permanent deformities
men are put back for one year before being finally rejected on medical
Grounds. Men who have been convicted of crime are disqualified,
ut those who have been temporarily deprived of civil rights must
present themselves for conscription at the termination of their
sentence. Educated men may enrol themselves as one-year volun-
teers instead of drawing lots, this privilege of entry enduring up to
the age of 28, after which, service for the full term without drawing
lots is imposed. Residence in a foreign country secures exemption
up to the age of 32 — provided that official permission to go abroad
has been obtained. A man returning after the age of 32 is drafted
into the territorial army, but if he returns before that age he must
volunteer to receive training, otherwise he is taken without lot for
service with the colours. The system of volunteering is largely
resorted to by persons of the better classes. Any youth who
1 The privilege at first led to great abuses. It became a common
thine to employ some aged and indigent person, set him up as the
head of a " branch. family," and give him for adopted son a youth
liable to conscription.
ARMY]
JAPAN
211
possesses certain educational qualifications is entitled to volunteer
for training. If accepted after medical inspection, he serves with
the colours for one year, during three months of which time he must
live in barracks — unless a special permit be granted by his com-
manding officer. A volunteer has to contribute to his maintenance
and equipment, although youths who cannot afford the full expense,
if otherwise qualified, are assisted by the state. At the conclusion of
a year's training the volunteer is drafted into the first reserve for
6J years, and then into the second reserve for 5 years, so that his
total period (12 J years) of service before passing into the territorial
army is the same as that of an ordinary conscript. The main purpose
of the one-year voluntariat, as in Germany, is to provide officers for
the reserves to territorial troops. Qualified teachers in the public
service are only liable to a very short initial training, after which they
pass at once into the territorial army. But if a teacher abandons
that calling before the age of 28, he becomes liable, without lot,1 to
two years with the colours, unless he adopts the alternative of
volunteering.
Officers are obtained in two ways. There are six local preparatory
cadet schools (yonen-gakko) in various parts of the empire, for
Officers koys of from 13 to 15. After 3 years at one of
these schools2 a graduate spends 21 months at the
central preparatory school (chuo-yonen-gakko), Tokyo, and if he
graduates with sufficient credit at the latter institution, he becomes
eligible for admission to the officers' college (shikan-gakko) without
further test of proficiency. The second method of obtaining officers
is by competitive examination for direct admission to the officers'
college. In either case the cadet is sent to serve with the colours
for 6 to 12 months as a private and non-commissioned officer, before
commencing his course at the officers' college. The period of study
at the officers' college is one year, and after graduating successfully
the cadet serves with troops for 6 months on probation. If at the
end of that time he is favourably reported on, he is commissioned
as a sub-lieutenant. Young officers of engineers and artillery
receive a year's further training at a special college. Officers' ranks
are the same as in the British army, but the nomenclature is more
simple. The terms, with their English equivalents, are shoi (second
lieutenant), chui (first lieutenant), tai (captain), shosa (major),
chusa (lieut. -colonel), taisa (colonel), shosho (major-general), chujo
(lieut.-general), taisho (general), gensui (field-marshal). All these
except the last apply to the same relative ranks in the navy. Pro-
motion of officers in the junior grades is by seniority or merit, but
after the rank of captain all promotion is by merit, and thus many
officers never rise higher than captain, in which case retirement is
compulsory at the age of 48. Except in the highest ranks, a certain
minimum period has to be spent in each rank before promotion to
the next.
There are three grades of privates: upper soldiers (joto-hei), first-
class soldiers (itto-sotsu), and second-class soldiers (nito-sotsu). A
„ ... private on joining is a second-class soldier. For
proficiency and good conduct he is raised to the rank
of first-class soldier, and ultimately to that of upper soldier. Non-
commissioned officers are obtained from the ranks, or from those
who wish to make soldiering a profession, as in European armies.
The grades are corporal (gocho), sergeant (gunso), sergeant-major
(socho) and special sergeant-major (tokumu-socho).
The pay of the conscript is, as it is everywhere, a trifle (is. rod.—
33. ojd. per month). The professional non-commissioned officers
are better paid, the lowest grade receiving three times as much as
an upper soldier. Officers' pay is roughly at about three-quarters of
the rates prevailing in Germany, sub-lieutenants receiving about
£34, captains £7 1 , colonels £238 per annum, &c. Pensions for officers
and non-commissioned officers, according to scale, can be claimed
after 1 1 years' colour service.
The emperor is the commander-in-chief of the army, and theoreti-
cally the sole source of military authority, which he exercises through
a general staff and a war department, with the assistance of a board
of field-marshals (gensuifu). The general staff has for chief a field-
marshal, and for vice-chief a general or lieutenant-general. It
includes besides the usual general staff departments, various survey
and topographical officers, and the military college is under its direc-
tion. The war department is presided over by a general officer on the
active list, who is a member of the cabinet without being necessarily
affected by ministerial changes. There are, further, artillery and
engineer committees, and a remount bureau. The headquarters of
coast defences under general officers are Tokyo, Yokohama, Shimono-
seki and Yura. The whole empire is divided into three military
districts — eastern, central and western — each under the command
of a general or lieutenant-general. The divisional headquarters are
as follows: — Guard Tpky6, I. Tokyo, II. Sendai, III. Nagoya,
IV. Wakayama, V. Hiroshima, VI. Kumamoto, VII. Asahikawa,
VIII. Hirosaki, IX. Kasanava, X. Himeji, XI. Senzui, XII. Kokura,
XIII. Takata, XIV. Utsonomia, XV. Fushimi, XVI. Kioto, XVII.
Okayama, XVIII. Kurume. Some of thesedivisionsare permanently
1 Conscription without lot is thus the punishment for all failures
to comply with and attempts to evade the military laws.
1 Sons of officers' widows, or of officers in reduced circumstances,
are educated at these schools either free or at reduced charges,
but are required to complete the course and to graduate.
Medical
Service.
on foreign service, but their recruiting areas in Japan are maintained.
There are also four cavalry brigades, and a number of unassigned
regiments of field and mountain artillery, as well as garrison artillery
and army technical troops. The organization of the active army by
regiments is 176 infantry regiments of 3 battalions; 27 cavalry
regiments; 30 field artillery regiments each of 6 and 3 mountain
artillery regiments each of 3 batteries; 6 regiments and 6 battalions
of siege, heavy field and fortress artillery; 20 battalions engineers;
19 supply and transport battalions.
The medical service is exceptionally well organized. It received
unstinted praise from European and American experts who observed
it closely during the wars of 1900 and 1904-5. The
establishment of surgeons to each division is approxi-
mately 100, and arrangements complete in every detail
are made for all lines of medical assistance. Much help is rendered
by the red cross society of Japan,_which has an income of 2,000,000
yen annually, a fine hospital in Tokyo, a large nursing staff and two
specially built and equipped hospital ships. During the early part
of the campaign in Pechili, in 1900, the French column entrusted its
wounded to the care of the Japanese.
The staple article of commissariat for a Japanese army in the field
is hoshii (dried rice), of which three days' supply can easily be carried
in a bag by the soldier. When required for use the rice,
being placed in water, swells to its original bulk, and is
eaten with a relish of salted fish, dried sea-weed or pickled plums.
The task of provisioning an army on these lines is comparatively
simple. The Japanese soldier, though low in stature, is well set
up, muscular and hardy. He has great powers of endurance, and
manoeuvres with remarkable celerity, doing everything at the run,
if necessary, and continuing to run without distress for a length of
time astonishing to European observers. He is greatly subject,
however, to attacks of kakke (beri-beri), and if he has recourse to
meat diet, which appears to be the best preventive, he will probably
lose something of his capacity for prolonged rapid movement. He
attacks with apparent indifference to danger, preserves his cheerful-
ness amid hardships, is splendidly patriotic and has always shown
himself thoroughly amenable to discipline.
Of the many educational and training establishments, the most
important is the rikugun daigakko, or army college, where officers,
(generally subalterns), are prepared for service in the
upper ranks and for staff appointments, the course of
study extending over three years. The Toyama school
stands next in importance. The courses pursued there are attended
chiefly by subaltern officers of dismounted branches, non-commis-
sioned officers also being allowed to take the musketry course. The
term of training is five months. Young officers of the scientific
branches are instructed at the hokogakko (school of artillery and
engineers). There are, further, two special schools of jgunnery— one
for field, the other for garrison artillery, attended chiefly by captains
and senior subalterns of the two branches. There is an inspection
department of military education, the inspector-general being a
lieutenant-general, under whom are fifteen field and general officers,
who act as inspectors of the various schools and colleges and of
military educational matters in general.
The Japanese officer's pay is small and his mode of life frugal. He
lives out of barracks, frequently with his own family. His uniform
is plain and inexpensive,8 and he has no desire to exchange it for
mufti. He has no mess expenses, contribution to a band, or luxuries
of any kind, and as he is nearly always without private means to
supplement his pay, his habits are thoroughly economical. He
devotes himself absolutely to his profession, living for nothing else,
and since he is strongly imbued with an effective conception of the
honour of his cloth, instances of his incurring disgrace by debt or
dissipation are exceptional. The samurai may be said to have been
revived in the officers of the modern army, who preserve and act
up to all the old traditions. The system of promotion has evidently
much to do with this good result, for no Japanese officer can hope to
rise above the rank of captain unless, by showing himself really
zealous and capable, he obtains from his commanding officer the
recommendation without which all higher educational opportunities
are closed to him. Yet promotion by merit has not degenerated
into promotion by favour, and corruption appears to be virtually
absent. In the stormiest days of parliamentary warfare, when
charges of dishonesty were freely preferred by party politicians
against all departments of officialdom, no whisper ever impeached
the integrity of army officers.
The training of the troops is thorough and strictly progressive,
the responsibility of the company, squadron and battery commanders
for the training of their commands, and the latitude granted
them in choice of means being, as in Germany, the keystone of the
system.
Originally the government engaged French officers to assist in
3 Uniform does not vary according to regiments or divisions.
There is only one type for the whole of the infantry, one for the
cavalry, and so on (see UNIFORMS, NAVAL AND MILITARY).
Officers largely obtain their uniforms and equipment, as well as
their books and technical literature through the Kai-ko-sha, which
is a combined officers' club, benefit society and co-operative trading
association to which nearly all belong.
212
JAPAN
[NAVY
organizing the army and elaborating its system of tactics and
strategy, and during several years a military mission of French
_ . officers resided in Tokyo and rendered valuable aid to the
Japanese. Afterwards German officers were employed,
'• with Jakob Meckel at their head, and they left a
perpetually grateful memory. But ultimately the services of
foreigners were dispensed with altogether, and Japan now adopts
the plan of sending picked men to complete their studies in
Europe. Up to 1904 she followed Germany in military matters
almost implicitly, but since then, having the experience of her
own great war to guide her, she has, instead of modelling herself
on any one foreign system, chosen from each whatever seemed most
desirable, and also, in many points, taken the initiative herself.
When the power of the sword was nominally restored to the
Imperial government in 1868, the latter planned' to devote one-fourth
of the state's ordinary revenue to the army and navy.
Had the estimated revenue accrued, this would have given
Finance. a sum Qf ajjOUt , millions sterling for the two services.
But not until 1871, when the troops of the fiefs were finally dis-
banded, did the government find itself in a position to include in the
annual budgets an adequate appropriation on account of armaments.
Thenceforth, from 1872 to 1896, the ordinary expenditures of the
army varied from three-quarters of a million sterling to ij millions,
and the extraordinary outlays ranged from a few thousands of pounds
to a quarter of a million. Not once in the whole period of 25 years
— if 1877 (the year of the Satsuma rebellion) be excepted — did the
state's total expenditures on account of the army exceed ii millions
sterling, and it redounds to the credit of Japan's financial manage-
ment that she was able to organize, equip and maintain such a
force at such a small cost. In 1896, as shown above, she virtually
doubled her army, and a proportionate increase of expenditure
ensued, the outlays for maintenance jumping at once from an average
of about il millions sterling to zj millions, and growing thenceforth
with the organization of the new army, until in the year (1903)
preceding the outbreak of war with Russia, they reached the figure
of 4 milfions. Then again, in 1906, six divisions were added, and
additional expenses had to be incurred on account of the new over-
seas garrisons, so that, in 1909, the ordinary outlays reached a total of
7 millions, or about one-seventh of the ordinary revenue of the state.
This takes no account of extraordinary outlays incurred for building
forts and barracks, providing new patterns of equipment, &c. In
1909 the latter, owing to the necessity of replacing the weapons
used in the Russian War, and in particular the field artillery gun
(which was in 1905 only a semi-quickfirer), involved a relatively
large outlay.
The Navy. — The traditions of Japan suggest that the art of
navigation was not unfamiliar to the inhabitants of a country
Early consisting of hundreds of islands and abounding in
Japanese bays and inlets. Some interpreters of her cosmo-
War~ graphy discover a great ship in the " floating bridge
vetseiM. oj neaven » frorn whici, the divine procreators of the
islands commenced their work, and construe in a similar sense
other poetically named vehicles of that remote age. But though
the seas were certainly traversed by the early invaders of Japan,
and though there is plenty of proof that in medieval times the
Japanese flag floated over merchantmen which voyaged as far as
Siam and India, and over piratical craft which harassed the
coasts of Korea and China, it is unquestionable that in the
matter of naval architecture Japan fell behind even her next-
door neighbours. Thus, when a Mongol fleet came to Kiushiu in
the I3th century, Japan had no vessels capable of contending
against the invaders, and when, at the close of the i6th century,
a Japanese army was fighting in Korea, repeated defeats of
Japan's squadrons by Korean war-junks decided the fate of the
campaign on shore as well as on sea. It seems strange that an
enterprising nation like the Japanese should not have taken for
models the great galleons which visited the Far East in the second
half of the i6th century under the flags of Spain, Portugal,
Holland and England. With the exception, however, of two
ships built by a castaway English pilot to order of lyeyasu, no
effort in that direction appears to have been made, and when
an edict vetoing the construction of sea-going vessels was issued
in 1636 as part of the Tokugawa policy of isolation, it can
scarcely be said to have checked the growth of Japan's navy,
for she possessed nothing worthy of the name. It was to the
object lesson furnished by the American ships which visited
Yedo bay in 1853 and to the urgent counsels of the Dutch
that Japan owed the inception of a naval policy. A seamen's
training station was opened under Dutch instructors in 1855
at Nagasaki , a building-slip was constructed and an iron factory
established at the same place, and shortly afterwards a naval
school was organized at Tsukiji in Yedo, a war-ship the
" Kwanko Maru "' — presented by the Dutch to the shogun's
government— being used for exercising the 'cadets. To this
vessel two others, purchased from the Dutch, were added in
1857 and 1858, and these, with one given by Queen Victoria,
formed the nucleus of Japan's navy. In 1860, we find the
Pacific crossed for the first time by a Japanese war-ship — the
" Kwanrin Maru " — and subsequently some young officers were
sent to Holland for instruction in naval science. In fact the
Tokugawa statesmen had now thoroughly appreciated the im-
perative need of a navy. Thus, in spite of domestic unrest
which menaced the very existence of the Yedo government, a
dock-yard was established and fully equipped, the place chosen
as its site being, by a strange coincidence, the village of Yoko-
suka where Japan's first foreign ship-builder, Will Adams, had
lived and died 250 years previously. This dockyard was planned
and its construction superintended by a. Frenchman, M. Berlin.
But although the Dutch had been the first to advise Japan's
acquisition of a navy, and although French aid was sought in the
case of the important and costly work at Yokosuka, the shogun's
government turned to England for teachers of the art of mari-
time warfare. Captain Tracey, R.N., and other British officers
and warrant-officers were engaged to organize and superintend
the school at Tsukiji. They arrived, however, on the eve of the
fall of the Tokugawa shogunate, and as the new administra-
tion was not prepared to utilize their services immediately, they
returned to England. It is not to be inferred that the Im-
perial government underrated the importance of organizing a
naval force. One of the earliest Imperial rescripts ranked a
navy among " the country's most urgent needs " and ordered
that it should be " at once placed on a firm foundation." But
during the four years immediately subsequent to the restoration,
a semi-interregnum existed in military affairs, the power of the
sword being partly transferred to the hands of the sovereign and
partly retained by the feudal chiefs. Ultimately, not only the
vessels which had been in the possession of the shogunate but
also several obtained from Europe by the great feudatories had
to be taken over by the Imperial government, which, on reviewing
the situation, found itself owner of a motley squadron of 17 war-
ships aggregating 13,812 tons displacement, of which two were
armoured, one was a composite ship, and the rest were of wood.
Steps were now taken to establish and equip a suitable naval
college in Tsukiji, and application having been made to the
British government for instructors, a second naval mission was
sent from England in 1873, consisting of 30 officers and warrant-
officers under Commander (afterwards Vice-Admiral Sir) Archi-
bald Douglas. At the very outset occasions for active service
afloat presented themselves. In 1868, the year after the fall of
the shogunate, such ships as could be assembled had to be sent
to Yezo to attack the main part of the Tokugawa squadron
which had raised the flag of revolt and retired to Hakodate
under the command of the shogun's admiral, Enomoto. Then
in 1874 the duty of convoying a fleet of transports to Formosa
had to be undertaken; and in 1877 sea power played its part in
crushing the formidable rebellion in Satsuma. Meanwhile the
work of increasing and organizing the navy went on steadily.
The first steam war-ship constructed in Japan had been a gun-
boat (138 tons) launched in 1866 from a building-yard estab-
lished at Ishikawajima, an island near the mouth of the Sumida
river on which Tokyo stands. At this yard and at Yokosuka
two vessels of 897 tons and 1450 tons, respectively, were
launched in 1875 and 1876, and Japan now found herself com-
petent not only to execute all repairs but also to build ships of
considerable size. An order was placed in England in 1875,
which produced, three years later, the " Fus6," Japan's first
ironclad (3717 tons) and the "Kongo" and " Hiei," steel-
frame sister-cruisers of 2248 tons. Meanwhile training, prac-
tical and theoretical, in seamanship, gunnery, torpedo-practice
and naval architecture went on vigorously, and in 1878 the
Japanese flag was for the first time seen in European waters,
1 The term maru subsequently became applicable to merchantmen
only, war-ships being distinguished as kan.
NAVY]
floating over the cruiser " Seiki " (1897 tons) built in Japan and
navigated solely by Japanese. The government, constantly
solicitous of increasing the fleet, inaugurated, in 1882, a pro-
gramme of 30 cruisers and 12 torpedo-boats, and in 1886 this
was extended, funds being obtained by an issue of naval loan-
bonds. But the fleet did not yet include a single battleship.
When the diet opened for the first time in 1890, a plan for the
construction of two battleships encountered stubborn opposition
in the lower house, where the majority attached much less im-
portance to voting money for war-ships than to reducing the
land tax. Not until 1892 was this opposition overcome in
deference to an order from the throne that thirty thousand
pounds sterling should be contributed yearly from the privy
purse and that a tithe of all official salaries should be devoted
during the same interval to naval needs. Had the house been
more prescient, Japan's position at the outbreak of war with
China in 1894 would have been very different. She entered the
contest with 28 fighting craft, aggregating 57,600 tons, and 24
torpedo-boats, but among them the most powerful was a belted
cruiser of 4300 tons. Not one battleship was included, whereas
China had two ironclads of nearly 8000 tons each. Under these
conditions the result of the naval conflict was awaited with much
anxiety in Japan. But the Chinese suffered signal defeats (see
CHINO- JAPANESE WAR) off the Yalu and at Wei-hai-wei,
and the victors took possession of 17 Chinese craft, including one
battleship. The resulting addition to Japan's fighting force
was, however, insignificant. But the naval strength of Japan
did not depend on prizes. Battleships and cruisers were ordered
and launched in Europe one after the other, and when the Russo-
Japanese War (?.!).) came, the fleet promptly asserted its physical
and moral superiority in the surprise of Port Arthur, the battle of
the toth of August 1904, and the crowning victory of Tsushima.
As to the development of the navy from 1903 onwards, it is not
possible to detail with absolute accuracy the plans laid down by the
admiralty in Tokyo, but the actual state of the fleet in the year
1909 will be apparent from the figures given below.
Japan's naval strength at the outbreak of the war with Russia
in 1904 was: —
Number. Displacement.
Tons.
Battleships 6 .... 84,652
Armoured cruisers .... 8 .... 73,982
Other cruisers 44 .... 111,470
Destroyers 19 .... 6,519
Torpedo-boats 80 .... 7,119
JAPAN 3I3
To the foregoing must be added two armoured cruisers — the
" Kurama " (14,000) launched at Yokosuka in October 1907, and the
" Ibuki " (14,700) launched at Kure in November 1907, but no other
battleships or cruisers were laid down in Japan or ordered abroad up
to the close of 1908.
There are four naval dockyards, namely, at Yokosuka, Kure,
Sasebo and Maizuru. Twenty-one vessels built at Yokosuka
since 1876 included a battleship (19,000 tons) and ...
an armoured cruiser (14,000 tons) ; seven built at Kure oockyards
since 1898 included a battleship (19,000 tons) and an
armoured cruiser (14,000 tons). The yards at Sasebo and Maizuru
had not yet been used in 1909 for constructing large vessels. Two
private yards — the Mitsubishi at Nagasaki and Kobe, and the Kawa-
saki at the latter place — have built several cruisers, gunboats and
torpedo craft, and are competent to undertake more important work.
Nevertheless in 1909 Japan did not yet possess complete independ-
ence in this matter, for she was obliged to have recourse to foreign
countries for a part of the steel used in ship-building. Kure manu-
factures practically all the steel it requires, and there is a government
steel-foundry at Wakamatsu on which more than 3 millions sterling
had been spent in 1909, but it did not yet keep pace with thecountry's
needs. When this independence has been attained, it is hoped to
effect an economy of about 1 8 % on the outlay for naval construc-
tion, owing to the cheapness of manual labour and the disappearance
both of the manufacturer's profit and of the expenses of transfer
from Europe to Japan.
There are five admiralties — Yokosuka, Kure, Sasebo, Maizuru and
Port Arthur; and four naval stations — Takeshiki (in Tsushima),
Mekong (in the Pescadores), Ominato and Chinhai (in southern
Korea).
The navy is manned partly by conscripts and partly by volunteers.
About 5500 are taken every year, and the ratio is, approximately,
55% of volunteers and 45% of conscripts. The period Penoaael
of active service is 4 years and that of service with the
reserve 7 years. On the average 200 cadets are admitted yearly, of
whom 50 are engineers, and in 1906 the personnel of the navy con-
sisted of the following : —
Totals 157
Losses during the war were: —
Battleships 2
Cruisers (second and smaller
classes) 8
Destroyers 2
Torpedo-boats 7
283,742
27,300
18,009
705
557
Totals 19 .... 46,571
The captured vessels repaired and added to the fleet were : —
Battleships 5 • • • • 62>524
Cruisers II . . . 71.276
Destroyers .5 '.74°
Totals 21 .... 135-530
The vessels built or purchased after the war and up to the close
of 1908 were: —
Battleships 4 .... 71>5°o
Armoured cruisers .... 4 .... 56,7°°
Other cruisers 5 . • • • 7,000
Destroyers 33 • • • 12,573
Torpedo-boats 5 ....
Totals 51 .... 148,533
Some of the above have been superannuated, and the serviceable
fleet in 1909 was: —
Battleships 13 .... 191.380
Armoured cruisers .... 12 .... 130,683
Other cruisers, coast-defence
ships and gun-boats ... 47 ... • 165,253
Destroyers 55 • • • • 2O-5°8
Torpedo-boats 77 .... 7,258
Totals 204
515,082
Admirals, combative and non-combative ... 77
Officers, combative and non-combative, below the
rank of admiral 2,867
Warrant officers 9,075
Bluejackets . 29,667
Cadets 721
Total
42,407
The highest educational institution for the navy is the naval staff
college, in which there are five courses for officers alone. The
gunnery and torpedo schools are attended by officers,
and also by selected warrant-officers and bluejackets,
who consent to extend their service. There is also
a mechanical school for junior engineers, warrant-officers and ordi-
nary artificers.
At the naval cadet academy— ^originally situated in Tkoyo but
now at Etajima near Kure — aspirants for service as naval officers
receive a 3 years' academical course and I year's training at sea;
and, finally, there is a naval engineering college collateral to the
naval cadet academy.
Since 1882, foreign instruction has been wholly dispensed with in
the Japanese navy; since 1886 she has manufactured her own
prismatic powder; since 1891 she has been able to make quick-firing
guns and Schwartzkopf torpedoes, and in 1892 one of her officers
invented a particularly potent explosive, called (after its inventor)
Shimose powder.
Finance. — Under the feudal system of the Tokugawa (1603-
1871), all land in Japan was regarded as state property, and
parcelled out into 276 fiefs, great and small, which were
assigned to as many feudatories. These were em-
powered to raise revenue for the support of their
households, for administrative purposes, and for the maintenance
of troops. The basis of taxation varied greatly in different dis-
tricts, but, at the time of the Restoration in 1867, the general
principle was that four-tenths of the gross produce should go to
the feudatory, six-tenths to the farmer. In practice this rule
was applied to the rice crop only, the assessments for other
kinds of produce being levied partly in money and partly in
manufactured goods. Forced labour also was exacted, and arti-
sans and tradesmen were subjected to pecuniary levies. The
yield of rice in 1867 was about 154 million bushels,1 of which
the market value at prices then ruling was £24,000,000, or
1 The reader should be warned that absolute accuracy cannot be
claimed for statistics compiled before the Meiji era.
214
JAPAN
[FINANCE
Paper
Money.
240,000,000 yen.1 Hence the grain tax represented, at the lowest
calculation, 96,000,000 yen. When the administration reverted
to the emperor in 1867 the central treasury was empty, and the
funds hitherto employed for governmental purposes in the fiefs
continued to be devoted to the support of the feudatories, to the
payment of the samurai, and to defraying the expenses of local
administration, the central treasury receiving only whatever
might remain after these various outlays.
The shogun himself, whose income amounted to about
£3,500,000, did not, on abdicating, hand over to the sovereign
either the contents of his treasury or the lands from which he
derived his revenues. He contended that funds for the govern-
ment of the nation as a whole should be levied from the people
at large. Not until 1871 did the feudal system cease to exist.
The fiefs being then converted into prefectures, their revenues
became an asset of the central treasury, less 10 % allotted for
the support of the former feudatories.2
But during the interval between 1867 and 1871, the men on
whom had devolved the direction of national affairs saw no relief
from crippling impecuniosity except an issue of paper
money. This was not a novelty in Japan. Paper
money had been known to the people since the middle
of the 1 7th century, and in the era of which we are now writing
no less than 1694 varieties of notes were in circulation. There
were gold notes, silver notes, cash-notes, rice-notes, umbrella-
notes, ribbon-notes, lathe-article-notes, and so on through an
interminable list, the circulation of each kind being limited to
the issuing fief. Many of these notes had almost ceased to have
any purchasing power, and nearly all were regarded by the
people as evidences of official greed. The first duty of a
centralized progressive administration should have been
to reform the currency. The political leaders of the time
appreciated that duty, but saw themselves compelled by stress
of circumstances to adopt the very device which in the hands
of the feudal chiefs had produced such deplorable results. The
ordinary revenue amounted to only 3,000,000 yen, while
the extraordinary aggregated 29,000,000, and was derived
wholly from issues of paper money or other equally unsound
sources.
Even on the abolition of feudalism in 1871 the situation was
not immediately relieved. The land tax, which constituted
nine-tenths of the feudal revenues, had been as-
sessed by varying methods and at various rates by
the different feudatories, and re-assessment of all the land
became a preliminary essential to establishing a uniform system.
Such a task, on the basis of accurate surveys, would have involved
years of work, whereas the financial needs of the state had to be
met immediately. Under the pressure of this imperative
necessity a re-assessment was roughly made in two years, and
being continued thereafter with greater accuracy, was completed
in 1881. This survey, eminently liberal to the agriculturists,
assigned a value of 1,200,000,000 yen to the whole of the arable
land, and the treasury fixed the tax at 3 % of the assessed value
of the land, which was about one-half of the real market value.
Moreover, the government contemplated a gradual reduction
of this already low impost until it should ultimately fall to i %.
Circumstances prevented the consummation of that purpose.
The rate underwent only one reduction of J %, and thereafter
had to be raised on account of war expenditures. On the whole,
however, no class benefited more conspicuously from the change
of administration than the peasants, since not only was their
burden of taxation light, but also they were converted from mere
tenants into actual proprietors. In brief, they acquired the
fee-simple of their farms in consideration of paying an annual
rent equal to about one sixty-sixth of the market value of the
land.
In 1873, when these changes were effected, the ordinary
1 The yen is a silver coin worth about 2s. : 10 yen = £1.
1 In addition to the above grant, the feudatories were allowed to
retain the reserves in their treasuries; thus many of the feudal
nobles found themselves possessed of substantial fortunes, a consider-
able part of which they generally devoted to the support of their
former vassals.
Laad Tax.
revenue of the state rose from 24,500,000 yen to 70,500,000 yen.
But seven millions sterling is a small income for a country
confronted by such problems as Japan had to solve.
She had to build railways; to create an army and
a navy; to organize posts, telegraphs, prisons,
police and education; to construct roads, improve harbours,
light and buoy the coasts; to create a mercantile marine; to
start under official auspices numerous industrial enterprises
which should serve as object lessons to the people, as well as
to lend to private [persons large sums in aid of similar projects.
Thus, living of necessity beyond its income, the government
had recourse to further issues of fiduciary notes, and in propor-
tion as the volume of the latter exceeded actual currency
requirements their specie value depreciated.
This question of paper currency inaugurates the story of bank-
ing; a story on almost every page of which are to be found
inscribed the names of Prince Ito, Marquis Inouye, Banks
Marquis Matsukata, Counfc Okuma and Baron
Shibusawa, the fathers of their country's economic and financial
progress in modern times. The only substitutes for banks in
feudal days were a few private firms — " households " would,
perhaps, be a more correct expression — which received local
taxes in kind, converted them into money, paid the proceeds to
the central government or to the feudatories, gave accommo-
dation to officials, did some exchange business, and occasionally
extended accommodation to private individuals. They were
not banks in the Occidental sense, for they neither collected
funds by receiving deposits nor distributed capital by making
loans. The various fiefs were so isolated that neither social
nor financial intercourse was possible, and moreover the mercan-
tile and manufacturing classes were regarded with some disdain
by the gentry. The people had never been familiarized with
combinations of capital for productive purposes, and such a
thing as a joint-stock company was unknown. In these circum-
stances, when the administration of state affairs fell into the hands
of the men who had made the restoration, they not only lacked
the first essential of rule, money, but were also without means
of obtaining any, for they could not collect taxes in the fiefs,
these being still under the control of the feudal barons; and in
the absence of widely organized commerce or finance, no access
to funds presented itself. Doubtless the minds of these men
were sharpened by the necessities confronting them, yet it speaks
eloquently for their discernment that, samurai as they were,
without any business training whatever, one of their first essays
was to establish organizations which should take charge of the
national revenue, encourage industry and promote trade and
production by lending money at comparatively low rates of
interest. The tentative character of these attempts is evidenced
by frequent changes. There was first a business bureau, then a
trade bureau, then commercial companies, and then exchange
companies, these last being established in the principal cities
and at the open ports, their personnel consisting of the three
great families — Mitsui, Shimada and Ono— houses of ancient
repute, as well as other wealthy merchants in Kioto, Osaka and
elsewhere. These exchange companies were partnerships,
though not strictly of the joint-stock kind. They formed the
nucleus of banks in Japan, and their functions included, for the
first time, the receiving of deposits and the lending of money to
merchants and manufacturers. They had power to issue notes,
and, at the same time, the government issued notes on its own
account. Indeed, in this latter fact is to be found one of the
motives for organizing the exchange companies, the idea being
that if the state's notes were lent to the companies, the people
would become familiarized with the use of such currency, and
the companies would find them convenient capital. But this
system was essentially unsound: the notes, alike of the treasury
and of the companies, though nominally convertible, were not
secured by any fixed stock of specie. Four years sufficed to
prove the unpracticality of such an arrangement, and in 1872 the
exchange companies were swept away, to be succeeded in July
1873 by the establishment of national banks on a system which
combined some of the features of English banking with the general
FINANCE]
JAPAN
bases of American. Each bank had to pay into the treasury
60 % of its capital in government notes. It was credited in
return with interest-bearing bonds, which bonds were to be left
in the treasury as security for the issue of bank-notes to an equal
amount, 'the banks being required to keep in gold the remaining
40 % of their capital as a fund for converting the notes, which
conversion must always be effected on application. The elabora-
tors of this programme were Ito, Inouye, Okuma and Shibusawa.
They added a provision designed to prevent the establishment
of too small banks, namely, that the capital of each bank must
bear a fixed ratio to the population of its place of business.
Evidently the main object of the treasury was gradually to
replace its own fiat paper with convertible bank-notes. But
experience quickly proved that the scheme was unworkable.
The treasury notes had been issued in such large volume that
sharp depreciation had ensued; gold could not be procured
except at a heavy cost, and the balance of foreign trade being
against Japan, some 3oo,ooo,ooo*ye« in specie flowed out of the
country between 1872 and 1874.
It should be noted that at this time foreign trade was still invested
with a perilous character in Japanese eyes. In early days, while
the Dutch had free access to her ports, they sold her so much and
bought so little in return that an immense quantity of the precious
metals flowed out of her coffers. Again, when over-sea trade was
renewed in modern times, Japan's exceptional financial condition
presented to foreigners an opportunity of which they did not fail
to take full advantage. For, during her long centuries of seclusion,
gold had come to hold to silver in her coinage a ratio of I to 8, so
that gold cost, in terms of silver, only one-half of what it cost in
the West. On the other hand, the treaty gave foreign traders the
right to exchange their own silver coins against Japanese, weight
for weight, and thus it fell out that the foreigner, going to Japan
with a supply of Mexican dollars, could buy with them twice as much
gold as they had cost in Mexico. Japan lost very heavily by this
system, and its effects accentuated the dread with which her medieval
experience had invested foreign commerce. Thus, when the
balance of trade swayed heavily in the wrong direction between
1872 and 1874, the fact created undue consternation, and moreover
there can be no doubt that the drafters of the bank regulations had
over-estimated the quantity of available gold in the country.
All these things made it impossible to keep the bank-notes long
in circulation. . They were speedily returned for conversion; no
deposits came to the aid of the banks, nor did the public make any
use of them. Disaster became inevitable. The two great firms of
Ono and Shimada, which had stood high in the nation's estimation
alike in feudal and in jmperial days, closed their doors in 1874; a
panic ensued, and the circulation of money ceased almost entirely.
Evidently the banking system must be changed. The government
bowed to necessity. They issued a revised code of banking regula-
_. tions which substituted treasury notes in the place of
/fh** specie. Each bank was thenceforth required to invest
B kl 8°0/° °* 'ts caPJta' m 6°/° state bonds, and these
sa"t being lodged with the treasury, the bank became
competent to issue an equal quantity of its own notes,
forming with the remainder of its capital a reserve of treasury notes
for purposes of redemption. This was a complete subversion of the
government's original scheme. But no alternative offered. Besides,
the situation presented a new feature. The hereditary pensions
of the feudatories had been commuted with bonds aggregating
174,000,000 yen. Were this large volume of bonds issued at once,
their heavy depreciation would be likely to follow, and moreover
their holders, unaccustomed to dealing with financial problems,
might dispose of the bonds and invest the proceeds in hazardous
enterprises. To devise some opportunity for the safe and profitable
employment of these bonds seemed, therefore, a pressing necessity,
and the newly organized national banks offered such an opportunity.
For bond-holders, combining to form a bank, continued to draw
from the treasury 6 % on their bonds, while they acquired power to
issue a corresponding amount of notes which could be lent at profit-
able rates. The programme worked well. Whereas, up to 1876,
only five banks were established under the original regulations, the
number under the new rule was 151 in 1879, their aggregate capital
having grown in the same interval from 2,000,000 yen to 40,000,000
yen, and their note issues from less than 1 ,000,000 to over 34,000,000.
Here, then, was a rapidly growing system resting wholly on state
credit. Something like a mania for bank-organizing declared itself,
and in 1878 the government deemed it necessary to legislate
against the establishment of any more national banks, and to
limit to 34,000,000 yen the aggregate note issues of those already in
existence.
It is, possible that the conditions which prevailed immediately
after the establishment of the national banks might have developed
some permanency had not the Satsuma rebellion broken out in 1877.
Increased taxation to meet military outlay being impossible in such
circumstances, nothing offered except recourse to further note
Resump-
tion of
Specie
Payments.
215
issues. The result was that by 1881, fourteen years after the Restor-
ation, notes whose face value aggregated 164,000,000 yen had been
put into circulation; the treasury possessed specie amounting to
only 8,000,000 yen, and 1 8 paper yen could be purchased with
10 silver ones.
Up to 1 88 1 fitful efforts had been made to strengthen the specie
value of fiat paper by throwing quantities of gold and silver upon
the market from time to time, and 23,000,000 yen had
been devoted to the promotion of industries whose
products, it was hoped, would go to swell the list of
exports, and thus draw specie to the country. But
these devices were now finally abandoned, and the
government applied itself steadfastly to reducing the volume of the
fiduciary currency on the one hand, and accumulating a specie
reserve on the other. The steps of the programme were simple.
By cutting down administrative expenditure; by transferring
certain charges from the treasury to the local communes; by sus-
pending all grants in aid of provincial public works and private
enterprises, and by a moderate increase of the tax on alcohol, an
annual surplus of revenue, totalling 7,500,000 yen, was secured.
This was applied to reducing the volume of the notes in circulation.
At the same time, it was resolved that all officially conducted
industrial and agricultural works should be sold — since their purpose
of instruction and example seemed now to have been sufficiently
achieved — and the proceeds, together with various securities (aggre-
gating 26,000,000 yen in face value) held by the treasury, were
applied to the purchase of specie. Had the government entered the
market openly as a seller of its own fiduciary notes, its credit must
have suffered. There were also ample reasons to doubt whether any
available stores of precious metal remained in the country. In
obedience to elementary economical laws, the cheap money had
steadily driven out the dear, and although the government mint at
Osaka, founded in 1871, had struck gold and silver coins worth
80,000,000 yen between that date and 1881, the customs returns
showed that a great part of this metallic currency had flowed out
of the country. In these circumstances Japanese financiers decided
that only one course remained : the treasury must play the part of
national banker. Produce and manufactures destined for export
must be purchased by the state with fiduciary notes, and the
metallic proceeds of their sales abroad must be collected and stored
in the treasury. This programme required the establishment of
consulates in the chief marts of the Occident, and the organization
of a great central bank — the present Bank of Japan — as well as of a
secondary bank — the present Specie Bank of Yokohama — the former
to conduct transactions with native producers and manufacturers,
the latter to finance the business of exportation. The outcome of
these various arrangements was that, by the middle of 1885, the
volume of fiduciary notes had been reduced to 1 19,000,000 yen,
their depreciation had fallen to 3 %, and the metallic reserve of the
treasury had increased to 45,000,000 yen. The resumption of specie
payments was then announced, and became, in the autumn of that
year, an accomplished fact. From the time when this programme
began to be effective, Japan entered a period of favourable balance
of trade. According to accepted economic theories, the influence of
an appreciating currency should be to encourage imports; but the
converse was seen in Japan's case, for from 1882 her exports annually
exceeded her imports, the maximum excess being reached in 1886,
the very year after the resumption of specie payments.
The above facts deserve to figure largely in a retrospect of Japanese
finance, not merely because they set forth a fine economic feat,
indicating clear insight, good organizing capacity, and courageous
energy, but also because volumes of adverse foreign criticism were
written in the margin of the story during the course of the incidents
it embodies. Now Japan was charged with robbing her own people
because she bought their goods with paper money and sold them for
specie; again, she was accused of an official conspiracy to ruin the
foreign local banks because she purchased exporters' bills on Europe
and America at rates that defied ordinary competition; and while
some declared that she was plainly without any understanding of
her own doings, others predicted that her heroic method of dealing
with the problem would paralyze industry, interrupt trade and
produce widespread suffering. Undoubtedly, to carry the currency
of a nation from a discount of 70 or 80% to par in the course of
four years, reducing its volume at the same time from 160 to 119
million yen, was a financial enterprise violent and daring almost to
rashness. The gentler expedient of a foreign loan would have
commended itself to the majority of economists. But it may be
here stated, once for all, that until her final adoption of a gold
standard in 1897, the foreign money market was practically closed
to Japan. Had she borrowed abroad it must have been on a sterling
basis. Receiving a fixed sum in silver, she would have had to dis-
charge her debt in rapidly appreciating gold. Twice, indeed, she
had recourse to London for small sums, but when she came to cast
up her accounts the cost of the accommodation stood out in deterrent
proportions. A 9% loan, placed in England in 1868 and paid off
in 1889, produced 3,750,000 yen, and cost altogether 11,750,000 yen
in round figures; and a 7 % loan, made in 1872 and paid off in 1897,
produced 10,750,000 yen, and cost 36,000,000 yen. These consider-
ations were supplemented by a strong aversion from incurring
pecuniary obligations to Western states before the latter had consented
2l6
JAPAN
[FINANCE
to restore Japan's judicial and tariff autonomy. The example of
Egypt showed what kind of fate might overtake a semi-independent
state falling into the'clutches of foreign bond-holders. Japan did
not wish to fetter herself with foreign debts while struggling to
emerge from the rank of Oriental powers.
After the revision of the national bank regulations, semi-official
banking enterprise won such favour in public eyes that the govern-
ment found it necessary to impose limits. This
hKit i conservative policy proved an incentive to private
banks and banking companies, so that, by the year
1883, no less than 1093 banking institutions were in
existence throughout Japan with an aggregate capital of 900,000,000
yen. But these were entirely lacking in arrangements for com-
bination or for equalizing rates of interest, and to correct such
defects, no less than ultimately to constitute the sole note-issuing
institution, a central bank (the Bank of Japan) was organized on
the model of the Bank of Belgium, with due regard to correspond-
ing institutions in other Western countries and to the conditions
existing in Japan. Established in 1882 with a capital of 4,000,000
yen, this bank has now a capital of 30 millions, a security reserve of
206 millions, a note-issue of 266 millions, a specie reserve of 160
millions, and loans of 525 millions.
The banking machinery of the country being now complete, in
a general sense, steps were taken in 1883 for converting the national
banks into ordinary joint-stock concerns and for the redemption of
all their note-issues. Each national bank was required to deposit
with the treasury the government paper kept in its strong room as
security for its own notes, and further to take from its annual
profits and hand to the treasury a sum equal to 2 J % of its notes
ui circulation. With these funds the central bank was to purchase
state bonds, devoting the interest to redeeming the notes of the
national banks. Formed with the object of disturbing the money
market as little as possible, this programme encountered two
obstacles. The first was that, in view of the Bank of Japan's pur-
chases, the market price of state bonds rose rapidly, so that, whereas
official financiers had not expected them to reach par before 1897,
they were quoted at a considerable premium in 1886. The second
was that the treasury having in 1886 initiated the policy of con-
verting its 6 % bonds into 5 % consols, the former no longer produced
interest at the rate estimated for the purposes of the banking scheme.
The national banks thus found themselves in an embarrassing
situation and began to clamour for a revision of the programme.
But the government, seeing compensations for them in other
directions, adhered firmly to its scheme. Few problems have
caused greater controversy in modern Japan than this question of
the ultimate fate of the national banks. Not until 1896 could the
diet be induced to pass a bill providing for their dissolution at the
close of their charter terms, or their conversion into ordinary joint-
stock concerns without any note-issuing power, and not until 1899
did their notes cease to be legal tender. Out of a total of 153 of
these banks, 132 continued business as private institutions, and the
rest were absorbed or dissolved. Already (1890 and 1893) minute
regulations had been enacted bringing all the banks and banking
institutions — except the special banks to be presently described —
within one system of semi-annual balance-sheets and official auditing,
while in the case of savings banks the directors' responsibility was
declared unlimited and these banks were required to lodge security
with the treasury for the protection of their depositors.
Just as the ordinary banks were all centred on the Bank of Japan l
and more or less connected with it, so in 1895, a group of special
institutions, called agricultural and commercial banks,
were organized and centred on a hypothec bank, the
object of this system being to supply cheap capital
to farmers and manufacturers on the security of real estate. The
hypothec bank had its head office in Tokyo and was authorized to
obtain funds by issuing premium-bearing bonds, while an agricul-
tural and industrial bank was established in each prefecture and
received assistance from the hypothec bank. Two years later
(1900), an industrial bank — sometimes spoken of us the crU.it
mobilier of Japan — was brought into existence under official auspices,
its purpose being to lend money against bonds, debentures and snares,
as well as to public corporations. These various institutions,
together with clearing houses, bankers' associations, the HokkaidS
colonial bank, the bank of Formosa, savings banks (including a
post-office savings bank), and a mint complete the financial machi-
nery of modern Japan.
Reviewing this chapter of Japan's material development, we find
Review of that whereas, at the beginning of the Meiji era (1867),
Banking the nation did not possess so much as one banking
Develop- institution worthy of the name, forty years later it
ment. had 22 1 1 banks, with a paid-up capital of £40,000,000,
reserves of £12,000,000, and deposits of £147,000,000; and whereas
Special
Hanks.
1 The Bank of Japan was established as a joint-stock company in
1882. The capital in 1909 was 30,000,000 yen. In it alone is
vested note-issuing power. There is no limit to its issues against
gold or silver coins and bullion, but on other securities (state bonds,
treasury bills and other negotiable bonds or commercial paper) its
issues are limited to 120 millions, any excess over that figure being
subject to a tax of 5 % per annum.
Clearing
Houses.
Bourses.
there was not one savings bank in 1867, there were 487 in
1906 with deposits of over £50,000,000. The average yearly
dividends of these banks in the ten years ending 1906 varied between
9-1 and 9-9%.
Necessarily the movement of industrial expansion was accom-
panied by a development of insurance business. The beginnings
of this kind of enterprise did not become visible, how-
ever, until 1 88 1, and even at that comparatively
recent date no Japanese laws had yet been enacted for the control
of such operations. The commercial code, published in March 1890,
was the earliest legislation which met the need, and from that time
the number of insurance companies and the volume of their trans-
actions grew rapidly. In 1897, there were 35 companies with a total
paid-up capital of 7,000,000 yen and policies aggregating 971,000,000
yen, and in 1906 the corresponding figures were 65 companies,
22,000,000 yen paid up and policies of 4,149,000,000 yen. The
premium reserves grew in the same period from 7,000,000 to
108,000,000. The net profits of these companies in 1906 were (in
round numbers) 10,000,000 yen.
The origin of clearing houses preceded that of insurance companies
in Japan by only two years (1879). Osaka set the example, which
was quickly followed by Tokyo, Kobe, Yokohama,
Ki6to and Nagoya. In 1898 the bills handled at
these institutions amounted to 1,186,000,000 yen, and
in 1907 to 7,484,000,000 yen. Japanese clearing houses are modelled
after those of London and New York.
Exchanges existed in Japan as far back as the close of the I7th
century. At that time the income of the feudal chiefs consisted
almost entirely of rice, and as this was sold to brokers,
the latter found it convenient to meet at fixed times
and places for conducting their business. Originally their trans-
actions were all for cash, but afterwards they devised time bargains
which ultimately developed into a definite form of exchange. The
reform of abuses incidental to this system attracted the early
attention of the Meiji government, and in 1893 a law was promul-
gated for the control of exchanges, which then numbered 146.
Under this law the minimum share capital of a bourse consti-
tuted as a joint-stock company was fixed at 100,000 yen, and the
whole of its property became liable for failure on the part of its
brokers to implement their contracts. There were 51 bourses in
1908.
Not less remarkable than this economic development was the
large part acted in it by officialdom. There were two reasons for
this. One was that a majority of the men gifted with
originality and foresight were drawn into the ranks of The Qovern-
the administration by the great current of the revolu- meat and
tion ; the other, that the feudal system had tended to Economic
check rather than to encourage material development, Development.
since the limits of each fief were also the limits of
economical and industrial enterprise. Ideas for combination and
co-operation had been confined to a few families, and there was
nothing to suggest the organization of companies nor any law to
protect them if organized. Thus the opening of the Meiji era found
the Japanese nation wholly unqualified for the commercial and
manufacturing competition in v/hich it was thenceforth required
to engage, and therefore upon those who had brought the country
out of its isolation there devolved the responsibility of speedily
preparing their fellow countrymen for the new situation. To these
leaders banking facilities seemed to be the first need, and steps were
accordingly taken in the manner already described. But how to
educate men of affairs at a moment's notice? How to replace by a
spirit of intelligent progress the ignorance and conservatism of the
hitherto despised traders and artisans? When the first bank was
organized, its two founders — men who had been urged, nay almost
compelled, by officialdom to make the essay — were obliged to raise
four-fifths of the capital themselves, the general public not being
willing to subscribe more than one-fifth — a petty sum of 500,000
yen — and when its staff commenced their duties, they had not the
most shadowy conception of what to do. That was a faithful
reflection of the condition of the business world at large. If the
initiative of the people themselves had been awaited, Japan's career
must have been slow indeed.
Only one course offered, namely, that the government itself
should organize a number of productive enterprises on modern lines,
so that they might serve as schools and also as models. Such, as
already noted under Industries, was the programme adopted.
It provoked much hostile criticism from foreign onlookers, who had
learned to decry all official incursions into trade and industry, but
had not properly appreciated the special conditions existing in Japan.
The end justified the means. At the outset of its administration we
find the Meiji government not only forming plans for the circulation
of money, building railways and organizing posts and telegraphs,
but also establishing dockyards, spinning mills, printing-houses,
silk-reeling filatures, paper-making factories and so forth, thus by
example encouraging these kinds of enterprise and by legislation
providing for their safe prosecution. Yet progress was slow. One
by one and at long intervals joint-stock companies came into
existence, nor was it until the resumption of specie payments in
1886 that a really effective spirit of enterprise manifested itself
among the people. Railways, harbours, mines, spinning, weaving,
FINANCE]
JAPAN
217
paper-making, oil-refining, brick-making, leather-tanning, glass-
making and other industries attracted eager attention, and whereas
the capital subscribed for such works aggregated only 50,000,000 yen
in 1886, it exceeded 1,000,000,000 yen in 1906.
When specie payments were resumed in 1885, the notes issued
by the Bank of Japan were convertible into silver on demand, the
Adoption o/si'ver standard being thus definitely adopted, a com-
theQold plete reversal of the system inaugurated at the
Standard establishment of the national banks on Prince Ito'S
' return from ' the United States. Japanese financiers
believed from the^outset in gold monometallism. But, in the first
place, the country's stock of gold was soon driven out by her depre-
ciated fiat currency; and, in the second, not only were all other
Oriental nations silver-using, but also the Mexican silver dollar had
long been the unit of account in Far-Eastern trade. Thus Japan
ultimately drifted into silver monometallism, the silver yen becoming
her unit of currency. So soon, however, as the indemnity that she
received from China after the war of 1894-95 had placed her in
possession of a stock of gold, she determined to revert to the gold
standard. Mechanically speaking, the operation was very easy.
Gold having appreciated so that its value in terms of silver had
exactly doubled during the first 30 years of the Meiji era, nothing
was necessary except to double the denominations of the gold coins
in terms of yen, leaving the silver subsidiary coins unchanged.
Thus the old $-yen gold piece, weighing 2-22221 momme of 900 fine-
ness, became a lo-yen piece in the new currency, and a new 5-yen
piece of half the weight was coined. No change whatever was
required in the reckonings of the people. The yen continued to be
their coin of account, with a fixed sterling value of a small fraction
over two shillings, and the denominations of the gold coins were
doubled. Gold, however, is little seen in Japan; the whole duty
of currency is done by notes.
It is not to be supposed that all this economic and financial
development was unchequered by periods of depression and severe
panic. There were in fact six such seasons: in 1874, 1881, 1889,
1897, 1900 and 1907. But no year throughout the whole period
failed to witness an increase in the number of Japan's industrial
and commercial companies, and in the amount of capital thus
invested.
To obtain a comprehensive idea of Japan's state finance, the
simplest method is to set down the annual revenue at quinquennial
Stat periods, commencing with the year 1878-1879, because
„ it was not until 1876 that the system of duly compiled
and published budgets came into existence.
REVENUE (omitting fractions)
The most striking feature of the above table is the rapid growth
of revenue during the last three periods. So signal was the growth
that the revenue may be said to have sextupled in the 15 years
ended 1909. This was the result of the two great wars in which
Japan was involved, that with China in 1894-95 a"d that with
Russia in 1904-5. The details will be presently shown.
Turning now to the expenditure and pursuing the same plan, we
have the following figures: —
EXPENDITURE (omitting fractions)
Year.
Ordinary
Expenditures
(millions of yen).
Extraordinary
Expenditures
(millions of yen).
Total
Expenditures
(millions of yen).
1878-9
1883-4
1888-9
1893-4
1898-9
1903-4
1908-9
56
68
66
64
119
170
427
5
15
IS
20
IOI
80
193
61
83
81
84
220
250
620
It may be here stated that, with three exceptions, the working of the
budget showed a surplus in every one of the 41 years between 1867
and 1908.
1 The Japanese fiscal year is from April I to March 31.
The sources from which revenue is obtained are as follow : —
ORDINARY REVENUE
1894-5.
1898-9.
I903-4-
1908-9.
millions
of yen.
millions
of yen.
millions
of yen.
millions
of yen.
Taxes
Receipts from stamps
and Public Under-
takings
Various Receipts
70-50
14-75
4-58
96-20
33-oo
3-67
146-10
96-87
8-15
299-61
164-66
11-48
Year.1
Ordinary Revenue
(millions of yen).
Extraordinary Revenue
(millions of yen).
Total Revenue
(millionsof yen).
1878-9
1883-4
1888-9
1893-4
1898-9
1903-4
1908-9
53
76
74
86
133
224
476
9
7
18
28
87
36
144
62
83
92
114
220
260
620
It appears from the above that during 15 years the weight of taxation
increased fourfold. But a correction has to be applied, first, on
account of the tax on alcoholic liquors and, secondly, on account of
customs dues, neither of which can properly be called general imposts.
The former grew from 16 millions in 1894-1895 to 72 millions in
1908-1909, and the latter from 5^ millions to 41 J millions. If these
increases be deducted, it is found that taxes, properly so called,
grew from 70-5 millions in 1894-1895 to 207-86 millions in 1908-1909,
an increase of somewhat less than three-fold. Otherwise stated,
the burden per unit of population in 1894-1895 was 35. 6d., whereas
in 1908-1909 it was 8s. 4d. To understand the principle of Japanese
taxation and the manner in which the above development took
place, it is necessary .to glance briefly at the chief, taxes separately.
The land tax is the principal source of revenue. It was originally
fixed at 3 % of the assessed value of the land, but in 1877 this ratio
was reduced to 2j %, on which basis the tax yielded . . _
from 37 to 38 million yen annually. After the war with
China (1894-1895) the government proposed to increase this impost,
in order to obtain funds for an extensive programme of useful
public works and expanded armaments (known subsequently as the
" first post bettum programme "). By that time the market value
of agricultural land had largely appreciated owing to improved
communications, and urban land commanded greatly enhanced
prices. But the lower house of the diet, considering itself guardian
of the farmers' interests, refused to endorse any increase of the tax.
Not until 1889 could this resistance be overcome, and then only on
condition that the change should not be operative for more than
5 years. The amended rates were 3-3 % on rural lands and 5 % on
urban building sites. Thus altered, the tax produced 46,000,000
yen, but at the end of the five-year period it would have reverted to
its old figure, had not war with Russia broken out. An increase
was then made so that the impost varied from 3 % to 17$ % accord-
ing to the class of land, and under this new system the tax yielded
85 millions. Thus the exigencies of two wars had augmented it
from 38 millions in 1889 to 85 millions in 1907.
The income tax was introduced in 1887. It was on a graduated
scale, varying from I % on incomes of not less than 300 yen, to 3 %
on incomes of 30,000 yen and upwards. At these,
rates the tax yielded an insignificant revenue of about
2,000,000 yen. In 1899, a revision was effected for the purposes of
the first post bettum, programme. This revision increased the number
of classes from five to ten, incomes of 300 yen standing at the bottom
and incomes of 100,000 yen or upwards at the top, the minimum and
maximum rates being I % and si %. The tax now produced
approximately 8,000,000 yen. Finally in 1904, when war broke
out with Russia, these rates were again revised, the minimum now
becoming 2%, and the maximum 8'2%. Thus revised, the tax
yields a revenue of 27,000,000 yen.
The business tax was instituted in 1896, after the war with China,
and the rates have remained unchanged. For the purposes of the
tax all kinds of business are divided into nine classes,
and the tax is levied on the amounts of sales (wholesale ?
and retail), on rental value of buildings, on number of
employees and on amount of capital. The yield from the tax grows
steadily. It was only 4,500,000 yen in 1897, but it figured at
22,000,000 yen in the budget for 1908-1909.
The above three imposts constitute the only direct taxes in Japan.
Among indirect taxes the most important is that upon alcoholic
liquors. It was inaugurated in 1871; doubled, roughly T
speaking, in 1878; still further increased thenceforth at ?*?",,..
intervals of about 3 years, until it is now approximately ?J~
twenty times as heavy as it was originally. The liquor
taxed is mainly sake; the rate is about 50 sen (one shilling) per
gallon, and the annual yield is 72,000,000 yen.
In 1859, when Japan re-opened her ports to foreign commerce,
the customs dues were fixed on a basis of 10% ad valorem, but this
wag almost immediately changed to a nominal 5% „
and a real 3%. The customs then yielded a very ~" *
petty return — not more than three or four million yen
— and the Japanese government had no discretionary power to
alter the rates. Strenuous efforts to change this system were at
length successful, and, in 1899, the tariff was divided into two
sections, conventional and statutory; the rates in the former being
governed by a treaty valid for 12 years ; those in the latter being fixed
at Japan's will. Things remained thus until the war with Russia
218
JAPAN
[FINANCE
compelled a revision of the statutory tariff. Under this system
the ratio of the duties to the value of the dutiable goods was about
15-65 %._ _The customs yield a revenue of about 42,000,000 yen.
In addition to the above there are eleven taxes, some in existence
before the war of 1904-5, and some created for the purpose
™' of carrying on the war or to meet the expenses of a post
bettum programme.
Taxes in existence before 1904-1905 : —
Yield
Name. (millions of yen).
Tax on soy 4
Tax on sugar i6J
Mining tax 2
Tax on bourses 2
Tax on issue of bank-notes I
Tonnage dues \
Taxes created on account of the war (1904-5) or in its immediate
sequel : —
Yield
Name. (millions of yen) .
Consumption tax on textile fabrics 19"
Tax on dealers in patent medicines
Tax on communications 2
Consumption tax on kerosene I
Succession tax ii
Also, as shown above, the land tax was increased by 39 millions;
the income tax by 19 millions; the business tax by 15 millions; and
the tax on alcoholic liquors by 15 millions. On the whole, if taxes
of general incidence and those of special incidence be lumped to-
gether, it appears that the burden swelled from 160,000,000 yen
before the war to 320,000,000 after it.
The government of Japan carries on many manufacturing under-
takings for purposes of military and naval equipment, for ship-
building, for the construction of railway rolling stock,
te for the manufacture of telegraph and light-house
materials, for iron-founding and steel-making, forprinting,
*" for paper-making and so forth. There are 48 of these
institutions, giving employment to 108,000 male opera-
tives and 23,000 female, together with 63,000 labourers. But the
financial results do not appear independently in the general budget.
Three other government undertakings, however, constitute important
budgetary items: they are, the profits derived from the postal
and telegraph services, 39,000,000 yen; secondly, from forests,
13,000,000 yen; and thirdly, from railways, 37,000,000 yen. The
government further exercises a monopoly of three important staples,
tobacco, salt and camphor. In each case the crude article is pro-
duced by private individuals from whom it is taken over at a fair
price by the government, and, having been manufactured (if neces-
sary), it is resold by government agents at fixed prices. The tobacco
monopoly yields a profit of some 33,000,000 yen ; the salt monopoly
a profit of 12,000,000 yen, and the camphor monopoly a profit of
1,000,000 yen. Thus the ordinary revenue of the state consisted
in 1908-1909 of: —
, Yen.
Proceeds of taxes 320,000,000
Proceeds of state enterprises (posts and tele-
graphs, forests and railways) .... 89,000,000
Proceeds of monopolies 56,000,000
Sundries 11,000,000
Total 476,000,000
The ordinary expenditures of the nine departments of state aggre-
gated—in 1908-1909 — 427,000,000 yen, so that there was a surplus
revenue of 49,000,000 yen.
Japanese budgets have long included an extraordinary section,
so called because it embodies outlays of a special and terminable
Fitrxnrdinnrv cnaracter as distinguished from ordinaryandperpetu-
•adltunL ally- recurrinS. expenditures. The items in this extra-
• ordinary section possessed deep interest in the years
1 896 and 1907, because they disclosed the special programmes mapped
out by Japanese financiers and statesmen after the wars with China
and Russia. Both programmes had the same bases — expansion of
armaments and development of the country's material resources.
After her war with China, Japan received a plain intimation that she
must either fight again after a few years or resign herself to a career
of insignificance on the confines cf the Far East. No other inter-
pretation could be assigned to the action of Russia, Germany and
France in requiring her to retrocede the territory which she had
acquired by right of conquest. Japan therefore made provision
for the doubling of her army and her navy, for the growth of a
mercantile marine qualified to supply a sufficiency of troop-ships,
and for the development of resources which should lighten the burden
of these outlays.
The war with Russia ensued nine years after these preparations
had begun, and Japan emerged victorious. It then seemed to the
onlooking nations that she would rest from her warlike efforts.
On the contrary, just as she had behaved after her war with China,
so she now behaved after her war with Russia — made arrange-
ments to double her army and navy and to develop her material
resources. The government drafted for the year 1907-1908 a budget
with three salient features. First, instead of proceeding to deal in a
leisurely manner with the greatly increased national debt, Japan's
financiers made dispositions to pay it off completely in the space of
30 years. Secondly, a total outlay of 422,000,000 yen was set down
for improving and expanding the army and the navy. Thirdly,
expenditures aggregating 304,000,000 yen were estimated for produc-
tive purposes. All these outlays, included in the extraordinary
section of the budget, were spread over a series of years commencing
in 1907 and ending in 1913, so that the disbursements would reach
their maximum in the fiscal year 1908-1909 and would thenceforth
decline with growing rapidity. To finance this programme three
constant sources of annual revenue were provided, namely, increased
taxation, yielding some 30 millions yearly ; domestic loans, varying
from 30 to 40 millions each year; and surpluses of ordinary revenue
amounting to from 45 to 75 millions. There were also some excep-
tional and temporary assets: such as 100,000,000 yen remaining
over from the war fund ; 50 millions paid by Russia for the main-
tenance of her officers and soldiers during their imprisonment in
Japan; occasional sales of state properties and so forth. But the
backbone of the scheme was the continuing revenue detailed above.
The house of representatives unanimously approved this pro-
gramme. By the bulk of the nation, however, it was regarded with
something like consternation, and a very short time sufficed to
demonstrate its impracticability. From the beginning of 1907 a
cloud of commercial and industrial depression settled down upon
Japan, partly because of so colossal a programme of taxes and
expenditures, and partly owing to excessive speculation during the
year 1906 and to unfavourable financial conditions abroad. To
float domestic loans became a hopeless task, and thus one of the three
sources of extraordinary revenue ceased to be available. There
remained no alternative but to modify the programme, and this was
accomplished by extending the original period of years so as cor-
respondingly to reduce the annual outlays. The nation, however, as
represented by its leading men of affairs, clamoured for still more
drastic measures, and it became evident that the government
must study retrenchment, not expansion, eschewing above all things
any increase of the country's indebtedness. A change of ministry
took place, and the new cabinet drafted a programme on five bases:
first, that all expenditures should be brought within the margin of
actual visible revenue, loans being wholly abstained from ; secondly,
that the estimates should not include any anticipated surpluses of
yearly revenue ; thirdly, that appropriations of at least 50,000,000 yen
should be annually set aside to form a sinking fund, the whole of
the foreign debt being thus extinguished in 27 years; fourthly,
that the state railways should be placed in a separate account, all
their profits being devoted to extensions and repairs; and fifthly,
that the period for completing the post helium programme should be
extended from 6 years to 1 1. This scheme had the effect of restoring
confidence in the soundness of the national finances.
National Debt. — When the fiefs were surrendered to the sovereign
at the beginning of the Meiji era, it was decided to provide for the
feudal nobles and the samurai by the payment of lump sums in
commutation, or by handing to them public bonds, the interest on
which should constitute a source of income. The result of this trans-
action was that bonds having a total face value of 191,500,000 yen
were issued, and ready-money payments were made aggregating
21,250,000 yen.1 This was the foundation of Japan's national debt.
Indeed, these public bonds may be said to have represented the
bulk of the state's liabilities during the first 25 years of the
Meiii period. The government had also to take over the debts
of the fiefs, amounting to 41,000,000 yen, of which 21,500,000 yen
were paid with interest-bearing bonds, the remainder with ready
money. If to the above figures be added two foreign loans aggregating
16,500,000 yen (completely repaid by the year 1897); a loan of
15,000,000 yen incurred on account of the Satsuma revolt of 1877;
loans of 33,000,000 yen for public works, 13,000,000 yen for naval
construction, and 14,500,000 yen'in connexion with the fiat currency,
we have a total of 305,000,000 yen, being the whole national debt
of Japan during the first 28 years of her new era under Imperial
administration.
The second epoch dates from the war with China in 1894-95.
The direct expenditures on account of the war aggregated 200,000,000
1 The amounts include the payments made in connexion with what
may be called the disestablishment of the Church. There were
29,805 endowed temples and shrines throughout the empire, and their
estates aggregated 354.48' acres, together with ij million bushels
of rice (representing 2,500,000 yen). The government resumed
possession of all these lands and revenues at a total cost to the state
of a little less than 2,500,000 yen, paid out in pensions spread over a
period of fourteen years. The measure sounds like wholesale con-
fiscation. But some extenuation is found in the fact that the
temples and shrines held their lands and revenues under titles which,
being derived from the feudal chiefs, depended for their validity
on the maintenance of feudalism.
J This sum represents interest-bearing bonds issued in exchange
for fiat notes, with the idea of reducing the volume of the latter.
It was a tentative measure, and proved of no value.
FINANCE]
JAPAN
yen, of which 135,000,000 yen were added to the national debt, the
remainder being defrayed with accumulations of surplus revenue,
with a part of the indemnity received from China, and with voluntary
contributions from patriotic subjects. As the immediate sequel of
the war, the government elaborated a large programme of armaments
and public works. The expenditure for these unproductive purposes,
as well as for coast fortifications, dockyards, and so on, came to
314,000,000 yen, and the total of the productive expenditures
included in the programme was 190,000,000 yen — namely, 120
millions for railways, telegraphs and telephones; 20 millions for
riparian improvements; 20 millions in aid of industrial and agri-
cultural banks and so forth — the whole programme thus involving
an outlay of 504,000,000 yen. To meet this large figure, the Chinese
indemnity, surpluses of annual revenue and other assets, furnished
300 millions; and it was decided that the remaining 204 millions
should be obtained by domestic loans, the programme to be carried
completely into operation — with trifling exceptions — by the year
1905. In practice, however, it was found impossible to obtain
money at home without paying a high rate of interest. The govern-
ment, therefore, had recourse to the London market in 1899, raising a
loan of £10,000,000 at 4%, and selling the £100 bonds at 90. In
1902, it was not expected that Japan would need any further
immediate recourse to foreign borrowing. According to her finan-
ciers' forecast at that time, her national indebtedness would reach
its maximum, namely, 575,000,000 yen, in the year 1903, and
would thenceforward diminish steadily. All Japan's domestic
loans were by that time placed on a uniform basis. They carried
5% interest, ran for a period of 5 years without redemption, and
were then to be redeemed within 50 years at latest. The treasury
had power to expedite the operation of redemption according to
financial convenience, but the sum expended on amortization each
year must receive the previous consent of the diet. Within the limit
of that sum redemption was effected either by purchasing the stock
of the loans in the open market or by drawing lots to determine
the bonds to be paid off. During the first two periods (1867 to
1897) of the Meiji era, owing to the processes of conversion, consolida-
tion, &c., and to the various requirements of the state's progress,
twenty-two different kinds of national bonds were issued; they
aggregated 673,215,500 yen; 269,042,198 yen of that total had been
paid off at the close of 1897, and the remainder was to be redeemed
by 1946, according to these programmes.
But at this point the empire became involved in war with Russia,
and the enormous resulting outlays caused a signal change in the
financial situation. Before peace was restored in the autumn of
1905, Japan had been obliged to borrow 405,000,000 yen at home
and 1,054,000,000 abroad, so that she found herself in 1908 with a
total debt of 2,276,000,000 yen, of which aggregate her domestic
indebtedness stood for 1,110,000,000 and her foreign borrowings
amounted to 1,166,000,000. This meant that her debt had grown
from 561,000,000 yen in 1904 to 2,276,000,000 yen1 in 1908; or from
11-3 yen to 43-8 yen per head of the population. Further, out of
the grand total, the sum actually spent on account of war and arma-
ments represented 1,357,000,000 yen. The debt carried interest
varying from 4 to 5 %.
It will be observed that the country's indebtedness grew by
1,700,000,000 yen, in round numbers, owing to the war with Russia.
This added obligation the government resolved to discharge within
the space of 30 years, for which purpose the diet was asked to
approve the establishment of a national debt consolidation fund,
which should be kept distinct from the general accounts of revenue
and expenditure, and specially applied to payment of interest and
redemption of principal. The amount of this fund was never to fall
below 110,000,000 yen annually. Immediately after the war, the
diet approved a cabinet proposal for the nationalization of 17 private
railways, at a cost of 500,000,000 yen, and this brought the state's
debts to 2,776,000,000 yen in all. The people becoming impatient
of this large burden, a scheme was finally adopted in 1908 for
appropriating a sum of at least 50,000,000 yen annually to the
purpose of redemption.
Local Finance. — Between 1878 and 1888 a system of local auto-
nomy in matters of finance was fully established. Under this system
the total expenditures of the various corporations in the last year
of each quinquennial period commencing from the fiscal year 1889-
1890 were as follow: —
Total Expenditure
Year. (millions of yen).
1889-1890 22
1893-1894 52
1898-1899 97
1903-19042 158
1907-1908 167
1 In this is included a sum of 1 10,000,000 yen distributed in the form
of loan-bonds among the officers and men of the army and navy
by way of reward for their services during the war of 1904—5.
2 When war broke out in 1904 the local administrative districts
took steps to reduce their outlays, so that whereas the expenditures
totalled 158,000,000 yen in 1903-1904, they fell to I22,ooo,oooand
126,000,000 in 1904-1905 and 1905-1906 respectively. Thereafter
however, they expanded once more.
219
In the same years the total indebtedness of the corporations was : —
Debts
Year. (millions of yen).
1890 3
1894 10
1899 32
1904 •. . . 65
1907. 89*
The chief purposes to which the proceeds of these loans were applied
are as follow: —
Millions of yen.
Education 5
Sanitation 12
Industries 13
Public works 52
Local corporations are not competent to incur unrestricted indebted-
ness. The endorsement of the local assembly must be secured;
redemption must commence within 3 years after the date of issue
and be completed within 30 years; and, except in the case of very
small loans, the sanction of the minister of home affairs must be
obtained.
Wealth of Japan. — With reference to the wealth of Japan, there
is no official census. So far as can be estimated from statistics
for the year 1904-1905, the wealth of Japan proper, excluding
Formosa, Sakhalin and some rights in Manchuria, amounts to about
19,896,000,000 yen, the items of which are as follow: —
Yen (10 yen = £i).
Lands 12,301,000,000
Buildings 2,331,000,000
Furniture and fittings 1,080,000,000
Live stock 109,000,000
Railways, telegraphs and telephones . . 707,000,000
Shipping 376,000,000
Merchandise 873,000,000
Specie and bullion 310,000,000
Miscellaneous 1,809,000,000
Grand total 19,896,000,000
Education. — There is no room to doubt that the literature and
learning of China and Korea were transported to Japan in very
ancient times, but tradition is the sole authority Early
for current statements that in the 3rd century a
Korean immigrant was appointed historiographer to the Imperial
court of Japan and another learned man from the same country
introduced the Japanese to the treasures of Chinese literature.
About the end of the 6th century the Japanese court began to
send civilians and religionists direct to China, there to study Con-
fucianism and Buddhism, and among these travellers there were
some who passed as much as 25 or 30 years beyond the sea.
The knowledge acquired by these students was crystallized into
a body of laws and ordinances based on the administrative and
legal systems of the Sui dynasty in China, and in the middle of
the 7th century the first Japanese school seems to have been
established by the emperor Tenchi, followed some 50 years later
by the first university. Nara was the site of the latter, and the
subjects of study were ethics, law, history and mathematics.
'Not until 794, the date of the transfer of the capital to Kioto,
however, is there any evidence of educational organization on
a considerable scale. A university was then opened in the
capital, with affiliated colleges; and local schools were built and
endowed by noble families, to whose scions admittance was re-
stricted, but for general education one institution only appears
to have been provided. In this Kioto university the curriculum
included the Chinese classics, calh'graphy, history, law, etiquette,
arithmetic and composition; while in the affiliated colleges
special subjects were taught, as medicine, herbalism, acupunc-
ture, shampooing, divination, the almanac and languages.
Admission was limited to youths of high social grade; the stu-
dents aggregated some 400, from 13 to 16 years of age; the faculty
included professors and teachers, who were known by the same
titles (hakase and shi) as those applied to their successors to-day;
and the government supplied food and clothing as well as books.
The family schools numbered five, and their patrons were the
Wage, the Fujiwara, the Tachibana (one school each) and the
Minamoto (two). At the one institution — opened in 828 —
where youths in general might receive instruction, the course
8 This includes 22} millions of loans raised abroad.
220
JAPAN
[EDUCATION
embraced only calligraphy and the precepts of Buddhism and
Confucianism.
The above rejrospect suggests that Japan, in those early
days, borrowed her educational system and its subjects of
Combina- stucty entirely from China. But closer scrutiny shows
tioa of that the national factor was carefully preserved.
Native and The ethics of administration required a combination
Foreign of two eiementS) wakon, or the soul of Japan, and
kwansai, or the ability of China; so that, while adopt-
ing from Confucianism the doctrine of filial piety, the Japanese
grafted on it a spirit of unswerving loyalty and patriotism; and
while accepting Buddha's teaching as to three states of existence,
they supplemented it by a belief that in the life beyond the grave
the duty of guarding his country would devolve on every man.
Great academic importance attached to proficiency in literary
composition, which demanded close study of the ideographic
script, endlessly perplexing in form and infinitely d,elicate in
sense. To be able to compose and indite graceful couplets
constituted a passport to high office as well as to the favour of
great ladies, for women vied with men in this accomplishment.
The early years of the nth century saw, grouped about the
empress Aki, a galaxy of female authors whose writings are
still accounted their country's classics — Murasaki no Shikibu,
Akazome Emon, Izumi Shikibu, Ise Taiyu and several lesser
lights. To the first two Japan owes the Genji monogatari and
the Eiga monogatari, respectively, and from the Imperial court
of those remote ages she inherited admirable models of paint-
ing, calligraphy, poetry, music, song and dance. But it is
to be observed that all this refinement was limited virtually
to the noble families residing in Kioto, and that the first
object of education in that era was to fit men for office and for
society.
Meanwhile, beyond the precincts of the capital there were
rapidly growing to maturity numerous powerful military mag-
Educatioa nates who despised every form of learning that did
in the not contribute to martial excellence. An illiterate era
Middle ensued which reached its climax with the establish-
Ages' ment of feudalism at the close of the I2th century.
It is recorded that, about that time, only one man out of a force
of five thousand could decipher an Imperial mandate addressed
to them. Kamakura, then the seat of feudal government, was
at first distinguished for absence of all intellectual training, but
subsequently the course of political events brought thither from
Kioto a number of court nobles whose erudition and refine-
ment acted as a potent leaven. Buddhism, too, had been from
the outset a strong educating influence. Under its auspices
the first great public library was established (1270) at the temple
Shomyo-ji in Kanazawa. It is said to have contained practi-
cally all the Chinese and Japanese books then existing, and they
were open for perusal by every class of reader. To Buddhist
priests, also, Japan owed during many years all the machinery
she possessed for popular education. They organized schools
at the temples scattered about in almost every part of the
empire, and at these lera-koya, as they were called, lessons
in ethics, calligraphy, reading and etiquette were given to the
sons of samurai and even to youths of the mercantile and manu-
facturing classes.
When, at the beginning of the i7th century, administrative
supremacy fell into the hands of the Tokugawa, the illustrious
Education founder of that dynasty of shoguns, lyeyasu,
lathepre- showed himself an earnest promoter of erudition.
MeijiEra. jje empiOye(i a number of priests to make copies
of Chinese and Japanese books; he patronized men of learning
and he endowed schools. It does not appear to have occurred
to him, however, that the spread of knowledge was hampered
by a restriction which, emanating originally from the Imperial
court in Kioto, forbade any one outside the ranks of the Buddhist
priesthood to become a public teacher. To his fifth successor
Tsunayoshi (1680-1709) was reserved the honour of abolishing
this veto. Tsunayoshi, whatever his faults, was profoundly
attached to literature. By his command a pocket edition of the
Chinese classics was prepared, and the example he himself set
in reading and expounding rare books to audiences of feudatories
and their vassals produced something like a mania for erudition,
so that feudal chiefs competed in engaging teachers and founding
schools. The eighth shogun, Yoshimune (171 6-1 749) , was an even
more enlightened ruler. He caused a geography to be compiled
and an astronomical observatory to be constructed; he revoked
the veto on the study of foreign books; he conceived and carried
out the idea of imparting moral education through the medium
of calligraphy by preparing ethical primers whose precepts were
embodied in the head-lines of copy-books, and he encouraged
private schools. lyenari (1787-1838), the eleventh shogun,
and his immediate successor, lyeyoshi (1838-1853), patronized
learning no less ardently, and it was under the auspices of the
latter that Japan acquired her five classics, the primers of
True Words, of Great Learning, of Lesser Learning, of Female
Ethics and of Women's Filial Piety.
Thus it may be said that the system of education progressed
steadily throughout the Tokugawa era. From the days of
Tsunayoshi the number of fief schools steadily increased, and
as students were admitted free of all charges, a duty of grateful
fealty as well as the impulse of interfief competition drew thither
the sons of all samurai. Ultimately the number of such schools
rose to over 240, and being supported entirely at the expense
of the feudal chiefs, they did no little honour to the spirit of the
era. From 7 to 15 years of age lads attended as day scholars,
being thereafter admitted as boarders, -and twice a year exami-
nations were held in the presence of high officials of the fief.
There were also several private schools where the curriculum
consisted chiefly of moral philosophy, and there were many
temple schools, where ethics, calligraphy, arithmetic, etiquette
and, sometimes, commercial matters were taught. A prominent
feature of the system was the bond of reverential affection
uniting teacher and student. Before entering school a boy
was conducted by his father or elder brother to the home of his
future teacher, and there the visitors, kneeling before the teacher,
pledged themselves to obey him in all things and to submit
unquestioningly to any discipline he might impose. Thus the
teacher came to be regarded as a parent, and the veneration paid
to him was embodied in a precept: " Let not a pupil tread within
three feet of his teacher's shadow." In the case of the temple
schools the priestly instructor had full cognisance of each
student's domestic circumstances and was guided by that know-
ledge in shaping the course of instruction. The universally
underlying principle was, " serve the country and be diligent
in your respective avocations." Sons of samurai were trained
in military arts, and on attaining proficiency many of them
travelled about the country, inuring their bodies to every kind
of hardship and challenging all experts of local fame.
Unfortunately, however, the policy of national seclusion pre-
vented for a long time all access to the stores of European know-
ledge. Not until the beginning of the i8th century did any
authorized account of the great world of the West pass into the
hands of the people. A celebrated scholar (Arai Hakuseki)
then compiled two works — Saiyo kibun (Record of Occidental
Hearsay), and Sairan igen (Renderings of Foreign Languages) —
which embodied much information, obtained from Dutch sources,
about Europe, its conditions and its customs. But of course
the light thus furnished had very restricted influence. It was
not extinguished, however. Thenceforth men's interest centred
more and more on the astronomical, geographical and medical
sciences of the West, though such subjects were not included in
academical studies until the renewal of foreign intercourse in
modern times. Then (1857), almost immediately, the nation
turned to Western learning, as it had turned to Chinese thirteen
centuries earlier. The Tokugawa government established in
Yedo an institution called Bansho-shirabe-dokoro (place for
studying foreign books) , where Occidental languages were learned
and Occidental works translated. Simultaneously a school for
acquiring foreign medical art (Seiyo igaku-sho) was opened, and,
a little later (1862), the Kaisci-jo (place of liberal culture), a
college for studying European sciences, was added to the list of
new institutions. Thus the eve of the Restoration saw the
EDUCATION]
JAPAN
221
Japanese people already appreciative of the stores of learning
rendered accessible to them by contact with the Occident.
Commercial education was comparatively neglected in the
schools. Sons of merchants occasionally attended the tera-koya,
Commercial but the instruction they received there had seldom
Education /a any bearing upon the conduct of trade. Mercan-
Tokugawa tile knowledge had to be acquired by a system of
apprenticeship. A boy of 9 or 10 was apprenticed
for a period of 8 or 9 years to a merchant, who undertook to
support him and teach him a trade. Generally this young
apprentice could not even read or write. He passed through all
the stages of shop menial, errand boy, petty clerk, salesman and
senior clerk, and in the evenings he received instruction from a
teacher, who used for textbooks the manual of letter-writing
(Shosoku orai) and the manual of commerce (Shobai oral).
The latter contained much useful information, and a youth
thoroughly versed in its contents was competent to discharge
responsible duties. When an apprentice, having attained the
position of senior clerk, had given proof of practical ability, he
was often assisted by his master to start business independently,
but under the same firm-name, for which purpose a sum of
capital was given to him or a section of his master's customers
were assigned.
When the government of the Restoration came into power, the
emperor solemnly announced that the administration should be
education conducted on the principle of employing men of capa-
lo Modern city wherever they could be found. This amounted
Japan. to a declaration that in choosing officials scholastic
acquirements would thenceforth take precedence of the claims
of birth, and thus unprecedented importance was seen to attach
to education. But so long as the feudal system survived, even in
part, no general scheme of education could be thoroughly enforced,
and thus it was not until the conversion of the fiefs into prefec-
tures in 1871 that the government saw itself in a position to take
drastic steps. A commission of investigation was sent to Europe
and America, and on its return a very elaborate and extensive
plan was drawn up in accordance with French models, which the
commissioners had found conspicuously complete and sym-
metrical. This plan subsequently underwent great modifica-
tions. It will be sufficient to say that in consideration of the
free education hitherto provided by the feudatories in their
various fiefs, the government of the restoration resolved not only
that the state should henceforth shoulder the main part of this
burden, but also that the benefits of the system should be
extended equally to all classes of the population, and that the
attendance at primary schools should be compulsory. At the
outset the sum to be paid by the treasury was fixed at 2,000,000
yen, that having been approximately the expenditure incurred by
the feudatories. But the financial arrangements suffered many
changes from time to time, and finally, in 1877, the cost of main-
taining the schools became a charge on the local taxes, the central
treasury granting only sums in aid.
Every child, on attaining the age of six, must attend a common
elementary school, where, during a six-years' course, instruction is
given in morals, reading, arithmetic, the rudiments of technical work,
gymnastics and poetry. Year by year the attendance at these
schools has increased. Thus, whereas in the year 1900, only 81-67 %
of the school-age children of both sexes received the prescribed
elementary instruction, the figure in 1905 was 94-93%. The desire
for instruction used to be keener among boys than among girls, as
was natural in view of the difference of inducement ; but ultimately
this discrepancy disappeared almost completely. Thus, whereas
the percentage of girls attending school was 75-90 in 1900, it rose
1091-46 in 1905, and the corresponding figures for boys were 90-55
and 97-10 respectively. The tuition fee paid at a common elemen-
tary school in the rural districts must not exceed 55. yearly, and in the
urban districts, los. ; but in practice it is much smaller, for these
elementary schools form part of the communal system, and such
portion of their expenses as is not covered by tuition fees, income
from school property and miscellaneous sources, must be defrayed
out of the proceeds of local taxation. In 1909 there were 1 8, 1 60
common elementary schools, and also 9105 schools classed as
elementary but having sections where, subsequently to the comple-
tion of the regular curriculum, a special supplementary course of
study might be pursued in agriculture, commerce or industry
(needle- work in the case of girls). The time devoted to these
special courses is two, three or four years, according to the degree
of proficiency contemplated, and the maximum fees are isd. per
month in urban districts and one-half of that amount in rural dis-
tricts.
There are also 294 kindergartens, with an attendance of 26,000
infants, whose parents pay 3d. per month on the average for each
child. In general the kindergartens are connected with elementary
schools or with normal schools.
If a child, after graduation at a common elementary school,
desires to extend its education, it passes into a common middle
school, where training is given for practical pursuits or for admission
to higher educational institutions. The ordinary curriculum at a
common middle school includes moral philosophy, English language,
history, geography, mathematics, natural history, natural philosophy,
chemistry, drawing and the Japanese language. Five years are
required to graduate, and from the fourth year the student may take
up a special technical course as well as the main course; or, in
accordance with local requirements, technical subjects may be
taught conjointly with the regular curriculum throughout the whole
time. The law provides that there must be at least one common
middle school in each prefecture. The actual number in 1909 was 216.
Great inducements attract attendance at a common middle
school. Not only does the graduation certificate carry considerable
weight as a general qualification, but it also entitles a young man
to volunteer for one year's service with the colours, thus escaping
one of the two years he would have to serve as an ordinary conscript.
The graduate of a common middle school can claim admittance,
without examination, to a high school, where he spends three years
preparing to pass to a university, or four years studying a special
subject, as law, engineering or medicine. By following the course
in a high school, a youth obtains exemption from conscription until
the age of 28, when one year as a volunteer will free him from all
service with the colours. A high-school certificate of graduation
entitles its holder to enter a university without examination, and
qualifies him for all public posts.
For girls also high schools are provided, the object being to give
a general education of higher standard. Candidates for admission
must be over 12 years of age, and must have completed the second-
year course of a higher elementary school. The regular course of
study requires 4 years, and supplementary courses as well as special
art courses may be taken.
In addition to the schools already enumerated, which may be
said to constitute the machinery of general education, there are
special schools, generally private, and technical schools (including a
few private), where instruction is given in medicine and surgery,
agriculture, commerce, mechanics, applied chemistry, navigation,
electrical engineering, art (pictorial and applied), veterinary science,
sericulture and various other branches of industry. There are also
apprentices' schools, classed under the heading of elementary,
where a course of not less than six months, and not more than four
years, may be taken in dyeing and weaving, embroidery, the making
of artificial flowers, tobacco manufacture, sericulture, reeling silk,
pottery, lacquer, woodwork, metal-work or brewing. There are
also schools — nearly all supported by private enterprise — for the
blind and the dumb.
Normal schools are maintained for the purpose of training teachers,
a class of persons not plentiful in Japan, doubtless because of an
exceptionally low scale of emoluments, the yearly pay not exceeding
£60 and often falling as low as £15.
There are two Imperial universities, one in Tokyo and one in
Kioto. In 1909 the former had about 220 professors and instructors
and 2880 students. Its colleges number six: law, medicine,
engineering, literature, science and agriculture. It has a university
hall where post-graduate courses are studied, and it publishes a
quarterly journal giving accounts of scientific researches, which
indicate not only large erudition, but also original talent. The
university of Kioto is a comparatively new institution and has not
given any signs of great vitality. In 1909 its colleges numbered
four: law, medicine, literature and science; its faculty consisted of
about 60 professors with 70 assistants, and its students aggregated
about 1 1 oo.
Except in the cases specially indicated, all the figures given above
are independent of private educational institutions. The system
pursued by the state does not tend to encourage private education,
for unless a private school brings its curriculum into exact accord
with that prescribed for public institutions of corresponding grade,
its students are denied the valuable privilege of partial exemption
from conscription, as well as other advantages attaching to state
recognition. Thus the quality of the instruction being nominally
the same, the rate of fees must also be similar, and no margin offers
to tempt private enterprise.
Public education in Japan is strictly secular : no religious teaching
of any kind is permitted in the schools. There are about 100 libraries.
Progress is marked in this branch, the rate of growth having been
from 43 to 100 in the five-year period ended 1905. The largest
library is the Imperial, in Tokyo. It had about half a million
volumes in 1909, and the daily average of visitors was about 430.
Apart from the universities, the public educational institutions
in Japan involve an annual expenditure of 3$ millions sterling, out
of which total a little more than half a million is met by students'
fees; 2f millions are paid by the communes, and the remainder is
222
JAPAN
[RELIGION
defrayed from various sources, the central government contributing
only some £28,000. It is estimated that public school property —
in land, buildings, books, furniture, &c., aggregates n millions
sterling.
VII. — RELIGION
The primitive religion of Japan is known by the name
of Shinto, which signifies " the divine way," but the Japanese
Shinto maintain that this term is of comparatively
modern application. The term Shinto being
obviously of Chinese origin, cannot have been used in Japan
before she became acquainted with the Chinese language.
Now Buddhism did not reach Japan until the 6th century, and
a knowledge of the Chinese language had preceded it by only a
hundred years. It is therefore reasonable to conclude that the
primitive religion of Japan had no name, and that it did not
begin to be called Shinto until Buddhism had entered the field.
The two creeds remained distinct, though not implacably antago-
nistic, until the beginning of the gth century, when they were
welded together into a system of doctrine to which the name
Ryobu-Skinto (dual Shinto) was given. In this new creed the
Shinto deities were regarded as avatars of Buddhist divinities,
and thus it may be said that Shinto was absorbed into Buddhism.
Probably that would have been the fate of the indigenous creed
in any circumstances, for a religion without a theory as to a future
state and without any code of moral duties could scarcely hope to
survive contact with a faith so well equipped as Buddhism in
these respects. But Shinto, though absorbed, was not obliterated.
Its beliefs survived; its shrines survived; its festivals survived,
and something of its rites survived also.
Shint6, indeed, may be said to be entwined about the roots
of Japan's national existence. Its scripture — as the Kojiki
must be considered — resembles the Bible in that both begin with
the cosmogony. But it represents the gods as peopling the newly
created earth with their own offspring instead of with human
beings expressly made for the purpose. The actual work of
creation was done by a male deity, Izanagi, and a female deity,
Izanami. From the right eye of the former was born Amaterasu,
who became goddess of the sun; from his left eye, the god of the
moon ; and from his nose, a species of Lucifer. The grandson of
the sun goddess was the first sovereign of Japan, and his descen-
dants have ruled the land in unbroken succession ever since,
the rzist being on the throne in 1009. Thus it is to Amaterasu
(the heaven-illuminating goddess) that the Japanese pay
reverence above all other deities, and it is to her shrine at Ise
that pilgrims chiefly flock.
The story of creation, as related in the Kojiki, is obviously
based on a belief that force is indestructible, and that every
exercise of it is productive of some permanent result. Thus by
the motions of the creative spirit there spring into existence all
the elements that go to make up the universe, and these, being
of divine origin, are worshipped and propitiated. Their number
becomes immense when we add the deified ghosts of ancestors
who were descended irom the gods and whose names are asso-
ciated with great deeds. These ancestors are often regarded as
the tutelary deities of districts, where they receive special homage
and where shrines are erected to them. The method of worship
consists in making offerings and in the recital of rituals (norUo).
Twenty-seven of these rituals were reduced to writing and em-
bodied in a work called Engishiki (927). Couched in antique
language, these liturgies are designed for the dedication of
shrines, for propitiating evil, for entreating blessings on the
harvest, for purification, for obtaining household security, for
bespeaking protection during a journey, and so forth. Nowhere
is any reference found to a future state of reward or punishment,
to deliverance from evil, to assistance in the path of virtue.
One ceremonial only is designed to avert the consequences of
sin or crime; namely, the rite of purification, which, by washing
with water and by the sacrifice of valuables, removes the pollu-
tion resulting from all wrong-doing. Originally performed on
behalf of individuals, this 5-barai ultimately came to be a semi-
annual ceremony for sweeping away the sins of all the people.
Shinto is thus a mixture of ancestor-worship and of nature-
worship without any explicit code of morals. It regards human
beings as virtuous by nature; assumes that each man's conscience
is his best guide; and while believing in a continued existence
beyond the grave, entertains no theory as to its pleasures or
pains. Those that pass away become disembodied spirits,
inhabiting the world of darkness (yomi-no-yo) and possessing
power to bring sorrow or joy into the lives of their survivors, on
which account they are worshipped and propitiated. Purity
and simplicity being essential characteristics of the cult, its
shrines are built of white wood, absolutely without decorative
features of any kind, and fashioned as were the original huts of
the first Japanese settlers. There are no graven images — a fact
attributed by some critics to ignorance of the glyptic art on the
part of the original worshippers — but there is an emblem of the
deity, which generally takes the form of a sword, a mirror or a
so-called jewel, these being the insignia handed by the sun god-
dess to her grandson, the first ruler of Japan. This emblem is
not exposed to public view: it is enveloped in silk and brocade
and enclosed in a box at the back of the shrine. The mirror
sometimes prominent is a Buddhist innovation and has nothing
to do with the true emblem of the creed.
From the olh century, when Buddhism absorbed Shinto, the
two grew together so intimately that their differentiation seemed
hopeless. But in the middle of the i7th century a strong revival
of the indigenous faith was effected by the efforts of a group of
illustrious scholars and politicians, at whose head stood Mabuchi,
Motoori and Hirata. These men applied themselves with great
diligence and acumen to reproduce the pure Shinto of the Kojiki
and to restore it to its old place in the nation's reverence, their
political purpose being to educate a spirit of revolt against the
feudal system which deprived the emperor of administrative
power. The principles thus revived became the basis of the
restoration of 1867; Shinto rites and Shinto rituals were re-
adopted, and Buddhism fell for a season into comparative
disfavour, Shinto being regarded as the national religion. But
Buddhism had twined its roots too deeply around the heart of
the people to be thus easily torn up. It gradually recovered
its old place, though not its old magnificence, for its disestablish-
ment at the hands of the Meiji government robbed it of a large
part of its revenues.
Buddhism entered China at the beginning of the Christian era,
but not until the 4th century did it obtain any strong footing.
Thence, two centuries later (522), it reached Japan Bu<Mft/jm
through Korea. The reception extended to it was
not encouraging at first. Its images and its brilliant appur-
tenances might well deter a nation which had never seen an idol
nor ever worshipped in a decorated temple. But the ethical
teachings and the positive doctrines of the foreign faith presented
an attractive contrast to the colourless Shinto. After a struggle,
not without bloodshed, Buddhism won its way. It owed much
to the active' patronage of Shotoku taishi, prince-regent during
the reign of the empress Suiko (593-621). At his command many
new temples were built; the country was divided into dioceses
under Buddhist prelates; priests were encouraged to teach the
arts of road:making and bridge-building, and students were
sent to China to investigate the mysteries of the faith at its
supposed fountain-head. Between the middle of the 7th century
and that of the 8th, six sects were introduced from China, all
imperfect and all based on the teachings of the Hinayana system.
Up to this time the propagandists of the creed had been chiefly
Chinese and Korean teachers. But from the 8th century on-
wards, when Kioto became the permanent capital of the empire,
Japanese priests of lofty intelligence and profound piety began
to repair to China and bring thence modified forms of the
doctrines current there. It was thus that DengyO daishi (c. 800)
became the founder of the Tendai (heavenly tranquillity) sect
and K6b6 daishi (774-834) the apostle of the Shingon (true
word). Other sects followed, until the country possessed six
principal sects in all with thirty-seven sub-sects. It must be
remembered that Buddhism offers an almost limitless field for
eclecticism. There is not in the world any literary production
RELIGION]
JAPAN
of such magnitude as the Chinese scriptures of the Mahayana.
" The canon is seven hundred times the amount of the New
Testament. Hsiian Tsang's translation of the Prajna paramita
is twenty-five times as large as the whole Christian Bible."
It is natural that out of such a mass of doctrine different
systems should be elaborated. The Buddhism that came to
Japan prior to the days of Dengyo daishi was that of the Vai-
pulya school, which seems to have been accepted in its entirety.
But the Tendai doctrines, introduced by Dengyo, likaku and
other fellow-thinkers, though founded mainly on the Saddharma
pundarika, were subjected to the process of eclecticism which
all foreign institutions undergo at Japanese hands. Dengyo
studied it in the monastery of Tientai which " had been founded
towards the close of the 6th century of our era on a lofty range
of mountains in the province of Chehkiang by the celebrated
preacher Chikai " (Lloyd, " Developments of Japanese Budd-
hism," Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxii.),
and carrying it to Japan he fitted its disciplinary and meditative
methods to the foundations of the sects already existing there.
This eclecticism was even more marked in the case of the
Shingon (true word) doctrines, taught by Dengyo's illustrious
contemporary, Kobo daishi, who was regarded as the incarnation
of Vairocana. He led his countrymen, by a path almost wholly
his own, from the comparatively low platform of Hinayana
Buddhism, whose sole aim is individual salvation, to the Maha-
yana doctrine, which teaches its devotee to strive after perfect
enlightenment, not for his own sake alone, but also that he may
help his fellows and intercede for them. Then followed the
Jodo (Pure Land) sect, introduced in 1153 by a priest, Senku,
who is remembered by later generations as Honen shonin.
He taught salvation by faith ritualistically expressed. The
virtue that saves comes, not from imitation of and conformity to
the person and character of the saviour Amida, but from blind
trust in his efforts and ceaseless repetition of pious formulae. It
is really a religion of despair rather than of hope, and in that
respect it reflects the profound sympathy awakened in the bosom
of its teacher by the sorrows and sufferings of the troublous
times in which he lived.
A favourite pupil of Honen shonin was Shinran (1173-1262).
He founded the Jodo Shinshu (true sect of jodo), commonly
called simply Shinshu and sometimes Monto, which subse-
quently became the most influential of Japanese sects, with its
splendid monasteries, the two Hongwana-ji in Kioto. The
differences between the doctrines of this sect and those of its
predecessors were that the former " divested itself of all meta-
physics " ; knew nothing of a philosophy of religion, dispensed
with a multiplicity of acts of devotion and the keeping of many
commandments; did not impose any vows of celibacy or any
renunciation of the world, and simply made faith in Amida the
all in all. In modern days the Shinshu sect has been the most
progressive of all Buddhist sects and has freely sent forth its
promising priests to study in Europe and America. Its devotees
make no use of charms or spells, which are common among the
followers of other sects.
Anterior by a few years to that introduction of the Shinshu
was the Zen sect, which has three main divisions, the Rinzai
(1168), the Soto (1223) and the Obaku (1650). This is essentially
a contemplative sect. Truth is reached by pure contemplation,
and knowledge can be transmitted from heart to heart without
the use of words. In that simple form the doctrine was accepted
by the Rinzai believers. But the founders of the Soto branch —
Shoyo taishi and Butsuji zenshi — added scholarship and re-
search to contemplation, and taught that the " highest wisdom
and the most perfect enlightenment are attained when all the
elements of phenomenal existence are recognized as empty, vain
and unreal." This creed played an important part in the
development of Bushido, and its priests have always been dis-
tinguished for erudition and indifference to worldly possessions.
Last but not least important among Japanese sects of Buddhism
is the Nichiren or Hokke, called after its founder, Nichiren
(1222-1282). It was based on the Saddharma pundarika, and
it taught that there was only one true Buddha — the moon in the
223
heavens — the other Buddhas being like the moon reflected in
the waters, transient, shadowy reflections of the Buddha of
truth. It is this being who is the source of all phenomenal
existence, and in whom all phenomenal existence has its being.
The imperfect Buddhism teaches a chain of cause and effect;
true Buddhism teaches that the first link in this chain of cause
and effect is the Buddha of original enlightenment. When this
point has been reached true wisdom has at length been attained.
Thus the monotheistic faith of Christianity was virtually reached
in one God in whom all creatures " live, move and have their
being." It will readily be conceived that these varied doctrines
caused dissension and strife among the sects professing them.
Sectarian controversies and squabbles were nearly as prominent
among Japanese Buddhists as they were among European
Christians, but to the credit of Buddhism it has to be recorded
that the stake and the rack never found a place among its instru-
ments of self-assertion. On the other hand, during the wars
that devastated Japan from the i2th to the end of the i6th
century, many of the monasteries became military camps, and
the monks, wearing armour and wielding glaives, fought in
secular as well as religious causes.
The story of the first Christian missionaries to Japan is told else-
where (see § VIII. FOREIGN INTERCOURSE). Their work suffered an
interruption for more than 200 years until, in 1858, _.. . .
almost simultaneously with the conclusion of the . „* *" y
treaties, a small band of Catholic fathers entered Japan Jao,n
from the Riukiu islands, where they had carried on
their ministrations since 1846. They found that, in the neighbour-
hood of Nagasaki, there were some small communities where
Christian worship was still carried on. It would seem that these
communities had not been subjected to any severe official scrutiny.
But the arrival of the fathers revived the old question, and the
native Christians, or such of them as refused to apostatize, were
removed from their homes and sent into banishment. This was the
last example of religious intolerance in Japan. At the instance of
the foreign representatives in Tokyo the exiles were set at liberty
in 1873, and from that time complete freedom of conscience existed
in fact, though it was not declared by law until the promulgation of
the constitution in 1889. In 1905 there were 60,000 Roman Catholic
converts in Japan forming 360 congregations, with 130 missionaries
and 215 teachers, including 145 nuns. These were all European.
They were assisted by 32 Japanese priests, 52 Japanese nuns, 280
male catechists and 265 female catechists and nurses. Three semi-
naries for native priests existed, together with 58 schools and orphan-
ages and two lepers' homes. The whole was presided over by an
archbishop and three bishops.
The Anglican Church was established in Japan in 1859 by two
American clergymen who settled in Nagasaki, and now, in con-
junction with the Episcopal Churches of America and Canada, it
has missions collectively designated Nihon Sei-K6kai. There are
6 bishops — 2 American and 4 English — with about 60 foreign and
50 Japanese priests and deacons, besides many foreign lay workers
of both sexes and Japanese catechists and school teachers. The
converts number 11,000. The Protestant missions include Presby-
terian (Nihon Kirisuto Kyokai), Congregational (Kumi-ai), Metho-
dist, Baptist and the Salvation Army (Kyusei-gun). The pioneer
Protestant mission was founded in 1859 by representatives of the
American Presbyterian and Dutch Reformed Churches. To this
mission belongs the credit of having published, in 1880, the first
complete Japanese version of the New Testament, followed by the
Old Testament in 1887. The Presbyterians, representing 7 religious
societies, have over a hundred missionaries; 12,400 converts; a
number of boarding schools for boys and girls and day schools.
The Congregational churches are associated exclusively with the
mission of the American board of commissioners for foreign missions.
They have about 11,400 converts, and the largest Christian educa-
tional institution in Japan, namely, the Doshisha in Kioto. The
Methodists represent 6 American societies and I Canadian. They
have 130 missionaries and 10,000 converts; boarding schools, day
schools, and the most important Christian college in Tokyo, namely,
the Awoyama Gaku-in. The Baptists represent 4 American
societies; have 60 missionaries, a theological seminary, an academy
for boys, boarding schools for girls, day schools and 3500 converts.
The Salvation Army, which did not enter Japan until 1895, has
organized 15 corps, and publishes ten thousand copies of a fort-
nightly magazine, the War Cry (Toki no Koe). Finally, the Society
of Friends, the American and London Religious Tract Societies and
the Young Men's Christian Association have a number of missions.
It will be seen from the above that the missionaries in Japan, in the
space of half a century (1858 to 1908), had won 110,000 converts,
in round numbers. To these must be added the Orthodox Russian
Church, which has a fine cathedral in Tokyo, a staff of about 40
Japanese priests and deacons and 27,000 converts, the whole
presided over by a bishop. Thus the total number of converts
224 JAPAN
becomes 137,000. In spite of the numerous sects represented in
Japan there has been virtually no sectarian strife, and it may be
said of the Japanese converts that they concern themselves scarcely
at all about the subtleties of dogma which divide European Chris-
tianity. Their tendency is to consider only the practical aspects of
the faith as a moral and ethical guide. They are disposed, also, to
adapt the creed to their own requirements just as they adapted
Buddhism, and this is a disposition which promises to grow.
VIII. — FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
Foreign Intercourse in Early and Medieval Times. — There can
be no doubt that commerce was carried on by Japan with
China and Korea earlier that the 8th century of the Christian
era. It would appear that from the very outset over-sea
trade was regarded as a government monopoly. Foreigners
were allowed to travel freely in the interior of the country
provided that they submitted their baggage for official in-
spection and made no purchases of weapons of war, but all
imported goods were bought in the first place by official ap-
praisers who subsequently sold them to the people at arbitrarily
fixed prices. Greater importance attached totthe trade with
China under the Ashikaga shoguns (i4th, i sth and 1 6th centuries),
who were in constant need of funds to defray the cost of inter-
minable military operations caused by civil disturbances. In
this distress they turned to the neighbouring empire as a source
from which money might be obtained. This idea seems to have
been suggested to the shogun Takauji by a Buddhist priest,
when he undertook the construction of the temple Tenryu-ji.
Two ships laden with goods were fitted out, and it was decided
that the enterprise should be repeated annually. Within a few
years after this development of commercial relations between
the two empires, an interruption occurred owing partly to the
overthrow of the Yuen Mongols by the Chinese Ming, and partly
to the activity of Japanese pirates and adventurers who raided
the coasts of China. The shogun Yoshimitsu (1368-1394),
however, succeeded in restoring commercial intercourse, though
in order to effect his object he consented that goods sent from
Japan should bear the character of tribute and that he himself
should receive investiture at the hands of the Chinese emperor's
ambassador. The Nanking government granted a certain
number of commercial passports, and these were given by the
shogun to Ouchi, feudal chief of Cho-shu, which had long been
the principal port for trade with the neighbouring empire.
Tribute goods formed only a small fraction of a vessel's cargo:
the bulk consisted of articles which were delivered into the govern-
ment's stores in China, payment being received in copper cash.
It was from this transaction that the shSgun derived a consider-
able part of his profits, for the articles did not cost him anything
originally, being either presents from the great temples and pro-
vincial governors or compulsory contributions from the house of
Ouchi. As for the gifts by the Chinese government and the goods
shipped in China, they were arbitrarily distributed among the
noble families in Japan at prices fixed by the shogun's assessor.
Thus, so far as the shogun was concerned, these enterprises
could not fail to be lucrative. They also brought large profits
to the Ouchi family, for, in the absence of competition, the pro-
ducts and manufactures of each country found ready sale in
the markets of the other. The articles found most suitable in
China were swords, fans, screens, lacquer wares, copper and
agate, and the goods brought back to Japan were brocade and
other silk fabrics, ceramic productions, jade and fragrant woods.
The Chinese seem to have had a just appreciation of the wonder-
ful swords of Japan. At first they were willing to pay the
equivalent of 1 2 guineas for a pair of blades, but by degrees, as
the Japanese began to increase the supply, the price fell, and at
the beginning of the i6th century all the diplomacy of the Japan-
ese envoys was needed to obtain good figures for the large and
constantly growing quantity of goods that they took over by
way of supplement to the tribute. Buddhist priests generally
enjoyed the distinction of being selected as envoys, for experi-
ence showed that their subtle reasoning invariably overcame
the economical scruples of the Chinese authorities and secured
a fine profit for their master, the shogun. In the middle of the
[FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
1 6th century these tribute-bearing missions came to an end
with the ruin of the Ouchi family and the overthrow of the
Ashikaga shoguns, and they were never renewed.
Japan's medieval commerce with Korea was less ceremonious
than that with China. No passports had to be obtained from
the Korean government. A trader was sufficiently
equipped when he carried a permit from the So Ktrea
family, which held the island of Tsushima in fief.
Fifty vessels were allowed to pass yearly from ports in
Japan to the three Japanese settlements in Korea. Little is
recorded about the nature of this trade', but it was rudely inter-
rupted by the Japanese settlers, who, offended at some arbitrary
procedure on the part of the local Korean authorities,
took up arms (A.D. 1510) and at first signally routed the
Koreans. An army from Seoul turned the tables, and the
Japanese were compelled to abandon the three settlements.
Subsequently the shogun's government — which had not been
concerned in the struggle — approached Korea with amicable
proposals, and it was agreed that the ringleaders of the raiders
should be decapitated and their heads sent to Seoul, Japan's
compliance with this condition affording, perhaps, a measure of
the value she attached to neighbourly friendship. Thenceforth
the number of vessels was limited to 25 annually and the settle-
ments were abolished. Some years later, the Japanese again
resorted to violent acts of self-assertion, and on this occasion,
although the offenders were arrested by order of the shogun
Yoshiharu, and handed over to Korea for punishment, the
Seoul court persisted in declining to restore the system of
settlements or to allow the trade to be resumed on its former
basis. Fifty years afterwards the taiko's armies invaded Korea,
overrunning it for seven years, and leaving, when they retired
in 1598, a country so impoverished that it no longer offered
any attraction to commercial enterprise from beyond the sea.
The Portuguese discovered Japan by accident in 1542 or 1543
— the exact date is uncertain. On a voyage to Macao from Siam,
a junk carrying three Portuguese was blown from with
her course and fetched Tanegashima, a small Occidental
island lying south of the province of Satsuma. Natl°as-
The Japanese, always hospitable and inquisitive, welcomed the
newcomers and showed special curiosity about the arquebuses
carried by the Portuguese, fire-arms being then a novelty in
Japan and all weapons of war being in great request. Conversa-
tion was impossible, of course, but, by tracing ideographs upon
the sand, a Chinese member of the crew succeeded in explaining
the cause of the junk's arrival. She was then piloted to a more
commodious harbour, and the Portuguese sold two arque-
buses to the local feudatory, who immediately ordered his
armourer to manufacture similar weapons. Very soon the news
of the discovery reached all the Portuguese settlements in the
East, and at least seven expeditions were fitted out during the
next few years to exploit this new market. Their objective
points were all in the island of Kiflshifl — the principal stage where
the drama — ultimately converted into a tragedy — of Christian
propagandism and European commercial intercourse was acted
in the interval between 1542 and 1637.
It does not appear that the Jesuits at Macao, Goa or other
centres of Portuguese influence in the East took immediate
advantage of the discovery of Japan. The pioneer Arrival of
propagandist was Francis Xavier, who landed at the Jesuits.
Kagoshima on the isth of August 1549. During the interval
of six (or seven) years that separated this event from the drifting
of the junk to Tanegashima, the Portuguese had traded freely
in the ports of Kiflshifl, had visited Kioto, and had reported
the Japanese capital to be a city of 96,000 houses, therefore
larger than Lisbon. Xavier would certainly have gone to Japan
even though he had not been specially encouraged, for the
reports of his countrymen depicted the Japanese as " very
desirous of being instructed," and he longed to find a field more
promising than that inhabited by " all these Indian nations,
barbarous, vicious and without inclination to virtue." There
were, however, two special determinants. One was a request
addressed by a feudatory, supposed to have been the chief of the
FOREIGN INTERCOURSE]
Bungo fief, to the viceroy of the Indies at Goa; the other, an
appeal made in person by a Japanese named Yajiro, whom the
fathers spoke of as Anjiro, and who subsequently attained
celebrity under his baptismal name, Paul of the holy faith. No
credible reason is historically assigned for the action of the
Japanese feudatory. Probably his curiosity had been excited
by accounts which the Portuguese traders gave of the noble
devotion of their country's missionaries, and being entirely
without bigotry, as nearly all Japanese were at that epoch, he
issued the invitation partly out of curiosity and partly from a
sincere desire for progress. Anjiro's case was very different.
Labouring under stress of repentant zeal, and fearful that his
evil acts might entail murderous consequences, he sought an
asylum abroad, and was taken away in 1548 by a Portuguese
vessel whose master advised him to repair to Malacca for the
purpose of confessing to Xavier. This might well have seemed
to the Jesuits a providential dispensation, for Anjiro, already
able to speak Portuguese, soon mastered it sufficiently to inter-
pret for Xavier and his fellow-missionaries (without which aid
they must have remained long helpless in the face of the immense
difficulty of the Japanese language), and to this linguistic skill he
added extraordinary gifts of intelligence and memory. Xavier,
with two Portuguese companions and Anjiro, were excellently
received by the feudal chiefs of Satsuma and obtained permission
to preach their doctrine in any part of the fief. This permit is
not to be construed as an evidence of official sympathy with the
foreign creed. Commercial considerations alone were in ques-
tion. A Japanese feudal chief in that era had sedulously to
foster every source of wealth or strength, and as the newly
opened trade with the outer world seemed full of golden promise,
each feudatory was not less anxious to secure a monopoly of it
in the i6th century than the Ashikaga shoguns had been in the
1 5th. The Satsuma daimyo was led to believe that the presence
of the Jesuits in Kagoshima would certainly prelude the advent
of trading vessels. But within a few months one of the expected
merchantmen sailed to Hirado without touching at Kagoshima,
and her example was followed by two others in the following
year, so that the Satsuma chief saw himself flouted for the sake
of a petty rival, Matsudaira of Hirado. This fact could not fail
to provoke his resentment. But there was another influence at
work. Buddhism has always been a tolerant religion, eclectic
rather than exclusive. Xavier, however, had all the bigoted
intolerance of his time. The Buddhist priests in Kagoshima
received him with courtesy and listened respectfully to the doc-
trines he expounded through the mouth of Anjiro. Xavier
rejoined with a display of aggressive intolerance which shocked
and alienated the Buddhists. They represented to the Satsuma
chief that peace and good order were inconsistent with such a
display of militant propagandism, and he, already profoundly
chagrined by his commercial disappointment, issued in 1550 an
edict making it a capital offence for any of his vassals to embrace
Christianity. Xavier, or, more correctly speaking, Anjiro, had
won 150 converts, who remained without molestation, but
Xavier himself took ship for Hirado. There he was received
with salvoes of artillery by the Portuguese merchantmen lying
in the harbour and with marks of profound respect by the
Portuguese traders, a display which induced the local chief
to issue orders that courteous attention should be paid to the
teaching of the foreign missionaries. In ten days a hundred
baptisms took place; another significant index of the mood of the
Japanese in the early era of Occidental intercourse: the men
in authority always showed a complaisant attitude towards
Christianity where trade could be fostered by so doing, and
wherever the men in authority showed such an attitude, con-
siderable numbers of the lower orders embraced the foreign
faith. Thus, in considering the commercial history of the era, the
element of religion constantly thrusts itself into the foreground.
Xavier next resolved to visit Kioto. The first town of impor-
Pirst visit tance he reached on the way was Yamaguchi, capital
o! Europeans of the Choshu fief, situated on the northern shore
to Ktoto. of the shimonoseki Strait. There the feudal chief,
Ouchi, though sufficiently courteous and inquisitive, showed
xv. 8
JAPAN 225
no special cordiality towards humble missionaries unconnected
with commerce, and the work of proselytizing made no progress,
so that Xavier and his companion, Fernandez, pushed
on to Kioto. The time was mid- winter; the two fathers
suffered terrible privations during their journey of two
months on foot, and on reaching Kioto they found a city which
had been almost wholly reduced to ruins by internecine war.
Necessarily they failed to obtain audience of either emperor or
shogun, at that time the most inaccessible potentates in the
world, the Chinese " son of heaven " excepted, and nothing
remained but street preaching, a strange resource, seeing that
Xavier, constitutionally a bad linguist, had only a most rudimen-
tary acquaintance with the profoundly difficult tongue in which
he attempted to expound the mysteries of a novel creed. A
fortnight sufficed to convince him that Kioto was unfruitful
soil. He therefore returned to Yamaguchi. But he had now
learned a lesson. He saw that propagandism without scrip or
staff and without the countenance of those sitting in the seats of
power would be futile in Japan. So he obtained from Hirado
his canonicals, together with a clock and other novel products
of European skill, which, as well as credentials from the viceroy
of India, the governor of Malacca and the bishop of Goa, he
presented to the Choshu chief. His prayer for permission to
preach Christianity was now readily granted, and Ouchi issued
a proclamation announcing his approval of the introduction of
the new religion and according perfect liberty to embrace it.
Xavier and Fernandez now made many converts. They also
gained the valuable knowledge that the road to success in Japan
lay in associating themselves with over-sea commerce and its
directors, and in thus winning the co-operation of the feudal
chiefs.
Nearly ten years had now elapsed since the first Portuguese
landed in Kagoshima, and during that time trade had gone on
steadily and prosperously. No attempt was made Christian
to find markets in the main island: the Portuguese Pr°P*s<"""sts-
confined themselves to Kiushiu for two reasons: one, that having
no knowledge of the coasts, they hesitated to risk their ships and
their lives in unsurveyed waters; the other, that whereas the
main island, almost from end to end, was seething with inter-
necine war, Kiushiu remained beyond the pale of disturbance
and enjoyed comparative tranquillity. At the time of Xavier's
second sojourn in Yamaguchi, a Portuguese ship happened to be
visiting Bungo, and at its master's suggestion the great mission-
ary proceeded thither, with the intention of returning tempo-
rarily to the Indies. At Bungo there was then ruling Otomo,
second in power to only the Satsuma chief among the feuda-
tories of Kiushiu. By him the Jesuit father was received with
all honour. Xavier did not now neglect the lesson he had learned
in Yamaguchi. He repaired to the Bungo chieftain's court,
escorted by nearly the whole of the Portuguese crew, gorgeously
bedizened, carrying their arms and with banners flying. Otomo,
a young and ambitious ruler, was keenly anxious to attract
foreign traders with their rich cargoes and puissant weapons of
war. Witnessing the reverence paid to Xavier by the Portu-
guese traders, he appreciated the importance of gaining the
goodwill of the Jesuits, and accordingly not only granted them
full freedom to teach and preach, but also enjoined upon his
younger brother, who, in the sequel of a sudden rebellion, had
succeeded to the lordship of Yamaguchi, the advisability of
extending protection to Torres and Fernandez, then sojourning
there. After some four months' stay in Bungo, Xavier set sail
for Goa in February 1552. Death overtook him in the last
month of the same year.
Xavier's departure from Japan marked the conclusion of
the first epoch of Christian propagandism. His sojourn in
Japan extended to 27 months. In that time he and his
coadjutors won about 760 converts. In Satsuma more than a
year's labour produced 150 believers. There Xavier had the
assistance of Anjiro to expound his doctrines. No language
lends itself with greater difficulty than Japanese to the dis-
cussion of theological questions. The terms necessary for such
a purpose are not current among laymen, and only by special
5
226
JAPAN
[FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
study, which, it need scarcely be said, must be preluded by
an accurate acquaintance with the tongue itself, can a man
hope to become duly equipped for the task of exposition
and dissertation. It is open to grave doubt whether any
foreigner has ever attained the requisite proficiency. Leaving
Anjiro in Kagoshima to care for the converts made there,
Xavier pushed on to Hirado, where he baptized a hundred
Japanese in a few days. Now we have it on the authority of
Xavier himself that in this Hirado campaign " none of us knew
Japanese." How then did they proceed ? "By reciting a semi-
Japanese volume " (a translation made by Anjiro of a treatise
from Xavier's pen) " and by delivering sermons, we brought
several over to the Christian cult." Sermons preached in Por-
tuguese or Latin to a Japanese audience on the island of Hirado
in the year 1550 can scarcely have attracted intelligent interest.
On his first visit to Yamaguchi, Xavier's means of access to the
understanding of his hearers was confined to the rudimentary
knowledge of Japanese which Fernandez had been able to
acquire in 14 months, a period of study which, in modern times,
with all the aids now procurable, would not suffice to carry a
student beyond the margin of the colloquial. No converts were
won. The people of Yamaguchi probably admired the splendid
faith and devotion of these over-sea philosophers, but as for their
doctrine, it was unintelligible. In Kioto the same experience
was repeated, with an addition of much physical hardship.
But when the Jesuits returned to Yamaguchi in the early
autumn of 1551, they baptized 500 persons, including several
members of the military class. Still Fernandez with his broken
Japanese was the only medium for communicating the profound
doctrines of Christianity. It must be concluded that the
teachings of the missionaries produced much less effect than
the attitude of the local chieftain.
Only two missionaries, Torres and Fernandez, remained in
Japan after the departure of Xavier, but they were soon joined
Secon(/ by three others. These newcomers landed at Kago-
Pertodot shima and found that, in spite of the official veto
Christian against the adoption of Christianity, the feudal chief
Prof"'' had lost nothing of his desire to foster foreign trade.
gandtsm. . Y . . Y
Two years later, all the Jesuits in Japan were
assembled in Bungo. Their only church stood there; and they
had also built two hospitals. Local disturbances had compelled
them to withdraw from Yamaguchi, not, however, before their
violent disputes with the Buddhist priests in that town had
induced the feudatory to proscribe the foreign religion, as had
previously been done in Kagoshima. From Funai, the chief
town of Bungo, the Jesuits began in 1579 to send yearly reports
to their Generals in Rome. These reports, known as the Annual
Letters, comprise some of the most valuable information available
about the conditions then existing in Japan. They describe a
state of abject poverty among the lower orders; poverty so cruel
that the destruction of children by their famishing parents
was an everyday occurrence, and in some instances choice had
to be made between cannibalism and starvation. Such suffer-
ing becomes easily intelligible when the fact is recalled that
Japan had been racked by civil war during more than 200
years, each feudal chief fighting for his own hand, to save
or to extend his territorial possessions. From these Annual
Letters it is possible also to gather a tolerably clear idea of
the course of events during the years immediately subsequent
to Xavier's departure. There was no break in the continuity of
the newly inaugurated foreign trade. Portuguese ships visited
Hirado as well as Bungo, and in those days their masters and
crews not only attended scrupulously to their religious duties,
but also showed such profound respect for the missionaries that
the Japanese received constant object lessons in the influence
wielded over the traders by the Jesuits. Thirty years later,
this orderly and reverential demeanour was exchanged for riotous
excesses such as had already made the Portuguese sailor a by-
word in China. But in the early days of intercourse with Japan
the crews of the merchant vessels seem to have preached Chris-
tianity by their exemplary conduct. Just as Xavier had been
induced to visit Bungo by the anxiety of a ship-captain for
Christian ministrations, so in 1537 two of the fathers repaired
to Hirado in obedience to the solicitations of Portuguese sailors.
There the fathers, under the guidance of Vilela, sent brothers to
parade the streets ringing bells and chaunting litanies; they
organized bands of boys for the same purpose; they caused the
converts, and even children, to flagellate themselves at a model
of Mount Calvary, and they worked miracles, healing the sick
by contact with scourges or with a booklet in which Xavier had
written litanies and prayers. It may well be imagined that such
doings attracted surprised attention in Japan. They were
supplemented by even more striking practices. For a sub-
feudatory of the Hirado chief, having been converted, showed
his zeal by destroying Buddhist temples and throwing down the
idols, thus inaugurating a campaign of violence destined to
mark the progress of Christianity throughout the greater part
of its history in Japan. There followed the overthrowing of a
cross in the Christian cemetery, the burning of a temple in the
town of Hirado, and a street riot, the sequel being that the
Jesuit fathers were compelled to return once more to Bungo.
It is essential to follow all these events, for not otherwise can a
clear understanding be reached as to the aspects under which
Christianity presented itself originally to the Japanese. The
Portuguese traders, reverent as was their demeanour towards
Christianity, did not allow their commerce to be interrupted
by vicissitudes of propagandism. They still repaired to Hirado,
and rumours of the wealth-begetting effects of their presence
having reached the neighbouring fief of Omura, its chief, Sumi-
tada, made overtures to the Jesuits in Bungo, offering a port
free from all dues for ten years, a large tract of land, a residence
for the missionaries and other privileges. The Jesuits hastened
to take advantage of this proposal, and no sooner did the news
reach Hirado than the feudatory of that island repented of having
expelled the fathers and invited them to return. But while they
hesitated, a Portuguese vessel arrived at Hirado, and the feudal
chief declared publicly that no need existed to conciliate the
missionaries, since trade went on without them. When this
became known in Bungo, Torres hastened to Hirado, was re-
ceived with extraordinary honours by the crew of the vessel,
and at his instance she left the port, her master declaring that
" he could not remain in a country where they maltreated those
who professed the same religion as himself." Hirado remained
a closed port for some years, but ultimately the advent of three
merchantmen, which intimated their determination not to put
in unless the anti-Christian ban was removed, induced the feudal
chief to receive the Jesuits once more. This incident was
paralleled a few years later in the island of Amakusa, where a
petty feudatory, in order to attract foreign trade, as the mission-
aries themselves frankly explain, embraced Christianity and
ordered all his vassals to follow his example; but when no Portu-
guese ship appeared, he apostatized, required his subjects to
revert to Buddhism and made the missionaries withdraw. In
fact, the competition for the patronage of Portuguese traders
was so keen that the Hirado feudatory attempted to burn several
of their vessels because they frequented the territorial waters
of his neighbour and rival, Sumitada. The latter became
a most stalwart Christian when his wish was gratified. He set
himself to eradicate idolatry throughout his fief with the strong
arm, and his fierce intolerance provoked results which ended in
the destruction of the Christian town at the newly opened free
port. Sumitada, however, quickly reasserted his authority,
and five years later (1567), he took a step which had far-reaching
consequences, namely, the building of a church at Nagasaki, in
order that Portuguese commerce might have a centre and the
Christians an assured asylum. Nagasaki was then a little
fishing village. In five years it grew to be a town of thirty
thousand inhabitants, and Sumitada became one of the richest
of the Kiushiu feudatories. When in 1573 successful conflicts
with the neighbouring fiefs brought him an access of territory,
he declared that he owed these victories to the influence of the
Christian God, and shortly afterwards he publicly proclaimed
banishment for all who would not accept the foreign faith.
There were then no Jesuits by his side, but immediately two
FOREIGN INTERCOURSE]
hastened to join him, and " these, accompanied by a strong
guard, but yet not without danger of their lives, went round
causing the churches of the Gentiles, with their idols, to be thrown
to the ground, while three Japanese Christians went preaching
the law of God everywhere. Three of us who were in the neigh-
bouring kingdoms all withdrew therefrom to work in this abun-
dant harvest, and in the space of seven months twenty thousand
persons were baptized, including the bonzes of about sixty
monasteries, except a few who quitted the State." In Bungo,
however, where the Jesuits were originally so well received,
it is doubtful whether Christian propagandism would not
have ended in failure but for an event which occurred in 1576,
namely, the conversion of the chieftain's son, a youth of some
1 6 years. Two years later Otomo himself came over to the
Christian faith. He rendered inestimable aid, not merely
within his own fief, but also by the influence he exercised on
others. His intervention, supported by recourse to arms,
obtained for the Jesuits a footing on the island of Amakusa,
where one of the feudatories gave his vassals the choice of con-
version or exile, and announced to the Buddhist priests that
unless they accepted Christianity their property would be
confiscated and they themselves banished. Nearly the whole
population of the fief did violence to their conscience for the
sake of their homes. Christianity was then becoming estab-
lished in Kiushiu by methods similar to those of Islam and the
inquisition. Another notable illustration is furnished by the
story of the Arima fief, adjoining that of Sumitada (Omura),
where such resolute means had been adopted to force Christianity
upon the vassals. Moreover, the heads of the two fiefs were
brothers. Accordingly, at the time of Sumitada's very dramatic
conversion, the Jesuits were invited to Arima and encouraged
to form settlements at the ports of Kuchinotsu and Shimabara,
which thenceforth began to be frequented by Portuguese mer-
chantmen. The fief naturally became involved in the turmoil
resulting from Sumitada's iconoclastic methods of propagandism;
but, in 1576, the then ruling feudatory, influenced largely by the
object lesson of Sumitada's prosperity and .puissance, which
that chieftain openly ascribed to the tutelary aid of the Christian
deity, accepted baptism and became the " Prince Andrew " of
missionary records. It is written in those records that " the first
thing Prince Andrew did after his baptism was to convert the
chief temple of his capital into a church, its revenues being
assigned for the maintenance of the building and the support of
the missionaries. He then took measures to have the same thing
.done in the other towns of his fief, and he seconded the preachers
of the gospel so well in everything else that he could flatter
himself that he soon would not have one single idolater in his
states." Thus in the two years that separated his baptism
from his death, twenty thousand converts were won in Arima.
But his successor was an enemy of the alien creed. He ordered
the Jesuits to quit his dominions, required the converts to return
to their ancestral faith, and caused " the holy places to be
destroyed and the crosses to be thrown down." Nearly one-half
of the converts apostatized under this pressure, but others had
recourse to a device of proved potency. They threatened to
leave Kuchinotsu en masse, and as that would have involved
the loss of foreign trade, the hostile edict was materially modified.
To this same weapon the Christians owed a still more signal
victory. For just at that time the great ship from Macao, now
an annual visitor, arrived in Japanese waters carrying the
visitor-general, Valegnani. She put into Kuchinotsu, and her
presence, with its suggested eventualities, gave such satisfaction
that the feudatory offered to accept baptism and to sanction
its acceptance by his vassals. This did not satisfy Valegnani,
a man of profound political sagacity. He saw that the fief was
menaced by serious dangers at the hands of its neighbours, and
seizing the psychological moment of its extreme peril, he used
the secular arm so adroitly that the fief's chance of survival
seemed to be limited to the unreserved adoption of Christianity.
Thus, in 1580, the chieftain and his wife were baptized; " all the
city was made Christian; they burned their idols and destroyed
40 temples, reserving some materials to build churches."
JAPAN 22?
Christian propagandist!! had now made substantial progress.
The Annual Letter of 1582 recorded that at the close of 1581,
thirty-two years after the landing of Xavier in Japan, there were
about 150,000 converts, of whom some 125,000 were in Kiushiu
and the remainder in Yamaguchi, Kioto and the neighbourhood
of the latter city. The Jesuits in the empire then numbered 75,
but down to the year 1563 there had never been more than 9,
and down to 1577, not more than 18. The harvest was certainly
great in proportion to the number of sowers. But it was a har-
vest mainly of artificial growth; forced by the despotic insistence
of feudal chiefs who possessed the power of life and death over
their vassals, and were influenced by a desire to attract foreign
trade. To the Buddhist priests this movement of Christian
propagandism had brought an experience hitherto unknown to
them, persecution on account of creed. They had suffered for
interfering in politics, but the fierce cruelty of the Christian
fanatic now became known for the first time to men themselves
conspicuous for tolerance of heresy and receptivity of instruc-
tion. They had had no previous experience of humanity
in the garb of an Otomo of Bungo, who, in the words of Crasset,
" went to the chase of the bonzes as to that of wild beasts, and
made it his singular pleasure to exterminate them from his
states."
In 1582 the first Japanese envoys sailed from Nagasaki for
Europe. The embassy consisted of four youths, the oldest not
more than 16, representing the fiefs of Arima, Omura Flrst
and Bungo. They visited Lisbon, Madrid and Rome, Japanese
and in all these cities they were received with Embassy
displays of magnificence such as i6th century toEur°Pe-
Europe delighted to make. That, indeed, had been the motive
of Valegnani in organizing the mission: he desired to let the
Japanese see with their own eyes how great were the riches and
might of Western states.
In the above statistics of converts at the close of 1581 mention
is made of Christians in Kioto, though we have already seen that
the visit by Xavier and Fernandez to that city was second
wholly barren of results. A second visit, however, Visit ot
made by Vilela in 1559, proved more successful. Jesuits
He carried letters of recommendation from the
Bungo chieftain, and the proximate cause of his journey was an
invitation from a Buddhist priest in the celebrated monastery
of Hiei-zan, who sought information about Christianity. This
was before the razing of temples and the overthrow of idols had
commenced in Kiushiu. On arrival at Hiei-zan, Vilela found
that the Buddhist prior who had invited him was dead and that
only a portion of the old man's authority had descended to his
successor. Nevertheless the Jesuit obtained an opportunity to
expound his doctrines to a party of bonzes at the monastery.
Subsequently, through the good offices of a priest, described as
" one of the most respected men in the city," and with the assist-
ance of the Bungo feudatory's letter, Vilela enjoyed the rare
honour of being received by the sbogun in Kioto, who treated
him with all consideration and assigned a house for his residence.
It may be imagined that, owing such a debt of gratitude to
Buddhist priests, Vilela would have behaved towards them and
their creed with courtesy. But the Jesuit fathers were proof
against all influences calculated to impair their stern sense of
duty. Speaking through the mouth of a Japanese convert,
Vilela attacked the bonzes in unmeasured terms and denounced
their faith. Soon the bonzes, on their side, were seeking the
destruction of these uncompromising assailants with insistence
inferior only to that which the Jesuits themselves would have
shown in similar circumstances. Against these perils Vilela
was protected by the goodwill of the shogun, who had already
issued a decree threatening with death any one who injured the
missionaries or obstructed their work. In spite of all difficulties
and dangers these wonderful missionaries, whose courage, zeal
and devotion are beyond all eulogy, toiled on resolutely and even
recklessly, and such success attended their efforts that by 1564
many converts had been won and churches had been established
in five walled towns within a distance of 50 miles from Kioto.
Among the converts were two Buddhist priests, notoriously
228
JAPAN
[FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
hostile at the outset, who had been nominated as official
commissioners to investigate and report upon the doctrine of
Christianity. The first conversion en masse was due to pressure
from above. A petty feudatory, Takayama, whose fief lay at
Takatsuki in the neighbourhood of the capital, challenged Vilela
to a public controversy, the result of which was that the Japanese
acknowledged himself vanquished, embraced Christianity and
invited his vassals as well as his family to follow his example.
This man's son — Takayama Yusho— proved one of the stanch-
est supporters of Christianity in all Japan, and has been immor-
talized by the Jesuits under the name of Don Justo Ucondono.
Incidentally this event furnishes an index to the character
of the Japanese samurai: he accepted the consequences of
defeat as frankly as he dared it. In the same year (1564) the
feudatory of Sawa, a brother of Takayama, became a Christian
and imposed the faith on all his vassals, just as Sumitada and
other feudal chiefs had done in Kiushiu. But the Kioto record
differs from that of Kiushiu in one important respect — the former
is free from any intrusion of commercial motives.
Kioto was at that time the scene of sanguinary tumults, which
culminated in the murder of the shogun (1565), and led to
sobunaga the issue of a decree by the emperor proscribing
and the Christianity. In Japanese medieval history this
Jesuits. js one Of [jjg onjy two instances of Imperial inter-
ference with Christian propagandism. There is evidence that the
edict was obtained at the instance of one of the shogun 's assassins
and certain Buddhist priests. The Jesuits — their number had
been increased to three — were obliged to take refuge in Sakai,
now little more than a suburb of Osaka, but at that time a great
and wealthy mart, and the only town in Japan which did not
acknowledge the sway of any feudal chief. Three years later
they were summoned thence to be presented to Oda Nobunaga,
one of the greatest captains Japan has ever produced. In the
very year of Xavier's landing at Kagoshima, Nobunaga had
succeeded to his father's fief, a comparatively petty estate in
the province of Owari. In 1568 he was seated in Kioto, a
maker of sh6guns and acknowledged ruler of 30 among the
66 provinces of Japan. Had Nobunaga, wielding such immense
power, adopted a hostile attitude towards Christianity, the fires
lit by the Jesuits in Japan must soon have been extinguished.
Nobunaga, however, to great breadth and liberality of view
added strong animosity towards Buddhist priests. Many of the
great monasteries had become armed camps, their inmates
skilled equally in field-attacks and in the defence of ramparts.
One sect (the Nichiren), which was specially affected by the
samurai, had lent powerful aid to the murderers of the shogun
three years before Nobunaga's victories carried him to Kioto,
and the armed monasteries constituted imperia in imperio which
assorted ill with his ambition of complete supremacy. He
therefore welcomed Christianity for the sake of its opposition
to Buddhism, and when Takayama conducted Froez from Sakai
to Nobunaga's presence, the reception accorded to the Jesuit
was of the most cordial character. Throughout the fourteen
years of life that remained to him, Nobunaga continued to be
the constant friend of the missionaries in particular and ol
foreigners visiting Japan in general. He stood between the
Jesuits and the Throne when, in reply to an appeal from the
Buddhist priests, the emperor, for the second time, issued an
anti-Christian decree (1568); he granted a site for a church and
residence at Azuchi on Lake Biwa, where his new fortress stood
he addressed to various powerful feudatories letters signifying
a desire for the spread of Christianity; he frequently made
handsome presents to the fathers, and whenever they visitec
him he showed a degree of accessibility and graciousness very
foreign to his usually haughty and imperious demeanour. The
Jesuits themselves said of him: " This man seems to have been
chosen by God to open and prepare the way for our faith.'
Nevertheless they do not appear to have entertained much hope
at any time of converting Nobunaga. They must have under
stood that their doctrines had not made any profound impression
on a man who could treat them as this potentate did in 1579
when he plainly showed that political exigencies might at anv
moment induce him to sacrifice them.1 His last act, too, proved
hat sacrilege was of no account in his eyes, for he took steps to
lave himself apotheosized at Azuchi with the utmost pomp and
circumstance. Still nothing can obscure the benefits he heaped
upon the propagandists of Christianity.
The terrible tumult of domestic war through which Japan
>assed in the isth and i6th centuries brought to her ser-
vice three of the greatest men ever produced in Hideyoshi
Occident or Orient. They were Oda Nobunaga, t>ad the
Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa lyeyasu. ChHstians.
rlideyoshi, as Nobunaga's lieutenant, contributed largely to the
juilding of the latter's fortunes, and, succeeding him in 1582,
wrought the whole 66 provinces of the empire under his
own administrative sway. For the Jesuits now the absorbing
question was, what attitude Hideyoshi would assume towards
their propagandism. His power was virtually limitless. With
a word he could have overthrown the whole edifice created by
them at the cost of so much splendid effort and noble devotion.
They were very quickly reassured. In this matter Hideyoshi
walked in Nobunaga's footsteps. He not only accorded a
'riendly audience to Father Organtino, who waited on him as
representative of the Jesuits, but also he went in person to assign
to the company a site for a church and a residence in Osaka,
where there was presently to rise the most massive fortress
ever built in the East. At that time many Christian converts
were serving in high positions, and in 1584 the Jesuits placed it
on record that " Hideyoshi was not only not opposed to the things
of God, but he even shov/ed that he made much account of them
and preferred them to all the sects of the bonzes. ... He is
entrusting to Christians his treasures, his secrets and his for-
tresses of most importance, and shows himself well pleased that
the sons of the great lords about him should adopt our customs
and our law." Two years later in Osaka he received with every
mark of cordiality and favour a Jesuit mission which had come
from Nagasaki' seeking audience, and on that occasion his
visitor recorded that he spoke of an intention of christianizing
one half of Japan. Nor did Hideyoshi confine himself to words.
He actually signed a patent licensing the missionaries to preach
throughout all Japan, and exempting not only their houses and
churches from the billeting of soldiers but also the priests them-
selves from local burdens. This was in 1586, on the eve of
Hideyoshi's greatest military enterprise, the invasion of Kiushiu
and its complete reduction. He carried that difficult campaign
to completion by the middle of 1587, and throughout its course
he maintained a uniformly friendly demeanour towards the-
Jesuits. But suddenly, when on the return journey he reached
Hakata in the north of the island, his policy underwent a radical
metamorphosis. Five questions were by his order propounded
to the vice-provincial of the Jesuits: " Why and by what autho-
rity he and his fellow-propagandists had constrained Japanese
subjects to become Christians ? Why they had induced their
disciples and their sectaries to overthrow temples? Why
they persecuted the bonzes ? Why they and other Portuguese
ate animals useful to men, such as oxen and cows? Why the
vice-provincial allowed merchants of his nation to buy Japanese
to make slaves of them in the Indies?" To these queries
Coelho, the vice-provincial, made answer that the missionaries
had never themselves resorted, or incited, to violence in their
propagandism or persecuted bonzes; that if their eating of beef
were considered inadvisable, they would give up the practice;
and that they were powerless to prevent or restrain the outrages
perpetrated by their countrymen. Hideyoshi read the vice-
provincial's reply and, without comment, sent him word to
retire to Hirado, assemble all his followers there, and quit the
country within six months. On the next day (July 25, 1387)
the following edict was published: —
1 The problem was to induce the co-operation of a feudatory
whose castle served for frontier guard to the fiel of a powerful chief,
his suzerain. The feudatory was a Christian. Nobunaga seized
the Jesuits in Kioto, and threatened to suppress their religion
altogether unless they persuaded the feudatory to abandon the
cause of his suzerain.
FOREIGN INTERCOURSE]
" Having learned from our faithful councillors that foreign priests
have come into our estates, where they preach a law contrary to
that of Japan, and that they even had the audacity to destroy
temples dedicated to our Kami and Hotoke; although the outrage
merits the most extreme punishment, wishing nevertheless to show
them mercy, we order them under pain of death to quit Japan
within twenty days. During that space no harm or hurt will be
done to them. But at the expiration of that term, we order that
if any of them be found in our states, they should be seized and
punished as the greatest criminals. As for the Portuguese mer-
chants, we permit them to enter our ports, there to continue their
accustomed trade, and to remain in pur states provided our affairs
need this. But we forbid them to bring any foreign priests into the
country, under the penalty of the confiscation of their ships and
goods."
How are we to account for this apparently rapid change of
mood on the part of Hideyoshi? Some historians insist that
from the very outset he conceived the resolve of suppressing
Christianity and expelling its propagandists, but that he con-
cealed his design pending the subjugation of Kiushiu, lest, by
premature action, he might weaken his hand for that enterprise.
This hypothesis rests mainly on conjecture. Its formulators
found it easier to believe in a hidden purpose than to attribute to
a statesman so shrewd and far-seeing a sudden change of mind.
A more reasonable theory is that, shortly before leaving Osaka
for Kiushiu, Hideyoshi began to entertain doubts as to the
expediency of tolerating Christian propagandism, and that his
doubts were signally strengthened by direct observation of the
state of affairs in Kiushiu. While still in Osaka, he one day
remarked publicly that " he feared much that all the virtue of
the European priests served only to conceal pernicious designs
against the empire." There had been no demolishing of temples
or overthrowing of images at Christian instance in the metro-
politan provinces. In Kiushiu, however, very different condi-
tions prevailed. There Christianity may be said to have been
preached at the point of the sword. Temples and images had
been destroyed wholesale; vassals in thousands had been com-
pelled to embrace the foreign faith; and the missionaries them-
selves had come to be treated as demi-gods whose nod was
worth conciliating at any cost of self-abasement. Brought into
direct contact with these evidences of the growth of a new power,
temporal as well as spiritual, Hideyoshi may well have reached
the conclusion that a choice had to be finally made between his
own supremacy and that of the alien creed, if not between the
independence of Japan and the yoke of the great Christian
states of Europe.
Hideyoshi gauged the character of the medieval Christians
with sufficient accuracy to know that for the sake of their
Sequel of faitri tnev would at any time defy the laws of
the Ed'ict the island. His estimate received immediate veri-
oi Banish- ficatiOn, for when the Jesuits, numbering 120,
meatf assembled at Hirado and received his order to
embark at once they decided that only those should sail whose
services were needed in China. The others remained and
went about their duties as usual, under the protection
of the converted feudatories. Hideyoshi, however, saw
reason to wink at this disregard of his authority. At first
he showed uncompromising resolution. All the churches in
Kioto, Osaka and Sakai were demolished, while troops were sent
to raze the Christian places of worship in Kiushiu and seize the
port of Nagasaki. These troops were munificently dissuaded
from their purpose by the Christian feudatories. But Hide-
yoshi did not protest, and in 1588 he allowed himself to be con-
vinced by a Portuguese envoy that in the absence of missionaries
foreign trade must cease, since without the intervention of the
fathers peace and good order could not be maintained among the
merchants. Rather than suffer the trade to be interrupted
Hideyoshi agreed to the coming of priests, and thenceforth,
during some years, Christianity not only continued to flourish
and grow in Kiushiu but also found a favourable field of opera-
tions in Kioto itself. Care was taken that Hideyoshi's attention
should not be attracted by any salient evidences of what he had
called a " diabolical religion," and thus for a time all went well.
There is evidence that, like the feudal chiefs in Kiushiu, Hideyoshi
H
JAPAN 229
set great store by foreign trade and would even have sacri-
ficed to its maintenance and expansion something of the aversion
he had conceived for Christianity. He did indeed make one
very large concession. For on being assured that Portuguese
traders could not frequent Japan unless they found Christian
priests there to minister to them, he consented to sanction the
presence of a limited number of Jesuits. The statistics of 1505
show how Christianity fared under even this partial tolerance,
for there were then 137 Jesuits in Japan with 300,000 converts,
among whom were 17 feudal chiefs, to say nothing of many men
of lesser though still considerable note, and even not a few
bonzes.
For ten years after his unlooked-for order of expulsion, Hide-
yoshi preserved a tolerant mien. But in 1 597 his forbearance
gave place to a mood of uncompromising severity.
The reasons of this second change are very clear,
though diverse accounts have been transmitted. Attitude
Up to 1 593 the Portuguese had possessed a monopoly t
of religious propagandist!! and over-sea commerce in
Japan. The privilege was secured to them by agreement
between Spain and Portugal and by a papal bull. But
the Spaniards in Manila had long looked with somewhat
jealous eyes on this Jesuit reservation, and when news of
the disaster of 1587 reached the Philippines, the Dominicans
and Franciscans residing there were fired with zeal to enter
an arena where the crown of martyrdom seemed to be
the least reward within reach. The papal bull, however,
demanded obedience, and to overcome that difficulty a ruse was
necessary: the governor of Manila agreed to send a party of
Franciscans as ambassadors to Hideyoshi. In that guise the
friars, being neither traders nor propagandists, considered that
they did not violate either the treaty or the bull. It was a
technical subterfuge very unworthy of the object contemplated,
and the friars supplemented it by swearing to Hideyoshi that
the Philippines would submit to his sway. Thus they obtained
permission to visit Kioto, Osaka and Fushimi, but with the
explicit proviso that they must not preach. Very soon they
had built a church in Kioto, consecrated it with the utmost
pomp, and were preaching sermons and chaunting litanies there
in flagrant defiance of Hideyoshi's veto. Presently their number
received an access of three friars who came bearing gifts from
the governor at Manila, and now they not only established a
convent in Osaka, but also seized a Jesuit church in Nagasaki
and converted the circumspect worship hitherto conducted
there by the fathers into services of the most public character.
Officially checked in Nagasaki, they charged the Jesuits in Kioto
with having intrigued to impede them, and they further vaunted
the courageous openness of their own ministrations as compared
with the clandestine timidity of the methods which wise pru-
dence had induced the Jesuits to adopt. Retribution would
have followed quickly had not Hideyoshi's attention been
engrossed by an attempt to invade China through Korea. At
this stage, however, a memorable incident occurred. Driven
out of her course by a storm, a great and richly laden Spanish
galleon, bound for Acapulco from Manila, drifted to the coast
of Tosa province, and running — or being purposely run — on a
sand-bank as she was being towed into port by Japanese boats,
broke her back. She carried goods to the value of some 600,000
crowns, and certain officials urged Hideyoshi to confiscate her
as derelict, conveying to him at the same time a detailed account
of the doings of the Franciscans and their open flouting of his
orders. Hideyoshi, much incensed, commanded the arrest of
the Franciscans and despatched officers to Tosa to confiscate
the " San Felipe." The pilot of the galleon sought to intimidate
these officers by showing them on a map of the world the vast
extent of Spain's dominions, and being asked how one country
had acquired such extended sway, replied: " Our kings begin
by sending into the countries they wish to conquer missionaries
who induce the people to embrace our religion, and when they
have made considerable progress, troops are sent who combine
with the new Christians, and then our kings have not much
trouble in accomplishing the rest."
230
JAPAN
[FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
On learning of this speech Hideyoshi was overcome with fury.
He condemned the Franciscans to have their noses and ears
The First cut °ff> to be promenaded through Kioto, Osaka
Execution of and Sakai, and to be crucified at Nagasaki. "I
Christens. nave ordered these foreigners to be treated thus,
because they have come from the Philippines to Japan, calling
themselves ambassadors, although they were not so; because
they have remained here far too long without my permission ;
because, in defiance of my prohibition, they have built churches,
preached their religion and caused disorders." Twenty-six
suffered under this sentence — six Franciscans, three Japanese
Jesuits and seventeen native Christians, chiefly domestic ser-
vants of the Franciscans.1 They met their fate with noble
fortitude. Hideyoshi further issued a special injunction against
the adoption of Christianity by a feudal chief, and took steps to
give practical effect to his expulsion edict of 1 587. The governor
of Nagasaki received instructions to send away all the Jesuits,
permitting only two or three to remain for the service of the
Portuguese merchants. But the Jesuits were not the kind of
men who, to escape personal peril, turn their back upon an
unaccomplished work of grace. There were 1 25 of them in Japan
at that time. In October 1597 a junk sailed out of Nagasaki
harbour, her decks crowded with seeming Jesuits. In reality
she carried n of the company, the apparent Jesuits being dis-
guised sailors. It is not to be supposed that such a manoeuvre
could be hidden from the local authorities. They winked at it,
until rumour became insistent that Hideyoshi was about to visit
Kiushiu in perso'h, and all Japanese in administrative posts
knew how Hideyoshi visited disobedience and how hopeless was
any attempt to deceive him. Therefore, early in 1598, really
drastic steps were taken. Churches to the number of 137 were
demolished in Kiushiu, seminaries and residences fell, and the
governor of Nagasaki assembled there all the fathers of the
company for deportation to Macao by the great ship in the
following year. But while they waited, Hideyoshi died. It is
not on record that the Jesuits openly declared his removal from
the earth to have been a special dispensation in their favour.
But they pronounced him an execrable tyrant and consigned his
" soul to hell for all eternity." • Yet no impartial reader of
history can pretend to think that a 16th-century Jesuit general
in Hideyoshi's place would have shown towards an alien creed
and its propagandists even a small measure of the tolerance
exercised by the Japanese statesman towards Christianity and
the Jesuits.
Hideyoshi's death occurred in 1398. Two years later, his
authority as administrative ruler of all Japan had passed into
Foreign *ne hands of lyeyasu, the Tokugawa chief , and thirty-
Poiicyofthe nine years later the Tokugawa potentates had not
Tokugawa onjy exterminated Christianity in Japan but had
also condemned their country to a period of interna-
tional isolation which continued unbroken until 1853, an inter-
val of 214 years. It has been shown that even when they were
most incensed against Christianity, Japanese administrators
sought to foster and preserve foreign trade. Why then did they
close the country's doors to the outside world and suspend a
commerce once so much esteemed? To answer that question
some retrospect is needed. Certain historians allege that from
the outset lyeyasu shared Hideyoshi's misgivings about the real
designs of Christian potentates and Christian propagandists.
But that verdict is not supported by facts. The first occasion
of the Tokugawa chief's recorded contact with a Christian propa-
gandist was less than three months after Hideyoshi's death.
There was then led into his presence a Franciscan, by name
Jerome de Jesus, originally a member of the fictitious embassy
from Manila. This man's conduct constitutes an example of
the invincible zeal and courage inspiring a Christian priest in
those days. Barely escaping the doom of crucifixion which
overtook his companions, he had been deported from Japan to
1 The mutilation was confined to the lobe of one ear. Crucifixion,
according to the Japanese method, consisted in tying to a cross and
piercing the heart with two sharp spears driven from either side.
Death was always instantaneous.
Manila at a time when death seemed to be the certain penalty of
remaining . But no sooner had he been landed at Manila than he
took passage in a Chinese junk, and, returning to Nagasaki, made
his way secretly from the far south of Japan to the province of
Kii. There arrested, he was brought into the presence of
lyeyasu, and his own record of what ensued is given in a letter
subsequently sent to Manila: —
" When the Prince saw me he asked how I had managed to escape
the previous persecution. I answered him that at that date God had
delivered me in order that I might go to Manila and bring back new
colleagues from there — preachers of the divine law — and that I had
returned from Manila to encourage the Christians, cherishing the
desire to die on the cross in order to go to enjoy eternal glory like
my former colleagues. On hearing these words the Emperor began
to smile, whether in his quality of a pagan of the sect of Shaka,
which teaches that there is no future life, or whether from the thought
that I was frightened at having to be put to death. Then, looking
at me kindly, he said, ' Be no longer afraid and no longer conceal
yourself, and no longer change your habit, for I wish you well ; and
as for the Christians who every year pass within sight of the Kwanto
where my domains are, when they go to Mexico with their ships,
I have a keen desire for them to visit the harbours of this island, to
refresh themselves there, and to take what they wish, to trade with
my vassals and to teach them how to develop silver mines; and that
my intentions may be accomplished before my death, I wish you to
indicate to me the means to take to realize them.' I answered that
it was necessary that Spanish pilots should take the soundings of
his harbours, so that ships might not be lost in future as the 'San
Felipe ' had been, and that he should solicit this service from the
governor of the Philippines. The Prince approved of my advice,
and accordingly he has sent a Japanese gentleman, a native of Sakai,
the bearer of tnis message. ... It is essential to oppose no obstacle
to the complete liberty offered by the Emperor to the Spaniards and
to our holy order, for the preaching of the holy gospel. . . . The
same Prince (who is about to visit the Kwanto) invites me to accom-
pany him to make choice of a house, and to visit the harbour which
he promises to open to us; his desires in this respect are keener than
I can express."
The above version of the Tokugawa chief's mood is confirmed
by events, for not only did he allow the contumelious Franciscan
to build a church — the first — in Yedo and to celebrate Mass there,
but also he sent three embassies to the Philippines, proposing
reciprocal freedom of commerce, offering to open ports in
the Kwanto and asking for competent naval architects. He
never obtained the architects, and though the trade came, its
volume was small in comparison with the abundance of friars
that accompanied it. There is just a possibility that lyeyasu
saw in these Spanish monks an instrument of counteracting
the influence of the Jesuits, for he must have known that the
Franciscans opened their mission in Yedo by " declaiming with
violence against the fathers of the company of Jesus." In
short, the Spanish monks assumed towards the Jesuits in Japan
the same intolerant and abusive tone that the Jesuits themselves
had previously assumed towards Buddhism.
At that time there appeared upon the scene another factor
destined greatly to complicate events. It was a Dutch merchant
ship, the " Liefde." Until the Netherlands revolted from
Spain, the Dutch had been the principal distributors of all goods
arriving at Lisbon from the Far East ; but in 1 594 Philip II. closed
the port of Lisbon to these rebels, and the Dutch met the situa-
tion by turning their prows to the Orient to invade the sources
of Portuguese commerce. One of the first expeditions despatched
for that purpose set out in 1598, and of the five vessels composing
it one only was ever heard of again. This was the " Liefde."
She reached Japan during the spring of 1600, with only four-
and-twenty alive out of her original crew of no. Towed into
the harbour at Funai, the " Liefde " was visited by Jesuits, who,
on discovering her nationality, denounced her to the local
authorities as a pirate and endeavoured to incense the Japanese
against them. The " Liefde " had on board in the capacity of
" pilot major " an Englishman, Will Adams of Gillingham in
Kent, whom lyeyasu summoned to Osaka, where there com-
menced between the rough British sailor and the Tokugawa chief
a curiously friendly intercourse which was not interrupted until
the death of Adams twenty years later. The Englishman became
master ship-builder to the Yedo government; was employed as
diplomatic agent when other traders from his own country
FOREIGN INTERCOURSE]
and from Holland arrived in Japan, received in perpetual gift
a substantial estate, and from first to last possessed the implicit
confidence of the shogun. lyeyasu quickly discerned the man's
honesty, perceived that whatever benefits foreign commerce
might confer would be increased by encouraging competition
among the foreigners, and realized that English and Dutch
trade presented the wholesome feature of complete dissociation
from religious propagandism. On the other hand, he showed
no intolerance to either Spaniards or Portuguese. He issued
(1601) two official patents sanctioning the residence of the fathers
in Kioto, Osaka and Nagasaki; he employed Father Rodriguez as
interpreter to the court at Yedo; and in 1603 he gave munificent
succour to the Jesuits who were reduced to dire straits owing to
the capture of the great ship from Macao by the Dutch and
the consequent loss of several years' supplies for the mission in
Japan.
It is thus seen that each of the great trio of Japan's 16th-cen-
tury statesmen — Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and lyeyasu — adopted
at the outset a most tolerant demeanour towards Christianity.
The reasons of Hideyoshi's change of mood have been set forth.
We have now to examine the reasons that produced a similar
metamorphosis in the case of lyeyasu. Two causes present
themselves immediately. The first is that, while tolerating
Christianity, lyeyasu did not approve of it as a creed; the second,
that he himself, whether from state policy or genuine piety,
strongly encouraged Buddhism. Proof of the former proposi-
tion is found in an order issued by him in 1602 to insure the
safety of foreign merchantmen entering Japanese ports: it
concluded with the reservation, " but we rigorously forbid
them " (foreigners coming in such ships) " to promulgate their
faith." Proof of the latter is furnished by the facts that he
invariably carried about with him a miniature Buddhist image
which he regarded as his tutelary deity, and that he fostered
the creed of Shaka as zealously as Oda Nobunaga had suppressed
it. There is much difficulty in tracing the exact sequence of
events which gradually educated a strong antipathy to the
Christian faith in the mind of the Tokugawa chief. He must
have been influenced in some degree by the views of his great
predecessor, Hideyoshi. But he did not accept those views
implicitly. At the end of the i6th century he sent a trusted
emissary to Europe for the purpose of directly observing the
conditions in the home of Christianity, and this man, the better
to achieve his aim, embraced the foreign faith, and studied it
from within as well as from without. The story that he had to
tell on his return could not fail to shock the ruler of a country
where freedom of conscience had existed from time immemorial.
It was a story of the inquisition and of the stake; of unlimited
aggression in the name of the cross; of the pope's overlordship
which entitled him to confiscate the realm of heretical sovereigns ;
of religious wars and of wellnigh incredible fanaticism. lyeyasu
must have received an evil impression while he listened to his
emissary's statements. Under his own eyes, too, were abundant
evidences of the spirit of strife that Christian dogma engendered
in those times. From the moment when the Franciscans and
Dominicans arrived in Japan, a fierce quarrel began between
them and the Jesuits; a quarrel which even community of
suffering could not compose. Not less repellent was an attempt-
on the part of the Spaniards to dictate to lyeyasu the expulsion
of all Hollanders from Japan, and on the part of the Jesuits to
dictate the expulsion of the Spaniards. The former proposal,
couched almost in the form of a demand, was twice formulated,
and accompanied on the secoiid occasion by a scarcely less
insulting offer, namely, that Spanish men-of-war would be sent
to Japan to burn all Dutch ships found in the ports of the empire.
If in the face of proposals so contumelious of his sovereign
authority lyeyasu preserved a calm and dignified mien, merely
replying that his country was open to all comers, and that, if
other nations had quarrels among themselves, they must not
take Japan for battle-ground, it is nevertheless unimaginable
that he did not strongly resent such interference with his own
independent foreign policy, and that he did not interpret
it as foreshadowing a disturbance of the realm's peace by sec-
JAPAN 231
tarian quarrels among Christians. These experiences, predis-
posing lyeyasu to dislike Christianity as a creed and to distrust
it as a political influence, were soon supplemented by incidents
of an immediately determinative character. The first was an
act of fraud and forgery committed in the interests of a Christian
feudatory by a trusted official, himself a Christian. Thereupon
lyeyasu, conceiving it unsafe that Christians should fill offices
at his court, dismissed all those so employed, banished them from
Yedo and forbade any feudal chief to harbour them. The second
incident was an attempted survey of the coast of Japan by a
Spanish mariner and a Franciscan friar. Permission to take
this step had been obtained by an envoy from New Mexico, but
no deep consideration of reasons seems to have preluded the per-
mission on Japan's side, and when the mariner (Sebastian) and
the friar (Sotelo) hastened to carry out the project, lyeyasu
asked Will Adams to explain this display of industry. The
Englishman replied that such a proceeding would be regarded
in Europe as an act of hostility, especially on the part of the
Spaniards or Portuguese, whose aggressions were notorious. He
added, in reply to further questions, that " the Roman priest-
hood had been expelled from many parts of Germany, from
Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland and England, and that
although his own country preserved the pure form of the
Christian faith from which Spain and Portugal had deviated,
yet neither English nor Dutch considered that that fact afforded
them any reason to war with, or to annex, States which were
not Christian solely for the reason that they were non-Christian."
lyeyasu reposed entire confidence in Adams. Hearing the
Englishman's testimony, he is said to have exclaimed, " If
the sovereigns of Europe do not tolerate these priests, I do
them no wrong if I refuse to tolerate them." Japanese
historians add that lyeyasu discovered a conspiracy on the
part of some Japanese Christians to overthrow his government
by the aid of foreign troops. It was not a widely ramified
plot, but it lent additional importance to the fact that the
sympathy of the fathers and their converts was plainly with
the only magnate in the empire who continued to dispute the
Tokugawa supremacy, Hideyori, the son of Hideyoshi. Never-
theless lyeyasu shrank from proceeding to extremities in the
case of any foreign priest, and this attitude he maintained until
his death (1616). Possibly he might have been not less tolerant
towards native Christians also had not the Tokugawa authority
been openly defied by a Franciscan father — the Sotelo mentioned
above— in Yedo itself. Then (1613) the first execution of Japan-
ese converts took place, though the monk himself was released
after a short incarceration. At that time, as is still the case
even in these more enlightened days, insignificant differences of
custom sometimes induced serious misconceptions. A Christian
who had violated the secular law was crucified in Nagasaki.
Many of his fellow-believers kneeled around his cross and prayed
for the peace of his soul. A party of converts were afterwards
burned to death in the same place for refusing to apostatize,
and their Christian friends crowded to carry off portions of their
bodies as holy relics. When these things were reported to
lyeyasu, he said, " Without doubt that must be a diabolic faith
which persuades people not only to worship criminals condemned
to death for their crimes, but also to honour those who have
been burned or cut in pieces by the order of their lord " (feudal
chief).
The fateful edict ordering that all foreign priests should be
collected in Nagasaki preparatory to removal from Japan, that
all churches should be demolished, and that the Suppression
converts should be compelled to abjure Christianity, o/
was issued on the 27th of January 1614. There were Christianity.
then in Japan 122 Jesuits, 14 Franciscans, 9 Dominicans,
4 Augustins and 7 secular priests. Had these men obeyed the
orders of the Japanese authorities by leaving the country finally,
not one foreigner would have suffered for his faith in Japan,
except the 6 Franciscans executed at Nagasaki by order of
Hideyoshi in 1597. But suffering and death counted for nothing
with the missionaries as against the possibility of winning or
keeping even one convert. Forty-seven of them evaded the
232
JAPAN
[FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
edict, some by concealing themselves at the time of its issue, the
rest by leaving their ships when the latter had passed out of sight
of the shore of Japan, and returning by boats to the scene of
their former labours. Moreover, in a few months, those that
had actually crossed the sea re-crossed it in various disguises,
and soon the Japanese government had to consider whether it
would suffer its authority to be thus flouted or resort to extreme
measures.
During two years immediately following the issue of the anti-
Christian decree, the attention of the Tokugawa chief and in-
deed of all Japan was concentrated on the closing episode of
the great struggle which assured to lyeyasu final supremacy as
administrative ruler of the empire. That episode was a terrible
battle under the walls of Osaka castle between the adherents
of the Tokugawa and the supporters of Hideyori. In this
struggle fresh fuel was added to the fire of anti-Christian resent-
ment, for many Christian converts threw in their lot with Hide-
yori, and in one part of the field the Tokugawa troops found
themselves fighting against a foe whose banners were emblazoned
with the cross and with images of the Saviour and St James, the
patron saint of Spain. But the Christians had protectors.
Many of the feudatories showed themselves strongly averse from
inflicting the extreme penalty on men and women whose adop-
tion of an alien religion had been partly forced by the feudatories
themselves. As for the people at large, their liberal spirit is
attested by the fart that five fathers who were in Osaka castle
at the time of its capture made their way to distant refuges
without encountering any risk of betrayal. During these events
the death of lyeyasu took place (June i, 1616), and pending the
dedication of his mausoleum the anti-Christian crusade was
virtually suspended.
In September 1616 a new anti-Christian edict was promulgated
by Hidetada, son and successor of lyeyasu. It pronounced
sentence of exile against all Christian priests, including even
those whose presence had been sanctioned for ministering to the
Portuguese merchants: it forbade the Japanese, under the
penalty of being burned alive and of having all their property
confiscated, to have any connexion with the ministers of religion
or to give them hospitality. It was forbidden to any prince or
lord to keep Christians in his service or even on his estates, and
the edict was promulgated with more than usual solemnity,
though its enforcement was deferred until the next year on
account of the obsequies of lyeyasu. This edict of 1616 differed
from that issued by lyeyasu in 1614, since the latter did not
prescribe the death penalty for converts refusing to apostatize.
But both agreed in indicating expulsion as the sole manner of
dealing with the foreign priests. As for the shogun and his
advisers, it is reasonable to assume that they did not anticipate
much necessity for recourse to violence. They must have known
that a great majority of the converts had joined the Christian
church at the instance or by the command of their local rulers,
and nothing can have seemed less likely than that a creed thus
lightly embraced would be adhered to in defiance of torture and
death. It is moreover morally certain that had the foreign
propagandists obeyed the Government's edict and left the
country, not one would have been put to death. They suffered
because they defied the laws of the land. Some fifty mission-
aries happened to be in Nagasaki when Hidetada's edict was
issued. A number of these were apprehended and deported,
but several of them returned almost immediately. This hap-
pened under the jurisdiction of Omura, who had been specially
charged with the duty of sending away the bateren (padres). He
appears to have concluded that a striking example must be fur-
nished, and he therefore ordered the seizure and decapitation
of two fathers, De 1' Assumpcion and Machado. The result
completely falsified his calculations, and presaged the cruel
struggle now destined to begin.
The bodies, placed in different coffins, were interred in the same
grave. Guards were placed over it, but the concourse was immense.
The sick were carried to the sepulchre to be restored to health. The
Christians found new strength in this martyrdom; the pagans them-
selves were full of admiration for it. Numerous conversions and
numerous returns of apostates took place everywhere.
In the midst of all this, Navarette, the vice-provincial of the
Dominicans, and Ayala, the vice-provincial of the Augustins,
came out of their retreat, and in full priestly garb started upon
an open propaganda. The two fanatics — for so even Charlevoix
considers them to have been — were secretly conveyed to the
island Takashima and there decapitated, while their coffins
were weighted with big stones and sunk in the sea. Even more
directly defiant was the attitude of the next martyred priest,
an old Franciscan monk, Juan de Santa Martha. He had for
three years suffered all the horrors of a medieval Japanese
prison, when it was proposed to release him and deport him to
New Spain. His answer was that, if released, he would stay in
Japan and preach there. He laid his head on the block in
August 1618. But from that time until 1622 no other foreign
missionary suffered capital punishment in Japan, though many
of them arrived in the country and continued their propa-
gandism there. During that interval, also, there occurred
another incident eminently calculated to fix upon the Christians
still deeper suspicion of political designs. In a Portuguese ship
captured by the Dutch a letter was found instigating the Japan-
ese converts to revolt, and promising that, when the number of
these disaffected Christians was sufficient, men-of-war would be
sent to aid them. Not the least potent of the influences operat-
ing against the Christians was that pamphlets were written by
apostates attributing the zeal of the foreign propagandists
solely to political motives. Yet another indictment of Spanish
and Portuguese propagandists was contained in a despatch
addressed to Hidetada in 1620 by the admiral in command of
the British and Dutch fleet then cruising in Far-Eastern waters.
In that document the friars were flatly accused of treacherous
practices, and the Japanese ruler was warned against the aggres-
sive designs of Philip of Spain. In the face of all this evidence
the Japanese ceased to hesitate, and a time of terror ensued for
the fathers and their converts. The measures adopted towards
the missionaries gradually increased in severity. In 1617 the
first two fathers put to death (De 1' Assumpcion and Machado)
were beheaded, " not by the common executioner, but by one
of the first officers of the prince." Subsequently Navarette and
Ayala were decapitated by the executioner. Then, in 1618,
Juan de Santa Martha was executed like a common criminal,
his body being dismembered and his head exposed. Finally,
in 1622, Zuniga and Flores were burnt alive. The same year
was marked by the " great martyrdom " at Nagasaki when
9 foreign priests went to the stake with 19 Japanese converts.
The shogun seems to have been now labouring under vivid fear
of a foreign invasion. An emissary sent by him to Europe had
returned on the eve of the " great martyrdom " after seven years
abroad, and had made a report more than ever unfavourable to
Christianity. Therefore Hidetada deemed it necessary to refuse
audience to a Philippine embassy in 1624 and to deport all
Spaniards from Japan. Further, it was decreed that no Japanese
Christian should thenceforth be suffered to go abroad for com-
merce, and that though non-Christians or men who had aposta-
tized might travel freely, they must not visit the Philippines.
Thus ended all intercourse between Japan and Spain. It had
continued for 32 years and had engendered a widespread
conviction that Christianity was an instrument of Spanish
aggression.
lyemitsu, son of Hidetada, now ruled in Yedo, though Hide-
tada himself remained the power behind the throne. The year
(1623) of the former's accession to power had been marked by
the re-issue of anti-Christian decrees, and by the martyrdom of
some 500 Christians within the Tokugawa domains, whither the
tide of persecution now flowed for the first time. Thenceforth
the campaign' was continuous. The men most active and most
relentless in carrying on the persecution were Mizuno and
Takenaka, governors of Nagasaki, and Matsukura, feudatory of
Shimabara. By the latter were invented the punishment of
throwing converts into the solfataras at Unzen and the torture
of the fosse, which consisted in suspension by the feet, head
downwards, in a pit until blood oozed from the mouth, nose and
ears. Many endured this latter torture for days, until death
FOREIGN INTERCOURSE]
came to their relief, but a few— notably the Jesuit provincial
Ferreyra — apostatized. Matsukura and Takenaka were so
strongly obsessed by the Spanish menace that they contemplated
the conquest of the Philippines in order to deprive the Spaniards
of a Far-Eastern base. But timid counsels then prevailed in
Yedo, where the spirit of a Nobunaga, a Hideyoshi or an lyeyasu
no longer presided. Of course the measures of repression grew
in severity as the fortitude of the Christians became more ob-
durate. It is not possible to state the exact number of victims.
Some historians say that, down to 1635, no fewer than 280,000
were punished, but that figure is probably exaggerated, for the
most trustworthy records indicate that the converts never aggre-
gated more than 300,000, and many of these, if not a great
majority, having accepted the foreign faith very lightly, doubt-
less discarded it readily under menace of destruction. Every
opportunity was given for apostatizing and for escaping death.
Immunity could be secured by pointing out a fellow-convert, and
when it is observed that among the seven or eight feudatories
who embraced Christianity only two or three died in that faith,
we must conclude that not a few cases of recanting occurred
among the commoners. Remarkable fortitude, however, is
said to have been displayed. If the converts were intrepid
their teachers showed no less courage. Again and again the
latter defied the Japanese authorities by coming to the country
or returning thither after having been deported. Ignoring the
orders of the governors of Macao and Manila and even of the
king of Spain himself, they arrived, year after year, to be cer-
tainly apprehended and sent to the stake after brief periods of
propagandism. In 1626 they actually baptized over 3000
converts. Large rewards were paid to anyone denouncing a
propagandist, and as for the people, they had to trample
upon a picture of Christ in order to prove that they were not
Christians.
Meanwhile the feuds between the Dutch, the Spaniards and
the Portuguese never ceased. In 1636, the Dutch found on a
captured Portuguese vessel a report of the governor of Macao
describing a two days' festival which had been held there in
honour of Vieyra, the vice-provincial whose martyrdom had
just taken place in Japan. This report the Dutch handed to the
Japanese authorities " in order that his majesty may see more
clearly what great honour the Portuguese pay to those he has
forbidden his realm as traitors to the state and to his crown."
Probably the accusation added little to the resentment and dis-
trust already harboured by the Japanese against the Portuguese.
At all events the Yedo government took no step distinctly hostile
to Portuguese laymen until 1637, when an edict was issued for-
bidding any foreigners to travel in the empire, lest Portuguese
with passports bearing Dutch names might enter it. This
was the beginning of the end. In the last month of 1637 a
rebellion broke out, commonly called the " Christian revolt of
Shimabara," which sealed the fate of Japan's foreign intercourse
for over 200 years.
The promontory of Shimabara and the island of Amakusa
enclose the gulf of Nagasaki on the west. Among all the fiefs in
Japan, Shimabara and Amakusa had been the two
baraRev<M. most thoroughly christianized in the early years of
Jesuit propagandism. Hence in later days they were
naturally the scene of the severest persecutions. Still the people
would probably have suffered in silence had they not been taxed
beyond all endurance to supply funds for an extravagant chief
who employed savage methods of, extortion. Japanese annals,
however, relegate the taxation grievance to an altogether
secondary place, and attribute the revolt solely to the instigation
of five samurai who led a roving life to avoid persecution for
their adherence to Christianity. Whichever version be correct,
it is certain that the outbreak ultimately attracted all the Chris-
tians from the surrounding regions, and was regarded by the
authorities as in effect a Christian rising. The Amakusa in-
surgents passed over to Shimabara, and on the 27th of January
1638 the whole body — numbering, according to some authorities,
20,000 fighting men with 1 7,000 women and children ; according to
others, little more than one-half of these figures — took possession
JAPAN 233
of the dilapidated castle of Kara, which stood on a plateau
with three sides descending perpendicularly to the sea, a hundred
feet beneath, and with a swamp on its fourth front. There the
insurgents, who fought under flags with red crosses and whose
battle cries were " Jesus," " Maria " and " St lago," successfully
maintained themselves against the repeated assaults of strong
forces until the i2th of April, when, their ammunition and their
provisions alike exhausted, they were overwhelmed and put to
the sword, with the exception of 105 prisoners. During the
siege the Dutch were enabled to furnish a vivid proof of enmity
to the Christianity of the Spaniards and the Portuguese. For
the guns in possession of the besiegers being too light to accom-
plish anything, Koeckebacker, the factor at Hirado, was invited
to send ships carrying heavier metal. He replied with the
" de Ryp " of 20 guns, which threw 426 shot into the castle
in 1 5 days. Probably the great bulk of the remaining Japanese
Christians perished at the massacre of Kara. Thenceforth there
were few martyrs.1
It has been clearly shown that Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and
lyeyasu were all in favour of foreign intercourse and trade, and
that the Tokugawa chief, even more than his prede- Foreign
cessor Hideyoshi, made strenuous efforts to differ- Trade la
entiate between Christianity and commerce, so that the 17tlt
the latter might not be involved in the former's fate.
In fact the three objects which lyeyasu desired most earnestly to
compass were the development of foreign commerce, the acqui-
sition of a mercantile marine and the exploitation of Japan's
mines. He offered the Spaniards, Portuguese, English and Dutch
a site for a settlement in Yedo, and had they accepted the offer
the country might never have been closed. In his time Japan
was virtually a free-trade country. Importers had not to pay
any duties. It was expected, however, that they should make
presents to the feudatory into whose port they carried their
goods, and these presents were often very valuable. Naturally
the Tokugawa chief desired to attract such a source of wealth
to his own domains. He sent more than one envoy to Manila
to urge the opening of commerce direct with the regions about
Yedo, and to ask the Spaniards for competent naval architects.
Perhaps the truest exposition of his attitude is given in a law
enacted in 1602: —
" If any foreign vessel by stress of weather is obliged to touch at
any principality or to put into any harbour of Japan, we order that,
whoever these foreigners may be, absolutely nothing whatever that
belongs to them or that they may have brought in their ship, shall
be taken from them. Likewise we rigorously prohibit the use of
any violence in the purchase or the sale of any of the commodities
brought by their ship, and if it is not convenient for the merchants
of the ship to remain in the port they have entered, they may pass
to any other port that may suit them, and therein buy and sell in
full freedom. Likewise we order in a general manner that foreigners
may freely reside in any part of Japan they choose, but we rigorously
forbid them to promulgate their faith."
It was in that mood that he granted (1605) a licence to the
Dutch to trade in Japan, his expectation doubtless being that
the ships which they promised to send every year would make
their dep6t at Uraga or in some other place near Yedo. But
things were ordered differently. The first Hollanders that set
foot in Japan were the survivors of the wrecked " Liefde."
Thrown into prison for a time, they were approached by emis-
saries from the feudatory of Hirado, who engaged some of them
to teach the art of casting guns and the science of gunnery to his
vassals, and when two of them were allowed to leave Japan, he
furnished them with the means of doing so, at the same time
making promises which invested Hirado with attractions as a
port of trade, though it was then and always remained an insig-
nificant fishing village. The Dutch possessed precisely the
qualifications suited to the situation then existing in Japan:
they had commercial potentialities without any religious asso-
ciations. Fully appreciating that fact, the shrewd feudatory of
Hirado laid himself out to entice the Dutchmen to his fief, and
he succeeded. Shortly afterwards, an incident occurred which
clearly betrayed the strength of the Tokugawa chief's desire to
1 See A History of Christianity in Japan (1910), by Otis Gary.
234
JAPAN
[FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
exploit Japan's mines. The governor-general of the Philippines
(Don Rodrigo Vivero y Velasco), his ship being cast away on the
Japanese coast on a voyage to Acapulco, was received by lyeyasu,
and in response to the latter's request for fifty miners, the
Spaniard formulated terms to which lyeyasu actually agreed:
that half the produce of the mines should go to the miners; that
the other half should be divided between lyeyasu and the king
of Spain; that the latter might send commissioners to Japan to
look after his mining interests, and that these commissioners
might be accompanied by priests who would be entitled to
have public churches for holding services. This was in 1609,
when the Tokugawa chief had again and again imposed the
strictest veto on Christian propagandism. There can be little
doubt that he understood the concession made to Don Rodrigo
in the sense of Hideyoshi's mandate to the Jesuits in Nagasaki,
namely, that a sufficient number might remain to minister to
the Portuguese traders frequenting the port. lyeyasu had
confidence in himself and in his countrymen. He knew that
emergencies could be dealt with when they arose and he sacrificed
nothing to timidity. But his courageous policy died with him
and the miners did not come. Neither did the Spaniards ever
devote any successful efforts to establishing trade with Japan.
Their vessels paid fitful visits to Uraga, but the Portuguese
continued to monopolize the commerce.
In 1611 a Dutch merchantman (the " Brach ") reached Hirado
with a cargo of pepper, cloth, ivory, silk and lead. She carried
Opening of two envoys, Spex and Segerszoon, and in the very
Dutch and face of a Spanish embassy which had just arrived
English from Manila expressly for the purpose of "settling
'*' the matter regarding the Hollanders," the Dutchmen
obtained a liberal patent from lyeyasu. Twelve years pre-
viously, the merchants of London, stimulated generally by the
success of the Dutch in trade with the East, and specially by the
fact that " these Hollanders had raised the price of pepper
against us from 3 shillings per pound to 6 shillings and 8 shillings,"
organized the East India Company which immediately began
to send ships eastward. Of course the news that the Dutch
were about to establish a trading station in Japan reached
London speedily, and the East India Company lost no time in
ordering one of their vessels, the " Clove," under Captain Saris,
to proceed to the Far-Eastern islands. She carried a quantity
of pepper, and on the voyage she endeavoured to procure some
spices at the Moluccas. But the Dutch would not suffer any
poaching on their valuable monopoly. The " Clove "entered
Hirado on the nth of June 1613. Saris seems to have been
a man self-opinionated, of shallow judgment and suspicious.
Though strongly urged by Will Adams to make Uraga the seat
of the new trade, though convinced of the excellence of the har-
bour there, and though instructed as to the great advantage of
proximity to the shogun's capital, he appears to have conceived
some distrust of Adams, for he chose Hirado. From lyeyasu
Captain Saris received a most liberal charter, which plainly dis-
played the mood of the Tokugawa shogun towards foreign
trade: —
1. The ship that has now come for the first time from England
over the sea to Japan may carry on trade of all kinds without
hindrance. With regard to future visits (of English ships) permis-
sion will be given in regard to all matters.
2. With regard to the cargoes of ships, requisition will be made
by list according to the requirements of the shogunate.
3. English ships are free to visit any port in Japan. If disabled
by storms they may put into any harbour.
4. Ground in Yedo in the place which they may desire shall be
given to the English, and they may erect houses and reside and trade
there. _They shall be at liberty to return to their country whenever
they wish to do so, and to dispose as they like of the houses they
have erected.
5. If an Englishman dies in Japan of disease, or any other cause,
his effects shall be handed over without fail.
6. Forced sales of cargo, and violence, shall not take place.
7. If one of the English should commit an offence, he should be
sentenced by the English General according to the gravity of his
"*--— (Translated by Professor Riess.)
offence.
The terms of the 4th article show that the shogun expected
the English to make Yedo their headquarters. Had Saris done
so, he would have been free from all competition, would have had
an immense market at his very doors, would have economized
the expense of numerous overland journeys to the Tokugawa
court, and would have saved the payment of many " considera-
tions." The result of his mistaken choice and subsequent bad
management was that, ten years later (1623), the English factory
at Hirado had to be closed, having incurred a total loss of about
£2000. In condonation of this failure it must be noted that a
few months after the death of lyeyasu, the charter he had granted
to Saris underwent serious modification. The original document
threw open to the English every port in Japan; the revised
document limited them to Hirado. But this restriction may be
indirectly traced to the blunder of not accepting a settlement in
Yedo and a port at Uraga. For the Tokugawa's foreign policy
was largely swayed by an apprehension lest the Kiushiu feuda-
tories, over whom the authority of Yedo had never been fully
established, might, by the presence of foreign traders, come into
possession of such a fleet and such an armament as would ulti-
mately enable them to wrest the administration of the empire
from Tokugawa hands. Hence the precaution of confining the
English and the Dutch to Hirado, the fief of a daimyo too petty
to become formidable, and to Nagasaki which was an imperial
city.1 But evidently an English factory in Yedo and English
ships at Uraga would have strengthened the Tokugawa ruler's
hand instead of supplying engines of war to his political foes. It
must also be noted that the question of locality had another
injurious outcome. It exposed the English — and the Dutch
also — to crippling competition at the hands of a company of rich
Osaka monopolists, who, as representing an Imperial city and
therefore being pledged to the Tokugawa inteiests, enjoyed
Yedo's favour and took full advantage of it. These shrewd
traders not only drew a ring round Hirado, but also sent vessels
on their own account to Cochin China, Siam, Tonkin, Cambodia
and other places, where they obtained many of the staples in
which the English and the Dutch dealt. Still the closure of the
English factory at Hirado was purely voluntary. From first to
last there had been no serious friction between the English and
the Japanese. The company's houses and godowns were not
sold. These as well as the charter were left in the hands of the
daimyo of Hirado, who promised to restore them should the
English re-open business in Japan. The company did think of
doing so on more than one occasion, but no practical step was
taken until the year 1673, when a merchantman, aptly named
the " Return," was sent to seek permission. The Japanese,
after mature reflection, made answer that as the king of England
was married to a Portuguese princess, British subjects could not
be permitted to visit Japan. That this reply was suggested by
the Dutch is very probable; that it truly reflected the feeling
of the Japanese government towards Roman Catholics is certain.
The Spaniards were expelled from Japan in 1624, the Portu-
guese in 1638. Two years before the latter event, the Yedo
government took a signally retrogressive step. They The Last
ordained that no Japanese vessel should go abroad; Days of the
that no Japanese subject should leave the country, *>ort*wese
. . * In Japan,
and that, if detected attempting to do so, he
should be put to death, the vessel that carried him and her
crew being seized "to await our pleasure"; that any Japanese
resident abroad should be executed if he returned; that the
children and descendants of Spaniards together with those who
had adopted such children should not be allowed to remain
on pain of death; and that no ship of ocean-going dimensions
should be built in Japan. Thus not only were the very children
of the Christian propagandists driven completely from the land,
but the Japanese people also were sentenced to imprisonment
within the limits of their islands, and the country was deprived
of all hope of acquiring a mercantile marine. The descendants
of the Spaniards, banished by the edict, were taken to Macao in
two Portuguese galleons. They numbered 287 and the property
1 The Imperial cities were Yedo, Kioto, Osaka and Nagasaki.
To this last the English were subsequently admitted. They were
also invited to Kagoshima by the Shimazu chieftain, and, had not
their experience at Hirado proved so deterrent, they might have
established a factory at Kagoshima.
FOREIGN INTERCOURSE]
JAPAN
235
they carried with them aggregated 6,697,500 florins. But if the
Portuguese derived any gratification from this sweeping out of
their much-abused rivals, the feeling was destined to be short-
lived. Already they were subjected to humiliating restrictions.
" From 1623 the galleons and their cargoes were liable to be burnt
and their crews executed if any foreign priest was found on board
of them. An official of the Japanese government was stationed in
Macao for the purpose of inspecting all intending passengers, and of
preventing any one that looked at all suspicious from proceeding
to Japan. A complete list and personal description of every one
on board was drawn up by this officer, a copy of it was handed to
the captain and by him it had to be delivered to the authorities who
met him at Nagasaki before he was allowed to anchor. If in the
subsequent inspection any discrepancy between the list and the
persons actually carried by the vessel appeared, it would prove very
awkward for the captain. Then in the inspection of the vessel
letters were opened, trunks and boxes ransacked, and all crosses,
rosaries or objects of religion of any kind had to be thrown over-
board. In 1635 Portuguese were forbidden to employ Japanese
to carry their umbrellas or their shoes, and only their chief men
were allowed to bear arms, while they had to hire fresh servants
every year. It was in the following year (1636) that the artificial
islet of Deshima was constructed for their special reception, or rather
imprisonment. It lay in front of the former Portuguese factory,
with which it was connected by a bridge, and henceforth the Portu-
guese were to be allowed to cross this bridge only twice a year — at
their arrival and at their departure. Furthermore, all their cargoes
had to be sold at a fixed price during their fifty days' stay to a ring
of licensed merchants from the imperial towns." l
The imposition of such irksome conditions did not deter the
Portuguese, who continued to send merchandise-laden galleons
to Nagasaki. But in 1638 the bolt fell. The Shimabara rebellion
was directly responsible. Probably the fact of a revolt of
Christian converts, in such numbers and fighting with such
resolution, would alone have sufficed to induce the weak govern-
ment in Yedo to get rid of the Portuguese altogether. But the
Portuguese were suspected of having instigated the Shimabara
insurrection, and the Japanese authorities believed that they
had proof of the fact. Hence, in 1638, an edict was issued pro-
claiming that as, in defiance of the government's order, the
Portuguese had continued to bring missionaries to Japan; as
they had supplied these missionaries with provisions and other
necessaries, and as they had fomented the Shimabara rebellion,
thenceforth any Portuguese ship coming to Japan should be
burned, together with her cargo, and every one on board of her
should be executed. Ample time was allowed before enforcing
this edict. Not only were the Portuguese ships then at Nagasaki
permitted to close up their commercial transactions and leave the
port, but also in the following year when two galleons arrived
from Macao, they were merely sent away with a copy of the edict
and a stern warning. But the Portuguese could not easily
become reconciled to abandon a commerce from which they had
derived splendid profits prior to the intrusion of the Spaniards,
the Dutch and the English, and from which they might now hope
further gains, since, although the Dutch continued to be formid-
able rivals, the Spaniards had been excluded, the English had
withdrawn, and the Japanese, by the suicidal policy of their own
rulers, were no longer able to send ships to China. Therefore
they took a step which resulted in one of the saddest episodes of
the whole story. Four aged men, the most respected citizens
of Macao, were despatched (1640) to Nagasaki as ambassadors in
a ship carrying no cargo but only rich presents. They bore a
petition declaring that for a long time no missionaries had
entered Japan from Macao, that the Portuguese had not been in
any way connected with the Shimabara revolt, and that inter-
ruption of trade would injure Japan as much as Portugal.
These envoys arrived at Nagasaki on the ist of July 1640, and
24 days sufficed to bring from Yedo, whither their petition had
been sent, peremptory orders for their execution as well as
executioners to carry out the orders. There was no possibility
of resistance. The Japanese had removed the ship's rudder,
sails, guns and ammunition, and had placed the envoys, their
suite and the crews under guard in Deshima. On the 2nd of
August they were all summoned to the governor's hall of audi-
ence, where, after their protest had been heard that ambassadors
1 A History of Japan (Murdoch and Yamagata).
should be under the protection of international law, the sentence
written in Yedo 13 days previously was read to them. The
following morning the Portuguese were offered their lives if they
would apostatize. Every one rejected the offer, and being then
led out to the martyrs' mount, the heads of the envoys and of 57
of their companions fell. Thirteen were saved to carry the news
to Macao. These thirteen, after witnessing the burning of the
galleon, were conducted to the governor's residence who gave
them this message: —
" Do not fail to inform the inhabitants of Macao that the Japanese
wish to receive from them neither gold nor silver, nor any kind of
presents or merchandise; in a word, absolutely nothing which comes
from them. You are witnesses that I have caused even the clothes
of those who were executed yesterday to be burned. Let them do
the same with respect to us if they find occasion to do so; we consent
to it without difficulty. Let them think no more of us, just as if
we were no longer in the world."
Finally the thirteen were taken to the martyrs' mount where,
set up above the heads of the victims, a tablet recounted the
story of the embassy and the reasons for the execution, and
concluded with the words: —
" So long as the sun warms the earth, let no Christian be so bold
as to come to Japan, and let all know that if King Philip himself, or
even the very God of the Christians, or the great Shaka contravene
this prohibition, they shall pay for it with their heads."
Had the ministers of the shogun in Yedo desired to make clear
to future ages that to Christianity alone was due the expulsion
of Spaniards and Portuguese from Japan and her adoption of
the policy of seclusion they could not have placed on record
more conclusive testimony. Macao received the news with
rejoicing in that its " earthly ambassadors had been made ambas-
sadors of heaven," but it did not abandon all hope of over-
coming Japan's obduracy. When Portugal recovered her
independence in 1640, the people of Macao requested Lisbon
to send an ambassador to Japan, and on the i6th of July 1647
Don Gonzalo de Siqueira arrived in Nagasaki with two vessels.
He carried a letter from King John IV., setting forth the
severance of all connexion between Portugal and Spain, which
countries were now actually at war, and urging that commercial
relations should be re-established. The Portuguese, having
refused to give up their rudders and arms, soon found themselves
menaced by a force of fifty thousand samurai, and were glad to
put out of port quietly on the 4th of September. This was the
last episode in the medieval history of Portugal's intercourse
with Japan.
When (1609) the Dutch contemplated forming a settlement
in Japan, lyeyasu gave them a written promise that " no man
should do them any wrong and that he would
maintain and defend them as his own subjects.
Moreover, the charter granted to them contained
a clause providing that, into whatever ports their ships put, they
were not to be molested or hindered in any way, but, " on the
contrary, must be shown all manner of help, favour and assist-
ance." They might then have chosen any port in Japan for
their headquarters, but they had the misfortune to choose
Hirado. For many years they had no cause to regret the choice.
Their exclusive possession of the Spice Islands and their own
enterprise and command of capital gave them the leading place
in Japan's over-sea trade. Even when things had changed
greatly for the worse and when the English closed their books
with a large loss, it is on record that the Dutch were reaping a
profit of 76 % annually. Their doings at Hirado were not of a
purely commercial character. The Anglo-Dutch " fleet of
defence " made that port its basis of operations against the
Spaniards and the Portuguese. It brought its prizes into «
Hirado, the profits to be equally divided between the fleet and
the factories, Dutch and English, which arrangement involved
a sum of a hundred thousand pounds in 1622. But after the
death of. lyeyasu there grew up at the Tokugawa court a party
which advocated the expulsion of all foreigners on the ground
that, though some professed a different form of Christianity from
that of the Castilians and Portuguese, it was nevertheless one
and the same creed. This policy was not definitely adopted,
"
236
JAPAN
[FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
but it made itself felt in a discourteous reception accorded to
the commandant of Fort Zelandia when he visited Tokyo in
1627. He attempted to retaliate upon the Japanese vessels
which put into Zelandia in the following year, but the Japanese
managed to seize his person, exact reparation for loss of time and
obtain five hostages whom they carried to prison in Japan.
The Japanese government of that time was wholly intolerant
of any injury done to its subjects by foreigners. When news
of the Zelandia affair reached Yedo, orders were immediately
issued for the sequestration of certain Dutch vessels and for the
suspension of the Hirado factory, which veto was not removed
for four years. Commercial arrangements, also, became less
favourable. The Dutch, instead of selling their silk — which
generally formed the principal staple of import — in the open
market, were required to send it to the Osaka gild of Licensed
merchants at Nagasaki, by which means, Nagasaki and Osaka
being Imperial cities, the Yedo government derived advantage
from the transaction. An attempt to evade this onerous
system provoked a very stern rebuke from Yedo, and shortly
afterwards all Japanese subjects were forbidden to act as ser-
vants to the Dutch outside the latter's dwellings. The co-
operation of the Hollanders in bombarding the castle of Hara
during the Shimabara rebellion (1638) gave them some claim on
the shogun's government, but in the same year the Dutch
received an imperious warning that the severest penalties would
be inflicted if their ships carried priests or any religious objects
or books. So profound was the dislike of everything relating
to Christianity that the Dutch nearly caused the ruin of their
factory and probably their own destruction by inscribing on some
newly erected warehouses the date according to the Christian
era. The factory happened to be then presided over by Caron,
a man of extraordinary penetration. Without a moment's
hesitation he set 400 men to pull down the warehouses, thus
depriving the Japanese of all pretext for recourse to violence.
He was compelled, however, to promise that there should be no
observance of the Sabbath hereafter and that time should no
longer be reckoned by the Christian era. In a few months,
further evidence of Yedo's ill will was furnished. An edict
appeared ordering the Dutch to dispose of all their imports
during the year of their arrival, without any option of carrying
them away should prices be low. They were thus placed at the
mercy of the Osaka gild. Further, they were forbidden to
slaughter cattle or carry arms, and altogether it seemed as
though the situation was to be rendered impossible for them.
An envoy despatched from Batavia to remonstrate could not
obtain audience of the shogun, and though he presented, by
way of remonstrance, the charter originally granted by lyeyasu,
the reply he received was: —
" His Majesty charges us to inform you that it is of but slight
importance to the Empire of Japan whether foreigners come or do
not come to trade. But in consideration of the charter granted to
them by lyeyasu, he is pleased to allow the Hollanders to continue
their operations, and to leave them their commercial and other
privileges, on the condition that they evacuate Hirado and establish
themselves with their vessels in the port of Nagasaki."
The Dutch did not at first regard this as a calamity. During
their residence of 31 years at Hirado they had enjoyed full free-
dom, had been on excellent terms with the feudatory and his
samurai, and had prospered in their business. But the pettiness
of the place and the inconvenience of the anchorage having
always been recognized, transfer to Nagasaki promised a splen-
did harbour and much larger custom. Bitter, therefore, was
their disappointment when they found that they were to be
imprisoned in Deshima, a quadrangular island whose longest
face did not measure 300 yds., and that, so far from living in
the town of Nagasaki, they would not be allowed even to enter
it. Siebold writes: —
" A guard at the gate prevented all communications with the city
of Nagasaki ; no Dutchman without weighty reasons and. without
the permission of the governor might pass the gate; no Japanese
(unless public women) might live in a Dutchman's house. As if
this were not enough, even within Deshima itself our state prisoners
were keenly watched. No Japanese might speak with them in his
own language unless in the presence of a witness (a government spy)
or visit them in their houses. The creatures of the governor had the
warehouses under key and the Dutch traders ceased to be masters
of their property."
There were worse indignities to be endured. No Dutchman
might be buried in Japanese soil: the dead had to be committed
to the deep. Every Dutch ship, her rudder, guns and ammuni-
tion removed and her sails sealed, was subjected to the strictest
search. No religious service could be held. No one was suffered
to pass from one Dutch ship to another without the governor's
permit. Sometimes the officers and men were wantonly
cudgelled by petty Japanese officials. They led, in short, a
life of extreme abasement. Some relaxation of this extreme
severity was afterwards obtained, but at no time of their sojourn
in Deshima, a period of 217 years, were the Dutch relieved from
irksome and humiliating restraints. Eleven years after their
removal thither, the expediency of consulting the national
honour by finally abandoning an enterprise so derogatory was
gravely discussed, but hopes of improvement supplementing
natural reluctance to surrender a monopoly which still brought
large gains, induced them to persevere. At that time this
Nagasaki over-sea trade was considerable. From 7 to 10
Dutch ships used to enter the port annually, carrying cargo
valued at some 80,000 Ib of silver, the chief staples of import
being silk and piece-goods, and the government levying 5%
by way of customs dues. But this did not represent the whole
of the charges imposed. A rent of 459 Ib of silver had to be
paid each year for the little island of Deshima and the houses
standing on it; and, further, every spring, the Hollanders were
required to send to Yedo a mission bearing for the shogun, the
heir-apparent and the court officials presents representing an
aggregate value of about 550 Ib of silver. They found their
account, nevertheless, in buying gold and copper — especially
the latter — for exportation, until the Japanese authorities,
becoming alarmed at the great quantity of copper thus carried
away, adopted the policy of limiting the number of vessels, as
well as their inward and outward cargoes, so that, in 1790, only
one ship might enter annually, nor could she carry away more
than 350 tons of copper. On the other hand, the formal visits
of the captain of the factory to Yedo were reduced to one every
fifth year, and the value of the presents carried by him was cut
down to one half.
Well-informed historians have contended that, by thus
segregating herself from contact with the West, Japan's direct
losses were small. Certainly it is true that she could LMJ (g
not have learned much from European nations injapaaby
the 1 7th century. They had little to teach her inadoptiag
the way of religious tolerance; in the way of inter-
national morality; in the way of social amenities
and etiquette; in the way of artistic conception and execution;
or in the way of that notable shibboleth of modern civilization,
the open door and equal opportunities. Yet when all this is
admitted, there remains the vital fact that Japan was thus shut
off from the atmosphere of competition, and that for nearly two
centuries and a half she never had an opportunity of warming her
intelligence at the fire of international rivalry or deriving in-
spiration from an exchange of ideas. She stood comparatively
still while the world went on, and the interval between her and
the leading peoples of the Occident in matters of material civili-
zation had become very wide before she awoke to a sense of
its existence. The sequel of this page of her history has been
faithfully summarized by a modern writer: —
" A more complete metamorphosis of a nation's policy could
scarcely be conceived. In 1541 we find the Japanese celebrated,
or notorious, throughout the whole of the Far East for exploits
abroad ; we find them known as the ' kings of the sea ' ; we find them
welcoming foreigners with cordiality and opposing no obstacles to
foreign commerce or even to the propagandism of foreign creeds; we
find them so quick to recognize the benefits of foreign trade and so
apt to pursue them that, in the space of a few years, they establish
commercial relations with no less than twenty over-sea markets; we
find them authorizing the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English
to trade at every port in the empire; we find, in short, all the elements
requisite for a career of commercial enterprise, ocean-going adven-
ture and industrial liberality. In 1641 everything is reversed.
Trade is interdicted to all Western peoples except the Dutch, and
FOREIGN INTERCOURSE]
they are confined to a little island 200 yards in length by 80 in width ;
the least symptom of predilection for any alien creed exposes a
Japanese subject to be punished with awful rigour; any attempt to
leave the limits of the realm involves decapitation; not a ship large
enough to pass beyond the shadow of the coast may be built. How-
ever unwelcome the admission, it is apparent that for all these
changes Christian propagandism was responsible. The policy of
seclusion adopted by Japan in the early part of the 1 7th century and
resolutely pursued until the middle of the igth, was anti-Christian,
not anti-foreign. The fact cannot be too clearly recognized. It is
the chief lesson taught by the events outlined above. Throughout
the whole of that period of isolation, Occidentals were not known to
the Japanese by any of the terms now in common use, as gwaikoku-jin,
seiyo-jin, or i-jin, which embody the simple meanings ' foreigner,"
' Westerner ' or ' alien ' : they were popularly called bateren (padres).
Thus completely had foreign intercourse and Christian propagandism
become identified in the eyes of the people. And when it is remem-
bered that foreign intercourse, associated with Christianity, had come
to be synonymous in Japanese ears with foreign aggression, with the
subversal of the mikado's ancient dynasty, and with the loss of the in-
dependence of the ' country of the gods,' there is no difficulty in under-
standing the attitude of the nation's mind towards this question."
Foreign Intercourse in Modern Times. — From the middle of
the 1 7th century to the beginning of the igth, Japan succeeded
Dutch ana in rigorously enforcing her policy of seclusion. But
Russian jn the concluding days of this epoch two influences
influence, began to disturb her self-sufficiency. One was the
gradual infiltration of light from the outer world through
the narrow window of the Dutch prison at Deshima; the other,
frequent apparitions of Russian vessels on her northern coasts.
The former was a slow process. It materialized first in the study
of anatomy by a little group of youths who had acquired acci-
dental knowledge of the radical difference between Dutch and
Japanese conceptions as to the structure of the human body.
The work of these students reads like a page of romance. With-
out any appreciable knowledge of the Dutch language, they set
themselves to decipher a Dutch medical book, obtained at enor-
mous cost, and from this small beginning they passed to a vague
but firm conviction that their country had fallen far behind the
material and. intellectual progress of the Occident. They
laboured in secret, for the study of foreign books was then a
criminal offence; yet the patriotism of one of their number out-
weighed his prudence, and he boldly published a brochure
advocating the construction of a navy and predicting a descent
by the Russians on the northern borders of the empire. Before
this prescient man had lain five months in prison, his foresight
was verified by events. The Russians simulated at the outset
a desire to establish commercial relations by peaceful means.
Had the Japanese been better acquainted with the history of
nations, they would have known how to interpret the idea of a
Russian quest for commercial connexions in the Far East a
hundred years ago. But they dealt with the question on its
superficial merits, and, after imposing on the tsar's envoys a
wearisome delay of several months at Nagasaki, addressed to
them a peremptory refusal together with an order to leave that
port forthwith. Incensed by such treatment, and by the sub-
sequent imprisonment of a number of their fellow countrymen
who had landed on the island of Etorofu in the Kuriles, the
Russians resorted to armed reprisals. The Japanese settle-
ments in Sakhalin and Etorofu were raided and burned, other
places were menaced and several Japanese vessels were de-
stroyed. The lesson sank deep into the minds of the Yedo officials.
They withdrew their veto against the study of foreign books,
and they arrived in part at the reluctant conclusion that to offer
armed opposition to the coming of foreign ships was a task
somewhat beyond Japan's capacity. Japan ceased, however, to
attract European attention amid the absorbing interest of the
Napoleonic era, and the shogun's government, misinterpreting
this respite, reverted to their old policy of stalwart resistance to
foreign intercourse.
Meanwhile another power was beginning to establish close
contact with Japan. The whaling industry in Russian waters off
the coast of Alaska and in the seas of China and Japan
K™terprlse. na<^ attracted large investments of American capital
and was pursued yearly by thousands of American
citizens. In one season 86 of these whaling vessels passed within
Great
Britain
reappears
upon the
scene.
JAPAN 237
easy sight of Japan's northern island, Yezo, so that the aspect of
foreign ships became quite familiar. From time to time Ameri-
can schooners were cast away on Japan's shores. Generally the
survivors were treated with tolerable consideration and ulti-
mately sent to Deshima for shipment to Batavia. Japanese
sailors, too, driven out of their route by hurricanes and caught
in the stream of the " Black Current," were occasionally carried
to the Aleutian Islands, to Oregon or California, and in several
instances these shipwrecked mariners were taken back to Japan
with all kindness by American vessels. On such an errand of
mercy the " Morrison " entered Yedo Bay in 1837, proceeding
thence to Kagoshima, only to be driven away by cannon shot;
and on such an errand the " Manhattan " in 1845 lay for four
days at Uraga while her master (Mercater Cooper) collected
books and charts. It would seem that his experience induced
the Washington government to attempt the opening of Japan.
A ninety-gun ship and a sloop were sent on the errand. They
anchored off Uraga (July 1846) and Commodore Biddle made
due application for trade. But he received a positive refusal,
and having been instructed by his government to abstain from
any act calculated to excite hostility or distrust, he quietly
weighed anchor and sailed away.
In this same year (1846) a French ship touched at the Riukiu
(Luchu) archipelago and sought to persuade the islanders that
their only security against British aggression was to
place themselves under the protection of France. In
fact Great Britain was now beginning to interest herself
in south China, and more than one warning reached
Yedo from Deshima that English war-ships might at
any moment visit Japanese waters. The Dutch have been much
blamed for thus attempting to prejudice Japan against the Occi-
dent, but if the dictates of commercial rivalry, as it was then
practised, do not constitute an ample explanation, it should be
remembered that England and Holland had recently been
enemies, and that the last British vessel,1 seen at Nagasaki had
gone there hoping to capture the annual Dutch trading-ship from
Batavia. Deshima's warnings, however, remained unfulfilled,
though they doubtless contributed to Japan's feeling of uneasi-
ness. Then, in 1847, the king of Holland himself intervened.
He sent to Yedo various books, together with a map of the world
and a despatch advising Japan to abandon her policy of isolation.
Within a few months (1849) of the receipt of his Dutch
majesty's recommendation, an American brig, the " Preble,"
under Commander J. Glynn, anchored in Nagasaki harbour and
threatened to bombard the town unless immediate delivery were
made of 18 seamen who, having been wrecked in northern waters,
were held by the Japanese preparatory to shipment for Batavia.
In 1849 another despatch reached Yedo from the king of Holland
announcing that an American fleet might be expected in
Japanese waters a year later, and that, unless Japan agreed to
enter into friendly commercial relations, war must ensue.
Appended to this despatch was an approximate draft of the
treaty which would be presented for signature, together with a
copy of a memorandum addressed by the Washington govern-
ment to European nations, justifying the contemplated expedi-
tion on the ground that it would inure to the advantage of Japan
as well as to that of the Occident.
In 1853, Commodore Perry, with a squadron of four ships-of-
war and 560 men, entered Uraga Bay. So formidable a foreign
force had not been seen in Japanese waters since the
coming of the Mongol Armada. A panic ensued among p^^0
the people — the same people who, in the days of
Hideyoshi or lyeyasu, would have gone out to encounter these
ships with assured confidence of victory. The contrast did not
stop there. The shogun, whose ancestors had administered the
country's affairs with absolutely autocratic authority, now sum-
moned a council of the feudatories to consider the situation ; and
the Imperial court in Kioto, which never appealed for heaven's aid
except in a national emergency such as had never been witnessed
since the creation of the shogunate, now directed that at
the seven principal shrines and at all the great temples special
'H.M.S. " Phaeton." which entered that port in 1808.
238
JAPAN
[FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
prayers should be offered for the safety of the land and for the
destruction of the aliens. Thus the appearance of the American
squadron awoke in the cause of the country as a whole a spirit of
patriotism hitherto confined to feudal interests. The shogun
does not seem to have had any thought of invoking that spirit:
his part in raising it was involuntary and his ministers behaved
with perplexed vacillation. The infirmity of the Yedo Adminis-
tration's purpose presented such a strong contrast to the single-
minded resolution of the Imperial court that the prestige of the
one was largely impaired and that of the other correspondingly
enhanced. Perry, however, was without authority to support
his proposals by any recourse to violence. The United States
government had relied solely on the moral effect of his display of
force, and his countrymen had supplied him with a large collec-
tion of the products of peaceful progress, from sewing machines
to miniature railways. He did not unduly press for a treaty, but
after lying at anchor off Uraga during a period of ten days and
after transmitting the president's letter to the sovereign of Japan,
he steamed away on the iyth of July, announcing his return in
the ensuing spring. The conduct of the Japanese subsequently
to his departure showed how fully and rapidly they had acquired
the conviction that the appliances of their old civilization were
powerless to resist the resources of the new. Orders were
issued rescinding the long-enforced veto against the construction
of sea-going ships; the feudal chiefs were invited to build and arm
large vessels; the Dutch were commissioned to furnish a ship of
war and to procure from Europe all the best works on mode'rn
military science; every one who had acquired any expert know-
ledge through the medium of Deshima was taken into official
favour; forts were built; cannon were cast and troops were
drilled. But from all this effort there resulted only fresh
evidence of the country's inability to defy foreign insistence, and
on the 2nd of December 1853, instructions were issued that if the
Americans returned, they were to be dealt with peacefully. The
sight of Perry's steam-propelled ships, their powerful guns and
all the specimens they carried of western wonders, had practically
broken down the barriers of Japan's isolation without any need
of treaties or conventions. Perry returned in the following
February, and after an interchange of courtesies and formalities
extending over six weeks, obtained a treaty pledging Japan to
accord kind treatment to shipwrecked sailors; to permit foreign
vessels to obtain stores and provisions within her territory, and
to allow American ships to anchor in the ports at Shimoda and
Hakodate. On this second occasion Perry had 10 ships with
crews numbering two thousand, and when he landed to sign the
treaty, he was escorted by a guard of honour mustering 500
strong in 27 boats. Much has been written about his judicious
display of force and his sagacious tact in dealing with the
Japanese, but it may be doubted whether the consequences of his
exploit have not invested its methods with extravagant lustre.
Standing on the threshold of modern Japan's wonderful career,
his figure shines by the reflected light of its surroundings.
Russia, Holland and England speedily secured for themselves
treaties similar to that concluded by Commodore Perry in 1854.
Pint But Japan's doors still remained closed to foreign
Tnaty of commerce, and it was reserved for another citizen
Commerce. of tne great republic to open them. This was Town-
send Harris (1803-1878), the first U.S. consul-general in Japan.
Arriving in August 1856, he concluded, in June of the following
year, a treaty securing to American citizens the privilege of per-
manent residence at Shimoda and Hakodate, the opening of
Nagasaki, the right of consular jurisdiction and certain minor
concessions. Still, however, permission for commercial inter-
course was withheld, and Harris, convinced that this great goal
could not be reached unless he made his way to Yedo and con-
ferred direct with the shogun's ministers, pressed persistently
for leave to do so. Ten months elapsed before he succeeded, and
such a display of reluctance on the Japanese side was very
unfavourably criticized in the years immediately subsequent.
Ignorance of the country's domestic politics inspired the critics.
The Yedo administration, already weakened by the growth of a
strong public sentiment in favour of abolishing the dual system
of government — that of the mikado in Kioto and that of the
shogun in Yedo — had been still further discredited by its own
timid policy as compared with the stalwart mien of the throne
towards the question of foreign intercourse. Openly to sanction
commercial relations at such a time would have been little short
of reckless. The Perry convention and the first Harris conven-
tion could be construed, and were purposely construed, as mere
acts of benevolence towards strangers; but a commercial treaty
would not have lent itself to any such construction, and naturally
the shogun's ministers hesitated to agree to an apparently
suicidal step. Harris carried his point, however. He was.
received by the shogun in Yedo in November 1857, and on
the 2gth of July 1858 a treaty was signed in Yedo, engaging
that Yokohama should be opened on the 4th of July 1859 and
that commerce between the United States and Japan should
thereafter be freely carried on there. This treaty was actually
concluded by the shogun's Ministers in defiance of their failure
to obtain the sanction of the sovereign in Kioto. Foreign
historians have found much to say about Japanese duplicity in
concealing the subordinate position occupied by the Yedo
administration towards the Kioto court. Such condemnation is
not consistent with fuller knowledge. The Yedo authorities
had power to solve all problems of foreign intercourse without
reference to Kioto. lyeyasu had not seen any occasion to
seek imperial assent when he granted unrestricted liberty of
trade to the representatives of the East India Company, nor had
lyemitsu asked for Kioto's sanction when he issued his decree for
the expulsion of all foreigners. If, in the igth century, Yedo
shrank from a responsibility which it had unhesitatingly assumed
in the I7th, the cause was to be found, not in the shogun's
simulation of autonomy, but in his desire to associate the throne
with a policy which, while recognizing it to be unavoidable, he
distrusted his own ability to make the nation accept. But his
ministers had promised Harris that the treaty should be
signed, and they kept their word, at a risk of which the United
States' consul-general had no conception. Throughout these
negotiations Harris spared no pains to create in the minds of
the Japanese an intelligent conviction that the world could no
longer be kept at arm's length, and though it is extremely prob-
lematical whether he would have succeeded had not the Japan-
ese themselves already arrived at that very conviction, his
patient and lucid expositions coupled with a winning personality
undoubtedly produced much impression. He was largely
assisted, too, by recent events in China, where the Peiho forts
had been captured and the Chinese forced to sign a treaty at
Tientsin. Harris warned the Japanese that the British fleet
might be expected at any moment in Yedo Bay, and that the
best way to avert irksome demands at the hands of the English
was to establish a comparatively moderate precedent by yielding
to America's proposals.
This treaty could not be represented, as previous conventions
had been, in the light of a purely benevolent concession. It
definitely provided for the trade and residence of
foreign merchants, and thus finally terminated the Treaty
Japan's traditional isolation. Moreover, it had been
concluded in defiance of the Throne's refusal to sanction anything
of the kind. Much excitement resulted. The nation ranged
itself into three parties. One comprised the advocates of free
intercourse and progressive liberality; another, while insisting
that only the most limited privileges should be accorded ta
aliens, was of two minds as to the advisability of offering armed
resistance at once or temporizing so as to gain time for prepara-
tion; the third advocated uncompromising seclusion. Once
again the shogun convoked a meeting of the feudal barons,
hoping to secure their co-operation. But with hardly an excep-
tion they pronounced against yielding. Thus the shogunate
saw itself compelled to adopt a resolutely liberal policy: it
issued a decree in that sense, and thenceforth the administrative
court at Yedo and the Imperial court in Kioto stood in unequivo-
cal opposition to each other, the Conservatives ranging them-
selves on the side of the latter, the Liberals on that of the former.
It was a situation full of perplexity to outsiders, and the foreign
FOREIGN INTERCOURSE]
representatives misinterpreted it. They imagined that the
shogun's ministers sought only to evade their treaty obligations
and to render the situation intolerable for foreign residents,
whereas in truth the situation threatened to become intolerable
for the shogunate itself. Nevertheless the Yedo officials can-
not be entirely acquitted of duplicity. Under pressure of the
necessity of self-preservation they effected with Kioto a com-
promise which assigned to foreign intercourse a temporary
character. The threatened political crisis was thus averted,
but the enemies of the dual system of government gained
strength daily. One of their devices was to assassinate foreigners
in the hope of embroiling the shogunate with Western powers and
thus either forcing its hand or precipitating its downfall. It is
not wonderful, perhaps, that foreigners were deceived, especially
as they approached the solution of Japanese problems with
all the Occidental's habitual suspicion of everything Oriental.
Thus when the Yedo government, cognisant that serious dangers
menaced the Yokohama settlement, took precautions to guard
it, the foreign ministers convinced themselves that a deliberate
piece of chicanery was being practised at their expense; that
statecraft rather than truth had dictated the representations
made to them by the Japanese authorities; and that the alarm
of the latter was simulated for the purpose of finding a pretext
to curtail the liberty enjoyed by foreigners. Therefore a sugges-
tion that the inmates of the legations should show themselves as
little as possible in the streets of the capital, where at any
moment a desperadojnight cut them down, was treated almost as
an insult. Then the Japanese authorities saw no recourse except
to attach an armed escort to the person of every foreigner when
he moved about the city. But even this precaution, which
certainly was not adopted out of mere caprice or with any
sinister design, excited fresh suspicions. The British representa-
tive, in reporting the event to his government, said that the
Japanese had taken the opportunity to graft upon the establish-
ment of spies, watchmen and police-officers at the several
legations, a mounted escort to accompany the members whenever
they moved about.
Just at this time (1861) the Yedo statesmen, in order to
reconcile the divergent views of the two courts, negotiated a
marriage between the emperor's sister and the shogun.
upon But in order to bring the union about, they had to
Foreigners placate the Kioto Conservatives by a promise to expel
foreigners from the country within ten years. When
this became known, it strengthened the hands of the
reactionaries, and furnished a new weapon to Yedo's
enemies, who interpreted the marriage as the beginning of a plot
to dethrone the mikado. Murderous attacks upon foreigners
became more frequent. Two of these assaults had momentous
consequences. Three British subjects attempted to force their
way through the cortege of the Satsuma feudal chief on the
highway between Yokohama and Yedo. One of them was
killed and the other two wounded. This outrage was not in-
spired by the " barbarian-expelling " sentiment: to any Japanese
subject violating the rules of etiquette as these Englishmen
had violated them, the same fate would have been meted
out. Nevertheless, as the Satsuma daimyo refused to surrender
his implicated vassals, and as the shogun's arm was not long
enough to reach the most powerful feudatory in Japan, the
British government sent a squadron to bombard his capital,
Kagoshima. It was not a brilliant exploit in any sense, but its
results were invaluable; for the operations of the British ships
finally convinced the Satsuma men of their impotence in the
face of Western armaments, and converted them into advocates
of liberal progress. Three months previously to this bombard-
ment of Kagoshima another puissant feudatory had thrown
down the gauntlet. The Choshu chief, whose batteries com-
manded the entrance to the inland sea at Shimonoseki, opened
fire upon ships flying the flags of the United States, of France
and of Holland. In thus acting he obeyed an edict obtained by
the extremists from the mikado without the knowledge of the
shogun, which edict fixed the nth of May 1863 as the date
for practically inaugurating the foreigners-expulsion policy.
quences.
JAPAN 239
Again the shogun's administrative competence proved inade-
quate to exact reparation, and a squadron, composed chiefly
of British men-of-war, proceeding to Shimonoseki, demolished
Choshu's forts, destroyed his ships and scattered his samurai.
In the face of the Kagoshima bombardment and the Shimono-
seki expedition, no Japanese subject could retain any faith in
his country's ability to oppose Occidentals by force. Thus the
year 1863 was memorable in Japan's history. It saw the
" barbarian-expelling " agitation deprived of the emperor's
sanction; it saw the two principal clans, Satsuma and Choshu,
convinced of their country's impotence to defy the Occident;
it saw the nation almost fully roused to the disintegrating and
weakening effects of the feudal system; and it saw the tradi-
tional antipathy to foreigners beginning to be exchanged for a
desire to study their civilization and to adopt its best features.
The treaty concluded between the shogun's government and
the United States in 1858 was of course followed by similar
compacts with the principal European powers. Ratification
From the outset these states agreed to co-operate of the
for the assertion of their conventional privileges, Tnatles-
and they naturally took Great Britain for leader, though such
a relation was never openly announced. The treaties, however,
continued during several years to lack imperial ratification,
and, as time went by, that defect obtruded itself more and
more upon the attention of their foreign signatories. The year
1865 saw British interests entrusted to the charge of Sir Harry
Parkes, a man of keen insight, indomitable courage and some-
what peremptory methods, learned during a long period of
service in China. It happened that the post of Japanese secre-
tary at the British legation in Yedo was then held by a remark-
ably gifted young Englishman, who, in a comparatively brief
interval, had acquired a good working knowledge of the Japanese
language, and it happened also that the British legation in
Yedo was already— as it has always been ever since — the best
equipped institution of its class in Japan. Aided by these
facilities and by the researches of Mr Satow (afterwards Sir
Ernest Satow) Parkes arrived at the conclusions that the
Yedo government was tottering to its fall; that the resumption
of administrative authority by the Kioto court would make for
the interests not only of the West but also of Japan; and that
the ratification of the treaties by the mikado would elucidate
the situation for foreigners while being, at the same time,
essential to the validity of the documents. Two other objects
also presented themselves, namely, that the import duties
fixed by the conventions should be reduced from 15 to 5%
ad valorem, and that the ports of Hiogo and Osaka should be
opened at once, instead of at the expiration of twc years as
originally fixed. It was not proposed that these concessions
should be entirely gratuitous. When the four-power flotilla
destroyed the Shimonoseki batteries and sank the vessels
lying there, a fine of three million dollars (some £750,000) had
been imposed upon the daimyo of Choshu by way of ransom for
his capital, which lay at the mercy of the invaders. The daimyo
of Choshu, however, was in open rebellion against the shogun,
and as the latter could not collect the debt from the recalcitrant
clansmen, while the four powers insisted on being paid by
some one, the Yedo treasury was finally compelled to shoulder
the obligation. Two out of the three millions were still due,
and Parkes conceived the idea of remitting this debt in exchange
for the ratification of the treaties, the reduction of the customs
tariff from 15 to 5% ad valorem and the immediate opening of
Hiogo and Osaka. He took with him to the place of negotia-
tion (Hiogo) a fleet of British, French and Dutch war-ships,
for, while announcing peaceful intentions, he had accustomed
himself to think that a display of force should occupy the fore-
ground in all negotiations with Oriental states. This coup
may be said to have sealed the fate of the shogunate. For
here again was produced in a highly aggravated form the drama
which had so greatly startled the nation eight years previously.
Perry had come with his war-ships to the portals of Yedo, and
now a foreign fleet, twice as strong as Perry's, had anchored
at the vestibule of the Imperial city itself. No rational Japanese
240
JAPAN
[FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
could suppose that this parade of force was for purely peaceful
purposes, or that rejection of the amicable bargain proposed by
Great Britain's representative would be followed by the quiet
withdrawal of the menacing fleet, whose terrible potentialities
had been demonstrated at Kagoshima and Shimonoseki. The
seclusionists, whose voices had been nearly silenced, raised them
in renewed denunciation of the shogun's incompetence to
guarantee the sacred city of Kioto against such trespasses,
and the emperor, brought once more under the influence of the
anti-foreign party, inflicted a heavy disgrace on the shogun
by dismissing and punishing the officials to whom the latter
had entrusted the conduct of negotiations at Hiogo. Such
procedure on the part of the throne amounted to withdrawing
the administrative commission held by the Tokugawa family
since the days of lyeyasu. The shogun resigned. But his
adversaries not being yet ready to replace him, he was induced
to resume office, with, however, fatally damaged prestige. As
for the three-power squadron, it steamed away successful.
Parkes had come prepared to write off the indemnity in exchange
for three concessions. He obtained two of the concessions
without remitting a dollar of the debt.
The shogun did not long survive the humiliation thus
inflicted on him. He died in the following year (1866), and
Final Xdop-was succee<led by Keiki, destined to be the last of
tioa of the Tokugawa rulers. Nine years previously this
Western same Keiki had been put forward by the seclusionists
Civilization.^ candidate for the shogunate. Yet no sooner did
he attain that distinction in 1866 than he remodelled the army
on French lines, engaged English officers to organize a navy,
sent his brother to the Paris Exhibition, and altered many of
the forms and ceremonies of his court so as to bring them into
accord with Occidental fashions. The contrast between the
politics he represented when a candidate for office in 1857 and
the practice he adopted on succeeding to power in 1866 furnished
an apt illustration of the change that had come over the spirit
of the time. The most bigoted of the exclusionists were now
beginning to abandon all idea of expelling foreigners and to
think mainly of acquiring the best elements of their civilization.
The Japanese are slow to reach a decision but very quick to act
upon it when reached. From 1866 onwards the new spirit
rapidly permeated the whole nation; progress became the aim
of all classes, and the country entered upon a career of intelli-
gent assimilation which, in forty years, won for Japan a uni-
versally accorded place in the ranks of the great Occidental
powers.
After the abolition of the shogunate and the resumption of
administrative functions by the Throne, one of the first acts
Japan's °^ 'ne new'y organized government was to invite
Claim for the foreign representatives to Kioto, where they
Judicial had audience of the mikado. Subsequently a
omy. Decree was issued, announcing the emperor's
resolve to establish amicable relations with foreign countries,
and " declaring that any Japanese subject thereafter guilty of
violent behaviour towards a foreigner would not only act in
opposition to the Imperial tommand, but would also be guilty
of impairing the dignity and good faith of the nation in the tyes
of the powers with which his majesty had pledged himself to
maintain friendship." From that time the relations between
Japan and foreign states grew yearly more amicable; the nation
adopted the products of Western civilization with notable
thoroughness, and the provisions of the treaties were carefully
observed. Those treaties, however, presented one feature
which very soon became exceedingly irksome to Japan. They
exempted foreigners residing within her borders from the
operation of her criminal laws, and secured to them the privilege
of being arraigned solely before tribunals of their own nation-
ality. That system had always been considered necessary
where the subjects of Christian states visited or sojourned in
non-Christian countries, and, for the purpose of giving effect to
it, consular courts were established. This necessitated the
confinement of foreign residents to settlements in the neighbour-
hood of the consular courts, since it would have been imprudent
to allow foreigners to have free access to districts remote from
the only tribunals competent to control them. The Japanese
raised no objection to the embodiment of this system in the
treaties. They recognized its necessity and even its expediency,
for if, on the one hand, it infringed their country's sovereign
rights, on the other, it prevented complications which must
have ensued had they been entrusted with jurisdiction which
they were not prepared to discharge satisfactorily. But the
consular courts were not free from defects. A few of the
powers organized competent tribunals presided over by judicial
experts, but a majority of the treaty states, not having suffi-
ciently large interests at stake, were content to delegate consular
duties to merchants, not only deficient in legal training, but also
themselves engaged in the very commercial transactions upon
which they might at any moment be required to adjudicate in
a magisterial capacity. In any circumstances the dual functions
of consul and judge could not be discharged without anomaly by
the same official, for he was obliged to act as advocate in the
preliminary stages of complications about which, in his position
as judge, he might ultimately have to deliver an impartial
verdict. In practice, however, the system worked with tolerable
smoothness, and might have remained long in force had not the
patriotism of the Japanese rebelled bitterly against the implica-
tion that their country was unfit to exercise one of the funda-
mental attributes of every sovereign state, judicial autonomy.
From the very outset they spared no effort to qualify for the
recovery of this attribute. Revision of the country's laws and
re-organization of its law courts would necessarily have been
an essential feature of the general reforms suggested by contact
with the Occident, but the question of consular jurisdiction
certainly constituted a special incentive. Expert assistance
was obtained from France and Germany; the best features of
European jurisprudence were adapted to the conditions and
usages of Japan; the law courts were remodelled, and steps
were taken to educate a competent judiciary. In criminal law
the example of France was chiefly followed; in commercial law
that of Germany; and in civil law that of the Occident generally,
with due regard to the customs of the country. The jury
system was not adopted, collegiate courts being regarded as
more conducive to justice, and the order of procedure went
from tribunals of first instance to appeal courts and finally to
the court of cassation. Schools of law were quickly opened, and
a well-equipped bar soon came into existence. Twelve years
after the inception of these great works, Japan made formal
application for revision of the treaties on the basis of abolishing
consular jurisdiction. She had asked for revision in 1871,
sending to Europe and America an important embassy to raise
the question. But at that time the conditions originally calling
for consular jurisdiction had not undergone any change such
as would have justified its abolition, and the Japanese govern-
ment, though very anxious to recover tariff autonomy as well
as judicial, shrank from separating the two questions, lest by
prematurely solving one the solution of the other might be
unduly deferred. Thus the embassy failed, and though the
problem attracted great academical interest from the first, it
did not re-enter the field of practical politics until 1883. The
negotiations were long protracted. Never previously had an
Oriental state received at the hands of the Occident recognition
such as that now demanded by Japan, and the West naturally
felt deep reluctance to try a wholly novel experiment. The
United States had set a generous example by concluding a new
treaty (1878) on the lines desired by Japan. But its operation
was conditional on a similar act of compliance by the other
treaty powers. Ill-informed European publicists ridiculed the
Washington statesmen's attitude on this occasion, claiming that
what had been given with one hand was taken back with the
other. The truth is that the conditional provision was inserted
at the request of Japan herself, who appreciated her own unpre-
paredness for the concession. From 1883, however, she was
ready to accept full responsibility, and she therefore asked that
all foreigners within her borders should thenceforth be subject to
her laws and judiciable by her law-courts, supplementing her
ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE]
application by promising that its favourable reception should
be followed by the complete opening of the country and the
removal of all restrictions hitherto imposed on foreign trade,
travel and residence in her realm. " From the first it had been
the habit of Occidental peoples to upbraid Japan on account of
the barriers opposed by her to full and free foreign intercourse,
and she was now able to claim that these barriers were no longer
maintained by her desire, but that they existed because of a
system which theoretically proclaimed her unfitness for free
association with Western nations, and practically made it
impossible for her to throw open her territories completely
for the ingress of foreigners." She had a strong case, but on
the side of the European powers extreme reluctance was mani-
fested to try the unprecedented experiment of placing their
people under the jurisdiction of an Oriental country. Still
greater was the reluctance of those upon whom the experiment
would be tried. Foreigners residing in Japan naturally clung
to consular jurisdiction as a privilege of inestimable value.
They saw, indeed, that such a system could not be permanently
imposed on a country where the conditions justifying it had
nominally disappeared. But they saw, also, that the legal and
judicial reforms effected by Japan had been crowded into an
extraordinarily brief period, and that, as tyros experimenting
with alien systems, the Japanese might be betrayed into many
errors.
The negotiations lasted for eleven years. They were begun in
1883 and a solution was not reached until 1894. Finally European
Recognition governments conceded the justice of Japan's case,
by the and it was agreed that from July 1899 Japanese
Powers. tribunals should assume jurisdiction over every
person, of whatever nationality, within the confines of Japan,
and the whole country should be thrown open to foreigners, all
limitations upon trade, travel and residence being removed.
Great Britain took the lead in thus releasing Japan from
the fetters of the old system. The initiative came from
her with special grace, for the system and all its irksome
consequences had been originally imposed on Japan by a
combination of powers with Great Britain in the van. As a
matter of historical sequence the United States dictated the
terms of the first treaty providing for consular jurisdiction. But
from a very early period the Washington government showed
its willingness to remove all limitations of Japan's sovereignty,
whereas Europe, headed by Great Britain, whose preponderating
interests entitled her to lead, resolutely refused to make any
substantial concession. In Japanese eyes, therefore, British
conservatism seemed to be the one serious obstacle, and since
the British residents in the settlements far outnumbered all other
nationalities, and since they alone had newspaper organs to
ventilate their grievances — it was certainly fortunate for the
popularity of her people in the Far East that Great Britain saw
her way finally to set a liberal example. Nearly five years were
required to bring the other Occidental powers into line with Great
Britain and America. It should be stated, however, that neither
reluctance to make the necessary concessions nor want of sym-
pathy with Japan caused the delay. The explanation is, first,
that each set of negotiators sought to improve either the terms
or the terminology of the treaties already concluded, and,
secondly, that the tariff arrangements for the different countries
required elaborate discussion.
Until the last of the revised treaties was ratified, voices of
protest against revision continued to be vehemently raised by a
Reception 'arge section of the foreign community in the settle-
given to the ments. Some were honestly apprehensive as to the
Revised issue of [he experiment. Others were swayed by
Treaties. racjaj prejucjice. A few had fallen into an insuper-
able habit of grumbling, or found their account in advocating
conservatism under pretence of championing foreign interests;
and all were naturally reluctant to forfeit the immunity from
taxation hitherto enjoyed. It seemed as though the inaugura-
tion of the new system would find the foreign community
in a mood which must greatly diminish the chances of a
happy result, for where a captious and aggrieved disposition
JAPAN 241
exists, opportunities to discover causes of complaint cannot
be wanting, gut at the eleventh hour this unfavourable
demeanour underwent a marked change. So soon as it became
evident that the old system was hopelessly doomed, the sound
common sense of the European and American business man
asserted itself. The foreign residents let it be seen that they
intended to bow cheerfully to the inevitable, and that no obstacles
would be willingly placed by them in the path of Japanese juris-
diction. The Japanese, on their side, took some promising steps.
An Imperial rescript declared in unequivocal terms that it was
the sovereign's policy and desire to abolish all distinctions
between natives and foreigners, and that by fully carrying out
the friendly purpose of the treaties his people would best consult
his wishes, maintain the character of the nation, and promote
its prestige. The premier and other ministers of state issued
instructions to the effect that the responsibility now devolved
on the government, and the duty on the people, of enabling
foreigners to reside confidently and contentedly in every part of
the country. Even the chief Buddhist prelates addressed to the
priests and parishioners in their dioceses injunctions pointing
out that, freedom of conscience being now guaranteed by the
constitution, men professing alien creeds must be treated as
courteously as the followers of Buddhism, and must enjoy the
same rights and privileges.
Thus the great change was effected in circumstances of happy
augury. Its results were successful on the whole. Foreigners
residing in Japan now enjoy immunity of domicile, personal
and religious liberty, freedom from official interference, and
security of life and property as fully as though they were living
in their own countries, and they have gradually learned to look
with greatly increased respect upon Japanese law and its
administrators.
Next to the revision of the treaties and to the result of the
great wars waged by Japan since the resumption of foreign inter-
course, the most memorable incident in her modern Anglo-
career was the conclusion, first, of an entente, and, Japanese
secondly, of an offensive and defensive alliance Alliance.
with Great Britain in January 1902 and September 1905,
respectively. The entente set out by disavowing on the part of
each of the contracting parties any aggressive tendency in either
China or Korea, the independence of which two countries was
explicitly recognized; and went on to declare that Great Britain
in China and Japan in China and Korea might take indispensable
means to safeguard their interests; while, if such measures
involved one of the signatories in war with a third power, the
other signatory would not only remain neutral but would also
endeavour to prevent other powers from joining in hostilities
against its ally, and would come to the assistance of the latter in
the event of its being faced by two or more powers. The entente
further recognized that Japan possessed, in a peculiar degree,
political, commercial and industrial interests in Korea. This
agreement, equally novel for each of the contracting parties,
evidently tended to the benefit of Japan more than to that of
Great Britain, inasmuch as the interests in question were vital
from the former power's point of view but merely local from the
latter's. The inequality was corrected by an offensive and
defensive alliance in 1905. For the scope of the agreement was
then extended to India and eastern Asia generally, and while the
signatories pledged themselves, on the one hand, to preserve the
common interests of all powers in China by insuring her integrity
and independence as well as the principle of equal opportunities
for the commerce and industry of all nations within her borders,
they agreed, on the other, to maintain their own territorial rights
in eastern Asia and India, and to come to each other's armed
assistance in the event of those rights being assailed by any other
power or powers. These agreements have, of course, a close
relation to the events which accompanied or immediately
preceded them, but they also present a vivid and radical con-
trast between a country which, less than half a century previ-
ously, had struggled vehemently to remain secluded from the
world, and a country which now allied itself with one of the
most liberal and progressive nations for the purposes of a policy
242
JAPAN
[FOREIGN WARS
extending over the whole of eastern Asia and India. This
contrast was accentuated two years later (1907.) when France
and Russia concluded ententes with Japan, recognizing the in-
dependence and integrity of the Chinese Empire, as well as the
principle of equal opportunity for all nations in that country,
and engaging to support each other for assuring peace and
security there. Japan thus became a world power in the most
unequivocal sense.
Japan's Foreign Wars and Complications. — The earliest foreign
war conducted by Japan is said to have taken place at the
beginning of the 3rd century, when the empress Jingo
Korea. '' ' kd an armv to tne conquest of Korea. But as the
event is supposed to have happened more than 500
years before the first Japanese record was written, its traditional
details cannot be seriously discussed. There is, however, no
room to doubt that from time to time in early ages Japanese
troops were seen in Korea, though they made no permanent
impression on the country. It was reserved for Hideyoshi, the
taiko, to make the Korean peninsula the scene of a great
over-sea campaign. Hideyoshi, the Napoleon of Japan, having
brought the whole empire under his sway as the sequel of many
years of incomparable generalship and statecraft, conceived the
project of subjugating China. By some historians his motive has
been described as a desire to find employment for the immense
mob of armed men whom four centuries of almost continuous
fighting had called into existence in Japan: he felt that domestic
peace could not be permanently restored unless these restless
spirits were occupied abroad. But although that object may
have reinforced his purpose, his ambition aimed at nothing less
than the conquest of China, and he regarded Korea merely as a
stepping-stone to that aim. Had Korea consented to be put to
such a use, she need not have fought or suffered. The Koreans,
however, counted China invincible. They considered that Japan
would be shattered by the first contact with the great empire,
and therefore although, in the I3th century, they had given the
use of their harbours to the Mongol invaders of Japan, they flatly
refused in the i6th to allow their territory to be used for a
Japanese invasion of China. On the 24th of May 1592 the wave
of invasion rolled against Korea's southern coast. Hideyoshi
had chosen Nagoya in the province of Hizen as the home-base
of his operations. There the sea separating Japan from the
Korean peninsula narrows to a strait divided into two channels
of almost equal width by the island of Tsushima. To reach this
island from the Japanese side was an easy and safe task, but in
the 56-mile channel that separated Tsushima from the peninsula
an invading flotilla had to run the risk of attack by Korean war-
ships. At Nagoya Hideyoshi assembled an army of over 300,000
men, of whom some 70,000 constituted the first fighting line,
87,000 the second, and the remainder formed a reserve to be
subsequently drawn on as occasion demanded. The question
of transport presented some difficulty, but it was solved by the
simple expedient of ordering every feudatory to furnish two ships
for each 100,000 koku of his fief's revenue. These were not
fighting vessels but mere transports. As for the plan of cam-
paign, it was precisely in accord with modern principles of
strategy, and bore witness to the daring genius of Hideyoshi. The
van, consisting of three army corps and mustering in all 51,000
men, was to cross rapidly to Fusan, on the south coast of the
peninsula, and immediately commence a movement northward
towards the capital, Seoul, one corps moving by the eastern
coast-road, one by the central route, and one by the western coast-
line. Thereafter the other four corps, which formed the first
fighting line, together with the corps under the direct orders of
the commander-in-chief, Ukida Hideiye, were to cross, for the
purpose of effectually subduing the regions through which the
van had passed; and, finally, the two remaining corps of the
second line were to be transported by sea up the west coast of
the peninsula, to form a junction with the van which, by that
time, should be preparing to pass into China over the northern
boundary of Korea, namely, the Yalu River. For the landing
place of these reinforcements the town of Phyong-yang was
adopted, being easily accessible by the Taidong River from the
coast. In later ages Japanese armies were destined to move
twice over these same regions, once to the invasion of China, once
to the attack of Russia, and they adopted almost the same
strategical plan as that mapped out by Hideyoshi in the year
1592. The forecast was that the Koreans would offer their chief
resistance, first, at the capital, Seoul; next at Phyong-yang,
and finally at the Yalu, as the approaches to all these places
offered positions capable of being utilized to great advantage for
defensive purposes.
On the 24th of May 1592 the first army corps, under the
command of Konishi Yukinaga, crossed unmolested to the
peninsula; next day the castle of Fusan was carried Laaalogla
by storm, which same fate befell, on the 27th, Korea and
another and stronger fortress lying 3 miles inland Advance
and garrisoned by 20,000 picked soldiers. The a.tttle.
invaders were irresistible. From the landing-place
at Fusan to the gates of Seoul the distance is 267 miles.
Konishi's corps covered that interval in 19 days, storming two
forts, carrying two positions and fighting one pitched battle en
route. On the i2th of June the Korean capital was in Japanese
hands, and by the i6th four army corps had assembled there,
while four others had effected a landing at Fusan. After a rest
of 15 days the northward advance was resumed, and July isth
saw Phyong-yang in Japanese possession. The distance of 130
miles from Seoul to the Taidong had been traversed in 18 days,
10 having been occupied in forcing the passage of a river which,
if held with moderate resolution and skill, should have stopped
the Japanese altogether. At this point, however, the invasion
suffered a check owing to a cause which in modern times has
received much attention, though in Hideyoshi's days it had been
little considered; the Japanese lost the command of the sea.
The Japanese idea of sea-fighting in those times was to use
open boats propelled chiefly by oars. They closed as quickly as
possible with the enemy, and then fell on with the
trenchant swords which they used so skilfully.
Now during the isth century and part of the i6th
the Chinese had been so harassed by Japanese piratical raids that
their inventive genius, quickened by suffering, suggested a
device for coping with these formidable adversaries. Once
allow the Japanese swordsman to come to close quarters and he
carried all before him. To keep him at a distance, then, was the
great desideratum, and the Chinese compassed this in maritime
warfare by completely covering their boats with roofs of solid
timber, so that those within were protected against missiles,
while loop-holes and ports enabled them to pour bullets and
arrows on a foe. The Koreans learned this device from the
Chinese and were the first to employ it in actual warfare. Their
own history alleges that they improved upon the Chinese model
by nailing sheet iron over the roofs and sides of the " turtle-shell"
craft and studding the whole surface with chewux de frise, but
Japanese annals indicate that in the great majority of cases solid
timber alone was used. It seems strange that the Japanese
should have been without any clear perception of the immense
fighting superiority possessed by such protected war-vessels over
small open boats. But certainly they were either ignorant or
indifferent. The fleet which they provided to hold the command
of Korean waters did not include one vessel of any magnitude:
it consisted simply of some hundreds of row-boats manned by
7000 men. Hideyoshi himself was perhaps not without mis-
givings. Six years previously he had endeavoured to obtain two
war-galleons from the Portuguese, and had he succeeded, the
history of the Far East might have been radically different.
Evidently, however, he committed a blunder which his country-
men in modern times have conspicuously avoided; he drew the
sword without having fully investigated his adversary's resources.
Just about the time when the van of the Japanese army was
entering Seoul, the Korean admiral, Yi Sun-sin, at the head of a
fleet of 80 vessels, attacked the Japanese squadron which lay al.
anchor near the entrance to Fusan harbour, set 26 of the vessels
on fire and dispersed the rest. Four other engagements ensued
in rapid succession. The last and most important took place
shortly after the Japanese troops had seized Phyong-yang. It
FOREIGN WARS]
resulted in the sinking of over 70 Japanese vessels, transports
and fighting ships combined, which formed the main part of a
flotilla carrying reinforcements by sea to the van of the invading
army. This despatch of troops and supplies by water had been
a leading feature of Hideyoshi's plan of campaign, and the
destruction of the flotilla to which the duty was entrusted may
be said to have sealed the fate of the war by isolating the army
in Korea from its home base. It is true that Konishi Yukinaga,
who commanded the first division, would have continued his
northward march from Phyong-yang without delay. He argued
that China was wholly unprepared, and that the best hope of
ultimate victory lay in not giving her time to collect her forces.
But the commander-in-chief, Ukida Hideiye, refused to endorse
this plan. He took the view that since the Korean provinces
were still offering desperate resistance, supplies could not be
drawn from them, neither could the troops engaged in subju-
gating them be freed for service at the front. Therefore it was
essential to await the consummation of the second phase of
Hideyoshi's plan, namely, the despatch of reinforcements and
munitions by water to Phyong-yang. The reader has seen how
that second phase fared. The Japanese commander at Phyong-
yang never received any accession of strength. His force
suffered constant diminution from casualties, and the question
of commissariat became daily more difficult. It is further plain
to any reader of history — and Japanese historians themselves
admit the fact — that no wise effort was made to conciliate the
Korean people. They were treated so harshly that even the
humble peasant took up arms, and thus the peninsula, instead
of serving as a basis of supplies, had to be garrisoned perpetually
by a strong army.
The Koreans, having suffered for their loyalty to China,
naturally looked to her for succour. Again and again appeals
Chinese were made to Peking, and at length a force of 5000
interveo- men, which had been mobilized in the Liaotung
i/on. peninsula, crossed the Yalu and moved south to
Phyong-yang, where the Japanese van had been lying idle for
over two months. This was early in October 1592. Memorable
as the first encounter between Japanese and Chinese, the incident
also illustrated China's supreme confidence in her own ineffable
superiority. The whole of the Korean forces had been driven
northward throughout the entire length of the peninsula by the
Japanese armies, yet Peking considered that 5000 Chinese
" braves " would suffice to roll back this tide of invasion. Three
thousand of the Chinese were killed and the remainder fled
pell-mell across the Yalu. China now began to be seriously
alarmed. She collected an army variously estimated at from
51,000 to 200,000 men, and marching it across Manchuria in the
dead of winter, hurled it against Phyong-yang during the first
week of February 1593. The Japanese garrison did not exceed
20,000, nearly one-half of its original number having been de-
tached to hold a line of forts which guarded the communications
with Seoul. Moreover, the Chinese, though their swords were
much inferior to the Japanese weapon, possessed great superiority
in artillery and cavalry, as well as in the fact that their troopers
wore iron mail which defied the keenest blade. Thus, after a
severe fight, the Japanese had to evacuate Phyong-yang and fall
back upon Seoul. But this one victory alone stands to China's
credit. In all subsequent encounters of any magnitude her army
suffered heavy defeats, losing on one occasion some 10,000 men,
on another 4000, and on a third 39,000. But the presence of her
forces and the determined resistance offered by the Koreans effec-
tually saved China from invasion. Indeed, after the evacuation
of Seoul, on the gth of May 1593, Hideyoshi abandoned all idea of
carrying the war into Chinese territory, and devoted his attention
to obtaining honourable terms of peace, the Japanese troops
meanwhile holding a line of forts along the southern coast of
Korea. He died before that end had been accomplished.
Had he lived a few days longer, he would have learned
of a crushing defeat inflicted on the Chinese forces (at S6-chh6n,
October 30, 1598), when the Satsuma men under Shimazu
Yoshihiro took 38,700 Chinese heads and sent the noses and ears
to Japan, where they now lie buried under a tumulus (mimizuka,
JAPAN 243
ear-mound) near the temple of Daibutsu in Kioto. Thereafter
the statesmen to whom the regent on his death-bed had entrusted
the duty of terminating the struggle and recalling the troops,
intimated to the enemy that the evacuation of the peninsula
might be obtained if a Korean prince repaired to Japan as envoy,
and if some tiger-skins and ginseng were sent to Kioto in token
of amity. So ended one of the greatest over-sea campaigns
recorded in history. It had lasted 65 years, had seen 200,000
Japanese troops at one time on Korean soil, and had cost some-
thing like a quarter of a million lives.
From the recall of the Korea expedition in 1598 to the resump-
tion of intercourse with the Occident in modern times, Japan
enjoyed uninterrupted peace with foreign nations.
Thereafter she had to engage in four wars. It is a F^™*'
striking contrast. During the first eleven centuries foreign
of her historical existence she was involved in only Relations la
one contest abroad ; during the next half century si
fought four times beyond the sea and was confronted*
by many complications. Whatever material or moral
advantages her association with the West conferred on her, it
did not bring peace.
The first menacing foreign complication with which the
Japanese government of the Meiji era had to deal was connected
with the traffic in Chinese labour, an abuse not yet The "Maria
wholly eradicated. In 1872, a Peruvian ship, thetuz" Com-
" Maria Luz," put into port at Yokohama, carry ing pUtsUon.
200 contract labourers. One of the unfortunate men succeeded
in reaching the shore and made a piteous appeal to the Japanese
authorities, who at once seized the vessel and released her freight
of slaves, for they were little better. The Japanese had not
always been so particular. In the days of early foreign inter-
course, before England's attitude towards slavery had established
a new code of ethics, Portuguese ships had been permitted to
carry away from Hirado, as they did from Macao, cargoes of men
and women, doomed to a life of enforced toil if they survived the
horrors of the voyage. But modern Japan followed the tenets
of modern morality in such matters. Of course the Peruvian
government protested, and for a time relations were strained
almost to the point of rupture; but it was finally agreed that the
question should be submitted to the arbitration of the tsar, who
decided in Japan's favour. Japan's attitude in this affair
elicited applause, not merely from the point of view of humanity,
but also because of the confidence she showed in Occidental
justice.
Another complication which occupied the attention of the
Tokyo government from the beginning of the Meiji era was in
truth a legacy from the days of feudalism. In The
those days the island of Yezo, as well as Sakhalin Sakhalin
on its north-west and the Kurile group on its north, CompUca-
could scarcely be said to be in effective Japanese '
occupation. It is true that the feudal chief of Matsumae (now
Fuku-yama), the remains of whose castle may still be seen on the
coast at the southern extremity of the island of Yezo, exercised
nominal jurisdiction; but his functions did not greatly exceed
the levying of taxes on the aboriginal inhabitants of Yezo, the
Kuriles and southern Sakhalin. Thus from the beginning of the
1 8th century Russian fishermen began to settle in the Kuriles
and Russian ships menaced Sakhalin. There can be no doubt
that the first explorers of Sakhalin were Japanese. As early as
1620, some vassals of the feudal chief of Matsumae visited the
place and passed a winter there. It was then supposed to be a
peninsula forming part of the Asiatic mainland, but in 1806 a
daring Japanese traveller, by name Mamiya Rinzo, made his way
to Manchuria, voyaged up and down the Amur, and, crossing to
Sakhalin, discovered that a narrow strait separated it from the
mainland. There still prevails in the minds of many Occidentals
a belief that the discovery of Sakhalin's insular character was
reserved for Captain Nevelskoy, a Russian, who visited the place
in 1849, but in Japan the fact had then been known for 43 years.
Muravief, the great Russian empire-builder in East Asia, under
whose orders Nevelskoy acted, quickly appreciated the necessity
of acquiring Sakhalin, which commands the estuary of the Amur.
244 JAPAN
After the conclusion of the treaty of Aigun (1857) he visited
Japan with a squadron, and required that the strait of La
Perouse, which separates Sakhalin from Yezo, should be regarded
as the frontier between Russia and Japan. This would have
given the whole of Sakhalin to Russia. Japan refused, and
Muravief immediately resorted to the policy he had already
pursued with signal success in the Usuri region: he sent emigrants
to settle in Sakhalin. Twice the shogunate attempted to
frustrate this process of gradual absorption by proposing a
division of the island along the soth parallel of north latitude,
and finally, in 1872, the Meiji government offered to purchase the
Russian portion for 2,000,000 dollars (then equivalent to about
£400,000). St Petersburg, having by that time discovered the
comparative worthlessness of the island as a wealth-earning
possession, showed some signs of acquiescence, and possibly an
agreement might have been reached had not a leading Japanese
statesman — afterwards Count Kuroda — opposed the bargain as
disadvantageous to Japan. Finally St Petersburg's perseve-
rance won the day. In 1875 Japan agreed to recognize Russia's
title to the whole island on condition that Russia similarly
recognized Japan's title to the Kuriles. It was a singular com-
pact. Russia purchased a Japanese property and paid for it
with a part of Japan's belongings. These details form a curious
preface to the fact that Sakhalin was destined, 30 years later, to
be the scene of a Japanese invasion, in the sequel of which it was
divided along the soth parallel as the shogun's administration
had originally proposed.
The first of Japan's four conflicts was an expedition to
Formosa in 1874. Insignificant from a military point of
Military view, this affair derives vicarious interest from its
Expedition effect upon the relations between China and Japan,
to Formosa. an(j UpOn the question of the ownership of the
Riukiu islands. These islands, which lie at a little distance
south of Japan, had for centuries been regarded as an
apanage of the Satsuma fief. The language and customs of
their inhabitants showed unmistakable traces of relationship
to the Japanese, and the possibility of the islands being included
among the dominions of China had probably never occurred to
any Japanese statesman. When therefore, in 1873, the crew
of a wrecked Riukiuan junk were barbarously treated by the
inhabitants of northern Formosa, the Japanese government
unhesitatingly assumed the responsibility of seeking redress for
their outrage. Formosa being a part of the Chinese Empire,
complaint was duly preferred in Peking. But the Chinese
authorities showed such resolute indifference to Japan's repre-
sentations that the latter finally took the law into her own
hands, and sent a small force to punish the Formosan murderers,
who, of course, were found quite unable to offer any serious
resistance. The Chinese government, now recognizing the fact
that its territories had been invaded, lodged a protest which,
but for the intervention of the British minister in Peking,
might have involved the two empires in war. The final terms
of arrangement were that, in consideration of Japan withdraw-
ing her troops from Formosa, China should indemnify her to the
extent of the expenses of the expedition. In sending this
expedition to Formosa the government sought to placate the
Satsuma samurai, who were beginning to show much opposition
to certain features of the administrative reforms just inaugu-
rated, and who claimed special interest in the affairs of the
Riukiu islands.
Had Japan needed any confirmation of her belief that the
Riukiu islands belonged to her, the incidents and settlement of
TheRinkio the Formosan complication would have constituted
Complies- conclusive evidence. Thus in 1876 she did not
hesitate to extend her newly organized system of
prefectural government to Riukiu, which thenceforth became
the Okinawa prefecture, the former ruler of the islands being
pensioned, according to the system followed in the case of
the feudal chiefs in Japan proper. China at once entered
an objection. She claimed that Riukiu had always been a
tributary of her empire, and she was doubtless perfectly sincere
in the contention. But China's interpretation of tribute did not
[FOREIGN WARS
seem reducible to a working theory. So long as her own advan-
tage could be promoted, she regarded as a token of vassalage the
presents periodically carried to her court from neighbouring
states. So soon, however, as there arose any question of dis-
charging a suzerain's duties, she classed these offerings as insigni-
ficant interchanges of neighbourly courtesy. It was true that
Riukiu had followed the custom of despatching gift-bearing
envoys to China from time to time, just as Japan herself had
done, though with less regularity. But it was also true that
Riukiu had been subdued by Satsuma without China stretching
out a hand to help her; that for two centuries the islands had
been included in the Satsuma fief, and that China, in the sequel
to the Formosan affair, had made a practical acknowledgment
of Japan's superior title to protect the islanders. Each empire
positively asserted its claims; but whereas Japan put hers into
practice, China confined herself to remonstrances. Things
remained in that state until 1880, when General Grant, visiting
the East, suggested the advisability of a compromise. A con-
ference met in Peking, and the plenipotentiaries agreed that the
islands should be divided, Japan taking the northern group,
China the southern. But on the eve of signature the Chinese
plenipotentiary drew back, pleading that he had no authority
to conclude an agreement without previously referring it to
certain other dignitaries. Japan, sensible that she had been
flouted, retired from the discussion and retained the islands,
China's share in them being reduced to a grievance.
From the i6th century, when the Korean peninsula was over-
run by Japanese troops, its rulers made a habit of sending a
present-bearing embassy to Japan to felicitate the The Korean
accession of each shogun. But after the fall of Complica-
te Tokugawa shogunate, the Korean court de- il0"'
sisted from this custom, declared a determination to have no
further relations with a country embracing Western civilization,
and refused even to receive a Japanese embassy. This conduct
caused deep umbrage in Japan. Several prominent politicians
cast their votes for war, and undoubtedly the sword would have
been drawn had not the leading statesmen felt that a struggle
with Korea, involving probably a rupture with China, must
fatally check the progress of the administrative reforms then
(1873) in their infancy. Two years later, however, the Koreans
crowned their defiance by firing on the boats of a Japanese war-
vessel engaged in the operation of coast-surveying. No choice
now remained except to despatch an armed expedition against
the truculent kingdom. But Japan did not want to fight. In
this matter she showed herself an apt pupil of Occidental methods
such as had been practised against herself in former years. She
assembled an imposing force of war-ships and transports, but
instead of proceeding to extremities, she employed the squadron
— which was by no means so strong as it seemed — to intimidate
Korea into signing a treaty of amity and commerce, and opening
three ports to foreign trade (1876). That was the beginning of
Korea's friendly relations with the outer world, and Japan
naturally took credit for the fact that, thus early in her new
career, she had become an instrument for extending the principle
of universal intercourse opposed so strenuously by herself in the
past.
From time immemorial China's policy towards the petty states
on her frontiers had been to utilize them as buffers for softening
the shock of foreign contact, while contriving, at
the same time, that her relations "with them should
involve no inconvenient responsibilities for herself.
The aggressive impulses of the outside world were to be checked
by an unproclaimed understanding that the territories of these
states partook of the inviolability of China, while the states, on
their side, must never expect their suzerain to bear the conse-
quences of their acts. This arrangement, depending largely on
sentiment and prestige, retained its validity in the atmosphere
of Oriental seclusion, but quickly failed to endure the test of
modern Occidental practicality. Tongking, Annam, Siam and
Burma were withdrawn, one by one, from the fiction of depen-
dence on China and independence towards all other countries.
But with regard to Korea, China proved more tenacious. The
FOREIGN WARS]
possession of the peninsula by a foreign power would have
threatened the maritime route to the Chinese capital and given
easy access to Manchuria, the cradle of the dynasty which ruled
China. Therefore Peking statesmen endeavoured to preserve
the old-time relations with the little kingdom. But they could
never persuade themselves to modify the indirect methods
sanctioned by tradition. Instead of boldly declaring Korea a
dependency of China, they sought to keep up the romance of
ultimate dependency and intermediate sovereignty. Thus in
1876 Korea was suffered to conclude with Japan a treaty of
which the first article declared her " an independent state
enjoying the same rights as Japan, " and subsequently to make
with the United States (1882), Great Britain (1883) and other
powers, treaties in which her independence was constructively
admitted. China, however, did not intend that Korea should
exercise the independence thus conventionally recognized. A
Chinese resident was placed in Seoul, and a system of steady
though covert interference in Korea's affairs was inaugurated.
The chief sufferer from these anomalous conditions was Japan.
In all her dealings with Korea, in all complications that arose
out of her comparatively large trade with the peninsula, in all
questions connected with her numerous settlers there, she found
herself negotiating with a dependency of China, and with
officials who took their orders from the Chinese representative.
China had long entertained a rooted apprehension of Japanese
aggression in Korea — an apprehension not unwarranted by
history — and that distrust tinged all the influence exerted by her
agents there. On many occasions Japan was made sensible of
the discrimination thus exercised against her. Little by little
the consciousness roused her indignation, and although no
single instance constituted a ground for strong international
protest, the Japanese people gradually acquired a sense of being
perpetually baffled, thwarted and humiliated by China's inter-
ference in Korean affairs. For thirty years China had treated
Japan as a contemptible deserter from the Oriental standard,
and had regarded her progressive efforts with openly disdainful
aversion; while Japan, on her side, had chafed more and more
to furnish some striking evidence of the wisdom of her preference
for Western civilization. Even more serious were the conse-
quences of Chinese interference from the point of view of Korean
administration. The rulers of the country lost all sense of
national responsibility, and gave unrestrained sway to selfish
ambition. The functions of the judiciary and of the executive
alike came to be discharged by bribery only. Family interests
predominated over those of the state. Taxes were imposed in
proportion to the greed of local officials. No thought whatever
was taken for the welfare of the people or for the development
of the country's resources. Personal responsibility was unknown
among officials. To be a member of the Min family, to which
the queen belonged, was to possess a passport to office and an
indemnity against the consequences of abuse of power. From
time to time the advocates of progress or the victims of oppres-
sion rose in arms. They effected nothing except to recall to the
world's recollection the miserable condition into which Korea
had fallen. Chinese military aid was always furnished readily
for the suppression of these risings, and thus the Min family
learned to base its tenure of power on ability to conciliate China
and on readiness to obey Chinese dictation, while the people
at large fell into the apathetic condition of men who possess
neither security of property nor national ambition.
As a matter of state policy the Korean problem caused much
anxiety to Japan. Her own security being deeply concerned
in preserving Korea from the grasp of a Western power, she could
not suffer the little kingdom to drift into a condition of such
administrative incompetence and national debility that a strong
aggressor might find at any moment a pretext for interference.
On two occasions (1882 and 1884) when China's armed interven-
tion was employed in the interests of the Min to suppress move-
ments of reform, the partisans of the victors, regarding Japan
as the fountain of progressive tendencies, destroyed her legation
in Seoul and compelled its inmates to fly from the city. Japan
behaved with forbearance at these crises, but in the consequent
JAPAN 245
negotiations she acquired conventional titles that touched the
core of China's 'alleged suzerainty. In 1882 her right to main-
tain troops in Seoul for the protection of her legation was
admitted; in 1885 she concluded with China a convention by
which each power pledged itself not to send troops to Korea
without notifying the other.
In the spring of 1894 a serious insurrection broke out in Korea,
and the Min family appealed for China's aid. On the 6th of
July 2500 Chinese troops embarked at Tientsin and TheRup-
were transported to the peninsula, where they went tare with
into camp at Ya-shan (Asan), on the south-west Chiaa.
coast, notice of the measure being given by the Chinese govern-
ment to the Japanese representative at Peking, according to
treaty. During the interval immediately preceding these events,
Japan had been rendered acutely sensible of China's arbitrary
and unfriendly interference in Korea. Twice the efforts of the
Japanese government to obtain redress for unlawful and ruinous
commercial prohibitions had been thwarted by the Chinese
representative in Seoul; and an ultimatum addressed from Tokyo
to the Korean government had elicited from the viceroy Li
in Tientsin a thinly veiled threat of Chinese armed opposition.
Still more provocative of national indignation was China's
procedure with regard to the murder of Kim Ok-kyun, the leader
of progress in Korea, who had been for some years a refugee in
Japan. Inveigled from Japan to China by a fellow-countryman
sent from Seoul to assassinate him, Kim was shot in a Japanese
hotel in Shanghai; and China, instead of punishing the murderer,
conveyed him in a war-ship of her own to Korea to be publicly
honoured. When, therefore, the Korean insurrection of 1894
induced the Min family again to solicit China's armed interven-
tion, the Tokyo government concluded that, in the interests of
Japan's security and of civilization in the Orient, steps must be
taken to put an end to the misrule which offered incessant invi-
tations to foreign aggression, and checked Korea's capacity to
maintain its own independence. Japan did not claim for herself
any rights or interests in the peninsula superior to those possessed
there by China. But there was not the remotest probability
that China, whose face had been contemptuously set against all
the progressive measures adopted by Japan during the preced-
ing twenty-five years, would join in forcing upon a neighbouring
kingdom the very reforms she herself despised, were her co-
operation invited through ordinary diplomatic channels only.
It was necessary to contrive a situation which would not only
furnish clear proof of Japan's resolution, but also enable her to
pursue her programme independently of Chinese endorsement,
should the latter be finally unobtainable. She therefore met
China's notice of a despatch of troops with a corresponding
notice of her own, and the month of July 1894 found a Chinese
force assembled at Asan and a Japanese force occupying positions
in the neighbourhood of Seoul. China's motive for sending
troops was nominally to quell the Tonghak insurrection, but
really to re-affirm her own domination in the peninsula. Japan's
motive was to secure such a position as would enable her to
insist upon the radically curative treatment of Korea's malady.
Up to this point the two empires were strictly within their con-
ventional rights. Each was entitled by treaty to send troops
to Korea, provided that notice was given to the other. But
China, in giving notice, described Korea as her "tributary state,"
thus thrusting into the forefront of the discussion a contention
which Japan, from conciliatory motives, would have kept out of
sight. Once formally advanced, however, the claim had to be
challenged. In the treaty of amity and commerce concluded in
1876 between Japan and Korea, the two high contracting parties
were explicitly declared to possess the same national status.
Japan could not agree that a power which for nearly two decades
she had acknowledged and treated as her equal should be openly
classed as a tributary of China. She protested, but the Chinese
statesmen took no notice of her protest. They continued to
apply the disputed appellation to Korea, and they further
asserted their assumption of sovereignty in the peninsula by seek-
ing to set limits to the number of troops sent by Japan, as well as
to the spftere of their employment. Japan then proposed that
246
JAPAN
[FOREIGN WARS
the two empires should unite their efforts for the suppression of
disturbances in Korea, and for the subsequent improvement of
that kingdom's administration, the latter purpose to be pursued
by the despatch of a joint commission of investigation. But
China refused everything. Ready at all times to interfere by
force of arms between the Korean people and the dominant
political faction, she declined to interfere in any way for the
promotion of reform. She even expressed supercilious surprise
that Japan, while asserting Korea's independence, should suggest
the idea of peremptorily reforming its administration. In short,
for Chinese purposes the Peking statesmen openly declared
Korea a tributary state; but for Japanese purposes they insisted
that it must be held independent. They believed that their
island neighbour aimed at the absorption of Korea into the
Japanese empire. Viewed in the light of that suspicion,
China's attitude became comprehensible, but her procedure was
inconsistent, illogical and unpractical. The Tokyo cabinet now
declared its resolve not to withdraw the Japanese troops without
" some understanding that would guarantee the future peace,
order, and good government of Korea," and since China still
declined to come to such an understanding, Japan undertook
the work of reform single-handed.
The Chinese representative in Seoul threw his whole weight
into the scale against the success of these reforms. But the de-
Outbreak termining cause of rupture was in itself a belligerent
of tiostiii- operation. China's troops had been sent originally for
""• the purpose of quelling the Tonghak rebellion. But
the rebellion having died of inanition before the landing of the
troops, their services were not required. Nevertheless China
kept them in Korea, her declared reason for doing so being the
presence of a Japanese military force. Throughout the subse-
quent negotiations the Chinese forces lay in an entrenched camp
at Asan, while the Japanese occupied Seoul. An attempt on
China's part to send reinforcements could be construed only as an
unequivocal declaration of resolve to oppose Japan's proceedings
by force of arms. Nevertheless China not only despatched
troops by sea to strengthen the camp at Asan, but also sent an
army overland across Korea's northern frontier. At this stage
an act of war occurred. Three Chinese men-of-war, convoying
a transport with 1200 men encountered and fired on three
Japanese cruisers. One of the Chinese ships was taken;
another was so shattered that she had to be beached and
abandoned; the third escaped in a dilapidated condition; and
the transport, refusing to surrender, was sunk. This happened
on the 25th of July 1894, and an open declaration of war was
made by each empire six days later.
From the moment when Japan applied herself to break away
from Oriental traditions, and to remove from her limbs the
Remote fetters of Eastern conservatism, it was inevitable
Origin that a widening gulf should gradually grow between
of the herself and China. The war of 1894 was really
a contest between Japanese progress and Chinese
stagnation. To secure Korean immunity from foreign — espe-
cially Russian — aggression was of capital importance to both
empires. Japan believed that such security could be attained
by introducing into Korea the civilization which had con-
tributed so signally to the development of her own strength
and resources. China thought that she could guarantee it
without any departure from old-fashioned methods, and by the
same process of capricious protection which had failed so signally
in the cases of Annam, Tongking, Burma and Siam. The issue
really at stake was whether Japan should be suffered to act as
the Eastern propagandist of Western progress, or whether her
efforts in that cause should be held in check by Chinese
conservatism.
The war itself was a succession of triumphs for Japan. Four
days after the first naval encounter she sent from Seoul a column
of troops who routed the Chinese entrenched at
the War. Asan. Many of the fugitives effected their escape to
Phyong-yang, a town on the Taidong River, offering
excellent facilities for defence, and historically interesting as the
place where a Japanese army of invasion had its first 'encounter
with Chinese troops in 1 592. There the Chinese assembled a force
of 17,000 men, and made leisurely preparations for a decisive
contest. Forty days elapsed before the Japanese columns con-
verged upon Phyong-yang, and that interval was utilized by the
Chinese to throw up parapets, mount Krupp guns and otherwise
strengthen their position. Moreover, they were armed with
repeating rifles, whereas the Japanese had only single-loaders,
and the ground offered little cover for an attacking force. In
such circumstances, the advantages possessed by the defence
ought to have been wellnigh insuperable; yet a day's fighting
sufficed to carry all the positions, the assailants' casualties
amounting to less than 700 and the defenders losing 6000 in
killed and wounded. This brilliant victory was the prelude to
an equally conspicuous success at sea. For on the i7th of
September, the very day after the battle at Phyong-yang, a great
naval fight took place near the mouth of the Yalu River, which
forms the northern boundary of Korea. Fourteen Chinese war-
ships and six torpedo-boats were returning to home ports after
convoying a fleet of transports to the Yalu, when they
encountered eleven Japanese men-of-war cruising in the
Yellow Sea. Hitherto the Chinese had sedulously avoided a
contest at sea. Their fleet included two armoured battleships
of over 7000 tons displacement, whereas the biggest vessels
on the Japanese side were belted cruisers of only 4000
tons. In the hands of an admiral appreciating the value of
sea power, China's naval force would certainly have been
led against Japan's maritime communications, for a suc-
cessful blow struck there must have put an end to the Korean
campaign. The Chinese, however, failed to read history.
They employed their war-vessels as convoys only, and, when not
using them for that purpose, hid them in port. Everything goes
to show that they would have avoided the battle off the Yalu
had choice been possible, though when forced to fight they fought
bravely. Four of their ships were sunk, and the remainder
escaped to Wei-hai-wei, the vigour of the Japanese pursuit
being greatly impaired by the presence of torpedo-boats in the
retreating squadron.
The Yalu victory opened the over-sea route to China. Japan
could now strifce at Talien, Port Arthur, and Wei-hai-wei, naval
stations on the Liaotung and Shantung peninsulas, where power-
ful permanent fortifications, built after plans prepared by
European experts and armed with the best modern weapons, were
regarded as almost impregnable. They fell before the assaults
of the Japanese troops as easily as the comparatively rude forti-
fications at Phyong-yang had fallen. The only resistance of
a stubborn character was made by the Chinese fleet at Wei-hai-
wei; but after the whole squadron of torpedo-craft had been
destroyed or captured as they attempted to escape, and after
three of the largest vessels had been sunk at their moorings by
Japanese torpedoes, and one by gun-fire, the remaining ships
surrendered, and their brave commander, Admiral Ting, com-
mitted suicide. This ended the war. It had lasted seven and a
half months, during which time Japan put into the field five
columns, aggregating about 120,000 of all arms. One of these
columns marched northward from Seoul, won the battle of
Phyong-yang, advanced to the Yalu, forced its way into Man-
churia, and moved towards Mukden by Feng-hwang, fighting
several minor engagements, and .conducting the greater part of
its operations amid deep snow in midwinter. The second
column diverged westwards from the Yalu, and, marching
through southern Manchuria, reached Hai-cheng, whence it
advanced to the capture of Niuchwang and Ying-tse-kow. The
third landed on the Liaotung peninsula, and, turning southwards,
carried Talien and Port Arthur by assault. The fourth moved
up the Liaotung peninsula, and, havingseizedKaiping, advanced
against Ying-tse-kow, where it joined hands with the second
column. The fifth crossed from Port Arthur to Wei-hai-wei,
and captured the latter. In all these operations the total
Japanese casualties were 1005 killed and 4922 wounded —
figures which sufficiently indicate the inefficiency of the Chinese
fighting. The deaths from disease totalled 16,866, and the
total monetary expenditure was £20,000,000 sterling.
FOREIGN WARS]
The Chinese government sent Li Hung-chang, viceroy of
Pechili and senior grand secretary of state, and Li Ching-fong, to
discuss terms of peace with Japan, the latter being
Conclusion . , . J '
of Peace, represented by Marquis (afterwards Prince) Ito and
Count Mutsu, prime minister and minister for foreign
affairs, respectively. A treaty was signed at Shimonoseki on
the 1 7th of April 1895, and subsequently ratified by the sove-
reigns of the two empires. It declared the absolute independence
of Korea; ceded to Japan the part of Manchuria lying south of
a line drawn from the mouth of the river Anping to the mouth
of the Liao, through Feng-hwang, Hai-cheng and Ying-tse-kow,
as well as the islands of Formosa and the Pescadores; pledged
China to pay an indemnity of 200,000,000 taels; provided for
the occupation of Wei-hai-wei by Japan pending payment of
the indemnity; secured some additional commercial privileges,
such as the opening of four new places to foreign trade and the
right of foreigners to engage in manufacturing enterprises in
China, and provided for the conclusion of a treaty of commerce
and amity between the two empires, based on the lines of China's
treaties with Occidental powers.
No sooner was this agreement ratified than Russia, Germany
and France presented a joint note to the Tokyo government,
Foreign recommending that the territories ceded to Japan on
later- the mainland of China should not be permanently
terence. occupied, as such a proceeding would be detrimental
to peace. The recommendation was couched in the usual terms of
diplomatic courtesy, but everything indicated that its signatories
were prepared to enforce their advice by an appeal to arms.
Japan found herself compelled to comply. Exhausted by the
Chinese campaign, which had drained her treasury, consumed
her supplies of warlike material, and kept her squadrons con-
stantly at sea for eight months, she had no residue of strength
to oppose such a coalition. Her resolve was quickly taken.
The day that saw the publication of the ratified treaty saw also
the issue of an Imperial rescript in which the mikado, avowing
his unalterable devotion to the cause of peace, and recognizing
that the counsel offered by the European states was prompted
by the same sentiment, " yielded to the dictates of magnanimity,
and accepted the advice of the three Powers." The Japanese
people were shocked by this incident. They could understand
the motives influencing Russia and France, for it was evidently
natural that the former should desire to exclude warlike and
progressive people like the Japanese from territories contiguous
to her borders, and it was also natural that France should remain
true to her alliance with Russia. But Germany, wholly unin-
terested in the ownership of Manchuria, and by profession a
warm friend of Japan, seemed to have joined in robbing the
latter of the fruits of her victory simply for the sake of estab-
lishing some shadowy title to Russia's goodwill. It was not
known until a later period that the German emperor enter-
tained profound apprehensions about the " yellow peril," an
irruption of Oriental hordes into the Occident, and held it a
sacred duty to prevent Japan from gaining a position which
might enable her to construct an immense military machine
out of the countless millions of China.
Japan's third expedition over-sea in the Meiji era had its
origin in causes which belong to the history of China (q.v.).
Chinese In the second half of 1900 an anti-foreign and anti-
Crisis of dynastic rebellion, breaking out in Shantung, spread
1900. to t}je metropolitan province of Pechili, and resulted
in a situation of extreme peril for the foreign communities of
Tientsin and Peking. It was impossible for any European
power, or for the United States, to organize sufficiently prompt
measures of relief. Thus the eyes of the world turned to Japan,
whose proximity to the scene of disturbance rendered interven-
tion comparatively easy for her. But Japan hesitated. Know-
ing now with what suspicion and distrust the development of her
resources and the growth of her military strength were regarded
by some European peoples, and aware that she had been
admitted to the comity of Western nations on sufferance, she
shrank, on the one hand, from seeming to grasp at an opportunity
for armed display, and, on the other, from the solecism of obtru-
JAPAN 247
siyeness in the society of strangers. Not until Europe and America
made it quite plain that they needed and desired her aid did she
send a division (21,000) men to Pechili. Her troops played a
fine part in the subsequent expedition for the relief of Peking,
which had to be approached in midsummer under very trying
conditions. Fighting side by side with European and American
soldiers, and under the eyes df competent military, critics, the
Japanese acquitted themselves in such a manner as to establish
a high military reputation. Further, after the relief of Peking
they withdrew a moiety of their forces, and that step, as well as
their unequivocal co-operation with Western powers in the sub-
sequent negotiations, helped to show the injustice of the
suspicions with which they had been regarded.
From the time (1895) when Russia, with the co-operation of
Germany and France, dictated to Japan a cardinal alteration
of the Shimonoseki treaty, Japanese statesmen seem
to have concluded that their country must one day
cross swords with the great northern power. Not a
few European and American publicists shared that view. But
the vast majority, arguing that the little Eastern empire would
never invite annihilation by such an encounter, believed that
sufficient forbearance to avert serious trouble would always be
forthcoming on Japan's side. Yet when the geographical and
historical situation was carefully considered, little hope of an
ultimately peaceful settlement presented itself.
Japan along its western shore, Korea along its southern and
eastern, and Russia along the eastern coast of its 'maritime
province, are washed by the Sea of Japan. The communica-
tions between the sea and the Pacific Ocean are practically two
only. One is on the north-east, namely, Tsugaru Strait; the
other is on the south, namely, the channel between the extremity
of the Korean peninsula and the Japanese island of the nine
provinces. Tsugaru Strait is entirely under Japan's control.
It is between her main island and her island of Yezo, and in case
of need she can close it with mines. The channel between the
southern extremity of Korea and Japan has a width of 102 m.
and would therefore be a fine open sea-way were it free from
islands. But almost mid-way in this channel lie the twin
islands of Tsushima, and the space of 56 m. that separates them
from Japan is narrowed by another island, Iki. Tsushima and
Iki belong to the Japanese empire. The former has some ex-
ceptionally good harbours, constituting a naval base from which
the channel on either side could easily be sealed. Thus the
avenues from the Pacific Ocean to the Sea of Japan are con-
trolled by the Japanese empire. In other words, access to the
Pacific from Korea's eastern and southern coasts and access
to the Pacific from Russia's maritime province depend upon
Japan's goodwill. So far as Korea was concerned this ques-
tion mattered little, it being her fate to depend upon the good-
will of Japan in affairs of much greater importance. But
with Russia the case was different. Vladivostok, which until
recent times was her principal port in the Far East, lies at the
southern extremity of the maritime province; that is to say, on
the north-western shore of the Japan Sea. It was therefore
necessary for Russia that freedom of passage by the Tsushima
channel should be secured, and to secure it one of two things
was essential, namely, either that she herself should possess a
fortified port on the Korean side, or that Japan should be bound
neither to acquire such a port nor to impose any restriction upon
the navigation of the strait. To put the matter briefly, Russia
must either acquire a strong foothold for herself in southern
Korea, or contrive that Japan should not acquire one. There
was here a strong inducement for Russian aggression in Korea.
Russia's eastward movement through Asia has been strikingly
illustrative of her strong craving for free access to southern seas
and of the impediments she had experienced in gratifying that
wish. An irresistible impulse had driven her oceanward.
Checked again and again in her attempts to reach the Mediter-
ranean, she set out on a five-thousand-miles march of conquest
right across the vast Asiatic continent towards the Pacific.
Eastward of Lake Baikal she found her line of least resistance
along the Amur, and when, owing to the restless perseverance
248
JAPAN
[FOREIGN WARS
of Muravief, she reached the mouth of that great river, the
acquisition of Nikolayevsk for a naval basis was her immediate
reward. But Nikolayevsk could not possibly satisfy her.
Situated in an inhospitable region far away from all the main
routes of the world's commerce, it offered itself only as a stepping-
stone to further acquisitions. To push southward from this
new port became an immediate object to Russia. There lay an
obstacle in the way, however; the long strip of sea-coast from the
mouth of the Amur to the Korean frontier — an area then called
the Usuri region because the Usuri forms its western boundary —
belonged to China, and she, having conceded much to Russia
in the matter of the Amur, showed no disposition to make fur-
ther concessions in the matter of the* Usuri. In the presence of
menaces, however, she agreed that the region should be regarded
as common property pending a convenient opportunity for clear
delimitation. That opportunity came very soon. Seizing the
moment (1860) when China had been beaten to her knees by
England and France, Russia secured final cession of the Usuri
region, which now became the maritime province of Siberia.
Then Russia shifted her naval base on the Pacific from Nikola-
yevsk to Vladivostok. She gained ten degrees in a southerly
direction.
From the mouth of the Amur, where Nikolayevsk is situated,
to the southern shore of Korea there rests on the coast of
eastern Asia an arch of islands having at its northern point
Sakhalin and at its southern Tsushima, the keystone of the arch
being the main island of Japan. This arch embraces the Sea
of Japan and is washed on its convex side by the Pacific Ocean.
Immediately after the transfer of Russia's naval base from
Nikolayevsk to Vladivostok, an attempt was made to obtain
possession of the southern point of the arch, namely, Tsushima.
A Russian man-of-war proceeded thither and quietly began to
establish a settlement, which would soon have constituted a
titte of ownership had not Great Britain interfered. The
Russians saw that Vladivostok, acquired at the cost of so much
toil, would be comparatively useless unless from the sea on whose
shore it was situated an avenue to the Pacific could be opened,
and they therefore tried to obtain command of the Tsushima
channel. Immediately after reaching the mouth of the Amur
the same instinct had led them to begin the colonization of
Sakhalin. The axis of this long narrow island is inclined at a
very acute angle to the Usuri region, which its northern extre-
mity almost touches, while its southern is separated from Yezo
by the strait of La Perouse. But in Sakhalin the Russians
found Japanese subjects. In fact the island was a part of the
Japanese empire. Resorting, however, to the Usuri fiction of
joint occupation, they succeeded by 1875 in transferring the whole
of Sakhalin to Russia's dominion. Further encroachments upon
Japanese territory could not be lightly essayed, and the Russians
held their hands. They had been trebly checked: checked in
trying to push southward along the coast of the mainland;
checked in trying to secure an avenue from Vladivostok to the
Pacific; and checked in their search for an ice-free port, which
definition Vladivostok did not fulfil. Enterprise in the direction
of Korea seemed to be the only hope of saving the maritime
results of the great Trans-Asian march.
Was Korea within safe range of such enterprises ? Everything
seemed to answer in the affirmative. Korea had all the quali-
fications desired by an aggressor. Her people were unprogres-
sive, her resources undeveloped, her self-defensive capacities
insignificant, her government corrupt. But she was a tributary
of China, and China had begun to show some tenacity in pro-
tecting the integrity of her buffer states. Besides, Japan was
understood to have pretensions with regard to Korea. On the
whole, therefore, the problem of carrying to full fruition the
work of Muravief and his lieutenants demanded strength greater
than Russia could exercise without some line of communications
supplementing the Amur waterway and the long ocean route.
Therefore she set about the construction of a railway across
Asia.
The Amur being the boundary of Russia's east Asian terri-
tory, this railway had to be carried along its northern bank where
many engineering and economic obstacles presented themselves.
Besides, the river, from an early stage in its course, makes a
huge semicircular sweep northward, and a railway following its
bank to Vladivostok must make the same detour. If, on the con-
trary, the road could be carried over the diameter of the semi-
circle, it would be a straight and therefore shorter line, technically
easier and economically better. The diameter, however, passed
through Chinese territory, and an excuse for extorting China's
permission was not in sight. Russia therefore proceeded to
build each end of the road, deferring the construction of the
Amur section for the moment. She had not waited long when,
iu 1894, war broke out between China and Japan, and the latter,
completely victorious, demanded as the price of peace the
southern littoral of Manchuria from the Korean boundary to the
Liaotung peninsula at the entrance to the Gulf of Pechili. This
was a crisis in Russia's career. She saw that her maritime
extension could never get nearer to the Pacific than Vladivostok
were this claim of Japan's established. For the proposed
arrangement would place the littoral of Manchuria in Japan's
direct occupation and the littoral of Korea in her constructive
control, since not only had she fought to rescue Korea from
Chinese suzerainty, but also her object in demanding a slice of
the Manchurian coast-line was to protect Korea against aggres-
sion from the north; that is to say, against aggression from
Russia. Muravief 's enterprise had carried his country first to the
mouth of the Amur and thence southward along the coast
to Vladivostok and to Possiet Bay at the north-eastern extremity
of Korea. But it had not given to Russia free access to the
Pacific, and now she was menaced with a perpetual barrier to
that access, since the whole remaining coast of east Asia as far
as the Gulf of Pechili was about to pass into Japan's possession
or under her domination.
Then Russia took an extraordinary step. She persuaded
Germany and France to force Japan out of Manchuria. It is
not to be supposed that she frankly exposed her own aggressive
designs and asked for assistance to prosecute them. Neither
is it to be supposed that France and Germany were so curiously
deficient in perspicacity as to overlook those designs. At all
events these three great powers served on Japan a notice to quit,
and Japan, exhausted by her struggle with China, had no choice
but to obey.
The notice was accompanied by an exposi of reasons. Its
signatories said that Japan's tenure of the Manchurian littoral
would menace the security of the Chinese capital, would render
the independence of Korea illusory, and would constitute an
obstacle to the peace of the Orient.
By way of saving the situation in some slight degree Japan
sought from China a guarantee that no portion of Manchuria
should thereafter be leased or ceded to a foreign state. But
France warned Japan that to press such a demand would offend
Russia, and Russia declared that, for her part, she had no inten-
tion of trespassing in Manchuria. Japan, had she been in a
position to insist on the guarantee, would also have been in a
position to disobey the mandate of the three powers. Unable
to do either the one or the other, she quietly stepped out of
Manchuria, and proceeded to double her army and treble her
navy.
As a reward for the assistance nominally rendered to China in
this matter, Russia obtained permission in Peking to divert her
Trans-Asian railway from the huge bend of the Amur to the
straight line through Manchuria. Neither Germany nor France
received any immediate recompense. Three years later, by
way of indemnity for the murder of two missionaries by a mob,
Germany seized a portion of the province of Shantung. Imme-
diately, on the principle that two wrongs make a right, Russia
obtained a lease of the Liaotung peninsula, from which she
had driven Japan in 1895. This act she followed by extorting
from China permission to construct a branch of the Trans-Asian
railway through Manchuria from north to south.
Russia's maritime aspirations had now assumed a radically
altered phase. Instead of pushing southward from Vladivostok
and Possiet Bay along the coast of Korea, she had suddenly
FOREIGN WARS]
leaped the Korean peninsula and found access to the Pacific
in Liaotung. Nothing was wanting to establish her as practical
mistress of Manchuria except a plausible excuse for garrisoning
the place. Such an excuse was furnished by the Boxer rising in
1900. Its conclusion saw her in military occupation of the
whole region, and she might easily have made her occupation
permanent by prolonging it until peace and order should have
been fully restored. But here she fell into an error of judgment.
Imagining that the Chinese could be persuaded or intimidated to
any concession, she proposed a convention virtually recognizing
her title to Manchuria.
Japan watched all these things with profound anxiety. If
there were any reality in the dangers which Russia, Germany
and France had declared to be incidental to Japanese occupation
of a part of Manchuria, the same dangers must be doubly inci-
dental to Russian occupation of the whole of Manchuria — the
security of the Chinese capital would be threatened, and an
obstacle would be created to the permanent peace of the East.
The independence of Korea was an object of supreme solicitude
to Japan. Historically she held towards the little state a
relation closely resembling that of suzerain, and though of
her ancient conquests nothing remained except a settlement
at Fusan on the southern coast, her national sentiment would
have been deeply wounded by any foreign aggression in the
peninsula. It was to establish Korean independence that she
waged war with China in 1894; and her annexation of the Man-
churian littoral adjacent to the Korean frontier, after the war,
was designed to secure that independence, not to menace it as
the triple alliance professed to think. But if Russia came into
possession of all Manchuria, her subsequent absorption of Korea
would be almost inevitable. For the consideration set forth
above as to Vladivostok's maritime avenues would then acquire
absolute cogency. Manchuria is larger than France and the
United Kingdom lumped together. The addition of such an
immense area to Russia's east Asiatic dominions, together with
its littoral on the Gulf of Pechili and the Yellow Sea, would neces-
sitate a corresponding expansion of her naval forces in the Far
East. With the one exception of Port Arthur, however, the
Manchurian coast does not offer any convenient naval base. It
is only in the splendid harbours of southern Korea that such
bases can be found. Moreover, there would be an even stronger
motive impelling Russia towards Korea. Neither the Usuri
region nor the Manchurian littoral possesses so much as one
port qualified to satisfy her perennial longing for free access to
the ocean in a temperate zone. Without Korea, then, Russia's
east Asian expansion, though it added huge blocks of territory
to her dominions, would have been commercially incomplete and
strategically defective.
If it be asked why, apart from history and national sentiment,
Japan should object to a Russian Korea, the answer is, first,
because there would thus be planted almost within cannon-
shot of her shores a power of enormous strength and insatiable
ambition; secondly, because, whatever voice in Manchuria's
destiny Russia derived from her railway, the same voice in
Korea's destiny was possessed by Japan as the sole owner of
railways in the peninsula; thirdly, that whereas Russia had an
altogether insignificant share in the foreign commerce of Korea
and scarcely ten bona-fide settlers, Japan did the greater part of
the over-sea trade and had tensof thousands of settlers; fourthly,
that if Russia's dominions stretched uninterruptedly from the
Sea of Okhotsk to the Gulf of Pechili, her ultimate absorption of
north China would be as certain as sunrise; and fifthly, that
such domination and such absorption would involve the practical
closure of all that immense region to Japanese commerce and
industry as well as to the commerce and industry of every
Western nation except Russia. This last proposition did not
rest solely on the fact that to oppose artificial barriers to free
competition is Russia's sole hope of utilizing to her own benefit
any commercial opportunities brought within her reach. It
rested also on the fact that Russia had objected to foreign
settlements at the marts recently opened by treaty with China
to American and Japanese subjects. Without settlements,
JAPAN 249
trade at those marts would be impossible, and thus Russia had
constructively announced that there should be no trade but
Russian, if she could prevent it.
Against such dangers Japan would have been justified in
adopting any measure of self -protection. She had foreseen them
for six years, and had been strengthening herself to avert them.
But she wanted peace. She wanted to develop her material
resources and to accumulate some measure of wealth, without
which she must remain insignificant among the nations. Two
pacific devices offered, and she adopted them both. Russia,
instead of trusting time to consolidate her tenure of Manchuria,
had made the mistake of pragmatically importuning China for a
conventional title. If then Peking could be strengthened to
resist this demand, some arrangement of a distinctly terminable
nature might be made. The United States, Great Britain and
Japan, joining hands for that purpose, did succeed in so far
stiffening China's backbone that her show of resolution finally
induced Russia to sign a treaty pledging herself to withdraw
her troops from Manchuria in three instalments, each step of
evacuation to be accomplished by a fixed date. That was one
of the pacific devices. The other suggested itself in connexion
with the new commercial treaties which China had promised to
negotiate in the sequel of the Boxer troubles. In these docu-
ments clauses provided for the opening of three places in Man-
churia to foreign trade. It seemed a reasonable hope that,
having secured commercial access to Manchuria by covenant
with its sovereign, China, the powers would not allow Russia
arbitrarily to restrict their privileges. It seemed also a reason-
able hope that Russia, having solemnly promised to evacuate
Manchuria at fixed dates, would fulfil her engagement.
The latter hope was signally disappointed. When the time
came for evacuation, Russia behaved as though no promise
had ever been given. She proposed wholly new conditions,
which would have strengthened her grasp of Manchuria instead
of loosening it. China being powerless to offer any practical
protest, and Japan's interests ranking next in order of impor-
tance, the Tokyo government approached Russia direct. They
did not ask for anything that could hurt her pride or injure
her position. Appreciating fully the economical status she had
acquired in Manchuria by large outlays of capital, they offered
to recognize that status, provided that Russia would extend
similar recognition to Japan's status in Korea, would promise,
in common with Japan, to respect the sovereignty and the
territorial integrity of China and Korea, and would be a party
to a mutual engagement that all nations should have equal
industrial and commercial opportunities in Manchuria and the
Korean peninsula. In a word, they invited Russia to subscribe
the policy enunciated by the United States and Great Britain,
the policy of the open door and of the integrity of the Chinese
and Korean empires.
Thus commenced a negotiation which lasted five and a half
months. Japan gradually reduced her demands to a minimum.
Russia never made the smallest appreciable concession. She
refused to listen to Japan for one moment about Manchuria.
Eight years previously Japan had been in military possession of
Manchuria, and Russia with the assistance of Germany and
France had expelled her for reasons which concerned Japan
incomparably more than they concerned any of the three
powers — the security of the Chinese capital, the independence of
Korea, the peace of the East. Now, Russia had the splendid
assurance to declare by implication that none of these things
concerned Japan at all. The utmost she would admit was
Japan's partial right to be heard about Korea. And at the same
time she herself commenced in northern Korea a series of aggres-
sions, partly perhaps to show her potentialities, partly by way
of counter-irritant. That was not all. Whilst she studiously
deferred her answers to Japan's proposals and protracted the
negotiations to an extent which was actually contumelious,
she hastened to send eastward a big fleet of war-ships and a new
army of soldiers. It was impossible for the dullest politician
to mistake her purpose. She intended to yield nothing, but
to prepare such a parade of force that her obduracy would
250 JAPAN
command submission. The only alternatives for Japan were war
or total and permanent effacement in Asia. She chose war,
and in fighting it she fought the battle of free and equal oppor-
tunities for all without undue encroachment upon the sovereign
rights or territorial integrity of China or Korea, against a military
dictatorship, a programme of ruthless territorial aggrandize-
ment and a policy of selfish restrictions.
The details of the great struggle that ensued are given else-
where (see RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR). After the battle of Mukden
the belligerents found themselves in a position which
™e must either prelude another stupendous effort on
the"war. both sides or be utilized for the purpose of peace
negotiations. At this point the president of the
United States of America intervened in the interests of
humanity, and on the gth of June 1905 instructed the
United States' representative in Tokyo to urge that the
Japanese government should open direct negotiations with
Russia, an exactly corresponding note being simultaneously
sent to the Russian government through the United States'
representative in St Petersburg. Japan's reply was made on
the loth of June. It intimated frank acquiescence, and Russia
lost oo time in taking a similar step. Nevertheless two
months elapsed before the plenipotentiaries of the belligerents
met, on the loth of August, at Portsmouth, New Hampshire,
U.S.A. Russia sent M. (afterwards Count) de Witte and
Baron Rosen; Japan, Baron (afterwards Count) Komura,
who had held the portfolio of foreign affairs throughout the
war, and Mr. (afterwards Baron) Takahira. In entering
this conference, Japanese statesmen, as was subsequently
known, saw clearly that a great part of the credit accruing
to them for their successful conduct of the war would be
forfeited in the sequel of the negotiations. For the people
of Japan had accustomed themselves to expect that Russia
would assuredly recoup the expenses incurred by their country in
the contest, whereas the cabinet in Tokyo understood well that to
look for payment of indemnity by a great state whose territory
had not been invaded effectively nor its existence menaced
must be futile. Nevertheless, diplomacy required that this
conviction should be concealed, and thus Russia carried to the
conference a belief that the financial phase of the discussion
would be crucial, while, at the same time, the Japanese nation
reckoned fully on an indemnity of 150 millions sterling. Baron
Komura's mandate was, however, that the only radically
essential terms were those formulated by Japan prior to the war.
She must insist on securing the ends for which she had fought,
since she believed them to be indispensable to the peace of the
Far East, but she would not demand anything more. The
Japanese plenipotentiary, therefore, judged it wise to marshal
his terms in the order of their importance, leaving his Russian
colleague to imagine, as he probably would, that the converse
method had been adopted, and that everything preliminary
to the questions of finance and territory was of minor conse-
quence. The negotiations, commencing on the loth of August,
were not concluded until the 5th of September, when a treaty of
peace was signed. There had been a moment when the onlooking
world believed that unless Russia agreed to ransom the island
of Sakhalin by paying to Japan a sum of 120 millions sterling,
the conference would be broken off; nor did such an exchange
seem unreasonable, for were Russia expelled from the northern
part of Sakhalin, which commands the estuary of the Amur
River, her position in Siberia would have been compromised.
But the statesmen who directed Japan's affairs were not dis-
posed to make any display of earth-hunger. The southern half
of Sakhalin had originally belonged to Japan and had passed
into Russia's possession by an arrangement which the Japanese
nation strongly resented. To recover that portion of the
island seemed, therefore, a legitimate ambition. Japan did
not contemplate any larger demand, nor did she seriously insist
on an indemnity. Therefore the negotiations were never
in real danger of failure. The treaty of Portsmouth recog-
nized Japan's " paramount political, military and economic
interests " in Korea; provided for the simultaneous evacuation
[FOREIGN WARS
of Manchuria by the contracting parties; transferred to Japan
the lease of the Liaotung peninsula held by Russia from China
together with the Russian railways south of Kwang-Cheng-tsze
and all collateral mining or other privileges; ceded to Japan
the southern half of Sakhalin, the soth parallel of latitude
to be the boundary between the two parts; secured fishing
rights for Japanese subjects along the coasts of the seas of
Japan, Okhotsk and Bering; laid down that the expenses
incurred by the Japanese for the maintenance of the Russian
prisoners during the war should be reimbursed by Russia,
less the outlays made by the latter on account of Japanese
prisoners — by which arrangement Japan obtained a payment
of some 4 millions sterling — and provided that the contracting
parties, while withdrawing their military forces from Manchuria,
might maintain guards to protect their respective railways,
the number of such guards not to exceed 15 per kilometre of
line. There were other important restrictions: first, the con-
tracting parties were to abstain from taking, on the Russo-
Korean frontier, any military measures which might menace
the security of Russian or Korean territory; secondly, the two
powers pledged themselves not to exploit the Manchurian
railways for strategic purposes; and thirdly, they promised
not to build on Sakhalin or its adjacent islands any fortifications
or other similar military works, or to take any military measures
which might impede the free navigation of the straits of La
Perouse and the Gulf of Tartary. The above provisions con-
cerned the two contracting parties only. But China's interests
also were considered. Thus it was agreed to " restore entirely
and completely to her exclusive administration " all portions of
Manchuria then in the occupation, or under the control, of
Japanese or Russian troops, except the leased territory; that her
consent must be obtained for the transfer to Japan of the leases
and concessions held by the Russians in Manchuria; that the
Russian government would disavow the possession of " any
territorial advantages or preferential or exclusive concessions
in impairment of Chinese sovereignty or inconsistent with the
principle of equal opportunity in Manchuria "; and that Japan
and Russia " engaged reciprocally not to obstruct any general
measures common to all countries which China might take
for the development of the commerce and industry of Man-
churia." This distinction between the special interests of the
contracting parties and the interests of China herself as well
as of foreign nations generally is essential to clear understanding
of a situation which subsequently attracted much attention.
From the time of the opium war (1857) to the Boxer rising (1900)
each of the great Western powers struggled for its own hand in
China, and each sought to gain for itself exclusive concessions
and privileges with comparatively little regard for the interests
of others, and with no regard whatever for China's sovereign
rights. The fruits of this period were: permanently ceded terri-
tories (Hong- Kong and Macao); leases temporarily establishing
foreign sovereignty in various districts (Kiaochow, Wei-hai-wei
and Kwang-chow); railway and mining concessions; and the
establishment of settlements at open ports where foreign
jurisdiction was supreme. But when, in 1900, the Boxer rising
forced all the powers into a common camp, they awoke to full
appreciation of a principle which had been growing current
for the past two or three years, namely, that concerted action
on the lines of maintaining China's integrity and securing to
all alike equality of opportunity and a similarly open door,
was the only feasible method of preventing the partition of
the Chinese Empire and averting a clash of rival interests which
might have disastrous results. This, of course, did not mean
that there was to be any abandonment of special privileges
already acquired or any surrender of existing concessions.
The arrangement was not to be retrospective in any sense.
Vested interests were to be strictly guarded until the lapse
of the periods for which they had been granted, or until the
maturity of China's competence to be really autonomous. A
curious situation was thus created. International professions of
respect for China's sovereignty, for the integrity of her empire
and for the enforcement of the open door and equal opportunity,
FOREIGN WARS]
coexisted with legacies from an entirely different past. Russia
endorsed this new policy, but not unnaturally declined to
abate any of the advantages previously enjoyed by her
in Manchuria. Those advantages were very substantial.
They included a twenty-five years' lease — with provision for
renewal — of the Liaotung peninsula, within which area of
1220 sq. m. Chinese troops might not penetrate, whereas
Russia would not only exercise full administrative authority,
but also take military and naval action of any kind; they
included the creation of a neutral territory in the immediate
north of the former and still more extensive, which should remain
under Chinese administration, but where neither Chinese nor
Russian troops might enter, nor might China, without Russia's
consent, cede land, open trading marts or grant concessions to
any third nationality; and they included the right to build
some 1600 m. of railway (which China would have the oppor-
tunity of purchasing at cost price in the year 1938 and would be
entitled to receive gratis in 1982), as well as the right to hold
extensive zones on either side of the railway, to administer these
zones in the fullest sense, and to work all mines lying along the
lines. Under the Portsmouth treaty these advantages were
transferred to Japan by Russia, the railway, however, being
divided so that only the portion (5213 m.) to the south of
Kwang-Cheng-tsze fell to Japan's share, while the portion
(1077 m.) to the north of that place remained in Russia's
hands. China's consent to the above transfers and assignments
was obtained in a treaty signed at Peking on the 22nd of
December 1905. Thus Japan came to hold in Manchuria a
position somewhat contradictory. On the one hand, she figured
as the champion of the Chinese Empire's integrity and as an
exponent of the new principle of equal opportunity and the
open door. On the other, she appeared as the legatee of many
privileges more or less inconsistent with that principle. But,
at the same time, nearly all the great powers of Europe were
similarly circumstanced. In their cases also the same in-
congruity was observable between the newly professed policy
and the aftermath of the old practice. It was scarcely to be
expected that Japan alone should make a large sacrifice on the
altar of a theory to which no other state thought of yielding
any retrospective obedience whatever. She did, indeed,
furnish a clear proof of deference to the open-door doctrine,
for instead of reserving the railway zones to her own exclusive
use, as she was fully entitled to do, she sought and obtained
from China a pledge to open to foreign trade 16 places within
those zones. For the rest, however, the inconsistency between
the past and the present, though existing throughout the
whole of China, was nowhere so conspicuous as in the three
eastern provinces (Manchuria) ; not because there was any real
difference of degree, but because Manchuria had been the scene
of the greatest war of modern times; because that war had been
fought by Japan in the cause of the new policy, and because
the principles of the equally open door and of China's integrity
had been the main bases of the Portsmouth treaty, of the Anglo-
Japanese alliance, and of the subsequently concluded ententes
with France and Russia. In short, the world's eyes were fixed
on Manchuria and diverted from China proper, so that every act
of Japan was subjected to an exceptionally rigorous scrutiny,
and the nations behaved as though they expected her to live up
to a standard of almost ideal altitude. China's mood, too,
greatly complicated the situation. She had the choice between
two moderate and natural courses: either to wait quietly until
the various concessions granted by her to foreign powers in
the evil past should lapse by maturity, or to qualify herself by
earnest reforms and industrious development for their earlier
recovery. Nominally she adopted the latter course, but in
reality she fell into a mood of much impatience. Under the name
of a " rights-recovery campaign " her people began to protest
vehemently against the continuance of any conditions which
impaired her sovereignty, and as this temper coloured her
attitude towards the various questions which inevitably grew
ouf of the situation in Manchuria, her relations with Japan
became somewhat strained in the early part of 1909.
JAPAN 251
Having waged two wars on account of Korea, Japan emerged
from the second conflict with the conviction that the policy of
maintaining the independence of Korea must be ,
modified, and that since the identity of Korean and Korea after
Japanese, interests in the Far East and the paramount the War
character of Japanese interests in Korea would not ™lth
permit Japan to leave Korea to the care of any third
power, she must assume the charge herself. Europe and
America also recognized that view of the situation, and consented
to withdraw their legations from Seoul, thus leaving the control
of Korean foreign affairs entirely in the hands of Japan, who
further undertook to assume military direction in the event of
aggression from without or disturbance from within. But in
the matter of internal administration she continued to limit
herself to advisory supervision. Thus, though a Japanese
resident-general in Seoul, with subordinate residents throughout
the provinces, assumed the functions hitherto discharged by
foreign representatives and consuls, the Korean government was
merely asked to employ Japanese experts in the position of
counsellors, the right to accept or reject their counsels being left
to their employers. Once again, however, the futility of looking
for any real reforms under this optional system was demon-
strated. Japan sent her most renowned statesman, Prince Ito,
to discharge the duties of resident-general; but even he, in spite
of profound patience and tact, found that some less optional
methods must be resorted to. Hence on the 24th of July 1907
a new agreement was signed, by which the resident-general
acquired initiative as well as consultative competence to enact
and enforce laws and ordinances, to appoint and remove Korean
officials, and to place capable Japanese subjects in the ranks of
the administration. That this constituted a heavy blow to
Korea's independence could not be gainsaid. That it was in-
evitable seemed to be equally obvious. For there existed in
Korea nearly all the worst abuses of medieval systems. The
administration of justice depended solely on favour or interest.
The police contributed by corruption and incompetence to the
insecurity of life and property. The troops were a body of use-
less mercenaries. Offices being allotted by sale, thousands of
incapables thronged the ranks of the executive. The emperor's
court was crowded by diviners and plotters of all kinds, male
and female. The finances of the throne and those of the state
were hopelessly confused. There was nothing like an organized
judiciary. A witness was in many cases considered particeps
criminis; torture was commonly employed to obtain evidence,
and defendants in civil cases were placed under arrest. Im-
prisonment meant death or permanent disablement for a man of
small means. Flogging so severe as to cripple, if not to kill,
was a common punishment; every major offence from robbery
upward was capital, and female criminals we're frequently exe-
cuted by administering shockingly painful poisons. The currency
was in a state of the utmost confusion. Extreme corruption
and extortion were practised in connexion with taxation.
Finally, while nothing showed that the average Korean lacked
the elementary virtue of patriotism, there had been repeated
proofs that the safety and independence of the empire counted
for little in the estimates of political intriguers. Japan must
either step out of Korea altogether or effect drastic reforms
there. She necessarily chose the latter alternative, and the
things which she accomplished between the beginning of 1906
and the close of 1908 may be briefly described as the elaboration
of a proper system of taxation; the organization of a staff to
administer annual budgets; the re-assessment of taxable pro-
perty; the floating of public loans for productive enterprises;
the reform of the currency; the establishment of banks of
various kinds, including agricultural and commercial; the
creation of associations for putting bank-notes into circulation;
the introduction of a warehousing system to supply capital to
farmers; the lighting and buoying of the coasts; the provision
of posts, telegraphs, roads and railways ; the erection of public
buildings; the starting of various industrial enterprises (such as
printing, brick-making, forestry and coal-mining); the laying
out of model farms; the beginning of cotton cultivation; the
252 JAPAN
building and equipping of an industrial training school; the
inauguration of sanitary works; the opening of hospitals and
medical schools; the organization of an excellent educational
system; the construction of waterworks in several towns; the
complete remodelling of the central government ; the differentia-
tion of the court and the executive, as well as of the administra-
tion and the judiciary; the formation of an efficient body of
police; the organization of law courts with a majority of Japan-
ese jurists on the bench; the enactment of a new penal code;
drastic reforms in the taxation system. In the summer of 1907
the resident-general advised the Throne to disband the standing
army as an unserviceable and expensive force. The measure was
doubtless desirable, but the docility of the troops had been over-
rated. Some of them resisted vehemently, and many became
the nucleus of an insurrection which lasted in a desultory manner
for nearly two years; cost the lives of 21,000 insurgents and
1300 Japanese; and entailed upon Japan an outlay of nearly a
million sterling. Altogether Japan was 15 millions sterling out
of pocket on Korea's account by the end of 1909. She had
also lost the veteran statesman Prince Ito, who was assassinated
at Harbin by a Korean fanatic on the 26th of October 1909.
Finally an end was put to an anomalous situation by the an-
nexation of Korea to Japan on the 2gth of August 1910. (See
further KOREA.)
IX. — DOMESTIC HISTORY
Cosmography. — Japanese annals represent the first inhabitant
of earth as a direct descendant of the gods. Two books describe
the events of the " Divine age." One, compiled in 712, is called
the Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters); the other, compiled
in 720, is called the Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan). Both
describe the processes of creation, but the author of the Chronicles
drew largely upon Chinese traditions, whereas the compilers of
the Records appear to have limited themselves to materials
which they believed to be native. The Records, therefore, have
always been regarded as the more trustworthy guide to pure
Japanese conceptions. They deal with the creation of Japan
only, other countries having been apparently judged unworthy of
attention. At the beginning of all things a primordial trinity
is represented as existing on the " plain of high heaven." There-
after, during an indefinite time and by an indefinite process,
other deities come into existence, their titles indicating a vague
connexion with constructive and fertilizing forces. They are
not immortal: it is explicitly stated that they ultimately pass
away, and the idea of the cosmographers seems to be that each
deity marks a gradual approach to human methods of pro-
creation. Meanwhile the earth is "young and, like floating
oil, drifts about after the manner of a jelly-fish." At last there
are born two deilies, the creator and the creatress, and these
receive the mandate of all the heavenly beings to " make,
consolidate and give birth to the drifting land." For use in
that work a jewelled spear is given to them, and, standing upon
the bridge that connects heaven and earth, they thrust down-
wards with the weapon, stir the brine below and draw up the
spear, when from its point fall drops which, accumulating, form
the first dry land. Upon this land the two deities descend, and,
by ordinary processes, beget the islands of Japan as well as
numerous gods representing the forces of nature. But in giving
birth to the god of fire the creatress(Izanami) perishes, and the
creator (Izanagi) makes his way to the under-world in search of
her — an obvious parallel to the tales of Ishtar and Orpheus.
With difficulty he returns to earth, and, as he washes himself
from the pollution of Hades, there arc born from the turbid water
a number of evil deities succeeded by a number of good, just
as in the Babylonian cosmogony the primordial ocean, Tiamat,
brings forth simultaneously gods and imps. Finally, as Izanagi
washes his left eye the Goddess of the Sun comes into existence;
as he washes his right, the God of the Moon; and as he washes
his nose, the God of Force. To these three he assigns, respec-
tively, the dominion of the sun, the dominion of the moon, and
the dominion of the ocean. But the god of force (Sosanoo), like
Lucifer, rebels against this decree, creates a commotion in
[DOMESTIC HISTORY
heaven, and after having been the cause of the temporary
seclusion of the sun goddess and the consequent wrapping of the
world in darkness, kills the goddess of food and is permanently
banished from heaven by the host of deities. He descends to
Izumo on the west of the main island of Japan, and there saves
a maiden from an eight-headed serpent. Sosanoo himself passes
to the under-world and becomes the deity of Hades, but he
invests one of his descendants with the sovereignty of Japan,
and the title is established after many curious adventures. To
the sun goddess also, whose feud with her fierce brother sur-
vives the latter's banishment from heaven, the idea of making
her grandson ruler of Japan presents itself. She despatches three
embassies to impose her will upon the descendants of Sosanoo,
and finally her grandson descends, not, however, in Izumo,
where the demi-gods of Sosanoo's race hold sway, but in Hiuga
in the southern island of Kiushiu. This grandson of Amaterasu
(the goddess of the sun) is called Ninigi, whose great-grandson
figures in Japanese history as the first human sovereign of the
country, known during life as Kamu-Yamato-Iware-Biko, and
given the name of Jimmu tenno (Jimmu, son of heaven)
fourteen centuries after his death. Japanese annalists attribute
the accession of Jimmu to the year 660 B.C. Why that date was
chosen must remain a matter of conjecture. The Records of
Ancient Matters has no chronology, but the more pretentious
writers of the Chronicles of Japan, doubtless in imitation of their
Chinese models, considered it necessary to assign a year, a
month, and even a day for each event of importance. There
is abundant reason, however, to question the accuracy of all
Japanese chronology prior to the sth century. The first date
corroborated by external evidence is 461, and Aston, who has
made a special study of the subject, concludes that the year
500 may be taken as the time when the chronology of the
Chronicles begins to be trustworthy. Many Japanese, however,
are firm believers in the Chronicles, and when assigning the
year of the empire they invariably take 660 B.C. for starting-
point, so that 1909 of the Gregorian calendar becomes for
them 2569.
Prehistoric Period. — Thus, if the most rigid estimate be
accepted, the space of 1160 years, from 660 B.C. to A.D. 500, may
be called the prehistoric period. During that long interval
the annals include 24 sovereigns, the first 17 of whom lived for
over a hundred years on the average. It seems reasonable to
conclude that the so-called assignment of the sovereignty of
Japan to Sosanoo's descendants and the establishment of
their kingdom in Izumo represent an invasion of Mongolian
immigrants coming from the direction of the Korean peninsula —
indeed one of the Nihongi's versions of the event actually
indicates Korea as the point of departure — and that the subse-
quent descent of Ninigi on Mount Takachiho in Hiuga indicates
the advent of a body of Malayan settlers from the south sea.
Jimmu, according to the Chronicles, set out from Hiuga in
667 B.C. and was not crowned at his new palace in Yamato until
660. This campaign of seven years is described in some detail,
but no satisfactory information is given as to the nature of the
craft in which the invader and his troops voyaged, or as to
the number of men under his command. The weapons said
to have been carried were bows, spears and swords. A super-
natural element is imported into the narrative in the form of the
three-legged crow of the sun, which Amaterasu sends down to
act as guide and messenger for her descendants. Jimmu died
at his palace of Kashiwa-bara in 585 B.C., his age being 127
according to the Chronicles, and 137 according to the Records.
He was buried in a kind of tomb called misasagi, which seems to
have been in use in Japan for some centuries before the Christian
era — " a highly specialized form of tumulus, consisting of
two mounds, one having a circular, the other a triangular base,
which merged into each other, the whole being surrounded by a
moat, or sometimes by two concentric moats with a narrow
strip of land between. In some, perhaps in most, cases the
misasagi contains a large vault of great unhewn stones without
mortar. The walls of this vault converge gradually towards the
top, which is roofed in by enormous slabs of stone weighing
DOMESTIC HISTORY]
many tons each. The entrance is by means of a gallery
roofed with similar stones." Several of these ancient sepulchral
mounds have been examined during recent years, and their
contents have furnished information of much antiquarian
interest, though there is a complete absence of inscriptions.
The reigns of the eight sovereigns who succeeded Jimmu were
absolutely uneventful. Nothing is set down except the genea-
logy of each ruler, the place of his residence and his burial,
his age and the date of his death. It was then the custom —
and it remained so until the 8th century of the Christian era —
to change the capital on the accession of each emperor; a habit
which effectually prevented the growth of any great metropolis.
The reign of the loth emperor, Sujin, lasted from 98 to 30 B.C.
During his era the land was troubled by pestilence and the
people broke out in rebellion; calamities which were supposed
to be caused by the spirit of the ancient ruler of Izumo to avenge
a want of consideration shown to his descendants by their
supplanters. Divination — by a Chinese process — and visions
revealed the source of trouble; rites of worship were performed
in honour of the ancient ruler, his descendant being entrusted
with the duty, and the pestilence ceased. We now hear for the
first time of vigorous measures to quell the aboriginal savages,
doubtless the Ainu. Four generals are sent out against them in
different directions. But the expedition is interrupted by an
armed attempt on the part of the emperor's half-brother, who,
utilizing the opportunity of the troops' absence from Yamato,
marches from Yamashiro at the head of a powerful army to
win the crown for himself. In connexion with these incidents,
curious evidence is furnished of the place then assigned to
woman by the writers of the Chronicles. It is a girl who warns
one of the emperor's generals of the plot; it is the sovereign's
aunt who interprets the warning; and it is Ata, the wife of the
rebellious prince, who leads the left wing of his army. Four
other noteworthy facts are recorded of this reign: the taking
of a census; the imposition of a tax on animals' skins and game
to be paid by men, and on textile fabrics by women; the
building of boats for coastwise transport, and the digging of
dikes and reservoirs for agricultural purposes. All these
things rest solely on the testimony of annalists writing eight
centuries later than the era they discuss and compiling their
narrative mostly from tradition. Careful investigations have
been made to ascertain whether the histories of China and Korea
corroborate or contradict those of Japan. Without entering
into detailed evidence, the inference may be at once stated that
the dates given in Japanese early history are just 1 20 years too
remote; an error very likely to occur when using the sexagenary
cycle, which constituted the first method of reckoning time in
Japan. But although this correction suffices to reconcile some
contradictory features of Far-Eastern history, it does not consti-
tute any explanation of the incredible longevity assigned by the
Chronicles to several Japanese sovereigns, and the conclusion is
that when a consecutive record of reigns came to be compiled
in the 8th century, many lacunae were found which had to be
filled up from the imagination of the compilers. With this
parenthesis we may pass rapidly over the events of the next
two centuries (29 B.C. to A.D. 200). They are remarkable for
vigorous measures to subdue the aboriginal Ainu, who in the
southern island of Kiushiu are called Kuma-so (the names of two
tribes) and sometimes earth-spiders (i.e. cave-dwellers), while
in the north-eastern regions of the main island they are desig-
nated Yemishi. Expeditions are led against them in both
regions by Prince Yamato-dake, a hero revered by all succeeding
generations of Japanese as the type of valour and loyalty.
Dying from the effects of hardship and exposure, but declaring
with his last breath that loss of life was as nothing compared
with the sorrow of seeing his father's face no more, his spirit
ascends to heaven as a white bird, and when his son, Chuai,
comes to the throne, he causes cranes to be placed in the moat
surrounding his palace in memory of his illustrious sire.
The sovereign had partly ceased to follow the example of
Jimmu, who led his armies in person. The emperors did not,
however, pass a sedentary life. They frequently made pro-
JAPAN 253
gresses throughout their dominions, and on these occasions a
not uncommon incident was the addition of some local beauty to
the Imperial harem. This licence had a far-reaching effect,
since to provide for the sovereign's numerous offspring — the
emperor Keiko (71-130) had 80 children — no better way offered
than to make grants of land, and thus were laid the foundations
of a territorial nobility destined profoundly to influence the course
of Japanese history. Woman continues to figure conspicuously
in the story. The image of the sun goddess, enshrined in Ise
(5 B.C.), is entrusted to the keeping of a princess, as are the
mirror, sword and jewel inherited from the sun goddess; a woman
(Tachibana) accompanies Prince Yamato-dake in his campaign
against the Yemishi, and sacrifices her life to quell a tempest at
sea; Saho, consort of Suinin, is the heroine of a most tragic tale
in which the conflict between filial piety and conjugal loyalty
leads to her self-destruction; and a woman is found ruling over
a large district in Kiushiu when the Emperor Keiko is engaged
in his campaign against the aborigines. The reign of Suinin
saw the beginning of an art destined to assume extraordinary
importance in Japan — the art of wrestling — and the first cham-
pion, Nomi no Sukune, is honoured for having suggested that
clay figures should take the place of the human sacrifices hitherto
offered at the sepulture of Imperial personages. The irrigation
works commenced in the time of Sujin were zealously continued
under his two immediate successors, Suinin and Keiko. More
than 800 ponds and channels are described as having been con-
structed under the former's rule. We find evidence also that
the sway of the throne had been by this time widely extended,
for in 125 a governor-general of 15 provinces is nominated, and
two years later, governors (miyakko) are appointed in every
province and mayors (inaki) in every village. The number or
names of these local divisions are not given, but it is explained
that mountains and rivers were taken as boundaries of provinces,
the limits of towns and villages being marked by roads running
respectively east and west, north and south.
An incident is now reached which the Japanese count a land-
mark in their history, though foreign critics are disposed to regard
it as apocryphal. It is the invasion of Korea by a
Japanese army under the command of the empress
Jingo, in 200. The emperor Chuai,havingproceeded to
Kiushiu for the purpose of conducting a campaign against the
Kuma-so, is there joined by the empress, who, at the inspiration
of a deity, seeks to divert the Imperial arms against Korea.
But the emperor refuses to believe in the existence of any such
country, and heaven punishes his incredulity with death at the
hands of the Kuma-so, according to one account ; from the effects
of disease, according to another. The calamity is concealed;
the Kuma-so are subdued, and the empress, having collected a
fleet and raised an army, crosses to the state of Silla (in Korea) ,
where, at the spectacle of her overwhelming strength, the
Korean monarch submits without fighting, and swears that until
the sun rises in the west, until rivers run towards their sources,
and until pebbles ascend to the sky and become stars, he
will do homage and send tribute to Japan. His example is
followed by the kings of the two other states constituting the
Korean peninsula, and the warlike empress returns triumphant.
Many supernatural elements embellish the tale, but the features
which chiefly discredit it are that it abounds in anachronisms,
and that the event, despite its signal importance, is not mentioned
in either Chinese or Korean history. It is certain that China
then possessed in Korea territory administered by Chinese
governors. She must therefore have had cognisance of such an
invasion, had it occurred. Moreover, Korean history mentions
twenty-five raids made by the Japanese against Silla during the
first five centuries of the Christian era, but not one of them can
be indentified with Jingo's alleged expedition. There can be no
doubt that the early Japanese were an aggressive, enterprising
people, and that their nearest over-sea neighbour suffered much
from their activity. Nor can there be any reasonable doubt that
the Jingo tale contains a large germ of truth, and is at least an
echo of the relations that existed between Japan and Korea in the
3rd and 4th centuries. The records of the 69 years comprising
"
254
JAPAN
[DOMESTIC HISTORY
Jingo's reign are in the main an account of intercourse, some-
times peaceful, sometimes stormy, between the neighbouring
countries. Only one other episode occupies a prominent
place: it is an attempt on the part of Jingo's step-brothers to
oppose her return to Yamato and to prevent the accession of
her son to the throne. It should be noted here that all such
names as Jimmu, Sujin, Chuai, &c., are posthumous, and were
invented in the reign of Kwammu (782-806), the fashion being
taken from China and the names themselves being purely Chinese
translations of the qualities assigned to the respective monarchs.
Thus Jimmu signifies " divine valour "; Sujin, " deity-honour-
ing"; and Chuai, "sad middle son." The names of these
rulers during life were wholly different from their posthumous
appellations.
Chinese history, which is incomparably older and more precise
than Korean, is by no means silent about Japan. Long notices
Earliest occur in the later Han and Wei records (25 to 265).
Notices la The Japanese are spoken of as dwarfs (Wa), and
Chinese their islands, frequently called the queen country, are
ory' said to be mountainous, with soil suitable for growing
grain, hemp, and the silk- worm mulberry. The climate is so mild
that vegetables can be grown in winter and summer; there are
neither oxen, horses, tigers, nor leopards; the people understand
the art of weaving; the men tattoo their faces and bodies in pat-
terns indicating differences of rank; male attire consists of a single
piece of cloth; females wear a gown passed over the head, and tie
their hair in a bow; soldiers are armed with spears and shields,
and also with bows, from which they discharge arrows tipped with
bone or iron; the sovereign resides in Yamato; there are stockaded
forts and houses; food is taken with the fingers but is served on
bamboo trays and wooden trenchers; foot-gear is not worn; when
men of the lower classes meet a man of rank, they leave the road
and retire to the grass, squatting or kneeling with both hands on
the ground when they address him; intoxicating liquor is much
used; the people are long-lived, many reaching the age of 100;
women are more numerous than men; there is no theft, and liti-
gation is infrequent; the women are faithful and not jealous)
all men of high rank have four or five wives, others two or three;
wives and children of law-breakers are confiscated, and for grave
crimes the offender's family is extirpated; divination is practised
by burning bones; mourning lasts for some ten days and the
rites are performed by a " mourning-keeper "; after a funeral
the whole family perform ablutions; fishing is much practised,
and the fishermen are skilled divers; there are distinctions of
rank and some are vassals to others; each province has a market
where goods are exchanged; the country is divided into more
than 100 provinces, and among its products are white pearls,
green jade and cinnabar. These annals go on to say that
between 147 and 190 civil war prevailed for several years, and
order was finally restored by a female sovereign, who is described
as having been old and unmarried; much addicted to magic arts;
attended by a thousand females; dwelling in a palace with lofty
pavilions surrounded by a stockade and guarded by soldiers;
but leading such a secluded life that few saw her face except one
man who served her meals and acted as a medium of communica-
tion. There can be little question that this queen was the
empress Jingo who, according to Japanese annals, came to the
throne in the year A.D. 200, and whose every public act had its
inception or promotion in some alleged divine interposition.
In one point, however, the Chinese historians are certainly
incorrect. They represent tattooing as universal in ancient
Japan, whereas it was confined to criminals, in whose case it
played the part that branding does elsewhere. Centuries later,
in feudal days, the habit came to be practised by men of the
lower orders whose avocations involved baring the body, but
it never acquired vogue among educated people. In other
respects these ancient Chinese annals must be credited with
remarkable accuracy in their description of Japan and the
Japanese. Their account may be advantageously compared
with Professor Chamberlain's analysis of the manners and
customs of the early Japanese, in the preface to his translation
of the Kojiki.
" The Japanese of the mythical period, as pictured in the legends
preserved by the compiler of the Records of Ancient Matters, were a
race who had long emerged from the savage stage and had attained
to a high level of barbaric skill. The Stone Age was forgotten by
them — or nearly so — and the evidence points to their never having
passed through a genuine Bronze Age, though the knowledge of
bronze was at a later period introduced from the neighbouring
continent. They used iron for manufacturing spears, swords and
knives of various shapes, and likewise for the more peaceful purpose
of making hooks wherewith to angle or to fasten the doors of their
huts. Their other warlike and hunting implements (besides traps
and gins, which appear to have been used equally for catching
beasts and birds and for destroying human enemies) were bows and
arrows, spears and elbow-pads — the latter seemingly of skin, while
special allusion is made to the fact that the arrows were feathered.
Perhaps clubs should be added to the list. Of the bows and arrows,
swords and knives, there is perpetual mention, but nowhere do we
hear of the tools with which they were manufactured, and there is
the same remarkable silence regarding such widely spread domestic
implements as the saw and the axe. We hear, however, of the pestle
and mortar, of the fire-drill, of the wedge, of the sickle, and of the
shuttle used in weaving. Navigation seems to have been in a very
elementary state. Indeed the art of sailing was but little practised
in Japan even so late as the middle of the loth century of our era,
subsequent to the general diffusion of Chinese civilization, though
rowing and punting are often mentioned by the early poets. To
what we should call towns or villages very little reference is made
anywhere in the Records or in that part of the Chronicles which con-
tain the account of the so-called Divine Age. But from what we
learn incidentally it would seem that the scanty population was
chiefly distributed in small hamlets and isolated dwellings along the
coast and up the course of the larger streams. Of house-building
there is frequent mention. Fences were in use. Rugs of skins and
rush-matting were occasionally brought in to sit on, and we even
hear once or twice of silk rugs being used for the same purpose by
the noble and wealthy. The habits of personal cleanliness which so
pleasantly distinguish the modern Japanese from their neighbours,
in continental Asia, though less fully developed than at present
would seem to have exis'ted in the germ in early times, as we read
more than once of bathing in rivers, and are told of bathing women
being specially attached to the person of a certain Imperial infant.
Lustrations, too, formed part of the religious practices of the race.
Latrines are mentioned several times. They would appear to have
been situated away from the houses and to have been generally
placed over a running stream, whence doubtless the name for latrine
in the archaic dialect — kawaya (river-house). A peculiar sort of
dwelling-place which the two old histories bring prominently under
our notice is the so-called parturition house — a one-roomed hut
without windows, which a woman was expected to build and retire
into for the purpose of being delivered unseen. Castles are not
distinctly spoken of until a time which coincides, according to the
received chronology, with the first century B.C. We then first meet
with the curious term rice-castle, whose precise signification is a
matter of dispute among the native commentators, but which, on
comparison with Chinese descriptions of the early Japanese, should
probably be understood to mean a kind of palisade serving the pur-
pose of a redoubt, behind which the warriors could ensconce them-
selves. The food of the early Japanese consisted of fish and of the
flesh of the wild creatures which fell by the hunter's arrow or were
taken in the trapper's snare. Rice is the only cereal of which there
is such mention made as to place it beyond a doubt that its cultiva-
tion dates back to time immemorial. Beans, millet and barley are
indeed named once, together with silkworms, in the account of the
Divine Age. But the passage has every aspect of an interpolation
in the legend, perhaps not dating back long before the time of the
eighth-century compiler. A few unimportant vegetables and fruits,
of most of which there is but a single mention, are found. The
intoxicating liquor called sake was known in Japan during the mythi-
cal period, and so were chopsticks for eating food with. Cooking
pots and cups and dishes — the latter both of earthenware and of
leaves of trees — are also mentioned ; but of the use of fire for warming
purposes we hear nothing. Tables are named several times, but
never in connexion with food : they would seem to have been used
exclusively for the purpose of presenting offerings on, and were
probably quite small and low — in fact, rather trays than tables,
according to European ideas. In the use of clothing and the
specialization of garments the early Japanese had reached a high
level. We read in the most ancient legends of upper garments,
skirts, trowsers, girdles, veils and hats, while both sexes adorned
themselves with necklaces, bracelets and head ornaments of stones
considered precious — in this respect offering a striking contrast to
their descendants in modern times, of whose attire jewelry forms
no part. The material of their clothes was hempen cloth and paper
— mulberry bark, coloured by being rubbed with madder, and prob-
ably with woad and other tinctorial plants. All the garments, so
far as we may judge, were woven, sewing being nowhere mentioned.
From the great place which the chase occupied in daily life, we are
led to suppose that skins also were used to make garments of. There
is in the Records at least one passage which favours this supposition.
DOMESTIC HISTORY]
and the Chronicles in one place mention the straw rain-coat and
broad-brimmed hat, which still form the Japanese peasant's effectual
protection against the inclemencies of the weather. The tendrils
of creeping plants served the purposes of strings, and bound the
•varrior's sword round his waist. Combs are mentioned, and it is
evident that much attention was devoted to the dressing of the hair.
The men seem to have bound up their hair in two bunches, one on
each side of the head, while the young boys tied theirs in a top-knot,
the unmarried girls let their locks hang down over their necks, and
the married women dressed theirs after a fashion which apparentjy
combined the two last-named methods. There is no mention in
any of the old books of cutting the hair or beard except in token of
disgrace ; neither do we gather that the sexes, but for the matter of
the head-dress, were distinguished by a diversity of apparel and
ornamentation. With regard to the precious stones mentioned
above as having been used as ornaments for the head, neck and arms,
we know from the specimens which have rewarded the labours of
archaeological research in Japan that agate, crystal, glass, jade,
serpentine and steatite were the most used materials, and carved
and pierced cylindrical shapes the commonest forms. The horse —
which was ridden, but not driven — the barn-door fowl and the cor-
morant used for fishing, are the only domesticated creatures men-
tioned in the earlier traditions, with the doubtful exception of the
silkworm. In the later portions of the Records and Chronicles
dogs and cattle are alluded to, but sheep, swine and even cats were
apparently not yet introduced."
As the prehistoric era draws to its end the above analyses of
Japanese civilization have to be modified. Thus, towards the
close of the 3rd century, ship-building made great progress, and
instead" of the small boats hitherto in use, a vessel 100 ft. long
was constructed. Notable above all is the fact that Japan's
turbulent relations with Korea were replaced by friendly inter-
course, so that she began to receive from her neighbour instruc-
tion in the art of writing. The date assigned by the Chronicles
for this important event is A.D. 285, but it has been proved
almost conclusively that Japanese annals relating to this period
are in error to the extent of 120 years. Hence the introduction
of calligraphy must be placed in 405. Chinese history shows
that between 57 and 247 Japan sent four embassies to the courts
of the Han and the Wei, and this intercourse cannot have failed
to disclose the ideograph. But the knowledge appears to have
been confined to a few interpreters, and not until the year 405
were steps taken to extend it, with the aid of a learned Korean,
Wang-in. Korea herself began to study Chinese learning only
a few years before she undertook to impart it to Japan. We now
find a numerous colony of Koreans passing to Japan and settling
there; a large number are also carried over as prisoners of war,
and the Japanese obtain seamstresses from both of their conti-
nental neighbours. One fact, related with much precision,
shows that the refinements of life were in an advanced condition:
an ice-house is described, and we read that from 374 (? 494) it
became the fashion to store ice in this manner for use in the hot
months by placing it in water or sake. The emperor, Nintoku,
to whose time this innovation is attributed, is one of the romantic
figures of Japanese history. He commenced his career by refus-
ing to accept the sovereignty from his younger brother, who
pressed him earnestly to do so on the ground that the proper
order of succession had been disturbed by their father's par-
tiality— though the rights attaching to primogeniture did not
receive imperative recognition in early Japan. After three
years of this mutual self-effacement, during which the throne
remained vacant, the younger brother committed suicide, and
Nintoku reluctantly became sovereign. He chose Naniwa (the
modern Osaka) for his capital, but he would not take the farmers
from their work to finish the building of a palace, and subse-
quently, inferring from the absence of smoke over the houses of
the people that the country was impoverished, he remitted all
taxes and suspended forced labour for a term of three years, during
which his palace fell into a state of ruin and he himself fared in
the coarsest manner. Digging canals, damming rivers, construct-
ing roads and bridges, and establishing granaries occupied his
attention when love did not distract it. But in affairs of the
heart he was most unhappy. He figures as the sole wearer of
the Japanese crown who was defied by his consort; for when he
took a concubine in despite of the empress, her jealousy was so
bitter that, refusing to be placated by any of his majesty's
verses or other overtures, she left the palace altogether; and
JAPAN 255
when he sought to introduce another beauty into the inner
chamber, his own half-brother, who carried his proposals, won
the girl for himself. One other fact deserves to be remembered
in connexion with Nintoku's reign: Ki-no-tsuno, representative
of a great family which had filled the highest administrative
and military posts under several sovereigns, is mentioned as
" the first to commit to writing in detail the productions of the
soil in each locality." This was in 353 (probably 473). We
shall err little if we date the commencement of Japanese written
annals from this time, though no compilation earlier than the
Kojiki has survived.
Early Historical Period. — With the emperor Richu, who came
to the throne A.D. 400, the historical period may be said to
commence; for though the chronology of the records is still
questionable, the facts are generally accepted as credible.
Conspicuous loyalty towards the sovereign was not an attribute
of the Japanese Imperial family in early times. Attempts
to usurp the throne were not uncommon, though there are very
few instances of such essays on the part of a subject. Love or
lust played no insignificant part in the drama, and a common
method of placating an irate sovereign was to present a beautiful
damsel for his delectation. The veto of consanguinity did not
receive very strict respect in these matters. Children of the
same father might intermarry, but not those of the same mother;
a canon which becomes explicable on observing that as wives
usually lived apart from their husbands and had the sole custody
of their offspring, two or more families often remained to
the end unconscious of the fact that they had a common sire.
There was a remarkable tendency to organize the nation into
groups of persons following the same pursuit or charged with
the same functions. A group thus composed was called be.
The heads of the great families had titles — as ami, muraji,
miakko, wake, &c. — and affairs of state were administered
by the most renowned of these nobles, wholly subject to the
sovereign's ultimate will. The provincial districts were ruled
by scions of the Imperial family, who appear to have been, on
the whole, entirely subservient to the Throne. There were no
tribunals of justice: the ordeal of boiling water or heated metal
was the sole test of guilt or innocence, apart, of course, from
confession, which was often exacted under menace of torture.
A celebrated instance of the ordeal of boiling water is recorded
in 415, when this device was employed to correct the genealogies
of families suspected of falsely claiming descent from emperors
or divine beings. The test proved efficacious, for men conscious
of forgery refused to undergo the ordeal. Deprivation of rank
was the lightest form of punishment; death the commonest,
and occasionally the whole family of an offender became serfs
of the house against which the offence had been committed or
which had been instrumental in disclosing a crime. There are,
however, frequent examples of wrong-doing expiated by the
voluntary surrender of lands or other property. We find several
instances of that extreme type of loyalty which became habitual
in later ages — suicide in preference to surviving a deceased lord.
On the whole the successive sovereigns of these early times
appear to have ruled with clemency and consideration for the
people's welfare. But there were two notable exceptions —
Yuriaku (457-479) and Muretsu (499-506). The former slew
men ruthlessly in fits of passion or resentment, and the latter
was the Nero of Japanese history, a man who loved to witness
the agony of his fellows and knew no sentiment of mercy or
remorse. Yet even Yuriaku did not fail to promote industrial
pursuits. Skilled artisans were obtained from Korea, and it is
related that, in 462, this monarch induced the empress and the
ladies of the palace to plant mulberry trees with their own hands
in order to encourage sericulture. Throughout the 5th and 6th
centuries many instances are recorded of the acquisition of
landed estates by the Throne, and their occasional bestowal
upon princes or Imperial consorts, such gifts being frequently
accompanied by the assignment of bodies of agriculturists who
seem to have accepted the position of serfs. Meanwhile Chinese
civilization was gradually becoming known, either by direct
contact or through Korea. Several immigrations of Chinese
256
JAPAN
[DOMESTIC HISTORY
or Korean settlers are on record. No less than 7053 householders
of Chinese subjects came, through Korea, in 540, and one of
their number received high rank together with the post, of director
of the Imperial treasury. From these facts, and from a national
register showing the derivation of all the principal families
in Japan, it is clearly established that a considerable strain of
Chinese and Korean blood runs in the veins of many Japanese
subjects.
The most signal and far-reaching event of this epoch was the
importation of the Buddhist creed, which took place in 552.
introduc- A Korean monarch acted as propagandist, sending a
tioa of special envoy with a bronze image of the Buddha and
Buddhism. wjtjj several volumes of the Sutras. Unfortunately
the coming of the foreign faith happened to synchronize with an
epidemic of plague, and conservatives at the Imperial court were
easily able to attribute this visitation to resentment on the part
of the ancestral deities against the invasion of Japan by an alien
creed. Thus the spread of Buddhism was checked; but only for
a time. Thirty-five years after the coming of the Sutras, the
first temple was erected to enshrine a wooden image of the Buddha
1 6 ft. high. It has often been alleged that the question between
the imported and the indigenous cults had to be decided by the
sword. The statement is misleading. That the final adoption
of Buddhism resulted from a war is true, but its adoption or
rejection did not constitute the motive of the combat. A con-
test for the succession to the throne at the opening of Sujun's
reign (588-592) found the partisans of the Indian faith ranged
on one side, its opponents on the other, and in a moment of
stress the leaders of the former, Soma and Prince Umayado,
vowed to erect Buddhist temples should victory rest on their
arms. From that time the future of Buddhism was assured.
In 588 Korea sent Buddhist relics, Buddhist priests, Buddhist
ascetics, architects of Buddhist temples, and casters of Buddhist
images. She had already sent men learned in divination, in
medicine, and in the calendar. The building of temples began
to be fashionable in the closing years of the 6th century, as did
also abdication of the world by people of both sexes; and a
census taken in 623, during the reign of the empress Suiko
(583-628), showed that there were then 46 temples, 816 priests
and 569 nuns in the empire. This rapid growth of the alien
faith was due mainly to two causes: first, that the empress
Suiko, being of the Soga family, naturally favoured a creed
which had found its earliest Japanese patron in the great states-
man and general, Soga no Umako; secondly, that one of the most
illustrious scholars and philosophers ever possessed by Japan,
Prince Shotoku, devoted all his energies to fostering Buddhism.
The adoption of Buddhism meant to the Japanese much more
than the acquisition of a practical religion with a code of clearly
defined morality in place of the amorphous and jejune cult of
Shinto. It meant the introduction of Chinese civilization.
Priests and scholars crossed in numbers from China, and men
passed over from Japan to study the Sutras at what was then
regarded as the fountain-head of Buddhism. There was also
a constant stream of immigrants from China and Korea, and the
result may be gathered from the fact that a census taken of the
Japanese nobility in 814 indicated 382 Korean and Chinese
families against only 796 of pure Japanese origin. The records
show that in costume and customs a signal advance was made
towards refinement. Hair-ornaments of gold or silver chiselled
in the form of flowers; caps of sarcenet in twelve special tints,
each indicating a different grade; garments of brocade and
embroidery with figured thin silks of various colours — all these
were worn on ceremonial occasions; the art of painting was
introduced; a recorder's office was established; perfumes were
largely employed; court picnics to gather medicinal herbs were
instituted, princes and princesses attending in brilliant raiment ;
Chinese music and dancing were introduced; crossbows and
catapults were added to the weapons of war; domestic architec-
ture made signal strides in obedience to the examples of Buddhist
sacred edifices, which, from the first, showed magnificence of
dimension and decoration hitherto unconceived in Japan; the
arts of metal-casting and sculpture underwent great improve-
ment; Prince Shotoku compiled a code, commonly spoken of as
the first written laws of Japan, but in reality a collection of
maxims evincing a moral spirit of the highest type. In some
respects, however, there was no improvement. The succession
to the throne still tended to provoke disputes among the Imperial
princes; the sword constituted the principal weapon of punish-
ment, and torture the chief judicial device. Now, too, for the
first time, a noble family is found seeking to usurp the Imperial
authority. The head of the Soga house, Umako, having com-
passed the murder of the emperor Sujun and placed on the throne
his own niece (Suiko), swept away all opposition to the latter's
successor, Jomei, and controlled the administration of state
affairs throughout two reigns. In all this he was strongly
seconded by his son, Iruka, who even surpassed him in contu-
melious assumption of power and parade of dignity. Iruka was
slain in the presence of the empress Kogyoku by Prince Naka
with the assistance of the minister of the interior, Kamako, and
it is not surprising to find the empress (Kogyoku) abdicating
immediately afterwards in favour of Kamako's protege, Prince
Karu, who is known in history as Kotoku. This Kamako,
planner and leader of the conspiracy which overthrew the Soga,
is remembered by posterity under the name of Kamatari and
as the founder of the most illustrious of Japan's noble houses,
the Fujiwara. At this time (645), a habit which afterwards
contributed materially to the effacement of the Throne's practical
authority was inaugurated. Prince Furubito, pressed by his
brother, Prince Karu, to assume the sceptre in accordance with
his right of primogeniture, made his refusal peremptory by aban-
doning the world and taking the tonsure. This retirement to a
monastery was afterwards dictated to several sovereigns by
ministers who found that an active occupant of the throne
impeded their own exercise of administrative autocracy. Furu-
bito's recourse to the tonsure proved, however, to be merely a
cloak for ambitious designs. Before a year had passed he con-
spired to usurp the throne and was put to death with his chil-
dren, his consorts strangling themselves. Suicide to escape the
disgrace of defeat had now become a common practice. Another
prominent feature of this epoch was the prevalence of supersti-
tion. The smallest incidents — the growing of two lotus flowers
on one stem; a popular ballad; the reputed song of a sleeping
monkey; the condition of the water in a pond; rain without
clouds — all these and cognate trifles were regarded as omens;
wizards and witches deluded the common people; a strange form
of caterpillar was worshipped as the god of the everlasting
world, and the peasants impoverished themselves by making
sacrifices to it.
An interesting epoch is now reached, the first legislative era
of early Japanese history. It commenced with the reign of the
emperor Kotoku (645), of whom the Chronicles say First
that he " honoured the religion of Buddha and de- Legislative
spised Shinto "; that " he was of gentle disposition; Ei>och-
loved men of learning; made no distinction of noble and mean,
and continually dispensed beneficent edicts." The customs
calling most loudly for reform in his time were abuse of the
system of forced labour; corrupt administration of justice;
spoliation of the peasant class; assumption of spurious titles to
justify oppression; indiscriminate distribution of the families
of slaves and serfs; diversion of taxes to the pockets of collectors;
formation of great estates, and a general lack of administrative
centralization. The first step of reform consisted in ordering
the governors of provinces to prepare registers showing the
numbers of freemen and serfs within their jurisdiction as well as
the area of cultivated land. It was further ordained that the
advantages of irrigation should be shared equally with the common
people; that no local governor might try and decide criminal
cases while in his province; that any one convicted of accepting
bribes should be liable to a fine of double the amount as well as
to other punishment; that in the Imperial court a box should
be placed for receiving petitions and a bell hung to be sounded in
the event of delay in answering them or unfairness in dealing
with them ; that all absorption of land into great estates should
cease: that barriers, outposts, guards and post-horses should be
DOMESTIC HISTORY]
provided; that high officials should be dowered with hereditary
estates by way of emolument, the largest of such grants being
3000 homesteads; that men of unblemished character and
proved capacity should be appointed aldermen for adjudicating
criminal matters; that there should be chosen as clerks for gover-
nors and vice-governors of provinces men of solid competence
" skilled in writing and arithmetic "; that the land should be
parcelled out in fixed proportions to every adult unit of the popu-
lation with right of tenure for a term of six years; that forced
labour should be commuted for taxes of silk and cloth ; and that
for fiscal and administrative purposes households should be
organized in groups of five, each group under an elder, and ten
groups forming a township, which, again, should be governed
by an elder. Incidentally to these reforms many of the evil
customs of the time are exposed. Thus provincial governors
when they visited the capital were accustomed to travel with
great retinues who appear to have constituted a charge on the
regions through which they passed. The law now limited the
number of a chief governor's attendants to nine, and forbade
him to use official houses or to fare at public cost unless journey-
ing on public business. Again, men who had acquired some local
distinction, though they did not belong to noble families, took
advantage of the absence of historical records or official registers,
and, representing themselves as descendants of magnates to
whom the charge of public granaries had been entrusted, suc-
ceeded in usurping valuable privileges. The office of provincial
governor had in many cases become hereditary, and not only
were governors largely independent of Imperial control, but also,
since every free man carried arms, there had grown up about
these officials a population relying largely on the law of force.
Kotoku's reforms sought to institute a system of temporary
governors, and directed that all arms and armour should be
stored in arsenals built in waste places, except in the case of
provinces adjoining lands where unsubdued aborigines (Yemishi)
dwelt. Punishments were drastic, and in the case of a man con-
victed of treason, all his children were executed with him, his
wives and consorts committing suicide. From a much earlier
age suicide had been freely resorted to as the most honourable
exit from pending disgrace, but as yet the samurai's method of
disembowelment was not employed, strangulation or cutting
the throat being the regular practice. Torture was freely
employed and men often died under it. Signal abuses prevailed
in regions beyond the immediate range of the central govern-
ment's observation. It has been shown that from early days
the numerous scions of the Imperial family had generally been
provided for by grants of provincial estates. Gradually the
descendants of these men, and the representatives of great
families who held hereditary rank, extended their domains
unscrupulously, employing forced labour to reclaim lands,
which they let to the peasants, not hesitating to appropriate
large slices of public property, and remitting to the central
treasury only such fractions of the taxes as they found con-
venient. So prevalent had the exaction of forced labour become
that country-folk, repairing to the capital to seek redress of
grievances, were often compelled to remain there for the purpose
of carrying out some work in which dignitaries of state were
interested. The removal of the capital to a new site on each
change of sovereign involved a vast quantity of unproductive
toil. It is recorded that in 656, when the empress Saimei occu-
pied the throne, a canal was dug which required the work of
30,000 men and a wall was built which had employed 70,000 men
before its completion. The construction of tombs for grandees
was another heavy drain on the people's labour. Some of these
sepulchres attained enormous dimensions — that of the emperor
Ojin (270-310) measures 2312 yds. round the outer moat and
is some. 60 ft. high; the emperor Nintoku's (313-399) is still
larger, and there is a tumulus in Kawachi on the flank of which a
good-sized village has been built. Kotoku's laws provided that
the tomb of a prince should not be so large as to require the work
of more than 1000 men for seven days, and that the grave of a
petty official must be completed by 50 men in one day. More-
over, it was forbidden to bury with the body gold, silver,
XV. 9
JAPAN 257
copper, iron, jewelled shirts, jade armour or silk brocade. It
appears that the custom of suicide or sacrifice at the tomb of
grandees still survived, and that people sometimes cut off their
hair or stabbed their thighs preparatory to declaiming a threnody.
All these practices were vetoed. Abuses had grown up even in
connexion with the Shinto rite of purgation. This rite required
not only the reading of rituals but also the offering of food and
fruits. For the sake of these edibles the rite was often harshly
enforced, especially in connexion with pollution from contact
with corpses; and thus it fell out that when of two brothers,
returning from a scene of forced labour, one lay down upon the
road and died, the other, dreading the cost of compulsory purga-
tion, refused to take up the body. Many other evil customs
came into existence in connexion with this rite, and all were
dealt with in the new laws. Not the least important of the
reforms then introduced was the organization of the ministry
after the model of the Tang dynasty of China. Eight depart-
ments of state were created, and several of them received names
which are similarly used to this day. Not only the institutions
of China were borrowed but also her official costumes. During
Kotoku's reign 19 grades of head-gear were instituted, and in
the time of Tenchi (668-671) the number was increased to 26,
with corresponding robes. Throughout this era intercourse was
frequent with China, and the spread of Buddhism continued
steadily. The empress Saimei (6 5 5-66 1 ) , who succeeded Kotoku ,
was an earnest patron of the faith. By her command several
public expositions of the Sutras were given, and the building of
temples went on in many districts, estates being liberally granted
for the maintenance of these places of worship.
The Fujiwara Era. — In the Chronicles of Japan the year
672 is treated as a kind of interregnum. It was in truth a
year of something like anarchy, a great part of it being occupied
by a conflict of unparalleled magnitude between Prince Otomo
(called in history Emperor Kobun) and Prince Oama, who
emerged victorious and is historically entitled Temmu(673-686).
The four centuries that followed are conveniently designated
the Fujiwara era, because throughout that long interval affairs
of state were controlled by the Fujiwara family, whose daughters
were given as consorts to successive sovereigns and whose sons
filled all the high administrative posts. It has been related
above that Kamako, chief of the Shinto officials, inspired the
assassination of the Soga chief, Iruka, and thus defeated the
latter's designs upon the throne in the days of the empress
Kogyoku. Kamako, better known to subsequent generations
as Kamatari, was thenceforth regarded with unlimited favour by
successive sovereigns, and just before his death in 670, the
family name of Fujiwara was bestowed on him by the emperor
Tenchi. Kamatari himself deserved all the honour he received,
but his descendants abused the high trust reposed in them,
reduced the sovereign to a mere puppet, and exercised Imperial
authority without openly usurping it. Much of this was due to
the adoption of Chinese administrative systems, a process which
may be said to have commenced during the reign of Kotoku
(645-654) and to have continued almost uninterruptedly until the
nth century. Under these systems the emperor ceased directly
to exercise supreme civil or military power: he became merely
the source of authority, not its wielder, the civil functions being
delegated to a bureaucracy and the military to a soldier class.
Possibly had the custom held of transferring the capital to a new
site on each change of sovereign, and had the growth of luxuri-
ous habits been thus checked, the comparatively simple life of
early times might have held the throne and the people in closer
contact. But from the beginning of the 8th century a strong
tendency to avoid these costly migrations developed itself. In
709 the court took up its residence at Nara, remaining there until
784; ten years after the latter date Kioto became the permanent
metropolis. The capital at Nara — established during the reign
of the empress Gemmyo (708-715) — was built on the plan of the
Chinese metropolis. It had nine gates and nine avenues, the
palace being situated in the northern section and approached by
a broad, straight avenue, which divided the city into two perfectly
equal halves, all the other streets running parallel to this main
JAPAN
[DOMESTIC HISTORY
avenue or at right angles to it. Seven sovereigns reigned at
Heijo (castle of peace), as Nara is historically called, and,
during this period of 75 years, seven of the grandest temples
ever seen in Japan were erected; a multitude of idols were cast,
among them a colossal bronze Daibutsu 535 ft. high; large
temple-bells were founded, and all the best artists and artisans
of the era devoted their services to these works. This religious
mania reached its acme in the reign of the emperor Shomu (724-
748), a man equally superstitious and addicted to display. In
Temmu's time the custom had been introduced of compelling
large numbers of persons to enter the Buddhist priesthood with
the object of propitiating heaven's aid to heal the illness of an
illustrious personage. In Shomu's day every natural calamity
or abnormal phenomenon was regarded as calling for religious
services on a large scale, and the great expense involved in all
these buildings and ceremonials, supplemented by lavish outlays
on court pageants, was severely felt by the nation. The con-
dition of the agricultural class, who were the chief tax-payers,
was further aggravated by the operation of the emperor Kotoku's
land system, which rendered tenure so uncertain as to deter
improvements. Therefore, in the Nara epoch, the principle of
private ownership of land began to be recognized. Attention
wjs also paid to road-making, bridge-building, river control and
house construction, a special feature of this last being the use
of tiles for roofing purposes in place of the shingles or thatch
hitherto employed. In all these steps of progress Buddhist
priests took an active part. Costumes were now governed by
purely Chinese fashions. This change had been gradually intro-
duced from the time of Kotoku's legislative measures — generally
called the Taikwa reforms after the name of the era (645-650) of
their adoption — and was rendered more thorough by supplemen-
tary enactments in the period 701-703 while Mommu occupied
the throne. Ladies seem by this time to have abandoned the
strings of beads worn in early eras round the neck, wrists and
ankles. They used ornaments of gold, silver or jade in their
hair, but in other respects their habiliments closely resembled
those of men, and to make the difference still less conspicuous
they straddled their horses when riding. Attempts were made
to facilitate travel by establishing stores of grain along the
principal highways, but as yet there were no hostelries, and if
a wayfarer did not find shelter in the house of a friend, he had to
bivouac as best he could. Such a state of affairs in the provinces
offered a marked contrast to the luxurious indulgence which had
now begun to prevail in the capital. There festivals of various
kinds, dancing, verse-composing, flower picnics, archery, polo,
football — of a very refined nature — hawking, hunting and gam-
bling absorbed the attention of the aristocracy. Nothing dis-
turbed the serenity of the epoch except a revolt of the northern
Yemishi, which was temporarily subdued by a Fujiwara general,
for the Fujiwara had not yet laid aside the martial habits of
their ancestors. In 794 the Imperial capital was transferred
from Nara to Kioto by order of the emperor Kwammu, one of
the greatest of Japanese sovereigns. Education, the organiza-
tion of the civil service, riparian works, irrigation improvements,
the separation of religion from politics, the abolition of sinecure
offices, devices for encouraging and assisting agriculture, all
received attention from him. But a twenty-two years' campaign
against the northern Yemishi; the building of numerous temples;
the indulgence of such a passionate love of the chase that he
organized 140 hunting excursions during his reign of 25 years;
profuse extravagance on the part of the aristocracy in Kioto
and the exactions of provincial nobles, conspired to sink the
working classes into greater depths of hardship than ever.
Farmers had to borrow money and seed-rice from local officials
or Buddhist temples, hypothecating their land as security; thus
the temples and the nobles extended their already great estates,
whilst the agricultural population gradually fell into a position
of practical serfdom.
Meanwhile the Fujiwara family were steadily developing their
Ri*e ot the influence in KiSto. Their methods were simple but
f-uiiwara. thoroughly effective. " By progressive exercises of
arbitrariness they gradually contrived that the choice of a
consort for the sovereign should be legally limited to
a daughter of their family, five branches of which were
specially designated to that honour through all ages. When a
son was born to an emperor, the Fujiwara took the child into
one of their palaces, and on his accession to the throne, the
particular Fujiwara noble that happened to be his maternal
grandfather became regent of the empire. This office of regent,
created towards the close of the pth century, was part of the
scheme; for the Fujiwara did not allow the purple to be worn by
a sovereign after he had attained his majority, or, if they suffered
him to wield the sceptre during a few years of manhood, they
compelled him to abdicate so soon as any independent aspira-
tions began to impair his docility; and since for the purposes of
administration in these constantly recurring minorities an office
more powerful than that of prime minister (dajo daijin) was
needed, they created that of regent (kwambaku), making it
hereditary in their own family. In fact the history of Japan
from the gth to the igth century may be described as the history
of four families, the Fujiwara, the Taira, the Minamoto and the
Tokugawa. The Fujiwara governed through the emperor; the
Taira, the Minamoto and the Tokugawa governed in spite of the
emperor. The Fujiwara based their power on matrimonial alli-
ances with the Throne ; the Taira, the Minamoto and the Tokugawa
based theirs on the possession of armed strength which the throne
had no competence to control. There another broad line of cleav-
age is seen. Throughout the Fujiwara era the centre of political
gravity remained always in the court. Throughout the era of
the Taira, the Minamoto and the Tokugawa the centre of political
gravity was transferred to a point outside the court, the head-
quarters of a military feudalism." The process of transfer was
of course gradual. It commenced with the granting of large
tracts of tax-free lands to noblemen who had wrested them from
the aborigines (Yemishi) or had reclaimed them by means of serf-
labour. These tracts lay for the most part in the northern and
eastern parts of the main island, at such a distance from the
capital that the writ of the central government did not run there;
and since such lands could be rented at rates considerably less
than the tax levied on farms belonging to the state, the peasants
by degrees abandoned the latter and settled on the former,
with the result that the revenues of the Throne steadily dimin-
ished, while those of the provincial magnates correspondingly
increased. Moreover, in the 7th century, at the time of the
adoption of Chinese models of administration and organization,
the court began to rely for military protection on the services of
guards temporarily drafted from the provincial troops, and,
during the protracted struggle against the Yemishi in the north
and east in the 8th century, the fact that the power of the sword
lay with the provinces began to be noted.
Ki6to remained the source of authority. But with the growth
of luxury and effeminacy in the capital the Fujiwara became
more and more averse from the hardships of campaign- The Taira
ing, and in the 9th and loth centuries, respectively, ana the
the Taira and the Minamoto1 families came into promi- Mlal"not0'
nence as military leaders, the field of the Taira operations being
the south and west, that of the Minamoto the north and east.
Had the court reserved to itself and munificently exercised the
privilege of rewarding these services, it might still have retained
power and wealth. But by a niggardly and contemptuous policy
on the part of Kioto not only were the Minamoto leaders estranged
but also they assumed the right of recompensing their followers
with tax-free estates, an example which the Taira leaders quickly
followed. By the early years of the i2th century these estates
had attracted the great majority of the farming class, whereas the
public land was left wild and uncultivated. In a word, the court
and the Fujiwara found themselves without revenue, while the
coffers of the Taira and the Minamoto were full: the power of
the purse and the power of the sword had passed effectually to the
two military families. Prominent features of the moral condi-
tion of the capital at this era (i2th century) were superstition, re-
finement and effeminacy. A belief was widely held that calamity
1 The Taira and the Minamoto both traced their descent from
imperial princes; the Tokugawa were a branch of the Minamoto.
DOMESTIC HISTORY]
could not be averted or success insured without recourse to
Buddhist priests. Thus, during a reign of only 13 years at the
close of the nth century, the emperor Shirakawa caused 5420
religious pictures to be painted, ordered the casting of 127 statues
of Buddha, each n ft. high, of 3150 life-sized images and of
2930 smaller idols, and constructed 21 large temples as well as
446,630 religious edifices of various kinds. Side by side with this
faith in the supernatural, sexual immorality prevailed widely,
never accompanied, however, by immodesty. Literary profi-
ciency ranked as the be-all and end-all of existence. " A man
estimated the conjugal qualities of a young lady by her skill
in finding scholarly similes and by her perception of the
cadence of words. If a woman was so fortunate as to acquire a
reputation for learning, she possessed a certificate of universal
virtue and amiability." All the pastimes of the Nara epoch
were pursued with increased fervour and elaboration in the Heian
(Kioto) era. The building of fine dwelling-houses and the laying
out of landscape gardens took place on a considerable scale,
though in these respects the ideals of later ages were not yet
reached. As to costume, the close-fitting, business-like and
comparatively simple dress of the 8th century was exchanged
for a much more elaborate style. During the Nara epoch the
many-hued hats of China had been abandoned for a sober head-
gear of silk gauze covered with black lacquer, but in the Heian
era this was replaced by an imposing structure glistening with
jewels: the sleeves of the tunic grew so long that they hung to the
knees when a man's arms were crossed, and the trowsers were
made so full and baggy that they resembled a divided skirt.
From this era may be said to have commenced the manufacture
of the tasteful and gorgeous textile fabrics for which Japan after-
wards became famous. " A fop's ideal was to wear several suits,
one above the other, disposing them so that their various colours
showed in harmoniously contrasting lines at the folds on the
bosom and at the edges of the long sleeves. A successful costume
created a sensation in court circles. Its wearer became the hero
of the hour, and under the pernicious influence of such ambition
men began even to powder their faces and rouge their cheeks like
women. As for the fair sex, their costume reached the acme of
unpractically and extravagance in this epoch. Long flowing
hair was essential, and what with developing the volume and
multiplying the number of her robes, and wearing above her
trowsers a many- plied train, a grand lady of the time always
seemed to be struggling to emerge from a cataract of habiliments."
It was fortunate for Japan that circumstances favoured the
growth of a military class in this age of her career, for had the
conditions existing in Kioto during the Heian epoch spread
throughout the whole country, the penalty never escaped by a
demoralized nation must have overtaken her. But by the
middle of the I2th century the pernicious influence of the Fuji-
wara had paled before that of the Taira and the Minamoto, and
a question of succession to the throne marshalled the latter two
families in opposite camps, thus inaugurating an era of civil war
which held the country in the throes of almost continuous battle
for 450 years, placed it under the administration of a military
feudalism, and educated a nation of warriors. At first the Mina-
moto were vanquished and driven from the capital, Kiyomori,
the Taira chief, being left complete master of the situation. He
established his headquarters at Rokuharu, in Kioto, appropriated
the revenues of 30 out of the 66 provinces forming the empire,
and filled all the high offices of state with his own relatives
or connexions. But he made no radical change in the adminis-
trative system, preferring to follow the example of the Fujiwara
by keeping the throne in the hands of minors. And he com-
mitted the blunder of sparing the lives of two youthful sons of
his defeated rival, the Minamoto chief. They were Yoritomo
and Yoshitsune; the latter the greatest strategist Japan ever pro-
duced, with perhaps one exception; the former, one of her three
greatest statesmen, the founder of military feudalism. By these
two men the Taira were so completely overthrown that they
never raised their heads again, a sea-fight at Dan-no-ura (1155)
giving them the coup de grace. Their supremacy had lasted
22 years.
JAPAN 259
The Feudal Era. — Yoritomo, acting largely under the advice
of an astute counsellor, Oye no Hiromoto, established his seat
of power at Kamakura, 300 m. from Kioto. He saw that,
effectively to utilize the strength of the military class, propin-
quity to the military centres in the provinces was essential. At
Kamakura he organized an administrative body similarin mechan-
ism to that of the metropolitan government but studiously dif-
ferentiated in the matter of nomenclature. As to the country
at large, he brought it effectually under the sway of Kamakura
by placing the provinces under the direct control of military
governors, chosen and appointed by himself. No attempt was
made, however, to interfere in any way with the polity in Kioto:
it was left intact, and the nobles about the Throne — huge (courtly
houses), as they came to be called in contradistinction to the
buke (military houses) — were placated by renewal of their
property titles. The Buddhist priests, also, who had been
treated most harshly during the Taira tenure of power, found
their fortunes restored under Kamakura's sway. Subsequently
Yoritomo obtained for himself the title of sei-itai-shogun
(barbarian-subduing generalissimo), and just as the office of
regent (kwambaku) had long been hereditary in the Fujiwara
family, so the office of shogun became thenceforth hereditary
in that of the Minamoto. These changes were radical. They
signified a complete shifting of the centre of power. During
eighteen centuries from the time of Jimmu's invasion — as
Japanese historians reckon — the country had been ruled from
the south; now the north became supreme, and for a civilian
administration a purely military was substituted. But there
was no contumely towards the court in Kioto. Kamakura made
a show of seeking Imperial sanction for every one of its acts, and
the whole of the military administration was carried on in the
name of the emperor by a shogun who called himself the Imperial
deputy. In this respect things changed materially after the
death of Yoritomo (1198). Kamakura then became the scene
of a drama analogous to that acted in Kioto from the loth
century.
The Hojo family, to which belonged Masa, Yoritomo's consort,
assumed towards the Kamakura shogun an attitude similar to
that previously assumed by the Fujiwara family
towards the emperor in Kioto. A child, who on the Haft.
state occasions was carried to the council chamber in
Masa's arms, served as the nominal repository of the shogun's
power, the functions of administration being discharged in reality
by the Hojo family, whose successive heads took the name of
shikken (constable). At first care was taken to have the shogun's
office filled by a near relative of Yoritomo; but after the death
of that great statesman's two sons and his nephew, the puppet
shoguns were taken from the ranks of the Fujiwara or of the
Imperial princes, and were deposed so soon as they attempted
to assert themselves. What this meant becomes apparent when
we note that in the interval of 83 years between 1220 and 1308,
there were six shoguns whose ages at the time of appointment
ranged from 3 to 16. Whether, if events had not forced their
hands,- the Hojo constables would have maintained towards the
Throne the reverent demeanour adopted by Yoritomo must
remain a matter of conjecture. What actually happened was
that the ex-emperor, Go-Toba, made an ill-judged attempt
(1221) to break the power of Kamakura. He issued a call to
arms which was responded to by some thousands of cenobites
and as many soldiers of Taira extraction. In the brief struggle
that ensued the Imperial partisans were wholly shattered, and
the direct consequences were the dethronement and exile of the
reigning emperor, the banishment of his predecessor together
with two princes of the blood, and the compulsory adoption of
the tonsure by Go-Toba; while the indirect consequence was that
the succession to the throne and the tenure of Imperial power
fell under the dictation of the Hojo as they had formerly fallen
under the direction of the Fujiwara. Yoshitoki, then head of
the Hojo family, installed his brother, Tokifusa, as military
governor of Kioto, and confiscating about 3000 estates, the
property of those who had espoused the Imperial cause, distri-
buted these lands among the adherents of his own family, thus
260
JAPAN
[DOMESTIC HISTORY
greatly strengthening the basis of the feudal system. " It fared
with the Hojo as it had fared with all the great families that
preceded them: their own misrule ultimately wrought their
ruin. Their first eight representatives were talented and up-
right administrators. They took justice, simplicity and truth
for guiding principles; they despised luxury and pomp; they
never aspired to high official rank; they were content with two
provinces for estates, and they sternly repelled the effeminate,
depraved customs of Kioto." Thus the greater part of the I3th
century was, on the whole, a golden era for Japan, and the lower
orders learned to welcome feudalism. Nevertheless no century
furnished more conspicuous illustrations of the peculiarly
Japanese system of vicarious government. Children occupied
the position of shogun in Kamakura. under authority emanating
from children on the throne in Kioto; and members of the Hojo
family as shikken administered affairs at the mandate of the
child shoguns. Through all three stages in the dignities of
mikado, shogun and shikken, the strictly regulated principle of
heredity was maintained, according to which no Hojo shikken
could ever become shogun; no Minamoto or Fujiwara could
occupy the throne. At the beginning of the i4th century, how-
ever, several causes combined to shake the supremacy of the
Hojo. Under the sway of the ninth shikken (Takatoki), the
austere simplicity of life and earnest discharge of executive duties
which had distinguished the early chiefs of the family were
exchanged for luxury, debauchery and perfunctory government.
Thus the management of fiscal affairs fell into the hands of
Takasuke, a man of usurious instincts. It had been the wise
custom of the Hojo constables to store grain in seasons of plenty,
and distribute it at low prices in times of dearth. There occurred
at this epoch a succession of bad harvests, but instead of opening
the state granaries with benevolent liberality, Takasuke sold
their contents at the highest obtainable rates; and, by way of
contrast to the prevailing indigence, the people saw the constable
in Kamakura affecting the pomp and extravagance of a sovereign
waited upon by 37 mistresses, supporting a band of 2000 dancers,
and keeping a pack of 5000 fighting dogs. The throne happened
to be then occupied (1319-1338) by an emperor, Go-Daigo, who
had reached full maturity before his accession, and was cor-
respondingly averse from acting the puppet part assigned to
the sovereigns of his time. Female influence contributed to his
impatience. One of his concubines bore a son for whom he
sought to obtain nomination as prince imperial, in defiance of an
arrangement made by the Hojo that the succession should pass
alternately to the senior and junior branches of the Imperial
family. Kamakura refused to entertain Go-Daigo's project,
and thenceforth the child's mother importuned her sovereign
and lover to overthrow the H6J6. The entourage of the throne
in Kioto at this time was a counterpart of former eras. The
Fujiwara, indeed, wielded nothing of their ancient influence.
They had been divided by the H6j6 into five branches, each
endowed with an equal right to the office of regent, and their
strength was thus dissipated in struggling among themselves
for the possession of the prize. But what the Fujiwara had done
in their days of greatness, what the Taira had done during their
brief tenure of power, the Saionji were now doing, namely,
aspiring to furnish prime ministers and empresses from their own
family solely. They had already given consorts to five emperors
in succession, and jealous rivals were watching keenly to attack
this clan which threatened to usurp the place long held by the
most illustrious family in the land. A petty incident disturbed
this state of very tender equilibrium before the plan of the HojO's
enemies had fully matured, and the emperor presently found
himself an exile on the island of Oki. But there now appeared
upon the scene three men of great prowess: Kusunoki Masashige,
Nitta Yoshisada and Ashikaga Takauji. The first espoused
from the outset the cause of the Throne and, though commanding
only a small force, held the H6j5 troops in check. The last two
were both of Minamoto descent. Their common ancestor was
Minamoto Yoshiiye, whose exploits against the northern Yemishi
in the second half of the nth century had so impressed his
countrymen that they gave him the title of Hachiman Taro (first-
born of the god of war). Both men took the field originally in
the cause of the Hojo, but at heart they desired to be avenged
upon the latter for disloyalty to the Minamoto. Nitta Yoshisada
marched suddenly against Kamakura, carried it by storm and
committed the city to the flames. Ashikaga Takauji occupied
Kioto, and with the suicide of Takatoki the Hojo fell finally from
rule after 115 years of supremacy (1210-1334). The emperor
now returned from exile, and his son, Prince Moriyoshi, having
been appointed to the office of shogun at Kamakura, the
restoration of the administrative power to the Throne seemed
an accomplished fact.
Go-Daigo, however, was not in any sense a wise sovereign.
The extermination of the Hojo placed wide estates at his disposal,
but instead of rewarding those who had deserved The
well of him, he used a great part of them to enrich Ashikaga
his favourites, the companions of his dissipation. Shsguas.
Ashikaga Takauji sought just such an opportunity. The follow-
ing year (1335) saw him proclaiming himself shogun at Kama-
kura, and after a complicated pageant of incidents, the emperor
Go-Daigo was obliged once more to fly from Kioto. He carried
the regalia with him, refused to submit to Takauji, and declined
to recognize his usurped title of shogun. The Ashikaga chief
solved the situation by deposing Go-Daigo and placing upon
the throne another scion of the imperial family who is known in
history as Komyo (1336-1348), and who, of course, confirmed
Takauji in the office of shogun. Thus commenced the Ashikaga
line of shOguns, and thus commenced also a fifty-six-year period
of divided sovereignty, the emperor Go-Daigo and his descen-
dants reigning in Yoshino as the southern court (nanchd), and the
emperor Komyo and his descendants reigning in Kioto as the
northern court (hokucho). It was by the efforts of the shogun
Yoshimitsu, one of the greatest of the Ashikaga potentates, that
this quarrel was finally composed, but during its progress the
country had fallen into a deplorable condition. " The constitu-
tional powers had become completely disorganized, especially in
regions at a distance from the chief towns. The peasant was
impoverished, his spirit broken, his hope of better things com-
pletely gone. He dreamed away his miserable existence and
left the fields untilled. Bands of robbers followed the armies
through the interior of the country, and increased the feeling of
lawlessness and insecurity. The coast population, especially
that of the island of KiushiG, had given itself up in a great
measure to piracy. Even on the shores of Korea and China
these enterprising Japanese corsairs made their appearance."
The sh6gun Yoshimitsu checked piracy, and there ensued
between Japan and China a renewal of cordial intercourse
which, upon the part of the shogun, developed phases plainly
suggesting an admission of Chinese suzerainty.
For a brief moment during the sway of Yoshimitsu the country
had rest from internecine war, but immediately after his death
(1394) the struggle began afresh. Many of the great territorial
lords had now grown too puissant to concern themselves about
either mikado or shogun. Each fought for his own hand, think-
ing only of extending his sway and his territories. By the middle
of the 1 6th century Kioto was in ruins, and little vitality re-
mained in any trade or industry except those that ministered
to the wants of the warrior. Again in the case of the Ashikaga
shoguns the political tendency to exercise power vicariously
was shown, as it had been shown in the case of the mikados in
Kioto and in the case of the Minamoto in Kamakura. What
the regents had been to the emperors and the constables to the
Minamoto shoguns, that the wardens (kwanryo) were to the
Ashikaga shSguns. Therefore, for possession of this 'office of
kwanryo vehement conflicts were waged, and at one time five
rival shoguns were used as figure-heads by contending factions.
Yoshimitsu had apportioned an ample allowance for the support
of the Imperial court, but in the continuous warfare following
his death the estates charged with the duty of paying this
allowance ceased to return any revenue; the court nobles had
to seek shelter and sustenance with one or other of the feudal
chiefs in the provinces, and the court ilself was reduced to such a
state of indigence that when the emperor Go-Tsuchi died (1500),
DOMESTIC HISTORY]
JAPAN
261
his corpse lay for forty days awaiting burial, no funds being
available for purposes of sepulture.
Alone among the vicissitudes of these troublous times the
strength and influence of Buddhism grew steadily. The great
monasteries were military strongholds as well as places of worship.
When the emperor Kwammu chose Kioto for his capital, he
established on the hill of Hiyei-zan, which lay north-east of the
city, a magnificent temple to ward off the evil influences supposed
to emanate from that quarter. Twenty years later, Kobo, the
most famous of all Japanese Buddhist saints, founded on Koya-
san in Yamato a monastery not less important than that of
Hiyei-zan. These and many other temples had large tax-free
estates, and for the protection of their property they found it
expedient to train and arm the cenobites as soldiers. From that
to taking active part in the political struggles of the time was but
a short step, especially as the great temples often became refuges
of sovereigns and princes who, though nominally forsaking the
world, retained all their interest, and even continued to take an
active part, in its vicissitudes. It is recorded of the emperor
Shirakawa (1073-1086) that the three things which he declared
his total inability to control were the waters of the river Kamo,
the fall of the dice, and the monks of Buddha. His successors
might have confessed equal inability. Kiyomori, the puissant
chief of the Taira family, had fruitlessly essayed to defy the
Buddhists; Yoritomo, in the hour of his most signal triumph,
thought it wise to placate them. Where these representatives
of centralized power found themselves impotent, it may well be
supposed that the comparatively petty chieftans who fought
each for his own hand in the isth and i6th centuries were in-
capable of accomplishing anything. In fact, the task of central-
izing the administrative power, and thus restoring peace and
order to the distracted empire, seemed, at the middle of the i6th
century, a task beyond achievement by human capacity.
But if ever events create the men to deal with them, such was
the case in the second half of that century. Three of the
Nohuaa a greatest captains and statesmen in Japanese history
Hideyoshi appeared upon the stage simultaneously, and more-
aad over worked in union, an event altogether incon-
fyeyasu. sjstent with the nature of the age. They were
Oda Nobunaga, Hideyoshi (the taiko) and Tokugawa lyeyasu.
Nobunaga belonged to the Taira family and was originally
ruler of a small fief in the province of Owari. lyeyasu, a
sub-feudatory of Nobunaga's enemy, the powerful daimyo1 of
Mikawa and two other provinces, was a scion of the Minamoto
and therefore eligible for the shogunate. Hideyoshi was a
peasant's son, equally lacking in patrons and in personal attrac-
tions. No chance seemed more remote than that such men,
above all Hideyoshi, could possibly rise to supreme power. On
the other hand, one outcome of the commotion with which the
country had seethed for more than four centuries was to give
special effect to the principle of natural selection. The fittest
alone surviving, the qualities that made for fitness came to take
precedence of rank or station, and those qualities were prowess
in the battle-field and wisdom in the statesman's closet. " Any
plebeian that would prove himself a first-class fighting man was
willingly received into the armed comitatus which every feudal
potentate was eager to attach to himself and his flag." It was
thus that Hideyoshi was originally enrolled in the ranks of
Nobunaga's retainers.
Nobunaga, succeeding to his small fief in Owari in 1542, added
to it six whole provinces within 25 years of continuous endeavour.
Being finally invited by the emperor to undertake the pacifica-
tion of the country, and appealed to by Yoshiaki, the last of the
Ashikaga chiefs, to secure for him the shogunate, he marched into
Kioto at the head of a powerful army (1568), and, having accom-
plished the latter purpose, was preparing to complete the former
when he fell under the sword of a traitor. Throughout his
brilliant career he had the invaluable assistance of Hideyoshi,
who would have attained immortal fame on any stage in any era.
Hideyoshi entered Nobunaga's service as a groom and ended
by administering the whole empire. When he accompanied
1 Daimyo ("great name") was the title given to a feudal chief.
Nobunaga to Kioto in obedience to the invitation of the mikado,
Okimachi, order and tranquillity were quickly restored in the
capital and its vicinity. But to extend this blessing to the whole
country, four powerful daimyos as well as the militant monks had
still to be dealt with. The monks had from the outset sheltered
and succoured Nobunaga's enemies, and one great prelate,
Kenryo, hierarch of the Monto sect, whose headquarters were
at Osaka, was believed to aspire to the throne itself. In 1571
Nobunaga attacked and gave to the flames the celebrated
monastery of Hiyei-zan, established nearly eight centuries pre-
viously; and in 1580 he would have similarly served the splendid
temple Hongwan-ji in Osaka, had not the mikado sought and
obtained grace for it. The task then remained of subduing four
powerful daimyos, three in the south and one in the north-east,
who continued to follow the bent of their own warlike ambitions
without paying the least attention to either sovereign or shogun.
The task was commenced by sending an army under Hideyoshi
against Mori of Choshu, whose fief lay on the northern shore of
the Shimonoseki strait. This proved to be the last enterprise
planned by Nobunaga. On a morning in June 1582 one of the
corps intended to reinforce Hideyoshi's army marched out of
Kameyama under the command of Akechi Mitsuhide, who either
harboured a personal grudge against Nobunaga or was swayed
by blind ambition. Mitsuhide suddenly changed the route of
his troops, led them to Kioto, and attacked the temple Honno-ji
where Nobunaga was sojourning all unsuspicious of treachery.
Rescue and resistance being alike hopeless, the great soldier
committed suicide. Thirteen days later, Hideyoshi, having
concluded peace with Mori of Choshu, fell upon Mitsuhide's
forces and shattered them, Mitsuhide himself being killed by a
peasant as he fled from the field.
Nobunaga's removal at once made Hideyoshi the most con-
spicuous figure in the empire, the only man with any claim to
dispute that title being Tokugawa lyeyasu. These
two had hitherto worked in concert. But the ques-
tion of the succession to Nobunaga's estates threw the country
once more into tumult. He left two grown-up sons and a baby
grandson, whose father, Nobunaga's first-born, had perished
in the holocaust at Honno-ji. Hideyoshi, not unmindful, it may
be assumed, of the privileges of a guardian, espoused the cause
of the infant, and wrested from Nobunaga's three other great
captains a reluctant endorsement of bis choice. Nobutaka, third
son of Nobunaga, at once drew the sword, which he presently had
to turn against his own person; two years later (1584), his elder
brother, Nobuo, took the field under the aegis of Tokugawa
lyeyasu. Hideyoshi and lyeyasu, now pitted against each other
for the first time, were found to be of equal prowess, and being
too wise to prolong a useless war, they reverted to their old
alliance, subsequently confirming it by a family union, the son
of lyeyasu being adopted by Hideyoshi and the latter's daughter
being given in marriage to lyeyasu. Hideyoshi had now been
invested by the mikado with the post of regent, and his position
in the capital was omnipotent. He organized in Kioto a mag-
nificent pageant, in which the principal figures were himself,
lyeyasu, Nobuo and twenty-seven daimyos. The emperor was
present. Hideyoshi sat on the right of the throne, and all the
nobles did obeisance to the sovereign. Prior to this event
Hideyoshi had conducted against the still defiant daimyos of
Kiushiu, especially Shimazu of Satsuma, the greatest army ever
massed by any Japanese general, and had reduced the island
of the nine provinces, not by weight of armament only, but also
by a signal exercise of the wise clemency which distinguished
him from all the statesmen of his era.
The whole of Japan was now under Hideyoshi's sway except
the fiefs in the extreme north and those in the region known as
the Kwanto, namely, the eight provinces forming the eastern
elbow of the main island. Seven of these provinces were virtu-
ally under the sway of Hojo Ujimasa, fourth representative of a
family established in 1476 by a brilliant adventurer of Ise, not
related in any way to the great but then extinct house of Kama-
kura Hojos. The daimyos in the north were comparatively
powerless to resist Hideyoshi, but to reach them the Kwanto had
262
JAPAN
[DOMESTIC HISTORY
to be reduced, and not only was its chief, Ujimasa, a formidable
foe, but also the topographical features of the district represented
fortifications of immense strength. After various unsuccessful
overtures, having for their purpose to induce Ujimasa to visit
the capital and pay homage to the emperor, Hideyoshi marched
from Kioto in the spring of 1 500 at the head of 1 70,000 men, his
colleagues Nobuo and lyeyasu having under their orders 80,000
more. The campaign ended as did all Hideyoshi's enterprises,
except that he treated his vanquished enemies with unusual
severity. During the three months spent investing Odawara,
the northern daimyos surrendered, and thus the autumn of
1590 saw Hideyoshi master of Japan from end to end, and saw
Tokugawa lyeyasu established at Yedo as recognized ruler of
the eight provinces of the Kwanto. These two facts should be
bracketed together, because Japan's emergence from the deep
gloom of long-continued civil strife was due not more to the
brilliant qualities of Hideyoshi and lyeyasu individually than to
the fortunate synchronism of their careers, so that the one was
able to carry the other's work to completion and permanence.
The last eight years of Hideyoshi's life — he died in 1 598 — were
chiefly remarkable for his attempt to invade China through
Korea, and for his attitude towards Christianity (see § VIII.:
FOREIGN INTERCOURSE).
The Tokugawa Era. — When Hideyoshi died he left a son,
Hideyori, then only six years of age, and the problem of this
child's future had naturally caused supreme solicitude to the
peasant statesman. He finally entrusted the care of the boy
and the management of state affairs to five regents, five ministers,
and three intermediary councillors. But he placed chief reliance
upon lyeyasu, whom he appointed president of the board of
regents. Among the latter was one, Ishida Mitsunari, who to
insatiable ambition added an extraordinary faculty for intrigue
and great personal magnetism. These qualities he utilized with
such success that the dissensions among the daimyos, which had
been temporarily composed by Hideyoshi, broke out again, and
the year 1600 saw Japan divided into two camps, one composed
of Tokugawa lyeyasu and his allies, the other of Ishida Mitsunari
and his partisans.
The situation of lyeyasu was eminently perilous. From his
position in the east of the country, he found himself menaced
by two powerful enemies on the north and on the
south, respectively, the former barely contained by
a greatly weaker force of his friends, and the latter moving up
in seemingly overwhelming strength from Ki6to. He decided
to hurl himself upon the southern army without awaiting the
result of the conflict in the north. The encounter took place
at Sekigahara in the province of Mino on the zist of October
1600. The army of lyeyasu had to move to the attack in such a
manner that its left flank and its left rear were threatened by
divisions of the enemy posted on commanding eminences. But
with the leaders of these divisions lyeyasu had come to an under-
standing by which they could be trusted to abide so long as
victory did not declare against him. Such incidents were
naturally common in an era when every man fought for his
own hand. The southerners suffered a crushing defeat. The
survivors fled pell-mell to Osaka, where in a colossal fortress,
built by Hideyoshi, his son, Hideyori, and the latter's mother,
Yodo, were sheltered behind ramparts held 80,000 men..
Hideyori's cause had been openly put forward by Ishida Mit-
sunari and his partisans, but lyeyasu made no immediate
attempt to visit the sin upon the head of his deceased benefac-
tor's child. On the contrary, he sent word to the lady Yodo and
her little boy that he absolved them of all complicity. The
battle of Sekigahara is commonly spoken of as having terminated
the civil war which had devastated Japan, with brief intervals,
from the latter half of the izth century to the beginning ol the
1 7th. That is incorrect in view of the fact that Sekigahara was
followed by other fighting, especially by the terrible conflict at
Osaka in 1615 when Yodo and her son perished. But Seki-
gahara's importance cannot be over-rated. For had lyeyasu been
finally crushed there, the wave of internecine strife must have
rolled again over the empire until providence provided another
Hideyoshi and another lyeyasu to stem it. Sekigahara, there-
fore, may be truly described as a turning-point in Japan's
career and as one of the decisive battles of the world. As for
the fact that the Tokugawa leader did not at once proceed to
extremities in the case of the boy Hideyori, though the events
of the Sekigahara campaign had made it quite plain that such a
course would ultimately be inevitable, we have to remember
that only two years had elapsed since Hideyoshi was laid in his
grave. His memory was still green and the glory of his achieve-
ments still enveloped his family. lyeyasu foresaw that to carry
the tragedy to its bitter end at once must have forced into Hide-
yori's camp many puissant daimyos whose sense of allegiance
would grow less cogent with the lapse of time. When he did lay
siege to the Osaka castle in 1615, the power of the Tokugawa was
wellnigh shattered against its ramparts; had not the onset been
aided by treachery, the stronghold would probably have proved
impregnable.
But signal as were the triumphs of the Tokugawa chieftain in
the field, what distinguishes him from all his predecessors is the
ability he displayed in consolidating his conquests. The im-
mense estates that fell into his hands he parcelled out in such a
manner that all important strategical positions were held by
daimyos whose fidelity could be confidently trusted, and every
feudatory of doubtful loyalty found his fief within touch of a
Tokugawa partisan. This arrangement, supplemented by a
system which required all the great daimyos to have mansions in
the shogun's capital. Yedo, to keep their families there always
and to reside there themselves in alternate years, proved so
potent a check to disaffection that from 1615, when the castle of
Osaka fell, until 1864, when the Choshu ronin attacked Kioto,
Japan remained entirely free from civil war.
It is possible to form a clear idea of the ethical and adminis-
trative principles by which lyeyasu and the early Tokugawa
chiefs were guided in elaborating the system which gave to
Japan an unprecedented era of peace and prosperity. Evidence
is furnished not only by the system itself but also by the con-
tents of a document generally called the Testament of lyeyasu,
though probably it was not fully compiled until the time of his
grandson, lyemitsu (1623-1650). The great Tokugawa chief,
though he munificently patronized Buddhism and though he
carried constantly in his bosom a miniature Buddhist image to
which he ascribed all his success in the field and his safety in
battle, took his ethical code from Confucius. He held that the
basis of all legislation and administration should be the five
relations of sovereign and subject, parent and child, husband
and wife, brother and sister, friend and friend. The family
was, in his eyes, the essential foundation of society, to be main-
tained at all sacrifices. Beyond these broad outlines of moral
duty it was not deemed necessary to instruct the people. There-
fore out of the hundred chapters forming the Testament only
22 contain what can be called legal enactments, while 55 relate
to administration and politics; 16 set forth moral maxims and
reflections, and the remainder record illustrative episodes in the
career of the author. " No distinct line is drawn between law
and morals, between the duty of a citizen and the virtues of a
member of a family. Substantive law is entirely wanting, just
as it was wanting in the so-called constitution ofPrince Shotoku.
Custom, as sanctioned by public observance, must be complied
with in the civil affairs of life. What required minute exposition
was criminal law, the relations of social classes, etiquette, rank,
precedence, administration and government.
Society under feudalism had been moulded into three sharply
defined groups, namely, first, the Throne and the court nobles
(kuge) ; secondly, the military class (buke or samurai) ; Soclai alt.
and thirdly, the common people (heimiri). These lines tlnctiomia
of cleavage were emphasized as much as possible the r°*u"
by the Tokugawa rulers. The divine origin of the *aw
mikado was held to separate him from contact with mundane
affairs, and he was therefore strictly secluded in the palace at
Kioto, his main function being to mediate between his heavenly
ancestors and his subjects, entrusting to the shogun and the
samurai the duty of transacting all worldly business on behalf
DOMESTIC HISTORY]
JAPAN
263
of the state. In obedience to this principle the mikado became
a kind of sacrosanct abstraction. No one except his consorts
and his chief ministers ever saw his face. In the rare cases
when he gave audience to a privileged subject, he sat behind a
curtain, and when he went abroad, he rode in a closely shut car
drawn by oxen. A revenue of ten thousand koku of rice — the
equivalent of about as many guineas — was apportioned for his
support, and the right was reserved to him of conferring empty
titles upon the living and rank upon the dead. His majesty had
one wife, the empress (kogo), necessarily taken from one of the
five chosen families (go-sekke) of the Fujiwara, but he might also
have twelve consorts, and if direct issue failed, the succession
passed to one of the two princely families of Arisugawa and
Fushimi, adoption, however, being possible in the last resort.
The kuge constituted the court nobility, consisting of 155 families
all of whom traced their lineage to ancient mikados; they ranked
far above the feudal chiefs, not excepting even the shogun;
filled by right of heredity nearly all the offices at the court, the
emoluments attached being, however, a mere pittance; were
entirely without the great estates which had belonged to them
in ante-feudal times, and lived lives of proud poverty, occupying
themselves with the study of literature and the practice of music
and art. After the kuge and at a long distance below them in
theoretical rank came the military families, who, as a class,
were called buke or samurai. They had hereditary revenues,
and they filled the administrative posts, these, too, being often
hereditary. The third, and by far the most numerous, section
of the nation were the commoners (heimin). They had no
social status; were not allowed to carry swords, and possessed
no income except what they could earn with their hands.
About 55 in every 1000 units of the nation were samurai, the
latter's wives and children being included in this estimate.
Under the Hojo and the Ashikaga shoguns the holders of
the great estates changed frequently according to the vicissi-
tudes of those troublesome times, but under the
Tokugawa no change took place, and there thus
grew up a landed nobility of the most permanent character.
Every one of these estates was a feudal kingdom, large or small,
with its own usages and its own laws, based on the general
principles above indicated and liable to be judged according to
those principles by the shogun's government (baku-fu) inYedo.
A daimyo or feudal chief drew from the peasants on his estate
the means of subsistence for himself and his retainers. For this
purpose the produce of his estate was assessed by the shogun's
officials in koku (one koku= 180-39 litres, worth about £i), and
about one-half of the assessed amount went to the feudatory,
the other half to the tillers of the soil. The richest daimyo was
Mayeda of Kaga, whose fief was assessed at a little over a million
koku, his revenue thus being about half a million sterling. Just
as an empress had to be taken from one of five families designated
to that distinction for all time, so a successor to the shogunate,
failing direct heir, had to be selected from three families
(sanke), namely, those of the daimyos of Owari, Kii and Mito,
whose first representatives were three sons of lyeyasu. Out
of the total body of 255 daimyos existing in the year 1862,
141 were specially distinguished as fudai, or hereditary vassals
of the Tokugawa house, and to 18 of these was strictly
limited the perpetual privilege of filling all the high offices
in the Yedo administration, while to 4 of them was reserved
the special honour of supplying a regent (go-tairo) during the
minority of the shogun. Moreover, a fudai daimyo was of
necessity appointed to the command of the fortress of
Nijo in Kioto as well as of the great castles of Osaka and
Fushimi, which lyeyasu designated the keys of the country.
No intermarriage might take place between members of the
court nobility and the feudal houses without the consent of
Yedo; no daimyo might apply direct to the emperor for an
official title, or might put foot within the imperial district of
Kioto without the shogun's permit, and at all entrances to the
region known as the Kwanto there were established guard-
houses, where every one, of whatever rank, must submit to be
examined, in order to prevent the wives and children of the
daimyos from secretly leaving Yedo for their own provinces.
In their journeys to and from Yjedo every second year the feudal
chiefs had to travel by one of two great highways, the Tokaido
or the Nakasendo, and as they moved with great retinues,
these roads were provided with a number of inns and tea-houses
equipped in a sumptuous manner, and having an abundance of
female servants. A puissant daimyo 's procession often num-
bered as many as 1000 retainers, and nothing illustrates more
forcibly the wide interval that separated the soldier and the
plebeian than the fact that at the appearance of the heralds who
preceded these progresses all commoners who happened to be
abroad had to kneel on the ground with bowed and uncovered
heads; all wayside houses had to close the shutters of windows
giving on the road, and none might venture to look down from a
height on the passing magnate. Any violation of these rules of
etiquette exposed the violator to instant death at the hands of
the daimyo's retinue. Moreover, the samurai and the heimin
lived strictly apart. A feudal chief had a castle which generally
occupied a commanding position. It was surrounded by from
one to three broad moats, the innermost crowned with a high
wall of huge cut stones, its trace arranged so as to give flank
defence, which was further provided by pagoda-like towers
placed at the salient angles. Inside this wall stood the houses
of the high officials on the outskirts of a park surrounding the
residence of the daimyo himself, and from the scarps of the moats
or in the intervals between them rose houses for the military
retainers, barrack-like structures, provided, whenever possible,
with small but artistically arranged and carefully tended gardens.
All this domain of the military was called yashiki in distinction
to the machi (streets) where the despised commoners had their
habitat.
The general body of the samurai received stipends and lived
frugally. Their pay was not reckoned in money: it took the
form of so many rations of rice delivered from
their chief's granaries. A few had landed estates,
usually bestowed in recognition of conspicuous merit. They
were probably the finest type of hereditary soldiers the world
ever produced. Money and all devices for earning it they pro-
foundly despised. The right of wearing a sword was to them
the highest conceivable privilege. They counted themselves
the guardians of their fiefs' honour and of their country's welfare.
At any moment they were prepared cheerfully to sacrifice their
lives on the altar of loyalty. Their word, once given, must never
be violated. The slightest insult to their honour might not be
condoned. Stoicism was a quality which they esteemed next
to courage: all outward display of emotion must be suppressed.
The sword might never be drawn for a petty cause, but, if once
drawn, must never be returned to its scabbard until it had done
its duty. Martial exercises occupied much of their attention,
but book learning also they esteemed highly. They were pro-
foundly courteous towards each other, profoundly contemptuous
towards the commoner, whatever his wealth. Filial piety ranked
next to loyalty in their code of ethics. Thus the Confucian
maxim, endorsed explicitly in the Testament of lyeyasu, that a
man must not live under the same sky with his father's mur-
derer or his brother's slayer, received most literal obedience,
and many instances occurred of vendettas pursued in the face of
apparently insuperable difficulties and consummated after years
of effort. By the standard of modern morality the Japanese
samurai would be counted cruel. Holding that death was the
natural sequel of defeat and the only certain way of avoiding
disgrace, he did not seek quarter himself or think of extending it
to an enemy. Yet in his treatment of the latter he loved to dis-
play courtesy until the supreme moment when all considerations
of mercy were laid aside. It cannot be doubted that the prac-
tice of employing torture judicially tended to educate a mood
of callousness towards suffering, or that the many idle hours of a
military man's life in time of peace encouraged a measure of
dissipation. But there does not seem to be any valid ground for
concluding that either of these defects was conspicuous in
the character of the Japanese samurai. Faithlessness towards
women was the greatest fault that can be laid to his door. The
264
JAPAN
[DOMESTIC HISTORY
samurai lady claimed no privilege of timidity on account of her
sex. She knew how to die in the cause of honour just as readily
as her husband, her father or her brother died, and conjugal
fidelity did not rank as a virtue in her eyes, being regarded as a
simple duty. But her husband held marital faith in small
esteem and ranked his wife far below his sword. It has to be
remembered that when we speak of a samurai's suicide, there is
no question of poison, the bullet, drowning or any comparatively
painless manner of exit from the world. The invariable method
was to cut open the abdomen (hara-kiri or seppuku) and after-
wards, if strength remained, the sword was turned against the
throat. To such endurance had the samurai trained himself
that he went through this cruel ordeal without flinching in the
smallest degree.
The heimin or commoners were divided into three classes —
husbandmen, artisans and traders. The farmer, as the nation
Heimla. lived by his labour, was counted the most respect-
able among the bread-winners, and a cultivator
of his own estate might even carry one sword but never two,
that privilege being strictly reserved to a samurai. The artisan,
too, received much consideration, as is easily understood when
we remember that included in his ranks were artists, sword-
smiths, armourers, sculptors of sacred images or sword-furniture,
ceramists and lacquerers. Many artisans were in the permanent
service of feudal chiefs from whom they received fixed salaries.
Tradesmen, however, were regarded with disdain and stood
lowest of all in the social organization. Too much despised to
be even included in that organization were the eta (defiled
folks) and the hinin (outcasts). The exact origin of these latter
pariahs is uncertain, but the ancestors of the eta would seem to
have been prisoners of war or the enslaved families of criminals.
To such people were assigned the defiling duties of tending tombs,
disposing of the bodies of the dead, slaughtering animals or
tanning hides. The hinin were mendicants. On them devolved
the task of removing and burying the corpses of executed crimi-
nals. Living in segregated hamlets, forbidden to marry with
heimin, still less with samurai, not allowed to eat, drink or
associate with persons above their own class, the eta remained
under the ban of ostracism from generation to generation,
though many of them contrived to amass much wealth. They
were governed by their own headmen, and they had three
chiefs, one residing in each of the cities of Yedo, Osaka and
Kioto. All these members of the submerged classes were
relieved from proscription and admitted to the ranks of the
commoners under the enlightened system of Meiji. The 1 2th
of October 1871 saw their enfranchisement, and at that date
the census showed 287,111 eta and 695,689 hinin.
Naturally, as the unbroken peace of the Tokugawa regime
became habitual, the mood of the nation underwent a change.
Dec/toe and The samurai, no longer required to lead the frugal
Fall ot the life of camp or barracks, began to live beyond their
Shdguaau. mcomes- "They found difficulty in meeting the
pecuniary engagements of everyday existence, so that money
acquired new importance in their eyes, and they gradually
forfeited the respect which their traditional disinterestedness
had won for them in the past." At the same time the
abuses of feudalism were thrown into increased salience. A
large body of hereditary soldiers become an anomaly when
fighting has passed even out of memory. On the other
hand, the agricultural and commercial classes acquired new
importance. The enormous sums disbursed every year in
Yedo, for the maintenance of the great establishments
which the feudal chiefs vied with each other in keeping there,
enriched the merchants and traders so greatly that their
scale of living underwent radical change. Buddhism was a
potent influence, but its ethical restraints were weakened by
the conduct of its priests, who themselves often yielded to the
temptation of the time. The aristocracy adhered to its refined
pastimes — performances of the No ; tea reunions; poem
composing; polo; football; equestrian archery; fencing and
gambling — but the commoner, being excluded from all this
realm and, at the same time, emerging rapidly from his old
position of penury and degradation, began to develop luxurious
proclivities and to demand corresponding amusements. Thus
the theatre came into existence; the dancing girl and the
jester found lucrative employment; a popular school of art
was founded and quickly carried to perfection; the lupanar
assumed unprecedented dimensions; rich and costly costumes
acquired wide vogue in despite of sumptuary laws enacted
from time to time; wrestling became an important institution,
and plutocracy asserted itself in the face of caste distinctions.
Simultaneously with the change of social conditions thus
taking place, history repeated itself at the shogun's court. The
substance of administrative power passed into the hands of a
minister, its shadow alone remaining to the shogun. During
only two generations were the successors of lyeyasu able to resist
this traditional tendency. The representative of the third —
lyetsuna (1661-1680) — succumbed to the machinations of an
ambitious minister, Sakai Takakiyo, and it may be said that from
that time the nominal repository of administrative authority in
Yedo was generally a species of magnificent recluse, secluded
from contact with the outer world and seeing and hearing only
through the eyes and ears of the ladies of his household. In
this respect the descendants of the great Tokugawa statesman
found themselves reduced to a position precisely analogous to
that of the emperor in Kioto. Sovereign and shogun were
alike mere abstractions so far as the practical work of
government was concerned. With the great mass of the feudal
chiefs things fared similarly. These men who, in the days of
Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and lyeyasu, had directed the policies of
their fiefs and led their armies in the field, were gradually trans-
formed, during the long peace of the Tokugawa era, into volup-
tuous faineants or, at best, thoughtless dilettanti, willing to
abandon the direction of their affairs to seneschals and mayors,
who, while on the whole their administration was able and
loyal, found their account in contriving and perpetuating the
effacement of their chiefs. Thus, in effect, the government
of the country, taken out of the hands of the shogun and the
feudatories, fell into those of their vassals. There were excep-
tions, of course, but so rare as to be merely accidental.
Another important factor has to be noted. It has been
shown above that lyeyasu bestowed upon his three sons the rich
fiefs of Owari, Kii (Kishu) and Mito, and that these three
families exclusively enjoyed the privilege of furnishing an heir
to the shogun should the latter be without direct issue. Mito
ought therefore to have been a most unlikely place for the
conception and propagation of principles subversive of the
shogun's administrative autocracy. Nevertheless, in the days
of the second of the Mito chiefs at the close of the i?th century,
there arose in that province a school of thinkers who, revolting
against the ascendancy of Chinese literature and of Buddhism,
devoted themselves to compiling a history such as should recall
the attention of the nation to its own annals and revive its
allegiance to Shinto. It would seem that in patronizing the
compilation of this great work the Mito chief was swayed by
the spirit of pure patriotism and studentship, and that he
discerned nothing of the goal to which the new researches must
lead the litterati of his fief. " He and they, for the sake of
history and without any thought of politics, undertook a retro-
spect of their country's annals, and their frank analysis furnished
conclusive proof that the emperor was the prime source of
administrative authority and that its independent exercise
by a shogun must be regarded as a usurpation. They did not
attempt to give practical effect to their discoveries; the era was
essentially academical. But this galaxy of scholars projected
into the future a light which burned with growing force in each
succeeding generation and ultimately burst into a flame which
consumed feudalism and the shogunate," fused the nation into
one, and restored the governing authority to the emperor.
Of course the Mito men were not alone in this matter: many
students subsequently trod in their footsteps and many others
sought to stem the tendency; but the net result was fatal to
faith in the dual system of government. Possibly had nothing
occurred to furnish signal proof of the system's practical defects,
DOMESTIC HISTORY]
JAPAN
265
it might have long survived this theoretical disapproval.
But the crisis caused by the advent of foreign ships and by the
forceful renewal of foreign intercourse in the igth century
afforded convincing evidence of the shogunate's incapacity to
protect the state's supposed interests and to enforce the tradi-
tional policy of isolation which the nation had learned to con-
sider essential to the empire's integrity.
Another important factor made for the fall of the shogunate.
That factor was the traditional disaffection of the two great
southern fiefs, Satsuma and Choshu. When lyeyasu parcelled
out the empire, he deemed it the wisest policy to leave these
chieftains in full possession of their large estates. But this
measure, construed as an evidence of weakness rather than
a token of liberality, neither won the allegiance of the big
feudatories nor cooled their ambition. Thus no sooner did
the nation divide into two camps over the question of renewed
foreign intercourse than men of the above clans, in concert
with representatives of certain of the old court nobles, placed
themselves at the head of a movement animated by two loudly
proclaimed purposes: restoration of the administration to the
emperor, and expulsion of aliens. This latter aspiration under-
went a radical change when the bombardment of the Satsuma
capital, Kagoshima, and the destruction of the Choshu forts
and ships at Shimonoseki proved conclusively to the Satsuma
and Choshu clans that Japan in her unequipped and backward
condition could not hope to stand for a moment against the
Occident in arms. But the unwelcome discovery was accom-
panied by a conviction that only a thoroughly united nation
might aspire to preserve its independence, and thus the abolition
of the dual form of government became more than ever an
article of public faith. It is unnecessary to recount the suc-
cessive incidents which conspired to undermine the shogun's
authority, and to destroy the prestige of the Yedo administration.
Both had been reduced to vanishing quantities by the year 1866
when Keiki succeeded to the shogunate.
Keiki, known historically as Yoshinobu, the last of the
shoguns, was a man of matured intellect and high capacities.
He had been put forward by the anti-foreign Conservatives
for the succession to the shogunate in 1857 when the complica-
tions of foreign intercourse were in their first stage of acuteness.
But, like many other intelligent Japanese, he had learned,
in the interval between 1857 and 1866, that to keep her doors
closed was an impossible task for Japan, and very quickly
after taking the reins of office he recognized that national
union could never be achieved while power was divided between
Kioto and Yedo. At this juncture there was addressed to
him by Yodo, chief of the great Tosa fief, a memorial setting
forth the hopelessness of the position in which the Yedo court
now found itself, and urging that, in the interests of good
government and in order that the nation's united strength
might be available to meet the exigencies of its new career,
the administration should be restored to the emperor. Keiki
received this memorial in Kioto. He immediately summoned
a council of all the feudatories and high officials then in the
Imperial city, announced to them his intention to lay down his
office, and, the next day, presented his resignation to the
sovereign. This happened on the I4th of October 1867.
It must be ranked among the signal events of the world's
history, for it signified the voluntary surrender of kingly
authority wielded uninterruptedly for nearly three centuries.
That the shogun's resignation was tendered in good faith
there can be no doubt, and had it been accepted in the same
spirit, the great danger it involved might have been consum-
mated without bloodshed or disorder. But the clansmen of
Satsuma and Choshu were distrustful. One of the shogun's
first acts after assuming office had been to obtain from the throne
an edict for imposing penalties on Choshu, and there was a
precedent for suspecting that the renunciation of power by
the shogun might merely prelude its resumption on a firmer
basis. Therefore steps were taken to induce the emperor,
then a youth of fifteen, to issue a secret rescript to Satsuma
and Choshu, denouncing the shogun as the nation's enemy and
enjoining his destruction. At the same time all officials con-
nected with the Tokugawa or suspected of sympathy with
them were expelled from office in Kioto, and the shogun's
troops were deprived of the custody of the palace gates by
methods which verged upon the use of armed force. In the
face of such provocation Keiki's earnest efforts to restrain
the indignation of his vassals and adherents failed. They
marched against Kioto and were defeated, whereupon Keiki left
his castle at Osaka and retired to Yedo, where he subsequently
made unconditional surrender to the Imperial army. There is
little more to be set down on this page of the history. The
Yedo court consented to lay aside its dignities and be stripped
of its administrative authority, but all the Tokugawa vassals
and adherents did not prove equally placable. There was resist-
ance in the northern provinces, where the Aizu feudatory
refused to abandon the Tokugawa cause; there was an attempt *
to set up a rival candidate for the throne in the person of an
Imperial prince who presided over the Uyeno Monastery in
Yedo; and there was a wild essay on the part of the admiral
of the shogun's fleet to establish a republic in the island of
Yezo. But these were mere ripples on the surface of the broad
stream which set towards the peaceful -overthrow of the dual
system of government and ultimately towards the fall of
feudalism itself. That this system, the outcome of five centuries
of nearly continuous warfare, was swept away in almost as many
weeks with little loss of life or destruction of property consti-
tutes, perhaps, the most striking incident, certainly the most
momentous, in the history of the Japanese nation.
The Meiji Era. — It must be remembered that when refer-
ence is made to the Japanese nation in connexion with these
radical changes, only the nobles and the samurai are indicated
— in other words, a section of the population representing about
one-sixteenth of the whole. The bulk of the people — the
agricultural, the industrial and the mercantile classes — remained
outside the sphere of politics, not sharing the anti-foreign preju-
dice, or taking any serious interest in the great questions of the
time. Foreigners often noted with surprise the contrast be-
tween the fierce antipathy displayed towards them by certain
samurai on the one hand, and the genial, hospitable reception
given to them by the common people on the other. History
teaches that the latter was the natural disposition of the Japanese,
the former a mood educated by special experiences. Further,
even the comparatively narrow statement that the restoration
of the administrative power to the emperor was the work of the
nobles and the samurai must be taken with limitations. A
majority of the nobles entertained no idea of any necessity for
change. They were either held fast in the vice of Tokugawa
authority, or paralyzed by the sensuous seductions of the lives
provided for them by the machinations of their retainers, who
transferred the administrative authority of the fiefs to their
own hands, leaving its shadow only to their lords. It was among
the retainers that longings for a new order of things were gene-
rated. Some of these men were sincere disciples of progress — a
small band of students and deep thinkers who, looking through
the narrow Dutch window at Deshima, had caught a glimmering
perception of the realities that lay beyond the horizon of their
country's prejudices. But the influence of such Liberals was com-
paratively insignificant. Though they showed remarkable moral
courage and tenacity of purpose, the age did not furnish any
strong object lesson to enforce their propaganda of progress.
The factors chiefly making for change were, first, the ambition
of the southern clans to oust the Tokugawa, and, secondly, the
samurai's loyal instinct, reinforced by the teachings of his
country's history, by the revival of the Shinto cult, by the
promptings of national enterprise, and by the object-lessons of
foreign intercourse.
But though essentially imperialistic in its prime purposes,
the revolution which involved the fall of the shogunate, and
ultimately of feudalism, may be called democratic with character
regard to the personnel of those who planned and o1 the
directed it. They were, for the most part, men with-*
out either official rank or social standing. That is a point essential
266
JAPAN
[DOMESTIC HISTORY
to a clear understanding of the issue. Fifty-five individuals may
be said to have planned and carried out the overthrow of the
Yedo administration, and only five of them were territorial
nobles. Eight, belonging to the court nobility, laboured under
the traditional disadvantages of their class, poverty and political
insignificance; and the remaining forty- two, the hearts and hands
of the movement, may be described as ambitious youths, who
sought to make a career for themselves in the first place, and
for their country in the second. The average age of the whole
did not exceed thirty. There was another element for which
any student of Japanese history might have been prepared: the
Satsuma samurai aimed originally not merely at overthrowing
the Tokugawa but also at obtaining the shogunate for their own
chief. Possibly it would be unjust to say that all the leaders
of the great southern clan harboured that idea. But some of
them certainly did, and not until they had consented to abandon
the project did their union with Choshu, the other great southern
clan, become possible — a union without which the revolution
could scarcely have been accomplished. This ambition of the
Satsuma clansmen deserves special mention, because it bore
remarkable fruit; it may be said to have laid the foundation of
constitutional government in Japan. For, in consequence of
the distrust engendered by such aspirations, the authors of the
Restoration agreed that when the emperor assumed the reins of
power, he should solemnly pledge himself to convene a deliber-
ative assembly, to appoint to administrative posts men of
intellect and erudition wherever they might be found, and to
decide all measures in accordance with public opinion. This
promise, referred to frequently in later times as the Imperial
oath at the Restoration, came to be accounted the basis of repre-
sentative institutions, though in reality it was intended solely
as a guarantee against the political ascendancy of any one clan.
At the outset the necessity of abolishing feudalism did not
present itself clearly to the leaders of the revolution. Their
sole idea was the unification of the nation. But
feuda"idea wnen they came to consider closely the practical
side of the problem, they understood how far it
would lead them. Evidently that one homogeneous system
of law should replace the more or less heterogeneous systems
operative in the various fiefs was essential, and such a
substitution meant that the feudatories must be deprived
of their local autonomy and, incidentally, of their control of
local finances. That was a stupendous change. Hitherto each
feudal chief had collected the revenues of his fief and had em-
ployed them at will, subject to the sole condition of maintaining
a body of troops proportionate to his income. He had been, and
was still, an autocrat within the limits of his territory. On the
other hand, the active authors of the revolution were a small
band of men mainly without prestige or territorial influence. It
was impossible that they should dictate any measure sensibly
impairing the local and fiscal autonomy of the feudatories. No
power capable of enforcing such a measure existed at the time.
All the great political changes in Japan had formerly been
preceded by wars culminating in the accession of some strong
clan to supreme authority, whereas in this case there had been a
displacement without a substitution — the Tokugawa had been
overthrown and no new administrators had been set up in their
stead. It was, moreover, certain that an attempt on the part of
any one clan to constitute itself executor of the sovereign's
mandates would have stirred the other clans to vehement resist-
ance. In short, the leaders of the revolution found themselves
pledged to a new theory of government without any machinery
for carrying it into effect, or any means of abolishing the old
practice. An ingenious exit from this curious dilemma was
devised by the young reformers. They induced the feudal chiefs
of Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa and Hizen, the four most powerful
clans in the south, publicly to surrender their fiefs to the
emperor, praying his majesty to reorganize them and to bring
them all under the same system of law. In the case of Shimazu,
chief of Satsuma, and Yodo, chief of Tosa, this act must stand to
their credit as a noble sacrifice. To them the exercise of power
had been a reality and the effort of surrendering it must have
been correspondingly costly. But the chiefs of Choshu and Hizen
obeyed the suggestions of their principal vassals with little, if
any, sense of the probable cost of obedience. The same remark
applies to all the other feudatories, with exceptions so rare as to
emphasize the rule. They had long been accustomed to abandon
the management of their affairs to their leading clansmen, and
they allowed themselves to follow the same guidance at this
crisis. Out of more than 250 feudatories, only 17 hesitated to
imitate the example of the four southern fiefs.
An explanation of this remarkable incident has been sought by
supposing that the samurai of the various clans, when they
advised a course so inconsistent with fidelity to Motives
the interests of their feudal chiefs, were influenced of the
by motives of personal ambition, imagining that Retormers-
they themselves might find great opportunities under the new
regime. Some hope of that kind may fairly be assumed, and was
certainly realized, in the case of the leading samurai of the four
southern clans which headed the movement. But it is plain
that no such expectations can have been generally entertained.
The simplest explanation seems to be the true one: a certain
course, indicated by the action of the four southern clans, was
conceived to be in accord with the spirit of the Restoration, and
not to adopt it would have been to shrink publicly from a sacrifice
dictated by the principle of loyalty to the Throne — a principle
which had acquired supreme sanctity in the eyes of the men of
that era. There might have been some uncertainty about the
initial step; but so soon as that was taken by the southern clans
their example acquired compelling force. History shows that
in political crises the Japanese samurai is generally ready to pay
deference to certain canons of almost romantic morality. There
was a fever of loyalty and of patriotism in the air of the year
1869. Any one hesitating, for obviously selfish reasons, to adopt
a precedent such as that offered by the procedure of the great
southern clans, would have seemed to forfeit the right of calling
himself a samurai. But although the leaders of this remarkable
movement now understood that they must contrive the total
abolition of feudalism and build up a new administrative edifice
on foundations of constitutional monarchy, they appreciated
the necessity of advancing slowly towards a goal which still lay
beyond the range of their followers' vision. Thus the first steps
taken after the surrender of the fiefs were to appoint the feuda-
tories to the position of governors in the districts over which they
had previously ruled; to confirm the samurai in the possession
of their incomes and official positions; to put an end to the dis-
tinction between court nobles and territorial nobles, and to
organize in Kioto a cabinet consisting of the leaders of the
restoration. Each new governor received one-tenth of the
income of the fief by way of emoluments; the pay of the officials
and the samurai, as well as the administrative expenses of the
district, was defrayed from the same source, and the residue, if
any, was to pass into the treasury of the central government.
The defects of this system from a monarchical point of view
soon became evident. It did not give the power of either
the purse or the sword to the sovereign. The Defects of
revenues of the administrative districts continued the First
to be collected and disbursed by the former Measure*.
feudatories, who also retained the control of the troops, the
right of appointing and dismissing officials, and almost com-
plete local autonomy. A further radical step had to be
taken, and the leaders of reform, seeing nothing better than
to continue the method of procedure which had thus far proved
so successful, contrived, first, that several of the administrative
districts should send in petitions offering to surrender their local
autonomy and be brought under the direct rule of the central
government; secondly, that a number of samurai should apply
for permission to lay aside their swords. While the nation was
digesting the principles embodied in these petitions, the govern-
ment made preparations for further measures of reform. The
ex-chief of Satsuma, who showed some umbrage because the
services of his clan in promoting the restoration had not been
more fully recognized, was induced to take high ministerial office,
as were also the ex-chiefs of Chosha and Tosa. Each of the four
DOMESTIC HISTORY]
JAPAN
267
great clans had now three representatives in the ministry.
These clans were further persuaded to send to Tokyo — whither
the emperor had moved his court — contingents of troops to
form the nucleus of a national army. Importance attaches to
these details because the principle of clan representation,
illustrated in the organization of the cabinet of 1871, continued
to, be approximately observed for many years in forming
ministries, and ultimately became a target for the attacks of
party politicians.
On the 2Qth of August 1871 an Imperial decree announced
the abolition of the system of local autonomy, and the removal
Adoption o/of the territorial nobles from the posts of governor.
Radical The taxes of the former fiefs were to be paid thence-
Measures. forth jnto the central treasury; all officials were to
be appointed by the Imperial government, and the feudatories,
retaining permanently an income of one-tenth of their original
revenues, were to make Tokyo their place of residence. As for
the samurai, they remained for the moment in possession of
their hereditary pensions. Radical as these changes seem, the
disturbance caused by them was not great, since they left the
incomes of the military class untouched. Some of the incomes
were for life only, but the majority were hereditary, and all had
been granted in consideration of their holders devoting them-
selves to military service. Four hundred thousand men approxi-
mately were in receipt of such emoluments, and the total amount
annually taken from the taxpayers for this purpose was about
£2,000,000. Plainly the nation would have to be relieved of
this burden sooner or later. The samurai were essentially an
element of the feudal system, and that they should survive the
latter's fall would have been incongruous. On the other hand,
suddenly and wholly to deprive these men and their families — a
total of some two million persons — of the means of subsistence on
which they had hitherto relied with absolute confidence, and in
return for which they and their forefathers had rendered faithful
service, would have been an act of inhumanity. It may easily
be conceived that this problem caused extreme perplexity to the
administrators of the new Japan. They left it unsolved for the
moment, trusting that time and the loyalty of the samurai them-
selves would suggest some solution. As for the feudal chiefs,
who had now been deprived of all official status and reduced to the
position of private gentlemen, without even a patent of nobility
to distinguish them from ordinary individuals, they did not find
anything specially irksome or regrettable in their altered
position. No scrutiny had been made into the contents of their
treasuries. They were allowed to retain unquestioned possession
of all the accumulated funds of their former fiefs, and they also
became public creditors for annual allowances equal to one-tenth
of their feudal revenues. They had never previously been so
pleasantly circumstanced. It is true that they were entirely
stripped of all administrative and military authority; but since
their possession of such authority had been in most cases merely
nominal, they only felt the change as a relief from responsibility.
By degrees public opinion began to declare itself with regard
to the samurai. If they were to be absorbed into the bulk of
Treatment the people and to lose their fixed revenues, some
ofti,e capital must be placed at their disposal to begin
Samurai. tne woricj agajn. The samurai themselves showed a
noble faculty of resignation. They had been a privileged class,
but they had purchased their privileges with their blood and
by serving as patterns of all the qualities most prized among
Japanese national characteristics. The record of their acts and
the recognition of the people entitled them to look for munificent
treatment at the hands of the government which they had been
the means of setting up. Yet none of these considerations
blinded them to the painful fact that the time had passed them
by; that no place existed for them in the new polity. Many of
them voluntarily stepped down into the company of the peasant
or the tradesman, and many others signified their willingness to
join the ranks of common bread-winners if some aid was given
to equip them for such a career. After two years' consideration
the government took action. A decree announced, in 1873,
that the treasury was prepared to commute the pensions of the
samurai at the rate of six years' purchase for hereditary pensions
and four years for life pensions — one-half of the commutation to
be paid in cash, and one-half in bonds bearing interest at the
rate of 8%. It will be seen that a perpetual pension of £10
would be exchanged for a payment of £30 in cash, together
with securities giving an income of £2, 8s.; and that a £10 life
pensioner received £20 in cash and securities yielding £i, 123.
annually. It is scarcely credible that the samurai should have
accepted such an arrangement. Something, perhaps, must be
ascribed to their want of business knowledge, but the general
explanation is that they made a large sacrifice in the interests
of their country. Nothing in all their career as soldiers became
them better than their manner of abandoning it. They were
told that they might lay aside their swords, and many of them
did so, though from time immemorial they had cherished the
sword as the mark of a gentleman, the most precious possession
of a warrior, and the one outward evidence that distinguished
men of their order from common toilers after gain. They saw
themselves deprived of their military employment, were invited
to surrender more than one-half of the income it brought, and
knew that they were unprepared alike by education and by
tradition to earn bread in any calling save that of arms. Yet,
at the invitation of a government which they had helped to
establish, many of them bowed their heads quietly to this sharp
reverse of fortune. It was certainly a striking instance of the
fortitude and resignation which the creed of the samurai required
him to display in the presence of adversity. As yet, however,
the government's measures with regard to the samurai were not
compulsory. Men laid aside their swords and commuted their
pensions at their own option.
Meanwhile differences of opinion began to occur among the
leaders of progress themselves. Coalitions formed for destruc-
tive purposes are often found unable to endure the
strain of constructive efforts. Such lack of cohesion
might easily have been foreseen in the case of the
Japanese reformers. Young men without experience of public
affairs, or special education to fit them for responsible posts,
found the duty suddenly imposed on them not only of devising
administrative and fiscal systems universally applicable to a
nation hitherto divided into a congeries of semi-independent prin-
cipalities, but also of shaping the country's demeanour towards
novel problems of foreign intercourse and alien civilization. So
long as the heat of their assault upon the shogunate fused them
into a homogeneous party they worked together successfully.
But when they had to build a brand-new edifice on the ruins of
a still vivid past, it was inevitable that their opinions should
vary as to the nature of the materials to be employed. In this
divergence of views many of the capital incidents of Japan's
modern history had their origin. Of the fifty-five men whose
united efforts had compassed the fall of the shogunate, five
stood conspicuous above their colleagues. They were Iwakura
and Sanjo, court nobles; Saigo and Okubo, samurai of Satsuma,
and Kido, a samurai of Choshu. In the second rank came many
men of great gifts, whose youth alone disqualified them for
prominence — Ito, the constructive statesman of the Meiji era,
who inspired nearly all the important measures of the time,
though he did not openly figure as their originator; Inouye,
who never lacked a resource or swerved from the dictates of
loyalty; Okuma, a politician of subtle, versatile and vigorous
intellect; Itagaki, the Rousseau of his era; and a score of others
created by the extraordinary circumstances with which they had
to deal. But the five first mentioned were the captains, the rest
only lieutenants. Among the five, four were sincere reformers
— not free, of course, from selfish motives, but truthfully bent
upon promoting the interests of their .country before all other
aims. The fifth, Saigo Takamori, was a man in whom bound-
less ambition lay concealed under qualities of the noblest and
most enduring type. His absolute freedom from every trace
of sordidness gave currency to a belief that his aims were of the
simplest; the story of his career satisfied the highest canons
of the samurai; his massive physique, commanding presence and
sunny aspect impressed and attracted even those who had no
268
JAPAN
[DOMESTIC HISTORY
opportunity of admiring his life of self-sacrificing effort or appre-
ciating the remarkable military talent he possessed. In the first
part of his career, the elevation of his clan to supreme power
seems to have been his sole motive, but subsequently personal
ambition appears to have swayed him. To the consummation
of either object the preservation of the military class was essen-
tial. By the swords of the samurai alone could a new imperium
in imperio be carved out. On the other hand, Saigo's colleagues
in the ministry saw clearly not only that the samurai were an
unwarrantable burden on the nation, but also that their con-
tinued existence after the fall of feudalism would be a menace to
public peace as well as an anomaly. Therefore they took the
steps already described, and followed them by a conscription law,
making every adult male liable for military service without
regard to his social standing. It is easy to conceive how pain-
fully unwelcome this conscription law proved to the samurai.
Many of them were not unwilling to commute their pensions,
since their creed had always forbidden them to care for money.
Many of them were not unwilling to abandon the habit of
carrying swords, since the adoption of foreign costume rendered
such a custom incongruous and inconvenient. But very few of
them could readily consent to step down from their cherished
position as the military class, and relinquish their traditional
title to bear the whole responsibility and enjoy the whole honour
of fighting their country's battles. They had supposed, not
unreasonably, that service in the army and navy would be
reserved exclusively for them and their sons, whereas now the
commonest rustic, mechanic or tradesman would be equally
eligible.
While the pain of this blow was still fresh there occurred a
trouble with Korea. The little state had behaved with insulting
Split contumely, and when Japan's course came to bt
among the debated in Tokyo, a disruption resulted in the
Reformers. ^^3 of tne reformers. Saigo saw in a foreign
war the sole remaining chance of achieving his ambition by
lawful means. The government's conscription scheme, yet in
its infancy, had not produced even the skeleton of an army. If
Korea had to be conquered, the samurai must be employed;
and their employment would mean, if not their rehabilitation, at
least their organization into a force which, under Saigo's leader-
ship, might dictate a new policy. Other members of the cabinet
believed that the nation would be disgraced if it tamely endured
Korea's insults. Thus several influential voices swelled the
clamour for war. But a peace party offered strenuous opposi-
tion. Its members saw the collateral issues of the problem,
and declared that the country must not think of taking up arms
during a period of radical transition. The final discussion took
place in the emperor's presence. The advocates of peace under-
stood the national significance of the issue and perceived that
they were debating, not merely whether there should be peace
or war, but whether the country should halt or advance on its
newly adopted path of progress. They prevailed, and four
members of the cabinet, including Saigo, resigned. This rupture
was destined to have far-reaching consequences. One of the
seceders immediately raised the standard of revolt. Among the
devices employed by him to win adherents was an attempt to
fan into fla,me the dying embers of the anti-foreign sentiment.
The government easily crushed the insurrection. Another
seceder was Itagaki Taisuke. The third and most prominent
was Saigo, who seems to have concluded from that moment that
he must abandon his aims or achieve them by force. He retired
to his native province of Satsuma, and applied his whole re-
sources, his great reputation and the devoted loyalty of a number
of able followers to organizing and equipping a strong body of
samurai. Matters were facilitated for him by the conservatism
of the celebrated Shimazu Saburo, former chief of Satsuma, who,
though not opposed to foreign intercourse, had been revolted
by the wholesale iconoclasm of the time, and by the indis-
criminate rejection of Japanese customs in favour of foreign.
He protested vehemently against what seemed to him a slavish
abandonment of the nation's individuality, and finding his
protest fruitless, he set himself to preserve in his own distant
province, where the writ of the Yedo government had never
run, the fashions, institutions and customs which his former
colleagues in the administration were ruthlessly rejecting.
Satsuma thus became a centre of conservative influences,
among which Saigo and his constantly augmenting band of
samurai found a congenial environment. During four years
this breach between the central government and the southern
clan grew constantly.
In the meanwhile (1876) two extreme measures were adopted
by the government: a veto on the wearing of swords, and an
edict ordering the compulsory commutation of the F/agl
pensions and allowances received by the nobles and Abolition of
the samurai. Three years previously the discarding Sword-
of swords had been declared optional, and a scheme of ™**riagand
voluntary commutation had been announced. Many
had bowed quietly to the spirit of these enactments. .But
many still retained their swords and drew their pensions as of
old, obstructing, in the former respect, the government's pro-
jects for the reorganization of society, and imposing, in the latter,
an intolerable burden on the resources of the treasury. The
government thought that the time had come, and that its
own strength sufficed, to substitute compulsion for persuasion.
The financial measure — which was contrived so as to affect the
smallest pension-holders least injuriously — evoked no complaint.
The samurai remained faithful to the creed which forbade them
to be concerned about money. But the veto against sword-
wearing overtaxed the patience of the extreme Conservatives.
It seemed to them that all the most honoured traditions of their
country were being ruthlessly sacrificed on the altar of alien
innovations. Armed protests ensued. A few score of samurai,
equipping themselves with the hauberks and weapons of old
times, fell upon the garrison of a castle, killed or wounded some
300, and then, retiring to an adjacent mountain, died by their
own hands. Their example found imitators in two other places,
and finally the Satsuma samurai rose in arms under Saigo.
This was an insurrection very different in dimensions and
motives from the outbreaks that had preceded it. During four
years the preparations of the Satsuma men had been Satsuma
unremitting. They were equipped with rifles and insumc-
cannon; they numbered some 30,000; they were all of tlo°'
the military class, and in addition to high training in western
tactics and in the use of modern arms of precision, they knew
how to wield that formidable weapon, the Japanese sword,
of which their opponents were for the most part ignorant.
Ostensibly their object was to restore the samurai to their old
supremacy, and to secure for them all the posts in the army, the
navy and the administration. But although they doubtless
entertained that intention, it was put forward mainly with the
hope of winning the co-operation of the military class throughout
the empire. The real purpose of the revolt was to secure the
governing power for Satsuma. A bitter struggle ensued.
Beginning on the zgth of January 1877, it was brought to a close
on the 24th of September by the death, voluntary or in battle,
of all the rebel leaders. During that period the number of men
engaged on the government's side had been 66,000 and the
number on the side of the rebels 40,000, out of which total the
killed and wounded aggregated 35,000, or 33% of the whole.
Had the government's troops been finally defeated, there can be
no doubt that the samurai's exclusive title to man and direct
the army and navy would have been re-established, and Japan
would have found herself permanently saddled with a military
class, heavily burdening her finances, seriously impeding her
progress towards constitutional government, and perpetuating
all the abuses incidental to a policy in which the power of the
sword rests entirely in the hands of one section of the people.
The nation scarcely appreciated the great issues that were at
stake. It found more interest in the struggle as furnishing a
conclusive test of the efficiency of the new military system com-
pared with the old. The army sent to quell the insurrection
consisted of recruits drawn indiscriminately from every class of
the people. Viewed in the light of history, it was an army of
commoners, deficient in the fighting instinct, and traditionally
DOMESTIC HISTORY]
JAPAN
269
demoralized for all purposes of resistance to the military class.
The Satsuma insurgents, on the contrary, represented the flower
of the samurai, long trained for this very struggle, and led by
men whom the nation regarded as its bravest captains. The
result dispelled all doubts about the fighting quality of the people
at large.
Concurrently with these events the government diligently
endeavoured to equip the country with all the paraphernalia of
Occidental civilization. It is easy to understand that
Progress. tne rnaster-minds of the era, who had planned and
carried out the Restoration, continued to take the lead
in all paths of progress. Their intellectual superiority entitled
them to act as guides; they had enjoyed exceptional opportunities
of acquiring enlightenment by visits to Europe and America,
and the Japanese people had not yet lost the habit of looking to
officialdom for every initiative. But the spectacle thus pre-
sented to foreign onlookers was not altogether without dis-
quieting suggestions. The government's reforms seemed to
outstrip the nation's readiness for them, and the results wore
an air of some artificiality and confusion. Englishmen were
employed to superintend the building of railways, the erection
of telegraphs, the construction of lighthouses and the organiza-
tion of a navy. To Frenchmen was entrusted the work of re-
casting the laws and training the army in strategy and tactics.
Educational affairs, the organization of a postal service, the
improvement of agriculture and the work of colonization were
supervised by Americans. The teaching of medical science, the
compilation of a commercial code, the elaboration of a system
of local government, and ultimately the training of military
officers were assigned to Germans. .For instruction in sculpture
and painting Italians were engaged. Was it possible that so
many novelties should be successfully assimilated, or that the
nation should adapt itself to systems planned by a motley band
of aliens who knew nothing of its character and customs?
These questions did not trouble the Japanese nearly so much as
they troubled strangers. The truth is that conservatism was
not really required to make the great sacrifices suggested by
appearances. Among all the innovations of the era the only
one that a Japanese could not lay aside at will was the new
fashion of dressing the hair. He abandoned the queue irrevo-
cably. But for the rest he lived a dual life. During hours of
duty he wore a fine uniform, shaped and decorated in foreign
style. But so soon as he stepped out of office or off parade,
he reverted to his own comfortable and picturesque costume.
Handsome houses were built and furnished according to Western
models. But each had an annex where alcoves, verandas,
matted floors and paper sliding doors continued to do traditional
duty. Beefsteaks, beer, " grape-wine," knives and forks came
into use on occasion. But rice-bowls and chopsticks held their
everyday place as of old. In a word, though the Japanese
adopted every convenient and serviceable attribute of foreign
civilization, such as railways, steamships, telegraphs, post-
offices, banks and machinery of all kinds'; though they accepted
Occidental sciences, and, to a large extent, Occidental philo-
sophies; though they recognized the superiority of European
jurisprudence and set themselves to bring their laws into accord
with it, they nevertheless preserved the essentials of their own
mode of life and never lost their individuality. A remarkable
spirit of liberalism and a fine eclectic instinct were needed for
the part they acted, but they did no radical violence to their own
traditions, creeds and conventions. There was indeed a certain
element of incongruity and even grotesqueness in the nation's
doings. Old people cannot fit their feet to new roads without
some clumsiness. The Japanese had grown very old in their
special paths, and their novel departure was occasionally dis-
figured by solecisms. The refined taste that guided them un-
erringly in all the affairs of life as they had been accustomed to
live it, seemed to fail them signally when they emerged into an
alien atmosphere. They have given their proofs, however. It
is now seen that the apparently excessive rapidity of their pro-
gress did not overtax their capacities; that they have emerged
safely from their destructive era and carried their constructive
career within reach of certain success, and that while they have
still to develop some of the traits of their new civilization, there
is no prospect whatever of its proving ultimately unsuited to
them.
After the Satsuma rebellion, nothing disturbed the even tenor
of Japan's domestic politics except an attempt on the part of
some of her people to force the growth of parlia- Deveiop-
mentary government. It is evident that the united meat of
effort made by the fiefs to overthrow the system Kepre-
of dual government and wrest the administrative s*atative
Qovera-
power from the shogun could have only one logical nient.
outcome: the combined exercise of the recovered
power by those who had been instrumental in recovering it.
That was the meaning of the oath taken by the emperor at the
Restoration, when the youthful sovereign was made to say
that wise counsels should be widely sought, and all things
determined by public discussion. But the framers of the
oath had the samurai alone in view. Into their considera-
tion the common people — farmers, mechanics, tradesmen
— did not enter at all, nor had the common people them-
selves any idea of advancing a claim to be considered. A
voice in the administration would have been to them an embar-
rassing rather than a pleasing privilege. Thus the first delibera-
tive assembly was composed of nobles and samurai only. A
mere debating club without any legislative authority, it was
permanently dissolved after two sessions. Possibly the problem
of a parliament might have been long postponed after that
fiasco, had it not found an ardent advocate in Itagaki Taisuke
(afterwards Count Itagaki). A Tosa samurai conspicuous as a
leader of the restoration movement, Itagaki was among the advo-
cates of recourse to strong measures against Korea in 1873, and
his failure to carry his point, supplemented by a belief that a
large section of public opinion would have supported him had
there been any machinery for appealing to it, gave fresh impetus
to his faith in constitutional government. Resigning office on
account of the Korean question, he became the nucleus of
agitation in favour of a parliamentary system, and under his
banner were enrolled not only discontented samurai but also
many of the young men who, returning from direct observation
of the working of constitutional systems in Europe or America,
and failing to obtain official posts in Japan, attributed their
failure to the oligarchical form of their country's polity. Thus
in the interval betweeen 1873 and 1877 there were two centres of
disturbance in Japan: one in Satsuma, where Saigo figured
as leader; the other in Tosa, under Itagaki's guidance. When
the Satsuma men appealed to arms in 1877, a widespread appre-
hension prevailed lest the Tosa politicians should throw in their
lot with the insurgents. Such a fear had its origin in failure to
understand the object of the one side or to appreciate the sin-
cerity of the other. Saigo and his adherents fought to sub-
stitute a Satsuma clique for the oligarchy already in power.
Itagaki and his followers struggled for constitutional institutions.
The two could not have anything in common. There was con-
sequently no coalition. But the Tosa agitators did not neglect
to make capital out of the embarrassment caused by the Satsuma
rebellion. While the struggle was at its height, they addressed
to the government a memorial, charging the administration with
oppressive measures to restrain the voice of public opinion,
with usurpation of power to the exclusion of the nation at large,
and with levelling downwards instead of upwards, since the
samurai had been reduced to the rank of commoners, whereas
the commoners should have been educated up to the standard
of the samurai. This memorial asked for a representative
assembly and talked of popular rights. But since the document
admitted that the people were uneducated, it is plain that there
cannot have been any serious idea of giving them a share in the
administration. In fact, the Tosa Liberals were not really con-
tending for popular representation in the full sense of the term.
What they wanted was the creation of some machinery for
securing to the samurai at large a voice in the management of
state affairs. They chafed against the fact that, whereas the
efforts and sacrifices demanded by the Restoration had fallen
270
JAPAN
[DOMESTIC HISTORY
equally on the whole military class, the official prizes under the
new system were monopolized by a small coterie of men belonging
to the four principal clans. It is on record that Itagaki would
have been content originally with an assembly consisting half
of officials, half of non-official samurai, and not including any
popular element whatever.
But the government did not believe that the time had come
even for a measure such as the Tosa Liberals advocated. The
statesmen in power conceived that the nation must be educated
up to constitutional standards, and that the first step should be
to provide an official model. Accordingly, in 1874, arrange-
ments were made for periodically convening an assembly of
prefectural governors, in order that they might act as channels
of communication between the central authorities and the
provincial population, and mutually exchange ideas as to the
safest and most effective methods of encouraging progress within
the limits of their jurisdictions. This was intended to be the
embryo of representative institutions. But the governors,
being officials appointed by the cabinet, did not bear in any sense
the character of popular nominees, nor could it even be said that
they reflected the public feeling of the districts they adminis-
tered, for their habitual and natural tendency was to try, by
means of heroic object lessons, to win the people's allegiance to
the government's progressive policy, rather than to convince
the government of the danger of overstepping the people's
capacities.
These conventions of local officials had no legislative power
whatever. The foundations of a body for discharging that
function were laid in 1875, when a senate (genro-in) was organized.
It consisted of official nominees, and its duty was to discuss and
revise all laws and ordinances prior to their promulgation. It
is to be noted, however, that expediency not less than a spirit
of progress presided at the creation of the senate. Into its ranks
were drafted a number of men for whom no places could be
found in the executive, and who, without some official employ-
ment, would have been drawn into the current of disaffection.
From that point of view the senate soon came to be regarded as a
kind of hospital for administrative invalids, but undoubtedly
its discharge of quasi-legislative functions proved suggestive,
useful and instructive.
The second meeting of the provincial governors had just been
prorogued when, in the spring of 1878, the great minister, Okubo
Aisassina- Toshimitsu, was assassinated. Okubo, uniformly
tioaof ready to bear the heaviest burden of responsibility
Okubo. ;n everv political complication, had stood promi-
nently before the nation as Saigo's opponent. He fell under the
swords of Saigo's sympathizers. They immediately surrendered
themselves to justice, having taken previous care to circulate
a statement of motives, which showed that they ranked the
government's failure to establish representative institutions as a
sin scarcely less heinous than its alleged abuses of power. Well-
informed followers of Saigo could never have been sincere
believers in representative institutions. These men belonged to
a province far removed from the scene of Saigo's desperate
struggle. But the broad fact that they had sealed with their
life-blood an appeal for a political change indicated the exist-
ence of a strong public conviction which would derive further
strength from their act. The Japanese are essentially a brave
people. Throughout the troublous events that preceded and
followed the Restoration, it is not possible to point to one man
whose obedience to duty or conviction was visibly weakened
by prospects of personal peril. Okubo's assassination did not
alarm any of his colleagues; but they understood its suggestive-
ness, and hastened to give effect to a previously formed resolve.
Two months after Okubo's death, an edict announced that
elective assemblies should forthwith be established in various
Local prefectures and cities. These assemblies were to con-
sist of members having a high property qualification,
elected by voters having one-half of that qualifica-
tion; the voting to be by signed ballot, and the session to last for
one month in the spring of each year. As to their functions, they
were to determine the method of levying and spending local
taxes, subject to approval by the minister of state for home
affairs; to scrutinize the accounts for the previous year, and, if
necessary, to present petitions to the central government.
Thus the foundations of genuine representative institutions were
laid. It is true that legislative power was not vested in the
local assemblies, but in all other important respects they dis-
charged parliamentary duties. Their history need not be related
at any length. Sometimes they came into violent collision with
the governor of the prefecture, and unsightly struggles resulted.
The governors were disposed to advocate public works which
the people considered extravagant; and further, as years went
by, and as political organizations grew stronger, there was found
in each assembly a group of men ready to oppose the governor
simply because of his official status. But on the whole the
system worked well. The local assemblies served as training
schools for the future parliament, and their members showed
devotion to public duty as well as considerable aptitude for
debate.
This was not what Itagaki and his followers wanted. Their
purpose was to overthrow the clique of clansmen who, holding
the reins of administrative power, monopolized the The Liberal
prizes of officialdom. Towards the consummation Party.
of such an aim the local assemblies helped little. Itagaki re-
doubled his agitation. He organized his fellow-thinkers into
an association called jiyiUo (Liberals), the first political party in
Japan, to whose ranks there very soon gravitated several men
who had been in office and resented the loss of it; many that had
never been in office and desired to be; and a still greater number
who sincerely believed in the principles of political liberty, but
had not yet considered the possibility of immediately adapting
such principles to Japan's case. It was in the nature of things
that an association of this kind, professing such doctrines,
should present a picturesque aspect to the public, and that its
collisions with the authorities should invite popular sympathy.
Nor were collisions infrequent. For the government, arguing
that if the nation was not ready for representative institutions,
neither was it ready for full freedom of speech or of public
meeting, legislated consistently with that theory, and entrusted
to the police large powers of conrol over the press and the plat-
form. The exercise of these powers often created situations in
which the Liberals were able to pose as victims of official tyranny,
so that they grew in popularity and the contagion of political
agitation spread.
Three years later (1881) another split occurred in the ranks
of the ruling oligarchy. Okuma Shigenobu (afterwards Count
Okuma) seceded from the administration, and was The Pro-
followed by a number of able men who had owed gressist
their appointments to his patronage, or who, during P*rty>
his tenure of office as minister of finance, had passed under
the influence of his powerful personality. If Itagaki be
called the Rousseau of Japan, Okuma may be regarded as the
Peel. To remarkable financial ability and a lucid, vigorous
judgment he added the faculty of placing himself on the crest
of any wave which a genuine aura popularis had begun to swell.
He, too, inscribed on his banner of revolt against the oligarchy
the motto " constitutional government," and it might have been
expected that his followers would join hands with those of
Itagaki, since the avowed political purpose of both was identical.
They did nothing of the kind. Okuma organized an inde-
pendent party, calling themselves Progressists (shimpoto), who
not only stood aloof from the Liberals but even assumed an
attitude hostile to them. This fact is eloquent. It shows that
Japan's first political parties were grouped, not about principles,
but about person. Hence an inevitable lack of cohesion among
their elements and a constant tendency to break up into caves
and coteries. These are the characteristics that render the story
of political evolution in Japan so perplexing to a foreign student.
He looks for differences of platform and finds none. Just as a
true Liberal must be a Progressist, and a true Progressist a Liberal,
so, though each may cast his profession of faith in a mould of
different phrases, the ultimate shape must be the same. The
mainsprings of early political agitation in Japan were personal
DOMESTIC HISTORY]
JAPAN
271
grievances and a desire to wrest the administrative power from
the hands of the statesmen who had held it so long as to overtax
the patience of their rivals. He that searches for profound
moral or ethical bases will be disappointed. There were no
Conservatives. Society was permeated with the spirit of progress.
In a comparative sense the epithet " Conservative " might have
been applied to the statesmen who proposed to defer parliamen-
tary institutions until the people, as distinguished from the
former samurai, had been in some measure prepared for such an
innovation. But since these very statesmen were the guiding
spirits of the whole Meiji revolution, it was plain that their
convictions must be radical, and that, unless they did violence
to their record, they must finally lead the country to representa-
tive institutions, the logical sequel of their own reforms.
Okubo's assassination had been followed, in 1878, by an edict
announcing the establishment of local assemblies. Okuma's
secession in 1881 was followed by an edict announcing that a
national assembly would be convened in 1891.
The political parties, having now virtually attained their
object, might have been expected to desist from further agita-
Aati- ti°n- But they had another task to perform —
Govern- that of disseminating anti-official prejudices among
meat the future electors. They worked diligently, and
""' they had an undisputed field, for no one was put
forward to champion the government's cause. The campaign
was not always conducted on lawful lines. There were plots to
assassinate ministers; there was an attempt to employ dynamite,
and there was a scheme to foment an insurrection in Korea.
On the other hand, dispersals of political meetings by order of
police inspectors, and suspension or suppression of newspapers
by the unchallengeable verdict of a minister for home affairs,
were common occurrences. The breach widened steadily.
It is true that Okuma rejoined the cabinet for a time in 1887,
but he retired again in circumstances that aggravated his party's
hostility to officialdom. In short, during the ten years imme-
diately prior to the opening of the first parliament, an anti-
government propaganda was incessantly preached from the
platform and in the press.
Meanwhile the statesmen in power resolutely pursued their
path of progressive reform. They codified the civil and penal
jaws, remodelling them on Western bases; they brought a vast
number of affairs within the scope of minute regulations; they
rescued the finances from confusion and restored them to a sound
condition; they recast the whole framework of local government;
they organized a great national bank, and established a network
of subordinate institutions throughout the country; they
pushed on the work of railway construction, and successfully
enlisted private enterprise in its cause; they steadily extended
the postal and telegraphic services; they economized public
expenditures so that the state's income always exceeded its
outlays; they laid the foundations of a strong mercantile marine;
they instituted a system of postal savings-banks; they under-
took large schemes of harbour improvement and road-making;
they planned and put into operation an extensive programme
of riparian improvement; they made civil service appointments
depend on competitive examination; they sent numbers of
students to Europe and America to complete their studies; and
by tactful, persevering diplomacy they gradually introduced
a new tone into the empire's relations with foreign powers.
Japan's affairs were never better administered.
In 1890 the Constitution was promulgated. Imposing cere-
monies marked the event. All the nation's notables were
The Const!- summoned to the palace to witness the delivery
tution of of the important document by the sovereign to the
1890. prime minister; salvos of artillery were fired; the
cities were illuminated, and the people kept holiday. Marquis
(afterwards Prince) Ito directed the framing of the Constitution.
He had visited the Occident for the purpose of investigating
the development of parliamentary institutions and studying
their practical working. His name is connected with nearly
every great work of constructive statesmanship in the history of
new Japan, and perhaps the crown of his legislative career was
the drafting of the Constitution, to which the Japanese people
point proudly as the only charter of the kind voluntarily given
by a sovereign to his subjects. In other countries such conces-
sions were always the outcome of long struggles between ruler
and ruled. In Japan the emperor freely divested himself of a
portion of his prerogatives and transferred them to the people.
That view of the case, as may be seen from the story told above,
is not un tinged with romance; but in a general sense it is true.
No incident in Japan's modern career seemed more hazard-
ous than this sudden plunge into parliamentary institutions.
There had been some preparation. Provincial as- working
semblies had partially familiarized the people with otthe
the methods of deliberative bodies. But provin- System.
cial assemblies were at best petty arenas — places where the
making or mending of roads, and the policing and sanitation of
villages came up for discussion, and where political parties
exercised no legislative function nor found any opportunity to
attack the government or to debate problems of national interest.
Thus the convening of a diet and the sudden transfer of financial
and legislative authority from the throne and its entourage of
tried statesmen to the hands of men whose qualifications for
public life rested on the verdict of electors, themselves apparently
devoid of all light to guide their choice — this sweeping innovation
seemed likely to tax severely, if not to overtax completely, the
progressive capacities of the nation. What enhanced the inter-
est of the situation was that the oligarchs who held the adminis-
trative power had taken no pains to win a following in the
political field. Knowing that the opening of the diet would be
a veritable letting loose of the dogs of war, an unmuzzling of the
agitators whose mouths had hitherto been partly closed by legal
restrictions upon free speech, but who would now enjoy complete
immunity within the walls of the assembly whatever the nature
of their utterances — foreseeing all this, the statesmen of the day
nevertheless stood severely aloof from alliances of every kind,
and discharged their administrative functions with apparent
indifference to the changes that popular representation could not
fail to induce. This somewhat inexplicable display of unconcern
became partially intelligible when the constitution was promul-
gated, for it then appeared that the cabinet's tenure of office was
to depend solely on the emperor's will; that ministers were to
take their mandate from the Throne, not from parliament.
This fact was merely an outcome of the theory underlying every
part of the Japanese polity. Laws might be redrafted, institu-
tions remodelled, systems recast, but amid all changes and
mutations one steady point must be carefully preserved, the
Throne. The makers of new Japan understood that so long as
the sancity and inviolability of the imperial prerogatives could
be preserved, the nation would be held by a strong anchor from
drifting into dangerous waters. They laboured under no mis-
apprehension about the inevitable issue of their work in framing
the constitution. They knew very well that party cabinets are
an essential outcome of representative institutions, and that to
some kind of party cabinet Japan must come. But they regarded
the Imperial mandate as a conservative safeguard, pending
the organization and education of parties competent to form
cabinets. Such parties did not yet exist, and until they came
into unequivocal existence, the Restoration statesmen, who had
so successfully managed the affairs of the nation during a quarter
of a century, resolved that the steady point furnished by the
throne must not be abandoned.
On the other hand, the agitators found here a new platform.
They had obtained a constitution and a diet, but they had not
obtained an instrument for pulling down the " clan " adminis-
trators, since these stood secure from attack under the aegis
of the sovereign's mandate. They dared not raise their voices
against the unfettered exercise of the mikado's prerogative.
The nation, loyal to the core, would not have suffered such a
protest, nor could the agitators themselves have found heart
to formulate it. But they could read their own interpretation
into the text of the Constitution, and they could demonstrate
practically that a cabinet not acknowledging responsibility to the
legislature was virtually impotent for law-making purposes.
272 JAPAN
These are the broad outlines of the contest that began in the
first session of the Diet and continued for several years. It is un-
The Diet necessary to speak of the special points of controversy.
and the Just as the political parties had been formed on the
Govern- u'nes of persons, not principles, so the opposition
ment' in the Diet was directed against men, not measures.
The struggle presented varying aspects at different times, but
the fundamental question at issue never changed. Obstruction
was the weapon of the political parties. They sought to render
legislation and finance impossible for any ministry that refused
to take its mandate from the majority in the lower house, and
they imparted an air of respectability and even patriotism to
their destructive campaign by making " anti-clannism " their
war-cry, and industriously fostering the idea that the struggle
lay between administration guided by public opinion and admin-
istration controlled by a clique of clansmen who separated the
throne from the nation. Had not the House of Peers stood
stanchly by the government throughout this contest, it is
possible that the nation might have suffered severely from the
rashness of the political parties.
There was something melancholy in the spectacle. The Restor-
ation statesmen were the men who had made Modern Japan;
the men who had raised her, in the face of immense obstacles,
from the position of an insignificant Oriental state to that of a
formidable unit in the comity of nations; the men, finally,
who had given to her a constitution and representative institu-
tions. Yet these same men were now fiercely attacked by the
arms which they had themselves nerved; were held up to public
obloquy as self-seeking usurpers, and were declared to be im-
peding the people's constitutional route to administrative privi-
leges, when in reality they were only holding the breach until
the people should be able to march into the citadel with some
show of orderly and competent organization. That there was
no corruption, no abuse of position, is not to be pretended; but
on the whole the conservatism of the clan statesmen had only
one object — to provide that the newly constructed representa-
tive machine should not be set working until its parts were duly
adjusted and brought into proper gear. On both sides the
leaders understood the situation accurately. The heads of the
parties, while publicly clamouring for parliamentary cabinets,
privately confessed that they were not yet prepared to assume
administrative responsibilities;1 and the so-called "clan states-
men," while refusing before the world to accept the Diet's
mandates, admitted within official circles that the question was
one of time only. The situation did not undergo any marked
change until, the country becoming engaged in war with China
(1894-95), domestic squabbles were forgotten in the presence of
foreign danger. From that time an era of coalition commenced.
Both the political parties joined hands to vote funds for the
prosecution of the campaign, and one of them, the Liberals,
subsequently gave support to a cabinet under the presidency of
Marquis Ito, the purpose of the union being to carry through the
diet an extensive scheme of enlarged armaments and public
works planned in the sequel of the war. The Progressists, how-
ever, remained implacable, continuing their opposition to the
thing called bureaucracy quite irrespective of its measures.
The next phase (1898) was a fusion of the two parties into one
large organization which adopted the name " Constitutional
Fusion of Party" (kensei-to). By this union the chief ob-
the Two stacks to parliamentary cabinets were removed.
Part/e*. |^oj only did the Constitutionalists command a
large majority in the lower house, but also they possessed a
sufficiency of men who, although lacking ministerial experience,
might still advance a reasonable title to be entrusted with port-
folios. Immediately the emperor, acting on the advice of
Marquis It5, invited Counts Okuma and Itagaki to form a
cabinet. It was essentially a trial. The party politicians
were required to demonstrate in practice the justice of the claim
they had been so long asserting in theory. They had worked
1 Neither the Liberals nor the Progressists had a working majority
in l he house of representatives, nor could the ranks of cither have
furnished men qualified to fill all the administrative posts.
[DOMESTIC HISTORY
in combination for the destructive purpose of pulling down the
so-called "clan statesmen"; they had now to show whether
they could work in combination for the constructive purposes
of administration. Their heads, Counts Okuma and Itagaki,
accepted the Imperial mandate, and the nation watched the
result. There was no need to wait long. In less than six
months these new links snapped under the tension of old
enmities, and the coalition split up once more into its original
elements. It had demonstrated that the sweets of power, which
the " clan statesmen " had been so vehemently accused of covet-
ing, possessed even greater attractions for their accusers. The
issue of the experiment was such a palpable fiasco that it effec-
tually rehabilitated the " clan statesmen," and finally proved,
what had indeed been long evident to every close observer, that
without the assistance of those statesmen no political party
could hold office successfully.
Thenceforth it became the unique aim of Liberals and Pro-
gressists alike to join hands permanently with the men towards
whom they had once displayed such implacable Earolment
hostility. Prince Ito, the leader of the so-called Of t/,e ciaa
" elder statesmen," received special solicitations, for statesmen
it was plain that he would bring to any political in Political
party an overwhelming access of strength alike in y**°c'""
his own person and in the number of friends and
disciples certain to follow him. But Prince Ito declined to
be absorbed into any existing party, or to adopt the principle
of parliamentary cabinets. He would consent to form a new
association, but it must consist of men sufficiently disciplined
to obey him implicitly, and sufficiently docile to accept their
programme from his hand. The Liberals agreed to these terms.
They dissolved their party (August 1900) and enrolled them-
selves in the ranks of a new organization, which did not even call
itself a party, its designation being rikken seiyu-kai (association
of friends of the constitution), and which had for the cardinal
plank in its platform a declaration of ministerial irresponsibility
to the Diet. A singular page was thus added to the story of
Japanese political development; for not merely did the Liberals
enlist under the banner of the statesmen whom for twenty
years they had fought to overthrow, but they also tacitly
consented to erase from their profession of faith its essential
article, parliamentary cabinets, and, by resigning that article
to the Progressists, created for the first time an opposition with
a solid and intelligible platform. Nevertheless the seiyQ-kai
grew steadily in strength whereas the number of its opponents
declined correspondingly. At the general elections in May
1908 the former secured 195 seats, the four sections of the
opposition winning only 184. Thus for the first time in Japanese
parliamentary history a majority of the lower chamber found
themselves marching under the same banner. Moreover,
the four sections of the opposition were independently organized
and differed nearly as much from one another as they all differed
from the seiyu-kai. Their impotence to make head against the
solid phalanx of the latter was thus conspicuous, especially
during the 1908-1909 session of the Diet. Much talk then began
to be heard about the necessity of coalition, and that this talk
will materialize eventually cannot be doubted. Reduction of
armaments, abolition of taxes specially imposed for belligerent
purposes, and the substitution of a strictly constitutional
system for the existing bureaucracy — these objects constitute
a sufficiently solid platform, and nothing is wanted except that
a body of proved administrators should join the opposition
in occupying it. There were in 1909 no signs, however, that
any such defection from the ranks of officialdom would take
place. Deference is paid to public opinions inasmuch as even a
seiyu-kai ministry will not remain in office after its popularity
has begun to show signs of waning. But no deference is paid
to the doctrine of party cabinets. Prince Ito did not continue
to lead the seiyu-kai for more than three years. In July 1903
he delegated that function to Marquis Saionji, representative
of one of the very oldest families of the court nobility and a
personal friend of the emperor, as also was Prince It6. The
Imperial stamp is thus vicariously set upon the principle of
A JAPANESE VIEW]
JAPAN
273
political combinations for the better practical conduct of
parliamentary business, but that the seiyu-kai, founded by
Prince Ito and led by Marquis Saionji, should ever hold office
in defiance of the sovereign's mandate is unthinkable. Con-
stitutional institutions in Japan are therefore developing along
lines entirely without precedent. The storm and stress of early
parliamentary days have given place to comparative calm.
During the first twelve sessions of the Diet, extending over 8 years,
there were five dissolutions of the lower house. During the next
thirteen sessions, extending over n years, there were two
dissolutions. During the first 8 years of the Diet's existence there
were six changes of cabinet; during the next n years there were
five changes. Another healthy sign was that men of affairs
were beginning to realize the importance of parliamentary
representation. At first the constituencies were contested
almost entirely by professional politicians, barristers and
journalists. In 1909 there was a solid body (the boshin club)
of business men commanding nearly 50 votes in the lower
house; and as the upper chamber included 45 representatives
of the highest tax-payers, the interests of commerce and
industry were intelligently debated. (F. BY.)
X. — THE CLAIM OF JAPAN: BY A JAPANESE STATESMAN'
It has been said that it is impossible for an Occidental to
understand the Oriental, and vice versa; but, admitting that
the mutual understanding of two different races or peoples
is a difficult matter, why should Occidentals and Orientals
be thus set in opposition? No doubt, different peoples of
Europe understand each other better than they do the Asiatic;
but can Asiatic peoples understand each other better than they
can Europeans or than the Europeans can understand any of
them? Do Japanese understand Persians or even Indians
better than English or French? It is true perhaps that Japan-
ese can and do understand the Chinese better than Europeans;
but that is due not only to centuries of mutual intercourse,
but to the wonderful and peculiar fact that they have adopted
the old classical Chinese literature as their own, somewhat in the
way, but in a much greater degree, in which the European
nations have adopted the old Greek and Latin literatures.
What is here contended for is that the mutual understanding
of two peoples is not so much a matter of race, but of the know-
ledge of each other's history, traditions, literature, &c.
The Japanese have, they think, suffered much from the
misunderstanding of their motives, feelings and ideas; what they
want is to be understood fully and to be known for what they
really are, be it good or bad. They desire, above all, not to be
lumped as Oriental, but to be known and judged on their own
account. In the latter half of the igth century, in fact up to
the Chinese War, it irritated Japanese travelling abroad more
than anything else to be taken for Chinese. Then, after the
Chinese War, the alarm about Japan leading Eastern Asia
to make a general attack upon Europe — the so-called Yellow
Peril — seemed so ridiculous to the Japanese that the bad effects of
such wild talk were not quite appreciated by them. The aim of
the Japanese nation, ever since, at the time of the Restoration
(1868), they laid aside definitively all ideas of seclusion and
entered into the comity of nations, has been that they should
rise above the level of the Eastern peoples to an equality with
the Western and should be in the foremost rank of the brother-
hood of nations; it was not their ambition at all to be the
champion of the East against the West, but rather to beat
down the barriers between themselves and the West.
The intense pride of the Japanese in their nationality, their
patriotism and loyalty, arise from their history, for what other
nation can point to an Imperial family of one unbroken lineage
reigning over the land for twenty-five centuries ? Is it not a
glorious tradition for a nation, that its emperor should be de-
scended directly from that grandson of " the great heaven-
1 The following expression of the Japanese point of view, by a
statesman of the writer's authority and experience, may well supple-
ment the general account of the progress of Japan and its inclusion
among the great civilized powers of the world. — (Eo. E. B.)
illuminating goddess," to whom she said, " This land (Japan)
is the region over which my descendants shall be the lords.
Do thou, my august child, proceed thither and govern it. Go!
The prosperity of thy dynasty shall be coeval with heaven and earth."
Thus they call their country the land of kami (ancient gods of
tradition). With this spirit, in the old days when China held
the hegemony of the East, and all neighbouring peoples were
regarded as its tributaries, Japan alone, largely no doubt on
account of its insular position, held itself quite aloof; it set at
defiance the power of Kublai and routed utterly the combined
Chinese and Korean fleets with vast forces sent by him to conquer
Japan, this being the only occasion that Japan was threatened
with a foreign invasion.
With this spirit, as soon as they perceived the superiority of
the Western civilization, they set to work to introduce it into
their country, just as in the 7th and 8th centuries they had
adopted and adapted the Chinese civilization. In 1868, the first
year of the era of Meiji, the emperor swore solemnly the memor-
able oath of five articles, setting forth the policy that was to be
and has been followed thereafter by the government. These
five articles were:—
1. Deliberative assemblies shall be established and all measures
of government shall be decided by public opinion.
2. All classes, high and low, shall unite in vigorously carrying
out the plan of government.
3. Officials, civil and military, and all common people shall as
far as possible be allowed to fulfil their just desires so that there
may not be any discontent among them.
4. Uncivilized customs of former times shall be broken through, and
everything shall be based upon just and equitable principles of
heaven and earth (nature).
5. Knowledge shall be sought for throughout the world, so that the
welfare of the empire may be promoted.
(Translation due to Prof. N. Hozumi of Tokyo Imp. Univ.)
It is interesting, as showing the continuity of the policy of the
empire, to place side by side with these articles the words of the
Imperial rescript issued in 1908, which are as follows: —
" We are convinced that with the rapid and unceasing advance of
civilization, the East and West, mutually dependent and helping
each other, are bound by common interests. It is our sincere wish
to continue to enjoy for ever its benefits in common with other
powers by entering into closer and closer relations and strengthening
our friendship with them. Now in order to be able to move onward
along with the constant progress of the world and to share in the
blessings of civilization, it is obvious that we must develop our
internal resources; our nation, but recently emerged from an ex-
hausting war, must put forth increased activity in every branch
of administration. It therefore behoves our people to endeavour
with one mind, from the highest to the lowest, to pursue their
callings honestly and earnestly, to be industrious and thrifty, to
abide in faith and righteousness, to be simple and warm-hearted,
to put away ostentation and vanity and strive after the useful and
solid, to avoid idleness and indulgence, and to apply themselves
incessantly to strenuous and arduous tasks . . ."
The ambition of the Japanese people has been, as already
stated, to be recognized as an equal by the Great Powers. With
this object in view, they have spared no efforts to introduce what
they considered superior in the Western civilization, although it
may perhaps be doubted whether in their eagerness they have
always been wise. They have always resented any discrimination
against them as an Asiatic people, not merely protesting against
it, knowing that such would not avail much, but making every
endeavour to remove reasons or excuses for it. Formerly there
were troops stationed to guard several legations; foreign postal
service was not entirely in the hands of the Japanese government
for a long time; these and other indignities against the sove-
reignty of the nation were gradually removed by proving that
they were not necessary. Then there was the question of the
extra-territorial jurisdiction; an embassy was sent to Europe
and America as early as 1871 with a view to the revision of
treaties in order to do away with this imperium in imperio, that
being the date originally fixed for the revision; the embassy,
however, failed in its object but was not altogether fruitless, for
it was then clearly seen that it would be necessary to revise
thoroughly the system of laws and entirely to reorganize the
law courts before Occidental nations could be induced to forgo
274
JAPAN
[A JAPANESE VIEW
this privilege. These measures were necessary in any case as
a consequence of the introduction of the Western methods and
ideas, but they were hastened by the fact of their being a necessary
preliminary to the revision of treaties. When the new code of
laws was brought before the Diet at its first session, and there
was a great opposition against it in the House of Peers on account
of its many defects and especially of its ignoring many established
usages, the chief argument in its favour, or at least one that had
a great influence with many who were unacquainted with tech-
nical points, was that it was necessary for the revision of treaties
and that the defects, if any, could be afterwards amended at
leisure. These preparations on the part of' the government,
however, took a long time,.and in the meantime the whole nation,
or at least the more intelligent part of it, was chafing impatiently
under what was considered a national indignity. The United
States, by being the first to agree to its abandonment, although
this agreement was rendered nugatory by a conditional clause,
added to the stock of goodwill with which the Japanese have
always regarded the Americans on account of their attitude
towards them. When at last the consummation so long and
ardently desired was attained, great was the joy with which it
was greeted, for now it was felt that Japan was indeed on terms
of equality with Occidental nations. Great Britain, by being the
first to conclude the revised treaty — an act due to the remarkable
foresight of her statesmen in spite of the opposition of their
countrymen in Japan — did much to bring about the cordial
feeling of the Japanese towards the British, which made them
welcome with such enthusiasm the Anglo-Japanese alliance.
The importance of this last as a powerful instrument for the
preservation of peace in the extreme East has been, and always
will be, appreciated at its full value by the more intelligent and
thoughtful among the Japanese; but by the mass of the people
it was received with great acclamation, owing partly to the already
existing good feeling towards the British, but also in a large
measure because it was felt that the fact that Great Britain
should leave its " splendid isolation " to enter into this alliance
proclaimed in the clearest possible way that Japan had entered
on terms of full equality among the brotherhood of nations, and
that thenceforth there could be no ground for that discrimination
against them as an Asiatic nation which had been so galling to
the Japanese people.
There have been, and there still are being made, many charges
against the Japanese government and people. While admitting
that some of them may be founded on facts, it is permissible to
point out that traits and acts of a few individuals have often been
generalized to be the national characteristic or the result of a
fixed policy, while in many cases such charges are due to mis-
understandings arising from want of thorough knowledge of each
other's language, customs, usages, ideas, &c. Take the principle
of " the open door," for instance; the Japanese government has
been charged in several instances with acting contrary to it. It
is natural that where (as in China) competition is very keen
between men of different nationalities, individuals should some-
times feel aggrieved and make complaints of unfairness against
the government of their competitors; it is also natural that people
at home .should listen to and believe in those charges made
against the Japanese by their countrymen in the East, while
unfortunately the Japanese, being so far away and often unaware
of them, have not a ready means of vindicating themselves; but
subsequent investigations have always shown those charges to
be either groundless or due to misunderstandings, and it may be
asserted that in no case has the charge been substantiated that
the Japanese government has knowingly, deliberately, of malice
prepense been guilty of breach of faith in violating the principle
of "the open door " to which it has solemnly pledged itself. That
it has often been accused by the Japanese subjects of weakness
vis-d-vis foreign powers to the detriment of their interests, is
perhaps a good proof of its fairness.
The Japanese have often been charged with looseness of com-
mercial morality. This charge is harder to answer than the last,
for it cannot be denied that there have been many instances of
dishonesty on the part of Japanese tradesmen or employees; tu
quoque is never a valid argument, but there are black sheep every-
where, and there were special reasons why foreigners should have
come in contact with many such in their dealings with the
Japanese. In days before the Restoration, merchants and
tradesmen were officially classed as the lowest of four classes,
the samurai, the farmers, the artisans and the merchants;
practically, however, rich merchants serving as bankers and
employers of others w<;re held in high esteem, even by the samurai.
Yet it cannot be denied that the position of the last three was
low compared with that of the samurai; their education was not
so high, and although of course there was the same code of
morality for them all, there was no such high standard of honour
as was enjoined upon the samurai by the bushido or " the way
of samurai." Now, when foreign trade was first opened, it was
naturally not firms with long-established credit and methods that
first ventured upon the new field of business — some few that did
failed owing to their want of experience — it was rather enter-
prising and adventurous spirits with little capital or credit who
eagerly flocked to the newly opened ports to try their fortune.
It was not to be expected that all or most of those should
be very scrupulous in their dealings with the foreigners; the
majority of those adventurers failed, while a few of the abler men,
generally those who believed in and practised honesty as the
best policy, succeeded and came to occupy an honourable posi-
tion as business men. It is also asserted that foreigners, or at
least some of them, did not scruple to take unfair advantage of
the want of experience on the part of their Japanese customers
to impose upon them methods which they would not have
followed except in the East; it may be that such methods were
necessary or were deemed so in dealing with those adventurers,
but it is a fact that it afterwards took a long time and great effort
on the part of Japanese traders to break through some usages
and customs which were established in earlier days and which
they deemed derogatory to their credit or injurious to their in-
terests. Infringement of patent rights and fraudulent imitation
of trade-marks have with some truth also been charged against
the Japanese; about this it is to be remarked that although
the principles of morality cannot change, their applications may
be new; patents and trade-marks are something new to the
Japanese, and it takes time to teach that their infringement
should be regarded with the same moral censure as stealing.
The government has done everything to prevent such practices
by enacting and enforcing laws against them, and nowadays they
are not so common. Be that as it may, such a state of affairs
as that mentioned above is now passing away almost entirely;
commerce and trade are now regarded as highly honourable pro-
fessions, merchants and business men occupy the highest social
positions, several of them having been lately raised to the peerage,
and are as honourable a set of men as can be met anywhere. It
is however to be regretted that in introducing Western business
methods, it has not been quite possible to exclude some of their
evils, such as promotion of swindling companies, tampering with
members of legislature, and so forth.
The Japanese have also been considered in some quarters to
be a bellicose nation. No sooner was the war with Russia over
than they were said to be ready and eager to fight with the
United States. This is another misrepresentation arising from
want of proper knowledge of Japanese character and feelings.
Although it is true that within the quarter of a century preceding
1909 Japan was engaged in two sanguinary wars, not to mention
the Boxer affair, in which owing to her proximity to the scene
of the disturbances she had to take a prominent part, yet neither
of these was of her own seeking; in both cases she had to fight or
else submit to become a mere cipher in the world, if indeed she
could have preserved her existence as an independent state. The
Japanese, far from being a bellicose people, deliberately cut off
all intercourse with the outside world in order to avoid inter-
national troubles, and remained absolutely secluded from the
world and at profound peace within their own territory for two
centuries and a half. Besides, the Japanese have always re-
garded the Americans with a special goodwill, due no doubt to
the steady liberal attitude of the American government and
JAPANNING— JARGON
275
people towards Japan and Japanese, and they' look upon
the idea of war between Japan and the United States as
ridiculous.
Restrictions upon Japanese emigrants to the United States
and to Australia are irritating to the Japanese, because it is a
discrimination against them as belonging to the " yellow " race,
whereas it has been their ambition to raise themselves above the
level of the Eastern nations to an equality with the Western
nations, although they cannot change the colour of their skin.
When a Japanese even of the highest rank and standing has to
obtain a permit from an American immigrant officer before he can
enter American territory, is it not natural that he and his country-
men should resent this discrimination as an indignity? But they
have too much good sense to think or even dream of going to
war upon such a matter; on the contrary, the Japanese govern-
ment agreed in 1908 to limit the number of emigrants in order
to avoid complications.
It may be repeated that it has ever been the ambition of the
Japanese people to take rank with the Great Powers of the world,
and to have a voice in the council of nations; they demand that
they shall not be discriminated against because of the colour of
their skin, but that they shall rather be judged by their deeds.
With this aim, they have made great efforts: where charges
brought against them have any foundation in fact, they have
endeavoured to make reforms; where they are false or due to
misunderstandings they have tried to live them down, trusting
to time for their vindication. They are willing to be judged by
the intelligent and impartial world: a fair field and no favour is
what they claim, and think they have a right to claim, from
the world. (K.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The latest edition of von Wemckstern's
Bibliography of the Japanese Empire contains the names of all
important books and publications relating to Japan, which have
now become very numerous. A general reference must suffice
here to Captain F. Brinkley's Japan (12 vols., 1904); the works of
B. H. Chamberlain, Things Japanese (5th ed., 1905, &c.); W. G.
Aston, Hist, of Jap. Literature, &c., and Lafcadio Hearn, Japan: an
Interpretation (1904), &c., as the European authors with intimate
knowledge of the country who have done most to give accurate and
illuminating expression to its development. See also Fifty Years
of New Japan, an encyclopaedic account of the national development
in all its aspects, compiled by Count Shigenobu Okuma (2 vols.,
1907, 1908; Eng. ed. by Marcus B. Huish, 1909).
JAPANNING, the art of coating surfaces of metal, wood, &c.,
with a variety of varnishes, which are dried and hardened on in
stoves or hot chambers. These drying processes constitute the
main distinguishing features of the art. The trade owes 'its
name to the fact that it is an imitation of the famous lacquering
of Japan (see JAPAN: Art), which, however, is prepared with
entirely different materials and processes, and is in all respects
much more brilliant, durable and beautiful than any ordinary
japan work. Japanning is done in clear transparent varnishes,
in black and in body colours; but black japan is the most
characteristic and common style of work. The varnish for black
japan consists essentially of pure natural asphaltum with a pro-
portion of gum anime dissolved in linseed oil and thinned with
turpentine. In thin layers such a japan has a rich dark brown
colour? it only shows a brilliant black in thicker coatings. For
fine work, which has to be smoothed and polished, several coats
of black are applied in succession, each being separately dried in
the stove at a heat which may rise to about 300° F. Body
colours consist of a basis of transparent varnish mixed with the
special mineral paints of the desired colours or with bronze
powders. The transparent varnish used by japanners is a copal
varnish which contains less drying oil and more turpentine than
is contained in ordinary painters' oil varnish. Japanning pro-
duces a brilliant polished surface which is much more durable and
less easily affected by heat, moisture or other influences than any
ordinary painted and varnished work. It may be regarded as a
process intermediate between ordinary painting and enamelling.
It is very extensively applied in the finishing of ordinary iron-
mongery goods and domestic iron-work, deed boxes, clock dials
and papier-mache articles. The process is also applied to blocks
of slate for making imitation of black and other marbles for
chimneypieces, &c., and in a modified form is employed for
sreparing enamelled, japan or patent leather.
JAPHETH (n?;), in the Bible, the youngest -son of Noah1
according to the Priestly Code (c. 450 B.C.) ; but in the earlier
;radition2 the second son, also the " father " of one of the three
groups into which the nations of the world are divided.3 In
ten. ix. 27, Noah pronounces the following blessing on Japheth —
" God enlarge (Heb. yapht) Japheth (Heb. yepheth),
And let him dwell in the tents of Shem;
And let Canaan be his servant."
This is probably an ancient oracle independent alike of the flood
story and the genealogical scheme in Gen. x. Shem is probably
[srael; Canaan, of course, the Canaanites; by analogy, Japheth
should be some third element of the population of Palestine — the
Philistines or the Phoenicians have been suggested. The sense
of the second line is doubtful, it may be " let God dwell " or " let
Japheth dwell "; on the latter view Japheth appears to be in
friendly alliance with Shem. The words might mean that
Japheth was an intruding invader, but this is not consonant with
the tone of the oracle. Possibly Japheth is only present in
Gen. ix. 20-27 through corruption of the text, Japheth may
be an accidental repetition of yapht " may he enlarge," misread
as a proper name.
In Gen. x. Japheth is the northern and western division of the
nations; being perhaps used as a convenient title under which to
group the more remote peoples who were not thought of as stand-
ing in ethnic or political connexion with Israel or Egypt. Thus
of his descendants, Corner, Magog,4 Tubal, Meshech, Ashkenaz,
Riphath and Togarmah are peoples who are located with more
or less certainty in N.E. Asia Minor, Armenia and the lands to
the N.E. of the Black Sea; Javan is the lonians, used loosely for
the seafaring peoples of the West, including Tarshish (Tartessus
in Spain), Kittim (Cyprus), Rodanim5 (Rhodes). There is no
certain identification of Tiras and Elishah.
The similarity of the name Japheth to the Titan lapetos of Greek
mythology is probably a mere accident. A place Japheth is men-
tioned in Judith ii. 25, but it is quite unknown.
In addition to commentaries and dictionary articles, see E. Meyer,
Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme, pp. 219 sqq. (W. H. BE.)
JAR, a vessel of simple form, made of earthenware, glass, &c.,
with a spoutless mouth, and usually without handles. The
word came into English through Fr. jane or Span, jarra, from
Arab, jarrah, the earthenware vessel of Eastern countries, used
to contain water, oil, wine, &c. The simple electrical condenser
known as a Leyden Jar (q.v.) was so called because of the early
experiments made in the science of electricity at Leiden. In the
sense of a harsh vibrating sound, a sudden shock or vibrating
movement, hence dissension, quarrel or petty strife, " jar " is
onomatopoeic in origin; it is also seen in the name of the bird
night- jar (also known as the goat-sucker). In the expression
" on the jar " or " ajar," of a door or window partly open, the
word is another form of chare or char, meaning turn or turning,
which survives in charwoman, one who works at a turn, a job
and chore, a job, spell of work.
JARGON, in its earliest use a term applied to the chirping and
twittering of birds, but since the i sth century mainly confined to
any language, spoken or written, which is either unintelligible
to the user or to the hearer. It is particularly applied by unin-
structed hearers or readers to the language full of technical
terminology used by scientific, philosophic and other writers.
The word is O. Fr., and Cotgrave defines it as " gibridge
(gibberish), fustian language." It is cognate with Span, gm-
gonza, and Ital. gergo, gergone, and probably related to the
onomatopoeic O. fr.jargouiller, to chatter. The root is probably
seen in Lat. garrire, to chatter.
1 Gen. v. 32, vi. 10, vii. 13, x. I ; cf . I Chron. i. 4.
1 Gen. ix. 27, x. 2, J. c. 850-750 B.C. In ix. 18 Ham is an
editorial addition.
3 Gen. x. 1-5; cf. i Chron. i. 5-7. For the significance of the
genealogies in Gen. x. see HAM.
4 See GOMER, GOG.
6 So we should read with i Chron. i. 7 (LXX.) for Dodanim.
276
J ARGOON- -JAR VIS
JARGOON, or JARGON (occasionally in old writings jargonnce
undjacounce), a name applied by modern mineralogists to those
zircons which are fine enough to be cut as gem-stones, but are
not of the red colour which characterizes the hyacinth or jacinth.
The word is related to Arab zargun (zircon). Some of the finest
jargoons are green, others brown and yellow, whilst some are
colourless. The colourless jargoon may be obtained by heating
certain coloured stones. When zircon is heated it sometimes
changes in colour, or altogether loses it, and at the same time
usually increases in density and brilliancy. The so-called
Matura diamonds, formerly sent from Matara (or Matura), in
Ceylon, were decolorized zircons. The zircon has strong re-
fractive power, and its lustre is almost adamantine, but it lacks
the fire of the diamond. The specific gravity of zircon is subject
to considerable variation in different varieties; thus Sir A. H.
Church found the sp. gr. of a fine leaf-green jargoon to be as low
as 3-982, and that of a pure white jargoon as high as 4-705.
Jargoon and tourmaline, when cut as gems, are sometimes mis-
taken for each other, but the sp. gr. is distinctive, since that of
tourmaline is only 3 103-2. Moreover, in tourmaline the dichro-
ism is strongly marked, whereas in jargoon it is remarkably
feeble. The refractive indices of jargoon are much higher than
those of tourmaline (see ZIRCON). (F. W. R.*)
JARlR IBN 'ATlYYA UL-KHATFl (d. 728), Arabian poet,
was born in the reign of the caliph 'Ali, was a member of the
tribe Kulaib, a part of the Tamim, and lived in Irak. Of his
early life little is known, but he succeeded in winning the favour
of Hajjaj, the governor of Irak (see CALIPHATE). Already famous
for his verse, he became more widely known by his feud with
Farazdaq and Akhtal. Later he went to Damascus and visited
the court of Abdalmalik (' Abd ul-Malik) and that of his successor,
Walld. From neither of these did he receive a warm welcome.
He was, however, more successful with Omar II., and was the
only poet received by the pious caliph.
His verse, which, like that of his contemporaries, is largely satire
and eulogy, was published in 2 vols. (Cairo, 1896). (G. W. T.)
JARKENT, a town of Russian Central Asia, in the province of
Semiryechensk, 70 m. W.N.W. of Kulja and near to the Ili river.
Pop. (1897), 16,372.
JARNAC, a town of western France in the department of
Charente, on the right bank of the river Charente, and on the rail-
way 23 m. W. of Angouleme, between that city and Cognac.
Pop. (1906), 4493. The town is well built; and an avenue,
planted with poplar trees, leads to a handsome suspension
bridge. The church contains an interesting ogival crypt.
There are communal colleges for both sexes. Brandy, wine
and wine-casks are made in the town. Jarna'c was in 1569
the scene of a battle in which the Catholics defeated the Protes-
tants. A pyramid marks the spot where Louis, Prince de Condi,
one of the Protestant generals, was slain. Jarnac gave its
name to an old French family, of which the best known member
is Gui Chabot, comte de Jarnac (d. c. 1575), whose lucky back-
stroke in his famous duel with Chateigneraie gave rise to the
proverbial phrase coup de jarnac, signifying an unexpected
blow.
JARO, a town of the province of IloJlo, Panay, Philippine
Islands, on the Jaro river, 2 m. N.W. of the town of Iloilo, the
capital. Pop. (1003), 10,681. It lies on a plain in the midst of
a rich agricultural district, has several fine residences, a cathedral,
a curious three-tiered tower, a semi-weekly paper and a monthly
periodical. Jaro was founded by the Spanish in 1584. From
1903 until February 1908 it was part of the town or municipality
of Iloilo.
JAROSITE, a rare mineral species consisting of hydrous
potassium and aluminium sulphate, and belonging to the group
of isomorphous rhombohedral minerals enumerated below: —
Alunite K2 [A1(OH)J, (SO«)4
Jarosite K2 [Fe(OH)2]6 (SO«),
Natrojarosite Na2 [Fe(OH)2]6 (SO4)4
Plumbojarosite . . . . Pb [Fe(OH)2j, (SO,),
Jarosite usually occurs as drusy incrustations of minute
indistinct crystals with a yellowish-brown colour and brilliant
lustre. Hardness 3; sp. gr. 3-15. The best specimens, con-
sisting of crystalline crusts on limonite, are from the Jaroso
ravine in the Sierra Almagrera, province of Almeria, Spain, from
which locality the mineral receives its name. It has been also
found, often in association with iron ores, at a few other localities.
A variety occurring as concretionary or mulberry-like forms is
known as moronolite (from Gr. /j£ipov, " mulberry," and Xi0os,
" stone "); it is found at Monroe in Orange county, New York.
The recently discovered species natrojarosite and plumbojarosite
occur as yellowish-brown glistening powders consisting wholly
of minute crystals, and are from Nevada and New Mexico
respectively. (L. J. S.)
JARRAH WOOD (an adaptation of the native name Jerryhl),
the product of a large tree (Eucalyptus marginata) found in
south-western Australia, where it is said to cover an area of
14,000 sq. m. The trees grow straight in the stem to a great size,
and yield squared timber up to 40 ft. length and 24 in. diameter.
The wood is very hard, heavy (sp. gr. i-oio) and close-grained,
with a mahogany-red colour, and sometimes sufficient " figure "
to render it suitable for cabinet-makers' use. The timber
possesses several useful characteristics; and great expectations
were at first formed as to its value for shipbuilding and general
constructive purposes. These expectations have not, however,
been realized, and the exclusive possession of the tree has not
proved that source of wealth to western Australia which was at
one time expected. Its greatest merit for shipbuilding and
marine purposes is due to the fact that it resists, better than
any other timber, the attacks of the Teredo navalis and other
marine borers, and on land it is equally exempt, in tropical
countries, frorn the ravages of white ants. When felled with the
sap at its lowest point and well seasoned, the wood stands
exposure in the air, earth or sea remarkably well, on which
account it is in request for railway sleepers, telegraph poles and
piles in the British colonies and India. The wood, however,
frequently shows longitudinal blisters, or lacunae, filled with
resin, the same as may be observed in spruce fir timber; and
it is deficient in fibre, breaking with a short fracture under
comparatively moderate pressure. It has been classed at
Lloyds for ship-building purposes in line three, table A, of the
registry rules.
JARROW, a port and municipal borough in the Jarrow
parliamentary division of Durham, England, on the right bank
of the Tyne, 6J m. below Newcastle, and on a branch of the
North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 34,295. The parish
church of St Paul was founded in 685, and retains portions of
pre-Norman work. The central tower is Norman, and there
are good Decorated and Perpendicular details in th'e body of the
church. Close by are the scattered ruins of the monastery
begun by the pious Biscop in 681, and consecrated with the
church by Ceolfrid in 685. Within the walls of this monastery
the Venerable Bede spent his life from childhood; and his body
was at first buried within the church, whither, until it was
removed under Edward the Confessor to Durham, it attracted
many pilgrims. The town is wholly industrial, devoted to
ship-building, chemical works, paper mills and the neighbouring
collieries. It owes its development from a mere pit village
very largely to the enterprise of Sir Charles Mark Palmer (q.v.).
Jarrow Slake, a river bay, i m, long by i m. broad, contains
the Tyne docks of the North-Eastern railway company. A
great quantity of coal is shipped. Jarrow was incorporated in
1875, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and
18 councillors. Area, 783 acres.
JARRY, NICOLAS, one of the best-known i?th century
French calligraphers. He was born at Paris about 1620, and
was officially employed by Louis XIV. His most famous work
is the Guirlande de Julie (1641). He died some time before
1674.
JARVIS, JOHN WESLEY (1780-1840), American artist,
nephew of the great John Wesley, was born at South Shields,
England, and was taken to the United States at the age of
five. He was one of the earliest American painters to give
JASHAR, BOOK OF— JASMINE
serious attention to the study of anatomy. He lived at first in
Philadelphia, afterwards establishing himself in New York,
where he enjoyed great popularity, though his conviviality and
eccentric mode of life affected his work. He visited Baltimore,
Charleston and New Orleans, entertaining much and painting
portraits of prominent people, particularly in New Orleans,
where General Andrew Jackson was one of his sitters. He had
for assistants at different times both Sully and Inman. He
affected singularity in dress and manners, and his mots were
the talk of the day. But his work deteriorated, and he died
in great poverty in New York City. Examples of his painting
are in the collection of the New York Historical Society.
JASHAR, BOOK OF, in Hebrew Sepher ha-yashar, a Hebrew
composition mentioned as though well-known in Josh. x. 13
and 2 Sam. i. 18. From these two passages it seems to have
been a book of songs relating to important events, but no early
collection of the kind is now extant, nor is anything known of it.
Various speculations have been put forward as to the name: (i)
that it means the book of the upright, i.e. Israel or distinguished
Israelites, the root being the same as in Jeshurun; (2) that
Jashar (""*') is a transposition of shir (~IV, song); (3) that it
should be pointed Yashir ( "V',, sing; cf. Exod. xv. i) and was
so called after its first word. None of these is very convincing,
though support may be found for them all in the versions. The
Septuagint favours (i) by its rendering effl /3i/3Xiou TOV evdovs
in Samuel (it omits the words in Joshua); the Vulgate has in
libra juslorum in both places; the Syriac in Samuel has Ashlr,
which suggests a Hebrew reading ha-shlr (the song), and in
Joshua it translates " book of praises." The Targum on both
passages has " book of the law," an explanation which is fol-
lowed by the chief Jewish commentators, making the incidents
the fulfilment of passages in the Pentateuch. Since it con-
tained the lament of David (2 Sam. i. 18) it cannot have been
completed till after his time. If Wellhausen's restoration of
i Kings viii. 12 be accepted (from Septuagint i Kings viii. 53,
kv /3t(3Xi<o rfjs $>w) where the reference is to the building
of the Temple, the book must have been growing in the time of
Solomon. The attempt of Donaldson1 to reconstruct it is
largely subjective and uncritical.
In later times when it became customary to compose midrashic
works under well-known names, a book of Jashar naturally made
its appearance. It need hardly be remarked that this has nothing
whatever to do with the older book. It is an anonymous elaboration
in Hebrew of the early part of the biblical narrative, probably com-
posed in the I2th century. The fact that its legendary material
is drawn from Arabic sources, as well as from Talmud, Midrash
and later Jewish works, would seem to show that the writer lived in
Spain, or, according to others, in south Italy. The first edition
appeared at Venice in 1625, and it has been frequently printed
since. It was translated into English by (or for) M. M. Noah
(New York, 1840). A work called The Book of . . . Jasher, trans-
lated . . . by Alcuin (1751; 2nd ed., Bristol, 1829), has nothing to
do with this or with any Hebrew original, but is a mere fabrication
by the printer, Jacob Hive, who put it forward as the book
" mentioned in Holy Scripture."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — M. Heilprin, Historical Poetry of the Ancient
Hebrews (New York, 1879), i. 128-131; Mercati, " Una congettura
sopra il libro del Giusto, in Studi e Testi (5, Roma, 1901). On the
medieval work see Zunz, Gottesdienstliche Vortrdge der Juden (Frank-
furt a. M., 1892), 2nd ed., p. 162.
JASHPUR, a tributary state of India, in the Central Provinces,
having been transferred from Bengal in 1905. The country is
divided almost equally into high and low lands. The Uparghat
plateau on the east rises 2200 ft. above sea-level, and the hills
above it reach their highest point in Ranijula (3527 ft.). The
only river of importance is the Ib, in the bed of which diamonds
are found, while from time immemorial its sands have been
washed for gold. Jashpur iron, smelted by the Kols, is highly
prized. Jungles of sal forests abound, harbouring elephant,
bison and other wild beasts. Jungle products include lac,
silk cocoons and beeswax, which are exported. Area 1948
sq. m.; pop. (1901), 132,114; estimated revenue £8000.
1 Jashar: fragmenta archetypa carminum Hebraicorum (Berlin,
1854). Cf. Perowne's Remarks on it (Lond. 1855).
277
JASMIN, JACQUES (1798-1864), Provencal poet, was born at
Agen on the 6th of March 1 798, his family name being Boe. His
father, who was a tailor, had a certain facility for making doggerel
verses, which he sang or recited at fairs and such-like popular
gatherings; and Jacques, who used generally to accompany him,
was thus early familiarized with the part which he afterwards so
successfully filled himself. When sixteen years of age he found
employment at a hairdresser's shop, and subsequently started
a similar business of his own on the Gravier at Agen. In 1825
he published his first volume of Papillotos (" Curl Papers "),
containing poems in French (a language he used with a certain
sense of restraint), and in the familiar Agen patois — the popular
speech of the working classes — in which he was to achieve all
his literary triumphs. Jasmin was the most famous forerunner
in Provencal literature (q.v.) of Mistral and the Felibrige. His
influence in rehabilitating, for literary purposes, his native dialect,
was particularly exercised in the public recitals of his poems to
which he devoted himself. His poetic gift, and his flexible voice
and action, fitted him admirably for this double role of trouba-
dour and jongleur. In 1835 he recited his " Blind Girl of Castel-
Cuille " at Bordeaux, in 1836 at Toulouse; and he met with an.
enthusiastic reception in both those important cities. Most of
his public recitations were given for benevolent purposes, the
proceeds being contributed by him to the restoration of the church
of Vergt and other good works. Four successive volumes of
Papillotos were published during his lifetime, and contained
amongst others the following remarkable poems, quoted in order:
" The Charivari," "My Recollections" (supplemented after an
interval of many years), " The Blind Girl," " Francounetto,"
" Martha the Simple," and " The Twin Brothers." With the
exception of " The Charivari," these are all touching pictures of
humble life — in most cases real episodes — carefully elaborated
by the poet till the graphic descriptions, full of light and colour,
and the admirably varied and melodious verse, seem too sponta-
neous and easy to have cost an effort. Jasmin was not a prolific
writer, and, in spite of his impetuous nature, would work a long
time at one poem, striving to realize every feeling he wished to
describe, and give it its most lucid and natural expression. A
verse from his spirited poem, "The Third of May," written in
honour of Henry IV., and published in the first volume of Papil-
lotos, is engraved on the base of the statue erected to that king
at Nerac. In 1852 Jasmin's works were crowned by the Acade-
mie Francaise, and a pension was awarded him. The medal
struck on the occasion bore the inscription: Au poele moral et
populaire. His title of " Maistre es Jeux" is a distinction only
conferred by the academy of Toulouse on illustrious writers.
Pius IX. sent him the insignia of a knight of St Gregory the
Great, and he was made chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He
spent the latter years of his life on a small estate which he had
bought near Agen and named " Papillotos," and which he
describes in Ma Bigno (" My Vine "). Though invited to repre-
sent his native city, he refused to do so, preferring the pleasures
and leisure of a country life, and wisely judging that he was no
really eligible candidate for electoral honours. He died on the
4th of October 1864. His last poem, an answer to Renan, was
placed between his folded hands in his coffin.
JASMINE, or JESSAMINE, botanically Jasminum, a genus of
shrubs or climbers constituting the principal part of the tribe
Jasminoideae of the natural order Oleaceae, and comprising
about 150 species, of which 40 or more occur in the gardens of
Britain. The plants of the genus are mostly natives of the
warmer regions of the Old World; there is one South American
species. The leaves are pinnate or t.ernate, or sometimes appa-
rently simple, consisting of one leaflet, articulated to the petiole.
The flowers, usually white or yellow, are arranged in terminal or
axillary panicles, and have a tubular 5- or 8-cleft calyx, a cylin-
drical corolla-tube, with a spreading limb, two included stamens
and a two-celled ovary.
The name is derived from the Persian yasmin. Linnaeus
obtained a fancied etymology from 10, violets, and 6o>«7, smell,
but the odour of its flowers bears no^esemblance to that of the
violet. The common white jasmine, Jasminum ojjicinale, one
278
JASON
of the best known and most highly esteemed of British hardy
ligneous climbers, is a native of northern India and Persia, intro-
duced about the middle of the i6th century. In the centre and
south cf Europe it is thoroughly acclimatized. Although it
grows to the height of 12 and sometimes 20 ft., its stem is feeble
and requires support ; its leaves are opposite, pinnate and dark
green, the leaflets are in three pairs, with an odd one, and are
pointed, the terminal one larger and with a tapering point. The
fragrant white flowers bloom from June to October; and, as they
are found chiefly on the young shoots, the plant should only be
pruned in the autumn. Varieties with golden and silver-edged
leaves and one with double flowers are known.
The zambak or Arabian jasmine, /. Sambac, is an evergreen white-
flowered climber, 6 or 8 ft. high, introduced into Britain in the latter
part of the I7th century. Two varieties introduced somewhat later
are respectively 3-leaved and double-flowered, and these, as well as
that with normal flowers, bloom throughout the greater part of the
Jasminum grandiflorum, half natural size ; flower, natural size.
year. On account of their exquisite fragrance the flowers are
highjy esteemed in the East, and are frequently referred to by the
Persian and Arabian poets. An oil obtained by boiling the leaves is
used to anoint the head for complaints of the eye, and an oil obtained
from the roots is used medicinally to arrest the secretion of milk.
The flowers of one of the double varieties are held sacred to Vishnu,
and used as votive offerings in Hindu religious ceremonies. The
Spanish, or Catalonian jasmine, /. grandiflorum, a native of the
north-west Himalaya, and cultivated both in the old and new
world, is very like J. offlcinale, but differs in the size of the leaflets;
the branches are shorter and stouter, and the flowers very much
larger, and reddish underneath. By grafting it on two-year-old
plants of J. officinale, an erect bush about 3 ft. high is obtained,
requiring no supports. In this way it is very extensively cultivated
at Cannes and Grasse, in the south of France; the plants are set in
rows, fully exposed to the sun ; they come into full bearing the second
year after grafting; the blossoms, which are very large and intensely
fragrant, are produced from July till the end of October, but those
of August and September are the most odoriferous.
The aroma is extracted by the process known as enfleurage,
i.e. absorption by a fatty body, such as purified lard or olive oil.
Square class trays framed with wood about 3 in. deep are spread
over with grease about half an inch thick, in which ridges are made
to facilitate absorption, and sprinkled with freshly gathered flowers,
which are renewed every morning during the whole time the plant
remains in blossom ; the trays are piled up in stacks to prevent the
evaporation of the aroma ; and finally the pomade is scraped off the
glass, melted at as low a temperature as possible, and strained.
When oil is employed as the absorbent, coarse cotton cloths pre-
viously saturated with the finest olive oil are laid on wire-gauze
frames, and repeatedly covered in the same manner with fresh
flowers; they are then squeezed under a press, yielding what is termed
huile antique au jasmin. Three pounds of flowers will perfume i K>
of grease — this is exhausted by maceration in I pt. of rectified spirit
to form the " extract." An essential oil is distilled from jasmine in
Tunis and Algeria, but its high price prevents its being used to any
extent. The East Indian oil of jasmine is a compound largely
contaminated with sandalwood-oil.
The distinguishing characters of J. odoratissimum, a native of the
Canary Islands and Madeira, consist principally in the alternate,
obtuse, ternate and pinnate leaves, the 3-flowered terminal peduncles
and the 5-cleft yellow corolla with obtuse segments. The flowers
have the advantage of retaining when dry their natural perfume,
which is suggestive of a mixture of jasmine, jonquil and orange-
blossom. In China J. paniculatum is cultivated as an erect shrub,
known as sieu-hing-hwa ; it is valued for its flowers, which are used
with those of /. Sambac, in the proportion of 10 ft of the former to
30 lb of the latter, for scenting tea — 40 ft of the mixture being re-
quired for 100 lb of tea. J. angustifolium is a beautiful evergreen
climber 10 to 12 ft. high, found in the Coromandel forests, and intro-
duced into Britain during the present century. Its leaves are of a
bright shining green; its large terminal flowers are white with a
faint tinge of red, fragrant and blooming throughout the year.
In Cochin China a decoction of the leaves and branches of
/. nervosum is taken as a blood-purifier; and the bitter leaves of
J. flonbundum (called in Abyssinia habbez-zelim) mixed with kousso
is considered a powerful anthelmintic, especially for tapeworm ; the
leaves and branches are added to some fermented liquors to increase
their intoxicating quality. In Catalonia and in Turkey the wood of
the jasmine is made into long, slender pipe-stems, highly prized by
the Moors and Turks. Syrup of jasmine is made by placing in a jar
alternate layers of the flowers and sugar, covering the whole with
wet cloths and standing it in a cool place; the perfume is absorbed
by the sugar, which is converted into a very palatable syrup.
The important medicinal plant known in America as the " Carolina
jasmine " is not a true jasmine (see GELSEMIUM).
Other hardy species commonly cultivated in gardens are the low
or Italian yellow-flowered jasmine, J. humile, an East Indian species
introduced and now found wild in the south of Europe, an erect
shrub 3 or 4 ft. high, with angular branches, alternate and mostly
ternate leaves, blossoming from June to September; the common
yellow jasmine, /. fruticans, a native of southern Europe and the
Mediterranean region, a hardy evergreen shrub, 10 to 12 ft. high,
with weak, slender stems requiring support, and bearing yellow,
odourless flowers from spring to autumn ; and J. nudiflorum (China),
which bears its bright yellow flowers in winter before the leaves
appear. It thrives in almost any situation and grows rapidly.
JASON ('Ido-wi'), in Greek legend, son of Aeson, king of lolcus
in Thessaly. He was the leader of the Argonautic expedition
(see ARGONAUTS). After he returned from it he lived at Corinth
with his wife Medea (<?.».) for many years. At last he put away
Medea, in order to marry Glauce (or Creusa), daughter of the
Corinthian king Creon. To avenge herself, Medea presented
the new bride with a robe and head-dress, by whose magic pro-
perties the wearer was burnt to death, and slew her children by
Jason with her own hand. A later story represents Jason as
reconciled to Medea (Justin, xlii. 2). His death was said to have
been due to suicide through grief, caused by Medea's vengeance
(Diod. Sic. iv. 55); or he was crushed by the fall of the poop of
the ship " Argo," under which, on the advice of Medea, he had
laid himself down to sleep (argument of Euripides' Medea).
The name (more correctly lason) means " healer," and Jason is
possibly a local hero of lolcus to whom healing powers were
attributed. The ancients regarded him as the oldest navigator,
and the patron of navigation. By the moderns he has been
variously explained as a solar deity; agod of summer; a god of
storm; a god of rain, who carries off the rain-giving cloud (the
golden fleece) to refresh the earth after a long period of drought.
Some regard the legend as a chthonian myth, Aea (Colchis)
being the under-world in the Aeolic religious system from which
Jason liberates himself and his betrothed; others, in view of
certain resemblances between the story of Jason and that of
Cadmus (the ploughing of the field, the sowing of the dragon's
teeth, the fight with the Sparti, who are finally set fighting with
one another by a stone hurled into their midst), associate both
with Demeter the corn-goddess, and refer certain episodes to
practices in use at country festivals, e.g. the stone throwing,
which, like the /3aX\T?Tus at the Eleusinia and the \ido@o\ia at
JASON OF GYRENE— JATAKA
Troezen (Pausanias ii. 30, 4 with Frazer's note) was probably
intended to secure a good harvest by driving away the evil
spirits of unfruitfulness.
See articles by C. Seeliger in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie and
by F. Durrbach in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des anti-
guiles; H. D. Miiller, Mythologie der griechischen Stdmme (1861),
11. 328, who explains the name Jason as " wanderer "; W. Mann-
hardt, Mythologische Forschungen (1884), pp. 75, 130; O. Crusius,
Beitrage zur griechischen Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte (Leipzig,
1886).
Later Versions of the Legend. — Les fais et prouesses du noble el
vaillant chevalier Jason was composed in the middle of the is
century by Raoul Lefevre on the basis of Benoit's Roman de
Troie, and presented to Philip of Burgundy, founder of the order
of the Golden Fleece. The manners and sentiments of the isth
century are made to harmonize with the classical legends after
the fashion of the Italian pre-Raphaelite painters, who equipped
Jewish warriors with knightly lance and armour. The story is
well told; the digressions are few; and there are many touches of
domestic life and natural sympathy. The first edition is believed
to have been printed at Bruges in 1474.
Caxton translated the book under the title of A Boke of the hoole
Lyf of Jason, at the command of the duchess of Burgundy. A
Flemish translation appeared at Haarlem in 1495. The Benedictine
Bernard de Montfaucon (1655-1741) refers to a MS. by Guido delle
Colonne, Historia Medeae et Jasonis (unpublished).
The Histoire de la Thoison d'Or (Paris, 1516) by Guillaume Fillastre
(1400-1473), written about 1440-1450, is an historical compilation
dealing with the exploits of the tres chretiennes maisons of France,
Burgundy and Flanders.
JASON OF CYRENE, a Hellenistic Jew, who lived about
100 B.C. and wrote a history of the times of the Maccabees down
to the victory over Nicanor (175-161 B.C.). This work is said
to have been in five books and formed the basis of the present
2 Mace, (see ch. ii. 19-32).
JASPER, an opaque compact variety of quartz, variously
coloured and often containing argillaceous matter. The
colours are usually red, brown, yellow or green, and are due to
admixture with compounds of iron, either oxides or silicates.
Although the term jasper is now restricted to opaque quartz it is
certain that the ancient jaspis or tdmus was a stone of con-
siderable translucency. The jasper of antiquity was in many
cases distinctly green, for it is often compared with the emerald
and other green objects. Jasper is referred to in the Niebelungen-
lied as being clear and green. Probably the jasper of the
ancients included stones which would now be classed as chal-
cedony, and the emerald-like jasper may have been akin to our
chrysoprase. The Hebrew word yashefeh may have designated a
green jasper (cf. Assyrian yashpu). Professor Flinders Petrie has
suggested that the odem, the first stone on the High Priest's
breastplate, translated " sard," was a red jasper, whilst tarshish,
the tenth stone, may have been a yellow jasper (Hastings's Diet.
Bible, 1902).
Many varieties of jasper are recognized. Riband jasper is a form
in which the colours are disposed in bands, as in the well-known
ornamental stone from Siberia, which shows a regular alternation
of dark red and green stripes. Egyptian jasper is a brown jasper,
occurring as nodules in the Lybian desert and in the Nile valley, and
characterized by a zonal arrangement of light and dark shades of
colour. Agate-jasper is a variety intermediate between true jasper
and chalcedony. Basanite, lydite, or Lydian stone, is a velvet-
black flinty jasper, used as a touchstone for testing the purity of
precious metals by their streak. Porcelain jasper is a clay indurated
by natural calcination. (F. W. R.*)
JASSY (lajii), also written JASH, JASCHI and YASSY, the capital
of the department of Jassy, Rumania; situated on the left bank
of the river Bahlui, an affluent of the Jijia, about 10 m. W. of the
Pruth and the Russian frontier. Pop. (1900), 78,067. Jassy
communicates by rail with Galatz on the Danube, Kishinev in
Bessarabia, and Czernowitz in Bukowina. The surrounding
country is one of uplands and woods, among which rise the
monasteries of Cetatuia, Frumoasa, and Galata with its mineral
springs, the water-cure establishment of Rapide and the great
seminary of Socola. Jassy itself stands pleasantly amid vine-
yards and gardens, partly on two hills, partly in the hollow
279
between. Its primitive houses of timber and plaster were mostly
swept away after 1860, when brick or stone came into general use,
and good streets were cut among the network of narrow, insani-
tary lanes. Jassy is the seat of the metropolitan of Moldavia,
and of a Roman Catholic archbishop. Synagogues and churches
abound. The two oldest churches date from the reign of Stephen
the Great (1458-1504); perhaps the finest, however, are the 17th-
century metropolitan, St Spiridion and Trei Erarchi, the last a
curious example of Byzantine art, erected in 1639 or 1640 by
Basil the Wolf, and adorned with countless gilded carvings on
its outer walls and twin towers. The St Spiridion Foundation
(due to the liberality of Prince Gregory Ghika in 1727, and avail-
able for the sick of all countries and creeds) has an annual income
of over £80,000, and maintains hospitals and churches in several
towns of Moldavia, besides the baths at Slanic in Walachia. The
main hospital in Jassy is a large building, and possesses a.mater-
nity institution, a midwifery school, a chemical institute, an
inoculating establishment, &c. A society of physicians and
naturalists has existed in Jassy since the early part of the igth
century, and a number of periodicals are published. Besides the
university, founded by Prince Cuza in 1864, with faculties of
literature, philosophy, law, science and medicine, there are
a military academy and schools of art, music and commerce;
a museum, a fine hall and a theatre; the state library, where
the chief records of Rumanian history are preserved; an appeal
court, a chamber of commerce and several banks. The city is
the headquarters of the 4th army corps. It has an active trade
in petroleum, salt, metals, timber, cereals, fruit, wine, spirits,
preserved meat, textiles, clothing, leather, cardboard and
cigarette paper.
The inscription by which the existence of a Jassiorum muni-
cipium in the time of the Roman Empire is sought to be proved,
lies open to grave suspicion; but the city is mentioned as early
as the 1 4th century, and probably does derive its name from
the Jassians, or Jazygians, who accompanied the Cumanian
invaders. It was often visited by the Moldavian court. About
1564, Prince Alexander Lapusneanu, after whom one of the chief
streets is named, chose Jassy for the Moldavian capital, instead
of Suceava (now Suczawa, in Bukowina). It was already
famous as a centre of culture. Between 1561 and 1563 an ex-
cellent school and a Lutheran church were founded by the Greek
adventurer, Jacob Basilicus (see RUMANIA: History). In 1643
the first printed book published in Moldavia was issued from a
press established by Basil the Wolf. He also founded a school.the
first in which the mother-tongue took the place of Greek. Jassy
was burned by the Tatars in 1513, by the Turks in 1538, and by
the Russians in 1686. By the Peace of Jassy the second Russo-
Turkish War was brought to a close in 1792. A Greek insurrec-
tion under Ypsilanti in 1821 led to the storming of the city by the
Turks in 1822. In 1844 there was a severe conflagration. For
the loss caused to the city in 1861 by the removal of the seat
of government to Bucharest the constituent assembly voted
£148,150, to be paid in ten annual instalments, but no payment
was ever made.
JATAKA, the technical name, in Buddhist literature, for a
story of one or other of the previous births of the Buddha. The
word is also used for the name of a collection of 547 of such
stories included, by a most fortunate conjuncture of circum-
stances, in the Buddhist canon. This is the most ancient and the
most complete collection of folk-lore now extant in any literature
in the world. As it was made at latest in the 3rd century B.C.,
it can be trusted not to give any of that modern or European
colouring which renders suspect much of the folk-lore collected
by modern travellers.
Already in the oldest documents, drawn up by the disciples
soon after the Buddha's death, he is identified with certain
ancient sages of renown. That a religious teacher should claim
to be successor of the prophets of old is not uncommon in the
history of religions. But the current belief in metempsychosis
led, or enabled, the early Buddhists to make a much wider claim.
It was not very long before they gradually identified their master
with the hero of each of the popular fables and stories of which
28o
JATH— JATS
they were so fond. The process must have been complete by the
middle of the 3rd century B.C.; for we find at that date illustra-
tions of the Jatakas in the bas-reliefs on the railing round the
Bharahat tope with the titles of the Jataka stories inscribed
above them in the characters of that period.1 The hero of each
story is made into a Bodhisatta; that is, a being who is destined,
after a number of subsequent births, to become a Buddha. This
rapid development of the Bodhisatta theory is the distinguishing
feature in the early history of Buddhism, and was both cause and
effect of the simultaneous growth of the Jataka book. In
adopting the folk-lore and fables already current in India, the
Buddhists did not change them very much. The stories as
preserved to us, are for the most part Indian rather than Bud-
dhist. The ethics they inculcate or suggest are milk for babes;
very simple in character and referring almost exclusively to
matters common to all schools of thought in India, and indeed
elsewhere. Kindness, purity, honesty, generosity, worldly
wisdom, perseverance, are the usual virtues praised; the higher
ethics of the Path are scarcely mentioned. These stories, popular
with all, were especially appreciated by that school of Buddhists
that laid stress on the Bodhisatta theory — a school that obtained
its chief support, and probably had its origin, in the extreme
north-west of India and in the highlands of Asia. That school
adopted, from the early centuries of our era, the use of Sanskrit,
instead of Pali, as the means of literary expression. It is almost
impossible, therefore, that they would have carried the canonical
Pali book, voluminous as it is, into Central Asia. Shorter col-
lections of the original stories, written in Sanskrit, were in vogue
among them. One such collection, the Jataka-mala by Arya
Sura (6th century), is still extant. Of the existence of another
collection, though the Sanskrit original has not yet been found,
we have curious evidence. In the 6th century a book of Sanskrit
fables was translated into Pahlavi, that is, old Persian (see
BIDPAI). In succeeding centuries this work was retranslated into
Arabic and Hebrew, thence into Latin and Greek and all the
modern languages of Europe. The book bears a close resem-
blance to the earlier chapters of a late Sanskrit fable book
called, from its having five chapters, the Pancha tantra, or
Pentateuch.
The introduction to the old Jataka book gives the life of the
historical Buddha. That introduction must also have reached
Persia by the same route. For in the 8th century St John of
Damascus put the story into Greek under the title of Barlaam
and Josaphat. This story became very popular in the West. It
was translated into Latin, into seven European languages, and
even into Icelandic and the dialect of the Philippine Islands.
Its hero, that is the Buddha, was canonized as a Christian saint;
and the 27th of November was officially fixed as the date for
his adoration as such.
The book popularly known in Europe as Aesop's Fables was not
written by Aesop. It was put together in the mh century at
Constantinople by a monk named Planudes, and he drew largely for
his stories upon those in the Jataka book that had reached Europe
along various channels. The fables of Babrius and Phaedrus,
written respectively in the 1st century before, and in the 1st century
after, the Christian era, also contain Jataka stories known in India
in the 4th century B.C. A great deal has been written on this
curious question of the migration of fables. But we are still very
far from being able to trace the complete history of each story in
the Jataka book, or in any one of the later collections. For India
itself the record is most incomplete. We have the original Jataka
book in text and translation. The history of the text of the Pancha
tantra, about a thousand years later, has been fairly well traced out.
But for the intervening centuries scarcely anything has been done.
There are illustrations, in the bas-reliefs of the 3rd century B.C., of
Jiitakas not contained in the Jataka book. Another collection,
the Cariyd pijaka, of about the same date, has been edited, out not
translated. Other collections both in Pali and Sanskrit are known
to be extant in MS,; and a large number of Jataka stories, not
included in any formal collection, are mentioned, or told in full, in
other works.
AUTHORITIES.— V. Fausboll, The Jataka, Pali text (7 vols., London
1877-1897), (Eng. trans., edited by E. B. Cowell, 6 vols., Cambridge,
1895-1907); Cariyd pi[aka, edited by R. Morris for the Pali Text
1 A complete list of these inscriptions will be found in Rhys
Davids's Buddhist India, p. 209.
Society (London, 1882); H. Kern, Jataka-mala, Sanskrit text (Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1891), (Eng. trans, by J. S. Speyer, Oxford, 1895);
Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories (with full bibliographical
tables) (London, 1880) ; Buddhist India (chap. xi. on the Jataka Book)
(London, 1903); E. Kuhn, Barlaam und Joasaph (Munich, 1893);
A. Cunningham, The Stupa of Bharhut (London, 1879).
(T. W. R. D.)
JATH, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of
Bombay, ranking as one of the southern Mahratta jagirs. With
the small state of Daphlapur, which is an integral part of it, it
forms the Bijapur Agency, under the collector of Bijapur district.
Area, including Daphlapur, 980 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 68,663,
showing a decline of 14 % in the decade. Estimated revenue
£24,000; tribute £700. Agriculture and cattle-breeding are
carried on; there are no important manufactures. The chief,
whose title is deshmukh, is a Mahratta of the Daphle family.
The town of JATH is 92 m. S.E. of Satara. Pop. (1901), 5404.
jAlIVA (formerly written XATIVA), or SAN FELIPE DE JATIVA,
a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia, on the right
bank of the river Albaida, a tributary of the Jucar, and at the
junction of the Valencia-Murcia and Valencia-Albacete railways.
Pop. (1900), 12,600. Jativa is built on the margin of a fertile
and beautiful plain, and on the southern slopes of the Monte
Bernisa, a hill with two peaks, each surmounted by a castle.
With its numerous fountains, and spacious avenues shaded
with elms or cypresses, the town has a clean and attractive
appearance. Its collegiate church, dating from 1414, but rebuilt
about a century later in the Renaissance style, was formerly a
cathedral, and is the chief among many churches and convents.
The town-hall and a church on the castle hill are partly con-
structed of inscribed Roman masonry, and several houses date
from the Moorish occupation. There is a brisk local trade in
grain, fruit, wine, oil and rice.
Jativa was the Roman Saetabis, afterwards Valeria Augusta,
of Carthaginian or Iberian origin. Pliny (23-79) and Martial
(c. 40-102) mention the excellence of its linen cloth. Under the
Visigoths (c. 483-711) it became an episcopal see; but early in
the 8th century it was captured by the Moors, under whom it
attained great prosperity, and received its present name. It was
reconquered by James I. of Aragon (1213-1276). Duringthe isth
and i6th centuries, Jativa was the home of many members of
the princely house of Borgia or Borja, who migrated hither from
the town of Borja in the province of Saragossa. Alphonso
Borgia, afterwards Pope Calixtus III., and Rodrigo Borgia,
afterwards Pope Alexander VI., were natives of Jativa, born
respectively in 1378 and 1431. The painter Jusepe Ribera was
also born here in 1588. Owing to its gallant defence against the
troops of the Archduke Charles in the war of the Spanish succes-
sion, Jativa received the additional name of San Felipe from
Philip V. (1700-1746).
JATS, or JUTS, a people of north-western India, who numbered
altogether more than 7 millions in 1 901 . They form a considerable
proportion of the population in the Punjab, Rajputana and the
adjoining districts of the United Provinces, and are also widely
scattered through Sind and Baluchistan. Some writers have iden-
tified the Jats with the ancient Getae, and there is strong reason
:o believe them a degraded tribe of Rajputs, whose Scythic origin
las also been maintained. Hindu legends point to a prehistoric
occupation of the Indus valley by this people, and at the time
of the Mahommedan conquest of Sind (712) they, with a cognate
ribe called Meds, constituted the bulk of the population. They
enlisted under the banner of Mahommed bin Kasim, but at a
ater date offered a vigorous resistance to the Arab invaders.
[n 836 they were overthrown by Amran, who imposed on them
a tribute of dogs, and used their arms to vanquish the Meds. In
1025, however, they had gathered audacity, not only to invade
Vlansura, and compel the abjuration of the Mussulman amir, but
o attack the victorious army of MahmQd, laden with the spoil of
Somnath. Chastisement duly ensued: a formidable flotilla,
collected at Multan, shattered in thousands the comparatively
defenceless Jat boats on the Indus, and annihilated their national
pretensions. It is not until the decay of the Mogul Empire that
he Jats again appear in history. One branch of them, settled
JAUBERT- -JAUNDICE
281
south of Agra, mainly by bold plundering raids founded two
dynasties which still exist at Bharatpur (q.v.) and Dholpur (#.».).
Another branch, settled north-west of Delhi, who adopted the Sikh
religion, ultimately made themselves dominant throughout the
Punjab (q.v.) under Ranjit Singh, and are now represented in their
original home by the Phulkian houses of Patiala (q.v.), Jind (q.v.)
and Nabha (q.v.). It is from this latter branch that the Sikh
regiments of the Indian army are recruited. The Jats are mainly
agriculturists and cattle breeders. In their settlements on the
Ganges and Jumna, extending as far east as Bareilly, they are
divided into two great clans, the Dhe and the Hele; while in the
Punjab there are said to be one hundred different sections.
Their religion varies with locality. In the Punjab they have
largely embraced Sikh tenets, while in Sind and Baluchistan
they are Mahommedans. In appearance they are not ill-favoured
though extremely dark; they have good teeth, and large beards,
sometimes stained with indigo. Their inferiority of social posi-
tion, however, to some extent betrays itself in their aspect, and
tends to be perpetuated by their intellectual apathy.
JAUBERT, PIERRE AMlJDtE EMILIEN PROBE (1770-
1847), French Orientalist, was born at Aix in Provence on the
3rd of June 1779. He was one of the most distinguished
pupils of Silvestre de Sacy, whose funeral Discours he pro-
nounced in 1838. Jaubert acted as interpreter to Napoleon in
Egypt in 1798-1799, and on his return to Paris held various posts
under government. In 1802 he accompanied Sebastiani on his
Eastern mission; and in 1804 he was at Constantinople. Next
year he was despatched to Persia to arrange an alliance with
the shah; but on the way he was seized and imprisoned in a dry
cistern for four months by the pasha of Bayazid. The pasha's
death freed Jaubert, who successfully accomplished his mission,
and rejoined Napoleon at Warsaw in 1807. On the eve of
Napoleon's downfall he was appointed charge d'affaires at
Constantinople. The restoration ended his diplomatic career,
but in 1818 he undertook a journey with government aid to
Tibet, whence he succeeded in introducing into France 400
Kashmir goats. The rest of his life Jaubert spent in study, in
writing and in teaching. He became professor of Persian in
the college de France, and director of the ecole des langues
orientales, and in 1830 was elected member of the Academic
des Inscriptions. In 1841 he was made a peer of France and
councillor of state. He died in Paris on the 28th of January,
1847.
Besides articles in the Journal asiatique, he published Voyage en
Armenie et en Perse (1821 ; the edition of 1860 has a notice of Jaubert,
by M. S&lillot) and Elements de la grammaire turque (1823-1834).
See notices in the Journal asiatique, Jan. 1847, and the Journal des
debats, Jan. 30, 1847.
JAUCOURT, ARNAIL FRANCOIS, MARQUIS DE (1757-1852),
French politician, was born on the I4th of November 1757 at
Tournon (Seine-et-Marne) of a Protestant family, protected by
the prince de Conde, whose regiment he entered. He adopted
revolutionary ideas and became colonel of his regiment. In
the Assembly, to which he was returned in 1791 by the depart-
ment of Seine-et-Marne, he voted generally with the minority,
and his views being obviously too moderate for his colleagues
he resigned in 1792 and was soon after arrested on suspicion of
being a reactionary. Mme de Stael procured his release from
P. L. Manuel just before the September massacres. He accom-
panied Talleyrand on his mission to England, returning to
France after the execution of Louis XVI. He lived in retirement
until the establishment of the Consulate, when he entered the
tribunate, of which he was for some time president. In 1803 he
entered the senate, and next year became attached to the house-
hold of Joseph Bonaparte. Presently his imperialist views
cooled, and at the Restoration he became minister of state and a
peer of France. At the second Restoration he was for a brief
period minister 'of marine, but held no further office. He
devoted himself to the support of the Protestant interest in
France. A member of the upper house throughout the reign of
Louis Philippe, he was driven into private life by the establish-
ment of the Second Republic, but lived to see the Coup d'etat and
to rally to the government of Louis Napoleon, dying in Paris
on the 5th of February 1852.
JAUER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Silesia, 13 m. by rail S. of Leignitz, on the Wiithende Neisse.
Pop. (1900), 13,024. St Martin's (Roman Catholic) church
dates from 1267-1290, and the Evangelical church from 1655.
A new town-hall was erected in 1895-1898. Jauer manu-
factures leather, carpets, cigars, carriages and gloves, and is
specially famous for its sausages. The town was first mentioned
in- 1242, and was formerly the capital of a principality em-
bracing about 1 200 sq. m., now occupied by the circles
of Jauer, Bunzlau, Loweberg, Hirschberg and Schonau. From
1392 to 1741 it belonged to the kings of Bohemia, being
taken from Maria Theresa by Frederick the Great. Jauer
was formerly the prosperous seat of the Silesian linen trade,
but the troubles of the Thirty Years' War, in the course of
which it was burned down three times, permanently injured
this.
See Schonaich, Die alte Fiirstentumshauptstadt Jauer (Jauer, 1903).
JAUHARI (ABU NASR IsMAeiL IBN HAMMAD UL-JAUHARI)
(d. 1002 or 1010), Arabian lexicographer, was born at Farab on
the borders of Turkestan. He studied language in Farab and
Bagdad, and later among the Arabs of the desert. He then
settled in Damghan and afterwards at Nlshapur, where he died
by a fall from the roof of a house. His great work is the Kitdb
us-Sahah fil-Lugha, an Arabic dictionary, in which the words
are arranged alphabetically according to the last letter of the
root. He himself had only partially finished the last recension,
but the work was completed by his pupil, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn
Salih ul-Warraq.
An edition was begun by E. Scheidius with a Latin translation,
but one part only appeared at Harderwijk (1776). The whole has
been published at Tebriz (1854) and at Cairo (1865), and many
abridgments and Persian translations have appeared ; cf . C. Brockel-
mann, Geschichte der arabischen Literatur (Weimar, 1898), i. 128 seq.
(G. W. T.)
JAUNDICE (Fr. jaunisse, from jaune, yellow), or ICTERUS
(from its resemblance to the colour of the golden oriole, of which
Pliny relates that if a jaundiced person looks upon it he recovers
but the bird dies) , a term in medicine applied to a yellow colora-
tion of the skin and other parts of the body, depending in most
instances on some derangement affecting the liver. This yellow
colour is due to the presence in the blood of bile or of some of the
elements of that secretion. Jaundice, however, must be re-
garded more as a symptom of some morbid condition previously
existing than as a disease per se.
Cases with jaundice may be divided into three groups.
i. Obstructive Jaundice. — Any obstruction of the passage
of bile from the liver into the intestinal canal is sooner or later
followed by the appearance of jaundice, which in such cir-
cumstances is due to the absorption of bile into the blood.
The obstruction is due to one of the following causes: (i)
Obstruction by foreign bodies within the bile duct, e.g. gallstones
or parasites; (2) inflammation of the duodenum or the lining
membrane of the duct; (3) stricture or obliteration of the duct;
(4) a tumour growing from the duct; (5) pressure on the duct
from without, from the liver or other organ, or tumours arising
from them. Obstructions from these causes may be partial or
complete, and the degree of jaundice will vary accordingly, but
it is to be noted that extensive organic disease of the liver
may exist without the evidence of obstructive jaundice.
The effect upon the liver of impediments to the outflow of
bile such as those above indicated is in the first place an increase
in its size, the whole biliary passages and the liver cells being
distended with retained bile. This enlargement, however,
speedily subsides when the obstruction is removed, but should it
persist the liver ultimately shrinks and undergoes atrophy in its
whole texture. The bile thus retained is absorbed into the
system, and shows itself by the yellow staining seen to a greater
or less extent in all the tissues and many of the fluids of the
body. The kidneys, which in such circumstances act in some
measure vicariously to the liver and excrete a portion of the
282
JAUNPUR
retained bile, are apt to become affected in their structure
by the long continuance of jaundice.
The symptoms of obstructive jaundice necessarily vary
according to the nature of the exciting cause, but there generally
exists evidence of some morbid condition before the yellow
coloration appears. Thus, if the obstruction be due to an
impacted gallstone in the common or hepatic duct, there will
probably be the symptoms of intense suffering characterizing
hepatic colic (see COLIC). In the cases most frequently seen —
those, namely, arising from simple catarrh of the bile ducts due to
gastro-duodenal irritation spreading through the common duct —
the first sign to attract attention is the yellow appearance of
the white of the eye, which is speedily followed by a similar
colour on the skin over the body generally. The yellow tinge
is most distinct where the skin is thin, as on the forehead,
breast, elbows, &c. It may be also well seen in the roof of the
mouth, but in the lips and gums the colour is not observed till
the blood is first pressed from them. The tint varies, being in
the milder cases faint, in the more severe a deep saffron yellow,
while in extreme .degrees of obstruction it may be of dark brown
or greenish hue. The colour can scarcely, if at all, be observed
in artificial light.
The urine exhibits well marked and characteristic changes in
jaundice which exist even before any evidence can be detected
on the skin or elsewhere. It is always of dark brown colour
resembling porter, but after standing in the air it acquires a
greenish tint. Its froth is greenish-yellow, and it stains with
this colour any white substance. It contains not only the bile
colouring matter but also the bile acids. The former is detected
by the play of colours yielded on the addition of nitric acid, the
latter by the purple colour, produced by placing a piece of lump
sugar in the urine tested, and adding thereto a few drops of
strong sulphuric acid.
The contents of the bowels also undergo changes, being
characterized chiefly by their pale clay colour, which is in propor-
tion to the amount of hepatic obstruction, and to their consequent
want of admixture with bile. For the same reason they contain
a large amount of unabsorbed fatty matter, and have an
extremely offensive odour.
Constitutional symptoms always attend jaundice with obstruc-
tion. The patient becomes languid, drowsy and irritable, and
has generally a slow pulse. The appetite is usually but not
always diminished, a bitter taste in the mouth is complained of,
while flatulent eructations arise from the stomach. Intolerable
itching of the skin is a common accompaniment of jaundice, and
cutaneous eruptions or boils are occasionally seen. Yellow
vision appears to be present in some very rare cases. Should
the jaundice depend on advancing organic disease of the liver,
such as cancer, the tinge becomes gradually deeper, and the
emaciation and debility more marked towards the fatal termina-
tion, which in such cases is seldom long postponed. Apart from
this, however, jaundice from obstruction may exist for many
years, as in those instances where the walls of the bile ducts are
thickened from chronic catarrh, but where they are only partially
occluded. In the common cases of acute catarrhal jaundice
recovery usually takes place in two or three weeks.
The treatment of this form of jaundice bears reference to the
cause giving rise to the obstruction. In the ordinary cases of
simple catarrhal jaundice, or that following the passing of gall-
stones, a light nutritious diet (milk, soups, &c., avoiding sac-
charine and farinaceous substances and alcoholic stimulants),
along with couriter-irritation applied over the right side and the
use of laxatives and cholagogues, will be found to be advanta-
geous. Diaphoretics and diuretics to promote the action of the
skin and kidneys are useful in jaundice. In the more chronic
forms, besides the remedies above named, the .waters of Carlsbad
are of special efficacy. In cases other than acute catarrhal,
operative interference is often called for, to remove the gall-
stones, tumour, &c., causing the obstruction.
2. Toxaemic Jaundice is observed to occur as a symptom in
certain fevers, e.g. yellow fever, ague, and in pyaemia also as
the effect of certain poisons, such as phosphorus, and the venom
of snake-bites. Jaundice of this kind is almost always slight,
and neither the urine nor the discharges from the bowels exhibit
changes in appearance to such a degree as in the obstructive
variety. Grave constitutional symptoms are often present, but
they are less to be ascribed to the jaundice than to the disease
with which it is associated.
3. Hereditary Jaundice. — Under this group there are the
jaundice of new-born infants, which varies enormously in
severity; the cases in which a slight form of jaundice obtains in
several members of the same family, without other symptoms,
and which may persist for years; and lastly the group of cases
with hypertrophic cirrhosis.
The name malignant jaundice is sometimes applied to that very
fatal form of disease otherwise termed acute yellow atrophy of the
liver (sec ATROPHY).
JAUNPUR, a city and district of British India, in the Benares
division of the United Provinces. The city is on the left bank of
the river Gumti, 34 m. N.W. from Benares by rail. Pop. (1901),
42,771. Jaunpur is a very ancient city, the former capital of a
Mahommedan kingdom which once extended from Budaun and
Etawah to Behar. It abounds in splendid architectural monu-
ments, most of which belong to the period when the rulers of
Jaunpur were independent of Delhi. The fort of Feroz Shah
is in great part completely ruined, but there remain a fine gateway
of the i6th century, a mosque dating from 1376, and the ham-
mams or baths of Ibrahim Shah. Among other buildings may be
mentioned the Atala Masjid (1408) and the ruined JinjiriMasjid,
mosques built by Ibrahim, the first of which has a great clois-
tered court and a magnificent facade; the Dariba mosque con-
structed by two of Ibrahim's governors; the Lai Darwaza erected
by the queen of Mahmud; the Jama Masjid (1438-1478) 01 great
mosque of Husain, with court and cloisters, standing on a raised
terrace, and in part restored in modern times; and finally the
splendid bridge over the Gumti, erected by Munim Khan, Mogul
governor in 1560-1573. During the Mutiny of 1857 Jaunpur
formed a centre of disaffection. The city has now lost its im-
portance, the only industries surviving being the manufacture
of perfumes and papier-mache articles.
The DISTRICT OF JAUNPUR has an area of 1551 sq. m. It forms
part of the wide Gangetic plain, and its surface is accordingly
composed of a thick alluvial deposit. The whole country is
closely tilled, and no waste lands break the continuous prospect
of cultivated fields. It is divided into two unequal parts by the
sinuous channel of the Gumti, a tributary of the Ganges, which
flows past the city of Jaunpur. Its total course within the
district is about 90 m., and it is nowhere fordable. It is crossed
by two bridges, one at Jaunpur and the other 2 m. lower down.
The Gumti is liable to sudden inundations during the rainy season,
owing to the high banks it has piled up at its entrance into the
Ganges, which act as dams to prevent the prompt outflow of its
flooded waters. These inundations extend to its tributary the
Sal. Much damage was thus effected in 1774; but the greatest
recorded flood took place in September 1871, when 4000 houses
in the city were swept away, besides 9000 more in villages
along its banks. The other rivers are the Sal, Barna, Pili
and Basohi. Lakes are numerous in the north and south; the
largest has a length of 8 m. Pop. (1901), 1,202,920, showing
a decrease of 5% in the decade. Sugar-refining is the principal
industry. The district is served by the line of the Oudh &
Rohilkhand railway from Benares to Fyzabad, and by branches
of this and of the Bengal & North-Western systems.
In prehistoric times Jaunpur seems to have formed a portion
of the Ajodhya principality, and when it first makes an appear-
ance in authentic history it was subject to the rulers of Benares.
With the rest of their dominions it fell under the yoke of the
Mussulman invaders in 1194. From that time the district
appears to have been ruled by a prince of the Kanauj dynasty,
as a tributary of the Mahommedan suzerain. In 1388 Malik
Sarwar Khwaja was sent by Mahommed Tughlak to govern the
eastern province. He fixed his residence at Jaunpur, made
himself independent of the Delhi court, and assumed the title of
Sultan-us-Shark, or " eastern emperor." For nearly a century
JAUNTING-CAR— JAURES
283
the Sharki dynasty ruled at Jaunpur, and proved formidable
rivals to the sovereigns of Delhi. The last of the dynasty was
Sultan Husain, who passed his life in a fierce and chequered
struggle for supremacy with Bahlol Lodi, then actual emperor
at Delhi. At length, in 1478, Bahlol succeeded in defeating his
rival in a series of decisive engagements. He took the city of
Jaunpur, but permitted the conquered Husain to reside there, and
to complete the building of his great mosque, the Jama Masjid,
which now forms the chief ornament of the town. Many other
architectural works in the district still bear witness to its great-
ness under its independent Mussulman rulers. In 1775 the
district was made over to the British by the Treaty of Lucknow.
From that time nothing occurred which calls for notice till the
Mutiny. On the 5th of June 1857, when the news of the Benares
revolt reached Jaunpur, the sepoys mutinied. The district
continued in a state of complete anarchy till the arrival of the
Gurkha force from Azamgarh in September. In November the
surrounding country was lost again, and it was not till May 1858
that the last smouldering embers of disaffection were stifled by
the repulse of the insurgent leader at the hands of the people
themselves.
See A. Fuhrer, The Shargi Architecture of Jaunpur (1889).
JAUNTING-CAR, a light two-wheeled carriage for a single
horse, in its commonest form with seats for four persons placed
back to back, with the foot-boards projecting over the wheels.
It is the typical conveyance for persons in Ireland (see CAR).
The first part of the word is generally taken to be identical with
the verb " to jaunt," now only used in the sense of to go on a
short pleasure excursion, but in its earliest uses meaning to make
a horse caracole or prance, hence to jolt or bump up and down.
It would apparently be a variant of " jaunce," of the same mean-
ing, which is supposed to be taken from O. Fr. jancer. Skeat
takes the origin of jaunt and jaunce to be Scandinavian, and
connects them with the Swedish dialect word ganta, to romp;
and he finda cognate bases in such words as " jump," " high
jinks." The word " jaunty," sprightly, especially used of any-
thing done with an easy nonchalant air, is a corruption of
" janty," due to confusion with " jaunt." " Janty," often spelt
in the I7th and i8th centuries " jante " or " jantee," repre-
sents the English pronunciation of Fr. gentil, well-bred, neat,
spruce.
JAUREGUI, JUAN (1562-1582), a Biscayan by birth, was in
1582 in the service of a Spanish merchant, Caspar d'Anastro,
who was resident at Antwerp. Tempted by the reward of
80,000 ducats offered by Philip II. of Spain for the assassination
of William the Silent, prince of Orange, but being himself with-
out courage to undertake the task, d'Anastro, with the help of
his cashier Venero, persuaded Jauregui to attempt the murder
for the sum of 2877 crowns. On Sunday the i8th of March
1582, as the prince came out of his dining-room Jauregui offered
him a petition, and William had no sooner taken it into his hand
than Jauregui fired a pistol at his head. The ball pierced the
neck below the right ear and passed out at the left jaw-bone;
but William ultimately recovered. The assassin was killed on
the spot.
JAUR6GUIBERRY, JEAN BERNARD (1815-1887), French
admiral, was born at Bayonne on the 26th of August 1815. He
entered the navy in 1831, was made a lieutenant in 1845, com-
mander in 1856, and captain in 1860. After serving in the
Crimea and in China, and being governor of Senegal, he was
promoted to rear-admiral in 1869. He served on land during
the second part of the Franco-German War of 1870-71, in the
rank of auxiliary general of division. He was present at Coul-
miers, Villepion and Loigny-Poupry, in command of a division,
and in Chanzy's retreat upon Le Mans and the battle at that
place in command of a corps. He was the most distinguished
of the many naval officers who did good service in the military
operations. On the gth of December he had been made vice-
admiral, and in 1871 he commanded the fleet at Toulon; in 1875
he was a member of the council of admiralty; and in October
1876 he was appointed to command the evolutionary squadron
in the Mediterranean. In February 1879 he became minister of
the navy in the Waddington cabinet, and on the 27th of May
following was elected a senator for life. He was again minister
of the navy in the Freycinet cabinet in 1880. A fine example of
the fighting French seaman of his time, Jaureguiberry died at
Paris on the 2ist of October 1887.
JAUREGUI Y AGUILAR, JUAN MARTJNEZ DE (1583-1641),
Spanish poet, was baptized at Seville on the 24th of November
1583. In due course he studied at Rome, returning to Spain
shortly before 1610 with a double reputation as a painter and a
poet. A reference in the preface to the Novelas exemplares has
been taken to mean that he painted the portrait of Cervantes,
who, in the second part of Don Quixote, praises the translation
of Tasso's Aminla published at Rome in 1607. Jauregui's
Rimas (1618), a collection of graceful lyrics, is preceded by a
controversial preface which attracted much attention on account
of its outspoken declaration against culteranismo. Through the
influence of Olivares, he was appointed groom of the chamber
to Philip IV., and gave an elaborate exposition of his artistic
doctrines in the Discurso poelico contra el hablar culto y oscuro
(1624), a skilful attack on the new theories, which procured for
its author the order of Calatrava. It is plain, however, that the
shock of controversy had shaken Jauregui's convictions, and
his poem Orfeo (1624) is visibly influenced by Gongora. Jauregui
died at Madrid on the nth of January 1641, leaving behind him
a translation of the Pharsalia which was not published till 1684.
This rendering reveals Jauregui as a complete convert to the
new school, and it has been argued that, exaggerating the
affinities between Lucan and G6ngora — both of Cordovan
descent — he deliberately translated the thought of the earlier
poet into the vocabulary of the later master. This is possible;
but it is at least as likely that Jauregui unconsciously yielded to
the current of popular taste, with no other intention than that
of conciliating the public of his own day.
JAURES, JEAN LEON (1859- ), French Socialist leader,
was born at Castres (Tarn) on the 3rd of September 1859. He
was educated at the lycee Louis-le-Grand and the ecole normale
superieure, and took his degree as associate in philosophy in
1881. After teaching philosophy for two years at the lycee of
Albi (Tarn), he lectured at the university of Toulouse. He was
elected republican deputy for the department of Tarn in 1885.
In 1889, after unsuccessfully contesting Castres, he returned to
his professional duties at Toulouse, where he took an active
interest in municipal affairs, and helped to found the medical
faculty of the university. He also prepared two theses for his
doctorate in philosophy, De primis socialismi germanici linea-
menlis apud Lutherum, Kant, Fichte et Hegel (1891), and De la
realite du monde sensible. In 1902 he gave energetic support to
the miners of Carmaux who went out on strike in consequence
of the dismissal of a socialist workman, Calvignac; and in the
next year he was re-elected to the chamber as deputy for Albi.
Although he was defeated at the elections of 1898 and was for
four years outside the chamber, his eloquent speeches made him
a force in politics as an intellectual champion of socialism. He
edited the Petite Republique, and was one of the most energetic
defenders of Captain Alfred Dreyfus. He approved of the
inclusion of M. Millerand, the socialist, in the Waldeck-Rousseau
ministry, though this led to a split with the more revolutionary
section led by M. Guesde. In 1902 he was again returned as
deputy for Albi, and during the Combes administration his in-
fluence secured the coherence of the radical-socialist coalition
known as the bloc. In 1904 he founded the socialist paper,
L'Humanite. The French socialist groups held a congress at
Rouen in March 1905, which resulted in a new consolidation;
the new party, headed by MM. Jaures and Guesde, ceased to
co-operate with the radicals and radical-socialists, and became
known as the unified socialists, pledged to advance a collectivist
programme. At the general elections of 1906 M. Jaures was
again elected for the Tarn. His ability and vigour were now
generally recognized; but the strength of the socialist party, and
the practical activity of its leader, still had to reckon with the
equally practical and vigorous liberalism of M. Clemenceau.
The latter was able to appeal to his countrymen (in a notable
284
JAVA
speech in the spring of 1906) to rally to a radical programme
which had no socialist Utopia in view; and the appearance in
him of a strong and practical radical leader had the result of
considerably diminishing the effect of the socialist propaganda.
M. Jaures, in addition to his daily journalistic activity, published
Les preuiies; affaire Dreyfus (190x3); Action socidiste (1899);
£tudes socialities (1902), and, with other collaborators, Histoire
socialisle (1901), &c.
JAVA, one of the larger islands of that portion of the Malay
Archipelago which is distinguished as the Sunda Islands. It
lies between 105° 12' 40* (St Nicholas Point) and 114° 35' 38" E.
(Cape Seloko) and between 5° 52' 34" and 8° 46' 46" S. It has
a total length of 622 m. from Pepper Bay in the west to Banyu-
wangi in the east, and an extreme breadth of 121 m. from Cape
Bugel in Japara to the coast of Jokjakarta, narrowing towards
the middle to about 55 m. Politically and commercially it is
important as the seat of the colonial government of the Dutch
East Indies, all other parts of the Dutch territory being
distinguished as the Outer Possessions (Buitenbezitlungens).
According to the triangulation survey (report published in 1901)
the area of Java proper is 48,504 sq. m.; of Madura, the large
adjacent and associated island, 1732; and of the smaller islands
administratively included with Java and Madura 1416, thus
From Sumatra on the W., Java is separated by the Sunda
Strait, which at the narrowest is only 14 m. broad, but widens
elsewhere to about 50 m. On the E. the strait of Balj, which
parts it from the island of that name, is at the northern end not
more than i^ m. across. Through the former strong currents
run for the greater part of the day throughout the year, outwards
from the Java Sea to the Indian Ocean. In the strait of Bali
the currents are perhaps even stronger and are extremely
irregular. Pilots with local knowledge are absolutely necessary
for vessels attempting either passage. In spite of the strength
of the currents the Sunda Strait is steadily being diminished in
width, and the process if continued must result in a restoration
of that junction of Sumatra and Java which according to some
authorities formerly existed.2
In general terms Java may be described as one of the break-
water islands of the Indian Ocean — part of the mountainous
rim (continuous more or less completely with Sumatra) of the
partially submerged plateau which lies between the ocean on
the S. and the Chinese Sea on the N., and has the massive
island of Borneo as its chief subaerial portion. While the waves
and currents of the ocean sweep away most of the products of
denudation along the south coast or throw a small percentage
back in the shape of sandy downs, the Java Sea on the north —
106°
B
4° F
Scale. 1:6.500.000
Hnglish
to 9r> 190
- J/ !•< r.
- -• Of*»r r««ri*«nc>M:' I. Bantam
ll.PrnngCT III. Ktdu IV. Besuki
N D I A N
0 \C C A fJ
K
F
making a total of 50,970 sq. m. The more important of these
islands are the following: Pulau Panaitan or Princes Island
(Prinseneiland) , 47 sq. m., lies in the Sunda Strait, off the south-
western peninsula of the main island, from which it is separated
by the Behouden Passage. The Thousand Islands are situated
almost due N. of Batavia. Of these five were inhabited in 1906
by about 1280 seafarers from all parts and their descendants.
The Karimon Java archipelago, to the north of Semarang,
numbers twenty-seven islands with an area of 16 sq. m. and a
population of about 800 (having one considerable village on the
main island). Bavian1 (Bawian), 100 m. N. of Surabaya, is a
ruined volcano with an area of 73 sq. m. and a population of
about 44,000. About a third of the men are generally absent as
traders or coolies. In Singapore and Sumatra they are known as
Boyans. They are devout Mahommedans and many of them
make the pilgrimage to Mecca. The Sapudi and Kangean
archipelagoes are eastward continuations of Madura. The former,
thirteen in all, with an area of 58 sq. m. and 53,000 inhabitants,
export cattle, dried fish and trepang; and many of the male popu-
lation work as day labourers in Java or as lumbermen in Sum-
bawa, Flores, &c. The main island of the Kangians has an area
of 19 sq. m.; the whole group 23 sq. m. It is best known for
its limestone caves and its buffaloes. Along the south coast the
islands are few and small — Klapper or Deli, Trouwers or Tingal,
Nusa Kembangan, Sempu and Nusa Barung.
1 It must be observed that Bavian, &c., are mere conventional
appendices to Java.
not more than 50 fathoms deep — allows them to settle and to
form sometimes with extraordinary rapidity broad alluvial
tracts.*
It is customary and obvious to divide Java into three divisions,
the middle part of the island narrowing into a kind of isthmus,
and each of the divisions thus indicated having certain structural
characteristics of its own. West Java, which consists of Bantam,
Krawang and the Preanger Regencies, has an area of upwards of
18,000 sq. m. In this division the highlands lie for the most part
in a compact mass to the south and the lowlands form a continuous
tract to the north. The main portion of the uplands consists of the
Preanger Mountains, with the plateaus of Bandong, Pekalongan,
Tegal, Badung and Gurut, encircled with volcanic summits. On the
borders of the Preanger, Batavia and Bantam are the Halimon
Mountains (the Blue Tyiountains of the older travellers), reaching
their greatest altitudes in the volcanic summits of Gedeh and Salak.
To the west lie the highlands of Bantam, which extending northward
cut off the northern lowlands from the Sunda Strait. Middle Java
is the smallest of the three divisions, having an area of not much more
than 13,200 sq. m. It comprises Tcgal, Pekalongan, Banyumas,
Bagelen, Kedu, Jokjakarta, Surakarta, and thus not only takes in
the whole of the isthmus but encroaches on the broad eastern portion
of the island. In the isthmus mountains are not so closely massed
2 H. B. Guppy (R. S. G. Soc. Magazine, 1889) holds that there is
no sufficient proof of this connexion but gives interesting details
of the present movement.
1 See G. F. Tijdeman's map of the depths of the sea in the eastern
part of the Indian archipelago in M. Weber's Siboga Expedition, 1003.
The details of the coast forms of the island have been studied by
J. F. Snelleman and J. F. Niermeyer in a paper in the Veth Feest-
bundel, utilizing inter alia Guppy's observations.
JAVA
285
in the south nor the plains so continuous on the north. The water-
shed culminating in Slamet lies almost midway between the ocean
and the Java Sea, and there are somewhat extensive lowlands in
the south. In that part of middle Java which physically belongs
to eastern Java there is a remarkable series of lowlands stretching
almost right across the island fromSemarang in the north to Jogjakarta
in the south. Eastern Java comprises Rembang, Madiun, Kediri, Sura-
baya, Pasuruan and Bcsuki, and has an area of about 17,500 sq. m.
In this division lowlands and highlands are intermingled in
endless variety except along the south coast, where the watershed-
range forms a continuous breakwater from Jogjakarta to Besuki.
The volcanic eminences, instead of rising in lines or groups, are
isolated.
For its area Java is one of the most distinctly volcanic regions of
the world. Volcanic forces made it, and volcanic forces have con-
tinued to devastate and fertilize it. According to R. D. M. Verbeek
about 125 volcanic centres can be distinguished, a number which
may be increased or diminished by different methods of classi-
fication. It is usual to arrange the volcanoes in the following
groups: westernmost Java n (all extinct); Preanger 50 (5 active);
Cheribon 2 (both extinct); Slamet 2 (l active); middle Java 16
(2 active) ; Murio 2 (both extinct) ; Lavu 2 (extinct) ; Wills 2 (extinct) ;
east Java 21 (5 active). The active volcanoes of the present time
are Gedeh, Tangkuban, Prahu, Gutar, Papandayan, Galung-gung,
Slamet, Sendor, Merapi,1 Kalut (or Klut), Bromo, Semeru, Lamongan,
Raung, but the activity of many of these is trifling, consisting of
slight ejections of steam and scoriae.
The plains differ in surface and fertility, according to their geologi-
cal formation. Built up of alluvium and diluvium, the plains of the
north coast-lands in western and middle Java are at their lowest
levels, near the mouths of rivers and the sea, in many cases marshy
and abounding in lakes and coral remains, but for the rest they are
fertile and available for culture. The plains, too, along the south
coast of middle Java — of Banyumas and Bagelen — contain many
morasses as well as sandy stretches and dunes impeding the outlet
of the rivers. They are, nevertheless, available for the cultivation
more particularly of rice, and are thickly peopled. In eastern
Java, again, the narrow coast plains are to be distinguished from the
wider plains lying between the parallel chains of limestone and be-
tween the volcanoes. The narrow plains of the north coast are
constituted of yellow clay and tuffs containing chalk, washed down
by the rivers from the mountain chains and volcanoes. Like the
western plains, they, too, are in many cases low and marshy, and
fringed with sand and dunes. The plains, on the other hand, at
some distance from the sea, or lying in the interior of eastern Java,
such as Surakarta, Madiun, Kediri, Pasuruan, Probolinggo and
Besuki, owe their formation to the volcanoes at whose bases they
lie, occupying levels as high as 1640 ft. down to 328 ft. above the
sea, whence they decline to the lower plains of the coast. Lastly,
the plains of Lusi, Solo and Brantas, lying between the parallel
chains in Japara, Rembang and Surabaya, are in part the product
of rivers formerly flowing at a higher level of 30 to 60 or 70 ft., in
part the product of the sea, dating from a time when the northern
part of the above-named residencies was an island, such as Madura,
the mountains of which are the continuation of the north parallel
chain, is still.
The considerable rivers of western Java all have their outlets on
the north coast, the chief among them being the Chi (Dutch Tji)
Tarum and the Chi Manuk. They are navigable for native boats and
rafts, and are used for the transport of coffee and salt. On the south
coast the Chi Tanduwi, on the east of the Preanger, is the only
stream available as a waterway, and this only for a few miles above its
mouth. In middle Java, also, the rivers discharging at the north
coast — the Pamali, Chomal, &c. — are serviceable for the purposes
of irrigation and cultivation, but are navigable only near their
mouths. The rivers of the south coast — Progo, Serayu, Bogowonto,
and Upak, enriched by rills from the volcanoes — serve abundantly
to irrigate the plains of Bagelen, Banyumas, &c. Their stony beds,
shallows and rapids, and the condition of their mouths lessen,
however, their value as waterways. More navigable are the larger
rivers of eastern Java. The Solo is navigable for large praus, or
native boats, as far up as Surakarta, and above that town for lighter
boats, as is also its affluent the Gentung. The canal constructed
in 1893 at the lower part of this river, and alterations effected at
its mouth, have proved of important service both in irrigating the
plain and facilitating the river's outlet into the sea. The Brantas
is also navigable in several parts. The smaller rivers of eastern
Java are, however, much in the condition of those of western Java.
They serve less as waterways than as reservoirs for the irrigation
of the fertile plains through which they flow.
The north coast of Java presents everywhere a low strand covered
with nipa or mangrove, morasses and fishponds, sandy stretches and
low dunes, shifting river-mouths and coast-lines, ports and roads,
demanding continual attention and regulation. The south coast
is of a different make. The dunes of Banyumas, Bagelen, and Jokja-
karta, ranged in three ridges, rising to 50 ft. high, and varying in
breadth from 300 to over 1600 ft., liable, moreover, to transforma-
1 This Merapi must be carefully distinguished from Merapi the
Fire Mountain of Sumatra.
tion from tides and the east monsoon, oppose everywhere, also in
Preanger and Besuki, a barrier to the discharge of the rivers and the
drainage of the coast-lands. They assist the formation of lagoons
and morasses. At intervals in the dune coast, running in the
direction of the limestone mountains, there tower up steep inacces-
sible masses of land, showing neither ports nor bays, hollowed out by
the sea, rising in perpendicular walls to a height of 160 ft. above
sea-level. Sometimes two branches project at right angles from
the chain on to the coast, forming a low bay between the capes
or ends of the projecting branches, from 1000 to 1600 ft. high.
Such a formation occurs frequently along the coast of Besuki,
presenting a very irregular coast-line. Of course the north coast is
of much greater commercial importance than the south coast.
Geology. — With the exception of a few small patches of schist,
supposed to be Cretaceous, the whole island, so far as is known, is
covered by deposits of Tertiary and Quaternary age. The ancient
" schist formation," which occurs in Sumatra, Borneo, &c., does not
rise to the surface anywhere in Java itself, but it is visible in the
island of Karimon Java off the north coast. The Cretaceous schists
have yielded fossils only at Banjarnegara, where a limestone with
Orbitolina is interstratified with them. They are succeeded un-
conformably by Eoaene deposits, consisting of sandstones with
coal-seams and limestones containing Nummulites, Alveolina and
Orthophragmina ; and these beds are as limited in extent as the Cre-
taceous schists themselves. Sedimentary deposits of Upper Tertiary
age are widely spread, covering about 38% of the surface. They,
consist of breccias, marls and limestones containing numerous
fossils, and are for the most part Miocene but probably include a
part of the Pliocene also. They were laid down beneath the sea,
but have since been folded and elevated to considerable heights.
Fluviatile deposits of late Pliocene age have been found in the east
of Java, and it was in these that the remarkable anthropoid ape or
ape-like man, Pithecanthropus erectus of Dubois, was discovered.
The Quaternary deposits lie horizontally upon the upturned edges
of the Tertiary beds. They are partly marine and partly fluviatile,
the marine deposits reaching to a height of some 350 ft. above the
sea and thus indicating a considerable elevation of the island in
recent times.
The volcanic rocks of Java are of great importance and cover about
28% of the island. The eruptions began in the middle of the
Tertiary period, but did not attain their maximum until Quaternary
times, and many of the volcanoes are still active. Most of the
cones seem to lie along faults parallel to the axis of the island, or on
short cross fractures. The lavas and ashes are almost everywhere
andesites and basalts, with a little obsidian. Some of the volcanoes,
however, have erupted leucite rocks. Similar rocks, together with
phonplite, occur in the island of Bavian.2
Climate. — Our knowledge of the climate of Batavia, and thus of
that of the lowlands of western Java, is almost perfect ; but, rainfall
excepted, our information as to the climate of Java as a whole is
extremely defective. The dominant meteorological facts are simple
and obvious: Java lies in the tropics, under an almost vertical
sun, and thus has a day of almost uniform length throughout
the year.3 It is also within the perpetual influence of the great
atmospheric movements passing between Asia and Australia; and
is affected by the neighbourhood of vast expanses of sea and land
(Borneo and Sumatra). There are no such maxima of temperature
as are recorded from the continents. The highest known at Batavia
was 96° F. in 1877 and the lowest 66° in the same year. The mean
annual temperature is 79°. The warmest months are May and
October, registering 79-5° and 79-46° respectively; the coldest
January and February with 77-63° and 77-7° respectively. The
daily range is much greater; at one o'clock the thermometer has a
mean height of 84°; after two o'clock it declines to about 73° at six
o'clock; the greatest daily amplitude is in August and the least in
January and February. Eastern Java and the inland plains of
middle Java are said to be hotter, but scientific data are few. A
very slight degree of elevation above the seaboard plains produces
a remarkable difference in the climate, not so much in its mere
temperature as in its influence on health. The dwellers in the coast
towns are surprised at the invigorating effects of a change to health
resorts from 300 to 1200 ft. above sea-level; and at greater eleva-
tions it may be uncomfortably cold at night, with chilly mists and
occasional frosts. The year is divided into two seasons by the pre-
vailing winds: the rainy season, that of the west monsoon, lasting
from November to March, and the dry season, that of the east mon-
soon, during the rest of the year; the transition from one monsoon
to another — the " canting " of the monsoons — being marked by
2 R. D. M. Verbeek and R. Fennema, Description gtologlque de Java
et Madoura (2 vols. and atlas, Amsterdam, 1896; also published in
Dutch) — a summary with map was published by Verbeek in Peterm.
Mitt. xliv. (1898), 24-33, pi. 3. Also K. Martin, Die Eintheilung der
•oersteinerungsfilhrenden Sedimentevon Java, Samml. Geol. Reichsmus.
Leiden, ser. i., vol. vi. (1899-1902), 135-245.
3 On the l6th of November the sun rises at 5.32 and sets at 5.57;
on the i6th of July it rises at 6.12 and sets at 5.57. The longest
day is in December and the shortest in June, while on the other hand
thesun is highest in February and October and lowest in June and
December.
286
JAVA
irregularities. On the whole, the east monsoon blows steadily for
a longer period than the west. The velocity of the wind is much less
than in Europe-^-not more in the annual mean at Batavia than 3 ft.
per second, against 12 to 18 ft. in Europe. The highest velocity
ever observed at Batavia was 25 ft. Wind-storms are rare and
hardly ever cyclonic. There are as a matter of course a large number
of purely local winds, some of them of a very peculiar kind, but few
of these have been scientifically dealt with. Thunder-storms are
extremely frequent; but the loss of life from lightning is probably
diminished by the fact that the palm-trees are excellent conductors.
At night the air is almost invariably still. The average rainfall at
Batavia is 72-28 in. per annum, of which 51-49 in. are contributed
by the west monsoon. The amount varies considerably from year
to year: in 1889, 1891 and 180,7 there were about 47-24 in.; in 1868
and 1877 nearly 51-17, and in 1872 and 1882 no less than 94-8.
There are no long tracts of unbroken rainfall and no long periods of
continuous drought. The rainfall is heaviest in January, but it
rains only for about one-seventh of the time. Next in order come
February, March and December. August, the driest month, has
from three to five days of rain, though the amount is usually less
than an inch and not more than one and a half inches. The popu-
lar description of the rain falling not in drops but streams was proved
erroneous by J. Wiesner's careful observations (see Kais. Akad. d.
Wiss. Math. Natural. Cl. Bd. xiv., Vienna, 1895), which have been
confirmed by A. Woeikof (" Regensintensitat und Regendauer in
Batavia " in Z. fur Met., 1907). The greatest rainfall recorded in
an hour (4-5 in.) is enormously exceeded by records even in Europe.
From observations taken for the meteorological authorities at a very
considerable number ot stations, J. H. Boeseken constructed a map
in 1900 (Tijdschr. v. h. Kon. Ned. Aardr. Gen., 1900; reproduced
in Veth, Java, iii. 1903). Among the outstanding facts are the
following. The south coasts of both eastern and middle Java have
a much heavier rainfall than the north. Maialenka has an annual
fall of 175 in. In western Java the maximal district consists of a
great ring of mountains from Salak and Gedeh in the west to Galung-
gung in theeast, while theenclosed plateau-region of ChanjurBandung
and Garut are not much different from the sea-board. The whole
of middle Java, with the exception of the north coast, has a heavy
rainfall. At Chilachap the annual rainfall is 151-43 in., 87-8 in. of
which is brought by the south-east monsoon. The great belt which in-
cludes the Slamet and the Dieng, and the country on the south coast
between Chilachap and Parigi, are maximal. In comparison the
whole of eastern Java, with the exception of the mountains from
Wills eastward to Ijen, has a low record which reaches its lowest
along the north coast.1
Fauna. — In respect of its fauna Java differs from Borneo, Sumatra
and the Malay Peninsula far more than these differ among them-
selves; and, at the same time, it shows a close resemblance to the
Malay Peninsula, on the one hand, and to the Himalayas on the
other. Of the 176 mammals of the whole Indo-Malayan region
the greater number occur in Java. Of these 41 are found on
the continent of Asia, 8 are common to Java and Borneo, and 6 are
common to Java and Sumatra (see M. Weber, Das Indo-Malay
Archipelago und die Geschichte seiner Thierwelt, Jena, 1902). No
genus and only a few species are confined to the island. Of the land-
birds only a small proportion are peculiar. The elephant, the tapir,
the bear, and various other genera found in the .rest of the region are
altogether absent. The Javanese rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sundaicus;
sarak in Javanese, badak in Sundanese), the largest of the mammals
on the island, differs from that of Sumatra in having one horn
instead of two. It ranges over the highest mountains, and its
regular paths, worn into deep channels, may be traced up the
steepest slopes and round the rims of even active volcanoes. Two
species of wild swine, Sus vittatus and Sus verrucosus, are exceedingly
abundant, the former in the hot, the latter in the temperate, region;
and their depredations are the cause of much loss to the natives,
who, however, being Mahommedans, to whom pork is abhorrent, do
not hunt them for the sake of their flesh. Not much less than the
rhinoceros is the banteng (Bibos banteng or sundaicus) found in all
the uninhabited districts between 2000 and 7000 ft. of elevation.
The kidang or muntjak (Cervulus muntjac) and the rusa or russa
(Rusa hippelaphus or Russa russa) are the representatives of the
deer kind. The former is a delicate little creature occurring singly
or in pairs both in the mountains and in the coast districts; the latter
lives in herds of fifty to a hundred in the grassy opens, giving
excellent sport to the native hunters. Another species (Russa
kuhlii) exists in Bavian. The kantjil ( Tragulus javanicus) is a small
creature allied to the musk-deer but forming a genus by itself. It
lives in the high woods, for the most part singly, seldom in pairs.
It is one of the most peculiar of the Javanese mammals. The royal
tiger, the same species as that of India, is still common enough to
make a tiger-hunt a characteristic Javanese scene. The leopard
(Felis pardus) is frequent in the warm regions and often ascends to
considerable altitudes. Black specimens occasionally occur, but
the spots are visible on inspection ; and the fact that in the Amsterdam
zoological gardens a black leopard had one of its cubs black and the
other normally spotted shows that this is only a case of melanism.
In the tree-tops the birds find a dangerous enemy in the matjan
1 S. Figei. Regenwaarnemingen in Nederlandsch Indie (1902).
rembak, or wild cat (Felis minuta), about the size of a common cat.
The dog tribe is represented by the fox-like adjag (Cuon or Canis
sutilans) which hunts in ferocious packs; and by a wild dog, Canis
tenggeranus, if this is not now exterminated. The Cheiroptera hold
a prominent place in the fauna, the principal genera being Pteropus,
Cynonycteris, Cynopterus and Macroglossus. Remarkable espe-
cially for size is the kalong, or flying fox, Pteropus edulis, a fruit-
eating bat, which may be seen hanging during the day in black
clusters asleep on the trees, and in the evening hastening in long
lines to the favourite feeding grounds in the forest. The damage
these do to the young coco-nut trees, the maize and the sugar-palms
leads the natives to snare and shoot them; and their flesh is a
favourite food with Europeans, who prefer to shoot them by night
as, if shot by day, they often cling after death to the branches.
Smaller kinds of bats are most abundant, perhaps the commonest
being Scotophilus Temminckii. In certain places they congregate
in myriads, like sea-fowl on the cliffs, and their excrement produces
extensive guano deposits utilized by the people of Surakarta and
Madiun. The creature known to the Europeans as the flying-cat
and to the natives as the kubin is the Galeopithecus volans or varia-
gatus — a sort of transition from the bats to the lemuroids. Of these
last Java has several species held in awe by the natives for their
supposed power of fascination. The apes are represented by the
wou-wou (Hylobates leuciscus), the lutung, and kowi (Semnopithecus
maurus and pyrrhus), the surili (Semnopithecus mitratus), and the
munyuk (Cercocebus, or Macacus, cynamolgos), the most generally
distributed of all. From sunrise to sunset the wou-wou makes its
presence known, especially in the second zone where it congregates
in the trees, by its strange cry, at times harsh and cacophonous, at
times weird and pathetic. The lutung or black ape also prefers the
temperate region, though it is met with as high as 7000 ft. above
the sea and as low as 2000. The Cercocebus or grey ape keeps for
the most part to the warm coast lands. Rats (including the brown
Norway rat, often called Mus javanicus, as if it were a native; a
great plague); mice in great variety; porcupines (Acanthion
javanicum); squirrels (five species) and flying squirrels (four species)
represent the rodents. A hare, Lepus nigricollis, originally from
Ceylon, has a very limited habitat; the Insectivora comprise a
shrew-mouse (Rachyura indica), two species of tupaya and Hylomys
suillus peculiar to Java and Sumatra. The nearest relation to the
bears is Arclictis binturong. Mydaus meliceps and Helictis orientalis
represent the badgers. In the upper part of the mountains occurs
Mustela Henrici, and an otter (Aonyx leptonyx) in the streams of the
hot zone. The coffee rat (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) , a civet cat
(Viverricula indica), the Javanese ichneumon (Herpestes javanicus),
and Priodon gracilis may also be mentioned.
In 1820, 176 species of birds were known in Java; by 1900 Vorder-
man and O. Finsch knew 410. Many of these are, of course, rare
and occupy a limited habitat far from the haunts of man. Others
exist in myriads and are characteristic features in the landscape.
Water-fowl of many kinds, ducks, geese, storks, pelicans, &c., give
life to sea-shore and lake, river and marsh. Snipe-shooting is a
favourtie sport. Common night-birds are the owl (Strix flammea)
and the goatsucker (Caprimulgus affinis). Three species of hornbill,
the year-bird of the older travellers (Buceros plicatus, lunatus and
albirostris) live in the tall trees of the forest zone. The Javanese
peacock is a distinct species (Pavo muticus or spiciferus), and even
exceeds the well-known Indian species in the splendour of its
plumage. Callus Bankiva is famous as the reputed parent of all
barndoor fowls; Callus furcatus is an exquisitely beautiful bird and
can be trained for cock-fighting. Of parrots two species only are
known: Palaeornis Alexandri or javanicus and the pretty little
grass-green Curyllis pusilla, peculiar to Java. As talkers and mimics
they are beaten by the Gracula javanensis, a favourite cage-bird
with the natives. A cuckoo, Chrysococcyx basalts, may be heard in
the second zone. The grass-fields are the foraging-grounds of
swarms of weaver-birds (Plocula javanensis and Ploccus baya). They
lay nearly as heavy a toll on the rice-fields as the gelatiks (Munia
oryzivora), which are everywhere the rice-growers' principal foe.
Hawks and falcons make both an easy prey. The Nictuarinas or
honey-birds (eight species) take the place of the humming-bird,
which they rival in beauty and diminutiveness, ranging from the
lowlands to an altitude of 4000 ft. In the upper regions the birds,
like the plants, are more like those of Europe, and some of them — •
notably the kanchilan (Ilyloterpe Philomela) — are remarkable for
their song. The edible-nest swallow (Collocalia fuciphaga) builds
in caves in many parts of the island.2
As far back as 1859 P. Bleeker credited Java with eleven hundred
species of fish ; and naturalists are perpetually adding to the number.'
In splendour and grotesqueness of colouring many kinds, as is well
known, look rather like birds than fish. In the neighbourhood of
Batavia about three hundred and eighty species are used as food by
the natives and the Chinese, who have added to the number by the
introduction of the goldfish, which reaches a great size. The sea
fish most prized by Europeans is Lates calcarifer (a perch). Of more
than one hundred species of snakes about twenty-four species
* See J. C. Konigsbergcr, " De vogels Java en hunne occonomische
betukenis," Med. int. s. Lands Plantenluin.
1 See especially M. Weber, Siboga Expedition.
JAVA
287
(including the cobra di capella) are poisonous and these are respon-
sible for the deaths of between one hundred and two hundred persons
per annum. Adders and lizards are abundant. Geckos are familiar
visitants in the houses of the natives. There are two species of
crocodiles.
As in other tropical-rain forest lands the variety and abundance
of insects are amazing. At sundown the air becomes resonant for
hours with their myriad voices. The Coleoptera and the Lepidoplera
form the glory of all great collections for their size and magnificence.
Of butterflies proper five hundred species are known. Of the beetles
one of the largest and handsomest is Chalcosoma atlas. Among the
spiders (a numerously represented order) the most notable is a bird-
killing species, Selene scomia javanensis. In many parts the island
is plagued with ants, termites and mosquitoes. Crops of all kinds
are subject to disastrous attacks of creeping and winged foes —
many still unidentified (see especially Snellen van Hollenhoven,
Essai d'une faune entomologique de I'Archipel Indo-neerlandais) .
Of still lower forms of life the profusion is no less perplexing. Among
the worms the Perichaela musica reaches a length of about twenty
inches and produces musical sounds. The shell of the Tridacna
gigas is the largest anywhere known.
Flora. — For the botanist Java is a natural paradise, affording him
the means of studying the effects of moisture and heat, of air-
currents and altitudes, without the interference of superincumbent
arctic conditions. The botanic gardens of Buitenzorg have long
been famous for their wealth of material, the ability with which
their treasures have been accumulated and displayed, their value
in connexion with the economic development of the island and the
extensive scientific literature published by their directors.1 There
is a special establishment at Chibodas open to students of all nations
for the investigation on the spot of the conditions of the primeval
forest. Hardly any similar area in the world has a flora of richer
variety than Java. It is estimated that the total number of the
species of plants is about 5000; but this is probably under the mark
(De Candolle knew of 2605 phanerogamous species), and new genera
and species of an unexpected character are from time to time
discovered. The lower parts of the island are always in the height of
summer. The villages and even the smaller towns are in great
measure concealed by the abundant and abiding verdure; and their
position in the landscape is to be recognized mainly by their groves,
orchards and cultivated fields. The amount and distribution of
heat and moisture at the various seasons of the year form the domi-
nant factors in determining the character of the vegetation. Thus
trees which are evergreen in west Java are deciduous in the east of
the island, some dropping their leaves (e.g. Tetrameles nudiflora)
at the very time they are in bloom or ripening their fruit. This and
other contrasts are graphically described from personal observation
by 'A. F. W. Schimper in his Pflanzen-Geographie auf physiologischer
.Grundlage (Jena, 1898). The abundance of epiphytes, orchids,
pitcher-plants, mosses and fungi is a striking result of the preva-
lent humidity; and many trees and plants indeed, which in drier
climates root in the soil, derive sufficient moisture from their
stronger neighbours. Of orchids J. J. Smith records 562 species
(100 genera), but the flowers of all except about a score are incon-
spicuous. This last fact is the more remarkable because, taken
generally, the Javanese vegetation differs from that of many other
tropical countries by being abundantly and often gorgeously
floriferous. Many of the loftiest trees crown themselves with
blossoms and require no assistance from the climbing plants that
seek, as it were, to rival them in their display of colour. Shrubs, too,
and herbaceous plants often give brilliant effects in the savannahs,
the deserted clearings, the edges of the forest and the sides of the
highways. The lantana, a verbenaceous alien introduced, it is
said, from Jamaica by Lady Raffles, has made itself aggressively
conspicuous in many parts of the island, more especially in the
Preanger and middle Java, where it occupies areas of hundreds of
acres.
The effect of mere altitude in the distribution of the flora was
long ago emphasized by Friedrich Junghuhn, the Humboldt of
Java, who divided the island into four vertical botanical zones —
a division which has generally been accepted by his successors,
though, like all such divisions, it is subject to many modifications
and exceptions. The forest, or hot zone, extends to a height of
2000 ft. above the sea; the second, that of moderate heat, has its
upper limit at about 4500; the third, or cool, zone reaches 7500;
and the fourth, or coldest, comprises all that lies beyond. The
lowest zone has, of course, the most extensive area; the second is
only a fiftieth and the third a five-thousandth of the first ; and the
fourth is an insignificant remainder. The lowest is the region of
the true tropical forest, of rice-fields and sugar-plantations, of coco-
nut palms, cotton, sesamum, cinnamon and tobacco (though
this last has a wide altitudinal range). Many parts of the coast
(especially on the north) are fringed with mangrove (Rhizophora
mucronata), &c., and species of Bruguiera; the downs have their
characteristic flora — convolvulus and Spinifex squarrosus catching
'The Annales de Buitenzorg, with their Icones bogorienses, are
universally known; the Teysmannia is named after a former
director. A history of the gardens was published by Dr Treub,
Festboek van's Lands Plantentuin (1891).
the eye for very different reasons. Farther inland along the sea-
board appear the nipa dwarf palm (Nipa fruticans), the Alsbonio
scholaris (the wood of which is lighter than cork), Cycadacea,
tree-ferns, screw pines (Pandanus), &c. In west Java the gebang
palm (Corypha gebanga) grows in clumps and belts not far from
but never quite close to the coast ; and in east Java a similar position
is occupied by the lontar (Borassus flabelliformis) , valuable for its
timber, its sago and its sugar, and in former times for its leaves,
which were used as a writing-material. The fresh-water lakes and
ponds of this region are richly covered with Utricularia and various
kinds of lotus (Nymphaea lotus, N. stellata, Nelumbium speciosum,
&c.) interspersed with Pista stratiotes and other floating plants.
Vast prairies are covered with the silvery alang-alang grass broken
by bamboo thickets, clusters of trees and shrubs (Butea fronaosa,
Emblica officinalis, &c.) and islands of the taller erigedeh or glagah
(Saccharum spontaneum). Alang-alang (Imperata arundinacea, Cyr.
var. Bentham) grows from I to 4 ft. in height. It springs up
wherever the ground is cleared of trees and is a perfect plague to the
cultivator. It cannot hold its own, however, with the ananas, the
kratok (Phaseolus lunatus) or the lantana; and, in the natural
progress of events, the forest resumes its sway except where the
natives encourage the young growth of the grass by annually setting
the prairies on fire. The true forest, which occupies a great part of
this region, changes its character as we proceed from west to east.
In west Java it is a dense rain-forest in which the struggle of exist-
ence is maintained at high pressure by a host of lofty trees and
parasitic plants in bewildering profusion. The preponderance of
certain types is remarkable. Thus of the Moraceae there are in
Java (and mostly here) seven genera with ninety-five species,
eighty-three of which are Ficus (see S. H. Koorders and T. Valeton,
" Boomsoorten op Java " in Bijdr. Mede. Dep. Landbower (1906).
These include the so-called waringin, several kinds of figs planted as
shade-trees in the parks of the nobles and officials. The Magno-
liaceae and Anonaceae are both numerously represented. In middle
Java the variety of trees is less, a large area being occupied by teak.
In eastern Java the character of the forest is mainly determined by
the abundance of the Casuarina or Chimoro (C. montana and C,
Junghuhniana). Another species, C. equisetifolia, is planted in west
Java as an ornamental tree. These trees are not crowded together
and encumbered with the heavy parasitic growths of the rain-forest;
but their tall stems are often covered with multitudes of small
vermilion fungi. Wherever the local climate has sufficient humidity,
the true rain-forest claims its own. The second of Junghuhn's
zones is the region of, more especially, tea, cinchona and coffee
plantations, of maize and the sugar palm (areng). In the forest
the trees are richly clad with ferns and enormous fungi; there is a
profusion of underwood (Pavetta macrophylla Javanica and solid-
folia; several species of Lasianthus, Boehmarias, Strobilanthus, &c.),
of woody lianas and ratans, of tree ferns (especially Alsophila).
Between the bushes the ground is covered with ferns, lycopods,
tradescantias, Bignoniaceae, species of Aeschynanthus. Of the
lianas the largest is Plectocomia elongata.; one specimen of which
was found to have a length of nearly 790 ft. One of the fungi,
Telephora princeps, is more than a yard in diameter. The trees are
of different species from those of the hot zone even when belonging
to the same genus; and new types appear mostly in limited areas.
The third zone, which consists mainly of the upper slopes of volcanic
mountains, but also comprises several plateaus (the Dieng, parts of
the Tengger, the Ijen) is a region of clouds and mists. There are a
considerable number of lakes and swamps in several parts of the
region, and these have a luxuriant environment of grasses, Cyper-
aceae, Characeae and similar forms. The taller trees of the region —
oaks, chestnuts, various Lauraceae, and four or five species of
Podocarpus — with some striking exceptions, Aslronia spectabilis,
&c., are less floriferous than those of the lower zones; but the shrubs
(Rhododendron javanicum, Ardisia javanica, &c.), herbs and parasites
more than make up for this defect. There is little cultivation,
except in the Tengger, where the natives grow maize, rye and
tobacco, and various European vegetables (cabbage, potatoes, &c.),
with which they supply the lowland markets. In western Java one
of the most striking features of the upper parts of this temperate
region is what Schimper calls the " absolute dominion of mosses,"
associated with the " elfin forest," as he quaintly calls it, a perfect
tangle of " low, thick, oblique or even horizontal stems," almost
choked to leaflessness by their grey and ghostly burden. Much of
the lower vegetation begins to have a European aspect; violets,
primulas, thalictrums, ranunculus, vacciniums, equisetums, rhodo-
dendrons (Rhod. retusum). The Primula imperialis, found only
on the Pangerango, is a handsome species, prized by specialists.
In the fourth or alpine zone occur such distinctly European forms as
Artemisia vulgaris, Plantago major, Solanum nigrum, Stellaria media;
and altogether the alpine flora contains representatives of no fewer
than thirty-three families. A characteristic shrub is Anaphalis
javanica, popularly called the Javanese edelweiss, which " often
entirely excludes all other woody plants."2 The tallest and noblest
2 Bertha Hoola van Nooten published Fleurs, fruits et feuillages de
laflore et de la pomone de 1'tle de Java in 1863, but the book is difficult
of access. Excellent views of characteristic aspects of the vegeta-
tion will be found in Karsten and Schenck, Vegetationsbilder (1903).
288
JAVA
of all the trees in the island is the rasamala or liquid-ambar (Allingia
excelsa), which, rising with a straight clean trunk, sometimes 6 ft.
in diameter at the base, to a height of 100 to 130 ft., spreads out into
a magnificent crown 6f branches and foliage. When by chance a
climbing plant has joined partnership with it, the combination of
blossoms at the top is one of the finest colour effects of the forest.
The rasamala, however, occurs only in the Preanger and in the
neighbouring parts of Bantam and Buitenzorg. Of the other trees
that may be classified as timber — from 300 to 400 species — many
attain noble proportions. It is sufficient to mention Calophyllum
inophyllum, which forms fine woods in the south of Bantam, Mimus-
ops acuminata, Irna glabra, Dalbergia latifolia (sun wood, English
black-wood) in middle and east Java; the rare but splendid Pithe-
colobium Junghuhnianum; Schima Noronhae, Bischofia javanica,
Pterospermum javanicum (greatly prized for ship-building), and the
upas-tree. From the economic point of view all these hundreds of
trees are of less importance than Tectona grandis, the jati or teak,
which, almost to the exclusion of all others, occupies about a third
of the government forest-lands. It grows best in middle and
eastern Java, preferring the comparatively dry and hot climate of
the plains and lower hills to a height of about 2000 ft. above the
sea, and thriving best in more or less calciferous soils. In June it
sheds its leaves and begins to bud again in October. Full-grown
trees reach a height of 100 to 150 ft. In 1895 teak (with a very
limited quantity of other timber) was felled to the value of about
£101,800, and in 1904 the corresponding figure was about £119,935.
That an island which has for so long maintained a dense and grow-
ing population in its more cultivable regions should have such
extensive tracts of primeval or quasi-primeval forest as have been
above indicated would be matter of surprise to one who did not
consider the simplicity of the life of the Javanese. They require
but little fuel; and both their dwellings and their furniture are
mostly constructed of bamboo supplemented with a palm or two.
They destroy the forest mainly to get room for their rice-fields and
pasture for their cattle. In doing this, however, they are often
extremely reckless and wasteful; and if it had not been for the
unusual humidity of the climate their annual fires would have
resulted in widespread conflagrations. As it is, many mountains
are now bare which within historic times were forested to the top;
but the Dutch government has proved fully alive to the danger of
denudation. The state has control of all the woods and forests of
the island with the exception of those of the Preanger, the " particu-
lar lands," and Madura; and it has long been engaged in replanting
with native trees and experimenting with aliens from other parts
of the world — Eucalyptus globulus, the juar, Cassia florida from
Sumatra, the surian (Cedrela febrifuga) , &c. The greatest success
has been with cinchona.
Left to itself Java would soon clothe itself again with even a
richer natural vegetation than it had when it was first occupied by
man. The open space left by the demolition of the fortifications on
Nusa Kambangan was in twenty-eight years densely covered by
thousands of shrubs and trees of about twenty varieties, many of the
latter 80 ft. high. Resident Snijthoff succeeded about the close
of the i gth century in re-afforesting a large part of Mount Muria by
the simple expedient of protecting the territory he had to deal
with from all encroachments by natives.1
Population. — The population of Java (including Madura, &c.)
was 30,098,008 in 1905. In 1900 it was 28,746,688; in 1890,
23,912,564; and in 1880, 19,794,505. The natives consist of the
Javanese proper, the Sundancse and the Madurese. All three
belong to the Malay stock. Between Javanese and Sundanese
the distinction is mainly due to the influence of the Hindus
on the former and the absence of this on the latter. Between
Javanese and Madurese the distinction is rather to be ascribed
tp difference of natural environment. The Sundanese have best
retained the Malay type, both in physique and fashion of life.
They occupy the west of the island. The Madurese area,
besides the island of Madura and neighbouring isles, includes the
eastern part of Java itself. The residencies of Tegal, Pekalon-
gan, Banyumas, Bagelen, Kedu, Semarang, Japara, Surakarta,
Jokjakarta, Rembang, Madiun, Kediri and Surabaya have an
almost purely Javanese population. The Javanese are the most
numerous and civilized of the three peoples.
The colour of the skin in all three cases presents various
shades of yellowish-brown; and it is observed that, owing per-
haps to the Hindu strain, the Javanese are generally darker than
the Sundanese. The eyes are always brown or black, the hair of
the head black, long, lank and coarse. Neither breast nor limbs
are provided with hair, and there is hardly even the suggestion
of a beard. In stature the Sundanese is less than the Javanese
1 It is interesting to compare this with the natural " refloriza-
tion " of Krakatoa. See Penzig, Ann. iard. de Buitenzorg, vol. viii.
(1902) ; and W. Bolting in Nature (1903).
proper, being little over 5 ft. in average height, whereas the
Javanese is nearly 5! ft.; at the same time the Sundanese is more
stoutly built. The Madurese is as tall as the Javanese, and as
stout as the Sundanese. The eye is usually set straight in the
head in the Javanese and Madurese; among the Sundanese it is
often oblique. The nose is generally flat and small, with wide
nostrils, although among the Javanese it not infrequently be-
comes aquiline. The lips are thick, yet well formed; the teeth
are naturally white, but often filed and stained. The cheek-bones
are well developed, more particularly with the Madurese. In
expressiveness of countenance the Javanese and Madurese are
far in advance of the Sundanese. The women are not so well
made as the men, and among the lower classes especially soon
grow absolutely ugly. In the eyes of the Javanese a golden
yellow complexion is the perfection of female beauty. To judge
by their early history, the Javanese must have been a warlike
and vigorous people, but now they are peaceable, docile, sober,
simple and industrious.
One million only out of the twenty-six millions of natives are
concentrated in towns, a fact readily explained by their sources
of livelihood. The great bulk of the population is distributed
over the country in villages usually called by Europeans dessas,
from the Low Javanese word desd (High Javanese dusun). Every
dessa, however small (and those containing from 100 to 1000
families are exceptionally large), forms an independent commu-
nity; and no sooner does it attain to any considerable size than
it sends off a score of families or so to form a new dessa. Each
lies in the midst of its own area of cultivation. The general
enceinte is formed by an impervious hedge of bamboos 40 to
70 ft. high. Within this lie the houses, each with its own en-
closure, which, even when the fields are the communal property,
belongs to the individual householder. The capital of a district
is only a larger dessa, and that of a regency has the same general
type, but includes several kampongs or villages. The bamboo
houses in the strictly Javanese districts are always built on the
ground; in the Sunda lands they are raised on piles. Some of
the well-to-do, however, have stone houses. The principal
article of food is rice; a considerable quantity of fish is eaten,
but little meat. Family life is usually well ordered. The upper
class practise polygamy, but among the common people a man
has generally only one wife. The Javanese are nominally
Mahommedans, as in former times they were Buddhists and
Brahmins; but in reality, not only such exceptional groups as
the Kalangs of Surakarta and Jokjakarta and the Baduwis or
nomad tribes of Bantam, but the great mass of the people must
be considered as believers rather in the primitive animism of
their ancestors, for their belief in Islam is overlaid with super-
stition. As we ascend in the social scale, however, we find the
name of Mahommedan more and more applicable; and conse-
quently in spite of the paganism of the populace the influence of
the Mahommedan " priests " (this is their official title in Dutch)
is widespread and real. Great prestige attaches to the pilgrim-
age to Mecca, which was made by 5068 persons from Java in
1 900. In every considerable town there is a mosque. Christian
missionary work is not very widely spread.
Languages. — In spite of Sundancse, Madurese and the intrusive
Malay, Javanese has a right to the name. It is a rich and cultivated
language which has passed through many stages of development
ana, under peculiar influences, has become a linguistic complex
of an almost unique kind. Though it is customary and convenient
to distinguish New Javanese from Kavi or Old Javanese, just as it
was customary to distinguish English from Anglo-Saxon, there is no
break of historical continuity. Kavi (Basa Kavi, i.e. the language
of poetry) may be defined as the form spoken and written before the
founding of Majapahit; and middle Javanese, still represented by
the dialect of Banyumas, north Cheribon, north Krawang and
north Bantam, as the form the language assumed under the Maja-
pahit court influence; while New Javanese is the language as it has
developed since the fall of that kingdom. Kavi continued to be a
literary language long after it had become archaic. It contains
more Sanskrit than any other language of the archipelago. New
Javanese breaks up into two great varieties, so different that some-
times they are regarded as two distinct languages. The nobility
use one form, Krama; the common people another, Ngoko, the
" thouing " language (cf. Fr. tutoyant, Ger. dutzend); but each class
understands the language of the other class. The aristocrat speaks
JAVA
289
to the commonalty in the language of the commoner; the commoner
speaks to the aristocracy in the language of the aristocrat; and,
according to clearly recognized etiquette, every Javanese plays the
part of aristocrat or commoner towards those whom he addresses.
To speak Ngoko to a superior is to insult him ; to speak Krama to an
equal or inferior is a mark of respect. In this way Dipa Negara
showed his contempt for the Dutch General de Kock. The ordinary
Javanese thinks in Ngoko ; the children use it to each other, and soon.
Between the two forms there is a kind of compromise, the Madya,
or middle form of speech, employed by those who stand to each
other on equal or friendly footing or by those whofeellittleconstraint
of etiquette. For every idea expressed in the language Krama has
one vocable, the Ngoko another, the two words being sometimes
completely different and sometimes differing only in the termination,
the beginning or the middle. Thus every Javanese uses, as it were,
two or even three languages delicately differentiated from each
other. How this state of affairs came about is matter of speculation.
Almost certainly the existence side by side of two peoples, speaking
each its own tongue, and occupying towards each other the position
intellectually and politically of superior and inferior, had much to
do with it. But Professor Kern thinks that some influence must
also be assigned to pamela or pantang, word-taboo — certain words
being in certain circumstances regarded as of evil omen — a super-
stition still lingering, e.g. even among the Shetland fishermen (see
G. A. F. Hazeu, De taal pantangs). It has sometimes been asserted
that Krama contains more Sanskrit words than Ngoko does; but
the total number in Krama does not exceed 20; and sometimes
there is a Sanskrit word in Ngoko which is not in Krama. There
is a village Krama which is not recognized by the educated classes:
Krama inggil, with a vocabulary of about 300 words, is used in
addressing the deity or persons of exalted rank. The Basa Kedaton
or court language is a dialect used by all living at court except
royalties, who use Ngoko. Among themselves the women of the
court employ Krama or Madya, but they address the men in Basa
Kedaton.1
Literature. — Though a considerable body of Kavi literature is still
extant, nothing like a history of it is possible. The date and author-
ship of most of the works are totally unknown. The first place may
be assigned to the Brata Yuda (Sansk., Bharata Yudha, the conflict
of the Bharatas), an epic poem dealing with the struggle between the
Pandawas and the Korawas for the throne of Ngastina celebrated
in parwas 5-10 of the Mahabharata. To the conception, however, of
the modern Javanese it is a purely native poem ; its kings and heroes
find their place in the native history and serve as ancestors to
their noble families. (Cohen Stuart published the modern Javanese
version with a Dutch translation and notes, Brdtd-Joedd, &c.,
Samarang, 1877. The Kavi text was lithographed at the Hague
by S. Lankhout.) Of greater antiquity probably is the Ardjund
Wiwdhd (or marriage festival of Ardjuna), which Professor Kern
thinks may be assigned to the first half of the nth century of the
Christian era. The name indicates its Mahabharata origin. (Frie-
derich published the Kavi text from a Bali MS., and Wiwdhd Djarwa
en Brdtd Joedo Kawi, lithographed facsimiles of two palm-leaf MSS.,
Batavia, 1878. Djarwa is the name of the poetic diction of modern
Javanese.) The oldest poem of which any trace is preserved is
probably the mythological Kdndd (i.e. tradition) ; the contents are
to some extent known from the modern Javanese version. In the
literature of modern Javanese there exists a great variety of so-
called babads or chronicles. It is sufficient to mention the " history "
of Baron Sakender, which appears to give an account — often hardly
recognizable — of the settlement of Europeans in Java (Cohen
Stuart published text and translation, Batavia, 1851 ; J. Veth gives an
analysis of the contents), and the Babad Tanah Djawi (the Hague,
1874, 1877), giving the history of the island to 1647 of the Javanese
era. Even more numerous are the wayangs or puppet-plays which
usua|ly take their subjects from the Hindu legends or from those
relating to the kingdoms of Majapahit and Pajajaram (see e.g. H. C.
Humme, Abidsd, een Javaansche toneelsluk, the Hague, 1878). In
these plays grotesque figures of gilded leather are moved by the
performer, who recites the appropriate speeches and, as occasion
demands, plays the part of chorus.
'Several Javanese specimens are also known of the beast fable,
which plays so important a part in Sanskrit literature (W. Palmer
van den Broek, Javaansche Vertellingen, bevaltende de lotgevallen
van een kantjil, een reebok, &c., the Hague, 1878). To the Hindu-
Javanese literature there naturally succeeded a Mahommedan-
Javanese literature consisting largely of translations or imitations
of Arabic originals; it comprises religious romances, moral exhorta-
tions and mystical treatises in great variety.2
Arts. — In mechanic arts the Javanese are in advance of the other
peoples of the archipelago. Of thirty different crafts practised among
them, the most important are those of the blacksmith or cutler, the
carpenter, the kris-sheath maker, the coppersmith, the goldsmith
'See Walbreken, De Taalsvorten in het Javaansh; and G. A.
Wilken, Handboek voor de vergelijkende Volkenkunde van Neder-
landsch Indie, edited by C. M. Pleyte (1893).
2 See Van den Berg's account of the MSS. of the Batavian Society
(the Hague, 1877) ; and a series of papers by C. Poensen in Meded. van
viege het Ned. Zendelinggenootschap (1880).
. xv. 10
and the potter. Their skill in the working of the metals is the more
noteworthy as they have to import the raw materials. The most
esteemed product of the blacksmith's skill is the kris; every man and
boy above the age of fourteen wears one at least as part of his ordi-
nary dress, and men of rank two and sometimes four. In the finish-
ing and adornment of the finer weapons no expense is spared;
and ancient krises of good workmanship sometimes fetch enormous
prices. The Javanese gold and silver work possesses considerable
beauty, but there is nothing equal to the filigree of Sumatra; the
brass musical instruments are of exceptional excellence. Both
bricks and tiles are largely made, as well as a coarse unglazed
pottery similar to that of Hindustan; but all the finer wares are
imported from China. Cotton spinning, weaving and dyeing are
carried on for the most part as purely domestic operations by the
women. The usual mode of giving variety of colour is by weaving
in stripes with a succession of different coloured yarns, but another
mode is to cover with melted wax or damar the part of the cloth not
intended to receive the dye. This process is naturally a slow one,
and has to be repeated according to the number of colours required.
As a consequence the battiks, as the cloths thus treated are called,
are in request by the wealthier classes. For the most part quiet
colours are preferred. To the Javanese of the present day the ancient
buildings of the Hindu periods are the work of supernatural power.
Except when employed by his European master he seldom builds
anything more substantial than a bamboo or timber framework;
but in the details of such erections he exhibits both skill and taste.
When Europeans first came to the island they found native vessels
of large size well entitled to the name of ships; and, though ship-
building proper is now carried on only under the direction of Euro-
peans, boat-building is a very extensive native industry along the
whole of the north coast — the boats sometimes reaching a burden
of 50 tons. The only one of the higher arts which the Javanese
have carried to any degree of perfection is music; and in regard
to the value of their efforts in this direction Europeans differ
greatly. The orchestra (gamelan) consists of wind, string and
percussion instruments, the latter being in preponderancy to the
other two. (Details of the instruments will be found in Raffles'
Java, and a description of a performance in the Tour du monde,
1880.)
Chief Towns and Places of Note. — The capital of Java and of the
Dutch East India possessions is Batavia (q.v.), pop. 115,567. At
Meester Cornelis (pop. 33,119), between 6 and 7 m. from Batavia
on the railway to Buitenzorg, the battle was fought in 1811 which
placed Java in the hands of the British. In the vicinity lies Depok,
originally a Christian settlement of freed slaves, but now with about
3000 Mahommedan inhabitants and only 500 Christians. The
other chief towns, from west to east through the island, are as
follows: Serang (pop. 5600) bears the same relation to Bantam, about
6 m. distant, which New Batavia bears to Old Batavia, its slight
elevation of loo ft. above the sea making it fitter for European
occupation. Anjer (Angerlor, Anger) lies 96 m. from Batavia by
rail on the coast at the narrowest part of the Sunda Strait; formerly
European vessels were wont to call there for fresh provisions and
water. Pandeglang (pop. 3644), 787 ft. above sea-level, is known
for its hot and cold sulphur springs. About 17 m. west of Batavia
lies Tangerang (pop. 13,535), a busy place with about 2800 or 3000
Chinese among its inhabitants. Buitenzorg (q.v.) is the country-
seat of the governor-general, and its botanic gardens are famous.
Krawang, formerly chief town of the residency of that name— the
least populous of all — has lost its importance since Purwakerta
(pop. 6862) was made the administrative centre. At Wanyasa in
the neighbourhood the first tea plantations were attempted on a
large scale.
The Preanger regencies — Bandung.Chanjur.Sukabumi, Sumedang,
Garut and Tasikmalaya — constitute the most important of all the
residencies, though owing to their lack of harbour on the south and
the intractable nature of much of their soil they have not shared
in the prosperity enjoyed by many other parts of the island. Ban-
dung, the chief town since 186^, lies 2300 ft. above sea-level, 109 m.
south of Batavia by rail; it is a well-built and flourishing place
(pop. 28,965; Europeans 1522, Chinese 2650) with a handsome
resident's house (1867), a large mosque (1867), a school for the sons
of native men of rank, the most important quinine factory in the
island, and a race-course where in July a good opportunity is afforded
of seeing both the life of fashionable and official Java and the
customs and costumes of the common people. The district is
famous for its waterfalls, one of the most remarkable of which is
where the Chi Tarum rushes through a narrow gully to leap down
from 'the Bandung plateau. In the neighbourhood is the great
military camp of Chimahi. Chanjur, formerly the chief town, in
spite of its loss of administrative position still has a population of
!3i599- From Sukabumi (pop. 12,112; 569 Europeans), a pleasant
health resort among the hills at an altitude of 1965 ft., tourists are
accustomed to visit Wijnkoopers Bay for the sake of the picturesque
shore scenery. Chichalengka became after 1870 one of the centres
of the coffee industry. Sumedang has only 8013 inhabitants,
having declined since the railway took away the highway traffic : it
is exceeded both by Garut (10,647) a"d by Tasikmalaya (9196), but
it is a beautiful place well known to sportsmen for its proximity to
the Rancha Ekek swamp, where great snipe-shooting matches are
290
held every year. For natural beauty few parts of Java can compare
with the plain of Tasikmalaya, itself remarkable, in a country of
trees, for its magnificent avenues. N.E. of the Preanger lies the
residency of Cheribon1 (properly Chi Rebon, the shrimp river).
The chief town (pop. 24,564) is one of the most important places
on the north coast, though the unhealthiness of the site has
caused Europeans to settle at Tangkil, 2 m. distant. The church
(1842), the regent's residence, and the great prison are among the
principal buildings; there are also extensive salt warehouses. The
native part of the town is laid out more regularly than is usual, and
the Chinese quarter (pop. 3352) has the finest Chinese temple in
Java. The palaces of the old sultans of Cheribon are less extensive
than those of Surakarta and Jokjakarta. Though the harbour has
to be kept open by constant dredging the roadstead is good all the
year round. A strange pleasure palace of Sultan Supeh, often
described by travellers, lies about 2 m. off near Sunya Raja.
Mundu, a village 4 m. south-east of Cheribon, is remarkable as the
only spot on the north coast of the island visited by the ikan prut or
belly-fish, a species about as large as a cod, caught in thousands and
salted by the local fishermen. Indramayu, which lies on both banks
of the Chi Manuk about 8 m. from the coast, is mentioned under
the name of Dermayo as a port for the rice of the district and the
coffee of the Preanger. The coffee trade is extinct but the rice
trade is more flourishing than ever, and the town has 13,400 inhabi-
tants, of whom 2200 are Chinese. It might have a great commercial
future if money could be found for the works necessary to overcome
the disadvantage of its position — the roads being safe only during
the east monsoon and the river requiring to be deepened and regu-
lated. Tegal has long been one of the chief towns of Java: com-
merce, native trade and industry, and fisheries are all well repre-
sented and the sugar factories give abundant employment to the
inhabitants. The harbour has been the object of various improve-
ments since 1871. The whole district is densely populated (3100
to the sq. m.) and the town proper with its 16,665 inhabitants is
surrounded by extensive kampongs (Balapulang, Lebaksiu, &c.).
In Pekalongan (pop. 38,211) and Batang (21,286) the most important
industry is the production of battiks and stamped cloths; there
are also iron-works and sugar factories. The two towns are only
some 5 m. apart. The former has a large mosque, a Protestant
church, an old fort and a large number of European houses. The
Chinese quarters consist of neat stone or brick buildings. Peka-
longan smoked ducks are well known. Brebes (13,474) on the
Pamali is an important trade centre. Banyumas (5000) is the seat
of a resident; it is exceeded by Purwokerto (12,610), Purbalinggo
(12,004) and Chilachap (12,000). This last possesses the best
harbour on the south coast, and but for malaria would have been
an important place. It was chosen as the seat of a great military
establishment but had to be abandoned, the fort being blown up
in 1893. Semarang (pop. 80,286, of whom 4800 are Europeans
and 12,372 Chinese) lies on the Kali Ngaran near the centre of the
north coast. Up to 1824 the old European town was surrounded
by a wall and ditch. It was almost the exact reproduction of a
Dutch town without the slightest accommodation to the exigencies
of the climate, the streets narrow and irregular. The modern town
is well laid out. Among the more noteworthy buildings of Sema-
rang are the old Prince of Orange fort, the resident's house, the
Roman Catholic church, the Protestant church, the mosque, the
military hospital. A new impulse to the growth of the town was
given by the opening of the railway to Surakarta and Jokjakarta
in 1875. As a seaport the place is unfortunately situated. The
river has long been silted up; the roadstead is insecure in the west
monsoon. After many delays an artificial canal, begun in 1858,
became available as a substitute for the river; but further works
are necessary. A second great canal to the east, begun in 1896,
helps to prevent inundations and thus improve the healthiness of
the town. Demak, 13 m. N.E. of Semarang, though situated in a
wretched region of swamps and having only 5000 inhabitants, is
famous in ancient Javanese history. The mosque, erected by the
first sultan of Demak, was rebuilt in 1845; only a small part of the
old structure has been preserved, but as a sanctuary it attracts
6000 or 7000 pilgrims annually. To visit Demak seven times has
the same ceremonial value as the pilgrimage to Mecca. The tombs
of several of the sultans are still extant. Salatiga (" three stones,"
with allusion to three temples now destroyed) was in early times one
of the resting places of ambassadors proceeding to the court of Mat-
aram, and in the European history of Java its name is associated
with the peace of 1755 and the capitulation of 1811. It is the seat
of a cavalry and artillery camp. Its population, about 10,000,
seems to be declining. Ambarawa with its railway station is, on
the other hand, rapidly increasing. Its population of 14,745
includes 459 Europeans. About a mile to tne N. lies the fortress
of Willem I. which Van den Bosch meant to make the centre of the
Javanese system of defensive works ; the Banyubiru military camp
is in the neighbourhood. Kendal (15,000) is a centre of the sugar
industry. Kudus (31,000; 4300 Chinese) has grown to be one of
the most important inland towns. Its cloth and battik pedlars are
'Cheribon is the form employed by the Dutch: an exception to
their usual system, in which Tj- takes the place of the Ch- used in
this article.
JAVA
known throughout the island and the success of their enterprise is
evident in the style of their houses. A good trade is also carried on
in cattle, kapok, copra, pottery and all sorts of small wares. The
mosque in the old town has interesting remains of Majapahit
architecture; and the tomb of Pangeran Kudus is a noted Mahom-
medan sanctuary. A steam tramway leads northward towards, but
does not reach, Japara, which in the 1 7th century was the chief
port of the kingdom of Mataram and retained its commercial
importance till the Dutch Company removed its establishment to
Semarang. In 1818 Daendels transferred its resident to Pati.
Ungaran, 1026 ft. above the sea, was a place of importance as early
as the 1 7th century, and in modern times has become known as a
sanatorium. Rembang, a well-built coast town and the seat of a
resident, has grown rapidly to have a population of 29,538 with 210
Europeans. Very similar to each other are Surakarta or Solo and
Jokjakarta, the chief towns of the quasi-independent states or
Vorstenlanden. Surakarta (pop. 109,459; Chinese 5159, Europeans
1913) contains the palace (Kraton, locally called the Bata bumi)
of the susuhunan (which the Dutch translated as emperor), the
dalem of Prince Mangku Negara, the residences of the Solo nobles,
a small Dutch fort (Vastenburg), a great mosque, an old Dutch
settlement, and a Protestant church. Here the susuhunan lives in
Oriental pomp and state. To visitors there are few more interesting
entertainments than those afforded by the celebration of the 3 1st
of August (the birthday of the queen of the Netherlands) or of the
New Year and the Puasa festivals, with their wayungs, ballet-
dancers, and so on. Jokjakarta (35 m. S.) has been a great city
since Mangku Bumi settled there in 1755. The Kraton has a circuit
of 3i m., and is a little town in itself with the palace proper, the
residences of the ladies of the court and kampongs for the hereditary
smiths, carpenters, sculptors, masons, payong-makers, musical
instrument makers, &c.,&c., of his highness. The independent Prince
Paku Alam has a palace of his own. As in Surakarta there are an
old Dutch town and a fort. The Jogka market is one of the most
important of all Java, especially for jewelry. The total population
is 72,235 with 1424 Europeans. To the south-east lies Pasar Gedeh,
a former capital of Mataram, with tombs of the ancient princes in
the Kraton, a favourite residence of wealthy Javanese traders.
Surabaya (q.v.), on the strait of Madura, is the largest commercial
town in Java. Its population increased from 118,000 in 1890 to
146,944 in 1900 (8906 Europeans). To the north lies Grissee or
Gresih (25,688 inhabitants) with a fairly good harbour and of special
interest in the early European history of Java. Inland is the
considerable town of Lamongan (12,485 inhabitants). Fifteen m.
S. by rail lies Sidoarjo (10,207; '85 Europeans), the centre of one of
the most densely populated districts and important as a railway
junction. In the neighbourhood is the populous village of Mojosan.
Pasuruan was until modern times one of the chief commercial
towns in Java, the staple being sugar. Since the opening of the
railway to Surabaya it has greatly declined, and its warehouses and
dwelling-houses are largely deserted. The population is 27,152
with 663 Europeans. Probolinggo (called by the natives Banger)
is a place of 13,240 inhabitants. The swampy tracts in the vicinity
are full of fishponds. The baths of Banyubiru (blue water) to the
south have Hindu remains much visited by devotees. Pasirian in
the far south of the residency is a considerable market town and the
terminus of a branch railway. Besuki, the easternmost of all the
residencies, contains several places of some importance; the chief
town Bondowoso (8289.); Besuki, about the same size, but with no
foreign trade; Jember, a small but rapidly increasing place, and
Banyuwangi (17,559). This last was at one time the seat of the
resident, now the eastern terminus of the railway system, and is a
seaport on the Bali Strait with an important office of the telegraph
company controlling communication with Port Darwin and Singa-
pore. It has a very mingled population, besides Javanese and
Madurese, Chinese and Arabs, Balinese, Bugincse and Europeans.
The chief town of Kediri (10,489) is the only residency town in the
interior traversed by a navigable river, and is exceeded by Tulunga-
gung; and the residency of Madiun has two considerable centres of
population: Madiun (21,168) and Ponorogo (16,765).
Agriculture. — About 40 % of the soil of Java is under cultivation.
Bantam and Besuki have each 16% of land under cultivation;
Krawang, 21% Preanger, 23%: Rembang, 30%; Japara, 62%;
Surabaya, 65%; Kedu, 66%; Samarang, 67%. Proceeding along
the south coast from its west end, we find that in Bantam all the
land cultivated on its south shore amounts to at most but 5 % of
that regency; in Preanger and Banyumas, as far as Chilachap, the
land under cultivation amounts at a maximum to 20%. East of
Surakarta the percentages of land on the south coast under cultiva-
tion decline from 30 to 20 and 10. East of the residency of Pro-
bolinggo the percentage of land cultivated on the south coast sinks
to as low as 2. On the north coast, in Krawang and Rembang, with
their morasses and double chains of chalk, there are districts with
only 20% and 10% of the soil under cultivation. In the residencies,
on the other hand, of Batavia, Cheribon, Tegal, Samarang, Japara,
Surabaya and Pasuruan, there are districts having 80% to 90% of
soil, and even more, under cultivation.
The agricultural products of Java must be distinguished into
those raised by the natives for their own use and those raised for
the government and private proprietors. The land assigned to the
natives for their own culture and use amounts to about 9,625,000
acres. In western Java the prevailing crop is rice, less prominently
cultivated in middle Java, while in eastern Java and Madura other
articles of food take the first rank. The Javanese tell strange
legends concerning the introduction of rice, and observe various
ceremonies in connexion with its planting, paying more regard to
them than to the proper cultivation of the cereal. The agricultural
produce grown on the lands of the government and private pro-
prietors, comprising an area of about 3! million acres, consists of
sugar, cinchona, coffee, tobacco, tea, indigo, &c. The Javanese
possess buffaloes, ordinary cattle, horses, dogs and cats. The
buffalo was probably introduced by the Hindus. As in agricultural
products, so also in cattle-rearing, western Java is distinguished
from middle and eastern Java. The average distribution of buffa-
loes is 106 per 1000 inhabitants, but it varies considerably in different
districts, being greatest in western Java. The fact that rice is the
prevailing culture in the west, while in eastern Java other plants
constitute the chief produce, explains the larger number of buffaloes
found in western Java, these animals being more in requisition in
the culture of rice. The ordinary cattle are of mixed race; the Indian
zebu having been crossed with the banting and with European cattle
of miscellaneous origin. The horses, though small, are of excellent
character, and their masters, according to their own ideas, are
extremely particular in regard to purity of race. Riding comes
naturally to the Javanese; horse-races and tournays have been in
vogue among them from early times.
Coffee is an alien in Java. Specimens brought in 1696 from
Cannanore on the Malabar coast perished in an earthquake and
floods in 1699; the effective introduction of the precious shrub was
due to Hendrik Zwaardekron (see N. P. van den Berg, " Voortbreng-
ing en verbruck van koffie," Tijdschrift v. Nijverh. en Landb. 1879;
and the article " Koffie " in Rncyc.Ned.Ind. Wiji kawih is mentioned in
a Kavi inscription of A.D. 856, and the bean-broth in David Tappen's
list of Javanese beverages, 1667—1682, may have been coffee). The
first consignment of coffee (894 Ib) to the Netherlands was made in
1711-1712, but it was not till after 1 72 1 that the yearly exports reached
any considerable amount. The aggregate quantity sold in the
home market from 1711 to 1791 was2,O36,437 piculs, or on an average
about 143 tons per annum; and this probably represented nearly
the whole production of the island. By the beginning of the igth
century the annual production was about 7143 tons and after the
introduction of the Van den Bosch system of forced culture a further
augmentation was effected. The forced culture system was, in
1909, however, of little importance. Official reports show that
from 1840 to 1873 the amount ranged from 5226 tons to 7354.
During the ten years 1869 to 1878 the average crop of the planta-
tions under state control was 5226 tons, that of the private planters
about 810. The government has shown a strange reluctance to
surrender the old-fashioned monopoly, but the spirit of private
enterprise has slowly gained the day. Though the appearance of
the coffee blight (Hemileia vastatrix) almost ruined the industry the
planters did not give in. An immune variety was introduced from
Liberia, and scientific methods of treatment have been adopted in
dealing with the plantations. In 1887, a record year, the value of
the coffee crop reached £3,083,333, and at its average it was about
£1,750,000 between 1886 and 1895. The value was only £1,166,666
in 1896. The greatest difficulties are the uncertainties both of the
crop and of its marketable value. The former is well shown in
the figures for 1903 to 1905; government 17,900, 3949 and 3511
tons, and private planters 22,395, 15,311 and 21,395 tons. Liberia
coffee is still produced in much smaller quantity than Java coffee;
the latter on an average of these three years 21,360 tons; the former
7409.
The cultivation of sugar has been long carried on in Java, and
since the decline of the coffee plantations it has developed into the
leading industry of the island. There are experimental stations at
Pasuruan, Pekalongan and elsewhere, where attempts are made to
overcome the many diseases to which the cane is subject. Many of
the mills are equipped with high-class machinery and produce
sugar of excellent colour and grain. In 1853-1857 the average crop
was 98,094 tons; in 1869-1873, 170,831, and in 1875-1880, 204,678.
By 1899—1900 the average had risen to 787,673 tons; and the crops
for 1904 and 1905 were respectively 1,064,935 and 1,028,357 tons.
Prices fluctuate, but the value of the harvest of 1905 was estimated
at about £15,000,000.
The cultivation of indigo shows a strange vitality. Under the
culture system the natives found this the most oppressive of all the
state crops. The modern chemist at one time seemed to have
killed the industry by his synthetic substitute, but in every year
between 1899 and 1904 Java exported between one million and one
and a half million pounds of the natural product. Japan and Russia
were the largest buyers. As blue is a favourite colour with the
Javanese proper a large quantity is used at home.
Tea was first introduced to Java by the Japanese scholar von
Siebold in 1826. The culture was undertaken by the state in 1829
with plants from China, but in 1842 they handed it over to con-
tractors, whose attempts to increase their profits by delivering an
inferior article ultimately led to the abandonment of the contract
system in 1860. In the meantime the basis of a better state of the
industry had been laid by the Dutch tea-taster J. J. L. L. Jacobsen
JAVA 291
of the Nederlandsch Handel Maatschappij, who introduced not only
fresh stock, but expert growers from China in 1852-1853. The tea-
planters (often taking possession of the abandoned coffee-planta-
tions) have greatly improved the quality of their products. Assam
tea was introduced in 1878, and this has rapidly extended its area.
The exports increased from 12,110,724 ft in 1898 to 25,772,564 in
1905. More than half the total goes to the Netherlands; the United
Kingdom ranks next, and, far behind both, Russia.
In 1854 the government introduced the culture of cinchona with
free labour, and it had considerable success under F. Junghuhn and
his successors, though the varieties grown were of inferior quality.
Latef seed of the best cinchona was obtained, and under skilful
management Java has become the chief producer of quinine in the
world. Cacao is produced in the Preanger regencies, Pekalongan,
Semarang, Pasuruan, Besuki, Kediri and Surakarta. In 1903, a
record year, 1,101,835 piculs (about 6540 tons) were produced.
Broussonetia papyrifera is grown for the sake of its bark, so well
known in Japan (Jap. kodsu) as a paper material. The ground-nut
(the widely spread Arachis hypogaea from South America), locally
known as kachang china or tanah, is somewhat extensively grown.
The oil is exported to Holland, where it is sold as Delft salad oil.
Tapioca has long been cultivated, especially in the Preanger. The
industry is mainly in the hands of the Chinese, and the principal
foreign purchasers are English biscuit manufacturers. The kapok is a
tree from tropical America which, growing freely in any soil, is ex-
tensively used throughout Java along the highways as a support for
telegraph and telephone wires, and planted as a prop in pepper and
cubeb plantations. The silky fibre contained in its long capsuloid
fruits is known as cotton wool; and among other uses it
serves almost as well as cork for filling life-belts; and the oil from its
seed is employed to adulterate ground-nut oil. The. quantity of
wool exported nearly trebled between 1890 and 1896, in the latter
year the total sent to Holland, Australia, Singapore, &c., amounting
to 38,586 bales. The rapid exhaustion of the natural supply of
india-rubber and gutta-percha began to attract the attention of
government in the latter decades of the igth century. Extensive
experiments have been made in the cultivation of Ficus elastica
(the karet of the natives), Castilloa elastica, and Hevea brasiliensis.
The planting of gutta-percha trees was begun about 1886, and a
regular system introduced in the Preanger in 1901. The Palaquium
oblongifolium plantations at Blavan, Kemutuk and Sewang in
Banyumas have also been brought under official control. Java
tobacco, amounting to about 35,200,000 Ib a year, is cultivated
almost exclusively in eastern Java. Among other products which
are of some importance as articles of export may be mentioned
nutmegs, mace, pepper, hides, arrack and copra.
Particular Lands. — At different times down to 1830 the govern-
ment disposed of its lands in full property to individuals who,
acquiring complete control of the inhabitants as well as of the soil,
continued down to the igth century to act as if they were indepen-
dent of all superior authority. In this way more than ij millions
of the people were subject not to the state but to " stock companies,
absentee landlords and Chinese." According to the Regeerings
Almanak (1906) these " particular lands," as they are called, were
distributed as follows: Bantam 21, Batavia 36, Meester Cornelis
163, Tangerang 80, Buitenzorg 61, Semarang 32, Surabaya 46,
Krawang and Demak 3 each, Cheribon 2, and Pekalongan, Kendal
and Pasuruan I each. In Meester Cornelis no fewer than 297,912
persons were returned in 1905 as living on these lands. Of the 168
estates there are not 20 that grow anything but grass, rice and coco-
nuts. In Buitenzorg (thanks probably to the Botanic Gardens)
matters are better: tea, coffee, cinchona and india-rubber appearing
amongst the objects of cultivation ; and, in general, it must be noted
that these estates have often natural difficulties to contend against
far beyond their financial strength.
Minerals. — Of all the great islands of the archipelago Java is the
poorest in metallic ores. Gold and silver are practically non-
existent. Manganese is found in Jokjakarta and various other
parts. A concession for working the magnetic iron sands in the
neighbourhood of Chilachap was granted in 1904. Coal occurs in
thin strata and small pockets in many parts (Bantam, Rembang,
Jokjakarta, &c.) ; and in 1905 a concession was granted to a company
to work the coal-beds at Bajah close to the harbour of Wijnkoopers
Bay, a port of call of the Koninklijk Paketvaart Maatschappij.
The discovery by De Groot in 1863 of petroleum added a most
important industry to the list of the resources of Java. The great
Dort Petroleum Company, now centred at Amsterdam, was founded
in 1887. The production of this company alone rose from 79,179
kisten or cases (each 8-14 gall.) in 1891 to 1,642,780 in 1890, and
to 1,967,124 in 1905. In 1904 there were no fewer than 36 conces-
sions for petroleum. At the same time there is a larger importation
of oil from Sumatra as well as from America and Russia. Sulphur
is regularly worked in the Gunong Slamet, G. Sindoro, G. Sumbing,
and in the crater of the Tangkuban Prahu as well as in other places
in the Preanger regencies and in Pasuruan. Brine-wells exist in
various parts. The bledegs (salt-mud wells) of Grobogan in the
Solo Valley, Semarang, are best known. They rise from Miocene
strata and yield iodine and bromine products as well as common
salt. The natives of the district are allowed to extract the salt for
their own use, but elsewhere (except in Jokjakarta) the manufacture
292 JAVA
of salt is a government monopoly and confined to the districts of
Sumenep, Panekasan and Sampang in Madura, where from 3000 to
4000 people are hereditarily engaged in extracting salt from sea
water, delivering it to the government at the rate of 10 fl. (nearly
173.) per koyang (3700 ft). The distribution of this salt (rough-
grained, greyish and highly hygroscopic) is extremely unsatisfactory.
The waste was so great that in 1901 the government paid a prize of
about £835 (10,000 fl.) to Karl Boltz von Bolzberg for an improved
method of packing. Between 1888 and 1892 the annual amount
delivered was 71,405 tons; in the next five years it rose to 89,932;
and between 1898 and 1902 sank again to 88,856. The evil effects
of this monopoly have been investigated by J. E. de Meyer, " Zout
als middel van belasting," De Ind. Gids. (1905). The scarcity of salt
has led to a great importation of salted fish from Siam (upwards of
6600 tons in 1902).
Communications. — Roads and railways for the most part follow
the fertile plains and table-lands along the coast and between the
volcanic areas. The principal railways are the Semarang-Jokja-
karta and Batavia-Buitenzorg lines of the Netherlands-Indian
railway company, and the Surabaya-Pasuruan, Bangil-Mulang,
Sidoarjo-Paron, Kertosono-Tulung Agung, Buitenzorg-Chianjur,
Surakarta-Madiun,Pasuruan-Probolinggo,Jokjakarta-Chilachapand
other lines of the government. The earliest lines, between Batavia
and Buitenzorg and between Semarang and the capitals of the
sultanates, were built about 1870 by a private company with a state
guarantee. Since 1875, when Dr van Goltstein, then a cabinet
minister and afterwards Dutch minister in London, had an act passed
for the construction of state railways in Java, their progress has
become much more rapid. In addition, several private companies
have built either light railways or tramways, such as that between
Semarang and Joana, and the total length of all lines was 2460 in
1905. There are some 3500 miles of telegraph line, and cables
connect Java with Madura, Bali and Sumatra, and Port Darwin in
Australia. Material welfare was promoted by the establishment
of lines of steamships between Java and the other islands, all
belonging to a Royal Packet Company, established in 1888 under a
special statute, and virtually possessing a monopoly on account of
the government mail contracts.
Administration. — Each village (dessa) forms an independent
community, a group of dessas forms a district, a group of districts a
department and a group of departments a residency, of which there
are seventeen. At the head of each residency is a resident, with an
assistant resident and a controller, all Dutch officials. The officials
of the departments and districts are natives appointed by the
government; those of the dessa are also natives, elected by the
inhabitants and approved by the resident. In the two sultanates
of Surakarta and Jokjakarta the native sultans govern under the
supervision of the residents. (For the colonial administration of
Netherlands India see MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.)
History. — The origin of the name Java is very doubtful. It
is not improbable that it was first applied either to Sumatra or
to what was known of the Indian Archipelago — the insular
character of the several parts not being at once recognized.
Jawa Dwipa, or " land of millet," may have been the original
form and have given rise both to the Jaba diu of Ptolemy and to
the Je-pho-thi of Fahien, the Chinese pilgrim of the 4th~5th
century. The oldest form of the name in Arabic is apparently
Zabej. The first epigraphic occurrence of Jawa is in an inscrip-
tion of 1343. In Marco Polo the name is the common appella-
tion of all the Sunda islands. The Jawa of Ibn Batuta is Sumatra ;
Java is his Mul Jawa (i.e. possibly " original Java "). Jawa
is the modern Javanese name (in the court speech Jawi), some-
times with Nusa, " island," or Tanah, " country," prefixed.
It is impossible to extract a rational historical narrative from
the earlier babads or native chronicles, and even the later are
destitute of any satisfactory chronology. The first great era
in the history is the ascendancy of the Hindus, and that breaks
up into three periods — a period of Buddhism, a period of
aggressive Sivaism, and a period of apparent compromise. Of
the various Hindu states that were established in the island,
that of Majapahit was the most widely dominant down to the
end of the 15th century; its tributaries were many, and it even
extended its sway into other parts of the archipelago. The
second era of Javanese history is the invasion of Islam in the
beginning of the i5th century; and the third is the establishment
of European and more particularly of Dutch influence and
authority in the island. About 1520 the Portuguese entered
into commercial relationship with the natives, but at the close
of the same century the Dutch began to establish themselves.
At the time when the Dutch East India company began to fix
its trading factories on the coast towns, the chief native state
was Mataram, which had in the i6th century succeeded to the
overlordship possessed by the house of Demak — one of the
states that rose after the fall of Majapahit. The emperors of
Java, as the princes of Mataram are called in the early accounts,
had their capital at Kartasura, now an almost deserted place,
6 m. west of Surakarta. At first and for long the company had
only forts and little fragments of territory at Jakatra (Batavia),
&c.; but in 1705 it obtained definite possession of the Preanger
by treaty with Mataram; and in 1745 its authority was extended
over the whole north-east coast, from Chefibon to Banyuwangi.
In 1755 the kingdom of Mataram was divided into the two states
of Surakarta and Jokjakarta, which still retain a shadow of
independence. The kingdom of Bantam was finally subjugated
in 1808. By the English occupation of the island (1811-1818)
the European ascendancy was rather strengthened than weak-
ened; the great Java war (1825-1830), in which Dipa Negara,
the last Javanese prince, a clever, bold and unscrupulous leader,
struggled to maintain his claim to the whole island, resulted in
the complete success of the Dutch. To subdue him and his
following, however, taxed all the resources of the Dutch Indian
army for a period of five years, and cost it the loss of 15,000
officers and soldiers, besides millions of guilders. Nor did his
great influence die with him when his adventurous career came
to a close in 1855 at Macassar. Many Javanese, who dream of a
restoration of their ancient empire, do not believe even yet that
Dipa Negara is dead. • They are readily persuaded by fanatical
hadjis that their hero will suddenly appear to drive away the
Dutch and claim his rightful heritage. Several times there
have been political troubles in the native states of central Java,
in which Dip! NegSr&'s name was used, notably in 1883, when
many rebellious chieftains were exiled. Similar attempts at
revolt had been made before, mainly in 1865 and 1870, but none
so serious perhaps as that in 1849, in which a son and a brother
of Dipa Negara were implicated, aiming to deliver and reinstate
him. All such attempts proved as futile there as others in
different parts of Java, especially in Bantam, where the trouble
of 1850 and 1888 had a religious origin, and in the end they
directly contributed to the consolidation of Dutch sway. Being
the principal Dutch colony in the Malay Archipelago, Java was
the first to benefit from the material change which resulted from
the introduction of the Grondwet or Fundamental Law of 1848
in Holland. The main changes were of an economical character,
but the political developments were also important. Since 1850
Dutch authority has steadily advanced, principally at the ex-
pense of the semi-independent sultanates in central Java, which
had been allowed to remain after the capture and exile of Dipi
Neg&ri. The power of the sultans of Jokjakarta and Sura^
karta has diminished; in 1863 Dutch authority was strengthened
in the neighbouring island of Madura, and Bantam has lost every
vestige of independence. The strengthening of the Dutch power
has largely resulted from a more statesmanlike and more generous
treatment of the natives, who have been educated to regard the
orang blanda, or white man, as their protector against the native
rulers. Thus, in 1866, passports for natives travelling in Java
were abolished by the then governor-general, Dr Sloet van de
Beele, who also introduced many reforms, reducing the corvee in
the government plantations to a minimum, and doing away with
the monopoly of fisheries. Six years later a primary education
system for the natives, and a penal code, whose liberal provi-
sions seemed framed for Europeans, were introduced.
Antiquities. — Ordinary traces of early human occupation are few
in Java. The native bamboo buildings speedily perish. Stone
weapons are occasionally found. But remains of the temples and
monastic buildings of the Hindu period are numerous and splendid,
and are remarkable as representing architecture which reached a
high standard without the use of mortar, supporting columns or
arches. Chandis (i.e. temples, though the word originally meant a
depository for the ashes of a saint) are not found in western Java.
They exist in two great zones: one in middle Java, one in eastern
Java, each with its own distinguishing characteristics, both archi-
tectural and religious. The former begins in the Dyeng plateau,
in the east of Banyumas, and extends into the east of Bagelen,
Kedu and the neighbouring districts of Semarang, northern Jokja-
karta, and the western corner of Surakarta. The latter lies mainly
in Surabaya, Kediri and Pasuruan. A considerable number of
ruins also exist in Probolinggo. Farther east they grow scarce.
There is none in Madura. The remains of Macham Putih in
Banyuwangi are possibly of non-Hindu origin. In the regency of
Kendal (Semarang), to the north of Kedu, the place-names show that
temples once existed.1 Some of them are Sivaite, some Buddhist,
some astoundingly composite. None of the Buddhist buildings
shows traces of the older Himaryanaform of the creed. The greatest
of all is a perfect sculptural exposition of the Mahayana doctrine.
As to the period during which these temples were erected, authorities
are not agreed. Ijzerman assigns the central Java groups to between
the 8th and the loth centuries. The seven-storeyed vihara (monas-
tery) mentioned in the famous Menang-Kabu inscription (Sumatra)
as founded by Maharaja Dhiraya Adityadharma in A.D. 656 is by
some supposed to be Boro-Budur. A copper plate of 840 refers to
Dyeng (Dehyang) as one of the sacred mountains of Java. One
thing seems certain, that the temples of the eastern zone are of
much more recent origin than most, at least, of the central zone.
They are generally distinguished by the characteristics of a decadent
and more voluptuous age, and show that the art of the time had
become less Indian and more Javanese, with traces of influences
derived from the more eastern East. At the same time it must be
noted that even in Boro Budur there are non-Indian elements in the
decoration, indicating that the Hindu architect employed native
artists and to some extent left them a free hand.
In his standard work on Indian and Eastern Architecture (London,
1876), James Fergusson asserted that the Javanese temples are in
the Chalukyan style. But J. W. Ijzerman in an elaborate paper
in the Album-Kern contends that the learned historian of architec-
ture was misled by basing his opinion mainly on inaccurate drawings
reproduced by Raffles. The Javanese temples, with the solitary
exception of Chandi Bima in the Dyeng, are Dravidian and not
Chalukyan. The very temples quoted by Fergusson, when more
carefully examined, disprove his statement: a fact not without its
bearing on the history of the Hindu immigration.
The wonderful scenery of the Dyeng plateau was already, in all
probability, an object of superstitious awe to the aboriginal inhabi-
tants of Java; and thus it would catch the attention of the earliest
'Hindu settlers. The old crater floor is full of traces of human
occupation; though, in spite of the tradition of the existence of a
considerable town, no sepulchral relics of the inhabitants have been
discovered. There still remain five groups of temples — some well
preserved, some mere heaps of stone — to prove the devotion their
builders bore to Siva, his consort Durga, and Ganesha their son.
The Arjuno group, in the middle of the plateau, consists of Chandi
Arjuno (with itschapelorpriests' residence, Ch.Semar), Ch. Srikahdi,
Ch. Puntadeva and Ch. Sembadro, each a simple square chamber
with a portico reached by a flight of steps. The second group, Ch.
Daravati and Ch. Parakesit, lies to the north-east. The third, now a
ruined mound, lies to the east. The fourth, to the north-west, is a
group of seven small temples of which Ch. Sanchaki is the most
important, with a square ground plan and an octagon roof with a
second circular storey. Of the fifth group, in the south, only one
temple remains — the Chandi Bima — a small, beautiful and excep-
tionally interesting building, in " the form of a pyramid, the ribs
of which stand out much more prominently than the horizontal
lines of the niche-shaped ornaments which rest each on its lotus
cushion." How this happens to be the one Chalukyan temple
amid hundreds is a problem to be solved. The plateau lies 6500 ft.
above the sea, and roads and stairways, locally known as Buddha
roads, lead up from the lowlands of Bagelen and Pekalongan. The
stairway between Lake Menjur and Lake Chebong alone consisted
of 4700 steps. The width of the roadway, however, is only some three
or four feet. A remarkable subterranean tunnel still exists, which
served to drain the plateau.
Of all the Hindu temples of Java the largest and most magnificent
is Boro-Budur, which ranks among the architectural marvels of the
world. It lies in the residency of Kedu, a little to the west of the
Progo, a considerable stream flowing south to the Indian Ocean.
The place is best reached by taking the steam-tram from Magelang
or Jokjakarta to the village of Muntilam Passar, where a conveyance
may be hired. Strictly speaking, Boro-Budur is not a temple but a
hill, rising about 150 ft. above the plain, encased with imposing
terraces constructed of hewn lava-blocks and crowded with sculp-
tures. The lowest terrace now above ground forms a square, each
side 497 ft. long. About 50 ft. higher there is another terrace of
similar shape. Then follow four other terraces of more irregular
contour. The structure is crowned by a dome or cupola 52 ft. in
diameter surrounded by sixteen smaller bell-shaped cupolas.
Regarded as a whole, the main design, to quote Mr Sewell, may be
described as " an archaic Indian temple, considerably flattened
and consisting of a series of terraces, surmounted by a quasi-stupa
1 See R. Verbeek, " Liget der oudheden van Java," in Verhand.
v. h. Bat. Gen., xlvi., and his Oudreid kundige kaart van Java.
R. Sewell's " Antiquarian notes in Java," in Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society (1906), give the best conspectus available for English
readers. W. B. Worsfold, A Visit to Java (London, 1893), has a
good sketch of what was then known, revised by Professor W. Rhys
Davids; but whoever wishes full information must refer to Dutch
authorities. These are numerous but difficult of access.
JAVA 293
capped by a dagoba." It was discovered by the engineer J. W.
Ijzerman in 1885 that the basement of the structure had been earthed
up before the building was finished, and that the lowest retaining
wall was completely concealed by the embankment. The architects
had evidently found that their temple was threatened with a de-
structive subsidence; and, while the sculptors were still busy with
the decoration of the lower facades, they had to abandon their work.
But the unfinished bas-reliefs were carefully protected by c'ay and
blocks of stone and left in position ; and since 1896 they are gradually
but systematically being exhumed and photographed by the Dutch
archaeologists, who, however, have to proceed with caution, filling
up one portion of the embankment before they go on to deal with
another. The subjects treated in this lowest enceinte are of the
most varied description, forming a picture-gallery of landscapes,
scenes of outdoor and domestic life, mingled with mythological and
religious designs. Among the genre class appear men shooting birds
with blow-pipe or bow and arrow, fishermen with rod or net, a man
playing a bagpipe, and so on. It would seem as if the architect had
intended gradually to wean the devotees from the things of this
world. When once they began to ascend from stage to stage of the
temple-hill they were introduced to the realities of religion; and, by
the time they reached the dagoba they had passed through a process
of instruction and were ready, with enlightened eyes, to enter and
behold the image of Buddha, symbolically left imperfect, as beyond
the power of human art to realize or portray. From basement to
summit the whole hill is a great picture bible of the Mahayana
creed.
If the statues and bas-reliefs of Boro-Budur were placed side
by side they would extend for 3 m. The eye of the spectator,
looking up from the present ground-level, is caught, says Mr Sewell,
by the rows of life-size Buddhas that adorn the retaining walls of
the several terraces and the cage-like shrines on the circular plat-
forms. All the great figures on the east side represent Akshobhya,
the Dhyani Buddha of the East. His right hand is in the Chumis-
parsa mudra (pose) touching the earth in front of the right knee —
" I swear by the earth." All the statues on the south side are
Ratnasam Chayu in the varada mudra — the right hand displayed
upwards — •" I give you all." On the west side the statues represent
Amitabha in the dhyana or padinasama mudra, the right hand
resting palm upwards on the left, both being on the lap — the attitude
of meditation. Those on the north represent Amogasiddhi in the
abhaya mudra, the right hand being raised and displayed, palm
outwards — " Fear not, all is well."
Other remarkable groups of Hindu temples exist near the village
of Prambanan2 (less correctly Brambanan) in Surakarta, but not far
from the borders of Jokjakarta, with a station on the railway between
the two chief towns. The village has been named after the temples,
Prambanan signifying the place of teachers. The whole ecclesias-
tical settlement was surrounded by three lines of wall, of which
only the inmost is now visible above ground. Between the second
and third walls are 157 small temples, and in the central enclosure
are the ruins of six larger temples in a double row with two smaller
ones at the side. The middle temple of the western row is the main
building, full of statues of purely Sivaite character — Siva as Guru
or teacher, Siva as Kala or Time the Destroyer, Durga, Ganesha,
and so on. But, just as many churches in Christendom are called
not after the Christ but after the Virgin, so this is known as Lara
(i.e. Virgin) Janggrang from the popular name of Durga. In the
southern temple of the row is a very fine figure of a four-armed
Brahma; in the northern there was a Vishnu with attendant figures.
Of the other row the middle temple is again the largest, with Siva,
his nandi or bull, and other symbolic sculptures. To the north lies
the extraordinary cluster of temples which, though it does not
deserve its popular name of Chandi Sewu, the thousand shrines,
consists of at least 240 small buildings gathered round a great central
temple, richly adorned, though roofless and partially ruined since
the earthquake of 1867. Among the more noteworthy figures are
those of the huge and ungainly guardians of the temple kneeling at
the four main gateways of each of the principal buildings. Colonel
Yule pointed out that there are distinct traces of a fine coat of
stucco on the exterior and the interior of the buildings, and he com-
pared in this respect " the cave walls of Ellora, the great idols at
Bamian, and the Doric order at Selinus." Other temples in the
same neighbourhood as Chandi Sewu are Ch. Lumbung, Ch. Kali
Bening (Baneng), with a monstrous Kala head as the centre of the
design on the southern side, Ch. Kalong and Ch. Plaosan. Tradition
assigns these temples to 1266-1296.
Of the temples of the eastern zone the best known is Chandi Jago
(or Tumpang), elaborately described in the Archaeological Commis-
sion's monograph. According to the Pararaton, a native chronicle
(published in the Verhand. v. h. Bat. Gen. v. K. en W., 1896), it
belongs to the I3th century, containing the tomb of Rangavuni or
Vishnuvardhana, who died in 1272—1273. The shrine proper
occupies the third of three platforms, the lowest of which forms a
2 The chief authorities on Prambanan are J. W. Ijzerman,
Beschrijving der oudheden nabij de Grens der residences Soerakarta en
Djogjakarta (Batavia, 1891, with photographs and atlas); and
J. Groneman, Tjandi Parambanan op Midden Java: see also Guide
a trovers I'exposition des Pays-Bas (The Hague, 1900), No. 174, sqq.
294
square of 45 to 46 ft. each side. The building fronts the west, and
is constructed of an andesitic tuff of inferior quality and dark
colour. Of distinctly Buddhistic influence there is no trace.
The raakara (elephant-fish head) is notably absent. The sculptures
which run round the base and along the sides of the platforms or
terraces are of the most elaborate and varied description — kings on
thrones, dwarfs, elephants, supernatural beings, diabolical and
trotesque, tree-monsters, palaces, temples, courtyards, lakes, gar-
ens, forests — all are represented. In one place appears a Chinese-
or Burmese-looking seven-roofed pagoda; in another, a tall temple
strangely split down the centre, with a flight of steps running up the
fissure. The inscriptions are in the Devanagari character. In the
same neighbourhood are Ch. Singossari, Ch. Kidal, &c. Another of
the most beautiful of the eastern temples is Ch. Jabung, mentioned in
1330. It is built of red brick; and its distinctly Javanese origin is
suggested by the frequency of the snake-motif still characteristic
of modern Javanese art. It may be added that a comparison of the
several buildings of the zone affords an interesting study in the
development of the pilaster as a decorative rather than structural
element.
At Panabaram, near Blitar, Kediri, is another group of stone
temples and other buildings. The chief temple is remarkable
for the richness of its sculptures, which are peculiarly delicate and
spirited in their details. The decoration of the mere robes of one
of the free-standing stairway-guardians consists of scroll-work,
interspersed with birds and animals rendered in a non-Indian style,
reminiscent of Chinese or Japanese work. It has been described
as one of the most beautiful pieces of sculpture in all the East.
Sculptures from the temples are scattered far and wide throughout
Java, and it is one of the greatest difficulties of the archaeologist
to determine the origin of many of the most interesting specimens.
This, too, is often the case with those that have found their way
to the museums of Java and Europe (Batavia, Leiden, Haarlem,
Berlin, &c.). Minor relics of the past are to be found alike in the
palaces of the nobles and the huts of the highland peasants. Zodiac
cups of copper or bronze dating from the I2th or l^th century
are in daily use among the Tenggerese. The musical instruments
used by the musicians of the native courts are often prized on
account of their great antiquity.
As many of the Chinese came from China centuries ago and have
not ceased to hold intercourse with their native country, the houses
of the wealthier men among them are often rich in ancient specimens
of Chinese art. The special exhibition organized by Henri Borel
and other enthusiasts showed how much of value in this matter
might be brought together in spite of the reluctance of the owners
to commit the sacrilege of exposing to public gaze the images of
their ancestral gods and heroes. Borel has given exquisite examples
of images of Kwan-yin (the Chinese Virgin-Goddess), of Buddhas, of
the ghoulish god of literature, of Lie-tai-Pch (the Chinese poet who
has gone to live in the planet Venus), &c., in illustration of his papers
in L'Art flamand et hollandais, pt. v. (1900), a translation of his
monograph published at Batavia.
AUTHORITIES. — Besides the special works quoted passim, see Sir
Stamford Raffles , History of Java (London, 1830) ;F. Junghuhn, Java:
seine Gestalt, Pflanzendecke, und innere Bauart (Ger. trans, by J. K.
Hasskarl, Leipzig, 1854-1857) ; P. J. Veth, Java, Geographisch, ethno-
logisch, historisch (2nd ed., Haarlem, 1806-1903), a masterly com-
pendium originally based largely on Junghuhn's descriptions; L. van
Deventer, Geschiedenis der Nederlanders op Java (and ed., Haarlem,
1895) ; L. W. C. van den Berg, Le Hadhramout et les colonies arabes
dans I'archipel indien (Batavia, 1886); E. R. Scidmore, Java, the
Garden of the East (New York, 1898); J. Chailley-Bert, Java et ses
habitants (Paris, 1900) ; C. Day, The Policy and Administration of the
Dutch in Java (London, 1904); E. S. de Klerck, De Java-Oorlog van
1825-1830 (Batavia, 1905); Encyclopaedic v. N. Indie, art. " Java;"
Guide a travers I'Exposition de Paris (The Hague, 1900), with articles
by specialists on each department of the Dutch colonies, more
particularly Java; Koloniale Verslagen en Regeerings-almanak van
N. Indie, being official publications of the Dutch and Dutch East-
Indian Government (see also MALAY ARCHIPELAGO).
(H.A.W.; O.J.R.H.)
JAVELIN, a spear, particularly one light enough to be thrown,
a dart. The javelin was often provided with a thong to help in
casting (see SPEAR). Javelin-throwing is one of the contests in
the athletic section at the international Olympic games. For-
merly the sheriff of a county or borough had a body of men
armed with javelins, and known as javelin-men, who acted
as a bodyguard for the judges when they went on assize. Their
duties are now performed by the ordinary police. The word
itself is an adaptation of Fr. javeline. There are several words
in Celtic and Scandinavian languages and in Old English,
meaning a spear or dart, that seem to be connected with javel,
the base form in French; thus Welsh gaflach, Irish gabhla,
O. Norwegian gaflok, O. E. gafeluc, later in the form gavelock, cf.
O. Norman-Fr. gavelot, javelot, Ital. giavelotlo. The origin
JAVELIN— JAY, JOHN
seems to be Celtic, and the word is cognate with Ir. gafa, a hook,
fork, gaff; the root is seen in " gable " (<?.».), and in the German
Gabel, fork. The change in meaning from fork, forked end
o'f a spear, to 'the spear itself is obscure.
JAW (Mid. Eng. jawe, jowe and geowe, O. Eng. chemuan, con-
nected with " chaw " and " chew," and in form with " jowl "),
in anatomy, the term for the upper maxillary bone, and the
mandible or lower maxillary bone of the skull; it is sometimes
loosely applied to all the lower front parts of the skull (q.v.).
JAWALIQl, ABU MANSUR MAUHUB UL-JAWAXIQ! (1073-1143),
Arabian grammarian, was born at Bagdad, where he studied
philology under Tibrlzl and became famous for his handwriting.
In his later years he acted as imam to the caliph Moqtafi. His
chief work is the Kitab ul-Mu'arrab, or " Explanation of Foreign
Words used in Arabic."
The text was edited from an incomplete manuscript by E. Sachau
(Leipzig, 1867). Many of the lacunae in this have been supplied
from another manuscript by W. Spitta in the Journal of the German
Oriental Society, xxxiii. 208 sqq. Another work, written as a supple-
ment to the Durrat ul-Ghawwas of Hariri (q.v.), has been published
as " Le Livre dcs locutions vicieuses," by H. Derenbourg in Morgen-
landische Forschungen (Leipzig, 1875), pp. 107-166. (G. W. T.)
JAWHAR, a native state of India, in the Konkan division of
Bombay, situated among the lower ranges of the western Ghats.
Area 310 sq.m. Pop. (1901), 47,538. The estimated revenue is
£11,000; there is no tribute. The chief, who is a Koli by caste,
traces back his descent to 1343. The leading exports are teak
and rice. The principal villageisthat of, Jawhar (pop. 3567).
JAWOR6W, a town in Galicia, Austria, 30 m. W. of Lemberg.
Pop. (1000), 10,090. It has a pottery, a brewery, a distillery
and some trade in agricultural produce. Not far from it is the
watering-place of Szkto with sulphur springs. The town was a
favourite residence of John Sobieski, who there received the
congratulations of the pope and the Venetian republic on his
success against the Turks at Vienna (1683). At Jaworow Peter
the Great was betrothed to Catherine I.
JAY, JOHN (1745-1829), American statesman, the descendant
of a Huguenot family, and son of Peter Jay, a successful New
York merchant, was born in New York City on the I2th of
December 1745. On graduating at King's College (now Colum-
bia University) in 1764, Jay entered the office of Benjamin
Kissam, an eminent New York lawyer. In 1 768 he was admitted
to the bar, and rapidly acquired a lucrative practice. In 1 7 74
he married Sarah, youngest daughter of William Livingston,
and was thus brought into close relations with one of the most
influential families in New York. Like many other able young
lawyers, Jay took an active part in the proceedings that resulted
in the independence of the United States, identifying himself
with the conservative element in the Whig or patriot party. He
was sent as a delegate from New York City to the Continental
Congress at Philadelphia in September 1774, and though almost
the youngest member, was entrusted with drawing up the
address to the people of Great Britain. Of the second congress,
also, which met at Philadelphia on the loth of May 1775,
Jay was a member; and on its behalf he prepared an address
to the people of Canada and an address to the people of Jamaica
and Ireland. In April 1776, while still retaining his seat
in the Continental Congress, Jay was chosen as a member of
•the third provincial congress of New York; and his consequent
absence from Philadelphia deprived him of the honour of
affixing his signature to the Declaration of Independence.
As a member of the fourth provincial congress he drafted a
resolution by which the delegates of New York in the Continental
Congress were authorized to sign the Declaration of Indepen-
dence. In 1777 he was chairman of the committee of the con-
vention which drafted the first New York state constitution
After acting for some time as one of the council of safety (which
administered the state government until the new constitution
came into effect), he was made chief justice of New York state,
in September 1777. A clause in the state constitution pro-
hibited any justice of the Supreme Court from holding any other
post save that of delegate to Congress on a " special occasion,"
JAY, JOHN
but in November 1778 the legislature pronounced the secession
of what is now the state of Vermont from the jurisdiction of
New Hampshire and New York to be such an occasion, and
sent Jay to Congress charged with the duty of securing a settle-
ment of the territorial claims of his state. He took his seat
in congress on the 7th of December, and on the loth was chosen
president in succession to Henry Laurens.
On the 27th of September 1779 Jay was appointed minister
plenipotentiary to negotiate a treaty between Spain and the
United States. He was instructed to endeavour to bring Spain
into the treaty already existing between France and the United
States by a guarantee that Spain should have the Floridas in
case of a successful issue of the war against Great Britain,
reserving, however, to the United States the free navigation of
the Mississippi. He was also to solicit a subsidy in consideration
of the guarantee, and a loan of five million dollars. His task was
one of extreme difficulty. Although Spain had joined France in
the war against Great Britain, she feared to imperil her own
colonial interests by directly encouraging and aiding the former
British colonies in their revolt against their mother country,
and she had refused to recognize the United States as an in-
dependent power. Jay landed at Cadiz on the 22nd of January
1780, but was told that he could not be received in a formally
diplomatic character. In May the king's minister, Count
de Florida Blanca, intimated to him that the one obstacle to a
treaty was the question of the free navigation of the Mississippi,
and for months following this interview the policy of the
court was clearly one of delay. In February 1781 Congress
instructed Jay that he might make concessions regarding the
navigation of the Mississippi, if necessary; but further delays
were interposed, the news of the surrender of Yorktown arrived,
and Jay decided that any sacrifice to obtain a treaty was no
longer advisable. His efforts to procure a loan were not much
more successful, and he was seriously embarrassed by the action
of Congress in drawing bills upon him for large sums. Although
by importuning the Spanish minister, and by pledging his
personal responsibility, Jay was able to meet some of the bills,
he was at last forced to protest others; and the credit of the
United States was saved only by a timely subsidy from France.
In 1781 Jay was commissioned to act with Franklin, John
Adams, Jefferson and Henry Laurens in negotiating a peace
with Great Britain. He arrived in Paris on the 23rd of June
1782, and jointly with Franklin had proceeded far with the
negotiations when Adams arrived late in October. The in-
structions of the American negotiators were as follows: —
" You are to make the most candid and confidential communica-
tions upon all subjects to the ministers of our generous ally, the
king of France; to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace
or truce without their knowledge and concurrence; and ultimately
to govern yourselves by their advice and opinion, endeavouring
in your whole conduct to make them sensible how much we rely
on his majesty's influence for effectual support in every thing that
may be necessary to the present security, or future prosperity, of
the United States of America."
Jay, however, in a letter written to the president of Congress
from Spain, had expressed in strong terms his disapproval of
such dependence upon France, and, on arriving in Paris, he
demanded that Great Britain should treat with his country on
an equal footing by first recognizing its independence, although
the French minister, Count de Vergennes, contended that an
acknowledgment of independence as an effect of the treaty
was as much as could reasonably be expected. Finally,
owing largely to Jay, who suspected the good faith of France,
the American negotiators decided to treat independently with
Great Britain. The provisional articles, which were so favour-
able to the United States as to be a great surprise to the courts
of France and Spain, were signed on the 3Oth of November 1782,
and were adopted with no important change as the final treaty
on the 3rd of September 1783.
On the 24th of July 1784 Jay landed in New York, where he
was presented with the freedom of the city and elected a delegate
to Congress. On the 7th of May Congress had already chosen him
to be secretary for foreign affairs, and in December Jay resigned
295
his seat in Congress and accepted the secretaryship. He con-
tinued to act in this capacity until 1 790, when Jefferson became
secretary of state under the new constitution. In the question of
this constitution Jay had taken a keen interest, and as an
advocate of its ratification he wrote over the name " Publius,"
five (Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5 and 64) of the famous series of papers known
collectively as the Federalist (see HAMILTON, ALEXANDER). He
published anonymously (though without succeeding in concealing
the authorship) An Address to the People of New York, in vindica-
tion of the constitution; and in the state convention at Pough-
keepsie he ably seconded Hamilton in securing its ratification
by New York. In making his first appointments to federal
offices President Washington asked Jay to take his choice;
Jay chose that of chief justice of the Supreme Court, and held
this position from September 1789 to June 1795. The most
famous case that came before him was that of Chisolm v. Georgia,
in which the question was, Can a state be sued by a citizen
of another state ? Georgia argued that it could not be so sued,
on the ground that it was a sovereign state, but Jay decided
against Georgia, on the ground that sovereignty in America
resided with the people. This decision led to the adoption of
the eleventh amendment to the federal constitution, which
provides that no suit may be brought in the federal courts
against any state by a citizen of another state or by a citizen or
subject of any foreign state. In 1792 Jay consented to stand for
the governorship of New York State, but a partisan returning-
board found the returns of three counties technically defective,
and though Jay had received an actual majority of votes, his
opponent, George Clinton, was declared elected.
Ever since the War of Independence there had been friction
between Great Britain and the United States. To the grievances
of the United States, consisting principally of Great Britain's
refusal to withdraw its troops from the forts on the north-
western frontier, as was required by the peace treaty of 1783, her
refusal to make compensation for negroes carried away by the
British army at the close of the War of Independence, her
restrictions on American commerce, and her refusal to enter
into any commercial treaty with the United States, were added,
after war broke out between France and Great Britain in 1793,
the anti-neutral naval policy according to which British naval
vessels were authorized to search American merchantmen and
impress American seamen, provisions were treated as contraband
of war, and American vessels were seized for no other reason than
that they had on board goods which were the property of the
enemy or were bound for a port which though not actually
blockaded was declared to be blockaded. The anti-British
feeling in the House of Representatives became so strong that
on the 7th of April 1794 a resolution was introduced to prohibit
commercial intercourse between the United States and Great
Britain until the north-western posts should be evacuated and
Great Britain's anti-neutral naval policy should be abandoned.
Thereupon Washington, fearing that war might result, appointed
Jay minister extraordinary to Great Britain to negotiate a new
treaty, and the Senate confirmed the appointment by a vote of
1 8 to 8, although the non-intercourse resolution which came
from the house a few days later was defeated in the senate only
by the casting vote of Vice-President John Adams. Jay landed
at Falmouth in June 1794, signed a treaty with Lord Grenville
on the 1 9th of November, and disembarked again at New York
on the 28th of May 1795. The treaty, known in history as Jay's
Treaty, provided that the north-western posts should be
evacuated by the ist of June 1 796, that commissioners should be
appointed to settle the north-east and the north-west boundaries,
and that the British claims for British debts as well as the
American claims for compensation for illegal seizures should
be referred to commissioners. More than one-half of the clauses
in the treaty related to commerce, and although they con-
tained rather small concessions to the United States, they
were about as much as could reasonably have been expected
in the circumstances. One clause, the operation of which
was limited to two years from the close of the existing war,
provided that American vessels not exceeding 70 tons burden
296
JAY, W.— JAY
might trade with the West Indies, but should carry only
Ameri/can products there and take away to American ports only
West Indian products; moreover, the United States was to
export in American vessels no molasses, sugar, coffee, cocoa
or cotton to any part of the world. Jay consented to this
prohibition under the impression that the articles named
were peculiarly the products of the West Indies, not being aware
that cotton was rapidly becoming an important export from
the southern states. The operation of the other commercial
clauses was limited to twelve years. By them the United States
was granted limited privileges of trade with the British East
Indies; some provisions were made for reciprocal freedom of
trade between the United States and the British dominions in
Europe; some articles were specified under the head of " contra-
band of war"; it was agreed that whenever provisions were
seized as contraband they should be paid for, and that in cases of
the capture of a vessel carrying contraband goods such goods
only and not the whole cargo should be seized; it was also
agreed that no vessel should be seized merely because it was bound
for a blockaded port, unless it attempted to enter the port
after receiving notice of the blockade. The treaty was laid before
the Senate on the 8th of June 17951 and, with the exception
of the clause relating to trade with the West Indies, was ratified
on the 24th by a vote of 20 to 10. As yet the public was ignorant
of its contents, and although the Senate had enjoined secrecy
on its members even after the treaty had been ratified, Senator
Mason of Virginia gave out a copy for publication only a few
days later. The Republican party, strongly sympathizing with
France and strongly disliking Great Britain, had been opposed
to Jay's mission, and had denounced Jay as a traitor and
guillotined him in effigy when they heard that he was actually
negotiating. The publication of the treaty only added to their
fury. They filled newspapers with articles denouncing it,
wrote virulent pamphlets against it, and burned Jay in effigy.
The British flag was insulted. Hamilton was stoned at a public
meeting in New York while speaking in defence of the treaty, and
Washington was grossly abused for signing it. In the House
of Representatives the Republicans endeavoured to prevent
the execution of the treaty by refusing the necessary appro-
priations, and a vote (29th of April, 1795) on a resolution that it
ought to be carried into effect stood 49 to 49; but on the next
day the opposition was defeated by a vote of 51 to 48. Once
in operation, the treaty grew in favour. Two days before landing
on his return from the English mission, Jay had been elected
governor of New York state; notwithstanding his temporary
unpopularity, he was re-elected in April 1798. With the close
of this second term of office in 1801, he ended his public career.
Although not yet fifty-seven years old, he refused all offers
of office and retiring to his estate near Bedford in Westchester
county, N.Y., spent the rest of his life in rarely interrupted
seclusion. In politics he was throughout inclined toward
Conservatism, and after the rise of parties under the federal
government he stood with Alexander Hamilton and John
Adams as one of the foremost leaders of the Federalist party,
as opposed to the Republicans or Democratic-Republicans.
From 1821 until 1828 he was president of the American Bible
Society. He died on the I7th of May 1829. The purity and
integrity of his life are commemorated in a sentence by Daniel
Webster: " When the spotless ermine of the judicial robe
fell on John Jay, it touched nothing less spotless than itself."
See The Correspondence and Public Papers of John Jay (4 vols.,
New York, 1890-1893), edited by H. P. Johnston; William Jay,
Life of John Jay with Selections from his Correspondence and Miscel-
laneous Papers (2 vols., New York, 1833); William Whitclocke, Life
and Times of John Jay (New York, 1887); and George Pellew,
John Jay (Boston, 1890), in the " American Statesmen Series."
John Jay's son, WILLIAM JAY (1789-1858), was born in New
York City on the i6th of June 1789, graduated from Yale in
1807, and soon afterwards assumed the management of his
father's large estate in Westchester county, N.Y. He was
actively interested in peace, temperance and anti-slavery move-
ments. He took a prominent part in 1816 in founding the
American Bible Society; was a judge of Westchester county from
1818 to 1843, when he was removed from office by the party in
power in New York, which hoped, by sacrificing an anti-slavery
judge, to gain additional strength in the southern states;
joined the American anti-slavery society in 1834, and held
several important offices in this organization. In 1840, how-
ever, when it began to advocate measures which he deemed too
radical, he withdrew his membership, but with his pen he con-
tinued his labours on behalf of the slave, urging emancipation
in the district of Columbia and the exclusion of -slavery from the
Territories, though deprecating any attempt to interfere with
slavery in the states. He was a member of the American peace
society and was its president for several years. His pamphlet,
War and Peace: the Evils of the First with a Plan for Securing
the Last, advocating international arbitration, was published by
the English Peace Society in 1842, and is said to have contributed
to the promulgation, by the powers signing the Treaty of Paris
in 1856, of a protocol expressing the wish that nations, before
resorting to arms, should have recourse to the good offices of a
friendly power. Among William Jay's other writings, the most
important are The Life of John Jay (2 vols., 1833) and a Review
of the Causes and Consequences of the Mexican War (1849). He
died at Bedford on the I4th of October 1858.
See Bayard Tuckerman, William Jay and the Constitutional
Movement/or the Abolition of Slavery (New York, 1893).
William Jay's son, JOHN JAY (1817-1894), also took an active
part in the anti-slavery movement. He was a prominent mem-
ber of the free soil party, and was one of the organizers of the
Republican party in New York. He was United States minister
to Austria-Hungary in 1869-1875, and was a member, and for a
time president, of the New York civil service commission
appointed by Governor Cleveland in 1883.
JAY, WILLIAM (1769-1853), English Nonconformist divine,
was born at Tisbury in Wiltshire on the 6th of May 1769. He
adopted his father's trade of stone-mason, but gave it up in
1785 in order to enter the Rev. Cornelius Winter's school at
Marlborough. During the three years that Jay spent there,
his preaching powers were rapidly developed. Before he was
twenty-one he had preached nearly a thousand times, and in
1 788 he had for a while occupied Rowland Hill's pulpit in London.
Wishing to continue his reading he accepted the humble pastor-
ate of Christian Malford, near Chippenham, where he remained
about two years. After one year at Hope chapel, Clifton, he
was called to the ministry of Argyle Independent chapel in Bath;
and on the 3Oth of January 1791 he began the work of his life
there, attracting hearers of every religious denomination and
of every rank, and winning for himself a wide reputation as a
brilliant pulpit orator, an earnest religious author, and a friendly
counsellor. Sheridan declared him to be the most manly orator
lie had ever heard. A long and honourable connexion of sixty-
two years came to an end in January 1853, and he died on the
27th of December following.
The best-known of Jay's works are his Morning and Evening
Exercises: The Christian contemplated: The Domestic Minister's
A ssistant ; and his Discourses. He also wrote a Life of Rev. Cornelius
Winter, and Memoirs of Rev. John Clarke. An edition of Jay's
Works in 12 vols., 8vo, revised by himself, was issued in 1842-1844,
and again in 1856. A new edition, in 8 vols., 8vo, was published in
1876. See Autobiography (1854); S. Wilson's Memoir of Jay (1854);
S. Newth in Pulpit Memorials (1878).
JAY (Fr. geai), a well-known and very beautiful European
bird, the Corvus glandarius of Linnaeus, the Garrulus glandarius
of modern ornithologists. To this species are more or less
closely allied numerous birds inhabiting the Palaearctic and
Indian regions, as well as the greater part of America,
but not occurring in the Antilles, in the southern portion
of the Neotropical Region, or in the Ethiopian or Austra-
lian. All these birds are commonly called jays, and form a
group of the crows or Corvidae, which may fairly be considered
a sub-family, Garrulinae. Indeed there are, or have been,
systematists who would elevate the jays to the rank of a family
Garrulidae — a proceeding which seems unnecessary. Some of
JAY
297
them have an unquestionable resemblance to the pies, if the group
now known by that name can be satisfactorily severed from the
true Coninae. In structure the jays are not readily differen-
tiated from the pies; but in habit they are much more arboreal,
delighting in thick coverts, seldom appearing in the open, and
seeking their food on or under trees. They seem also never to
walk or run when on the ground, but always to hop. The body-
feathers are commonly loose and soft; and, gaily coloured as are
most of the species, in few of them has the plumage the metallic
glossiness it generally presents in the pies, while the proverbial
beauty of the " jay's wing " is due to the vivid tints of blue —
turquoise and cobalt, heightened by bars of jet-black, an indica-
tion of the same style of ornament being observable in the greater
FIG. i — European Jay.
number of the other forms of the group, and in some predomi-
nating over nearly the whole surface. Of the many genera
that have been proposed by ornithologists, perhaps about nine
may be deemed sufficiently well established.
The ordinary European jay, Garrulus glandarius (fig. i), has
suffered so much persecution in the British Islands as to have
become in many districts a rare bird. In Ireland it seems now
to be indigenous to the southern half of the island only; in
England generally, it is far less numerous than formerly; and
in Scotland its numbers have decreased with still greater rapidity.
There is little doubt that it would have been exterminated but
for its stock being supplied in autumn by immigration, and for
its shy and wary behaviour, especially at the breeding-season,
when it becomes almost wholly mute, and thereby often escapes
detection. No truthful man, however much he may love the
bird, will gainsay the depredations on fruit and eggs that it at
times commits; but the gardeners and gamekeepers of Britain,
instead of taking a few simple steps to guard their charge from
injury, deliberately adopt methods of wholesale destruction —
methods that in the case of this species are only too easy and too
effectual — by proffering temptation to trespass which it is not in
jay-nature to resist, and accordingly the bird runs great chance
of total extirpation. Notwithstanding the war carried on against
the jay, its varied cries and active gesticulations show it to be a
sprightly bird, and at a distance that renders its beauty-spots
invisible, it is yet rendered conspicuous by its cinnamon-coloured
body and pure white tail-coverts, which contrast with the deep
black and rich chestnut that otherwise mark its plumage, and
even the young at once assume a dress closely resembling that
of the adult. The nest, generally concealed in a leafy tree or
bush, is carefully built, with a lining formed of fine roots neatly
interwoven. Herein from four to seven eggs, of a greenish-
white closely freckled, so as to seem suffused with light olive,
are laid in March or April, and the young on quitting it accom-
pany their parents for some weeks.
Though the common jay of Europe inhabits nearly the whole
of this quarter of the globe south of 64° N. lat., its territory in
the east of Russia is also occupied by G. brandli, a kindred form,
which replaces it on the other side of the Ural, and ranges thence
across Siberia to Japan; and again on the lower Danube and
thence to Constantinople the nearly allied G. krynicki (which
alone is found in southern Russia, Caucasia and Asia Minor)
shares its haunts with it.1 It also crosses the Mediterranean
to Algeria and Morocco; but there, as in southern Spain, it is
probably but a winter immigrant. The three forms just named
have the widest range of any of the genus. Next to them come
G. atricapillus, reaching from Syria to Baluchistan, G. japonicus,
the ordinary jay of southern Japan, and G. sinensis, the Chinese
bird. Other forms have a much more limited area, as G. cervicalis,
the local and resident jay of Algeria, G. hyrcanus, found on the
southern shores of the Caspian Sea, and G. taevanus, confined to
the island of Formosa. The most aberrant of the true jays is
G. lidthi, a very rare species, which seems to come from some
part of Japan (vide Salvador!, Atti Accad. Torino, vii. 474),
though its exact locality is not known.
Leaving the true jays of the genus Garrulus, it is expedient
next to consider those of a group named, in 1831, Perisoreus
by Prince C. L. Bonaparte (Saggio, &c., Anim. Vertebrati, p. 43)
and Dysornithia by Swainson (F. B.- Americana, ii. 49S).2
This group contains two species — one the Lanius infaustus of
Linnaeus and the Siberian jay of English writers, which ranges
throughout the pine-forests of the north of Europe and Asia, and
the second the Corvus canadensis of the same author, or Canada
jay, occupying a similar station in America. The so-called
Siberian jay is one of the most entertaining birds in the world. Its
versatile cries and actions, as seen and heard by those who pene-
trate the solitude of the northern forests it inhabits, can never be
forgotten by one who has had experience of them, any more than
the pleasing sight of its rust-coloured tail, which an occasional
gleam of sunshine will light up into a brilliancy quite unexpected
by those who have only surveyed the bird's otherwise gloomy
appearance in
the glass-case of
a museum. It
seems scarcely to
know fear, ob-
truding itself on
the notice of any
traveller who in-
vades its haunts,
and, should he
halt, making it-
self at once a
denizen of his
bivouac. In con-
finement it
speedily becomes
friendly, but suit-
able food for it is
not easily found.
Linnaeus seems
to have been
under a misap-
prehension when
he applied to it FIG- 2- — American Blue Jay.
the trivial epithet it bears; for by none of his countrymen is it
deemed an unlucky bird, but rather the reverse. In fact, no one
can listen to the cheery sound of its ordinary calls with any but
a hopeful feeling. The Canada jay, or " whisky-jack " (the
corruption probably of a Cree name), seems to be of a similar
nature, but it presents a still more sombre coloration, its nestling
plumage,3 indeed, being thoroughly corvine in appearance and
suggestive of its being a pristine form.
As though to make amends for the dull plumage of the species
last mentioned, North America offers some of the most brilliantly
1 Further information will possibly show that these districts are
not occupied at the same season of the year by the two forms.
1 Recent writers have preferred the former name, though it was
only used sub-generically by its author, who assigned to it no charao-
ters, which the inventor of the latter was careful to do, regarding it
at the same time as a genus.
'In this it was described and figured (F. B. Americana, ii. 296,
pi. 55) as a distinct species, G. brachyrhynchus.
298
JEALOUSY- -JEANNIN
coloured of the sub-family, and the common blue jay1 of Canada
and the eastern states of the Union, Cyanurus crislatus (fig. 2),
is one of the most conspicuous birds of the Transatlantic woods.
The account of its habits by Alexander Wilson is known to every
student of ornithology, and Wilson's followers have had little to
do but supplement his history with unimportant details. In
this bird and its many allied forms, coloration, though almost
confined to various tints of blue, seems to reach its climax, but
want of space forbids more particular notice of them, or of the
members of the other genera Cyanocitta, Cyanocorqx, Xanthura,
Psilorhinus, and more, which inhabit various parts of the
Western continent. It remains, however, to mention the genus
Cissa, including many beautiful forms belonging to the Indian
region, and among them the C. speciosa and C. sinensis, so often
represented in Oriental drawings, though doubts may be ex-
pressed whether these birds are not more nearly related to the
pies than to the jays. (A. N.)
JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux,
jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. frjXos, ardour, zeal, from the root
seen infkip, to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast "), originally a condi-
tion of zealous emulation, and hence, in the usual modern sense,
of resentment at being (or believing that one is or may be)
supplanted or preferred in the love or affection of another, or in
the enjoyment of some good regarded as properly one's own.
Jealousy is really a form of envy, but implies a feeling of personal
claim which in envy or covetousness is wanting. The jealousy
of God, as in Exod. xx. 5, " For I, the Lord thy God, am a jealous
God," has been defined by Pusey (Minor Prophets, 1860) as the
attribute " whereby he does not endure the love of his creatures
to be transferred from him." " Jealous," by etymology, is
however, only another form of " zealous," and the identity is
exemplified by such expressions as " I have been very jealous
for the Lord God of Hosts " (i Kings xix. 10). A kind of glass,
thick, ribbed and non-transparent, was formerly known as
" jealous-glass," and this application is seen in the borrowed
French word jalousie, a blind or shutter, made of slats of wood,
which slope in such a way as to admit air and a certain amount
of light, while excluding rain and sun and inspection from
without.
JEAN D'ARRAS, a isth-century trouvere, about whose
personal history nothing is known, was the collaborator with
Antoine du Val and Fouquart de Cambrai in the authorship of
a collection of stories entitled fcvangiles de quenouille. They
purport to record the narratives of a group of ladies at their
spinning, who relate the current theories on a great variety of
subjects. The work dates from the middle of the isth century
and is of considerable value for the light it throws on medieval
manners.
There were many editions of this book in the 15th and i6th cen-
turies, one of which was printed by Wynkyn de Worde in English,
as The Gospelles of Dyslaves. A modern edition (Collection Jannet)
has a preface by Anatole France.
Another trouvere, JEAN D'ARRAS who nourished in the
second half of the i4th century, wrote, at the request of John,
duke of Berry, a long prose romance entitled Chronique de la
princesse. It relates with many digressions the antecedents
and life of the fairy Melusine (q.v.).
JEAN DE MEUN, or DE MEUNG (c. 1250-0. 1305), whose
original name was Jean Clopinel or Chopinel, was born at Meun-
sur-Loire. Tradition asserts that he studied at the university
of Paris. At any rate he was, like his contemporary, Rutebeuf,
a defender of Guillaume de Saint-Amour and a bitter critic of the
mendicant orders. Most of his life seems to have been spent in
Paris, where he possessed, in the Rue Saint- Jacques, a house with
a tower, court and garden, which was described in 1305 as the
house of the late Jean de Meung, and was then bestowed by a
certain Adam d'Andely on the Dominicans. Jean de Meun says
that in his youth he composed songs that were sung in every
public place and school in France. In the enumeration of his
own works he places first his continuation of the Roman de la
rose of Guillaume de Lorris (q.v.). The date of this second part
1 The birds known as blue jays in India and Africa are rollers (q.v.).
is generally fixed between 1268 and 1285 by a reference in the
poem to the death of Manfred and Conradin, executed (1268) by
order of Charles of Anjou (d. 1285) who is described as the present
king of Sicily. M. F. Guillon (Jean Clopinel, 1903), however,
considering the poem primarily as a political satire, places it in
the last five years of the i3th century. Jean de Meun doubtless
edited the work of his predecessor, Guillaume de Lorris, before
using it as the starting-point of his own vast poem, running to
19,000 lines. The continuation of Jean de Meun is a satire on
the monastic orders, on celibacy, on the nobility, the papal see,
the excessive pretensions of royalty, and especially on women
and marriage. Guillaume had been the servant of love, and the
exponent of the laws of " courtoisie "; Jean de Meun added an
" art of love," exposing with brutality the vices of women, their
arts of deception, and the means by which men may outwit
them. Jean de Meun embodied the mocking, sceptical spirit of
the fabliaux. He did not share in current superstitions, he had
no respect for established institutions, and he scorned the con-
ventions of feudalism and romance. His poem shows in the
highest degree, in spite of the looseness of its plan, the faculty of
keen observation, of lucid reasoning and exposition, and it entitles
him to be considered the greatest of French medieval poets.
He handled the French language with an ease and precision
unknown to his predecessors, and the length of his poem was no
bar to its popularity in the I3th and I4th centuries. Part of its
vogue was no doubt due to the fact that the author, who had
mastered practically all the scientific and literary knowledge of
his contemporaries in France, had found room in his poem for a
great amount of useful information and for numerous citations
from classical authors. The book was attacked by Guillaume de
Degulleville in his Pelerinage de la vie humaine (c. 1330), long a
favourite work both in England and France; by John Gerson,
and by Christine de Pisan in her £pltre au dieu d'amour; but it
also found energetic defenders.
Jean de Meun translated in 1284 the treatise, De re militari, of
Vegetius into French as Le livre de Vegece de I'art de chevalerie* (ed.
Ulysse Robert, Soc. des anciens textesfr., 1897). He also produced
a spirited version, the first in French, of the letters of Abelard and
Heloi'se. A 14th-century MS. of this translation in the Bibliotheque
Nationale has annotations by Petrarch. His translation of the
De consolatione philosophiae of Boetius is preceded by a letter to
Philip IV. in which he enumerates his earlier works, two of which
are lost — De spirituelle amiM from the De spiriluali amicitia of
Aclred of Rievaulx (d. 1166), and the Livre des meryeilles d'Hirlande
from the Topographia Hibernica, or De Mirabilibus Hiberniae of
Giraldus Cambrensis (Giraud de Barry). His last poems are
doubtless his Testament and Codicille. The Testament is written in
quatrains in monorime, and contains advice to the different classes
of the community.
See also Paulin Paris in Hist. lit. de la France, xxviii. 391—439,
and E. Langlois in Hist, de la langue et de la lit, francaise, ed. L.
I'etit de Julleville, ii. 125-161 (1896); and editions of the Roman
de la rose (q.v.).
JEANNETTE, a borough of Westmoreland county, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A., about 27 m. E. by S. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890),
3296; (1900), 5863 (1340 foreign-born); (1910), 8077. It is
served by the Pennsylvania railroad, and is connected with
Pittsburg and Uniontown by electric railway. It is supplied
with natural gas and is primarily a manufacturing centre, its
principal manufactures being glass, table-ware and rubber goods.
Jeannette was founded in 1888, and was incorporated as a
borough in 1889.
JEANNIN, PIERRE (1540-1622), French statesman, was born
at Autun. A pupil of the great jurist Jacques Cujas at Bourges,
he was an advocate at Dijon in 1569 and became councillor and
then president of the parlement of Burgundy. He opposed in
vain the massacre of St Bartholomew in his province. As
councillor to the duke of Mayenne he sought to reconcile him
with Henry IV. After the victory of Fontaine-Francaise (1595),
Henry took Jeannin into his council and in 1602 named him
intendant of finances. He took part in the principal events of
the reign, negotiated the treaty of Lyons with the duke of Savoy
1 Jean de Meun's translation formed the basis of a rhymed version
(1290) by Jean Priorat of Besangon, Li abreyance de I'ordre de cheva-
lerie.
JEBB, JOHN— JEDBURGH
(see HENRY IV.), and the defensive alliance between France and
the United Netherlands in 1608. As superintendent of finances
under Louis XIII., he tried to establish harmony between the
king and the queen-mother.
See Berger de Xivrey, Lettres missives de Henri IV. (in the Collec-
tion inedile pour I'histoire de France), t. v. (1850) ; P(ierre) S(aumaise),
Rloge sur la vie de Pierre Janin (Dijon, 1623) ; Sainte-Beuve, Causeries
du lundi, t. x. (May 1854).
JEBB, JOHN (1736-1786), English divine, was educated at
Cambridge, where he was elected fellow of Peterhouse in 1761,
having previously been second wrangler. He was a man of
independent judgment and warmly supported the movement of
1771 for abolishing university and clerical subscription to the
Thirty-nine Articles. In his lectures on the Greek Testament he
is said to have expressed Socinian views. In 1775 he resigned
his Suffolk church livings, and two years afterwards graduated
M.D. at St Andrews. He practised medicine in London and was
elected F.R.S. in 1779.
Another JOHN JEBB (1775-1833), bishop of Limerick, is best
known as the author of Sacred Literature (London, 1820).
JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOTJSE (1841-1905), English
classical scholar, was born at Dundee on the 27th of August
1841. His father was a well-known barrister, and his grand-
father a judge. He was educated at Charterhouse and at
Trinity College, Cambridge. He won the Person and Craven
scholarships, was senior classic in 1862, and became fellow and
tutor of his college in 1863. From 1869 to 1875 he was public
orator of the university; professor of Greek at Glasgow from 1875
to 1889, and at Cambridge from 1889 till his death on the gth of
December 1905. In 1891 he was elected member of parliament
for Cambridge University; he was knighted in 1900. Jebb was
acknowledged to be one of the most brilliant classical scholars of
his time, a humanist in the best sense, and his powers of transla-
tion from and into the classical languages were unrivalled. A
collected volume, Translations into Greek and Latin, appeared
in 1873 (ed. 1909). He was the recipient of many honorary
degrees from European and American universities, and in 1905
was made a member of the Order of Merit. He married in
1874 the widow of General A. J. Slemmer, of the United States
army, who survived him.
Jebb was the author of numerous publications, of which the
following are the most important: The Characters of Theophrastus
(1870), text, introduction, English translation and 'commentary
(re-edited by J. E. Sandys, 1909); The Attic Orators from Antiphon
to Isaeus (2nd ed., 1893), with companion volume, Selections from the
Attic Orators (2nd ed., 1888) ; B_entley (1882) ; Sophocles (yd ed., 1893)
the seven plays, text, English translation and notes, the pro-
mised edition of the fragments being prevented by his death ;
Bacchylides(igo^), text, translation, and notes;Homer Qrded., 1888),
an introduction to the Iliad and Odyssey; Modern Greece (1901);
The Growth and Influence of Classical Greek Poetry (1893). Hi3
translation of the Rhetoric of Aristotle was published posthumously
under the editorship of J. E. Sandys (1909). A selection from his
Essays and Addresses, and a subsequent volume, Life and Letters of
Sir Richard Claverhouse Jebb (with critical introduction by A. W.
Verrall) were published by his widow in 1907 ; see also an appreciative
notice by J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship, iii. (1908).
JEBEIL (anc. Gebal- Byblus), a town of Syria pleasantly
situated on a slight eminence near the sea, about 20 m. N. of
Beirut. It is surrounded by a wall if m. in circumference, with
square towers at the angles, and a castle at the south-east corner.
Numerous broken granite columns in the gardens and vineyards
that surround the town, with the number of ruined houses within
the walls, testify to its former importance. The stele of Jehaw-
melek, king of Gebal, found here, is one of the most important
of Phoenician monuments. The small port is almost choked up
with sand and ruins. Pop. 3000, all Moslems.
The inhabitants of the Phoenician Gebal and Greek Byblus
were renowned as stonecutters and ship-builders. Arrian (ii. 20. i )
represents Enylus, king of Byblus, as joining Alexander with a
fleet, after that monarch had captured the city. Philo of Byblus
makes it the most ancient city of Phoenicia, founded by Cronus,
i.e. the Moloch who appears from the stele of Jehawmelek to have
been with Baalit the chief deity of the city. According to
Plutarch (Mor. 357), the ark with the corpse of Osiris was cast
299
ashore at Byblus, and there found by Isis. The orgies of Adonis
in the temple of Baalit (Aphrodite Byblia) are described by
Lucian, De Dea Syr., cap. vi. The river Adonis is the Nahr al-
Ibrahim, which flows near the town. The crusaders, after failing
before it in 1099, captured " Giblet " in 1103, but lost it again
to Saladin in 1189. Under Mahommedan rule it has gradually
decayed. (D. G. H.)
JEBEL (plur. jibal), also written GEBEL with hard g (plur.
gibdl), an Arabic word meaning a mountain or a mountain chain.
It is frequently used in place-names. The French transliteration
of the word is djebel. Jebeli signifies a mountaineer. The pro-
nunciation with a hard g sound is that used in the Egyptian
dialect of Arabic.
JEDBURGH, a royal and police burgh and county-town of
Roxburghshire, Scotland. Pop. of police burgh (1901), 3136.
It is situated on Jed Water, a tributary of the Teviot, 565 m. S.E.
of Edinburgh by the North British railway, via Roxburgh and
St Boswells (49 m. by road), and 10 m. from the border at
Catcleuch Shin, a peak of the Cheviots, 1742 ft. high. Of the
name Jedburgh there have been many variants, the earliest being
Gedwearde (800), Jedwarth (1251), and Geddart (1386), while
locally the word is sometimes pronounced Jethart. The town
is situated on the left bank of the Jed, the main streets running
at right angles from each side of the central market-place. Of
the renowned group of Border abbeys — Jedburgh, Melrose,
Dryburgh and Kelso — that of Jedburgh is the stateliest. In
1118, according to tradition, but more probably as late as 1138,
David, prince of Cumbria, here founded a priory for Augustinian
monks from the abbey of St Quentin at Beauvais in France, and
in 1147, after he had become king, erected it into an abbey
dedicated to the Virgin. Repeatedly damaged in Border warfare,
it was ruined in 1544-45 during the English invasion led by
Sir Ralph Evers (or Eure). The establishment was suppressed
in 1559, the revenues being temporarily annexed to the Crown.
After changing owners more than once, the lands were purchased
in 1637 by the 3rd earl of Lothian. Latterly five of the bays at
the west end had been utilized as the parish church, but in 1873-
1875 the gth marquess of Lothian built a church for the service
of the parish, and presented it to the heritors in exchange for the
ruined abbey in order to prevent the latter from being injured
by modern additions and alterations.
The abbey was built of Old Red sandstone, and belongs mostly
to the end of the I2th and the beginning of the I3th centuries. The
architecture is mixed, and the abbey is a beautiful example of the
Norman and Transition styles. The total length is 235 ft., the nave
being 1332 ft. long and 59! ft. wide. The west front contains a
great Norman porch and a fine wheel wirfdow. The nave, on each
side, has nine pointed arches in the basement storey, nine round
arches in the triforium, and thirty-six pointed arches in the clere-
story, through which an arcade is carried on both sides. The tower,
at the intersection of the nave and transepts, is of unusually massive
proportions, being 30 ft. square and fully 100 ft. high; the network
baluster round the top is modern. With the exception of the north
piers and a small portion of the wall above, which are Norman, the
tower dates from the end of the I5th century. The whole of the
south transept has perished. The north transept, with early
Decorated windows, has been covered in and walled off, and is the
burial-ground of the Kerrs of Fernihirst, ancestors of the marquess
of Lothian. The earliest tombstone is dated 1524; one of the
latest is the recumbent effigy, by G. F. Watts, R.A., of the 8th
marquess of Lothian (1832-1870). AH that is left of the choir,
which contains some very early Norman work, is two bays with three
tiers on each side, corresponding to the design of the nave. It is
supposed that the aisle, with Decorated window and groined roof,
south of the chancel, formed the grammar school (removed from the
abbey in 1751) in which Samuel Rutherford (1600-1661), principal
of St Mary's College, St Andrews, and James Thomson, author of
The Seasons, were educated. The door leading from the south aisle
into a herbaceous garden, formerly the cloister, is an exquisite copy
of one which had become greatly decayed. It was designed by Sir
Rowand Anderson, under whose superintendence restoration in the
abbey was carried out.
The castle stood on high ground at the south end of the burgh,
or " town-head." Erected by David I., it was one of the strong-
holds ceded to England in 1174, under the treaty of Falaise, for
the ransom of William the Lion. It was, however, so often
captured by the English that it became a menace rather than a
protection, and the townsfolk demolished it in 1409. It had
300
JEEJEEBHOY- -JEFFERIES
occasionally been used as a royal residence, and was the scene, in
November 1283, of the revels held in celebration of the marriage
(solemnized in the abbey) of Alexander III. to Joleta, or Yolande,
daughter of the count of Dreux. The site was occupied in 1823
by the county prison, now known as the castle, a castellated
structure which gradually fell into disuse and was acquired by
the corporation in 1890. A house exists in Backgate in which
Mary Queen of Scots, resided in 1566, and one in Castlegate
which Prince Charles Edward occupied in 1745.
The public buildings include the grammar school (built in
1883 to replace the successor of the school in the abbey), founded
by William Turnbull, bishop of Glasgow (d. 1454), the county
buildings, the free library and the public hall, which succeeded to
the corn exchange destroyed by fire in 1898, a loss that involved
the museum and its contents, including the banners captured
by the Jethart weavers at Bannockburn and Killiecrankie. The
old market cross still exists, and there are two public parks.
The chief industry is the manufacture of woollens (blankets,
hosiery), but brewing, tanning and iron-founding are carried on,
and fruit (especially pears) and garden produce are in repute.
Jedburgh was made a royal burgh in the reign of David I., and
received a charter from Robert I. and another, in 1566, from
Mary Queen of Scots. Sacked and burned time after time dur-
ing the Border strife, it was inevitable that the townsmen should
become keen fighters. Their cry of " Jethart's here ! " was heard
wherever the fray waxed 'most fiercely, and the Jethart axe of
their invention — a steel axe on a 4-ft. pole — wrought havoc in
their hands.
" Jethart or Jeddart justice," according to which a man was
hanged first and tried afterwards, seems to have been a hasty
generalization from a solitary fact — the summary execution in
James VI.'s reign of a gang of rogues at the instance of Sir
George Home, but has nevertheless passed into a proverb.
Old Jeddart, 4 m. S. of the present town, the first site of the
burgh, is now marked by a few grassy mounds, and of the great
Jedburgh forest, only the venerable oaks, the " Capon Tree " and
the "King of the Woods" remain. Dunion Hill (1095 ft.),
about 2 m. south-west of Jedburgh, commands a fine view of
the capital of the county.
JEEJEEBHOY (JIJIBHAI), SIR JAMSETJEE (JAMSETJI),
Bart. (1783-1859), Indian merchant and philanthropist, was
born in Bombay in 1783, of poor but respectable parents, and
was left an orphan in early life. At the age of sixteen, with a
smattering of mercantile education and a bare pittance, he
commenced a series of business travels destined to lead him to
fortune and fame. After a preliminary visit to Calcutta, he under-
took a voyage to China, then fraught with so much difficulty and
risk that it was regarded as a venture betokening considerable
enterprise and courage; and he subsequently initiated a syste-
matic trade with that country, being himself the carrier of his
merchant wares on his passages to and fro between Bombay and
Canton and Shanghai. His second return voyage from China
was made in one of the East India Company's fleet, which, under
the command of Sir Nathaniel Dance, defeated the French
squadron under Admiral Linois (Feb. 15, 1804). On his
fourth return voyage from China, the Indiaman in which he
sailed was forced to surrender to the French, by whom he was
carried as a prisoner to the Cape of Good Hope, then a neutral
Dutch possession; and it was only after much delay, and with
great difficulty, that he made his way to Calcutta in a Danish
ship. Nothing daunted, he undertook yet another voyage to
China, which was more successful than any of the previous ones.
By this time he had fairly established his reputation as a mer-
chant possessed of the highest spirit of enterprise and consider-
able wealth, and thenceforward he settled down in Bombay,
where he directed his commercial operations on a widely extended
scale. By 1836 his firm was large enough to engross the energies
of his three sons and other relatives; and he had amassed what
at that period of Indian mercantile history was regarded as
fabulous wealth. An essentially self-made man, having experi-
enced in early life the miseries of poverty and want, in his days
of affluence Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy developed an active instinct
of sympathy with his poorer countrymen, and commenced that
career of private and public philanthropy which is his chief title
to the admiration of mankind. His liberality was unbounded,
and the absorbing occupation of his later life was the alleviation
of human distress. To his own community he gave lavishly,
but his benevolence was mainly cosmopolitan. Hospitals,
schools, homes of charity, pension funds, were founded or en-
dowed by him, while numerous public works in the shape of wells,
reservoirs, bridges, causeways, and the like, not only in Bombay,
but in other parts of India, were the creation of his bounty. The
total of his known benefactions amounted at the time of his
death, which took place in 1859, to over £230,000. It was not,
however, the amount of his charities so much as the period and
circumstances in which they were performed that made his
benevolent career worthy of the fame he won. In the first half
of the 1 9th century the various communities of India were much
more isolated in their habits and their sympathies than they are
now. Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy's unsectarian philanthropy awak-
ened a common understanding and created a bond between them
which has proved not only of domestic value but has had a
national and political significance. His services were recognized
first in 1842 by the bestowal of a knighthood upon him, and in
1858 by that of a baronetcy. These were the very first distinc-
tions of their kind conferred by Queen Victoria upon a British
subject in India.
His title devolved in 1859 on his eldest son CURSETJEE, who,
by a special Act of the Viceroy's Council in pursuance of a
provision in the letters-patent, took the name of Sir Jamsetjee
Jeejeebhoy as second baronet. At his death in 1877 his eldest
son, MENEKJEE, became Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy, the third
baronet. Both had the advantage of a good English education,
and continued the career of benevolent activity and devoted
loyalty to British rule which had signalized the life-work of the
founder of the family. They both visited England to do homage
to their sovereign; and their public services were recognized
by their nomination to the order of the Star of India, as well
as by appointment to the Legislative Councils of Calcutta and
Bombay.
On the death of the third baronet, the title devolved upon his
brother, COWSAJEE (1853-1908), who became Sir Jamsetjee
Jeejeebhoy, fourth baronet, and the recognized leader of the
Parsee community all over the world. He was succeeded by
his son RUSTOMJEE (b. 1878), who became Sir Jamsetjee
Jeejeebhoy, fifth baronet.
Since their emigration from Persia, the Parsee community had
never had a titular chief or head, its communal funds and affairs
being managed by a public body, more or less democratic in its
constitution, termed the Parsee panchayat. The first Sir
Jamsetjee, by the hold that he established on the community,
by his charities and public spirit, gradually came to be regarded
in the light of its chief; and the recognition which he was the
first in India to receive at the hands of the British sovereign
finally fixed him and his successors in the baronetcy in the posi-
tion and title of the official Parsee leader. (M. M. BH.)
JEFFERIES, RICHARD (1848-1887), English naturalist and
author, was born on the 6th of November 1848, at the farmhouse
of Coate about 2^ m. from Swindon, oh the toad to Marlborough.
He was sent to school, first at Sydenham and then at Swindon,
till the age of fifteen or so, but his actual education was at the
hands of his father, who gave him his love for Nature and taught
him how to observe. For the faculty of observation, as Jefferies,
Gilbert White, and H. D. Thoreau have remarked, several gifts are
necessary, including the possession of long sight and quick sight,
two things which do not always go together. To them must be
joined trained sight and the knowledge of what to expect. The
boy's father first showed him what there was to look for in the
hedge, in the field, in the trees, and in the sky. This kind of
training would in many cases be wasted: to one who can under-
stand it, the book of Nature will by-and-by offer pages which are
blurred and illegible to the city-bred lad, and even to the country
lad the power of reading them must be maintained by constant
practice. To live amid streets or in the working world destroys
JEFFERSON, J.— JEFFERSON, T.
it. The observer must live alone and always in the country;
he must not worry himself about the ways of the world; he must
be always, from day to day, watching the infinite changes and
variations of Nature. Perhaps, even when the observer can
actually read this book of Nature, his power of articulate speech
may prove inadequate for the expression of what he sees. But
Jefferies, as a boy, was more than an observer of the fields; he
was bookish, and read all the books that he could borrow or buy.
And presently, as is apt to be the fate of a bookish boy who cannot
enter a learned profession, he became a journalist and obtained
a post on the local paper. He developed literary ambitions, but
for a long time to come was as one' beating the air. He tried local
history and novels; but his early novels, which were published
at his own risk and expense, were, deservedly, failures. In 1872,
however, he published a remarkable letter in The Times, on
" The Wiltshire Labourer," full of original ideas and of facts
new to most readers. This was in reality the turning-point
in his career. In 1873, after more false starts, Jefferies
returned to his true field of work, the life of the country,
and began to write for Fraser's Magazine on " Farming and
Farmers." He had now found himself. The rest of his
history is that of continual advance, from close observation
becoming daily more and more close, to that intimate com-
munion with Nature with which his later pages are filled. The
developments of the later period are throughout touched
with the melancholy that belongs to ill-health. For, though in
his prose poem called " The Pageant of Summer " the writer
seems absolutely revelling in the strength of manhood that be-
longs to that pageant, yet, in the Story of My Heart, written about
the same time, we detect the mind that is continually turned to
death. He died at Goring, worn out with many ailments, on the
i4th of August 1887. The best-known books of Richard Jefferies
are: The Gamekeeper at Home (1878); The Story of My Heart
(1883) ; Life of the Fields (1884), containing the best paper he ever
wrote, " The Pageant of Summer"; Amaryllis at the Fair (1884),
in which may be found the portraits of his own people; and The
Open Air. He stands among the scanty company of men who
address a small audience, for whom he read aloud these pages of
Nature spoken of above, which only he, and the few like unto
him, can decipher.
See Sir Walter Besant, Eulogy of Richard Jefferies (1888) ; H. S.
Salt, Richard Jefferies: a Study (1894); Edward Thomas, Richard
Jefferies, his Life and Work (1909). (W. BE.)
JEFFERSON, JOSEPH (1829-1905), American actor, was born
in Philadelphia on the 2oth of February 1829. He was the third
actor of this name in a family of actors and managers, and the
most famous of all American comedians. At the age of three he
appeared as the boy in Kotzebue's Pizarro, and throughout his
youth he underwent all the hardships connected with theatrical
touring in those early days. After a miscellaneous experience,
partly as actor, partly as manager, he won his first pronounced
success in 1858 as Asa Trenchard in Tom Taylor's Our American
Cousin at Laura Keene's theatre in New York. This play was
the turning-point of his career, as it was of Sothern's. The
naturalness and spontaneity of humour with which he acted the
love scenes revealed a spirit in comedy new to his contemporaries,
long used to a more artificial convention; and the touch of pathos
which the part required revealed no less to the actor an unex-
pected power in himself. Other early parts were Newman Noggs
in Nicholas Nickleby, -Caleb Plummer in The Cricket on the Hearth,
Dr Pangloss in The Heir at Law, Salem Scudder in The Octoroon,
and Bob Acres in The Rivals, the last being not so much an inter-
pretation of the character as Sheridan sketched it as a creation
of the actor's. In 1859 Jefferson made a dramatic version of the
story of Rip Van Winkle on the basis of older plays, and acted
it with success at Washington. The play was given its perma-
nent form by Dion Boucicault in London,where (1865) it ran 170
nights, with Jefferson in the leading part. Jefferson continued
to act with undiminished popularity in a limited number of parts
in nearly every town, in the United States, his Rip Van Winkle,
Bob Acres, and Caleb Plummer being the most popular. He was
one of the first to establish the travelling combinations which
301
superseded the old system of local stock companies. With the
exception of minor parts, such as the First Gravedigger in
Hamlet, which he played in an " all star combination " headed
by Edwin Booth, Jefferson created no new character after 1865;
and the success of Rip Van Winkle was so pronounced that he
has often been called a one-part actor. If this was a fault, it was
the public's, who never wearied of his one masterpiece. Jefferson
died on the 2^rd of April 1905. No man in his profession was
more honoured for his achievements or his character. He was
the friend of many of the leading men in American politics, art
and literature. He was an ardent fisherman and lover of nature,
and devoted to painting. Jefferson was twice married: to an
actress, Margaret Clements Lockyer (1832-1861), in 1850, and in
1867 to Sarah Warren, niece of William Warren the actor.
Jefferson's Autobiography (New York, 1889) is written with admir-
able spirit and humour, and its judgments with regard to the art
of the actor and of the playwright entitle it to a place beside Gibber's
Apology. See William Winter, The Jeffersons (1881), and Life of
Joseph Jefferson (1894); Mrs. E. P. Jefferson, Recollections of Joseph
Jefferson (1909).
JEFFERSON, THOMAS (1743-1826), third president of the
United States of America, and the most conspicuous apostle of
democracy in America, was born on the I3th of April 1743,
at Shadwell, Albemarle county, Virginia. His father, Peter
Jefferson (1707-1757), of early Virginian yeoman stock, was a
civil engineer and a man of remarkable energy, who became a
justice of the peace, a county surveyor and a burgess, served the
Crown in inter-colonial boundary surveys, and married into one
of the most prominent colonial families, the Randolphs. Albe-
marle county was then in the frontier wilderness of the Blue
Ridge, and was very different, socially, from the lowland counties
where a few broad-acred families dominated an open-handed,
somewhat luxurious and assertive aristocracy. Unlike his
Randolph connexions, Peter Jefferson was a whig and a thorough
democrat; from him, and probably, too, from the Albemarle
environment, his son came naturally by democratic inclinations.
Jefferson carried with him from the college of William and
Mary at Williamsburg, in his twentieth year, a good knowledge
of Latin, Greek and French (to which he soon added Spanish,
Italian and Anglo-Saxon), and a familiarity with the higher
mathematics and natural sciences only possessed, at his age, by
men who have a rare natural taste and ability for those studies.
He remained an ardent student throughout life, able to give and
take in association with the many scholars, American and foreign,
whom he numbered among his friends and correspondents.
With a liberal Scotsman, Dr William Small, then of the faculty
of William and Mary and later a friend of Erasmus Darwin, and
George Wythe (1726-1806), a very accomplished scholar and
leader of the Virginia bar, Jefferson was an habitual member,
while still in college, of a partie carree at the table of Francis
Fauquier (c. 1720-1768), the accomplished lieutenant-governor
of Virginia. Jefferson was an expert violinist, a good singer and
dancer, proficient in outdoor sports, and an excellent horseman.
Thorough-bred horses always remained to him a necessary
luxury. When it is added that Fauquier was a passionate
gambler, and that the gentry who gathered every winter at
Williamsburg, the seat of government of the province, were
ruinously addicted to the same weakness, and that Jefferson had
a taste for racing, it does credit to his early strength of character
that of his social opportunities he took only the better. He
never used tobacco, never played cards, never gambled, and was
never party to a personal quarrel.
Soon after leaving college he entered Wythe's law office, and
in 1767, after five years of close study, was admitted to the bar.
His thorough preparation enabled hirn to compete from the first
with the leading lawyers of the colony, and his success shows that
the bar had no rewards that were not fairly within his reach. As
an advocate, however, he did not shine; a weakness of voice made
continued speaking impossible, and he had neither the ability
nor the temperament for oratory. To his legal scholarship and
collecting zeal Virginia owed the preservation of a large part
of her early statutes. He seems to have lacked interest in
litigiousness, which was extraordinarily developed in colonial
302
JEFFERSON, T.
Virginia; and he saw and wished to reform the law's abuses.
It is probable that he turned, therefore, the more willingly to
politics; at any rate, soon after entering public life he abandoned
practice (1774).
The death of his father had left him an estate of 1900 acres, the
income from which (about £400) gave him the position of an
independent country gentleman; and while engaged in the law
he had added to his farms after the ambitious Virginia fashion,
until, when he married in his thirtieth year, there were 5000
acres all paid for; and almost as much more1 came to him in 1773
on the death of his father-in-law. On the ist of January 1772,
Jefferson married Martha Wayles Skelton (1749-1 782), a childless
widow of twenty-three, very handsome, accomplished, and very
fond of music. Their married life was exceedingly happy, and
Jefferson never remarried after her early death. Of six children
born from their union, two daughters alone survived infancy.
Jefferson was emotional and very affectionate in his home, and
his generous and devoted relations with his children and grand-
children are among the finest features of his character.
Jefferson began his public service as a justice of the peace and
parish vestryman; he was chosen a member of the Virginia house
of burgesses in 1769 and of every succeeding assembly and con-
vention of the colony until he entered the Continental Congress
in 1775. His forceful, facile pen gave him great influence from
the first ; but though a foremost member of several great delibera-
tive bodies, he can fairly be said never to have made a speech.
He hated the " morbid rage of debate " because he believed that
men were never convinced by argument, but only by reflection,
through reading or unprovocative conversation; and this belief
guided him through life. Moreover it is very improbable that
he could ever have shone as a public speaker, and to this fact
unfriendly critics have attributed, at least in part, his abstention
from debate. The house of burgesses of 1769, and its successors
in 1773 and 1774, were dissolved by the governor (see VIRGINIA)
for their action on the subject of colonial grievances and inter-
colonial co-operation. Jefferson was prominent in all; was a
signer of the Virginia agreement of non-importation and economy
(1769); and was elected in 1774 to the first Virginia convention,
called to consider the state of the colony and advance inter-
colonial union. Prevented by illness from attending, Jefferson
sent to the convention elaborate resolutions, which he proposed
as instructions to the Virginia delegates to the Continental
Congress that was to meet at Philadelphia in September. In
the direct language of reproach and advice, with no disingenuous
loading of the Crown's policy upon its agents, these resolutions
attacked the errors of the king, and maintained that " the relation
between Great Britain and these colonies was exactly the same
as that of England and Scotland after the accession of James and
until the Union; and that our emigration to this country gave
England no more rights over us than the emigration of the Danes
and Saxons gave to the present authorities of their mother
country over England." This was cutting at the common root
of allegiance, emigration and colonization; but such radicalism
was too thorough-going for the immediate end. The resolutions^
were published, however, as a pamphlet, entitled A Summary
View of the Rights of America, which was widely circulated. In
England, after receiving such modifications — attributed to
Burke — as adapted it to the purposes of the opposition, this
pamphlet ran through many editions, and procured for its author,
as he said, " the honour of having his name inserted in a long
list of proscriptions enrolled in a bill of attainder commenced in
one of the two houses of parliament, but suppressed in embryo
by the hasty course of events." It placed Jefferson among the
foremost leaders of revolution, and procured for him the honour
of -drafting, later, the Declaration of Independence, whose
historical portions were, in large part, only a revised transcript
of the Summary View. In June 1775 he took his seat in the
1 It was embarrassed with a debt, however, of £3749, which,
owing to conditions caused by the War of Independence, he really
paid three times to his British creditors (not counting destruction
on his estates, of equal amount, ordered by Lord Cornwallis). This
greatly reduced his income for a number of years.
Continental Congress, taking with him fresh credentials of
radicalism in the shape of Virginia's answer, which he had
drafted, to Lord North's conciliatory propositions. Jefferson
soon drafted the reply of Congress to the same propositions.
Reappointed to the next Congress, he signalized his service by
the authorship of the Declaration of Independence (?.».). Again
reappointed, he surrendered his seat, and after refusing a
proffered election to serve as a commissioner with Benjamin
Franklin and Silas Deane in France, he entered again, in October
1776, the Viiginia legislature, where he considered his services
most needed.
The local work to which Jefferson attributed such importance
was a revision of Virginia's laws. Of the measures proposed to
this end he says: " I considered four, passed or reported, as
forming a system by which every trace would be eradicated
of ancient or future aristocracy, and a foundation laid for
a government truly republican " — the repeal of the laws of
entail; the abolition of primogeniture and the unequal
division of inheritances (Jefferson was himself an eldest son) ;
the guarantee of freedom of conscience and relief of the people
from supporting, by taxation, an established church; and a
system of general education. The first object was embodied in
law in 1776, the second in 1785, the third2 in 1786 (supplemented
1799, 1801). The last two were parts of a body of codified laws
prepared (1776-1779) by Edmund Pendleton,3 George Wythe,
and Jefferson, and principally by Jefferson. Not so fortunate were
Jefferson's ambitious schemes of education. District, grammar
and classical schools, a free state library and a state college, were
all included in his plan. He was the first American statesman
to make education by the state a fundamental article of demo-
cratic faith. His bill for elementary education he regarded as
the most important part of the code, but Virginia had no strong
middle class, and the planters would not assume the burden of
educating the poor. At this time Jefferson championed the
natural right of expatriation, and gradual emancipation of the
slaves. His earliest legislative effort, in the five-day session
of 1769, had been marked by an effort to secure to masters
freedom to manumit their slaves without removing them from
the state. It was unsuccessful, and the more radical measure
he now favoured was even more impossible of attainment; but
a bill he introduced to prohibit the importation of slaves was
passed in 1778 — the only important change effected in the slave
system of the state during the War of Independence. Finally
he endeavoured, though unsuccessfully, to secure the introduc-
tion of juries into the courts of chancery, and — a generation and
more before the fruition of the labours of Romilly and his co-
workers in England — aided in securing a humanitarian revision
of the penal code,4 which, though lost by one vote in 1785, was
sustained by public sentiment, and was adopted in 1 796. Jeffer-
son is of course not entitled to the sole credit for all these
services: Wythe, George Mason and James Madison, in parti-
cular, were his devoted lieutenants, and — after his departure
for France — the principals in the struggle; moreover, an approv-
ing public opinion must receive large credit. But Jefferson was
throughout the chief inspirer and foremost worker.
In 1779, at almost the gloomiest stage of the war in the southern
states, Jefferson succeeded Patrick Henry as the governor of
Virginia, being the second to hold that office after the organiza-
tion of the state government. In his second term (1780-1781)
the state was overrun by British expeditions, and Jefferson, a
civilian, was blamed for the ineffectual resistance. Though he
cannot be said to have been eminently fitted for the task that
devolved upon him in such a crisis, most of the criticism of his
s The first law of its kind in Christendom, although not the earliest
practice of such liberty in America.
3 George Mason and Thomas L. Lee were members of the commis-
sion, but they were not lawyers, and did little actual work on the
revision.
4 Capital punishment was confined to treason and murder; the
former was not to be attended by corruption of blood, drawing, or
quartering ; all other felonies were made punishable by confinement
and hard labour, save a few to which was applied, against Jefferson's
desire, the principle of retaliation.
JEFFERSON, T.
administration was undoubtedly grossly unjust. His conduct
being attacked, he declined renomination for the governorship,
but was unanimously returned by Albemarle as a delegate to the
state legislature ; and on the day previously set for legislative
inquiry on a resolution offered by an impulsive critic, he received,
by unanimous vote of the house, a declaration of thanks and
confidence. He wished however to retire permanently from
public life, a wish strengthened by the illness and death of his
wife. At this time he composed his Notes on Virginia, a semi-
statistical work full of humanitarian liberalism. Congress twice
offered him an appointment as one of the plenipotentiaries to
negotiate peace with England, but, though he accepted the
second offer, the business was so far advanced before he could
sail that his appointment was recalled. During the following
winter (1783) he was again in Congress, and headed the committee
appointed to consider the treaty of peace. In the succeeding
session his service was marked by a report, from which resulted
the present monetary system of the United States (the funda-
mental idea of its decimal basis being due, however, to Gouverneur
Morris); and by the honour of reporting the first definitely
formulated plan for the government of the western territories,1
that embodied in the ordinance of 1784. He was already
particularly associated with the great territory north-west of the
Ohio; for Virginia had tendered to Congress in 1781, while
Jefferson was governor, a cession of her claims to it, and now in
1784 formally transferred the territory by act of Jefferson and
his fellow delegates in congress: a consummation for which he
had laboured from the beginning. His anti-slavery opinions
grew in strength with years (though he was somewhat inconsis-
tent in his attitude on the Missouri question in 1820-1821). Not
only justice but patriotism as well pleaded with him the cause of
the negroes,2 for he foresaw the certainty that the race must some
day, in some way, be freed, and the dire political dangers involved
in the institution of slavery; and could any feasible plan of
emancipation have been suggested he would have regarded its
cost as a mere bagatelle.
From 1784 to 1789 Jefferson was in France, first under an
appointment to assist Benjamin Franklin and John Adams in
negotiating treaties of commerce with European states, and then
as Franklin's successor (1785-1789) as minister to France.3 In
these years he travelled widely in western Europe. Though the
commercial principles of the United States were far too liberal
for acceptance, as such, by powers holding colonies in America,
Jefferson won some specific concessions to American trade. He
was exceedingly popular as a minister. The criticism is even
to-day current with the uninformed that Jefferson took his
manners,4 morals, "irreligion" and political philosophy from his
French residence; and it cannot be wholly ignored. It may
therefore be said that there is nothing except unsubstantiated
scandal to contradict the conclusion, which various evidence
1 This plan applied to the south-western as well as to the north-
western territory, and was notable for a provision that slavery
should not exist therein after 1800. This provision was defeated
in 1784, but was adopted in 1787 for the north-western territory — a
step which is very often said to have saved the Union in the Civil
War; the south-western territory (out of which were later formed
Mississippi, Alabama, &c.) being given over to slavery. Thus the
anti-slavery clause of the ordinance of 1784 was not adopted; and
it was preceded by unofficial proposals to the same end; yet to it
belongs rightly some special honour as blazoning the way for federal
control of slavery in the territories, which later proved of such
enormous consequence. Jefferson in the firct draft of the Ordinance
of 1784, suggested the names to be given to the states eventually
to be formed out of the territory concerned. For his suggestions
he has been much ridiculed. The names are as follows: Illinoia,
Michigapia, Sylvania, Polypotamia, Assenisipia, Charronesus,
Pelisipia, Saratoga, Metropotamia and Washington.
2 He owned at one time above 150 slaves. His overseers were
under contract never to bleed them ; but he manumitted only a few
at his death.
8 During this time he assisted in negotiating a treaty of amity
and commerce with Prussia (1785) andone with Morocco (1789),
and negotiated with France a " convention defining and establishing
the functions and privileges^ of consuls and vice-consuls " (1788).
4 Patrick Henry humorously declaimed before a popular audience
that Jefferson,, who favoured French wine and cookery, had " abjured
his native victuals."
303
supports, that Jefferson's morals were pure. His religious views
and political beliefs will be discussed later. His theories had a
deep and broad basis in English whiggism; and though he may
well have found at least confirmation of his own ideas in French
writers — and notably in Condorcet — he did not read sympa-
thetically the writers commonly named, Rousseau and Montes-
quieu; besides, his democracy was seasoned, and he was rather
a teacher than a student of revolutionary politics when he went
to Paris. The Notes on Virginia were widely read in Paris, and
undoubtedly had some influence in forwarding the dissolution
of the doctrines of divine rights and passive obedience among
the cultivated classes of France. Jefferson was deeply interested
in all the events leading up to the French Revolution, and all his
ideas were coloured by his experience of the five seething years
passed in Paris. On the $rd of June 1789 he proposed to the
leaders of the third estate a compromise between the king and
the nation. In July he received the extraordinary honour of
being invited to assist in the deliberations of the committee
appointed by the national assembly to draft a constitution.
This honour his official position compelled him, of course, to
decline; for he sedulously observed official proprieties, and
in no way gave offence to the government to which he was
accredited.
When Jefferson left France it was with the intention of soon
returning; but President Washington tendered him the secretary-
ship of state in the new federal government, and Jefferson
reluctantly accepted. His only essential objection to the consti-
tution— the absence of a bill of rights — was soon met, at least
partially, by amendments. Alexander Hamilton (q.v.) was
secretary of the treasury. These two men, antipodal in tempera-
ment and political belief, clashed in irreconcilable hostility, and
in the conflict of public sentiment, first on the financial measures
of Hamilton, and then on the questions with regard to France
and Great Britain, Jefferson's sympathies being predominantly
with the former, Hamilton's with the latter, they formed about
themselves the two great parties of Democrats and Federal-
ists. The schools of thought for which they stood have
since contended for mastery in American politics: Hamilton's
gradually strengthened by the necessities of stronger administra-
tion, as time gave widening amplitude and increasing weight to
the specific powers — and so to Hamilton's great doctrine of
the " implied powers " — of the general government of a growing
country; Jefferson's rooted in colonial life, and buttressed by
the hopes and convictions of democracy.
The most perplexing questions treated by Jefferson as secre-
tary of state arose out of the policy of neutrality adopted by the
United States toward France, to whom she was bound by treaties
and by a heavy debt of gratitude. Separation from European
politics — the doctrine of " America for Americans " that was
embodied later in the Monroe declaration — was a tenet cherished
by Jefferson as by other leaders (not, however, Hamilton) and
by none cherished more firmly, for by nature he was peculiarly
opposed to war, and peace was a fundamental part of his politics.
However deep, therefore, his French sympathies, he drew the
same safe line as did Washington between French politics and
American politics,6 and handled the Genet complications to the
satisfaction of even the most partisan Federalists. He expounded,
as a very high authority has said, " with remarkable clearness
and power the nature and scope of neutral duty," and gave a
" classic " statement of the doctrine of recognition.6
But the French question had another side in its reaction on
American parties.7 Jefferson did not read excesses in Paris as
warnings against democracy, but as warnings against the abuses
5 Jefferson did not sympathize with the temper of his followers
who condoned the zealous excesses of Genet, and in general with the
"^misbehaviour " of the democratic clubs; but, as a student of Eng-
lish liberties, he could not accept Washington's doctrine that for a
self-created permanent body to declare " this act unconstitutional,
and that act pregnant with mischiefs " was " a stretch of arrogant
presumption " which would, if unchecked, " destroy the country."
'John Basset Moore, American Diplomacy (New York, 1905).
7 Compare C. D. Hazen, Contemporary American opinion of the
French Revolution (Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1897).
304
JEFFERSON, T.
of monarchy; nor did he regard Bonaparte's coup d'etat as
revealing the weakness of republics, but rather as revealing
the danger of standing- armies; he did not look on the war of
the coalitions against France as one of mere powers, but as one
between forms of government; and though the immediate fruits
of the Revolution belied his hopes, as they did those of ardent
humanitarians the world over, he saw the broad trend of history,
which vindicated his faith that a successful reformation of
government in France would insure " a general reformation
through Europe, and the resurrection to a new life of their
people." Each of these statements could be reversed as regards
Hamilton. It is the key to an understanding of the times to
remember that the War of Independence had disjointed society;
and democracy — which Jefferson had proclaimed in the Declara-
tion of Independence, and enthroned in Virginia — after strength-
ening its rights by the sword, had run to excesses, particularly in
the Shays' rebellion, that produced a conservative reaction. To
this reaction Hamilton explicitly appealed in the convention of
1787; and of this reaction various features of the constitution,
and Hamiltonian federalism generally, were direct fruits.
Moreover, independently of special incentives to the alarmist
and the man of property, the opinions of many Americans
turned again, after the war, into a current of sympathy for
England, as naturally as American commerce returned to English
ports. Jefferson, however, far from America in these years
and unexposed to reactionary influences, came back with un-
diminished fervour of democracy, and the talk he heard of praise
for England, and fearful recoil before even the beginning of the
revolution in France, disheartened him, and filled him with
suspicion.1 Hating as he did feudal class institutions and
Tudor-Stuart traditions of arbitrary rule,2 his attitude can be
imagined toward Hamilton's oft-avowed partialities — and
Jefferson assumed, his intrigues — for British class-government
with its eighteenth-century measure of corruption. In short,
Hamilton took from recent years the lesson of the evils of lax
government; whereas Jefferson clung to the other lesson, which
crumbling colonial governments had illustrated, that govern-
ments derived their strength (and the Declaration had proclaimed
that they derived their just rights) from the will of the governed.
Each built his system accordingly: the one on the basis of order,
the other on individualism — which led Jefferson to liberty alike
in religion and in politics. The two men and the fate of the
parties they led are understandable only by regarding one as the
leader of reaction, the other as in line with the American tenden-
cies. The educated classes characteristically furnished Federal-
ism with a remarkable body of alarmist leaders; and thus it
happened that Jefferson, because, with only a few of his great
contemporaries, he had a thorough trust and confidence in the
people, became the idol of American democracy.
As Hamilton was somewhat officious and very combative, and
Jefferson, although uncontentious, very suspicious and quite
independent, both men holding inflexibly to opinions, cabinet
harmony became impossible when the two secretaries had formed
parties about them and their differences were carried into the
1 It was at this period of his life that Jefferson gave expression
to some of the opinions for which he has been most severely
criticized and ridiculed. For the Shays' rebellion he felt little abhor-
rence, and wrote: " A little rebellion now and then is a good thing
... an observation of this truth should render honest republican
governors so mild in their punishment of rebellions as not to dis-
courage them too much. It is a medicine necessary for the sound
health of government " (Writings, Ford ed., iv. 362-363). Again,
" Can history produce an instance of rebellion so honorably con-
ducted ? . . . God forbid that we should ever be twenty years
without such a rebellion. . . . What signify a few lives lost in a
century or two ? The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time
to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants. It is its natural
manure " (Ibid. iv. 467). Again he says: " Societies exist under
three forms — (i) without government, as among our Indians; (2)
under governments wherein the will of every one has a just in-
fluence. ... (3) under governments of force. ... It is a problem not
clear in my mind that the first condition is not the best." (Ibid,
iv. 362.)
* He turned law students from Blackstone's toryism to Coke on
Littleton; and he would not rea_d Walter Scott, so strong was his
aversion to that writer's predilection for class and feudalism.
newspapers;3 and Washington abandoned perforce his idea "if
parties did exist to reconcile them." Partly from discontent
with a position in which he did not feel that he enjoyed the abso-
lute confidence of the president,4 and partly because of the
embarrassed condition of his private affairs, Jefferson repeatedly
sought to resign, and finally on the 3ist of December 1793, with
Washington's reluctant consent, gave up his portfolio and retired
to his home at Monticello, near Charlottesville.
Here he remained improving his estate (having refused a
foreign mission) until elected vice-president in 1796. Jefferson
was never truly happy except in the country. He loved garden-
ing, experimented enthusiastically in varieties and rotations of
crops and kept meteorological tables with diligence. For eight
years he tabulated with painful accuracy the earliest and latest
appearance of thirty-seven vegetables in the Washington market.
When abroad he sought out varieties of grasses, trees, rice and
olives for American experiment, and after his return from
France received yearly for twenty-three years, from his old friend
the superintendent of the Jardin des planles, a box of seeds,
which he distributed to public and private gardens throughout
the United States. Jefferson seems to have been the first dis-
coverer of an exact formula for the construction of mould-boards
of least resistance for ploughs. He managed to make practical
use of his calculus about his farms, and seems to have been re-
markably apt in the practical application of mechanical principles.
In the presidential election of 1796 John Adams, the Federalist
candidate, received the largest number of electoral votes, and
Jefferson, the Republican candidate, the next largest number,
and under the law as it then existed the former became president
and the latter vice-president. Jefferson re-entered pub\ic life
with reluctance, though doubtless with keen enough interest and
resolution. He had rightly measured the strength of his followers,
and was waiting for the government to " drift into unison " with
the republican sense of its constituents, predicting that President
Adams would be " overborne " thereby. This prediction was
speedily fulfilled. At first the reign of terror and the X. Y. Z.
disclosures strengthened the Federalists, until these, mistaking
the popular resentment against France for a reaction against
democracy — an equivalence in their own minds — passed the alien
and sedition laws. In answer to those odious measures Jefferson
and Madison prepared and procured the passage of the Kentucky
and Virginia resolutions. These resolutions later acquired extra-
ordinary and pernicious prominence in the historical elaboration
of the states'-rights doctrine. It is, however, unquestionably
true, that as a startling protest against measures " to silence,"
in Jefferson's words, " by force and not by reason the com-
plaints or criticisms, just or unjust, of our citizens against the
conduct of our agents," they served, in this respect, a useful
purpose; and as a counterblast against Hamiltonian principles
of centralization they were probably, at that moment, very
salutary; while even as pieces of constitutional interpretation
it is to be remembered that they did not contemplate nullifica-
tion by any single state, and, moreover, are not to be judged by
constitutional principles established later by courts and war.
The Federalist party had ruined itself, and it lost the presidential
election of 1800. The Republican candidates, Jefferson and
Aaron Burr (q.v.), receiving equal votes, it devolved upon the
House of Representatives, in accordance with the system which
then obtained, to make one of the two president, the other vice-
president. Party feeling in America has probably never been
more dangerously impassioned than in the three years preceding
1 Hamilton wrote for the papers himself; Jefferson never did.
A talented clerk in his department, however, Philip Freneau, set up
an anti-administration paper. It was alleged that Jefferson ap-
pointed him for the purpose, and encouraged him. Undoubtedly
there was nothing in the charge. The Federalist outcry could only
have been silenced by removal of Freneau, or by disclaimers or
admonitions, which Jefferson did not think it incumbent upon
himself — or, since he thought Freneau was doing good, desirable for
him — to make.
4 Contrary to the general belief that Hamilton dominated Washing-
ton in the cabinet, there is the president's explicit statement that
" there were as many instances " of his deciding against as in favour
of the secretary of the treasury.
JEFFERSON, T.
this election; discount as one will the contrary obsessions of
men like Fisher Ames, Hamilton and Jefferson, the time was
fateful. Unable to induce Burr to avow Federalist principles,
influential Federalists, in defiance of the constitution, contem-
plated the desperate alternative of preventing an election, and
appointing an extra-constitutional (Federalist) president pro
temper e. Better counsels, however, prevailed; Hamilton used
his influence in favour of Jefferson as against Burr, and Jefferson
became president, entering upon his duties on the 4th of March
1 80 1. Republicans who had affiliated with the Federalists at
the time of the X.Y. Z. disclosures returned; very many of the
Federalists themselves Jefferson placated and drew over. " Be-
lieving," he wrote, " that (excepting the ardent monarchists) all
our citizens agreed in ancient whig principles " — or, as he else-
where expressed it, in " republican forms " — " I thought it
advisable to define and declare them, and let them see the ground
on which we can rally." This he did in his inaugural, which,
though somewhat rhetorical, is a splendid and famous statement
of democracy.1 His conciliatory policy produced a mild schism
in his own party, but proved eminently wise, and the state
elections of 1801 fulfilled his prophecy of 1791 that the policy of
the Federalists would leave them " all head and no body." In
1804 he was re-elected by 162 out of 176 votes.
Jefferson's administrations were distinguished by the simplicity
that marked his conduct in private life. He eschewed the pomp
and ceremonies, natural inheritances from English origins, that
had been an innocent setting to the character of his two noble
predecessors. His dress was of " plain cloth " on the day of his
inauguration. Instead of driving to the Capitol in a coach and
six, he walked without a guard or servant from his lodgings — or,
as a rival tradition has it, he rode, and hitched his horse to a
neighbouring fence— attended by a crowd of citizens. Instead of
opening Congress with a speech to which a formal reply was
expected, he sent in a written message by a private hand. He
discontinued the practice of sending ministers abroad in public
vessels. Between himself and the governors of states he recog-
nized no difference in rank. He would not have his birthday
celebrated by state balls. The weekly levee was practically
abandoned. Even such titles as " Excellency," " Honourable,"
" Mr " were distasteful to him. It was formally agreed in cabinet
meeting that " when brought together in society, all are perfectly
equal, whether foreign or domestic, titled or untitled, in or out
of office." Thus diplomatic grades were ignored in social pre-
cedence and foreign relations were seriously compromised by
dinner-table complications. One minister who appeared in
gold lace and dress sword for his first, and regularly appointed,
official call on the president, was received — as he insisted with
studied purpose — by Jefferson in negligent undress and slippers
down at the heel. All this was in part premeditated system2 — a
part of Jefferson's purpose to republicanize the government
and public opinion, which was the distinguishing feature of his
administration; but it was also simply the nature of the man. In
the company he chose by preference, honesty and knowledge
were his only tests. He knew absolutely no social distinctions in
his willingness to perform services for the deserving. He held up
to his daughter as an especial model the family of a poor but
gifted mechanic as one wherein she would see " the best examples
of rational living." " If it be possible," he said, " to be certainly
conscious of anything, I am conscious of feeling no difference
between writing to the highest and lowest being on earth."
Jefferson's first administration was marked by a reduction of
the army, navy, diplomatic establishment and, to the uttermost,
of governmental expenses; some reduction of the civil service,
accompanied by a large shifting of offices to Republicans; and,
above all, by the Louisiana Purchase (?.».), following which
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, sent by Jefferson, con-
1 See also Jefferson to E. Gerry, 26th of January 1799 (Writings,
vii. 325), and to Dupont de Nemours (x. 23). Cf. Hamilton to
J. Dayton, 1799 (Works, x. 329).
1 In 1786 he suggested to James Monroe that the society of
friends he hoped to gather in Albemarle might, in sumptuary
matters, " set a good example " to a country (i.e. Virginia) that
" needed " it.
305
ducted their famous exploring expedition across the continent to
the Pacific (see LEWIS, MERIWETHER). Early in his term he
carried out a policy he had urged upon the government when
minister to France and when vice-president, by dispatching
naval forces to coerce Tripoli into a decent respect for the trade
of his country — the first in Christendom to gain honourable im-
munity from tribute or piracy in the Mediterranean. The
Louisiana Purchase, although the greatest " inconsistency " of
his career, was also an illustration, in corresponding degree, of
his essential practicality, and one of the greatest proofs of his
statesmanship. It was the crowning achievement of his adminis-
tration. It is often said that Jefferson established the " spoils
system " by his changes in the civil service. He was the inno-
vator, because for the first time there was opportunity for inno-
vation. But mere justice requires attention to the fact that
incentive to that innovation, and excuse for it, were found in the
absolute one-party monopoly maintained by the Federalists.
Moreover, Jefferson's ideals were high; his reasons for changes
were in general excellent; he at least so far resisted the great
pressure for office — producing by his resistance dissatisfaction
within his party — as not to have lowered, apparently, the per-
sonnel of the service; and there were no such blots on his adminis-
tration as President Adams's " midnight judges." Nevertheless,
his record here was not clear of blots, showing a few regrettable
inconsistencies.3 Among important but secondary measures of
his second administration were the extinguishment of Indian
titles, and promotion of Indian emigration to lands beyond the
Mississippi; reorganization of the militia; fortification of the
seaports; reduction of the public debt; and a simultaneous
reduction of taxes. But his second term derives most of its
historical interest from the unsuccessful efforts to convict Aaron
Burr of treasonable acts in the south-west, and from the efforts
made to maintain, without war, the rights of neutrals on the
high seas. In his diplomacy with Napoleon and Great Britain
Jefferson betrayed a painful incorrigibility of optimism. A
national policy of " growling before fighting " — later practised
successfully enough by the United States — was not then pos-
sible; and one writer has very justly said that what chiefly
affects one in the whole matter is the pathos of it — " a philo-
sopher and a friend of peace struggling with a despot of super-
human genius, and a Tory cabinet of superhuman insolence
and stolidity " (Trent). It is possible to regard the embargo
policy dispassionately as an interesting illustration of Jefferson's
love of peace. The idea — a very old one with Jefferson — was
not entirely original; in essence it received other attempted
applications in the Napoleonic period — and especially in the
continental blockade. Jefferson's statesmanship had the limita-
tions of an agrarian outlook. The extreme to which he carried
his advocacy of diplomatic isolation, his opposition to the
creation of an adequate navy,4 his estimate of cities as " sores
upon the body politic," his prejudice against manufactures,
trust in farmers, and political distrust of the artisan class, all
reflect them.
When, on the 4th of March 1809, Jefferson retired from the
presidency, he had been almost continuously in the public
service for forty years. He refused to be re-elected for a third
time, though requested by the legislatures of five states to be a
candidate; and thus, with Washington's prior example, helped
8 See C. R. Fish, The Civil Service and the Patronage (Harvard
Historical Studies, New York, 1905), ch. 2.
4 Jefferson's dislike of a navy was due to his desire for an economi-
cal administration and for peace. Shortly after his inauguration he
expressed a desire to lay up the larger men of war in the eastern
branch of the Potomac, where they would require only " one set
of plunderers to take care of them." To Thomas Paine he wrote
in 1807: " I believe that gunboats are the only water defence which
can be useful to us and protect us from the ruinous folly of a navy."
(Works, Ford ed., ix. 137.) The gunboats desired by Jefferson
were small, cheap craft equipped with one or two guns and kept on
shore under sheds until actually needed, when they were to be
launched and manned by a sort of naval militia. A large number
of these boats were constructed and they afforded some protection
to coasting vessels against privateers, but in bad weather, or when
employed against a frigate, they were worse than useless, and
Jefferson's " gunboat system " was admittedly a failure.
306
JEFFERSON, T.
to establish a precedent deemed by him to be of great impor-
tance under a democratic government. His influence seemed
scarcely lessened in his retirement. Madison and Monroe, his
immediate successors — neighbours and devoted friends, whom he
had advised in their early education and led in their maturer
years — consulted him on all great questions, and there was no
break of principles in the twenty-four years of the " Jeffersonian
system." Jefferson was one of the greatest political managers
his country has known. He had a quick eye for character, was
genuinely amiable, uncontentious, tactful, masterful; and it
may be assumed from his success that he was wary or shrewd to
a degree. It is true, moreover, that, unless tested by a few
unchanging principles, his acts were often strikingly inconsis-
tent; and even when so tested, not infrequently remain so in
appearance. Full explanations do not remove from some impor-
tant transactions in his political life an impression of indirect-
ness. But reasonable judgment must find very unjust the stigma
of duplicity put upon him by the Federalists. Measured by the
records of other men equally successful as political leaders,
there seems little of this nature to criticize severely. Jefferson
had the full courage of his convictions. Extreme as were his
principles, his pertinacity in adhering to them and his indepen-
dence of expression were quite as extreme. There were philo-
sophic and philanthropic elements in his political faith which
will always lead some to class him as a visionary and fanatic;
but although he certainly indulged at times in dreams at which
one may still smile, he was not, properly speaking, a visionary;
nor can he with justice be stigmatized as a fanatic. He felt
fervently, was not afraid to risk all on the conclusions to which
his heart and his mind led him, declared himself with openness
and energy; and he spoke and even wrote his conclusions, how
ever bold or abstract, without troubling to detail his reasoning
or clip his off-hand speculations. Certain it is that there is
much in his utterances for a less robust democracy than his own
to cavil at.1 Soar, however, as he might, he was essentially not
a doctrinaire, but an empiricist; his mind was objective. Though
he remained, to the end, firm in his belief that there had been
an active monarchist party,2 this obsession did not carry him
out of touch with the realities of human nature and of his
time. He built with surety on the colonial past, and had a
better reasoned view of the actual future than had any of his
contemporaries.
Events soon appraised the ultra-Federalist judgment of Ameri-
can democracy, so tersely expressed by Fisher Ames as " like
death . . . only the dismal passport to a moie dismal hereafter";
and, with it, appraised Jefferson's word in his first inaugural
for those who, "in the full tide of successful experiment,"
were ready to abandon a government that had so far kept
them " free and firm, on the visionary fear that it might by
possibility lack energy to preserve itself." Time soon tested,
too, his principle that that government must prove the strongest
on earth " where every man . . . would meet invasions of the
public order as his own personal concern." He summed up as
follows the difference between himself and the Hamiltonian
group: " One feared most the ignorance of the people; the
other the selfishness of rulers independent of them." Jefferson,
in short, had unlimited faith in the honesty of the people; a
large faith in their common sense; believed that all is to be won
1 See e.g. his letters in 1787 on the Shays' rebellion, and his specula-
tions on the doctrine that one generation may not bind another
by paper documents. With the latter may be compared present-
day movements like the initiative and referendum, and not a few
discussions of national debts. Jefferson's distrust of governments
was nothing exceptional for a consistent individualist.
* In his last years he carefully sifted and revised his contemporary
notes evidencing, as he believed, the existence of such a party, and
they remain as his Ana (chiefly Hamiltoniana). The only just
judgment of these notes is to be obtained by looking at them,
and by testing his suspicions with the letters of Hamilton, Ames,
Oliver Wolcott, Theodore Sedgwick, George Cabot and the other
Hamiltonians. Such a comparison measures also the relative
judgment, temper and charity of these writers and Jefferson. It
must still remain true, however, that Jefferson's Ana present him
in a far from engaging light.
by appealing to the reason of voters; that by education their
ignorance can be eliminated; that human nature is indefinitely
perfectible; that majorities rule, therefore, not only by virtue
of force (which was Locke's ultimate justification of them), but
of right.3 His importance as a maker of modern America can
scarcely be overstated, for the ideas he advocated have become
the very foundations of American republicanism. His ad-
ministration ended the possibility, probability or certainty —
measure it as one will — of the development of Federalism in the
direction of class government; and the party he formed, inspired
by the creed he gave it, fixed the democratic future of the
nation. And by his own labours he had vindicated his faith
in the experiment of self-government.
Jefferson's last years were devoted to the establishment of
the university of Virginia at Charlottesville, near his home.
He planned the buildings, gathered its faculty — mainly from
abroad — and shaped its organization. Practically all the great
ideas of aim, administration and curriculum that dominated
American universities at the end of the igth century were antici-
pated by him. He hoped that the university might be a domi-
nant influence in national culture, but circumstances crippled it.
His educational plans had been maturing in his mind since 1776.
His financial affairs in these last years gave him grave concern.
His fine library of over 10,000 volumes was purchased at a low
price by Congress in 1815, and a national contribution ($16,500)
just before his death enabled him to die in peace. Though not
personally extravagant, his salary, and the small income from
his large estates, never sufficed to meet his generous maintenance
of his representative position; and after his retirement from
public life the numerous visitors to Monticello consumed the
remnants of his property. He died on the 4th of July 1826, the
fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, on the
same day as John Adams. He chose for his tomb the epitaph:
"Here was buried Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration
of American Independence, of the statute of Virginia for reli-
gious freedom, and father of the university of Virginia."
Jefferson was about 6 ft. in height, large-boned, slim, erect and
sinewy. He had angular features, a very ruddy complexion, sandy
hair, and hazel-flecked, grey eyes. Age lessened the unattractive-
ness of his exterior. In later years he was negligent in dress and
loose in bearing. There was grace, nevertheless, in his manners;
and his frank and earnest adclress, his quick sympathy (yet he
seemed cold to strangers), his vivacious, desultory, informing talk,
gave him an engaging charm. Beneath a quiet surface he was fairly
aglow with intense convictions and a very emotional temperament.
Vet he seems to have acted habitually, in great and little things,
on system. His mind, no less trenchant and subtle than Hamilton s,
was the most impressible, the most receptive, mind of his time in
America. The range of his interests is remarkable. For many years
he was president of the American philosophical society. Though it is
a biographical tradition that he lacked wit, Molifire and Don Quixote
seem to have been his favourites; and though the utilitarian wholly
crowds romanticism out of his writings, he had enough of that
quality in youth to prepare to learn Gaelic in order to translate
Ossian, ana sent to Macpherson for the originals! His interest
in art was evidently intellectual. He was singularly sweet-tempered,
and shrank from the impassioned political bitterness that raged
about him ; bore with relative equanimity a flood of coarse and
malignant abuse of his motives, morals, religion,' personal honesty
and decency; cherished very few personal animosities; and better
than any of his great antagonists cleared political opposition of ill-
blooded personality. In snort, his kindness of heart rose above all
social, religious or political differences, and nothing destroyed his
confidence in men and his sanguine views of life.
AUTHORITIES. — See the editions of Jefferson's Writings by H. A.
Washington (9 vols., New York, 1853-1854), and — the best — by Paul
1 " Jefferson, in 178*), wrote some such stuff about the will o(
majorities, as a New Englander would lose his rank among men ol
sense to avow." — Fisher Ames (Jan. 1800).
4 He was classed as a " French infidel " and atheist. His attitude
toward religion was in fact deeply reverent and sincere, but he
insisted that religion was purely an individual matter, " evidenced,
as concerns the world by each one's daily life," and demanded
absolute freedom of private judgment. He looked on Unitarianism
with much sympathy and desired its growth. " I am a Christian,"
he wrote in 1823, " in the only sense in which he (Jesus) wished any
one to be; sincerely attached to his doctrines in preference to all
others; ascribing to himself every human excellence, and believing
he never claimed any other."
JEFFERSON CITY- -JEFFREY, LORD
Leicester Ford (10 vpls., New York, 1892-1899) ; letters in Massachu-
setts Historical Society, Collections, series 7, vol. i.; S. E. Forman,
The Letters and Writings of Thomas Jefferson, including all his Important
Utterances on Public Questions (1900); J. P. Foley, The Jefferson
Cyclopaedia (New York, 1900) ; the Memoir, Correspondence, &c.,
by T. J. Randolph (4 vols., Charlottesyille, Va., 1829) ; biographies by
James Schouler (" Makers of America Series," New York, 1893)',
John T. Morse (" American Statesmen Series," Boston, 1883),
George Tucker (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1837) ; James Parton (Boston,
1874) ; and especially that by Henry S. Randall (3 vols., New York,
1853), a monumental work, although marred by some special
pleading, and sharing Jefferson's implacable opinions of the " Mono-
crats." See also Henry Adams, History of the United States 1801-1817,
vols. 1-4 (New York, 1889-1890); Herbert B. Adams, Thomas
Jefferson and the University of Virginia (U. S. bureau of education,
Washington, 1888); Sarah N. Randolph, Domestic Life of Thomas
Jefferson (New York, 1871); and an illuminating appreciation by
W. P. Trent, in his Southern Statesmen of the Old Regime (New York,
1897); that by John Fiske, Essays, Historical and Literary, vol. i.
(New York, 1902), has slighter merits. (F.S. P.)
JEFFERSON CITY (legally and officially the City of Jefferson) ,
the capital of Missouri, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Cole
county, on the Missouri river, near the geographical centre of the
state, about 125 m. W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890), 6742; (1900),
9664, of whom 786 were foreign-born and 1822 were negroes;
(1910 census), 11,850. It is served by the Missouri Pacific,
the Chicago & Alton, and the Missouri, Kansas -& Texas
railways. Its site is partly in the bottom-lands of the river and
partly on the steep banks at an elevation of about 600 ft. above
the sea. A steel bridge spans the river. The state capitol, an
imposing structure built on a bluff above the river, was built in
1838-1842 and enlarged in 1887-1888; it was first occupied in
1840 by the legislature, which previously had met (after 1837)
in the county court house. Other prominent buildings are the
United States court house and post office, the state supreme court
house, the county court house, the state penitentiary, the state
armoury and the executive mansion. The penitentiary is to a
large extent self-supporting; in 1903-1904 the earnings were
$3493.80 in excess of the costs, but in 1904-1906 the costs
exceeded the earnings by $9044. Employment is furnished for
the convicts on the pentitentiary premises by incorporated
companies. The state law library here is one of the best of
the kind in the country, and the city has a public library.
In the city is Lincoln Institute, a school for negroes, founded
in 1866 by two regiments of negro infantry upon their discharge
from the United States army, opened in 1868, taken over
by the state in 1879, and having sub-normal, normal, college,
industrial and agricultural courses. Coal and limestone are
found near the city. In 1905 the total value of the factory
product was $3,926,632, an increase of 28-2% since 1900.
The original constitution of Missouri prescribed that the capital
should be on the Missouri river within 40 m. of the mouth
of the Osage, and a commission selected in 1821 the site of
Jefferson City, on which a town was laid out in 1822, the name
being adopted in honour of Thomas Jefferson. The legislature
first met here in 1826; Jefferson City became the county-seat in
1828, and in 1839 was first chartered as a city. The constitu-
tional conventions of 1845 ar>d 1875, and the state convention
which issued the call for the National Liberal Republican conven-
tion at Cincinnati in 1872, met here, and so for some of its
sessions did the state convention of 1861-1863. In June 1861
Jefferson City was occupied by Union forces, and in September-
October 1864 it was threatened by Confederate troops under
General Sterling Price.
JEFFERSONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Clark
county, Indiana, U.S.A., situated on the N. bank of the Ohio
river, opposite Louisville, Kentucky, with which it is connected
by several bridges. Pop. (1890), 10,666; (1900), 10,774, of
whom 1818 were of negro descent and 615 were foreign-born;
(1910 census), 10,412. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio
South-western, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis,
and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways,
and by three inter-urban electric lines. It is attractively situated
on bluffs above the river, which at this point has a descent
(known as the falls of the Ohio) of 26 ft. in 2 m. This furnishes
307
good water power for manufacturing purposes both at Jefferson-
ville and at Louisville. The total value of the factory product
in 1905 was $4,526,443, an increase of 20 % since 1900. The
Indiana reformatory (formerly the Southern Indiana peniten-
tiary) and a large supply depot of the United States army are at
Jeffersonville. General George Rogers Clark started (June 24,
1778) on his expedition against Kaskaskia and Vincennes from
Corn Island (now completely washed away) opposite what is
now Jeffersonville. In 1786 the United States government
established Fort Finney (built by Captain Walter Finney), after-
wards re-named Fort Steuben, on the site of the present city;
but the fort was abandoned in 1791, and the actual beginning
of Jeffersonville was in 1802, when a part of the Clark grant
(the site of the present city) was transferred by its original
owner, Lieut. Isaac Bowman, to three trustees, under whose
direction a town was laid out. Jeffersonville was incorporated
as a town in 1815, and was chartered as a city in 1839.
JEFFREY, FRANCIS JEFFREY, LORD (1773-1850), Scottish
judge and literary critic, son of a depute-clerk in the Court of
Session, was born at Edinburgh on the 23rd of October 1773.
After attending the high school for six years, he studied at the
university of Glasgow from 1787 to May 1789, and at Queen's
College, Oxford, from September 1791 to June 1792. He had
begun the study of law at Edinburgh before going to Oxford,
and now resumed his studies there. He became a member of
the speculative society, where he measured himself in debate
with Scott, Brougham, Francis Horner, the marquess of Lans-
downe, Lord Kinnaird and others. He was admitted to the
Scotch bar in December 1794, but, having abandoned the Tory
principles in which he had been educated, he found that his
Whig politics seriously prejudiced his legal prospects. In conse-
quence of his lack of success at the bar he went to London in
1798 to try his fortune as a journalist, but without success; he
also made more than one vain attempt to obtain an office which
would have secured him the advantage of a small but fixed
salary. His marriage with Catherine Wilson in 1801 made the
question of a settled income even more pressing. A project for a
new review was brought forward by Sydney Smith in Jeffrey's flat
in the presence of H. P. Brougham (afterwards Lord Brougham),
Francis Horner and others; and the scheme resulted in the
appearance on the zoth of October 1802 of the first number of the
Edinburgh Review. At the outset the Review was not under
the charge of any special editor. The first three numbers were,
however, practically edited by Sydney Smith, and on his leaving
for England the work devolved chiefly on Jeffrey, who, by an
arrangement with Constable, the publisher, was eventually
appointed editor at a fixed salary. Most of those associated in
the undertaking were Whigs; but, although the general bias of
the Review was towards social and political reforms, it was at
first so little of a party organ that for a time it numbered Sir
Walter Scott among its contributors; and no distinct emphasis
was given to its political leanings until the publication in 1808 of
an article by Jeffrey himself on the work of Don Pedro Cevallos
on the French Usurpation of Spain. This article expressed
despair of the success of the British arms in Spain, and Scott at
once withdrew his subscription, the Quarterly being soon after-
wards started in opposition. According to Lord Cockburn the
effect of the first number of the Edinburgh Review was " elec-
trical." The English reviews were at that time practically
publishers' organs, the articles in which were written by hack-
writers instructed to praise or blame according to the publishers'
interests. Few men of any standing consented to write for
them. The Edinburgh Review, on the other hand, enlisted a
brilliant and independent staff of contributors, guided by the
editor, not the publisher. They received sixteen guineas a
sheet (sixteen printed pages), increased subsequently to twenty-
five guineas in many cases, instead of the two guineas which
formed the ordinary London reviewer's fee. Further, the review
was not limited to literary criticism. It constituted itself the
accredited organ of moderate Whig public opinion. The particu-
lar work which provided the starting-point of an article was in
many cases merely the occasion for the exposition, always
3o8
JEFFREYS, BARON
brilliant and incisive, of the author's views on politics, social
subjects, ethics or literature. These general principles and the
novelty of the method ensured the success of the undertaking
even after the original circle of exceptionally able men who
founded it had been dispersed. It had a circulation, great for
those days, of 12,000 copies. The period of Jeffrey's editorship
extended to about twenty-six years, ceasing with the ninety-
eighth number, published in June 1829, when he resigned in
favour of Macvey Napier.
Jeffrey's own contributions, according to a list which has the
sanction of his authority, numbered two hundred, all except
six being written before his resignation of the editorship. Jeffrey
wrote with great rapidity, at odd moments of leisure and with
little special preparation. Great fluency and ease of diction,
considerable warmth of imagination and moral sentiment, and
a sharp eye to discover any oddity of style or violation of the
accepted canons of good taste, made his criticisms pungent and
effective. But the essential narrowness and timidity of his
general outlook prevented him from detecting and estimating
latent forces, either in politics or in matters strictly intellectual
and moral; and this lack of understanding and sympathy ac-
counts for his distrust and dislike of the passion and fancy of
Shelley and Keats, and for his praise of the half-hearted and ele-
gant romanticism of Rogers and Campbell. (For his treatment
of the lake poets see WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM.)
A criticism in the fifteenth number of the Review on the
morality of Moore's poems led in 1806 to a duel between the two
authors at Chalk Farm. The proceedings were stopped by the
police, and Jeffrey's pistol was found to contain no bullet. The
affair led to a warm friendship, however, and Moore contributed
to the Review, while Jeffrey made ample amends in a later article
on Lalla Rookh (1817).
Jeffrey's wife had died in 1805, and in 1810 he became ac-
quainted with Charlotte, daughter of Charles Wilkes of New
York, and great-niece of John Wilkes. When she returned to
America, Jeffrey followed her, and they were married in 1813.
Before returning to England they visited several of the chief
American cities, and his experience strengthened Jeffrey in the
conciliatory policy he had before advocated towards the States.
Notwithstanding the increasing success of the Review, Jeffrey
always continued to look to the bar as the chief field of his ambi-
tion. -As a matter of fact, his literary reputation helped his
professional advancement. His practice extended rapidly in
the civil and criminal courts, and he regularly appeared before
the general assembly of the Church of Scotland, where his work,
though not financially profitable, increased his reputation. As
an advocate his sharpness and rapidity of insight gave him a for-
midable advantage in the detection of the weaknesses of a witness
and the vulnerable points of his opponent's case, while he grouped
his own arguments with an admirable eye to effect, especially
excelling in eloquent closing appeals to a jury. Jeffrey was
twice, in 1820 and 1822, elected lord rector of the university of
Glasgow. In 1829 he was chosen dean of the faculty of advocates.
On the return of the Whigs to power in 1830 he became lord
advocate, and entered parliament 'as member for the Perth
burghs. He was unseated, and afterwards returned for Malton,
a borough in the interest of Lord Fitzwilliam. After the passing
of the Scottish Reform Bill, which he introduced in parliament,
he was returned for Edinburgh in December 1832. His parlia-
mentary career, which, though not brilliantly successful, had
won him high general esteem, was terminated by his elevation
to the judicial bench as Lord Jeffrey in May 1834. In 1842 he
was moved to the first division of the Court of Session. On the
disruption of the Scottish Church he took the side of the seceders,
giving a judicial opinion in their favour, afterwards reversed by
the house of lords. He died at Edinburgh on the 26th of January
1850.
Some of his contributions to the Edinburgh Review appeared in
four volumes in 1844 and 1845. This selection includes the essay
on " Beauty " contributed to the Ency. Brit. The Life of Lord
Jeffrey, with a Selection from his Correspondence, by Lord Cockburn,
appeared in 1852 in 2 vols. See also the Selected Correspondence
of Macvey Napier (1877) ; the sketch of Jeffrey in Carlyle's Reminis-
cences, vol. ii. (1881); and an essay by Lewis E. Gates in Three
Studies in Literature (New York, 1899).
JEFFREYS, GEORGE JEFFREYS, IST BARON (1648-1689),
lord chancellor of England, son of John Jeffreys, a Welsh country
gentleman, was born at Acton Park, his father's seat in Denbigh-
shire, in 1648. His family, though not wealthy, was of good
social standing and repute in Wales; his mother, a daughter of
Sir Thomas Ireland of Bewsey, Lancashire, was " a very pious
good woman." He was educated at Shrewsbury, St Paul's
and Westminster schools, at the last of which he was a pupil
of Busby, and at Trinity College, Cambridge; but he left the
university without taking a degree, and entered the Inner
Temple as a student in May 1663. From his childhood Jeffreys
displayed exceptional talent, but on coming to London he
occupied himself more with -the pleasures of conviviality than
with serious study of the law. Though he never appears to
have fallen into the licentious immorality prevalent at that
period, he early became addicted to hard drinking and boisterous
company. But as the records of his early years, and indeed of his
whole life, are derived almost exclusively from vehemently hostile
sources, the numerous anecdotes of his depravity cannot be
accepted without a large measure of scepticism. He was a
handsome, witty and attractive boon-companion, and in the
taverns of the city he made friends among attorneys with
practice in the criminal courts. Thus assisted he rose so rapidly
in his profession that within three years of his call to the bar
in 1668, he was elected common Serjeant of the city of London.
Such advancement, however, was not to be attained even in
the reign of Charles II. solely by the aid of disreputable friend-
ships. Jeffreys had remarkable aptitude for the profession of
an advocate — quick intelligence, caustic humour, copious elo-
quence. His powers of cross-examination were masterly;
and if he was insufficiently grounded in legal principles to become
a profound lawyer, nothing but greater application was needed in
the opinion of so hostile a critic as Lord Campbell, to have made
him the rival of Nottingham and Hale. Jeffreys could count
on the influence of respectable men of position in the city, such as
Sir Robert Clayton and his own namesake Alderman Jeffreys;
and he also enjoyed the personal friendship of the virtuous
Sir Matthew Hale. In 1667 Jeffreys had married in circum-
stances which, if improvident, were creditable to his generosity
and sense of honour; and his domestic life, so far as is known,
was free from the scandal common among his contemporaries.
While holding the judicial office of common Serjeant, he pursued
his practice at the bar. With a view to further preferment
he now sought to ingratiate himself with the court party,
to which he obtained an introduction possibly through William
Chiffinch, the notorious keeper of the king's closet. He at once
attached himself to the king's mistress, the duchess of Ports-
mouth; and as early as 1672 he was employed in confidential
business by the court. His influence in the city of London,
where opposition to the government of Charles II. was now be-
coming pronounced, enabled Jeffreys to make himself useful to
Danby. In September 1677 he received a knighthood, and his
growing favour with the court was further marked by his
appointment as solicitor-general to James, duke of York; while
the city showed its continued confidence in him by electing
him to the post of recorder in October 1678.
In the previous month* Titus Gates had made his first revela-
tions of the alleged popish plot, and from this time forward
Jeffreys was prominently identified, either as advocate or
judge, with the memorable state trials by which the political
conflict between the Crown and the people was waged during
the remainder of the I7th century. The popish plot, followed
by the growing agitation for the exclusion of the duke of
York from the succession, widened the breach between the city
and the court. Jeffreys threw in his lot with the latter, display-
ing his zeal by initiating the movement of the "abhorrers" (?.».)
against the " petitioners " who were giving voice to the popular
demand for the summoning of parliament. He was rewarded
with the coveted office of chief justice of Chester on the 3oth
JEFFREYS, BARON
of April 1680; but when parliament met in October the House of
Commons passed a hostile resolution which induced him to
resign his recordership, a piece of pusillanimity that drew from
the king the remark that Jeffreys was " not parliament-proof."
Jeffreys nevertheless received from the city aldermen a substan-
tial token of appreciation for his past services. In 1681 he was
created a baronet. In June 1683 the first of the Rye House con-
spirators were brought to trial. Jeffreys was briefed for the
crown in the prosecution of Lord William Howard; and, hav-
ing been raised to the bench as lord chief justice of the king's
bench in September, he presided at the trials of Algernon Sidney
in November 1683 and of Sir Thomas Armstrong in the following
June. In the autumn of 1684 Jeffreys, who had been active in
procuring the surrender of municipal charters to the crown,
was called to the cabinet, having previously been sworn of the
privy council. In May 1685 he had the satisfaction of passing
sentence on Titus Gates for perjury in the plot trials; and about
the same time James II. rewarded his zeal with a peerage as
Baron Jeffreys of Wem, an honour never before conferred on a
chief justice during his tenure of office. Jeffreys had for some
time been suffering from stone, which aggravated the irrita-
bility of his naturally violent temper; and the malady probably
was in some degree the cause of the unmeasured fury he dis-
played at the trial of Richard Baxter (q.v.) for seditious libel —
if the unofficial ex parte report of the trial, which alone exists,
is to be accepted as trustworthy.
In August 1685 Jeffreys opened at Winchester the commission
known in history as the " bloody assizes," his conduct of which
has branded his name with indelible infamy. The number
of persons sentenced to death at these assizes for complicity in
the duke of Monmouth's insurrection is uncertain. The official
return of those actually executed was 320; many hundreds
more were transported and sold into slavery in the West Indies.
In all probability the great majority of those condemned were
in fact concerned in the rising, but the trials were in many
cases a mockery of the administration of justice. Numbers were
cajoled into pleading guilty; the case for the prisoners seldom
obtained a hearing. The merciless severity of the chief justice
did not however exceed the wishes of James II. ; for on his return
to London Jeffreys received from the king the great seal with
the title of lord chancellor. For the next two years he was a
strenuous upholder of prerogative, though he was less abjectly
pliant than has sometimes been represented. There is no reason
to doubt the sincerity of his attachment to the Church of England;
for although the king's favour was capricious, Jeffreys never took
the easy and certain path to secure it that lay through apostasy;
and he even withstood James on occasion, when the latter
pushed his Catholic zeal to extremes. Though it is true that
he accepted the presidency of the ecclesiastical commission,
Burnet's statement that it was Jeffreys who suggested that
institution to James is probably incorrect; and he was so far
from having instigated the prosecution of the seven bishops in
1688, as has been frequently alleged, that he disapproved
of the proceedings and rejoiced secretly at the acquittal. But
while he watched with misgiving the king's preferment of Roman
Catholics, he made himself the masterful instrument of un-
constitutional prerogative in coercing the authorities of Cam-
bridge University, who in 1687 refused to confer degrees on a
Benedictine monk, and the fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford,
who declined to elect as their president a disreputable nominee
of the king.
Being thus conspicuously identified with the most tyrannical
measures of James II., Jeffreys found himself in a desperate
plight when on the nth of December 1688 the king fled from
the country on the approach to London of William of Orange.
The lord chancellor attempted to escape like his master; but
in spite of his disguise as a common seaman he was recognized
in a tavern at Wapping — possibly, as Roger North relates, by an
attorney whom Jeffreys had terrified on some occasion in the
court of chancery — and was arrested and conveyed to the
Tower. The malady from which he had long suffered had
recently made fatal progress, and he died in the Tower on
309
the i8th of April 1689. He was succeeded in the peerage by his
son, John (2nd Baron Jeffreys of Wem), who died without male
issue in 1702, when the title became extinct.
It is impossible to determine precisely with what justice
tradition has made the name of " Judge Jeffreys " a byword of
infamy. The Revolution, which brought about his fall, handed
over his reputation at the same time to the mercy of his bitterest
enemies. They alone have recorded his actions and appraised his
motives and character. Even the adherents of the deposed
dynasty had no interest in finding excuse for one who served as
a convenient scapegoat for the offences of his master. For at
least half a century after his death no apology for Lord Jeffreys
would have obtained a hearing; and none was attempted.
With the exception therefore of what is to be gathered from the
reports of the state trials, all knowledge of his conduct rests
on testimony tainted by undisguised hostility. Innumerable
scurrilous lampoons vilifying the hated instrument of James's
tyranny, but without a pretence of historic value, flooded the
country at the Revolution; and these, while they fanned the
undiscriminating hatred of contemporaries who remembered
the judge's severities, and perpetuated that hatred in tradition,
have not been sufficiently discounted even by modern historians
like Macaulay and Lord Campbell. The name of Jeffreys has
therefore been handed down as that of a coarse, ignorant,
dissolute, foul-mouthed, inhuman bully, who prostituted the
seat of justice. That there was sufficient ground for the execra-
tion in which his memory was long held is not to be gainsaid.
But the portrait has nevertheless been blackened overmuch.
An occasional significant admission in his favour may be gleaned
even from the writings of his enemies. Thus Roger North
declares that "in matters indifferent," i.e. where politics were
not concerned, Jeffreys became the seat of justice better than any
other that author had seen in his place. Sir J. Jekyll, master
of the rolls, told Speaker Onslow that Jeffreys " had great parts
and made a great chancellor in the business of his court. In
mere private matters he was thought an able and upright judge
wherever he sat." His keen sense of humour, allied with a spirit
of inveterate mockery and an exuberant command of pungent
eloquence, led him to rail and storm at prisoners and witnesses in
grossly unseemly fashion. But in this he did not greatly surpass
most of his contemporaries on the judicial bench, and it was
a failing from which even the dignified and virtuous Hale was not
altogether exempt. The intemperance of Jeffreys which shocked
North, certainly did not exceed that of Saunders; in violence he
was rivalled by Scroggs; though accused of political apostasy,
he was not a shameless renegade like Williams; and there is
no evidence that in pecuniary matters he was personally venal,
or that in licentiousness he followed the example set by
Charles II. and most of his courtiers. Some of his actions
that have incurred the sternest reprobation of posterity were
otherwise estimated by the best of his contemporaries. His
trial of Algernon Sidney, described by Macaulay and Lord
Campbell as one of the most heinous of his iniquities, was warmly
commended by Dr William Lloyd, who was soon afterwards
to become a popular idol as one of the illustrious seven bishops
(see letter from the bishop of St Asaph in H. B. Irving's Life of
Judge Jeffreys, p. 184). Nor was the habitual illegality of his
procedure on the bench so unquestionable as many writers have
assumed. Sir James Stephen inclined to the opinion that no
actual abuse of law tainted the trials of the Rye House conspira-
tors, or that of Alice Lisle, the most prominent victim of the
" bloody assizes." The conduct of the judges in Russell's trial
was, he thinks, "moderate and fair in general"; and the trial
of Sidney " much resembled that of Russell." The same high
authority pronounces that the trial of Lord Delamere in the
House of Lords was conducted by Jeffreys " with propriety and
dignity." And if Jeffreys judged political offenders with cruel
severity, he also crushed some glaring abuses; conspicuous
examples of which were the frauds of attorneys who infested
Westminster Hall, and the systematic kidnapping practised
by the municipal authorities of Bristol. Moreover, if any
value is to be attached to the evidence of physiognomy, the
310
JEHOIACHIN— JEHORAM
traditional estimate of the character of Jeffreys obtains no con-
firmation from the refinement of his features and expression as
depicted in Kneller's portrait in the National Portrait Gallery
of London. But even though the popular notion requires
to be thus modified in certain respects, it remains incontestable
that Jeffreys was probably on the whole the worst example of a
period when the administration of justice in England had sunk
to the lowest degradation, and the judicial bench had become
the too willing tool of an unconstitutional and unscrupulous
executive.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The chief contemporary authorities for the life
of Jeffreys are Bishop Burnet's History of my own Time (1724), and
see especially the edition " with notes by the Earls of Dartmouth and
Hardwick, Speaker Onslow and Dean Swift " (Oxford Univ. Press,
1833) ; Roger North's Life of the Right Hon. Francis North, Baron of
Guildford (1808) and Autobiography (ed. by Augustus Jessopp, 1887) ;
Ellis Correspondence, Verney Papers (Hist. MSS. Comra.), Hatton
Correspondence (Camden Soc. pub.) ; the earl of Ailesbury's Memoirs;
Evelyn's Diary. The only trustworthy information as to the judicial
conduct and capacity of Jeffreys is to be found in the reports of the
State Trials, vols. vii.-xii.; and cf. Sir J. F. Stephen's History of the
Criminal Law of England (1883). For details of the " bloody assizes,"
see Harl. MSS., 4689; George Roberts, The Life, Progresses and
Rebellion of James Duke of Monmouth, vol. ii. (1844); also many
pamphlets, lampoons, &c., in the British Museum, as to which see
the article on " Sources of History for Monmouth's Rebellion and the
Bloody Assizes," by A. L. Humphreys, in Proceedings of the Somerset-
shire Archaeological and Natural Hist. Soc. (1892). Later accounts are
by H. W.Woolrych, Memoirs of the Life of Judge Jefreys (1827); Lord
Campbell, The Lives of the Lord Chancellors (i 845), 1st series, vol. iii. ;
E. Foss, The Judges of England (1864), vol. vii.; Henry Roscoe, Lives
of Eminent British Lawyers (1830) ; Lord Macaulay, History of England
(1848; and many subsequent editions). Most of these works, and
especially those by Macaulay and Campbell, are uncritical in their
hostility to Jeffreys, and are based for the most part on untrust-
worthy authorities. The best modern work on the subject, though
unduly favourable to Jeffreys, is H. B. Irvine's Life of Judge Jefreys
(1898), the appendix to which contains a full bibliography.
(R. J. M.)
JEHOIACHIN (Heb. " Yah[weh] establisheth "), in the Bible,
son of Jehoiakim and king of Judah (2 Kings xxiv. 8 sqq. ;
2 Chron, xxxvi. 9 seq.). He came to the throne at the age of
eighteen in the midst of the Chaldean invasion of Judah, and is
said to have reigned three months. He was compelled to sur-
render to Nebuchadrezzar and was carried off to Babylon
(597 B.C.). This was the First Captivity, and from it Ezekiel
(one of the exiles) dates his prophecies. Eight thousand people
of the better class (including artisans, &c.) were removed,
the Temple was partially despoiled (see Jer. xxvii. 18-20;
xxiii.v. 3 seq.X'andi'Jehoiachin's uncle Mattaniah (son of Josiah)
was appointed king. Jehoiachin's fate is outb'ned in Jer. xxii.
20-30 (cf. xxvii. 20). Nearly forty years later, Nebuchad-
rezzar II. died (562 B.C.) and Evil-Merodach (Amil-Marduk) his
successor released the unfortunate captive and gave him pre-
cedence over the other subjugated kings who were kept prisoners
in Babylon. With this gleam of hope for the unhappy Judaeans
both the book of Kings and the prophecies of Jeremiah conclude
(2 Kings xxv. 27-30; Jer. Iii. 31-34)-
See, further, JEREMIAH (especially chaps, xxiv., xxvii. seq.), and
JEWS, § 17.
JEHOIAKIM (Heb. " Yah[weh] raiseth up "), in the Bible,
son of Josiah (q.v.) and king of Judah (2 Kings xxiii. 34-xxiv. 6).
On the defeat of Josiah at Megiddo his younger brother Jehoahaz
(or Shallum) was chosen by the Judaeans, but the Egyptian
conquerer Necho summoned him to his headquarters at Riblah
(south of Hamath on the Orontes) and removed him to Egypt,
appointing in his stead Eliakim, whose name (" El[God] raiseth
up ") was changed to its better-known synonym, Jehoiakim.
For a time Jehoiakim remained under the protection of Necho
and paid heavy tribute; but with the rise of the new Chaldean
Empire under Nebuchadrezzar II., and the overthrow of Egypt
at the battle of Carchemish (605 B.C.) a vital change occurred.
After three years of allegiance the king revolted. Invasions
followed by Chaldeans, Syrians, Moabites and Ammonites, per-
1 2 Kings xxiv. 13 seq. gives other numbers and a view of
the disaster which is more suitable for the Second Captivity. (See
ZEDEKIAH.)
haps the advance troops despatched by the Babylonian king;
the power of Egypt was broken and the whole land came into
the hands of Nebuchadrezzar. It was at the close of Jehoiakim's
reign, apparently just before his death, that the enemy appeared
at the gates of Jerusalem, and although he himself " slept with
his fathers " his young son was destined to see the first captivity
of the land of Judah (597 B.C.). (See JEHOIACHIN.)
Which " three years " (2 Kings xxiv. i) are intended is disputed;
it is uncertain whether Judah suffered in 605 B.C. (Berossus in
Jos. c. Ap. i. 19) or was left unharmed (Jos. Ant. x. 6. i); perhaps
Nebuchadrezzar made his first inroad against Judah in 602 B.C.
because of its intrigue with Egypt (H. Winckler, Keilinschrift. u. d. alte
Test., pp. 107 seq.), and the three years of allegiance extends to 599.
The chronicler's tradition (2 Chron. xxxvi. 5-8) speaks of Jehoiakim's
captivity, apparently confusing him with Jehoiachin. The Septua-
gint, however, still preserves there the record of his peaceful death,
in agreement with the earlier source in 2 Kings, but against the
prophecy of Jeremiah (xxii. 18 seq., xxxvi. 30), which is accepted by
Jos. Ant. x. 6. 3. The different traditions can scarcely be reconciled.
Nothing certain is known of the marauding bands sent against
Jehoiakim; for Syrians (Aram) one would expect Edomites (Edom),
but see Jer. xxxv. 1 1 ; some recensions of the Septuagint even
include the " Samaritans "! (For further references to this reign
see especially JEREMIAH; see also JEWS: History, § 17.) (S. A.C.)
JEHOL (" hot stream "), or CH'ENG-T£-FU, a city of China,
formerly the seat of the emperor's summer palace, near 118°
E. and 41° N., about 140 m. N.E. of Peking, with which it is
connected by an excellent road. Pop. (estimate), 10,000. It
is a flourishing town, and consists of one great street, about 2 m.
long, with smaller streets radiating in all directions. The people
are well-to-do and there are some fine shops. The palace, called
Pi-shu-shan-chuang, or " mountain lodge for avoiding heat,"
was built in 1703 on the plan of the palace of Yuen-ming-yuen
near Peking. A substantial brick wall 6 m. in circuit encloses
several well-wooded heights and extensive gardens, rockeries,
pavilions, temples, &c. Jehol was visited by Lord Macartney
on his celebrated mission to the emperor K'ienlung in 1793;
and it was to Jehol that the emperor Hienfeng retired when
the allied armies of England and France occupied Peking in
1860. In the vicinity of Jehol are numerous Lama monas-
teries and temples, the most remarkable being Potala-su,
built on the model of the palace of the grand lama of Tibet
at Potala.
JEHORAM, or JORAM (Heb. " Yah[weh] is high "), the name
of two Biblical characters.
i. The son of Ahab, and king of Israel in succession to his
brother Ahaziah.2 He maintained close relations with Judah,
whose king came to his assistance against Moab which had re-
volted after Ahab's death (2 Kings i. i;iii.). The king in question
is said to have been Jehoshaphat; but, according to Lucian's
recension, it was Ahaziah, whilst i. 17 would show that it was
Jehoram's namesake (see 2). The result of the campaign appears
to have been a defeat for Israel (see on the incidents EDOM,
ELISHA, MOAB). The prophetical party were throughout hos-
tile to Jehoram (with his reform iii. 2 contrast x. 27), and the
singular account of the war of Benhadad king of Syria against
the king of Israel (vi. 24-vii.) shows the feeling against the
reigning dynasty. But whether the incidents in which Elisha
and the unnamed king of Israel appear originally belonged to the
time of Jehoram is very doubtful, and in view of the part which
Elisha took in securing the accession of Jehu, it has been urged
with much force that they belong to the dynasty of the latter,
when the high position of the prophet would be perfectly natural.3
The briefest account is given of Jehoram's alliance with Ahaziah
(son of 2 below) against Hazael of Syria, at Ramoth-Gilead
J2 Kings i. 17 seq.; see Lucian's reading (cf. Vulg. and Pesh.).
Apart from the allusion I Kings xxii. 49 (see 2 Chron. xx. 35), and
the narrative in 2 Kings i. (see ELIJAH), nothing is known of this
Ahaziah. Notwithstanding his very brief reign (i Kings xxii. '51;
2 Kings iii. i), the compiler passes the usual hostile judgment
(i Kings xxii. 52 seq.); see KINGS (BOOKS). Thechronology in i Kings
xxii. 51 is difficult; if Lucian's text (twenty-fourth year of Jeho-
shaphat) is correct, Jehoram i and 2 must have come to their
respective thrones at almost the same time.
' In vii. 6 the hostility of Hittites and Mizraim (q.v.) points to a
period after 842 B.C. (See JEWS, § 10 seq.)
JEHOSHAPHAT- -JEHOVAH
(2 Kings viii. 25-29), and the incident — with the wounding of
the Israelite king in or about the critical year 842 B.C. — finds a
noteworthy parallel in the time of Jehoshaphat and Ahab
(i Kings xxii. 29-36) at the period of the equally momentous
events in 854 (see AHAB). See further JEHU.
2. The son of Jehoshaphat and king of Judah. He married
Athaliah the daughter of Ahab, and thus was brother-in-law of
i. above, and contemporary with him (2 Kings i. 17). In his days
Edom revolted, and this with the mention of Libnah's revolt
(2 Kings viii. 20 sqq.) suggests some common action on the part
of Philistines and Edomites. The chronicler's account of his
life (2 Chron. xxi-xxii. i) presupposes this, but adds many
remarkable details: he began his reign by massacring his breth-
ren (cf. Jehu son of Jehoshaphat, and his bloodshed, 2 Kings
ix. seq.); for his wickedness he received a communication from
Elijah foretelling his death from disease (cf. Elijah and Ahaziah
of Israel, 2 Kings i.) ; in a great invasion of Philistines and Arabian
tribes he lost all his possessions and family, and only Jehoahaz
(i.e. Ahaziah) was saved.1 His son Ahaziah reigned only for a
year (cf. his namesake of Israel); he is condemned for his
Israelite sympathies, and met his end in the general butchery
which attended the accession of Jehu (2 Kings viii. 25 sqq.;
2 Chron. xxii. 3 seq., 7; with 2 Kings ix. 27 seq., note the variant
tradition in 2 Chron. xxii. 8 seq., and the details which the LXX.
(Lucian) appends to 2 Kings x.). (S. A. C.)
JEHOSHAPHAT (Heb. " Yahweh judges"), in the Bible,
son of Asa, and king of Judah, in the 9th century B.C. During
his period close relations subsisted between Israel and Judah;
the two royal houses were connected by marriage (see ATHALIAH;
JEHORAM, 2) , and undertook joint enterprise in war and commerce.
Jehoshaphat aided Ahab in the battle against Benhadad at
Ramoth-Gilead in which Ahab was slain (i Kings xxii.; 2 Chron.
xviii.; cf. the parallel incident in 2 Kings viii. 25-29), and trading
journeys to Ophir were undertaken by his fleet in conjunction
no doubt with Ahab as well as with his son Ahaziah (2 Chron.
xx.. 35 sqq.; i Kings xxii. 47 sqq.). The chronicler's account
of his war against Moab, Ammon and Edomite tribes (2 Chron.
xx.), must rest ultimately upon a tradition which is presupposed
in the earlier source (i Kings xxii. 47), and the disaster to the
ships at Ezion-Geber at the head of the Gulf of Akaba preceded,
if it was not the introduction to, the great revolt in the days
of Jehoshaphat's son Jehoram, where, again, the details in
2 Chron. xxi. must rely in the first instance upon an old source.
Apart from what is said of Jehoshaphat's legislative measures
(2 Chron. xix. 4 sqq.; cf. the meaning of his name above), an
account is preserved of his alliance with Jehoram of Israel
against Moab (2 Kings iii.), on which see JEHORAM; MOAB. The
"valley of Jehoshaphat" (Joel iii. 12) has been identified by
tradition (as old as Eusebius) with the valley between Jerusalem
and the mount of Olives. (S. A. C.)
JEHOVAH (YAHWEH2), in the Bible, the God of Israel.
" Jehovah " is a modern mispronunciation of the Hebrew name,
resulting from combining the consonants of that name, Jhvh,
with the vowels of the word Udonay, " Lord," which the Jews
substituted for the proper name in reading the scriptures. In
such cases of substitution the vowels of the word which is to be
read are written in the Hebrew text with the consonants of the
word which is not to be read. The consonants of the word to
be substituted are ordinarily written in the margin; but inasmuch
as Adonay was regularly read instead of the ineffable name Jhvh,
it was deemed unnecessary to note the fact at every occurrence.
When Christian scholars began to study the Old Testament in
Hebrew, if they were ignorant of this general rule or regarded
the substitution as a piece of Jewish superstition, reading what
actually stood in the text, they would inevitably pronounce the
name Jehovah. It is an unprofitable inquiry who first made this
blunder; probably many fell into it independently. The state-
ment still commonly repeated that it originated with Petrus
1 These details are scarcely the invention of the chronicler;
see CHRONICLES, and Expositor, Aug. 1906, p. 191.
2 This form, Yahweh, as the correct one, is generally used in the
separate articles throughout this work.
311
Galatinus (1518) is erroneous; Jehova occurs in manuscripts
at least as early as the i4th century.
The form Jehovah was used in the i6th century by many
authors, both Catholic and Protestant, and in the I7th was
zealously defended by Fuller, Gataker, Leusden and others,
against the criticisms of such scholars as Drusius, Cappellus and
the elder Buxtorf. It appeared in the English Bible in Tyndale's
translation of the Pentateuch (1530), and is found in all English
Protestant versions of the i6th century except that of Coverdale
(IS3S)- In the Authorized Version of 1611 it occurs in Exod. vi. 3;
Ps. Ixxxiii. 18; Isa. xii. 2; xxvi. 4, beside the compound names
Jehovah-jireh, Jehovah-nissi, Jehovah-shalom ; elsewhere, in
accordance with the usage of the ancient versions, Jhvh is repre-
sented by LORD (distinguished by capitals from the title " Lord,"
Heb. adonay). In the Revised Version of 1885 Jehovah is
retained in the places in which it stood in the A. V., and is intro-
duced also in Exod. vi. 2, 6, 7, 8; Ps. Ixviii. 20; Isa. xlix. 14;
Jer. xvi. 21; Hab. iii. 19. The American committee which co-
operated in the revision desired to employ the name Jehovah
wherever Jhvh occurs in the original, and editions embodying
their preferences are printed accordingly.
Several centuries before the Christian era the name Jhvh had
ceased to be commonly used by the Jews. Some of the later
writers in the Old Testament employ the appellative Elohim,
God, prevailingly or exclusively; a collection of Psalms (Ps. xlii.-
Ixxxiii.) was revised by an editor who changed the Jhvh of the
authors into Elohim (see e.g. xlv. 7; xlviii. 10; 1. 7; li. 14);
observe also the frequency of " the Most High," " the God of
Heaven," " King of Heaven," in Daniel, and of " Heaven " in
First Maccabees. The oldest Greek versions (Septuagint), from
the third century B.C., consistently use Ki'pios, " Lord," where
the Hebrew has Jhvh, corresponding to the substitution of
Adonay for Jhvh in reading the original; in books written in
Greek in this period (e.g. Wisdom, 2 and 3 Maccabees), as in the
New Testament, Kiiptos takes the place of the name of God.
Josephus, who as a priest knew the pronunciation of the name,
declares that religion forbids him to divulge it; Philo calls it
ineffable, and says that it is lawful for those only whose ears and
tongues are purified by wisdom to hear and utter it in a holy
place (that is, for priests in the Temple) ; and in another passage,
commenting on Lev. xxiv. 15 seq.: " If anyone, I do not say
should blaspheme against the Lord of men and gods, but should
even dare to utter his name unseasonably, let him expect the
penalty of death."3
Various motives may have concurred to bring about the sup-
pression of the name. An instinctive feeling that a proper name
for God implicitly recognizes the existence of other gods may have
had some influence; reverence and the fear lest the holy name
should be profaned among the heathen were potent reasons; but
probably the most cogent motive was the desire to prevent the
abuse of the name in magic. If so, the secrecy had the opposite
effect; the name of the god of the Jews was one of the great
names in magic, heathen as well as Jewish, and miraculous
efficacy was attributed to the mere utterance of it.
In the liturgy of the Temple the name was pronounced in the
priestly benediction (Num. vi. 27) after the regular daily sacrifice
(in the synagogues a substitute — probably Adonay — was em-
ployed) ; 4 on the Day of Atonement the High Priest uttered the
name ten times in his prayers and benediction. In the last
generations before the fall of Jerusalem, however, it was pro-
nounced in a low tone so that the sounds were lost in the chant
of the priests.6
3 See Josephus, Ant. ii. 12, 4; Philo, Vita Mosis, iii. II (ii. §114,
ed. Conn and Wendland); ib. iii. 27 (ii. §206). The Palestinian
authorities more correctly interpreted Lev. xxiv. 15 seq., not of the
mere utterance of the name, but of the use of the name of God in
blaspheming God.
4 Siphre, Num. §§ 39, 43; M. Sotah, iii. 7; Sotah, 380. The tradi-
tion that the utterance of the name in the daily benedictions ceased
with the death of Simeon the Just, two centuries or more before
the Christian era, perhaps arose from a misunderstanding of • Mena-
hoth, 1096; in any case it cannot stand against the testimony of
older and more authoritative texts.
6 Yoma, y)b;Jer. Yoma,m.T,Kiddushin,7ia.
312
After the destruction of the Temple (A.D. 70) the liturgical use
of the name ceased, but the tradition was perpetuated in the
schools of the rabbis.1 It was certainly known in Babylonia in
the latter part of the 4th century,2 and not improbably much
later. Nor was the knowledge confined to these pious circles;
the name continued to be employed by healers, exorcists and
magicians, and has been preserved in many places in magical
papyri. The vehemence with which the utterance of the name
is denounced in the Mishna — " He who pronounces the Name
with its own letters has no part in the world to come!"3 —
suggests that this misuse of the name was not uncommon
among Jews.
The Samaritans, who otherwise shared the scruples of the Jews
about the utterance of the name, seem to have used it in judicial
oaths to the scandal of the rabbis.4
The early Christian scholars, who inquired what was the true
name of the God of the Old Testament, had therefore no great
difficulty in getting the information they sought. Clement of
Alexandria (d. c. 212) says that it was pronounced laoue.5
Epiphanius (d. 404), who was born in Palestine and spent a con-
siderable part of his life there, gives lojSe (one cod. laue).6 Thso-
doret (d. c. 457),' born in Antioch, writes that the Samaritans
pronounced the name Ia/3« (in another passage, Ia/3cu), the
Jews Aia.8 The latter is probably not Jhvh but Ehyeh (Exod. iii.
14), which the Jews counted among the names of God; there is
no reason whatever to imagine that the Samaritans pronounced
the name Jhvh differently from the Jews. This direct testimony
is supplemented by that of the magical texts, in which Ia/3e fe/3i>0
(Jahveh Sebaoth), as well as Io/3o, occurs frequently.' In an
Ethiopic list of magical names of Jesus, purporting to have been
taught by him to his disciples, Ydive is found.10 Finally, there is
evidence from more than one source that the modern Samaritan
priests pronounce the name Yahweh or Yahwa.11
There is no reason to impugn the soundness of this substantially
consentient testimony to the pronunciation Yahweh or Jahveh,
coming as it does through several independent channels. It is
confirmed by grammatical considerations. The name Jhvh
enters into the composition of many proper names of persons
in the Old Testament, either as the initial element, in the form
Jeho- or Jo- (as in Jehoram, Joram), or as the final element, in
the form -jahu or -jah (as in Adonijahu, Adonijah). These
various forms are perfectly regular if the divine name was
Yahweh, and, taken altogether, they cannot be explained on any
other hypothesis. Recent scholars, accordingly, with but few
exceptions, are agreed that the ancient pronunciation of the
name was Yahweh (the first h sounded at the end of the syllable).
Genebrardus seems to have been the first to suggest the pro-
nunciation Iahut,n but it was not until the igth century that it
became generally accepted.
Jahveh or Yahweh is apparently an example of a common
type of Hebrew proper names which have the form of the 3rd
pers. sing, of the verb. e.g. Jabneh (name of a city), Jabin,
Jamlek, Jiptah (Jephthah), &c. Most of these really are verbs,
the suppressed or implicit subject being 'el, " numen, god," or
the name of a god; cf. Jabneh and Jabn6-el, Jiptah and Jiptah-el.
The ancient explanations of the name proceed from Exod. iii.
14, 15, where "Yahweh" hath sent me " in v. 15 corresponds
to " Ehyeh hath sent me " in v. 14, thus seeming to connect
the name Yahweh with the Hebrew verb hdydh, " to become, to
be." The Palestinian interpreters found in this the promise that
R. Johanan (second half of the 3rd century), Kiddushin, 710.
Kiddushin, l.c. = Pesahim, soa.
M. Sanhedrin, x. I ; Abba Saul, end of 2nd century.
Jer. Sanhedrin, x. I ; R. Mana, 4th century.
Strom, v. 6. Variants: la one, la ovai; cod. L. laou.
Panarion, Haer. 40, 5; cf. Lagarde, Psalter juxta Hebraeos, 154.
7 Quaest. 15 in Exod. \ Fab. haeret. compend. v. 3, sub fin.
* Aia occurs also in the great magical papyrus of Paris, 1 . 3020
(Wessely, Denkschrift. Wien. Akad., Phil. Hist. Kl., XXXVI. p. 120),
and in the Leiden Papyrus, xvii. 31.
• See Deissmann, Bibelstudien, 13 sqq.
10 See Driver, Sludia Biblica, I. 20.
11 See Montgomery, Journal oj Biblical Literature, xxv. (1906), 49-51.
a Chronographia, Paris, 1567 (ed. Paris, 1600, p. 79 seq.).
u This transcription will be used henceforth.
JEHOVAH
God would be with his people (cf . ». 1 2) in future oppressions as
he was in the present distress, or the assertion of his eternity, or
eternal constancy; the Alexandrian translation '£70) efyu 6 &v
. . . 'O Siv awfffTa\Ktv fjut Trpos vy,as, understands it in the
more metaphysical sense of God's absolute being. Both inter-
pretations, " He (who) is (always the same)," and " He (who) is
(absolutely, the truly existent)," import into the name all that
they profess to find in it; the one, the religious faith in God's
unchanging fidelity to his people, the other, a philosophical con-
ception of absolute being which is foreign both to the meaning of
the Hebrew verb and to the force of the tense employed. Modern
scholars have sometimes found in the name the expression of
the aseity14 of God; sometimes of his reality, in contrast to the
imaginary gods of the heathen. Another explanation, which
appears first in Jewish authors of the middle ages and has found
wide acceptance in recent times, derives the name from the
causative of the verb; He (who) causes things to be, gives them
being; or calls events into existence, brings them to pass; with
many individual modifications of interpretation— creator, life-
giver, fulfiller of promises. A serious objection to this theory
in every form is that the verb hdydh, " to be," has no causative
stem in Hebrew; to express the ideas which these scholars find
in the name Yahweh the language employs altogether different
verbs.
This assumption that Yahweh is derived from the verb " to be,"
as seems to be implied in Exod. iii. 14 seq., is not, however, free
from difficulty. " To be " in the Hebrew of the Old Testament
is not hdwdh, as the derivation would require, but hdydh; and we
are thus driven to the further assumption that hdwdh belongs to
an earlier stage of the language, or to some older speech of the
forefathers of the Israelites. This hypothesis is not intrinsically
improbable — and in Aramaic, a language closely related to
Hebrew, " to be " actually is hdwd — but it should be noted that
in adopting it we admit that, using the name Hebrew in the his-
torical sense, Yahweh is not a Hebrew name. And, inasmuch as
nowhere in the Old Testament, outside of Exod. iii., is there the
slightest indication that the Israelites connected the name of
their God with the idea of " being " in any sense, it may fairly
be questioned whether, if the author of Exod. iii. 14 seq., intended
to give an etymological interpretation of the name Yahweh,15 his
etymology is any better than many other paronomastic explana-
tions of proper names in the Old Testament, or than, say, the
connexion of the name 'ATroXXcop with cbroAowoi', dTroXixoi' in
Plato's Cratylus, or the popular derivation from dmJXXuju'-
A root hdwdh is represented in Hebrew by the nouns hdwdh
(Ezek., Isa. xlvii. n) and hawwdh (Ps., Prov., Job) " disaster,
calamity, ruin." 19 The primary meaning is probably " sink
down, fall," in which sense — common in Arabic — the verb
appears in Job xxxvii. 6 (of snow falling to earth). A Catholic
commentator of the i6th century, Hieronymus ab Oleastro,
seems to have been the first to connect the name " Jehova "
with howah interpreting it contritio, sive pernicies (destruction
of the Egyptians and Canaanites); Daumer, adopting the same
etymology, took it in a more general sense: Yahweh, as well as
Shaddai, meant " Destroyer," and fitly expressed the nature
of the terrible god whom he identified with Moloch.
The derivation of Yahweh from hdwdh is formally unimpeach-
able, and is adopted by many recent scholars, who proceed,
however, from the primary sense of the root rather than from the
specific meaning of the nouns. The name is accordingly inter-
preted, He (who) falls (baetyl, (Seu-ruXos, meteorite); or causes
(rain or lightning) to fall (storm god); or casts down (his foes,
by his thunderbolts). It is obvious that if the derivation be
correct, the significance of the name, which in itself denotes
only " He falls" or "He fells," must be learned, if at all, from
early.Israelitish conceptions of the nature of Yahweh rather than
from etymology.
14 A-se-ilas, a scholastic Latin expression for the quality of existing
by oneself.
15 The critical difficulties of these verses need not be discussed here.
See W. R. Arnold, " The Divine Name in Exodus iii. 14," Journal of
Biblical Literature, XXIV. (1905), 107-165.
'• Cf . also hawwdh, " desire, Mic. vii. 3 ; Prov. x. 3.
JEHOVAH
A more fundamental question is whether the name Yahweh
originated among the Israelites or was adopted by them from
some other people and speech.1 The biblical author of the his-
tory of the sacred institutions (P) expressly declares that the
name Yahweh was unknown to the patriarchs (Exod. vi. 3), and
the much older Israelite historian (E) records the first revelation
of the name to Moses (Exod. iii. 13-15), apparently following a
tradition according to which the Israelites had not been wor-
shippers of Yahweh before the time of Moses, or, as he conceived
it, had not worshipped the god of their fathers under that name.
The revelation of the name to Moses was made at a mountain
sacred to Yahweh (the mountain of God) far to the south of
Palestine, in a region where the forefathers of the Israelites had
never roamed, and in the territory of other tribes; and long after
the settlement in Canaan this region continued to be regarded as
the abode of Yahweh (Judg. v. 4 ; Deut. xxxiii. 2 sqq. ; i Kings xix.
8 sqq. &c.). Moses is closely connected with the tribes in the vici-
nity of the holy mountain; according to one account, he married a
daughter of the priest of Midian (Exod. ii. 16 sqq.; iii. i); to this
mountain he led the Israelites after their deliverance from
Egypt; there his father-in-law met him, and extolling Yahweh
as " greater than all the gods," offered (in his capacity as priest
of the place?) sacrifices, at which the chief men of the Israelites
were his guests; there the religion of Yahweh was revealed
through Moses, and the Israelites pledged themselves to serve
God according to its prescriptions. It appears, therefore, that
in the tradition followed by the Israelite historian the tribes
within whose pasture lands the mountain of God stood were
worshippers of YahwSh before the time of Moses; and the surmise
that the name Yahweh belongs to their speech, rather than to
that of Israel, has considerable probability. One of these tribes
was Midian, in whose land the mountain of God lay. The
Kenites also, with whom another tradition connects Moses,
seem to have been worshippers of Yahweh. It is probable that
Yahweh was at one time worshipped by various tribes south of
Palestine, and that several places in that wide territory (Horeb,
Sinai, Kadesh, &c.) were sacred to him; the oldest and most
famous of these, the mountain of God, seems to have lain in
Arabia, east of the Red Sea. From some of these peoples and
at one of these holy places, a group of Israelite tribes adopted the
religion of Yahweh, the God who, by the hand of Moses, had
delivered them from Egypt.2
The tribes of this region probably belonged to some branch of
the great Arab stock, and the name Yahweh has, accordingly,
been connected with the Arabic hawd, " the void " (between
heaven and earth), " the atmosphere," or with the' verb hawd,
cognate with Heb. hawah, " sink, glide down " (through space) ;
hawwd " blow " (wind). " He rides through the air, He blows "
(Wellhausen), would be a fit name for a god of wind and storm.
There is, however, no certain evidence that the Israelites in his-
torical times had any consciousness of the primitive significance
of the name.
The attempts to connect the name Yahweh with that of
an Indo-European deity (Jehovah-Jove, &c.), or to derive it from
Egyptian or Chinese, may be passed over. But one theory which
has had considerable currency requires notice, namely, that
Yahweh, or Yahu, Yaho,3 is the name of a god worshipped
throughout the whole, or a great part, of the area occupied by
the Western Semites. In its earlier form this opinion rested
chiefly on certain misinterpreted testimonies in Greek authors
about a god 'low, and was conclusively refuted by Baudissin; re-
cent adherents of the theory build more largely on the occurrence
in various parts of this territory of proper names of persons
1 See HEBREW RELIGION.
2 The divergent Judaean tradition, according to which the fore-
fathers had worshipped Yahweh from time immemorial, may indicate
that Judah and the kindred clans had in fact been worshippers of
Yahweh before the time of Moses.
8 The form Yahu, or Yaho, occurs not only in composition, but
by itself; see Aramaic Papyri discovered at Assuan, B 4, 6, 11 ; E 14;
J 6. This is doubtless the original of 'law, frequently found in
Greek authors and in magical texts as the name of the God of the
Jews.
313
and places which they explain as compounds of Yahu or Yah.4
The explanation is in most cases simply an assumption of the
point at issue; some of the names have been misread; others
are undoubtedly the names of Jews. There remain, however,
some cases in which it is highly probable that names of non-
Israelites are really compounded with Yahweh. The most
conspicuous of these is the king of Hamath who in the inscrip-
tions of Sargon (722-705 B.C.) is called Yaubi'di and Ilubi'di
(compare Jehoiakim-Eliakim). Azriyau of Jaudi, also, in
inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser (745-728 B.C.), who was for-
merly supposed to be Azariah (Uzziah) of Judah, is probably
a king of the country in northern Syria known to us from the
Zenjirli inscriptions as Ja'di.
Friedrich Delitzsch brought into notice three tablets, of the
age of the first dynasty of Babylon, in which he read the names
of Ya- a'-ve-ilu, Ya-ve-ilu, and Ya-u-um-ilu (" Yahweh is God "),
and which he regarded as conclusive proof that Yahweh was
known in Babylonia before 2000 B.C.; he was a god of the
Semitic invaders in the second wave of migration, who were,
according to Winckler and Delitzsch, of North Semitic stock
(Canaanites, in the linguistic sense).6 We should thus have
in the tablets evidence of the worship of Yahweh among the
Western Semites at a time long before the rise of Israel. The
reading of the names is, however, extremely uncertain, not to say
improbable, and the far-reaching inferences drawn from them
carry no conviction. In a tablet attributed to the i4th century
B.C. which Sellin found in the course of his excavations at
Tell Ta'annuk (the Taanach of the O.T.) a name occurs which
may be read Ahi-Yawi (equivalent to Hebrew Ahijah);6 if the
reading be correct, this would show that Yahweh was wor-
shipped in Central Palestine before the Israelite conquest.
The reading is, however, only one of several possibilities. The
fact that the full form Yahweh appears, whereas in Hebrew
proper names only the shorter Yahu and Yah occur, weighs
somewhat against the interpretation, as it does against Delitzsch's
reading of his tablets.
It would not be at all surprising if, in the great movements
of populations and shifting of ascendancy which lie beyond
our historical horizon, the worship of Yahweh should have been
established in regions remote from those which it occupied in
historical times; but nothing which we now know warrants the
opinion that his worship was ever general among the Western
Semites.
Many attempts have been made to trace the West Semitic
Yahu back to Babylonia. Thus Delitzsch formerly derived the
name from an Akkadian god, I or la; or from the Semitic
nominative ending, Yau;7 but this deity has since disappeared
from the pantheon of Assyriologists. The combination of
Yah with Ea, one of the great Babylonian gods, seems to have a
peculiar fascination for amateurs, by whom it is periodically
" discovered." Scholars are now agreed that, so far as Yahu or
Yah occurs in Babylonian texts, it is as the name of a foreign
god.
Assuming that Yahweh was primitively a nature god, scholars
in the igth century discussed the question over what sphere of
nature he originally presided. According to some he was the
god of consuming fire; others saw in him the bright sky, or the
heaven; still others recognized in him a storm god, a theory
with which the derivation of the name from Heb. hawah or Arab.
hawd well accords. The association of Yahweh with storm and
fire is frequent in the Old Testament; the thunder is the voice
of Yahweh, the lightning his arrows, the rainbow his bow. The
revelation at Sinai is amid the awe-inspiring phenomena of
tempest. Yahweh leads Israel through the desert in a pillar of
cloud and fire; he kindles Elijah's altar by lightning, and
translates the prophet in a chariot of fire. See also Judg. v. 4 seq. ;
4 See a collection and critical estimate of this evidence by Zimmern,
Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, 465 sqq.
6 Babel und Bibel, 1902. The enormous, and for the most part
ephemeral, literature provoked by Delitzsch's lecture cannot be
cited here.
6 Denkschriften d. Wien. Akad., L. iv. p. 115 seq. (1904).
1 Wo lag das Parodies? (1881), pp. 158-166.
JEHU— JELLACHICH
Deut. xxxiii. i; Ps. xviii. 7-15; Hab. iii. 3-6. The cherub
upon which he rides when he flies on the wings of the wind
(Ps. xviii. 10) is not improbably an ancient mythological per-
sonification of the storm cloud, the genius of tempest (cf. Ps.
civ. 3). In Ezekiel the throne of Yahweh is borne up on Che-
rubim, the noise of whose wings is like thunder. Though we may
recognize in this poetical imagery the survival of ancient and,
if we please, mythical notions, we should err if we inferred
that Yahweh was originally a departmental god, presiding
specifically over meteorological phenomena, and that this con-
ception of him persisted among the Israelites till very late times.
Rather, as the god — or the chief god — of a region and a people,
the most sublime and impressive phenomena, the control of the
mightiest forces of nature are attributed to him. As the God
of Israel Yahweh becomes its leader and champion in war; he
is a warrior, mighty in battle; but he is not a god of war in the
specific sense.
In the inquiry concerning the nature of Yahweh the name
Yahweh Sebaoth (E.V., The LORD of Hosts) has had an important
place. The hosts have by some been interpreted of the armies
of Israel (see i Sam. xvii. 45, and note the association of the name
in the Books of Samuel, where it first appears, with the ark, or
with war) ; by others, of the heavenly hosts, the stars conceived
as living beings, later, perhaps, the angels as the court of Yahweh
and the instruments of his will in nature and history (Ps. Ixxxix.) ;
or of the forces of the world in general which do his bidding,
cf. the common Greek renderings, Kiipios rCiv Swaixuv and
K. ira.vroKpa.TUp, Universal Ruler). It is likely that the name
was differently understood in different periods and circles; but
in the prophets the hosts are clearly superhuman powers. In
many passages the name seems to be only a more solemn sub-
stitute for the simple Yahweh, and as such it has probably
often been inserted by scribes. Finally, Sebaoth came to be
treated as a proper name (cf. Ps. Ixxx. 5, 8, 20), and as such is
very common in magical texts.
LITERATURE. — Reland, Decas exercitationum philologicarum de vera
pronuntiatione nominis Jehova, 1707; Reinke, " Philologisch-histo-
rische Abhandlung tiber den Gottesnamen Jehova," in Beitrdge
zur Erklarung des Alien Testaments, III. (1855); Baudissin, " Der
Ursprung des Gottesnamens "liua," in Studien zur semitischen Reli-
g'onsgeschichte, I. (1876), 179-254; Driver, " Recent Theories on the
rigin and Nature of the Tetragrammaton," in Studia Biblica,
I. (1885), 1-20; Deissmann, " Griechische Transkriptionen des
Tetragrammaton," in Bibelstudien (1895), 1-20; Blau, Das altjudi-
scheZauberwesen.iSqS. See also HEBREW RELIGION. (G. F. Mo.)
JEHU, son of Jehoshaphat and grandson of Nimshi, in the
Bible, a general of Ahab and Jehoram, and, later, king of Israel.
Ahaziah son of Jehoram of Judah and Jehoram brother of Ahaziah
of Israel had taken joint action against the Aramaeans of Damas-
cus who were attacking Ramoth-Gilead under Hazael. Jehoram
had returned wounded to his palace at Jezreel, whither Ahaziah
had come down to visit him. Jehu, meanwhile, remained at the
seat of war, and the prophet Elisha sent a messenger to anoint
him king. The general at once acknowledged the call, " drove
furiously " to Jezreel, and, having slain both kings, proceeded
to exterminate the whole of the royal family (2 Kings ix.,x.). A
similar fate befell the royal princes of Judah (see ATHALIAH),
and thus, for a time at least, the new king must have had com-
plete control over the two kingdoms (cf. 2 Chron. xxii. 9).
Israelite historians viewed these events as a great religious
revolution inspired by Elijah and initiated by Elisha, as the
overthrow of the worship of Baal, and as a retribution for the
cruel murder of Naboth the Jezreelite (see JEZEBEL). A vivid
description is given of the destruction of the prophets of Baal at
the temple in Samaria (2 Kings x. 27; contrast iii. 2). While Jehu
was supported by the Rechabites in his reforming zeal, a similar
revolt against Baalism in Judah is ascribed to the priest Jehoiada
(see JOASH). In the tragedies of the period it seems clear that
Elisha's interest in both Jehu and the Syrian Hazael (2 Kings
viii. 7 sqq.) had some political significance, and in opposition
to the " Deuteronomic " the commendation in 2 Kings x. 28
sqq., Hosea's denunciation (i. 4) indicates the judgment which
was passed upon Jehu's bloodshed in other circles.
In the course of an expedition against Hazael in 842 Shalma-
neser II. of Assyria received tribute of silver and gold from
Ya-u-a son of Omri,1 Tyre and Sidon; another attack followed
in 839. For some years after this Assyria was unable to interfere,
and war broke out between Damascus and Israel. The Israelite
story, which may perhaps be supplemented from Judaean sources
(see JOASK), records a great loss of territory on the east of the
Jordan (2 Kings x. 32 seq.). Under Jehu's successor Jehoahaz
there was continual war with Hazael and his son Ben-hadad,
but relief was obtained by his grandson Joash, and the land
recovered complete independence under Jeroboam.
Jehu is also the name of a prophet of the time of Baasha and
Jehoshaphat (i Kings xvi. ; 2 Chron. xix., xx.). (S. A. C.)
JEKYLL, SIR JOSEPH (1663-1738), English lawyer and mas-
ter of the rolls, son of John Jekyll, was born in London, and after
studying at the Middle Temple was called to the bar in 1687.
He rapidly rose to be chief justice of Chester (1697), serjeant-at-
law and king's Serjeant (1700), and a knight. In 1717 he was
made master of the rolls. A Whig in politics, he sat in parliament
for various constituencies from 1697 to the end of his life, and
took an active part there in debating constitutional questions
with much learning, though, according to Lord Hervey (Mem. i,
474), with little " approbation." He was censured by the House
of Commons for accepting a brief for the defence of Lord Halifax
in a prosecution ordered by the house. He was one of the
managers of the impeachment of the Jacobite earl of Wintoun
in 1715, and of Harley (Lord Oxford) in 1717. In later years
he supported Walpole. He became very unpopular in 1736 for
his introduction of the " gin act," tax'ing the retailing of
spirituous liquors, and his house had to be protected from the
mob. Pope has an illusion to " Jekyll or some odd Whig, Who
never changed his principle or wig " (Epilogue to the Satires).
Jekyll was also responsible for the Mortmain Act of 1736, which
was not superseded till 1888. He died without issue in 1738.
His great-nephew JOSEPH JEKYLL (d. 1837) was a lawyer,
politician and wit, who excited a good deal of contemporary
satire, and who wrote some jeux d' esprit which were well-known
in his time. His Letters of the late Ignatius Sancho, an African,
was published in 1782. In 1894 his correspondence was edited,
with a memoir, by the Hon. Algernon Bourke.
JELLACHICH, JOSEF, COUNT (1801-1859), Croatian states-
man, was born on the i6th of October 1801 at Petervarad. He
entered the Austrian army (1819), fought against the Bosnians
in 1845, was made ban of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia in
1848 on the petition of the Croatians, and was simultaneously
raised to the rank of lieutenant-general by the emperor. As ban,
Jellachich's policy was directed to preserving the Slav kingdoms
for the Habsburg monarchy by identifying himself with the
nationalist opposition to Magyar ascendancy, while at the same
time discouraging the extreme " Illyrism " advocated by Lodovik
Gaj (1809-1872). Though his separatist measures at first
brought him into disfavour at the imperial court, their true
objective was soon recognized, and, with the triumph of the more
violent elements of the Hungarian revolution, he was hailed as
the most conspicuous champion of the unity of the empire, and
was able to bring about that union of the imperial army with the
southern Slavs by which the revolution in Vienna and Budapest
was overthrown (see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: History). He began
the war of independence in September 1 848 by crossing the Drave
at the head of 40,000 Croats. After the bloody battle of Buda
he concluded a three days' truce with the Hungarians to enable
him to assist Prince Windischgratz to reduce Vienna, and subse-
quently fought against the Magyars at Schwechat. During the
winter campaign of 1848-49 he commanded, under Windisch-
gratz, the Austrian right wing, capturing Magyar-Ovar and
Raab, and defeating the Magyars at M6r. After the recapture
of Buda he was made commander-in-chief of the southern army.
1 I.e. either descendant of, or from the same district as, Omri
(see Hogg, Ency. Bib. col. 2291). The Assyrian king's sculpture,
depicting the embassy and its gifts, is the so-called " black obelisk "
now in the British Museum (Nimroud Central Gallery, No. 98;
Guide to Bab. and Ass. Antiq., 1900, p. 24 seq., pi. ii.).
JELLlNEK— JENA
At first he gained some successes against Bern (?.i>.), but on the
I4th of July 1849 was routed by the Hungarians at Hegyes and
driven behind the Danube. He took no part in the remainder
of the war, but returned to Agram to administer Croatia. In
1853 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army sent
against Montenegro, and in 1855 was created a count. He died
on the 2oth of May 1859. His Gedichte were published at Vienna
in 1851.
See the anonymous The Croatian Revolution of the Year 1848
(Croat.), Agram, 1898. (R. N. B.)
JELLlNEK, ADOLF (1821-1893), Jewish preacher and
scholar, was born in Moravia. After filling clerical posts in
Leipzig, he became Prediger (preacher) in Vienna in 1856.
He was associated with the promoters of the New Learning
within Judaism, and wrote on the history of the Kabbala. His
bibliographies (each bearing the Hebrew title Qontres) were useful
compilations. But his most important work lay in three other
directions, (i) Midrashic. Jellinek published in the six parts
of his Beth ha-Midrasch (1853-1878) a large number of smaller
Midrashi, ancient and medieval homilies and folk-lore records,
which have been of much service in the recent revival of interest
in Jewish apocalyptic literature. A translation of these collec-
tions of Jellinek into German was undertaken by A. Wuensche,
under the general title Aus Israels Lehrhalle. (2) Psychological.
Before the study of ethnic psychology had become a science,
Jellinek devoted attention to the subject. There is much keen
analysis and original investigation in his two essays Der jiidische
Stamm (1869) and Der jiidische Stamm in nicht-jiidischen
Spruch-wdrtern (1881-1882). It is to Jellinek that we owe
the oft-repeated comparison of the Jewish temperament to
that of women in its quickness of perception, versatility and
sensibility. (3) Homiletic. Jellinek was probably the greatest
synagogue orator of the igth century. He published some 200
sermons, in most of which are displayed unobtrusive learn-
ing, fresh application of old sayings, and a high conception of
Judaism and its claims. Jellinek was a powerful apologist and
an accomplished horhilist, at once profound and ingenious.
His son, GEORGE JELLINEK, was appointed professor of inter-
national law at Heidelberg in 1891. Another son, MAX HERMANN
JELLINEK, was made assistant professor of philology at Vienna
in 1892.
A brother of Adolf, HERMANN JELLINEK (b. 1823), was
executed at the age of 26 on account of his association with
the Hungarian national movement of 1848. One of Hermann
Jellinek's best-known works was Uriel Acosta. Another brother,
MORITZ JELLINEK (1823-1883), was an accomplished econo-
mist, and contributed to the Academy of Sciences essays on
the price of cereals and on the statistical organization of the
country. He founded the Budapest tramway company (1864)
and was also president of the corn exchange.
See Jewish Encyclopedia, vii. 92-94. For a character sketch of
Adolf Jellinek see S. Singer, Lectures and Addresses (1908), pp. 88-93 ;
Kohut, Beriihmte israelitische Manner und Frauen. (I. A.)
JEMAPPES, a town in the province of Hainaut, Belgium,
near Mons, famous as the scene of the battle at which Dumouriez,
at the head of the French Revolutionary Army, defeated the
Austrian army (which was greatly outnumbered) under the
duke of Saxe-Teschen and Clerfayt on the 6th of November
1792 (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS).
JENA, a university town of Germany, in the grand duchy of
Saxe-Weimar, on the left bank of the Saale, 56 m. S.W. from
Leipzig by the Grossberigen-Saalfeld and 1 2 m. S.E. of Weimar
by the Weimar-Gera lines of railway. Pop. (1905), 26,355.
Its situation in a broad valley environed by limestone hills is
somewhat dreary. To the north lies the plateau, descending
steeply to the valley, famous as the scene of the battle of Jena.
The town is surrounded by promenades occupying the site of
the old fortifications; it contains in addition to the medieval
market square, many old-fashioned houses and quaint narrow
streets. Besides the old university buildings, the most inter-
esting edifices are the isth-century church of St Michael, with a
tower 318 ft. high, containing an altar, beneath which is a door-
way leading to a vault, and a bronze statue of Luther, originally
destined for his tomb ; the university library, in which is preserved
a curious figure of a dragon; and the bridge across the Saale, as
long as the church steeple is high, the centre arch of which is
surmounted by a stone carved head of a malefactor. Across
the river is the " mountain," or hill, whence a fine view is ob-
tained of the town and surroundings, and hard by the Fuchs-
Turm (Fox tower) celebrated for student orgies, while in the
centre of the town is the house of an astronomer, Weigel, with
a deep shaft through which the stars can be seen in the day time.
Thus the seven marvels of Jena are summed up in the Latin
lines : —
Ara, caput, draco, mons, pans, vulpecula turris,
Weigeliana domus; septem miracula Jenae.
There must also be mentioned the university church, the new
university buildings, which occupy the site of the ducal palace
(Schloss) where Goethe wrote his Hermann und Dorothea, the
Schwarzer Bar Hotel, where Luther spent the night after his
flight from the Wartburg, and four towers and a gateway which
now alone mark the position of the ancient walls. The town has
of late years become a favourite residential resort and has greatly
extended towards the west, where there is a colony of pleasant
villas. Its chief prosperity centres, however, in the university.
In 1547 the elector John Frederick the Magnanimous of Saxony,
while a captive in the hands of the emperor Charles V., conceived
the plan of founding a university at Jena, which was accordingly
established by his three sons. After having obtained a charter
from the emperor Ferdinand I., it was inaugurated on the 2nd
of February 1558. It was most numerously attended about the
middle of the i8th century; but the most brilliant professoriate
was under the duke Charles Augustus, Goethe's patron (1787-
1806), when Fichte, Hegel, Schelling, Schlegel and Schiller were
on its teaching staff. Founded as a home for the new religious
opinions of the i6th century, it has ever been in the forefront
of German universities in liberally accepting new ideas. It
distances perhaps every other German university in the extent
to which it carries out what are popularly regarded as the charac-
teristics of German student-life — duelling and the passion for
Freiheit. At the end of the i8th and the beginning of the igth
century, the opening of new universities, co-operating with the
suspicions of the various German governments as to the demo-
cratic opinions which obtained at Jena, militated against the
university, which has never regained its former prosperity. In
1905 it was attended by about noo students, and its teaching
staff (including priiiatdocenten) numbered 112. Amongst its
numerous auxiliaries may be mentioned the library, with 200,000
volumes, the observatory, the meteorological institute, the botan-
ical garden, seminaries of theology, philology and education,
and well equipped clinical, anatomical and physical institutes.
There are also veterinary and agricultural colleges in connexion
with the university. The manufactures of Jena are not consider-
able. The book trade has of late years revived, and there are
several printing establishments.
Jena appears to have possessed municipal rights in the i3th
century. At the beginning of the i4th century it was in the
possession of the margraves of Meissen, from whom it passed in
1423 to the elector of Saxony. Since 1485 it has remained in
the Ernestine line of the house of Saxony. In 1662 it fell to
Bernhard, youngest son of William duke of Weimar, and became
the capital of a small separate duchy. Bernhard's line having
become extinct in 1690, Jena was united with Eisenach, and in
1741 reverted with that duchy to Weimar. In more modern
times Jena has been made famous by the defeat inflicted in
the vicinity, on the i4th of October 1806, by Napoleon upon the
Prussian army under the prince of Hohenlohe (see NAPOLEONIC
CAMPAIGNS).
See Schreiber and Farber, Jena von seinem Ur sprung bis zur neuesien
Zeit (2nd ed., 1858); Ortloff, Jena und Umgegend (yd ed., 1875);
Leonhardt, Jena als Universitat und Stadt (Jena- 19O2)> Ritter,
Fuhrer durch Jena und Umgebung (Jena, 1901); Biedermann, Die
Universitat Jena (Jena, 1858) ; and the Urkundenbuch der Stadt Jena,
edited by J. E. A. Martin and O. Devrient (1888-1903).
3i6
JENATSCH— JENGHIZ KHAN
JENATSCH, 6EORG (1596-1639), Swiss political leader, one
of the most striking figures in the troubled history of the Grisons
in the lyth century, was born at Samaden (capital of the Upper
Engadine). He studied at Zurich and Basel, and in 161 7 became
the Protestant pastor of Scharans (near Thusis). But almost at
once he plunged into active politics, taking the side of the
Venetian and Protestant party of the Salis family, as against
the Spanish and Romanist policy supported by the rival family,
that of Planta. He headed the " preachers " who in 1618 tor-
tured to death the arch-priest Rusca, of Sondrio, and outlawed
the Plantas. As reprisals, a number of Protestants were
massacred at Tirano (1620), in the Valtellina, a very fertile
valley, of considerable strategical importance (for through it
the Spaniards in Milan could communicate by the Umbrail Pass
with the Austrians in Tirol), which then fell into the hands of the
Spanish. Jenatsch took part in the murder (1621) of Pompey
Planta, the head of the rival party, but later with his friends was
compelled to fly the country, giving up his position as a pastor,
and henceforth acting solely as a soldier. He helped in the revolt
against the Austrians in the Prattigau (1622), and in the invasion
of the Valtellina by a French army (1624), but the peace made
(1626) between France and Spain left the Valtellina in the
hands of the pope, and so destroyed Jenatsch's hopes. Having
killed his colonel, Ruinelli, in a duel, Jenatsch had once more to
leave his native land, and took service with the Venetians
(1629-1630). In 1631 he went to Paris, and actively supported
Richelieu's schemes for driving the Spaniards out of the Val-
tellina, which led to the successful campaign of Rohan (1635),
one of whose firmest supporters was Jenatsch. But he soon saw
that the French were as unwilling as the Spaniards to restore
the Valtellina to the Grisons (which had seized it in 1512). So
he became a Romanist (1635), and negotiated secretly with the
Spaniards and Austrians. He was the leader of the conspiracy
which broke out in 1637, and resulted in the expulsion of Rohan
and the French from the Grisons. This treachery on Jenatsch's
part did not, however, lead to the freeing of the Valtellina from
the Spaniards, and once more he tried to get French support. But
on the 24th of January 1639 he was assassinated at Coire by
the Plantas; later in the same year the much coveted valley
was restored by Spain to the Grisons, which held it till 1797.
Jenatsch's career is of general historical importance by reason of
the long conflict between France and Spain for the possession
of the Valtellina, which forms one of the most bloody episodes
in the Thirty Years' War. (W. A. B. C.)
See biography by E. Haffter (Davos, 1894).
JENGHIZ KHAN (1162-1227), Mongol emperor, was born in a
tent on the banks of the river Onon. His father Yesukai was
absent at the time of his birth, in a campaign against a Tatar
chieftain named Temuchin. The fortune of war favoured
Yesukai, who having slain his enemy returned to his encampment
in triumph. Here he was met by the news that his wife Yulun
had given birth to a son. On examining the child be observed
in its clenched fist a clot of coagulated blood like a red stone.
In the eyes of the superstitious Mongol this circumstance referred
to his victory over the Tatar chieftain, and he therefore named
the infant Temuchin. The death of Yesukai, which placed
Temuchin at the age of thirteen on the Mongol throne, was the
signal also for the dispersal of several tribes whose allegiance
the old chieftain had retained by his iron rule. When remon-
strated with by Temuchin, the rebels replied: " The deepest
wells are sometimes dry, and the hardest stone is sometimes
broken; why should we cling to thee?" But Yulun was by no
means willing to see her son's power melt away; she led those
retainers who remained faithful against the deserters, and suc-
ceeded in bringing back fully one half to their allegiance. With
this doubtful material, Temuchin succeeded in holding his
ground against the plots and open hostilities of the neighbouring
tribes, more especially of the Naimans, Keraits and Merkits.
With one or other of these he maintained an almost unceasing
warfare until 1 206, when he felt strong enough to proclaim him-
self the ruler of an empire. He therefore summoned the notables
of his kingdom to an assembly on the banks of the Onon, and
at their unanimous request adopted the name and title of
Jenghiz Khan (Chinese, Cheng-sze, or " perfect warrior "). At
this time there remained to him but one open enemy on the
Mongolian steppes, Polo the Naiman khan. Against this chief
he now led his troops, and in one battle so completely shattered
his forces that Kushlek, the successor of Polo, who was left dead
upon the field, fled with his ally Toto, the Merkit khan, to the
river Irtysh.
Jenghiz Khan now meditated an invasion of the empire of the
Kin Tatars, who had wrested northern China from the Sung
dynasty. As a first step he invaded western Hia, and, having
captured several strongholds, retired in the summer of 1208 to
Lung-ting to escape the great heat of the plains. While there
news reached him that Toto and Kushlek were preparing for
war. In a pitched battle on the river Irtysh he overthrew them
completely. Toto was amongst the slain, and Kushlek fled for
refuge to the Khitan Tatars. Satisfied with his victory, Jenghiz
again directed his forces against Hia. After having defeated
the Kin army under the leadership of a son of the sovereign, he
captured the Wu-liang-hai Pass in the Great Wall, and pene-
trated as far as Ning-sia Fu in Kansuh. With unceasing vigour
he pushed on his troops, and even established his sway over the
province of Liao-tung. Several of the Kin commanders, seeing
how persistently victory attended his banners, deserted to him,
and garrisons surrendered at his bidding. Having- thus secured
a firm footing within the Great Wall, he despatched three armies
in the autumn of 1213 to overrun the empire. The right wing,
under his three sons, Juji, Jagatai and Ogotai, marched towards
the south; the left wing, under his brothers Hochar, Kwang-tsin
Noyen and Chow-tse-te-po-shi, advanced eastward towards the
sea; while Jenghiz and his son Tule with the centre directed their
course in a south-easterly direction. Complete success attended
all three expeditions. The right wing advanced as far as Honan,
and after having captured upwards of twenty-eight cities rejoined
headquarters by the great western road. Hochar made himself
master of the country as far as Liao-si; and Jenghiz ceased his
triumphal career only when he reached the cliffs of the Shan-
tung promontory. But either because he was weary of the
strife, or because it was necessary to revisit his Mongolian
empire, he sent an envoy to the Kin emperor in the spring of the
following year (1214), saying, " All your possessions in Shan-
tung and the whole country north of the Yellow River are now
mine with the solitary exception of Yenking (the modern Peking) .
By the decree of heaven you are now as weak as I am strong, but
I am willing to retire from my conquests; as a condition of my
doing so, however, it will be necessary that you distribute
largess to my officers and men to appease their fierce hostility."
These terms of safety the Kin emperor eagerly accepted, and as
a peace offering he presented Jenghiz with a daughter of the late
emperor, another princess of the imperial house, $00 youths and
maidens, and 3000 horses. No sooner, however, had Jenghiz
passed beyond the Great Wall than the Kin emperor, fearing to
remain any longer so near the Mongol frontier, moved his court
to K'ai-ffing Fu in Honan. This transfer of capital appearing
to Jenghiz to indicate a hostile attitude, he once more marched
his troops into the doomed empire.
While Jenghiz was thus adding city to city and province to
province in China, Kushlek, the fugitive Naiman chief, was not
idle. With characteristic treachery he requested permission
from his host, the Khitan khan, to collect the fragments of his
army which had been scattered by Jenghiz at the battle on the
Irtysh, and thus having collected a considerable force he leagued
himself with Mahommed, the shah of Khwarizm, against the
confiding khan. After a short .but decisive campaign the allies
remained masters of the position, and the khan was compelled
to abdicate the throne in favour of the late guest.
With the power and prestige thus acquired, Kushlek prepared
once again to measure swords with the Mongol chief. On
receiving the news of his hostile preparations, Jenghiz at once
took the field, and in the first battle routed the Naiman troops
and made Kushlek a prisoner. His ill-gotten kingdom became
JENGHIZ KHAN
an apanage of the Mongol Empire. Jenghiz now held sway up
to the Khwarizm frontier. Beyond this he had no immediate
desire to go, and he therefore sent envoys to Mahommed, the
shah, with presents, saying, " I send thee greeting; I know thy
power and the vast extent of thine empire; I regard thee as my
most cherished son. On my part thou must know that I have
conquered China and all the Turkish nations north of it; thou
knowest that my country is a magazine of warriors, a mine
of silver, and that I have no need of other lands. I take it that
we have an equal interest in encouraging trade between our
subjects." This peaceful message was well received by the shah,
and in all probability the Mongol armies would never have
appeared in Europe but for an unfortunate occurrence. Shortly
after the despatch of this first mission Jenghiz sent a party of
traders into Transoxiana who were seized and put to death as
spies by Inaljuk, the governor of Otrar. As satisfaction for
this outrage Jenghiz demanded the extradition of the offending
governor. Far from yielding to this summons, however,
Mahommed beheaded the chief of the Mongol envoys, and sent
the others back without their beards. This insult made war
inevitable, and in the spring of 1219 Jenghiz set out from
Karakorum on a campaign which was destined to be as startling
in its immediate results as its ulterior effects were far-reaching.
The invading force was in the first instance divided into two
armies: one commanded by Jenghiz's second son Jagatai was
directed to march against the Kankalis, the northern defenders
of the Khwarizm empire; and the other, led by Juji, his eldest
, advanced by way of Sighnak against Jand (Jend). Against
this latter force Mahommed led an army of 400,000 men, who
were completely routed, leaving it is said 160,000 dead upon
the field. With the remnant of his host Mahommed fled to
Samarkand. Meanwhile Jagatai marched down upon the Syr
Daria (Jaxartes) by the pass of Taras and invested Otrar, the
offending city. After a siege of five months the citadel was taken
by assault, and Inaljuk and his followers were put to the sword.
The conquerors levelled the walls with the ground, after having
given the city over to pillage. At the same time a third army
besieged and took Khojent on the Jaxartes; and yet a fourth, led
by Jenghiz and his youngest son Tule, advanced in the direction
of Bokhara. Tashkent and Nur surrendered on their approach,
and after a short siege Bokhara fell into their hands. On
entering the town Jenghiz ascended the steps of the principal
mosque, and shouted to his followers, " The hay is cut; give your
horses fodder." No second invitation to plunder was needed;
the city was sacked, and the inhabitants either escaped beyond
the walls or were compelled to submit to infamies which were
worse than death. As a final act of vengeance the town was
fired, and before the last of the Mongols left the district, the
great mosque and certain palaces were the only buildings left
to mark the spot where the " centre of science " once stood.
From the ruins of Bokhara Jenghiz advanced along the valley
of the Sogd to Samarkand, which, weakened by treachery, sur-
rendered to him, as did also Balkh. But in neither case did
submission save either the inhabitants from slaughter or the
city from pillage. Beyond this point Jenghiz went no farther
westward, but sent Tule, at the head of 70,000 men, to ravage
Khorasan, and two flying columns under Chepe and Sabutai
Bahadar to pursue after Mahommed who had taken refuge in
Nishapur. Defeated and almost alone, Mahommed fled before
his pursuers to the village of Astara on the shore of the Caspian
Sea, where he died of an attack of pleurisy, leaving his empire
to his son Jelaleddin ( Jalal ud-din) . Meanwhile Tule carried his
arms into the fertile province of Khorasan, and after having
captured Nessa by assault appeared before Merv. By an act of
atrocious treachery the Mongols gained possession of the city,
and, after their manner, sacked and burnt the town. From Merv
Tule marched upon Nishapur, where he met with a most deter-
mined resistance. For four days the garrison fought desperately
on the walls and in the streets, but at length they were over-
powered, and, with the exception of 400 artisans who were sent
into Mongolia, every man, woman and child was slain. Herat
escaped the fate which had overtaken Merv and Nishapur by
opening its gates to the Mongols. At this point of his vic-
torious career Tule received an order to join Jenghiz before
Talikhan in Badakshan, where that chieftain was preparing to
renew his pursuit of Jelaleddin, after a check he had sustained
in an engagement fought before Ghazni. As soon as sufficient
reinforcements arrived Jenghiz advanced against Jelaleddin,
who had taken up a position on the banks of the Indus. Here
the Turks, though far outnumbered, defended their ground
with undaunted courage, until, beaten at all points, they fled in
confusion. Jelaleddin, seeing that all was lost, mounted a fresh
horse and jumped into the river, which flowed 20 ft. below.
With admiring gaze Jenghiz watched the desperate venture of
his enemy, and 'even saw without regret the dripping horseman
mount the opposite bank. From the Indus Jenghiz sent in
pursuit of Jelaleddin, who fled to Delhi, but failing to capture
the fugitive the Mongols returned to Ghazni after having ravaged
the provinces of Lahore, Peshawar and Melikpur. At this
moment news reached Jenghiz that the inhabitants of Herat
had deposed the governor whom Tule had appointed over the
city, and had placed one of their own choice in his room. To
punish this act of rebellion Jenghiz sent an army of 80,000
men against the offending city, which after a siege of six months
was taken by assault. For a whole week the Mongols ceased
not to kill, burn and destroy, and 1,600,000 persons are said to
have been massacred within the walls. Having consummated
this act of vengeance, Jenghiz returned to Mongolia by way of
Balkh, Bokhara and Samarkand.
Meanwhile Chepe and Sabutai marched through Azerbaijan,
and in the spring of 1222 advanced into Georgia. Here they
defeated a combined force of Lesghians, Circassians and Kip-
chaks, and after taking Astrakhan followed the retreating Kip-
chaks to the Don. The news of the approach of the mysterious
enemy of whose name even they were ignorant was received by
the Russian princes at Kiev with dismay. At the instigation,
however, of Mitislaf , prince of Galicia, they assembled an opposing
force on the Dnieper. Here they received envoys from the
Mongol camp, whom they barbarously put to death. " You
have killed our envoys," was the answer made by the Mongols;
" well, as you wish for war you shall have it. We have done
you no harm. God is impartial; He will decide our quarrel."
In the first battle, on the river Kaleza, the Russians were utterly
routed, and fled before the invaders, who, after ravaging Great
Bulgaria retired, gorged with booty, through the country of
Saksin, along the river Aktuba, on their way to Mongolia.
In China the same success had attended the Mongol arms as in
western Asia. The whole of the country north of the Yellow
river, with the exception of one or two cities, was added to the
Mongol rule, and, on the death of the Kin emperor Stian Tsung
in 1223, the Kin empire virtually ceased to be, and Jenghiz's
frontiers thus became conterminous with those of the Sung
emperors who held sway over the whole of central and
southern China. After his return from Central Asia, Jenghiz
once more took the field in western China. While on this cam-
paign the five planets appeared in a certain conjunction, which to
the superstitiously minded Mongol chief foretold that evil was
awaiting him. With this presentiment strongly impressed
upon him he turned his face homewards, and had advanced no
farther than the Si-Kiang river in Kansuh when he was seized
with an illness of which he died a short time afterwards (1227)
at his travelling palace at Ha-lao-tu, on the banks of the river
Sale in Mongolia. By the terms of his will Ogotai was appointed
his successor, but so essential was it considered to be that his
death should remain a secret until Ogotai was proclaimed that,
as the funeral procession moved northwards to the great ordu
on the banks of the Kerulen, the escort killed every one they
met. The body of Jenghiz was then carried successively to the
ordus of his several wives, and was finally laid to rest in the
valley of Kilien.
Thus ended the career of one of the greatest conquerors the
world has ever seen. Born and nurtured as the chief of a petty
Mongolian tribe, he lived to see his .armies victorious from the
China Sea to the banks of the Dnieper; and, though the empire
3i8
JENKIN— JENKS
•which he created ultimately dwindled away under the hands of
his degenerate descendants, leaving not a wrack behind, we have
in the presence of the Turks in Europe a consequence of his rule,
since it was the advance of his armies which drove their Osmanli
ancestors from their original home in northern Asia, and thus
led to their invasion of Bithynia under Othman, and finally their
advance into Europe under Amurath I.
See Sir H. H. Howorth, The History of the Mongols; Sir Robert K.
Douglas, The Life of Jenghiz Khan. (R. K. D.)
JENKIN, HENRY CHARLES FLEEMING (1833-1885), British
engineer, was born near Dungeness on the 25th of March 1833,
his father (d. 1885) being a naval commander, and his mother
(d. 1 885) a novelist of some literary repute, her best books perhaps
being Cousin Stella (1859) and Who breaks, pays (1861). Fleem-
ing*Jenkin was educated at first in Scotland, but in 1846 the
family went to live abroad, owing to financial straits, and he
studied at Genoa University, where he took a first-class degree
in physical science. In 1851 he began his engineering career as
apprentice in an establishment at Manchester, and subsequently
he entered Newall's submarine cable works at Birkenhead. In
1859 he began, in concert with Sir William Thomson (afterwards
Lord Kelvin), to work on problems respecting the making and
use of cables, and the importance of his researches on the resis-
tance of gutta-percha was at once recognized. From this time
he was in constant request in connexion with submarine tele-
graphy, and he became known also as an inventor. In partner-
ship with Thomson, he made a large income as a consulting
telegraph engineer. In 1865 he was elected F.R.S., and was
appointed professor of engineering at University College, London.
In 1868 he obtained the same prof essorship at Edinburgh Univer-
sity, and in 1873 he published a textbook of Magnetism and
Electricity, full of original work. He was author of the article
" Bridges " in the ninth edition of this encyclopaedia. His
influence among the Edinburgh students was pronounced, and
R. L. Stevenson's well-known Memoir is a sympathetic tribute
to his ability and character. The meteoric charm of his conver-
sation is well described in Stevenson's essay on " Talk and
Talkers," under the name of Cockshot. Jenkin's interests were
by no means confined to engineering, but extended to the arts and
literature; his miscellaneous papers, showing his critical and
unconventional views, were issued posthumously in two volumes
(1887). In 1882 Jenkin invented an automatic method of
electric transport for goods — " telpherage " — but the completion
of its details was prevented by his death on the i2th of June
1885. A telpher line on his system was subsequently erected
at Glynde in Sussex. He was also well known as a sanitary
reformer, and during the last ten years of his life he did much
useful work in inculcating more enlightened ideas on the subject
both in Edinburgh and other places.
JENKINS, SIR LEOLINE (1623-1685), English lawyer and
diplomatist, was the son of a Welsh country gentleman. He was
born in 1623 and was educated at Jesus College, Oxford, of which
he was elected a fellow at the Restoration in 1660, having been an
ardent royalist during the civil war and commonwealth; and in
1661 he became head of the college. In the same year he was
made registrar of the consistory court of Westminster; in 1664
deputy judge of the court of arches; about a year later judge of
the admiralty court; in 1689 judge of the prerogative court of
Canterbury. In these offices Jenkins did enduring work in eluci-
dating and establishing legal principles, especially in relation to
international law and admiralty jurisdiction. He was selected to
draw up the claim of Charles II. to succeed to the property of his
mother, Henrietta Maria, on her death in August 1666, and while
in Paris for this purpose he succeeded in defeating the rival claim
of the duchess of Orleans, being rewarded by a knighthood on his
return. In 1673, on being elected member for Hythe, Jenkins
resigned the headship of Jesus College. He was one of the
English representatives at the congress of Cologne in 1673, and
at the more important congress of Nijmwegen in 1676-
1679. He was made a privy councillor in February 1680 and
became secretary of state in April of the same year, in which
office he was the official leader of the opposition to the Exclusion
Bill, though he was by no means a pliant tool in the hands of the
court. He resigned office in 1684, and died on the ist of Sep-
tember 1685. He left most of his property to Jesus College,
Oxford, including his books, which he bequeathed to the college
library, built by himself; and he left some important manuscripts
to All Souls College, where they are preserved. Jenkins left his
impress on the law of England in the Statute of Frauds, and the
Statute of Distributions, of which he was the principal author,
and of which the former profoundly affected the mercantile law
of the country, while the latter regulated the inheritance of the
personal property of intestates. He was never married.
See William Wynne, Life of Sir Leoline Jenkins (2 vols., London,
1724), which contains a number of his diplomatic despatches, letters,
speeches and other papers. See also Sir William Temple, Works,
vol. ii. (4 vols., 1770); Anthony a Wood, Athenae Oxonienses
(Fasti) edited by P. Bliss (4 vols. , London, 1813-1820), and History
and A ntiquities of the University of Oxford, edited by J . Gutch (Oxford,
1792-1796).
JENKINS, ROBERT (fl. 1731-1745), English master mariner,
is known as the protagonist of the " Jenkins's ear " incident,
which, magnified in England by the press and the opposition,
became a contributory cause of the war between England and
Spain (1739). Bringing home the brig " Rebecca " from the West
Indies in 1731, Jenkins was boarded by a Spanish guarda-costa,
whose commander rifled the holds and cut off one of his ears. On
arriving in England Jenkins stated his grievance to the king, and
a report was furnished by the commander-in-chief in the West
Indies confirming his account. At first the case created no great
stir, but in 1738 he repeated his story with dramatic detail
before a committee of the House of Commons, producing what
purported to be the ear that had been cut off. Afterwards it
was suggested that he might have lost the ear in the pillory.
Jenkins was subsequently given the command of a ship in the
East India Company s service, and later became supervisor of the
company's affairs at St Helena. In 1741 he was sent from England
to that island to investigate charges of corruption brought against
the acting governor, and from May 1741 until March 1742 he admin-
istered the affairs of the island. Thereafter he resumed his naval
career, and is stated in an action with a pirate vessel to have pre-
served his own vessel and three others under his care (see T. H.
Brooke, History of the Island of St Helena (London, 2nd ed., 1824),
and H. R. Janisch, Extracts from the St Helena Records, 1885).
JENKS, JEREMIAH WHIPPLE (1856- ), American econo-
mist, was born in St Clair, Michigan, on the 2nd of September
1856. He graduated at the university of Michigan in 1878;
taught Greek, Latin and German in Mt. Morris College, Illinois;
studied in Germany, receiving the degree of Ph.D. from the
university of Halle in 1885; taught political science and English
literature at Knox College, Galesburg, 111., in 1886-1889; was
professor of political economy and social science at Indiana State
University in 1880-1891; and was successively professor of politi-
cal, municipal and social institutions (1891-1892), professor of
political economy and civil and social institutions (1892-1901),
and after 1901 professor of political economy and poKtics at
Cornell University. In 1899-1901 he served as an expert agent
of the United States industrial commission on investigation
of trusts and industrial combinations in the United States
and Europe, and contributed to vols. i., viii. and xiii. of this
commission's report (1900 and 1901), vol. viii. being a report,
written wholly by him, on industrial combinations in Europe. In
1901-1902 he was special commissioner of the United States war
department on colonial administration, and wrote a Report on
Certain Economic Questions in the English and Dutch Colonies in
the Orient, published (1902) by the bureau of insular affairs; and
in 1903 he was adviser to the Mexican ministry of finance on pro-
jected currency changes. In 1903-1904 he was a member of the
United States commission on international exchange, in especial
charge of the reform of currency in China; in 1905 he was special
representative of the United States with the imperial Chinese
special mission visiting the United States. In 1907 he became a
member of the United States immigration commission. Best
known as an expert on " trusts," he has written besides on elec-
tions, ballot reform, proportional representation, on education
(especially as a training for citizenship), on legislation regarding
highways, &c.
JENNE— -JENNER, EDWARD
3*9
His principal published works are Henry C. Carey als National-
okonom (Halle a. S., 1885) ; The Trust Problem (1900; revised 1903) ;
Great Fortunes (1906); Citizenship and the Schools (1906); and Prin-
ciples of Politics (1909).
JENNE, a city of West Africa, formerly the capital of the
Songhoi empire, now included in the French colony of Upper
Senegal and Niger. Jenne is situated on a marigot or natural
canal connecting the Niger and its affluent the Bani or Mahel
Balevel, and is within a few miles of the latter stream. It lies
250 m. S.W. of Timbuktu in a straight line. The city is sur-
rounded by channels connected with the Bani but in the
dry season it ceases to be an island. On the north is the
Moorish quarter; on the north-west, the oldest part of the
city, stood the citadel, converted by the French since 1893
into a modern fort. The market-place is midway between the
fort and the commercial harbour. The old mosque, partially
destroyed in 1830, covered a large area in the south-west portion
. of the city. It was built on the site of the ancient palace of the
Songhoi kings. The architecture of many of the buildings
bears a resemblance to Egyptian, the facades of the houses being
adorned with great buttresses of pylonic form. There is little
trace of the influence of Moorish or Arabian art. The build-
ings are mostly constructed of clay made into flat long bricks.
Massive clay walls surround the city. The inhabitants are great
traders and the principal merchants have representatives at
Timbuktu and all the chief places on the Niger. The boats
built at Jenne are famous throughout the western Sudan.
Jenne is believed to have been founded by the Songhoi in the
8th century, and though it has passed under the dominion of
many races it has never been destroyed. Jenne seems to have
been at the height of its power from the i2th to the i6th century,
when its merchandise was found at every port along the west
coast of Africa. From this circumstance it is conjectured that
Jenne (Guinea) gave its name to the whole coast (see GUINEA).
Subsequently, under the control of Moorish, Tuareg and Fula
invaders, the importance of the city greatly declined. With the
advent of the French, commerce again began to flourish.
See F. Dubois, Tombouctou la mysterieuse (Paris, 1897), in which
several chapters are devoted to Jenne; also SONGHOI; TIMBUKTU;
and SENEGAL.
JENNER, EDWARD (1749-1823), English physician and
discoverer of vaccination, was born at Berkeley, Gloucestershire,
on the 1 7th of May 1749. His father, the Rev. Stephen Jenner,
rector of Rockhampton and vicar of Berkeley, came of a family
that had been long established in that county, and was possessed
of considerable landed property; he died when Edward was
only six years old, but his eldest son, the Rev. Stephen Jenner,
brought his brother up with paternal care and tenderness.
Edward received his early education at Wotton-under-Edge
and Cirencester, where he already showed a strong taste for
natural history. The medical profession having been selected
for him, he began his studies under Daniel Ludlow, a
surgeon of Sodbury near Bristol; but in his twenty-first year
he proceeded to London, where he became a favourite pupil
of John Hunter, in whose house he resided for two years.
During this period he was employed by Sir Joseph Banks to
arrange and prepare the valuable zoological specimens which
he had brought back from Captain Cook's first voyage in
1771. He must have acquitted himself satisfactorily in this
task, since he was offered the post of naturalist in the second
expedition, but declined it as well as other advantageous offers,
preferring rather to practise his profession in his native place,
and near his eldest brother, to whom he was much attached. He
was the principal founder of a local medical society, to which
he contributed several papers of marked ability, in one of which
he apparently anticipated later discoveries concerning rheumatic
inflammations of the heart. He maintained a correspondence
with John Hunter, under whose direction he investigated various
points in biology, particularly the hibernation of hedgehogs and
habits of the cuckoo; his paper on the latter subject was laid by
Hunter before the Royal Society, and appeared in the Phil.
Trans, for 1788. He also devoted considerable attention to the
varied geological character of the district in which he lived, and
constructed the first balloon seen in those parts. He was a great
favourite in general society, from his agreeable and instructive
conversation, and the many accomplishments he possessed.
Thus he was a fair musician, both as a part singer and as a per-
former on the violin and flute, and a very successful writer, after
the fashion of that time, of fugitive pieces of verse. In 1788 he
married Catherine Kingscote, and in 1 792 he obtained the degree
of doctor of medicine from St Andrews.
Meanwhile the discovery that is associated with his name
had been slowly maturing in his mind. When only an apprentice
at Sodbury, his attention had been directed to the relations
between cow-pox and small-pox in connexion with a popular
belief which he found current in Gloucestershire, as to the antagon-
ism between these two diseases. During his stay in London
he appears to have mentioned the thing repeatedly to Hunter,
who, being engrossed by other important pursuits, was not so
strongly persuaded as Jenner was of its possible importance, yet
spoke of it to his friends and in his lectures. After he began
practice in Berkeley, Jenner was always accustomed to inquire
what his professional brethren thought of it; but he found that,
when medical men had noticed the popular report at all, they
supposed it to be based on imperfect induction. His first careful
investigation of the subject dated from about 1775, and five years
elapsed before he had succeeded in clearing away the most per-
plexing difficulties by which it was surrounded. He first
satisfied himself that two different forms of disease had been
hitherto confounded under the term cow-pox, only one of which
protected against small-pox, and that many of the cases of failure
were to be thus accounted for; and his next step was to ascertain
that the true cow-pox itself only protects when communicated
at a particular stage of the disease. At the same time he came
to the conclusion that " the grease " of horses is the same
disease as cow-pox and small-pox, each being modified by the
organism in which it was developed. For many years, cow-pox
being scarce in his county, he had no opportunity of inoculating
the disease, and so putting his discovery to the test, but he did
all he could in the way of collecting information and communi-
cating what he had ascertained. Thus in 1788 he carried a
drawing of the cow-pox, as seen on the hands of a milkmaid, to
London, and showed it to Sir E. Home and others, who agreed
that it was " an interesting and curious subject." At length,
on the i4th of May 1796, he was able to inoculate James
Phipps, a boy about eight years old, with matter from cow-pox
vesicles on the hand of Sarah Nelmes. On the ist of the follow-
ing July the boy was carefully inoculated with variolous matter,
but (as Jenner had predicted) no small-pox followed. The dis-
covery was now complete, but Jenner was unable to repeat his
experiment until 1798, owing to the disappearance of cow-pox
from the dairies. He then repeated his inoculations with the
utmost care, and prepared a pamphlet (Inquiry into the Cause and
Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae) which should announce his dis-
covery to the world. Before publishing it, however, he thought
it well to visit London, so as to demonstrate the truth of his
assertions to his friends; but he remained in London nearly three
months, without being able to find any person who would submit
to be vaccinated. Soon after he had returned home, however,
Henry Cline, surgeon of St Thomas's Hospital, inoculated some
vaccine matter obtained from him over the diseased hip-joint of a
child, thinking the counter-irritation might be useful, and found
the patient afterwards incapable of acquiring small-pox. In the
autumn of the same year, Jenner met with the first opposition to
vaccination; and this was the more formidable because it pro-
ceded from J. Ingenhousz, a celebrated physician and man of
science. But meanwhile Cline's advocacy of vaccination brought
it much more decidedly before the medical profession, of whom
the majority were prudent enough to suspend their judgment
until they had more ample information. But besides these
there were two noisy and troublesome factions, one of which
opposed vaccination as a useless and dangerous practice, while
the other endangered its success much more by rash and self-
seeking advocacy. At the head of the latter was George Pearson,
320
who in November 1798 published a pamphlet speculating upon
the subject, before even seeing a case of cow-pox, and after-
wards endeavoured, by lecturing on the subject and supplying
the virus, to put himself forward as the chief agent in the cause.
The matter which he distributed, which had been derived from
cows that were found to be infected in London, was found fre-
quently to produce, not the slight disease described by Jenner,
but more or less severe eruptions resembling small-pox. Jenner
concluded at once that this was due to an accidental contamina-
tion of the vaccine with variolous matter, and a visit to London
in the spring of 1799 convinced him that this was the case. In
the course of this year the practice of vaccination spread over
England, being urged principally by non-professional persons of
position; and towards its close attempts were made to found insti-
tutions for gratuitous vaccination and for supplying lymph to
all who might apply for it. Pearson proposed to establish one of
these in London, without Jenner's knowledge, in which he offered
him the post of honorary corresponding physician! On learning
of this scheme to supplant him, and to carry on an institution
for public vaccination on principles which he knew to be partly
erroneous, Jenner once more visited London early in 1800, when
he had influence enough to secure the abandonment of the.
project. He was afterwards presented to the king, the queen
and the prince of Wales, whose encouragement materially aided-
the spread of vaccination in England. Meanwhile it had made
rapid progress in the United States, where it was introduced by
Benjamin Waterhouse, then professor of physic at Harvard,
and on the continent of Europe, where it was at first diffused
by De Carro of Vienna. In consequence of the war between
England and France, the discovery was later in reaching Paris;
but, its importance once realized, it spread rapidly over France,
Spain and Italy.
A few of the incidents connected with its extension may be
mentioned. Perhaps the most striking is the expedition which
was sent out by the court of Spain in 1803, for the purpose of
diffusing cow-pox through all the Spanish possessions in the
Old and New Worlds, and which returned in three years, 'having
circumnavigated the globe, and succeeded beyond its utmost
expectations. Clergymen in Geneva and Holland urged vacci-
nation upon their parishioners from the pulpit; in Sicily, South
America, and Naples religious processions were formed for the
purpose of receiving it; the anniversary of Jenner's birthday, or
of the successful vaccination of James Phipps, was for many
years celebrated as a feast in Germany; and the empress of
Russia caused the first child operated upon to receive the
name of Vaccinov, and to be educated at the public expense.
About the close of the year 1801 Jenner's friends in Gloucester-
shire presented him with a small service of plate as a testimonial
of the esteem in which they held his discovery. This was in-
tended merely as a preliminary to the presenting of a petition
to parliament for a grant. The petition was presented in 1802,
and was referred to a committee, of which the investigations
resulted in a report in favour of the grant, and ultimately in a
vote of £10,000.
Towards the end of 1802 steps were taken to form a society for
the proper spread of vaccination in London, and the Royal
Jennerian Society was finally established, Jenner returning to
town to preside at the first meeting. This institution began very
prosperously, more than twelve thousand persons having been
inoculated in the first eighteen months, and with such effect that
the deaths from small-pox, which for the latter half of the i8th
century had averaged 2018 annually, fell in 1804 to 622. Unfor-
tunately the chief resident inoculator soon set himself up as an
authority opposed to Jenner, and this led to such dissensions as
caused the society to die out in 1808.
Jenner was led, by the language of the chancellor of the ex-
chequer when his grant was proposed, to attempt practice in
London, but after a year's trial he returned to Berkeley. His grant
was not paid until 1804, and then, after the deduction of about
£1000 for fees, it did little more than pay the expenses attendant
upon his discovery. For he was so thoroughly known every-
where as the discoverer of vaccination that, as he himself said, he
JENNER, EDWARD
was " the vaccine clerk of the whole world." At the same time
he continued to vaccinate gratuitously all the poor who applied
to him on certain days, so that he sometimes had as many as
three hundred persons waiting at his door. Meanwhile honours
began to shower upon him from abroad: he was elected a member
of almost all the chief scientific societies on the continent of
Europe, the first being that of Gottingen, where he was pro-
posed by J. F. Blumenbach. But perhaps the most flattering
proof of his influence was derived from France. On one occasion,
when he was endeavouring to obtain the release of some of the
unfortunate Englishmen who had been detained in France on
the sudden termination of the Peace of Amiens, Napoleon was
about to reject the petition, when Josephine uttered the name of
Jenner. The emperor paused and exclaimed: " Ah, we can
refuse nothing to that name." Somewhat later he did the same
service to Englishmen confined in Mexico and in, Austria; and
during the latter part of the great war persons before leaving
England would sometimes obtain certificates signed by him
which served as passports. In his own country his merits were
less recognized. His applications on behalf of French prisoners
in England were less successful; he never shared in any of the
patronage at the disposal of the government, and was even unable
to obtain a living for his nephew George.
In 1806 Lord Henry Petty (afterwards the marquess of Lans-
downe) became chancellor of the exchequer, and was so con-
vinced of the inadequacy of the former parliamentary grant that
he proposed an address to the Crown, praying that the college of
physicians should be directed to report upon the success of
vaccination. Their report being strongly in its favour, the then
chancellor of the exchequer (Spencer Perceval) proposed that
a sum of £10,000 without any deductions should be paid to
Jenner. The anti-vaccinationists found but one advocate in
the House of Commons ; and finally the sum was raised to £20,000.
Jenner, however, at the same time had the mortification of
learning that government did not intend to take any steps
towards checking small-pox inoculation, which so persistently
kept up that disease. About the same time a subscription for
his benefit was begun in India, where his discovery had been
gratefully received, but the full amount of this (£7383) only
reached him in 1812.
The Royal Jennerian Society having failed, the national vaccine
establishment was founded, for the extension of vaccination, in
1808. Jenner spent five months in London for the purpose of
organizing it, but was then obliged, by the dangerous illness of
one of his sons, to return to Berkeley. He had been appointed
director of the institution; but he had no sooner left London
than Sir Lucas Pepys, president of the college of physicians,
neglected his recommendations, and formed the board out of the
officials of that college and the college of surgeons. Jenner at
once resigned his post as director, though he continued to give
the benefit of his advice whenever it was needed, and this resigna-
tion was a bitter mortification to him. In 1810 his eldest son
died, and Jenner's grief at his loss, and his incessant labours,
materially affected his health. In 1813 the university of
Oxford conferred on him the degree of M.D. It was believed
that this would lead to his election into the college of physicians,
but that learned body decided that he could not be admitted
until he had undergone an examination in classics. This Jenner
at once refused; to brush up his classics would, he said, " be
irksome beyond measure. I would not do it for a diadem. That
indeed would be a bauble; I would not do it for John Hunter's
museum."
He visited London for the last time in 1814, when he was
presented to the Allied Sovereigns and to most of the principal
personages who accompanied them. In the next year his wife's
death was the signal for him to retire from public life: he never
left Berkeley again, except for a day or two, as long as he lived.
He found sufficient occupation for the remainder of his life in
collecting further evidence on some points connected with his
great discovery, and in his engagements as a physician, a
naturalist and a magistrate. In 1818 a severe epidemic of
small-pox prevailed, and fresh doubts were thrown on the
JENNER, SIR WILLIAM— JEPHSON
efficacy of vaccination, in part apparently owing to the bad
quality of the vaccine lymph employed. This caused Jenner
much annoyance, which was relieved by an able defence of the
practice, written by Sir Gilbert Blane. But this led him, in
1821, to send a circular letter to most of the medical men in
the kingdom inquiring into the effect of other skin diseases in
modifying the progress of cow-pox. A year later he published
his last work, On the Influence of Artificial Eruptions in Certain
Diseases; and in 1823 he presented his last paper — " On the
Migration of Birds" — to the Royal Society. On the 24th of
January 1823 he retired to rest apparently as well as usual, and
next morning rose and came down to his library, where he was
found insensible on the floor, in a s^ate of apoplexy, and with
the right side paralysed. He never rallied, and died on the
following morning.
A public subscription was set on foot, shortly after his death,
by the medical men of his county, for the purpose of erecting
some memorial in his honour, and with much difficulty a suffi-
cient sum was raised to enable a statue to be placed in Gloucester
Cathedral. In 1 850 another attempt was made to set up a monu-
ment to him; this appears to have failed, but at length, in 1858,
a statue of him was erected by public subscription in London.
Jenner's life was written by the intimate friend of his later years,
Dr John Baron of Gloucester (2 vols., 1827, 1838). See also
VACCINATION.
JENNER, SIR WILLIAM, BART. (1815-1898), English physician,
was born at Chatham on the 3oth of January 1815, and educated
at University College, London. He became M.R.C.S. in 1837,
and F.R.C.P. in 1852, and in 1844 took the London M.D. In
1847 he began at the London fever hospital investigations into
cases of " continued " fever which enabled him finally to make the
distinction between typhus and typhoid on which his reputation
as a pathologist principally rests. In 1849 he was appointed pro-
fessor of pathological anatomy at University College, and also
assistant physician to University College Hospital, where he
afterwards became physician ( 1 8s4~i876)and consultingphysician
(1879), besides holding similar appointments at other hospitals.
He was also successively Holme professor of clinical medicine
and professor of the principles and practice of medicine at
University College. He was president of the college of physicians
(1881-1888) ; he was elected F.R.S. in 1864, and received honorary
degrees from Oxford, Cambridge and Edinburgh. In 1861 he
was appointed physician extraordinary, and in 1862 physician
in ordinary, to Queen Victoria, and in 1863 physician in ordinary
to the prince of Wales; he attended both the prince consort and
the prince of Wales in their attacks of typhoid fever. In 1868
he was created a baronet. As a consultant Sir William Jenner
had a great reputation, and he left a large fortune when he died,
at Bishop's Waltham, Hants, on the nth of December 1898,
having then retired from practice for eight years owing to failing
health.
JENNET, a small Spanish horse; the word is sometimes applied
in English to a mule, the offspring of a she-ass and a stallion.
Jennet comes, through Fr. genet, from Span, jinete, a light
horseman who rides a la gineta, explained as " with his legs
tucked up." The name is taken to be a corruption of the
Arabic Zenata, a Berber tribe famed for its cavalry. English
and French transferred the word from the rider to his horse, a
meaning which the word has only acquired in Spain in modern
times.
JENOLAN CAVES, a series of remarkable caverns in Roxburgh
county, New South Wales, Australia; 1 13 m. W. by N. of Sydney,
and 36 m. from Tarana, which is served by railway. They are
the most celebrated of several similar groups in the limestone
of the country; they have not yielded fossils of great interest,
but the stalactitic formations, sometimes pure white, are of
extraordinary beauty. The caves have been rendered easily
accessible to visitors and lighted by electricity.
JENSEN, WILHELM (1837- ), German author, was born
at Heiligenhafen in Holstein on the isth of February 1837, the
son of a local Danish magistrate, who came of old patrician
Frisian stock. After attending the classical schools at Kiel and
321
Liibeck, Jensen studied medicine at the universities of Kiel,
Wiirzburg and Breslau. He, however, abandoned the medical
profession for that of letters, and after engaging for some years
in individual private study proceeded to Munich, where he
associated with men of letters. After a residence in Stuttgart
(1865-1860), where for a short time he conducted the Schwd-
bische Volks-Zeitung, he became editor in Flensburg of the
Norddeutsche Zeitung. In 1872 he again returned to Kiel, lived
from 1876 to 1888 in Freiburg im Breisgau, and since 1888 has
been resident in Munich.
Jensen is perhaps the most fertile of modern German writers of
fiction, more than one hundred works having proceeded from his
pen; but only comparatively few of them have caught the public
taste; such are the novels, Karin von Schweden (Berlin, 1878); Die
braune Erica (Berlin, 1868) ; and the tale, Die Pfeifer von Dusenbach,
Eine Geschichle aus dent Elsass (1884). Among others may be
mentioned: Barthenia (Berlin, 1877); Gotz und Gisela (Berlin, 1886);
Heimkunft (Dresden, 1894); Aus See und Sand (Dresden, 1897);
Luv und Lee (Berlin, 1897) ; and the narratives, Aus den Tagen der
Hansa (Leipzig, 1885); Aus stiller Zeit (Berlin, 1881-1885); and
Heimath (1901). Jensen also published some tragedies, among
which Dido (Berlin, 1870) and Der Kampf fur's Reich (Freiburg im
Br., 1884) may be mentioned.
JENYNS, SOAME (1704-1787), English author, was born in
London on the ist of January 1704, and was educated at
St John's College, Cambridge. In 1742 he was chosen M.P. for
Cambridgeshire, in which his property lay, and he afterwards sat
for the borough of Dunwich and the town of Cambridge. From
1755 to 1780 he was one of the commissioners of the board of
trade. He died on the i8th of December 1787.
For the measure of literary repute which he enjoyed during his
life Jenyns was indebted as much to his wealth and social stand-
ing as to his accomplishments and talents, though both were
considerable. His poetical works, the Art of Dancing (1727) and
Miscellanies (1770), contain many passages graceful and lively
though occasionally verging on licence. The first of his prose
works was his Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Evil
(1756). This essay was severely criticized on its appearance,
especially by Samuel Johnson in the Literary Magazine. John-
son, in a slashing review — the best paper of the kind he ever
wrote — condemned the book as a slight and shallow attempt to
solve one of the most difficult of moral problems. Jenyns, a
gentle and amiable man in the main, was extremely irritated by
his failure. He put forth a second edition of his work, prefaced
by a vindication, and tried to take vengeance on Johnson after
his death by a sarcastic epitaph.1 In 1776 Jenyns published his
View of the Internal Evidence of the Christian Religion. Though
at one period of his life he had affected a kind of deistic scepticism,
he had now returned to orthodoxy, and there seems no reason
to doubt his sincerity, questioned at the time, in defending
Christianity on the ground of its total variance with the prin-
ciples of human reason. The work was deservedly praised in its
day for its literary merits, but is so plainly the production of an
amateur in theology that as a scientific treatise it is valueless.
A collected edition of the works of Jenyns appeared in 1790,
with a biography by Charles Nalson Cole. There are several
references to him in Boswell's Johnson.
JEOPARDY, a term meaning risk or danger of death, loss or
other injury. The word, in Mid. Eng. juparti, jeupartie, &c.,
was adapted from 0. Fr. ju, later jeu, and parti, even game,
in medieval Latin jocus parlilus. This term was originally
used of a problem in chess or of a stage in any other game at
which the chances of success or failure are evenly divided
between the players. It was thus early transformed to any
state of uncertainty.
JEPHSON, ROBERT (1736-1803), British dramatist, was
born in Ireland. After serving for some years in the British
army, he retired with the rank of captain, and lived in England,
where he was the friend of Garrick, Reynolds, Goldsmith,
Johnson, Burke, Burney and Charles Townshend. His appoint-
ment as master of the horse to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland
1 Two lines will suffice: —
Boswell and Thrale, retailers of his wit,
Will tell you how he wrote, and talk'd, and cough 'd, and spit.
5
322
took him back to Dublin. He published, in the Mercury news-
paper a series of articles in defence of the lord-lieutenant's
administration which were afterwards collected and issued in
book form under the title of The Bachelor, or Speculations of
Jeoffry Wagsta/e. A pension of £300, afterwards doubled,
was granted him, and he held his appointment under twelve
succeeding viceroys. From 1775 he was engaged in the writing
of plays. Among others, his tragedy Braganza was successfully
performed at Drury Lane in 1775, Conspiracy in 1796, The Law
of Lombardy in 1779, and The Count of Narbonne at Covent
Garden in 1781. In 1794 he published an heroic poem Roman
Portraits, and The Confessions of Jacques Baptiste Couteau, a
satire on the excesses of the French Revolution. He died at
Blackrock, near Dublin, on the 3ist of May 1803.
JEPHTHAH, one of the judges of Israel, in the Bible, was an
illegitimate son of Gilead, and, being expelled from his father's
house by his lawful brethren, took refuge in the Syrian land of
Tob, where he gathered around him a powerful band of homeless
men like himself. The Ammonites pressing hard on his country-
men, the elders of Gilead called for his help, which he consented
to give on condition that in the event of victory he should be
made their head (Judg. xi. i-xii. 7). His name is best known in
history and literature in connexion with his vow, which led to
the sacrifice of his daughter on his successful return. The reluct-
ance shown by many writers in accepting the plain sense of the
narrative on this point proceeds to a large extent on unwarranted
assumptions as to the stage of ethical development which had
been reached in Israel in the period of the judges, or at the time
when the narrative took shape. The annual lamentation of
the women for her death suggests a mythical origin (see
ADONIS). Attached to the narrative is an account of a quarrel
between Jephthah and the Ephraimites. The latter were
defeated, and their retreat was cut off by the Gileadites, who had
seized the fords of the Jordan. As the fugitives attempted to
cross they were bidden to say " shibboleth " (" flood " or " ear
of corn "), and those who said "sibbSleth" (the Ephraimites
apparently being unused to sk), were at once put to death. In
this way 42,000 of the tribe were killed.1
The loose connexion between this and the main narrative, as also
the lengthy speech to the children of Ammon (xi. 14-27), which really
relates to Moab, has led some writers to infer that two distinct
heroes and situations have been combined. See further the com-
mentaries on the Book of Judges (q.v.), and Cheyne, Ency. Bib., art.
" Jephthah." (S. A. C.)
JERAHMEEL, (Heb. " May God pity "), in the Bible, a
clan which with Caleb, the Kenites and others, occupied the
southern steppes of Palestine, probably in the district around
Arad, about 17 m. S. of Hebron. It was on friendly terms with
David during his residence at Ziklag (i Sam. xxx. 29), and
it was apparently in his reign that the various elements of the
south were united and were reckoned to Israel. This is
expressed in the chronicler's genealogies which make Jerahmeel
and Caleb descendants of Judah (see DAVID; JUDAH).
On the names in I Chron. ii. see S. A. Cook, Ency. Bib., col.
2363 seq. Peleth (». 33) may be the origin of the Pejethites (2 Sam.
viii. 18; xv. 18; xx. 7), and since the name occurs in the revolt of
Korah (Num. xvi. i), it is possible that Jerahmeel, like Caleb and
the Kenites, had moved northwards from Kadesh. Samuel (q.v.)
was of Jerahmeel (i Sam. i. i; Septuagint), and the consecutive
Jerahmeelite names Nathan and Zabad (i Chron. ii. 36) have been
associated with the prophet and officer (Zabud, i Kings iv. 5) of the
times of David and Solomon respectively. The association of
Samuel and Nathan with this clan, if correct, is a further illustra-
tion of the importance of the south for the growth of biblical
history (see KENITES and RECHABITES). The Chronicles of Jerahmeel
(M. Gaster, Oriental Translation Fund, 1809) is a late production
containing a number of apocryphal Jewish legends of no historical
value. (S. A. C.)
1 Similarly a Syrian story teljs how the Druses came to slay
Ibrahim Pasha's troops, and desiring to spare the Syrians ordered
the men to say Carnal (camel). As the Syrians pronounce the g soft,
and the Egyptians the g, hard, the former were easily identified.
Other examples from the East will be found in H. C. Kay,
Yaman, p. 36, and in S. Lane-Pople, History of Egypt in the Middle
Ages, p. 300. Also, at the Sicilian Vespers (March 13, 1282) the
French were made to betray themselves by their pronunciation of
ceci and ciceri (Ital. c like tch ; Fr. c like s).
JEPHTHAH— JERBOA
JERBA, an island off the coast of North Africa in the Gulf
of Gabes, forming part of the regency of Tunisia. It is separated
from the mainland by two narrow straits, and save for these
channels blocks the entrance to a large bight identified with
the Lake Triton of the Romans. The western strait, opening
into the Gulf of Gabes, is a mile and a half broad; the eastern
strait is wider, but at low water it is possible to cross to the
mainland by the Tarik-el-Jemil (road of the camel). The
island is irregular in outline, its greatest length and breadth
being some 20 m., and its area 425 sq. m. It contains
neither rivers nor springs, but is supplied with water by wells
and cisterns. It is flat and well wooded with date palms and
olive trees. Pop. 35,000 to 40,000, the bulk of the inhabitants
being Berbers. Though many of them have adopted Arabic
a Berber idiom is commonly spoken. An affinity exists between
the Berbers of Jerba and the Beni Mzab. About 3000 Jews
live apart in villages of their own, and some 400 Europeans,
chiefly Maltese and Greeks, are settled in the island. Jerba has
a considerable reputation for the manufacture of the woollen
tissues interwoven with silk which are known as burnous
stuffs; a market for the sale of sponges is held from November
till March; and there is a considerable export trade in olives,
dates, figs and other fruits. The capital, trading centre and
usual landing-place are at Haumt-es-Suk (market quarter) on
the north side of the island (pop. 2500). Here are a medieval
fort, built by the Spaniards in 1284, and a modern fort, garri-
soned by the French. Gallala, to the south, is noted for the
manufacture of a kind of white pottery, much prized. At El
Kantara (the bridge) on the eastern strait, and formerly con-
nected with the mainland by a causeway, are extensive ruins
of a Roman city — probably those of Meninx, once a flourishing
seaport.
Jerba is the Lotophagitis or Lotus-eaters' Island of the
Greek and Roman geographers, and is also identified with the
Brachion of Scylax. The modern name appears as early as
the 4th century in Sextus Aurelius Victor. In the middle ages
the possession of Jerba was contested by the Normans of
Sicily, the Spaniards and the Turks, the Turks proving vic-
torious. In 1560 after the destruction of the Spanish fleet off
the coast of the island by Piali Pasha and the corsair Dragut
the Spanish garrison at Haumt-es-Suk was exterminated, and
a pyramid, 10 ft. broad at the base and 20 ft. high, was built
of their skulls and other bones. In 1848 this pyramid was pulled
down at the instance of the Christian community, and the
bones were buried in the Catholic cemetery. In general, from
the Arab invasion in the 7th century Jerba shared the fortunes
of Tunisia.
See H. Earth, Wanderungen durch die Kustenl. des Mittelmeeres
(Berlin, 1849); and H. von Maltzan, Reise in Tunis und Tripolis
(Leipzig, 1870).
JERBOA, properly the name of an Arabian and North
African jumping rodent mammal, Jaculus aegyptius (also known
as Jaculus, or Dipus, jaculus) typifying the family Jaculidae (or
Dipodidae), but in a wider sense applied to most of the repre-
sentatives of that family, which are widely distributed over the
desert and semi-desert tracts of the Old World, although un-
known in Africa south of the Sahara. In all the more typical
members of the family the three middle metatarsals of the long
hind-legs are fused into a cannon-bone; and in the true jerboas
of the genus Jaculus the two lateral toes, with their supporting
metatarsals, are lost, although they are present in the alactagas
(Alactaga), in which, however, as in certain allied genera, only
the three middle toes are functional. As regards the true
jerboas, there is a curious resemblance in the structure of their
hind-legs to that obtaining among birds. In both groups, for
instance, the lower part of the hind-leg is formed by a long,
slender cannon-bone, or metatarsus, terminating inferiorly in
triple condyles for the three long and sharply clawed toes, the
resemblance being increased by the fact that in both cases
the small bone of the leg (fibula) is fused with the large one
(tibia). It may also be noticed that in mammals and birds
which hop on two legs, such as jerboas, kangaroos, thrushes and
JERD AN— JEREMIAH
finches, the proportionate length of the thigh-bone or femur to
the tibia and foot (metatarsus and toes) is constant, being 2 to 5;
in animals, on the other hand, such as hares, horses and frogs,
which use all four feet, the corresponding lengths are 4 to 7. The
resemblance between the jerboa's and the bird's skeleton is
owing to adaptation to a similar mode of existence. In the
young jerboa the proportion of the femur to the rest of the leg
is the same as in ordinary running animals. Further, at an early
stage of development the fibula is a complete and separate bone,
while the three metatarsals, which subsequently fuse together
to form the cannon-bone, are likewise separate. In addition to
their long hind and short fore limbs, jerboas are mostly charac-
terized by their silky coats — of a fawn colour to harmonize with
their desert surroundings — their large eyes, and long tails and
ears. As is always the case with large-eared animals, the
tympanic bullae of the skull are of unusually large size; the size
varying in the different genera according to that of the ears.
(For the characteristics of the family and of its more important
generic representatives, see RODENTIA.)
In the Egyptian jerboa the length of the body is 8 in., and that
of the tail, which is long, cylindrical and covered with short hair
terminated by a tuft, 10 in. The five-toed front limbs are ex-
tremely short, while the hind pair are six times as long. When
about to spring, this jerboa raises its body by means of the hinder
extremities, and supports itself at the same time upon its tail,
while the fore-feet are so closely pressed to the breast as to be
scarcely visible, which doubtless suggested the name Dipus, or two-
footed. It then leaps into the air and alights upon its four feet, but
instantaneously erecting itself, it makes another spring, and so on
in such rapid succession as to appear as if rather flying than running.
It is a gregarious animal, living in considerable colonies in burrows,
which it excavates with its nails and teeth in the sandy soil of Egypt
and Arabia. In these it remains during great part of the day,
emerging at night in search of the herbs on which it feeds. It is
exceedingly shy, and this, together with its extraordinary agility,
renders it difficult to capture. The Arabs, however, succeed by
closing up all the exits from the burrows with a single exception, by
which the rodents are forced to escape, and over which a net is
placed for their capture. When confined, they will gnaw through
the hardest wood in order to make their escape. The Persian jerboa
(Alactaga indica) is also a nocturnal burrowing animal, feeding
chiefly on grain, which it stores up in underground repositories,
closing these when full, and only drawing upon them when the supply
of food above ground is exhausted (see also JUMPING MOUSE).
JERDAN, WILLIAM (1782-1869), Scottish journalist, was
born on the i6th of April 1782, at Kelso, Scotland. During the
years between 1799 and 1806 he spent short periods in a country
lawyer's office, a London West India merchant's counting-
house, an Edinburgh solicitor's chambers,and held the position of
surgeon's mate on board H.M. guardship "Gladiator" in Ports-
mouth Harbour, under his uncle, who was surgeon. He went to
London in 1806, and became a newspaper reporter. He was in the
lobby of the House of Commons on the nth of May 1812 when
Spencer Perceval was shot, and was the first to seize the assassin.
By 1812 he had become editor of The Sun, a semi-official Tory
paper; he occasionally inserted literary articles, then quite an
unusual proceeding; but a quarrel with the chief proprietor
brought that engagement to a close in 1817. He passed next to
the editor's chair of the Literary Gazette, which he conducted with
success for thirty-four years. Jerdan's position as editor
brought him into contact with many distinguished writers. An
account of his friends, among whom Canning was a special
intimate, is to be found in his Men I have Known (1866). When
Jerdan retired in 1850 from the editorship of the Literary
Gazette his pecuniary affairs were far from satisfactory. A
testimonial of over £900 was subscribed by his friends; and in
1853 a government pension of 100 guineas was conferred on
him by Lord Aberdeen. He published his Autobiography in
1852-1853, and died on the nth of July 1869.
JEREMIAH, in the Bible, the last pre-exilic prophet (fl. 626-
586 B.C. ?), son of Hilkiah.
Early Days of Jeremiah. — There must anciently have existed
one or more prose works on Jeremiah and his times, written
partly to do honour to the prophet, partly to propagate those
views respecting Israel's past with which the name of
323
Jeremiah was associated. Some fragments of this work (or
these works) have come down to us; they greatly add to the
popularity of the Book of Jeremiah. Strict historical truth we
must not ask of them, but they do give us what was believed
concerning Jeremiah in the following age, and we must believe
that the personality so honoured was an extraordinary one.
We have also a number of genuine prophecies which admit
us into Jeremiah's inner nature. These are our best authorities,
but they are deficient in concrete facts. By birth Jeremiah was
a countryman; he came of a priestly family whose estate lay at
Anathoth " in the land of Benjamin " (xxxii. 3; cf. i. i). He
came forward as a prophet in the thirteenth year of Josiah
(626 B.C.) , still young but irresistibly impelled. Unfortunately the
account of the call and of the object of the divine caller come to
us from a later hand (ch. i.), but we can well believe that the
concrete fact which the prophetic call illuminated was an impend-
ing blow to the state (i. 13-16; cf. ch. iv.). What the blow
exactly was is disputed, * but it is certain that Jeremiah saw the
gathering storm and anticipated its result, while the statesmen
were still wrepped in a false security. Five years later came
the reform movement produced by the " finding " of the " book
of the law " in the Temple in 621 B.C. (2 Kings xxii. 8), and some
critics have gathered from Jer. xi. 1-8 that Jeremiah joined the
ranks of those who publicly supported this book in Jerusalem
and elsewhere. To others this view appears in itself improb-
able. How can a man like Jeremiah have advocated any such
panacea? He was indeed not at first a complete pessimist,
but to be a preacher of Deuteronomy required a sanguine temper
which a prophet of the school of Isaiah could not possess. Be-
sides, there is a famous passage (viii. 8, see R.V.) in which
Jeremiah delivers a vehement attack upon the " scribes " (or,
as we might render, " bookmen ") and their " false pen." If,
as Wellhausen and Duhm suppose, this refers to Deuteronomy
(i.e. the original Deuteronomy), the incorrectness of the theory
referred to is proved. And even if we think that the phraseology
of viii. 8 applies rather to a body of writings than to a single book,
yet there is no good ground (xi. 1-8 and xxxiv. 1 2 being of doubt-
ful origin) for supposing that Jeremiah would have excepted
Deuteronomy from his condemnation.
Stages of his Development. — At first our prophet was not alto-
gether a pessimist. He aspired to convince the better minds
that the only hope for Israelites, as well as for Israel, lay in
" returning " to the true Yahweh, a deity who was no mere
national god, and was not to be cajoled by the punctual offering
of costly sacrifices. When Jeremiah wrote iv. 1-4 he evidently
considered that the judgment could even then be averted. After-
wards he became less hopeful, and it was perhaps a closer
acquaintance with the manners of the capital that served to
disillusionize him. He began his work at Anathoth, but v. 1-5
(as Duhm points out) seems to come from one who has just now
for the first time "run to and fro in the streets of Jerusalem,"
observing and observed. And what is the result of his expedi-
tion? That he cannot find a single just and honest man; that
high and low, rich and poor, are all ignorant of the true method
of worshipping God (" the way of Yahweh," v. 4). It would
seem as if Anathoth were less corrupt than the capital, the moral
state of which so shocked Jeremiah. And yet he does not really
go beyond the great city-prophet Isaiah who calls the men of
Jerusalem " a people of Gomorrah " (i. 10). With all reverence,
an historical student has to deduct something from both these
statements. It is true that commercial prosperity had put a
severe strain on the old morality, and that contact with other
foe
to t __, „
view is that the Scythians (see Herod, i. 76, 103-106; iv. i) are meant.
Neither of these views is satisfactory. The passage v. 15-17 is too
definite for (i), and as for (2), the idea of a threatened Scythian inva-
sion lacks a sufficient basis. Those who hold (2) have to suppose that
original references to the Scythians were retouched under the impres-
sionof Chaldean invasions. Hence Cheyne's theory of a north Arabian
invasion from the land of Zaphon = Zibeon (Gen. xxxvi. 2, 14),
i.e. Ishmael. Cf. N. Schmidt, Ency. Bib., Zibeon, " Scythians,"
§ 8 ; Cheyne, Critica Biblica, part i. (Isaiah and Jeremiah).
324
JEREMIAH
peoples, as well as the course of political history, had appeared
to lower the position of the God of Israel in relation to other gods.
Still, some adherents of the old Israelitish moral and religious
standards must have survived, only they were not to be found
in the chief places of concourse, but as a rule in coteries which
handed on the traditions of Amos and Isaiah in sorrowful
retirement.
Danger of Book Religion. — Probably, too, even in the highest
class there were some who had a moral sympathy with Jeremiah;
otherwise we can hardly account for the contents of Deuteronomy,
at least if the book " found " in the Temple at all resembled the
cential portion of our Deuteronomy. And the assumption
seems to be confirmed by the respectful attitude of certain
" elders of the land " in xxvi. 17 sqq., and of the " princes " in
xxxvi. 19, 25, towards Jeremiah, which may, at any rate in part,
have been due to the recent reform movement. If therefore
Jeremiah aimed at Deuteronomy in the severe language of viii.8,
he went too far. History shows that book religion has special
dangers of its own.1 Nevertheless the same incorruptible
adviser also shows that book religion may be necessary as an
educational instrument, and a compromise between the two
types of religion is without historical precedent.
Reaction: Opposition to Jeremiah. — This, however, could not
as yet be recognized by the friends of prophecy, even though it
seemed for a time as if the claims of book religion were rebuffed
by facts. The death of the pious king Josiah at Megiddo in
608 B.C. dashed the high hopes of the " book-men," but meant no
victory for Jeremiah. Its only result for the majority was a
falling back on the earlier popular cultus of the Baals, and on the
heathen customs introduced, or reintroduced, by Josiah's grand-
father, Manasseh. Would that we possessed the section of the
prophet's biography which described his attitude immediately
after the news of the battle of Megiddo! Let us, however, be
thankful for what we have, and notably for the detailed narra-
tives in chs. xxvi. and xxxvi. The former is dated in the
beginning of the reign of Jehoiakim, though Wellhausen suspects
that the date is a mistake, and that the real occasion was the
death of Josiah. The one clear-sighted patriot saw the full
meaning of the tragedy of Megiddo, and for " prophesying against
this city " — secured, as men thought, by the Temple (vii. 4) — he
was accused by " the priests, the prophets, and all the people" of
high treason. But the divinity which hedged a prophet saved
him. The " princes," supported by certain " elders " and by
" the people " (quick to change their leaders), succeeded in
quashing the accusation and setting the prophet free. No king,
be it observed, is mentioned. The latter narrative is still more
exciting. In the fourth year of Jehoiakim (= the first of
Nebuchadrezzar, xxv. i) Jeremiah was bidden to-write down " all
the words that Yahweh had spoken to him against Jerusalem
(so LXX.), Judah and all the nations from the days of Josiah
onwards " (xxxvi. 2). So at least the authors of Jeremiah's
biography tell us. They add that in the next year Jeremiah's
scribe Baruch read the prophecies of Jeremiah first to the people
assembled in the Temple, then to the " princes," and then to the
king, who decided his own future policy by burning Baruch's
roll in the brazier. We cannot, however, bind ourselves tq this
tradition. Much more probably the prophecy was virtually a
new one (i.e. even if some old passages were repeated yet the
setting was new), and the burden of the prophecy was " The
king of Babylon shall come and destroy this land." 2 We cannot
therefore assent to the judgment that " we have, at least as
regards [the] oldest portions [of the book] information con-
siderably more specific than is usual in the case of the writings
of the prophets."*
Fall of the State. — Under Zedekiah the prophet was less fortu-
nate. Such was the tension of feeling that the " princes," who
1 Cf. Ewald, The Prophets, Eng. trans., iii. 63, 64.
1 Cheyne, Ency. Brit, (gth edi), " Jeremiah," suggests after Gratz
that the roll simply contained ch. xxv., omitting the most obvious
interpolations. Against this view see N. Schmidt, Ency. Bib.,
" Jeremiah (Book)," § 8, who, however, accepts the negative part
of Cheyne's arguments.
' Dnver, Introd. to the Lit. of the O.T. (6), p. 249.
were formerly friendly to Jeremiah, now took up an attitude of
decided hostility to him. At last they had him consigned to a
miry dungeon, and it was the king who (at the instance of the
Cushite Ebed-melech) intervened for his relief, though he re-
mained a prisoner in other quarters till the fall of Jerusalem
(586 B.C.). Nebuchadrezzar, who is assumed to have heard of
Jeremiah's constant recommendations of submission, gave him
the choice either of going to Babylon or of remaining in the
country (chs. xxxviii. seq.). He chose the latter and resided
with Gedaliah, the native governor, at Mizpah. On the murder
of Gedaliah he was carried to Mizraim or Egypt, or perhaps
to the land of Mizrim in north Arabia — against his will
(chs. xl.-xliii.). How far all this is correct we know not. The
graphic style of a narrative is no sufficient proof of its truth.
Conceivably enough the story of Jeremiah's journey to Egypt
(or Mizrim) may have been imagined to supply a background for
the artificial prophecies ascribed to Jeremiah in chs. xlvi.-li.
A legend in Jerome and Epiphanius states that he was stoned
to death at Daphnae, but the biography, though not averse
from horrors, does not mention this.
A Patriot,? — Was Jeremiah really a patriot? The question
has been variously answered. He was not a Phocion, for he
never became the tool of a foreign power. To say withWinckler4
that he was " a decided adherent of the Chaldean party " is to go
beyond the evidence. He did indeed counsel submission, but
only because his detachment from party gave him a clearness
of vision (cf. xxxviii. 17, 18) which the politicians lacked. How
he suffered in his uphill course he has told us himself (xv. 10-21).
In after ages the oppressed people saw in his love for Israel and
his patient resignation their own realized ideal. " And Onias
said, This is the lover of the brethren, he who prayeth much
for the people and the holy city, Jeremiah the prophet of God "
(2 Mace. xv. 14). And in proportion as the popular belief in
Jeremiah rose, fresh prophecies were added to the book (notably
those of the new covenant and of the restoration of the people
after seventy years) to justify it. Professor N. Schmidt has gone
further into the character of this sympathetic prophet, Ency. Bib.
" Jeremiah," § 5.
Jeremiah's Prophecies. — It has been said above that our best
authorities are Jeremiah's own prophecies. Which may these be?
Before answering we must again point out (see also ISAIAH) that the
records of the pre-exilic prophets came down in a fragmentary
form, and that these fragments needed much supplementing to adapt
them to the use of post-exilic readers. In Jeremiah, as in Isaiah,
we must constantly ask to what age do the phraseology, the ideas
and the implied circumstances most naturally point? According
to Duhm there are many passages in which metre (see also AMOS)
may also be a factor in our critical conclusions. Jeremiah, he thinks,
always uses the same metre. Giesebrecht, on the other hand,
maintains that there are passages which are certainly Jeremiah's,
but which are not in what Duhm calls Jeremiah's metre; Giesebrecht
also, himself rather conservative, considers Duhm remarkably free
with his emendations. There has also to be considered whether
the text of the poetical passages has not often become corrupt, not
only from ordinary causes but through the misunderstanding and
misreading of north Arabian names on the part of late scribes and
editors, the danger to Judah from north Arabia being (it is held)
not less in pre-exilic times than the danger from Assyria and Baby-
lonia, so that references to north Arabia are only to be expected.
To bring educated readers into touch with critical workers it is
needful to acquaint them with these various points, the neglect of
any one of which may to some extent injure the results of criticism.
It is a new stage of criticism on which we have entered, so that no
single critic can be reckoned as the authority on Jeremiah. But
since the results of the higher criticism depend on the soundness and
thoroughness of the criticism called " lower," and since Duhm has
the advantage of being exceptionally free from that exaggerated
respect for the letters of the traditional text which has survived the
destruction of the old superstitious veneration for the vowel-points,
it may be best to give the student his " higher critical " results,
dated 1901. Let us premise, however, that tne portions mentioned
in the gth edition of the Ency. Brit, as having been "entirely or
in part denied," to Jeremiah, viz. x. 1-16; xxx.; xxxiii.; l.-li. and
Hi., are still regarded in their present form as non-Jeremianic.
The question which next awaits decision is whether any part of the
booklet on foreign nations (xxv., xlvi.-li.) can safely be regarded as
Jeremianic. Giesebrecht still asserts the genuineness of xxv. 15-24
(apart from glosses), xlvii. (in the main) and xlix. 7, 8, IO, II.
Against these views see N. Schmidt, Ency. Bib., col. 2384.
4 In Hclmolt's Wellgeschichfe, iii. 211.
JEREMY- -JERICHO
Let us now listen to Duhm, who analyses the book into six
groups of passages. These are (a) i.— xxv., the " words of Jeremiah."
(i. i) ; (b) xxvi.-xxix., passages from Baruch's biography of Jeremiah ;
(c) xxx.-xxxi., the book of the future of Israel and Judah; (d)
xxxii.-xlv., from Baruch; (e) xlvi.-li., the prophecies "concerning
the nations";1 (f) Hi., historical appendix. Upon examining these
groups we find that besides a prose letter (ch. xxix.), about
sixty poetical pieces may be Jeremiah's. A: Anathoth passages
before 621, (a) ii. 2b, 3, 14-28; ii. 29-37; "i- I-5; "'• I2b. 13. 19. 20;
iii. 21-25; iv. I, 3, 4; these form a cycle, (b) xxxi. 2-6; 15-20; 21,
22; another cycle, (c) iv. 5-8; lib, I2a, 13, 15-173; 19-21 ; 23-26;
29~3!; visions and "auditions" of the impending invasion.
B: Jerusalem passages, (d) v. i-6a; 60-9; 10-17; vi. 1-5; 6b-8;
9-14; 16, 17, 20; 22-26a; 27-30; vii. 28, 29; viii. 4~7a; 8, 9. 13;
14-17; viii. 18-23; ix. 1-8; 9 (short song); 16-18; 19-21; x. 19, 20,
22 ; reign of Josian, strong personal element, (e) xxii. 10 (jehoahaz).
xxii. 13-17; probably too xi. 15, 16; xii. 7-12 (Jehoiakim). xxii.
18, 19, perhaps too xxii. 6b, 7; 20-23; a"d the cycle xiii. 15, 16;
17; 18, 19; 20, 2ia, 22-253, 26, 27 (later, Jehoiakim). xxii. 24;
xxii. 28 (Jehoiachin). (f) Later poems, xiv. 2-10; xv. 5-9; xvi.
5-7; xviii. 13-17; xxiii. 9-12; 13-15; xi. 18-20; xv. 10-12; 15-193,
and 20, 21 ; xvii. 9, 10, 14, 16, 17; xviii. 18-20; xx. 7-11 ; xx. 14-18;
xiv. 17, 18; xvii. l-4;xxxviii.24; assigned to the close of Zedekiah's
time.
Two Recensions of the Text. — It has often been said that we have
virtually two recensions of the text, that represented by the Septua-
gint and the Massoretic text, and critics have taken different sides,
some for one and some for the other. " Recension," however, is
a bad term; it implies that the two texts which undeniably exist
were the result of revising and editing according to definite critical
principles. Such, however, is not the case. It is true that " there are
(in the LXX.) many omissions of words, sentences, verses and whole
passages, in fact, that altogether about 2700 words are wanting,
or the eighth part of the Massoretic text " (Bleek). It may also be
admitted that the scribes who produced the Hebrew basis of the
Septuagint version, conscious of the unsettled state of the text,
did not shrink from what they considered a justifiable simplification.
But we must also grant that those from whom the " written "
Hebrew text proceeds allowed themselves to fill up and to repeat
without any sufficient warrant. In each case in which there is a
genuine difference of reading between the two texts, it is for the
critic to decide; often, however, he will have to seek to go behind
what both the texts present in order to constitute a truer text than
either. Here is the great difficulty of the future. We may add to
the credit of the Septuagint that the position given to the prophecies
on " the nations " (chs. xlvi.-li. in our Bible) in the Septuagint is
probably more original than that in the Massoretic text. On this
point see especially Schmidt, Ency. Bib. " Jeremiah (Book) " §§ 6
and 21 ; Davidson, Hastings's Diet. Bible, ii. 5730-575; Driver,
Introduction (8th ed.), pp. 269, 270.
The best German commentary is that of Cornill (1905). A skilful
translation by Driver, with notes intended for ordinary students
(1906) should also be mentioned. (T. K. C.)
JEREMY, EPISTLE OF, an apocryphal book of the Old
Testament. This letter purports to have been written by
Jeremiah to the exiles who were already in Babylon or on the
way thither. The author was a Hellenistic Jew, and not im-
probably a Jew of Alexandria. His work, which shows little
literary skill, was written with a serious practical purpose.
He veiled his fierce attack on the idol gods of Egypt by holding
up to derision the idolatry of Babylon. The fact that Jeremiah
(xxix. i sqq.) was known to have written a letter of this nature
naturally suggested to a Hellenist, possibly of the ist century
B.C. or earlier, the idea of a second epistolary undertaking, and
other passages of Jeremiah's prophecy (x. 1-12; xxix. 4-23)
may have determined also its general character and contents.
The writer warned the exiles that they were to remain in
captivity for seven generations; that they would there see the
worship paid to idols, from all participation in which they were
to hold aloof; for that idols were nothing save the work of men's
hands, without the powers of speech, hearing or self-preserva-
tion. They could not bless their worshippers even in the smallest
concerns of life; they were indifferent to moral qualities, and
were of less value than the commonest household objects, and
finally, " with rare irony, the author compared an idol to a
scarecrow (v. 70), impotent to protect, but deluding to the
imagination " (MARSHALL).
The date of the epistle is uncertain. It is believed by some
scholars to be referred to in 2 Mace. ii. 2, which says that Jeremiah
charged the exiles " not to forget the statutes of the Lord, neither
1 Ii. 59-643, however, is a specimen of imaginative " Midrashic "
history. See Giesebrecht's monograph.
325
to be led astray in their minds when they saw images of gold and
silver and the adornment thereof." But the reference is disputed
by Fritzsche, Gifford, Shiirer and others. The epistle was in-
cluded in the Greek canon. There was no question of its canonicity
till the time of Jerome, who termed it a pseudepigraph.
See Fritzsche, Handb. zu den Appk., 1851; Gifford, in Speaker's
Apoc. ii. 286-303; Marshall, in Hastings' Diet. Bible, ii. 578-579.
(R. H. C.)
JERfeZ DE LA FRONTERA (formerly XERES), a town of
southern Spain, in the province of Cadiz, near the right bank
of the river Guadalete, and on the Seville-Cadiz railway, about
7 m. from the Atlantic coast. Pop. (1900), 63,473. Jerez is
built in the midst of an undulating plain of great fertility. Its
whitewashed houses, clean, broad streets, and squares planted
with trees extend far beyond the limits formerly enclosed by the
Moorish walls, almost entirely demolished. The principal
buildings are the isth-century church of San Miguel, the 17th-
century collegiate church with its lofty bell-tower, the 16th-
century town-hall, superseded, for official purposes, by a modern
edifice, the bull-ring, and many hospitals, charitable institutions
and schools, including academies of law, medicine and com-
merce. But the most characteristic features of Jerez are the
huge bodegas, or wine-lodges, for the manufacture and storage of
sherry, and the vineyards, covering more than 150,000 acres,
which surround it on all sides. The town is an important
market for grain, fruit and livestock, but its staple trade is in
wine. Sherry is also produced in other districts, but takes
its name, formerly written in English as sherris or xeres, from
Jerez. The demand for sherry diminished very greatly during
the last quarter of the igth century, especially in England,
which had been the chief consumer. In 1872 the sherry shipped
from Cadiz to Great Britain alone was valued at £2,500,000;
in 1902 the total export hardly amounted to one-fifth of this
sum. The wine trade, however, still brings a considerable
profit, and few towns of southern Spain display greater commer-
cial activity than Jerez. In the earlier part of the i8th century
the neighbourhood suffered severely from yellow fever; but it
was rendered comparatively healthy when in 1869 an aqueduct
was opened to supply pure water. Strikes and revolutionary
disturbances have frequently retarded business in more recent
years.
Jerez has been variously identified with the Roman Munici-
pium Seriense; with Asido, perhaps the original of the Moorish
Sherish; and with Hasta Regia, a name which may survive in
the designation of La Mesa de Asta, a neighbouring hill. Jer6z was
taken from the Moors by Ferdinand III. of Castile (1217-1252);
but it was twice recaptured before Alphonso X. finally occupied
it in 1264. Towards the close of the i4th century it received
the title de la Frontera, i.e. " of the frontier," common to
several towns on the Moorish border.
JEREZ DE LOS CABALLEROS, a town of south-western
Spain, in the province of Badajoz, picturesquely situated on
two heights overlooking the river Ardila, a tributary of the
Guadiana, 12 m. E. of the Portuguese frontier. Pop. (1900),
10,271. The old town is surrounded by a Moorish wall with six
gates; the newer portion is well and regularly built, and planted
with numerous orange and other fruit trees. Owing to the lack
of railway communication Jerez is of little commercial impor-
tance; its staple trade is in agricultural produce, especially in
ham and bacon from the large herds of swine which are reared
in the surrounding oak forests. The town is said to have been
founded by Alphonso IX. of Leon in 1229; in 1232 it was ex-
tended by his son St Ferdinand, who gave it to the knights
templar. Hence the name Jerez de los Caballeros, " Jerez of
the knights."
JERICHO (tax 'ITV, once nhn;, a word of disputed
meaning, whether "fragrant" or "moon [-god] city"), an
important town in the Jordan valley some 5 m. N. of the Dead
Sea. The references to it in the Pentateuch are confined to
rough geographical indications of the latitude of the trans-
Jordanic camp of the Israelites in Moab before their crossing of
the river. This was the first Canaanite city to be attacked and
reduced by the victorious Israelites. The story of its conquest is
326
JERKIN— JEROME, ST
fully narrated in the first seven chapters of Joshua. There must
be some little exaggeration in the statement that Jericho was
totally destroyed; a hamlet large enough to be enumerated
among the towns of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 21) must have re-
mained; but that it was small is shown by the fact that it was
deemed a suitable place for David's ambassadors to retire to
after the indignities put upon them by Hanun (2 Sam. x. 5;
i Chron. xix. 5). Its refortification was due to a Bethelite named
Kiel, who endeavoured to avert the curse of Joshua by offering
his sons as sacrifices at certain stages of the work (i Kings xvi.
34). After this event it grew again into importance and became
the site of a college of prophets (2 Kings ii. 4 sqq.) for whom
Elisha " healed " its poisonous waters. The principal spring
in the neighbourhood of Jericho still bears (among the foreign
residents) the name of Elisha; the natives call it, Ain es-Sultan,
or " Sultan's spring." To Jericho the victorious Israelite
marauders magnanimously returned their Judahite captives at
the bidding of the prophet Oded (2 Chron. xxviii. 15). Here
was fought the last fight between the Babylonians and Zede-
kiah, wherein the kingdom of Judah came to an end (2 Kings
xxv. 5; Jer. xxxix. 5, lii. 8). In the New Testament Jericho
is connected with the well-known stories of Bar-Timaeus
(Matt. xx. 29; Mark x. 46; Luke xviii. 35) and Zacchaeus
(Luke xix. i) and with the good Samaritan (Luke x. 30).
The extra-Biblical history of Jericho is as disastrous as are the
records preserved in the Scriptures. Bacchides, the general of the
Syrians, captured and fortified it (i. Mace. ix. 50), Aristobulus
(Jos. Ant. XIV. i. 2) also took it, Pompey (ib. XIV. iv. i) encamped
here on his way to Jerusalem. Before Herod its inhabitants ran
away (ib. XIV. xv. 3) as they did before Vespasian (Wars , IV. viii. 2).
The reason of this lack of warlike quality was no doubt the enervating
effect of the great heat of the depression in which the city lies, which
has the same effect on the handful of degraded humanity that still
occupies the ancient site.
Few places in Palestine are more fertile. It was the city of
palm trees of the ancient record of the Israelite invasion preserved
in part in Judg. i. 16; and Josephus speaks of its fruitfulness
with enthusiasm (Wars IV. 8, 3). Even now with every possible
hindrance in the way of cultivation it is an important centre of
fruit-growing.
The modern er-Riha is a poor squalid village of, it is estimated,
about 300 inhabitants. It is not built exactly on the ancient site.
Indeed, the site of Jericho has shifted several times. The mound
of Tell es-Sultan, near " Elisha's Fountain," north of the modern
village, no doubt covers the Canaanite town. There are two later
sites, of Roman or Herodian date, one north, the other west, of this.
It was probably the crusaders who established the modern site.
An old tower attributed to them is to be seen in the village, and in
the surrounding mountains are many remains of early monasticism.
Aqueducts, ruined sugar-mills, and other remains of ancient industry
abound in the neighbourhood. The whole district is the private
property of the sultan of Turkey. In 1907-8 the Canaanite Jericho
was excavated under the direction of Prof. Sellin of Vienna.
See " The German Excavations at Jericho," Pal. Explor. Fund,
Quart. Statem. (191°). PP- 54-68-
JERKIN, a short close-fitting jacket, made usually of leather,
and without sleeves, the typical male upper garment of the
i6th and lyth centuries. The origin of the word is unknown.
The Dutch woidjurk, a child's frock, often taken as the source,
is modern, and represents neither the sound nor the sense of the
English word. In architecture the term " jerkin-roofed " is
applied, probably with some obscure connexion with the gar-
ment, to a particular form of gable end, the gable being cut
off half way up the roof and sloping back like a " hipped roof "
to the edge.
JEROBOAM (Heb. ydrob'dm, apparently " Am ['the clan,'
here perhaps a divine name] contends "; LXX. icpoj3oa/j), the
name of two kings in the Bible.
i. The first king of (north) Israel after the disruption (see
SOLOMON). According to the traditions of his early life (i Kings
xi. 26 sqq. and LXX.), he was an Ephraimite who for his ability
was placed over the forced levy of Ephraim and Manasseh.
Having subsequently incurred Solomon's suspicions he fled to
Shishak, king of Egypt, and remained with him until Reho-
boam's accession. When the latter came to be made king at
Shechem, the old religious centre (see ABIMELECH), hopes were
entertained that a more lenient policy would be introduced.
But Rehoboam refused to depart from Solomon's despotic rule,
and was tactless enough to send Adoniram, the overseer of the
corvee. He was stoned to death, and Rehoboam realizing
the temper of the people fled to Jerusalem and prepared for
war. Jeroboam became the recognized leader of the northern
tribes.1 Conflicts occurred (i Kings xiv. 30), but no details are
preserved except the late story of Rehoboam's son Abijah
in 2 Chron. xiii. Jeroboam's chief achievement was the forti-
fication of Shechem (his new capital) and of Penuel in east
Jordan. To counteract the influence of Jerusalem he established
golden calves at Dan and Bethel, an act which to later ages was
as gross a piece of wickedness as his rebellion against the legiti-
mate dynasty of Judah. No notice has survived of Shishak's
invasion of Israel (see REHOBOAM), and after a reign of twenty-two
years Jeroboam was succeeded by Nadab, whose violent death
two years later brought the whole house of Jeroboam to an end.
The history of the separation of Judah and Israel in the loth
century B.C. was written from a strong religious standpoint at a
date considerably later than the event itself. The visit of Ahijah
to Shiloh (xi. 29-39), to announce symbolically the rending of the
kingdom, replaces some account of a rebellion in which Jeroboam
" lifted up his hand " (». 27) against Solomon. To such an account,
not to the incident of Ahijah and the cloak, his flight (». 40) is the
natural sequel. The story of Ahiiah's prophecy against Jeroboam
(ch. xiv.) is not in the original LXX., but another version of the same
narrative appears at xii. 24 (LXX.), in which there is no reference
to a previous promise to Jeroboam through Ahijah, but the prophet
is introduced as a new character. Further, in this version (xii. 24)
the incident of the tearing of the cloak is related of Shemaiah and
placed at the convention of Shechem. Shemaiah is the prophet
who counselled Rehoboam to refrain from war (xii. 21-24); the in-
junction is opposed to xiv. 30, but appears to be intended to explain
Rehoboam's failure to overcome north Israel. (See W. R. Smith,
Old Test, in Jewish Church (2nd ed.), 117 sqq.; Winckler, Alte Test.
Untersuch. 12 sqq., and J. Skinner, Century Bible: Kings, pp. 443 sqq.)
2. JEROBOAM, son of Joash (2) a contemporary of Azariah
king of Judah. He was one of the greatest of the kings of
Israel. He succeeded in breaking the power of Damascus,
which had long been devastating his land, and extended his
kingdom from Hamath on the Orontes to the Dead Sea. The
brief summary of his achievements preserved in 2 Kings xiv. 23
sqq. may be supplemented by the original writings of Amos and
Hosea.1 There appears to be an allusion in Amos vi. 13 to
the recovery of Ashteroth-Karnaim and Lodebar in E. Jordan,
and the conquest of Moab (Isa. xv. seq.) is often ascribed to
this reign. After a period of prosperity, internal disturbances
broke out and the northern kingdom hastened to its fall. Jero-
boam was succeeded by his son Zechariah, who after six months
was killed at Ibleam (so read in 2 Kings xv. 10; cp. ix. 27,
murder of Ahaziah) by Shallum the son of Jabesh — i.e. possibly
of Jabesh-Gilead — who a month later fell to Menahem (?.*.).
(S. A. C.)
See, further, JEWS §§ 7, 9 and §§ 12, 13.
JEROME, ST (HIERONYMUS, in full EUSEBIUS SOPHRONIUS
HIERONYMUS) (c. 340-420), was born at Strido (modern
Strigau ?), a town on the border of Dalmatia fronting Pannonia,
destroyed by the Goths in A.D. 377. What is known of Jerome
has mostly been recovered from his own writings. He appears to
have been born about 340; his parents were Christians, orthodox
though living among people mostly Arians and wealthy.
He was at first educated at home, Bonosus, a life-long friend,
sharing his youthful studies, and was afterwards sent to Rome.
Donatus taught him grammar and explained the Latin poets.
Victorinus taught him rhetoric. He attended the law-courts,
and listened to the Roman advocates pleading in the Forum.
He went to the schools of philosophy, and heard lectures on
Plato, Diogenes, Clitomachus and Carneades; the conjunction
of names show how philosophy had become a dead tradition.
1 On the variant traditions in the Hebrew text and the Septuagint,
see the commentaries on Kings.
"See also JONAH. In 2 Rings xiv. 28, "Hamath, which had
belonged to Judah " (R.V.) is incorrect; Winckler (Keilinschrift. u.
Alte Test., 2nd ed., 262) suspects a reference to Israel's overlordship
in Judah; Burney (Heb. Text of Kings) reads: " how he fought with
Damascus and now he turned away the wrath of Yahweh from
Israel "; see also Ency. Bib. col. 2406 n. 4, and the commentaries.
JEROME, ST
His Sundays were spent in the catacombs in discovering graves
of the martyrs and deciphering inscriptions. Pope Liberius
baptized him in 360; three years later the news of the death of
the emperor Julian came to Rome, and Christians felt relieved
from a great dread.
When his student days were over Jerome returned to Stride,
but did not stay there long. His character was formed. He was
a scholar, with a scholar's tastes and cravings for knowledge,
easily excited, bent on scholarly discoveries. From Stride he
went to Aquileia, where he formed some friendships among
the monks of the large monastery, notably with Rufinus, with
whom he was destined to quarrel bitterly over the question of
Origen's orthodoxy and worth as a commentator; for Jerome was
a man who always sacrificed a friend to an opinion, and when he
changed sides in a controversy expected his acquaintances to
follow him. From Aquileia he went to Gaul (366-370), visiting
in turn the principal places in that country, from Narbonne
and Toulouse in the south to Treves on the north-east frontier.
He stayed some time at Treves studying and observing, and it
was there that he first began to think seriously upon sacred
things. From Treves he returned to Strido, and from Stride
to Aquileia. He settled down to literary work in Aquileia
(370-373) and composed there his first original tract, De muliere
septies percussa, in the form of a letter to his friend Innocentius.
Some dispute caused him to leave Aquileia suddenly; and with a
few companions, Innocentius, Evagrius, and Heliodorus being
among them, he started for a long tour in the East. The epistle
to Rufinus (3rd in Vallarsi's enumeration) tells us the route.
They went through Thrace, visiting Athens, Bithynia, Galatia,
Pontus, Cappadocia and Cilicia, to Antioch, Jerome observing
and making notes as they went. He was interested in the
theological disputes and schisms in Galatia, in the two lan-
guages spoken in Cilicia, &c. At Antioch the party remained
some time. Innocentius died of a fever, and Jerome was
dangerously ill. This illness induced a spiritual change, and he
resolved to renounce whatever kept him back from God. His
greatest temptation was the study of the literature of pagan
Rome. In a dream Christ reproached him with caring more
to be a Ciceronian than a Christian. He disliked the uncouth
style of the Scriptures. " O Lord," he prayed, " thou knowest
that whenever I have and study secular MSS. I deny thee,"
and he made a resolve henceforth to devote his scholarship to
the Holy Scripture. " David was to be henceforth his Simonides,
Pindar and Alcaeus, his Flaccus, Catullus and Severus."
Fortified by these resolves he betook himself to a hermit life in
the wastes of Chalcis, S.E. from Antioch (373~379)- Chalcis
was the Thebaid of Syria. Great numbers of monks, each in
solitary cell, spent lonely lives, scorched by the sun, ill-clad and
scantily fed, pondering on portions of Scripture or copying MSS.
to serve as objects of meditation. Jerome at once set himself
to such scholarly work as the place afforded. He discovered and
copied MSS., and began to study Hebrew. There also he wrote
the life of St Paul of Thebes, probably an imaginary tale embody-
ing the facts of the monkish life around him. Just then the
Meletian schism, which arose over the relation of the orthodox
to Arian bishops and to those baptized by Arians, distressed
the church at Antioch (see MELETIUS OF ANTIOCH), and Jerome as
usual eagerly joined the fray. Here as elsewhere he had but one
rule to guide him in matters of doctrine and discipline — the
practice of Rome and the West; for it is singular to see how
Jerome, who is daringly original in points of scholarly criticism,
was a ruthless partisan in all other matters; and, having dis-
covered what was the Western practice, he set tongue and pen
to work with his usual bitterness (Altercatio luciferiani et
orthodoxi).
At Antioch in 379 he was ordained presbyter. From there he
went to Constantinople, where he met with the great Eastern
scholar and theologian Gregory of Nazianzus, and with his aid
tried to perfect himself in Greek. The result of his studies there
was the translation of the Chronicon of Eusebius, with a con-
tinuation J of twenty-eight homilies of Origen on Jeremiah and
1 Cf. Schoene's critical edition (Berlin, 1866, 1875).
327
Ezekiel, and of nine homilies of Origen on the visions of
Isaiah.
In 381 Meletius died, and Pope Damasus interfered in the
dispute at Antioch, hoping to end it. Jerome was called to
Rome in 382 to give help in the matter, and was made secretary
during the investigation. His work brought him into inter-
course with this great pontiff, who soon saw what he could best
do, and how his vast scholarship might be made of use to the
church. Damasus suggested to him to revise the " Old Latin "
translation of the Bible; and to this task he henceforth devoted
his great abilities. At Rome were published the Gospels (with
a dedication to Pope Damasus, an explanatory introduction,
and the canons of Eusebius), the rest of the New Testament
and the version of the Psalms from the Septuagint known as the
Psalterium romanum, which was followed (c. 388) by the Psal-
terium gallicanum, based on the Hexaplar Greek text. These
scholarly labours, however, did not take up his whole time, and
it was almost impossible for Jerome to be long anywhere without
getting into a dispute. He was a zealous defender of that
monastic life which was beginning1 to take such a large place
in the church of the 4th century, and he found enthusiastic
disciples among the Roman ladies. A number of widows and
maidens met together in the house of Marcella to study the
Scriptures with him; he taught them Hebrew, and preached the
virtues of the celibate life. His arguments and exhortations may
be gathered from many of his epistles and from his tract Adiiersus
Helvidium, in which he defends the perpetual virginity of Mary
against Helvidius, who maintained that she bore children to
Joseph. His influence over these ladies alarmed their relatives
and excited the suspicions of the regular priesthood and of the
populace, but while Pope Damasus lived Jerome remained secure.
Damasus died, however, in 384, and was succeeded by Siricius,
who did not show much friendship for Jerome. He found it
expedient to leave Rome, and set out for the East in 385. His
letters (especially Ep. 45) are full of outcries against his enemies
and of indignant protestations that he had done nothing un-
becoming a Christian, that he had taken no money, nor gifts
great nor small, that he had no delight in silken attire, sparkling
gems or gold ornaments, that no matron moved him unless by
penitence and fasting, &c. His route is given in the third book In
Rufinum; he went by Rhegium and Cyprus, where he was enter-
tained by Bishop Epiphanius1, to Antioch. There he was joined
by two wealthy Roman ladies, Paula, a widow, and Eustochium,
her daughter, one of Jerome's Hebrew students. They came
accompanied by a band of Roman maidens vowed to live a
celibate life in a nunnery in Palestine. Accompanied by these
ladies Jerome made the tour of Palestine, carefully noting with
a scholar's keenness the various places mentioned in Holy
Scripture. The results of this journey may be traced in his
translation with emendations of the book of Eusebius on the
situation and names of Hebrew places, written probably three
years afterwards, when he had settled down at Bethlehem.
From Palestine Jerome and his companions went to Egypt,
remaining some time in Alexandria, and they visited the con-
vents of the Nitrian desert. Jerome's mind was evidently full
of anxiety about his translation of the Old Testament, for we find
him in his letters recording the conversations he had with learned
men about disputed readings and doubtful renderings; the blind
Didymus of Alexandria, whom he heard interpreting Hosea,
appears to have been most useful. When they returned to
Palestine they all settled at Bethlehem, where Paula built four
monasteries, three for nuns and one for monks. She was at the
head of the nunneries until her death in 404, when Eustochium
succeeded her; Jerome presided over the fourth monastery.
Here he did most of his literary work and, throwing aside his
unfinished plan of a translation from Origen's Hexaplar text,
translated the Old Testament directly from the Hebrew, with
the aid of Jewish scholars. He mentions a rabbi from Lydda,
a rabbi from Tiberias, and above all rabbi Ben Anina, who
came to him by night secretly for fear of the Jews. Jerome
was not familiar enough with Hebrew to be able to dispense with
such assistance, and he makes the synagogue responsible for the
328
JEROME, J. K.— JEROME OF PRAGUE
accuracy of his version: " Let him who would challenge aught
in this translation," he says, " ask the Jews." The result of all
this labour was the Latin translation of the Scriptures which,
in spite of much opposition from the more conservative party in
the church, afterwards became the Vulgate or authorized ver-
sion; but the Vulgate as we have it now is not exactly Jerome's
Vulgate, for it suffered a good deal from changes made under the
influence of the older translations; the text became very corrupt
during the middle ages, and in particular all the Apocrypha,
except Tobit and Judith, which Jerome translated from the
Chaldee, were added from the older versions. (See BIBLE:
O.T. Versions.)
Notwithstanding the labour involved in translating the
Scriptures, Jerome found time to do a great deal of literary work,
and also to indulge in violent controversy. Earlier in life he
had a great admiration for Origen, and translated many of his
works, and this lasted after he had settled at Bethlehem, for in
389 he translated Origen's homilies on Luke; but he came to
change his opinion and wrote violently against two admirers of
the great Alexandrian scholar, John, bishop of Jerusalem, and
his own former friend Rufinus.
At Bethlehem also he found time to finish Didymi despiritu
sancto liber, a translation begun at Rome at the request of Pope
Damasus, to denounce the revival of Gnostic heresies by Jovin-
ianus and Vigilantius (Adv. Jovinianum lib. II. and Contra
Vigilanlium liber), and to repeat his admiration of the hermit
life in his Vita S. Hilarionis eremilae, in his Vita Malclii monachi
captivi, in his translations of the Rule of St Pachomius (the
Benedict of Egypt), and in his S. Pachomii el S. Tkeodorici
epistolae el verba mystica. He also wrote at Bethlehem De viris
Ulustribus sive de scriploribus ecdesiasticis, a church history in
biographies, ending with the life of the author; De nominibus
Hebraicis, compiled from Philo and Origen; and De situ el nomini-
bus locorum Hebraicorum.1 At the same place, too, he wrote
Quaestiones Hebraicae on Genesis,8 and a series of commentaries
on Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, the Twelve Minor Prophets,
Matthew and the Epistles of St Paul. About 394 Jerome came
to know Augustine, for whom he held a high regard. He
engaged in the Pelagian controversy with more than even his
usual bitterness (Dialogi contra pelagianos); and it is said that
the violence of his invective so provoked his opponents that an
armed mob attacked the monastery, and that Jerome was forced
to flee and to remain in concealment for nearly two years. He
returned to Bethlehem in 418, and after a lingering illness died
on the 30th of September 420.
Jerome " is one of the few Fathers to whom the title of Saint
appears to have been given in recognition of services rendered to
the Church rather than for eminent sanctity. He is the great
Christian scholar of his age, rather than the profound theologian
or the wise guide of souls." His great work was the Vulgate,
but his achievements in other fields would have sufficed to dis-
tinguish him. His commentaries are valuable because of his
knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, his varied interests, and his
comparative freedom from allegory. To him we owe the dis-
tinction between canonical and apocryphal writings; in the
Prologus Galealus prefixed to his version of Samuel and Kings, he
says that the church reads the Apocrypha " for the edification of
the people, not for confirming the authority of ecclesiastical doc-
trines." He was a pioneer in the fields of patrology and of bib-
lical archaeology. In controversy he was too fond of mingling
personal abuse with legitimate argument, and this weakness
mars his letters, which were held in high admiration in the early
middle ages, and are valuable for their history of the man and
his times. Luther in his Table Talk condemns them as dealing
only with fasting, meats, virginity, &c. " If he only had insisted
upon the works of faith and performed them I But he teaches
nothing either about faith, or love, or hope, or the works of
faith."
1 Compare the critical edition of these two works in Lagarde's
Onomastica sacra (Getting. 1870).
1 See Lagarde's edition appended to his Genesis Craece (Leipzig,
1868).
Editions of the complete works: Erasmus (9 vols., Basel, 1516-
1520); Mar. Victorius, bishop of Rieti (9 vols., Rome, 1565-1572);
F. Calixtus and A. Tribbechovius (12 vols., Frankfort and Leipzig,
1684-1690); J. Martianay (5 vols., incomplete Benedictine ed.,
Paris, 1693-1706); D. Vallarsi (n vols., Verona, 1734-1742), the
best; Migne, Patrol. Ser. Lai. (xxii.-xxix.). The De viris Musi, was
edited by Herding in 1879. A selection is given in translation by
W.H.Fremantle, "SelectLibraryofNiceneandPost Nicene Fathers, '
2nd series, vol. vi. (New York, 1893). Biographies are prefixed to
most of the above editions. See also lives by F. Z. Collombet (Paris
and Lyons, 1844); O. Zockler (Gotha, 1865); E. L. Cutts (London,
1878); C. Martin (London, 1888); P. Largent (Paris, 1898); F. W.
Farrar, Lives of the Fathers, ii. 150-297 (Edinburgh, 1889).
Additional literature is cited in Hauck-Herzog's Realencyk. fur
prot. Theol. viii. 42.
JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA (1859- ), English author,
was born on the 2nd of May 1859. He was educated at the
philological school, Marylebone, London; and was by turns
clerk, schoolmaster and actor, before he settled down to journal-
ism. He made his reputation as a humorist in 1889 with Idle
Thoughts of an Idle Fellow and Three Men in a Boat, and
from 1892 to 1897 he was co-editor of the Idler with Robert
Barr. At the same time he was also the editor of To-Day. A
one-act play of his, Barbara, was produced at the Globe theatre
in 1886, and was followed by many others, among them Sunset
(1888), Wood Barrow Farm (1891), The Passing of the Third Floor
Back (1907). Among his later books are Letters to Clorinda
(1898), The Second Thoughts of an Idle Fellow (1898), Three Men
on the Bummel (1900), Tommy and Co. (1904), They and I (1909)-
JEROME OF PRAGUE (d. 1416), an early Bohemian church-
reformer and friend of John Hus. Jerome's part in the Hussite
movement was formerly much overrated. Very little is known
of his early years. He is stated to have belonged to a noble
Bohemian family1 and to have been a few years younger than
Hus. After beginning his studies at the university of Prague,
where he never attempted to obtain any ecclesiastical office,
Jerome proceeded to Oxford in 1398. There he became greatly
impressed by the writings of Wycliffe, of whose Dialogus and
Trialogus he made copies. Always inclined to a roving life, he
soon proceeded to the university of Paris and afterwards con-
tinued his studies at Cologne and Heidelberg, returning to
Prague in 1407. In 1403 he is stated to have undertaken a
journey to Jerusalem. At Paris his open advocacy of the views
of Wycliffe brought him into conflict with John Gerson, chan-
cellor of the university. In Prague Jerome soon attracted
attention by his advanced and outspoken opinions. He gave
great offence also by exhibiting a portrait of Wycliffe in his room.
Jerome was soon on terms of friendship with Hus, and took part
in all the controversies of the university. When in 1408 a
French embassy arrived at Kutna Hora, the residence of King
Wenceslaus of Bohemia, and proposed that the papal schism
should be terminated by the refusal of the temporal authorities
further to recognize either of the rival popes, Wenceslaus sum-
moned to Kutna Hora the members of the university. The
Bohemian magistri spoke strongly in favour of the French pro-
posals while the Germans maintained their allegiance to the
Roman pope, Gregory XII. The re-organization of the univer-
sity was also discussed, and as Wenceslaus for a time favoured
the Germans, Hus and Jerome, as leaders of the Bohemians,
incurred the anger of the king, who threatened them with death
by fire should they oppose his will.
In 1410 Jerome, who had incurred the hostility of the arch-
bishop of Prague by his speeches in favour of Wycliffe's teaching,
went to Ofen, where King Sigismund of Hungary resided, and,
though a layman, preached before the king denouncing strongly
the rapacity and immorality of the clergy. Sigismund shortly
afterwards received a letter from the archbishop of Prague con-
taining accusations against Jerome. He was imprisoned by
order of the king, but does not appear to have been detained
long in Hungary. Appearing at Vienna, he was again brought
'The statement that Jerome's family name was Faulfiss, is
founded on a misunderstood passage of Aeneas Sylvms tfw/ortca
Bnhemica Aeneas Sylvius names as one of the early Bohemian
reformers a man " genere nobilis, ex domo quam Putrid* Piscts
vacant." This was erroneously believed to refer to Jerome.
JERROLD
before the ecclesiastical authorities. He was accused of spreading
Wycliffe's doctrines, and his general conduct at Oxford, Paris,
Cologne, Prague and Ofen was censured. Jerome vowed that
he would not leave Vienna till he had cleared himself from the
accusation of heresy. Shortly afterwards he secretly left Vienna,
declaring that this promise had been forced on him. He went
first to Vottau in Moravia, and then to Prague. In 1412 the
representatives of Pope Gregory XII. publicly offered indul-
gences for sale at Prague, wishing to raise money for the pope's
campaign against King Ladislaus of Naples, an adherent of the
antipope of Avignon. Contrary to the wishes of the archbishop
of Prague a meeting of the members of the university took place,
at which both Hus and Jerome spoke strongly against the sale
of indulgences. The fiery eloquence of Jerome, which is noted
by all contemporary writers, obtained for him greater success
even than that of Hus, particularly among the younger students,
who conducted him in triumph to his dwelling-place. Shortly
afterwards Jerome proceeded to Poland — it is said on the invita-
tion of King Wladislaus. His courtly manners and his eloquence
here also caused him to become very popular, but he again met
with strong opposition from the Roman Church. While travel-
ling with the grand-duke Lithold of Lithuania Jerome took part
in the religious services of the Greek Orthodox Church.
During his stay in northern Europe Jerome received the news
that Hus had been summoned to appear before the council of
Constance. He wrote to his friend advising him to do so and
adding that he would also proceed there to afford him assistance.
Contrary to the advice of Hus he arrived at Constance on the
4th of April 1415. Advised to fly immediately to Bohemia, he
succeeded in reaching Hirschau, only 25 m. from the Bohemian
frontier. He was here arrested and brought back in chains to
Constance, where he was examined by judges appointed by the
council. His courage failed him in prison and, to regain his
freedom, he renounced the doctrines of Wycliffe and Hus. He
declared that Hus had been justly executed and stated in a letter
addressed on the I2th of August 1415 to Lacek, lord of Kravaf —
the only literary document of Jerome that has been preserved —
that " the dead man (Hus) had written many false and harmful
things." Full confidence was not placed in Jerome's recantation.
He claimed to be heard at a general meeting of the council, and
this was granted to him. He now again maintained all the theo-
ries which he had formerly advocated, and, after a trial that
lasted only one day, he was condemned to be burnt as a heretic.
The sentence was immediately carried out on the 3oth of May
1416, and he met his death with fortitude. As Poggio Braccio-
lini writes, " none of the Stoics with so constant and brave a soul
endured death, which he (Jerome) seemed rather to long for."
The eloquence of the Italian humanist has bestowed a not
entirely merited aureole on the memory of Jerome of Prague.
See all works dealing with Hus; and indeed all histories of Bohemia
contain detailed accounts of the career of Jerome. The Lives of
John Widiffe, Lord Cobham, John Huss, Jerome of Prague and 2izka
by William Gilpin (London, 1765) still has a certain value. (L.)
JERROLD, DOUGLAS WILLIAM (1803-1857), English
dramatist and man of letters, was born in London on the 3rd
of January 1803. His father, Samuel Jerrold, actor, was at that
time lessee of the little theatre of Wilsby near Cranbrook in Kent,
but in 1807 he removed to Sheerness. There, among the blue-
jackets who swarmed in the port during the war with France,
Douglas grew into boyhood. He occasionally took a child's
part on the stage, but his father's profession had little attraction
for the boy. In December 1813 he joined the guardship
" Namur," where he had Jane Austen's brother as captain, and he
served as a midshipman until the peace of 1815. He saw nothing
of the war save a number of wounded soldiers from Waterloo;
but till his dying day there lingered traces of his early passion for
the sea. The peace of 1815 ruined Samuel Jerrold; there was
no more prize money. On the ist of January 1816 he removed
with his family to London, where the ex-midshipman began the
world again as a printer's apprentice, and in 1819 became a com-
positor in the printing-office of the Sunday Monitor. Several
short papers and copies of verses by him had already appeared
329
in the sixpenny magazines, and one evening he dropped into the
editor's box a criticism of the opera Der Freischiitz. Next
morning he received his own copy to set up, together with a
flattering note from the editor, requesting further contributions
from the anonymous author. Thenceforward Jerrold was en-
gaged in journalism. In 1821 a comedy that he had composed
in his fifteenth year was brought out at Sadler's Wells theatre,
under the title More Frightened than Hurt. Other pieces
followed, and in 1825 he was engaged for a few pounds weekly
to produce dramas and farces to the order of Davidge of the
Coburg theatre. In the autumn of 1824 the " little Shake-
speare in a camlet cloak," as he was called, married Mary Swann;
and, while he was engaged with the drama at night, he was
steadily pushing his way as a journalist. For a short while he
was part proprietor of a small Sunday newspaper. In 1829,
through a quarrel with the exacting Davidge, Jerrold left the
Coburg; and his three-act melodrama, Black-eyed Susan; or, All
in the Downs, was brought out by R. W. Elliston at the Surrey
theatre. The success of the piece was enormous. With its
free gallant sea-flavour, it took the town by storm, and " all
London went over the water to see it." Elliston made a fortune
by the piece; T. P. Cooke, who played William, made his repu-
tation ; Jerrold received about £60 and was engaged as dramatic
author at five pounds a week. But his fame as a dramatist
was achieved. In 1830 it was proposed that he should adapt
something from the French for Drury Lane. " No," was his
reply, " I shall come into this theatre as an original dramatist
or not at all." The Bride of Ludgate (December 8, 1831)
was the first of a number of his plays produced at Drury Lane.
The other patent houses threw their doors open to him also (the
Adelphi had already done so); and in 1836 Jerrold became co-
manager of the Strand theatre with W. J. Hammond, his brother-
in-law. The venture was not successful, and the partnership
was dissolved. While it lasted Jerrold wrote his only tragedy,
The Painter of Ghent, and himself appeared in the title-r61e, with-
out any very marked success. He continued to write sparkling
comedies till 1854, the date of his last piece, The Heart of Cold.
Meanwhile he had won his way to the pages of numerous
periodicals — before 1830 of the second-rate magazines only, but
after that to those of more importance. He was a contributor
to the Monthly Magazine, Blackwood's, the New Monthly, and
the Athenaeum. To Punch, the publication which of all others
is associated with his name, he contributed from its second
number in 1841 till within a few days of his death. He founded
and edited for some time, though with indifferent success, the
Illuminated Magazine, Jerrold 's Shilling Magazine, and Douglas
Jerrold's Weekly Newspaper; and under his editorship Lloyd's
Weekly Newspaper rose from almost nonentity to a circulation of
182,000. The history of his later years is little more than a
catalogue of his literary productions, interrupted now and again
by brief visits to the Continent or to the country. Douglas
Jerrold died at his house, Kilburn Priory, in London, on the
8th of June 1857.
Jerrold's figure was small and spare, and in later years bowed
almost to deformity. His features were strongly marked and
expressive from the thin humorous lips to the keen blue eyes
gleaming from beneath the shaggy eyebrows. He was brisk and
active, with the careless bluffness of a sailor. Open and sincere,
he concealed neither his anger nor his pleasure; to his simple
frankness all polite duplicity was distasteful. The cynical side
of his nature he kept for his writings; in private life his hand was
always open. In politics Jerrold was a Liberal,and he gave eager
sympathy to Kossuth, Mazzini and Louis Blanc. In social
politics especially he took an eager part; he never tired of de-
claiming against the horrors of war, the luxury of bishops, and
the iniquity of capital punishment.
Douglas Jerrold is now perhaps better known from his reputa-
tion as a brilliant wit in conversation than from his writings. As
a dramatist he was very popular, though his plays have not kept
the stage. He dealt with rather humbler forms of social life
than had commonly been represented on the boards. He was
one of the first and certainly one of the most successful of those
330
who in defence of the native English drama endeavoured to
stem the tide of translation from the French, which threatened
early in the igth century altogether to drown original native
talent. His skill in construction and his mastery of epigram
and brilliant dialogue are well exemplified in his comedy, Time
Works Wonders (Haymarket, April 26, 1845). The tales and
sketches which form the bulk of Jerrold's collected works
vary much in skill and interest; but, although there are
evident traces of their having been composed from week to
week, they are always marked by keen satirical observation
and pungent wit.
Among the best known of his numerous works are: Men of
Character (1838), including "Job Pippin: The man who couldn't
help it," and other sketches of the same kind ; Cakes and Ale (2 vols.,
18^2), a collection of short papers and whimsical stories; some more
serious novels — The Story of a Feather (1844), The Chronicles of
Clovernook (1846), A Man made of Money (1849), and St Giles and St
James (1851); and various series of papers reprinted from Punch —
Punch's Letters to his Son (1843), Punch's Complete Letter-writer
(1845), and the famous Mrs Caudle's Curtain Lectures (1846).
See W. B. Jerrold, Life and Remains of Douglas Jerrold (1859).
A collected edition of his writings appeared in 1851-1854, and The
Works of Douglas Jerrold, with a memoir by his son, W. B. Jerrold,
in 1863-1864; but neither is complete. Among the numerous
selections from his tales and witticisms are two edited by his grand-
son, Walter Jerrold, Bans Mots of Charles Dickens and Douglas
Jerrold (new ed. 1904), and The Essays of Douglas Jerrold (1903),
illustrated by H . M . Brock. See also The Wit and Opinions of Douglas
Jerrold (1858), edited by W. B. Jerrold.
His eldest son, WILLIAM BLANCHARD JERROLD (1826-1884),
English journalist and author, was born in London on the 23rd
of December 1826, and abandoning the artistic career for which
he was educated, began newspaper work at an early age there.
He was appointed Crystal Palace commissioner to Sweden in
1853, and wrote A Brage-Beaker with the Swedes (1854) on his
return. In 1855 he was sent to the Paris exhibition as corre-
spondent for several London papers, and from that time he lived
much in Paris. In 1857 he succeeded his father as editor of
Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper, a post which he held for twenty-six
years. During the Civil War in America he strongly supported
the North, and several of his leading articles were reprinted and
placarded in New York by the federal government. He was the
founder and president of the English branch of the international
literary association for the assimilation of copyright laws.
Four of his plays were successfully produced on the London stage,
the popular farce Cool as a Cucumber (Lyceum 1851) being the
best known. His French experiences resulted in a number of
books, most important of which is his Life of Napoleon III.
(1874). He was occupied in writing the biography of Gustave
Dore, who had illustrated several of his books, when he died on
the zoth of March 1884.
Among his books are A Story of Social Distinction (1848), Life and
Remains of Douglas Jerrold (1859), Up and Down in the World (1863),
The Children of Lutetia ( 1 864) , Cent per Cent ( 1 87 1 ) , A t Home in Paris
(1871), The Best of all Good Company (1871-1873), and The Life of
George Cruikshank (1882).
JERRY, a short form of the name Jeremiah, applied to various
common objects, and more particularly to a machine for finishing
cloth. The expression " jerry-built " is applied to houses built
badly and of inferior materials, and run up by a speculative
builder. There seems to be no foundation for the assertion that
this expression was occasioned by the work of a firm of Liverpool
builders named Jerry.
JERSEY, EARLS OF. Sir Edward Villiers (c. 1656-1711),
son of Sir Edward Villiers (1620-1689), of Richmond, Surrey,
was created Baron Villiers and Viscount Villiers in 1691 and earl
of Jersey in 1697. His grandfather, Sir Edward Villiers (c. 1585-
1626), master of the mint and president of Munster, was half-
brother of George Villiers, ist duke of Buckingham, and
of Christopher Villiers, ist earl of Anglesey; his sister was
Elizabeth Villiers, the mistress of William III., and after-
wards countess of Orkney. Villiers was knight-marshal of
the royal household in succession to his father; master of the
horse to Queen Mary; and lord chamberlain to William III. and
Queen Anne. In 1696 he represented his country at the congress
JERRY— JERSEY
of Ryswick;hewas ambassador at the Hague, and after becoming
an earl was ambassador in Paris. In 1699 he was made secretary
of state for the southern department, and on three occasions he
was one of the lords justices of England. In 1704 he was dis-
missed from office by Anne, and after this event he was concerned
in some of the Jacobite schemes. He died on the 2sth of August
1711. The 2nd earl was his son William (c. 1682-1721), an
adherent of the exiled house of Stuart, and the 3rd earl was the
latter's son William (d. 1769), who succeeded his kinsman John
Fitzgerald (c. 1692-1766) as 6th Viscount Grandison. The 3rd
earl's son, George Bussy, the 4th earl (1735-1805), held several
positions at the court of George III., and on account of his
courtly manners was called the " prince of Maccaronies." The
4th earl's son, George, sth earl of Jersey (1773-1859), one of the
most celebrated fox-hunters of his time and a successful owner
of racehorses, married^ Sarah Sophia (1785-1867), daughter of
John Fane, loth earl "of Westmorland, and granddaughter of
Robert Child, the banker. She inherited her grandfather's
great wealth, including his interest in Child's bank, and with her
husband took the name of Child-Villiers. Since this time the
connexions of the earls of Jersey with Child's bank has been main-
tained. Victor Albert George Child-Villiers (b. 1845) succeeded
his father George Augustus (1808-1859), 6th earl, who had only
held the title for three weeks, as 7th earl of Jersey in 1859.
This nobleman was governor of New South Wales from 1890
to 1893.
JERSEY, the largest of the Channel Islands, belonging to
Great Britain. Its chief town, St Helier, on the south coast of
the island, is in 49° 12' N., 2° f W., 105 m. S. by E. of Portland
Bill on the English coast, and 24 m. from the French coast to the
east. Jersey is the southernmost of the more important islands
of the group. It is of oblong form with a length of 10 m. from
east to west and an extreme breadth of 6^ m. The area is 28,717
acres, or 45 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 52,576.
The island reaches its greatest elevation (nearly 500 ft.) in the
north, the land rising sharply from the north coast, and displaying
bold and picturesque cliffs towards the sea. The east, south
and west coasts consist of a succession of large open bays, shallow
and rocky, with marshy or sandy shores separated by rocky head-
lands. The principal bays are Gr^ve au Lancons, Greve de
Lecq, St John's and Bouley Bays on the north coast; St Cathe-
rine's and Grouville Bays on the east; St Clement's, St Aubin's
and St Brelade's Bays on the south; and St Ouen's Bay, the wide
sweep of which occupies nearly the whole of the west coast.
The sea in many places has encroached greatly on the land, and
sand drifts have been found troublesome, especially on the west
coast. The surface of the country is broken by winding valleys
having a general direction from north to south, and as they
approach the south uniting so as to form small plains. The
lofty hedges which bound the small enclosures into which Jersey
is divided, the trees and shrubberies which line the roads and
cluster round the uplands and in almost everynook of the valleys
unutilized for pasturage or tillage, give the island a luxuriant
appearance, neutralizing the bare effect of the few sandy plains
and sand-covered hills. Fruits and flowers indigenous to warm
climates grow freely in the open air. The land, under careful
cultivation, is rich and productive, the soil being generally a
deep loam, especially in the valleys, but in the west shallow, light
and sandy. The subsoil is usually gravel, but in some parts an
unfertile clay. Some two-thirds of the total area is under
cultivation, great numbers of cattle being pastured, and much
market gardening practised. The potato crop is very large.
The peasants take advantage of every bit of wall and every
isolated nook of ground for growing fruit trees. Grapes are
ripened under glass; oranges can be grown in sheltered situations,
but the most common fruits are apples, which are used for cider,
and pears. A manure of burnt sea-weed (vraic) is generally
used. The pasturage is very rich, and is much improved by the
application of this manure to the surface. The breed of cattle
is kept pure by stringent laws against the importation of foreign
animals. The milk is used almost exclusively to manufacture
butter. The cattle are always housed in winter, but remain out
JERSEY CITY- -JERUSALEM
331
at night from May till October. There was formerly a small
black breed of horses peculiar to the island, but horses are now
chiefly imported from France or England. Pigs are kept
principally for local consumption, and only a few sheep are
reared. Fish are not so plentiful as round the shores of Guernsey,
but mackerel, turbot, cod, mullet and especially the conger eel
are abundant at the Minquiers. There is a large oyster bed
between Jersey and France, but partly on account of over-
dredging the supply is not so abundant as formerly. There is
a great variety of other shell fish. The fisheries, ship-building
and boat-building employ many of the inhabitants. Kelp and
iodine are manufactured from sea-weed. The principal exports
are granite, fruit and vegetables (especially potatoes), butter
and cattle; and the chief imports coal and articles of human con-
sumption. Communications with England are maintained prin-
cipally from Southampton and Weymouth, and there are regular
steamship services from Granville and St Malo on the French
coast. The Jersey railway runs west from St Helier round St
Aubin's Bay to St Aubin, and continues to Corbiereat the south-
western extremity of the island; and the Jersey eastern railway
follows the southern and eastern coasts to Gorey. The island is
intersected with a network of good roads.
Jersey is under a distinct and in several respects different form
of administrative government from Guernsey and the smaller
islands included in the bailiwick of Guernsey. For its peculiar
constitution, system of justice, ecclesiastical arrangements and
finance, see CHANNEL ISLANDS. There are twelve parishes,
namely St Helier, Grouville, St Brelade, St Clement, St John,
St Laurence, St Martin, St Mary, St Ouen, St Peter, St Saviour
and Trinity. The population • of the island nearly doubled
between 1821 and 1901, but decreased from 54, y8 to 52,576
between 1891 and 1901.
The history of Jersey is treated under CHANNEL ISLANDS.
Among objects of antiquarian interest, a cromlech near Mont
Orgueil is the finest of several examples. St Brelade's church,
probably the oldest in the island, dates from the I2th century;
among the later churches St Helier's, of the i4th century, may
be mentioned. There are also some very early chapels, con-
sidered to date from the loth century or earlier; among these
may be noted the Chapelle-es-Pecheurs at St Brelade's, and the
picturesque chapel in the grounds of the manor of Rozel. The
castle of Mont Orgueil, of which there are considerable remains,
is believed to be founded upon the site of a Roman stronghold,
and a " Caesar's fort " still forms a part of it.
JERSEY CITY, a city and the county-seat of Hudson county,
New Jersey, U.S.A., on a peninsula between the Hudson and
Hackensack rivers at the N. and between New York and Newark
bays at the S., opposite lower Manhattan Island. Pop. (1890),
163,003; (1900), 206,433, of whom 58,424 were foreign-born
(19,314 Irish, 17,375 German, 4642 English, 3832 Italian, 1694
Russian, 1690 Scottish, 1643 Russian Poles, 1445 Austrian) and
3704 were negroes; (1910 census) 267,779. It is the eastern
terminus of the Pennsylvania, the Lehigh Valley, the Wesf Shore,
the Central of New Jersey, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Northern
of New Jersey (operated by the Erie), the Erie, the New York,
Susquehanna & Western, and the New Jersey & New York
(controlled by the Erie) railways, the first three using the
Pennsylvania station; and of the little-used Morris canal.
Jersey City is served by several inter-urban electric railways and
by the tunnels of the Hudson & Manhattan railroad company to
Dey St. and to 33rd St. and 6th Ave., New York City, and it also
has docks of several lines of Transatlantic and coast steamers.
The city occupies a land area of 14-3 sq. m. and has a water-front
of about 12 m. Bergen Hill, a southerly extension of the Pali-
sades, extends longitudinally through it from north to south.
At the north end this hill rises on the east side precipitously
to a height of nearly 200 ft.; on the west and south sides
the slope is gradual. On the crest of the hill is the fine
Hudson County Boulevard, about 19 m. long and 100 ft.
wide, extending through the city and county from north
to south and passing through West Side Park, a splendid
county park containing lakes and a 7o-acre playground. The
water-front, especially on the east side, is given up to manu-
facturing and shipping establishments. In the hill section
are the better residences, most of which are wooden and
detached.
The principal buildings are the city hall and the court house.
There are nine small city parks with an aggregate area of 39-1 acres.
The city has a public library containing (1907) 107,600 volumes
and an historical museum. At the corner of Bergen Ave. and
Forrest St. is the People's Palace, given in 1904 by Joseph Milbank to
the First Congregational church and containing a library and reading-
room, a gymnasium, bowling alleys, a billiard-room, a rifle-range,
a roof-garden, and an auditorium and theatre; kindergarten classes
are held and an employment bureau is maintained. Among the
educational institutions are the German American school, Has-
brouck institute, St Aloysius academy (Roman Catholic) and St
Peter's college (Roman Catholic) ; and there are good public schools.
Grain is shipped to and from Jersey City in large quantities, and in
general the city is an important shipping port; being included,
however, in the port of New York, no separate statistics are avail-
able. There are large slaughtering establishments, and factories
for the refining of sugar and for the manufacture of tobacco goods,
soap and perfumery, lead pencils, iron and steel, railway cars,
chemicals, rubber goods, silk goods, dressed lumber, and malt
liquors. The value of the city's manufactured products increased
from $37,376,322 in 1890 to $77,225,116 in 1900, or 106-6%; in
1905 the factory product alone was valued at $75,740,934, an
increase of only 3-9 % over the factory product in 1900, this small
rate of increase being due very largely to a decline in the value of
the products of the sugar and molasses refining industry. The
value of the wholesale slaughtering and meat-packing product
decreased from $18,551,783 in 1880 and $11,356,511 in 1890 to
$6,243,217 in 1900 — of this $5,708,763 represented wholesale
slaughtering alone ; in 1905 the wholesale slaughtering product was
valued at $7,568,739.
In 1908 the assessed valuation of the city was $267,039,754.
The city is governed by a board of aldermen and a mayor (elected
biennially), who appoints most of the officials, the street and
water board being the principal exception.
Jersey City when first incorporated was a small sandy penin-
sula (an island at high tide) known as Paulus Hook, directly
opposite the lower end of Manhattan Island. It had been a part
of the Dutch patroonship of Pavonia granted to Michael Pauw
in 1630. In 1633 the first buildings were erected, and for more
than a century the Hook was occupied by a small agricultural
and trading community. In 1764 a new post route between
New York and Philadelphia passed through what is now the city,
and direct ferry communication began with New York. Early
in the War of Independence Paulus Hook was fortified by the
Americans, but soon after the battle of Long Island they aban-
doned it, and on the 23rd of September 1776 it was occupied by
the British. On the morning of the igth of August 1779 the
British garrison was surprised by Major Henry Lee (" Light
Horse Harry "), who with about 500 men took 159 prisoners and
lost only 2 killed and 3 wounded, one of the most brilliant ex-
ploits during the War of Independence. In 1804 Paulus Hook,
containing 117 acres and having about 15 inhabitants, passed
into the possession of three enterprising New York lawyers, who
laid it out as a town and formed an association for its government,
which was incorporated as the " associates of the Jersey com-
pany." In 1820 the town was incorporated as the City of Jersey,
but it remained a part of the township of Bergen until 1838, when
it was reincorporated as a distinct municipality. In 1851 the
township of Van Vorst, founded in 1804 between Paulus Hook
and Hoboken, was annexed. In 1870 there were two annexa-
tions: to the south, the town of Bergen, the county-seat, which
was founded in 1660; to the north-west, Hudson City, which
had been separated from the township of North Bergen in 1852
and incorporated as a city in 1855. The town of Greenville, to
the south, was annexed in 1873.
JERUSALEM (Heb. o^n;, Yerushalaim, pronounced as
a dual), the chief city of Palestine. Letters found at Tell el-
Amarna in Egypt, written by an early ruler of Jerusalem,
show that the name existed under the form Urusalim, i.e.
" City of Salim " or " City of Peace," many years before the
Israelites under Joshua entered Canaan. The emperor Hadrian,
when he rebuilt the city, changed the name to Aelia Capitolina.
The Arabs usually designate Jerusalem by names expressive of
332
JERUSALEM
holiness, such as Beit el Makdis and El Mukaddis or briefly El
Kuds, i.e. the Sanctuary.
Natural Topography. — Jerusalem is situated in 31 "47' N. and 35°
15' E., in the hill country of southern Palestine, close to the watershed,
at an average altitude of 2500 ft. above the Mediterranean, and 3800
ft. above the level of the Dead Sea. The city stands on a rocky
plateau, which projects southwards from the main line of hills. On
the east the valley of the Kidrpn separates this plateau from the
ridge of the Mount of Olives, which is 100 to 200 ft. higher, while the
Wadi Er Rababi bounds Jerusalem on the west and south, meeting the
Valley of Kidron near the lower pool of Siloam. Both valleys fall
rapidly as they approach the point of junction, which lies at a depth
of more than 600 ft. below the general valley of the plateau. The
latter, which covers an area of about 1000 acres, has at the present
time a fairly uniform surface and slopes gradually from the north to
the south and east. Originally, however, its formation was very
different, as it was intersected by a deep valley, called Tyropoeon
by Josephus, which, starting from a point N.W. of the Damascus
gate, followed a course first south-east and then west of south,
and joined the two main valleys of Kidron and Er Rababi at Siloam.
Another shorter valley began near the present Jaffa gate and,
taking an easterly direction, joined the Tyropoeon; while a third
ravine passed across what is now the northern part of the Haram
enclosure and fell into the valley of the Kidrpn. The exact form of
these three interior valleys, which had an important influence on
the construction and history of the city, is still imperfectly known,
as they are to a great extent obliterated by vast accumulations of
rubbish, which has filled them up in some places to a depth of more
than too ft. Their approximate form was only arrived at by excava-
tions made during the later years of the igth century. The limited
knowledge which we possess of the original features of the ground
within the area of the city makes a reconstruction of the topo-
graphical history of the latter a difficult task ; and, as a natural result,
many irreconcilable theories have been suggested. The difficulty
is increased by the fact that the geographical descriptions given in
the Old Testament, the Apocrypha and the writings of Josephus
are very short, and, having been written for those who were
acquainted with the places, convey insufficient information to his-
torians of the present day, when the sites are so greatly altered. All
that can be done is to form a continuous account in accord with the
ancient histories, and with the original formation of the ground,
so far as this has been identified by modern exploration. But the
progress of exploration and excavation may render this subject to
further modification.
The geological formation of the plateau consists of thin beds of
hard silicious chalk, locally called misse, which overlie a thick bed of
soft white limestone, known by the name of melejie. Both descrip-
tions of rock yielded good material for building; while in the soft
meleke tanks, underground chambers, tombs, &c., were easily
excavated. In ancient times a brook flowed down the valley of the
Kidron, and it is possible that a stream flowed also through the
Tyropoeon valley. The only known spring existing at present
within the limits of the city is the " fountain of the Virgin," on
the western side of the Kidron valley, but there may have been
others which are now concealed by the accumulations of rubbish.
Cisterns were also used for the storage of rain water, and aqueducts,
of which the remains still exist (see AQUEDUCTS ad *»«/.), were
constructed for the conveyance of water from a distance. Speaking
generally, it is probable that the water supply of Jerusalem in ancient
times was better than it is at present.
History. — The early history of Jerusalem is very obscure. The
Tell el-Amarna letters show that, long before the invasion by
Joshua, it was occupied by the Egyptians, and was probably
a stronghold of considerable importance, as it formed a good
strategical position in the hill country of southern Palestine.
We do not know how the Egyptians were forced to abandon
Jerusalem; but, at the time of the Israelite conquest, it was
undoubtedly in the hands of the Jebusites, the native inhabitants
of the country. The exact position of the Jebusite city is un-
known; some authorities locate it on the western hill, now known
as Zion; some on the eastern hill, afterwards occupied by the
Temple and the city of David; while others consider it was a
double settlement, one part being on the western, and the other
on the eastern hill, separated from one another by the Tyropoeon
valley. The latter view appears to be the most probable, as,
according to the Biblical accounts, Jerusalem was partly in Judah
and partly in Benjamin, the line of demarcation between the two
tribes passing through the city. According to his theory, the
part of Jerusalem known as Jebus was situated on the western
hill, and the outlying fort of Zion on the eastern hill. The men
of Judah and Benjamin did not succeed in getting full possession
of the place, and the Jebusites still held it when David became
king of Israel. Some years after his accession David succeeded
after some difficulty in taking Jerusalem. He established his
royal city on the eastern hill close to the site of the Jebusite Zion,
while Jebus, the town on the western side of the Tyropoeon
valley, became the civil city, of which Joab, David's leading
general, was appointed governor. David surrounded the royal
city with a wall and built a citadel, probably on the site of the
Jebusite fort of Zion, while Joab fortified the western town.
North of the city of David, the king, acting under divine guid-
ance, chose a site for the Temple of Jehovah, which was erected
with great magnificence by Solomon. The actual site occupied
by this building has given rise to much controversy, though all
authorities are agreed that it must have stood on some part of
the area now known as the Haram. James Fergusson was of
opinion that the Temple stood near the south-western corner.
As, however, it was proved by the explorations of Sir Charles
Warren in 1869-1870 that the Tyropoeon valley passed under this
corner, and that the foundations must have been of enormous
depth, Fergusson's theory must be regarded as untenable (see
also SEPULCHRE, HOLY). On the whole it is most .likely that
the Temple was erected by Solomon on the same spot as is now
occupied by the Dome of the Rock, commonly known as the
Mosque of Omar, and, regard being had to the levels of the
ground, it is possible that the Holy of Holies, the most sacred
chamber of the Temple, stood over the rock which is still re-
garded with veneration by the Mahommedans. Solomon greatly
strengthened the fortifications of Jerusalem, and was probably
the builder of the line of defence, called by Josephus the first or
old wall, which united the cities on the eastern and western hills.
The kingdom reached its highest point of importance during the
reign of Solomon, but, shortly after his death, it was broken up
by the rebellion of Jeroboam, who founded the separate kingdom
of Israel with its capital at Shechem. Two tribes only, Judah
and Benjamin, with the descendants of Levi, remained faithful
to Rehoboam, the son of Solomon. Jerusalem thus lost much
of its importance, especially after it was forced to surrender to
Shishak, king of Egypt, who carried off a great part of the riches
which had been accumulated by Solomon. The history of
Jerusalem during the succeeding three centuries consists for the
most part of a succession of wars against the kingdom of Israel,
the Moabites and the Syrians. Joash, king of Israel, captured
the city from Amaziah, king of Judah, and destroyed part of the
fortifications, but these were rebuilt by Uzziah, the son of
Amaziah, who did much to restore the city to its original pros-
perity. In the reign of Hezekiah, the kingdom of Judah became
tributary to the Assyrians, who attempted the capture of
Jerusalem. Hezekiah improved the defences and arranged for
a good water supply, preparatory to the siege by Sennacherib,
the Assyrian general. The siege failed and the Assyrians retired.
Some years later Syria was again invaded by the Egyptians, who
reduced Judah to the position of a tributary state. In the reign
of Zedekiah, the last of the line of kings, Jerusalem was captured
by Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon, who pillaged the city,
destroyed the Temple, and ruined the fortifications (see JEWS,
§17). A number of the principal inhabitants were carried
captive to Babylon, and Jerusalem was reduced to the position
of an insignificant town. Nebuchadrezzar placed in the city a
garrison which appears to have been quartered on the western
l, while the eastern hill on which were the Temple and the city
of David was left more or less desolate. We have no information
regarding Jerusalem during the period of the captivity, but
fortunately Nehemiah, who was permitted to return and rebuild
the defences about 445 B.C., has given a fairly clear description
of the line of the wall which enables us to obtain a good idea of
:he extent of the city at this period. The Temple had already
Deen partially rebuilt by Zedekiah and his companions, but on
a scale far inferior to the magnificent building of King Solomon,
and Nehemiah devoted his attention to the reconstruction of the
walls. Before beginning the work, he made a preliminary recon-
naissance of the fortifications on the south of the town from the
Valley Gate, which was near the S.E. corner, to the pool of
Siloam and valley of the Kidron. He then allotted the recon-
struction of wall and gates to different parties of workmen, and
JERUSALEM
JERUSALEM
\n the time of the
Kings and Nehemiah
D
The Palace of
Herod Agrippa
CO
0)
JERUSALEM
at the time of
the Siege by Titus
i mile
JERUSALEM
his narrative describes the portion of wall upon which each of
these was employed.1
It is clear from his account that the lines of fortifications included
both the eastern and western hills. North of the Temple enclosure
there was a gate, known as the Sheep Gate, which must have opened
into the third valley mentioned above, and stood somewhere near
what is now the north side of the Haram enclosure, but considerably
south of the present north wall of the latter. To the west of the
Sheep Gate there were two important towers in the wall, called respec-
tively Meah and Hananeel. The tower Hananeel is specially worthy
of notice as it stood N.W. of the Temple and probably formed the
basis of the citadel built by Simon Maccabaeus, which again was
succeeded by the fortress of Antonia, constructed by Herod the Great,
and one of the most important positions at the time of the siege by
Titus. At or near the tower Hananeel the wall turned south along
the east side of the Tyropoeon valley, and then again westward,
crossing the valley at a point probably near the remarkable construc-
tion known as Wilson's arch. A gate in the valley, known as the
Fish Gate, opened on a road which, leading from the north, went
down the Tyropoeon valley to the southern part of the city. West-
ward of this gate the wall followed the south side of the valley which
joined the Tyropoeon from the west as far as the north-western
corner of the city at the site of the present Jaffa Gate and the so-
called tower of David. In this part of the wall there were apparently
two gates facing north, i.e. the Old Gate and the Gate of Ephraim,
400 cubits from the corner.8 At the corner stood the residence of
the Babylonian governor, near the site upon which King Herod
afterwards built his magnificent palace. From the corner at the
governor's house, the wall went in a southerly direction and turned
south-east to the Valley Gate, remains of which were discovered
by F. J. Bliss and fully described in his Excavations in Jerusalem in
1894-1897. From the Valley Gate the wall took an easterly course
for a distance of loop cubits to the Dung Gate, near which on the
east was the Fountain Gate, not far from the lower pool of Siloam.
Here was the most southerly point of Jerusalem, and the wall turning
hence to the north followed the west side of the valley of the Kiejron,
enclosing the city of David and the Temple enclosure, and finally
turning west at some point near the site of the Golden Gate joined
the wall, already described, at the Sheep Gate. Nehemiah mentions
a number of places on the eastern hill, including the tomb of David,
the positions of which cannot with our present knowledge be fixed
with any certainty.
» After the restoration of the walls of Jerusalem by Nehemiah,
a considerable number of Jews returned to the city, but we know
practically nothing of its history for more than a century until,
in 332 B.C., Alexander the Great conquered Syria. The gates of
Jerusalem were opened to him and he left the Jews in peaceful
occupation. But his successors did not act with similar leniency;
when the city was captured by Ptolemy I., king of Egypt, twelve
years later, the fortifications were partially demolished and
apparently not again restored until the period of the high priest
Simon II., who repaired the defences and also the Temple build-
ings. In 168 B.C. Antiochus Epiphanes captured Jerusalem,
destroyed the walls, and devastated the Temple, reducing the
city to a worse position than it had occupied since the time of the
captivity. He built a citadel called the Acra to dominate the
town and placed in it a strong garrison of Greeks. The position
of the Acra is doubtful, but it appears most probable that it
stood on the eastern hill between the Temple and the city of
David, both of which it commanded. Some writers place it
north of the Temple on the site afterwards occupied by the
fortress of Antonia, but such a position is not in accord with the
descriptions either in Josephus or in the books of the Maccabees,
which are quite consistent with each other. Other writers again
have placed the Acra on the eastern side of the hill upon which
the church of the Holy Sepulchre now stands, but as this point
was probably quite outside the city at the time of Antiochus
Epiphanes, and is at too great a distance from the Temple, it
can hardly be accepted. But the site which has been already
indicated at the N.E. corner of the present Mosque el Aksa meets
the accounts of the ancient authorities better than any other.
At this point in the Haram enclosure there is an enormous under-
ground cistern, known as the Great Sea, and this may possibly
have been the source of water supply for the Greek garrison.
The oppression of Antiochus led to a revolt of the Jews under the
leadership of the Maccabees, and Judas Maccabaeus succeeded
in capturing Jerusalem after severe fighting, but could not get
1 The sites shown on the plan are tentative, and cannot be re-
garded as certain; see Nehemiah ii. 12-15, "'• I-32i x'i- 37~39-
*See 2 Kings xiv. 13.
333
possession of the Acra, which caused much trouble to the Jews,
who erected a wall between it and the Temple, and another wall
to cut it off from the city. The Greeks held out for a consider-
able time, but had finally to surrender, probably from want of
food, to Simon Maccabaeus, who demolished the Acra and cut
down the hill upon which it stood so that it might no longer be
higher than the Temple, and that there should be no separation
between the latter and the city. Simon then constructed a new
citadel, north of the Temple, to take the place of the Acra, and
established in Judaea the Asmonean dynasty, which lasted for
nearly a century, when the Roman republic began to make its
influence felt in Syria. In 65 B.C. Jerusalem was captured by
Pompey after a difficult siege. The Asmonean dynasty lasted
a few years longer, but finally came to an end when Herod the
Great, with the aid of the Romans, took possession of Jerusalem
and became the first king of the Idumaean dynasty. Herod
again raised the city to the position of an important capital,
restoring the fortifications, and rebuilding the Temple from its
foundations. He also built the great fortress of Antonia, N.W.
of the Temple, on the site of the citadel of the Asmoneans, and
constructed a magnificent palace for himself on the western hill,
defended by three great towers, which he named Mariamne,
Hippicus and Phasaelus. At some period between the time of
the Maccabees and of Herod, a second or outer wall had been
built outside and north of the first wall, but it is not possible
to fix an accurate date to this line of defence, as the references
to it in Josephus are obscure. Herod adorned the town with
other buildings and constructed a theatre and gymnasium. He
doubled the area of the enclosure round the Temple, and there
can be little doubt that a great part of the walls of the Haram
area date from the time of Herod, while probably the tower of
David, which still exists near the Jaffa Gate, is on the same foun-
dation as one of the towers adjoining his palace. Archelaus,
Herod's successor, had far less authority than Herod, and the
real power of government at Jerusalem was assumed by the
Roman procurators, in the time of one of whom, Pontius Pilate,
Jesus Christ was condemned to death and crucified outside
Jerusalem. The places of his execution and burial are not
certainly known (see SEPULCHRE, HOLY).
Herod Agrippa, who succeeded to the kingdom, built a third
or outer wall on the north side of Jerusalem in order to enclose
and defend the buildings which had gradually been constructed
outside the old fortifications. The exact line of this third wall
is not known with certainty, but it probably followed approxi-
mately the same line as the existing north wall of Jerusalem.
Some writers have considered that it extended a considerable
distance farther to the north, but of this there is no proof, and
no remains have as yet been found which would support the
opinion. The wall of Herod Agrippa was planned on a grand
scale, but its execution was stopped by the Romans, so that it
was not completed at the time of the siege of Jerusalem by Titus.
The writings of Josephus give a good idea of the fortifications
and buildings of Jerusalem at the time of the siege, and his
accurate personal knowledge makes his account worthy of the
most careful perusal. He explains clearly how Titus, beginning
his attack from the north, captured the third or outer wall, then
the second wall, and finally the fortress of Antonia, the Temple,
and the upper city. After the capture, Titus ordered the Temple
to be demolished and the fortifications to be levelled, with the
exception of the three great towers at Herod's palace. It is,
however, uncertain how far the order was carried out, and it is
probable that the outer walls of the Temple enclosure were left
partially standing and that the defences on the west and south
of the city were not completely levelled. When Titus and his
army withdrew from Jerusalem, the loth legion was left as a
permanent Roman garrison, and a fortified camp for their
occupation was established on the western hill. We have no
account of the size or position of this camp, but a consideration
of the site, and a comparison with other Roman camps in various
parts of Europe, make it probable that it occupied an area of
about 50 acres, extending over what is now known as the Armenian
quarter of the town, and that it was bounded on the north by the
334
old or first wall, on the west also by the old wall, on the south by
a line of defence somewhat in the same position as the present
south wall where it passes the Zion Gate, and on the east by an
entrenchment running north and south parallel to the existing
thoroughfare known as David Street. For sixty years the
Roman garrison were left in undisturbed occupation, but in 132
the Jews rose in revolt under the leadership of Bar-Cochebas or
Barcochba, and took possession of Jerusalem. After a severe
struggle, the revolt was suppressed by the Roman general, Julius
Severus, and Jerusalem was recaptured and again destroyed.
According to some writers, this devastation was even more com-
plete than after the siege by Titus. About 130 the emperor
Hadrian decided to rebuild Jerusalem, and make it a Roman
colony. The new city was called Aelia Capitolina. The exact
size of the city is not known, but it probably extended as far as
the present north wall of Jerusalem and included the northern
part of the western hill. A temple dedicated to Jupiter Capitol-
inus was erected on the site of the Temple, and other buildings
were constructed, known as the Theatre, the Demosia, the
Tetranymphon, the Dodecapylon and the Codra. The Jews
were forbidden to reside in the city, but Christians were freely
admitted. The history of Jerusalem during the period between
the foundation of the city of Aelia by the emperor Hadrian and
the accession of Constantino the Great in 306 is obscure, but no
important change appears to have been made in the size or
fortifications of the city, which continued as a Roman colony.
In 326 Constantino, after his conversion to Christianity, issued
orders to the bishop Macarius to recover the site of the cruci-
fixion of Jesus Christ, and the tomb in which his body was laid
(see SEPULCHRE, HOLY). After the holy sites had been deter-
mined, Constantine gave orders for the construction of two
magnificent churches, the one over the tomb and the other over
the place where the cross was discovered. The present church
of the Holy Sepulchre stands on the site upon which one of the
churches of Constantine was built, but the second church, the
Basilica of the Cross, has completely disappeared. The next
important epoch in building construction at Jerusalem was about
460, when the empress Eudocia visited Palestine and expended
large sums on the improvement of the city. The walls were
repaired by her orders, and the line of fortifications appears to
have been extended on the south so as to include the pool of
Siloam. A church was built above the pool, probably at the
same time, and, after having completely disappeared for many
centuries, it was recovered by F. J. Bliss when making his
exploration of Jerusalem. The empress also erected a large church
in honour of St Stephen north of the Damascus Gate, and is
believed to have been buried therein. The site of this church was
discovered in 1874, and it has since been rebuilt. In the 6th
century the emperor Justinian erected a magnificent basilica
at Jerusalem, in honour of the Virgin Mary, and attached to it
two hospitals, one for the reception of pilgrims and one for the
accommodation of the sick poor. The description given by
Procopius does not indicate clearly where this church was
situated. A theory frequently put forward is that it stood
within the Haram area near the Mosque of el Aksa, but it is more
probable that it was on Zion, near the traditional place of the
Coenaculum or last supper, where the Mahommedan building
known as the tomb of David now stands. In 614 Chosroes II.,
the king of Persia, captured Jerusalem, devastated many of the
buildings, and massacred a great number of the inhabitants.
The churches at the Holy Sepulchre were much damaged, but
were partially restored by the monk Modestus, who devoted
himself with great energy to the work. After a severe struggle
the Persians were defeated by the emperor Heraclius, who entered
Jerusalem in triumph in 629 bringing with him the holy cross,
which had been carried off by Chosroes. At this period the
religion of Mahomet was spreading over'the east, and in 637 the
caliph Omar marched on Jerusalem, which capitulated after a
siege of four months. Omar behaved with great moderation,
restraining his troops from pillage and leaving the Christians in
possession of their churches. A wooden mosque was erected
near the site of the Temple, which was replaced by the Mosque
JERUSALEM
of Aksa, built by the amir Abdalmalik (Abd el Malek), who also
constructed the Dome of the Rock, known as the Mosque of
Omar, in 688. The Mahommedans held Jerusalem until 1099,
when it was captured by the crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon,
and became the capital of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem
(see CRUSADES, vol. viii. p. 401) until 1187, when Saladin re-
conquered it, and rebuilt the walls. Since that time, except
from 1229 to 1239, and from 1243 to 1244, the city has been
held by the Mahommedans. It was occupied by the Egyptian
sultans until 1517, when the Turks under Selim I. occupied
Syria. Selim's successor, Suleiman the Magnificent, restored the
fortifications, which since that time have been little altered.
Modern Jerusalem.— Jerusalem is the chief town of a sanjak,
governed by a mutessarif, who reports directly to the Porte. It has
the usual executive and town councils, upon which the recognized
religious communities, or millets, have representatives; and it is
garrisoned by infantry of the V. army corps. The city is connected
with its port, Jaffa, by a carriage road, 41 m., and by a metre-gauge
railway, 54 m., which was completed in 1892, and is worked by a
French company. There are also carriage roads to Bethlehem,
Hebron and Jericho, and a road to Nablus was in course of construc-
tion in 1909. Prior to 1858, when the modern building period com-
menced, Jerusalem lay wholly within its 16th-century walls, and even
as late as 1875 there were few private residences beyond their limits.
At present Jerusalem without the walls covers a larger area than that
within them. The growth has been chiefly towards the north and
north-west ; but there are large suburbs on the west, and on the south-
west near the railway station on the plain of Rephaim. The village
of Siloam has also increased in size, and the western slopes of Olivet
are being covered with churches, monasteries and houses. Amongst
the most marked features of the change that has taken place since
1875 are the growth of religious and philanthropic establishments;
the settlement of Jewish colonies from Bokhara, Yemen and Europe;
the migration of Europeans, old Moslem families, and Jews from the
city to the suburbs ; the increased vegetation, due to the numerous
gardens and improved methods of cultivation; the substitution of
timber and red tiles for the vaulted stone roofs which were so
characteristic of the old city ; the striking want of beauty, grandeur,
and harmony with their environment exhibited by most of the new
buildings; and the introduction of wheeled transport, which, cutting
into the soft limestone, has produced mud and dust to an extent
previously unknown. To facilitate communication between the
city and its suburbs, the Bab ez-Zahire, or Herod's Gate, and a new
gate, near the north-west angle of the walls, have been opened;
and a portion of the wall, adjoining the Jaffa Gate, has been thrown
down, to allow free access for carriages. Within the city the princi-
pal streets have been roughly paved, and iron bars placed across
the narrow alleys to prevent the passage of camels. Without the
walls carriage roads have been made to the mount of Olives, the
railway station, and various parts of the suburbs, but they are kept
in baa repair. Little effort has been made to meet the increased
sanitary requirements of the larger population and wider inhabited
area. There is no municipal water-supply, and the main drain of
the city discharges into the lower pool of Siloam, which has become
an open cesspit. In several places the debris within the walls is
saturated with sewage, and the water of the Fountain of the
Virgin, and of many ofthe old cisterns, is unfit for drinking. Amongst
the more important buildings for ecclesiastical and philanthropic
purposes erected to the north of the city since 1860 are the Russian
cathedral, hospice and hospital; the French hospital of St Louis,
and hospice and church of St Augustine; the German schools,
orphanages and hospitals; the new hospital and industrial school of
the London mission to the Jews; the Abyssinian church; the church
and schools of the Church missionary society; the Anglican church,
college and bishop's house; the Dominican monastery, seminary
and church of St Stephen; the Rothschild hospital and girls' school;
and the industrial school and workshops of the Alliance Israelite.
On the mount of Olives are the Russian church, tower and hospice,
near the chapel of the Ascension; the French Paternoster church;
the Carmelite nunnery; and the Russian church of St Mary Magda-
lene, near Gethsemane. South of the city are the Armenian
monastery of Mount Zion and Bishop Gobat's school. On the west
side are the institution of the sisters of St Vincent; the Ratisbon
school; the Montefiore hospice; the British ophthalmic hospital of
the knights of St John; the convent and church of the Clarisses;
and the Moravian leper hospital. Within the city walls are the
Latin Patriarchal church and residence; the school of the Freres
de la Doctrine Chretienne; the schools and printing house of the
Franciscans; the Coptic monastery; the German church of the
Redeemer, and hospice; the United Armenian church of the Spasm;
the convent and school of the Sceurs de Zion; the Austrian hospice;
the Turkish school and museum; the monastery and seminary of
the Freres de la Mission Alg6rienne, with the restored church of St
Anne, the church, schools and hospital of the London mission to
the Jews; the Armenian seminary and Patriarchal buildings;
the Rothschild hospital; and Jewish hospices and synagogues.
JERUSALEM— JESSE
The climate is naturally good, but continued neglect of sanitary
precautions has made the city unhealthy. During the summer
months the heat is tempered by a fresh sea-breeze, and there is
usually a sharp fall of temperature at night; but in spring and
autumn the east and south-east winds, which blow across the heated
depression of the Ghor, are enervating and oppressive. A dry
season, which lasts from May to October, is followed by a rainy
season, divided into the early winter and latter rains. Snow falls
two years out of three, but soon melts. The mean annual tempera-
ture is 62-8° F., the maximum 1 12°, and the minimum 25°. The
mean monthly temperature is lowest (47-2°) in February, and highest
(76 3°) in August. The mean annual rainfall (1861 to 1899) is
26-06 in. The most unhealthy period is from 1st May to 3lst
October, when there are, from time to time, outbreaks of typhoid,
small-pox, diphtheria and other epidemics. The unhealthmess of
the city is chiefly due to want of proper drainage, impure drinking-
water, miasma from the disturbed rubbish heaps, and contaminated
dust from the uncleansed roads and streets. The only industry
is the manufacture of olive-wood and mother-of-pearl goods for
sale to pilgrims and for export. The imports (see JOPPA) are chiefly
food, clothing and building material. The population in 1905 was
about 60,000 (Moslems 7000, Christians 13,000, Jews 40,000). During
the pilgrimage season it is increased by about 15,000 travellers and
pilgrims.
AUTHORITIES. — Pal. Exp. Fund Publications — Sir C. Warren,
Jerusalem, Memoir (1884); Clermont-Ganneau, Archaeol. Researches
(vol. i., 1899) ; Bliss, Excavns. at Jerusalem (1898) ; Conder,io/in King-
dom of Jerusalem (1897), and The City ofjerusalem (1909), an historical
survey over 4000 years; Le Strange, Pal. under the Moslems (1890) ;
Fergusson, Temples of the Jews (1878); Hayter Lewis, Holy Places of
JerusalemiiSSS) ; Churches of Constantine at Jerusalem (1891) ; Guthe,
" Ausgrabungen in Jer.," in Zeitschrift d. D. Pal. Vereins (vol. v.);
Tobler, Topographie von Jerusalem (Berlin, 1854); Dritte Wanderung
(1859) ;Sepp, Jerusalem und das heilige Land (1873); Rqhricht, .Regesto
RegniHierosolymitani; BibliothecaGeographicaPalaestinae (1890) ; De
Vogue, Le Temple de Jerusalem (1864); Sir C. W. Wilson, Golgotha
and the Holy Sepulchre (1906) ; publications of the Pal. Pilgrims'
Text Society and of the Societe de V Orient latin ; papers in Quarterly
Statements of the P. E. Fund, the Zeitschrift d. D. Pal. Vereins,
Clermont-Ganneau's Recueil d'archeologie orientale and Etudes d'arch.
orientale, and the Revue Biblique; Baedeker's Handbook to Palestine
and Syria (1906); Mommert, Die hi. Grabeskirchezu Jerusalem (1898);
Golgotha und das hi. Grab zu Jerusalem (1900) ; Couret, La Prise de
Jerusm. par les Perses, 614. (Orleans, 1896 — Plans, Ordnance
Survey, revised ed.; Ordnance Survey revised by Dr Schick in
Z.D.P.V. xviii., 1895). (C. W. W.; C. M. W.)
JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672). By far the most important
of the many synods held at Jerusalem (see Wetzer and Welte,
Kirchenlexikon, 2nd ed., vi. 1357 sqq.) is that of 1672; and its
confession is the most vital statement of faith made in the Greek
Church during the past thousand years. It refutes article by
article the confession of Cyril Lucaris, which appeared in Latin
at Geneva in 1629, and in Greek, with the addition of four
"questions," in 1633. Lucaris, who died in 1638 as patriarch
of Constantinople, had corresponded with Western scholars and
had imbibed Calvinistic views. The great opposition which
arose during his lifetime continued after his death, and found
classic expression in the highly venerated confession of Petrus
Mogilas, metropolitan of Kiev (1643). Though this was intended
as a barrier against Calvinistic influences, certain Reformed
writers, as well as Roman Catholics, persisted in claiming the
support of the Greek Church for sundry of their own positions.
Against the Calvinists the synod of 1672 therefore aimed its
rejection of unconditional predestination and of justification by
faith alone, also its advocacy of what are substantially the
Roman doctrines of transubstantiation and of purgatory; the
Oriental hostility to Calvinism had been fanned by the Jesuits.
Against the Church of Rome, however, there was directed the
affirmation that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father and
not from both Father and Son; this rejection of the filioque was
not unwelcome to the Turks. Curiously enough, the synod re-
fused to believe that the heretical confession it refuted was
actually by a former patriarch of Constantinople; yet the proofs
of its genuineness seem to most scholars overwhelming. In
negotiations between Anglican and Russian churchmen the con-
fession of Dositheus1 usually comes to the front.
TEXTS. — The confession of Dositheus, or the eighteen decrees of
the Synod of Jerusalem, appeared in 1676 at Paris as Synodus
1 Patriarch of Jerusalem (1669-1707), who presided over the
synod.
335
Bethlehemitica; a revised text in 1678 as Synodus Jerosolymitana;
Hardouin, Ada conciliorum, vol. xi. ; Kimrael, Monuments, fidei
ecclesiae orientalis (Jena, 1850; critical edition); P. Schaff, The
Creeds of Christendom, vol. ii. (text after Hardouin and Kimmel,
with Latin translation) ; The Acts and Decrees of the Synod of Jerusalem
translated from the Greek, with notes, by J. N. W. B. Robertson
(London, 1899) ; J. Michalcescu, Die Bekenntnisse und die wichtigsten
Glaubenszeugnisse der griechisch-orientalischen Kirche (Leipzig, 1904;
Kimmel's text with introductions). LITERATURE. — Tht Doctrine of
the Russian Church . . . translated by R. W. Blackmore (Aberdeen,
1845), p. xxv. sqq.; Schaff, i. § 1 7 ;FWetzer and We\te,Kirchenlexikon
(2nd ed.)( vi. 1359 seq.; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie (3rd ed.),
viii. 703-705; Michalcescu, 123 sqq. (See COUNCILS.) (W. W. R.*)
JESI (anc. Aesis), a town and episcopal see of the Marches,
Italy, in the province of Ancona, from which it is 17 m. W. by S.
by rail, 318 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 23,285. The place
took its ancient name from the river Aesis (mod. Esino), upon the
left bank of which it lies. It still retains its picturesque medieval
town walls. The Palazzo del Comune is a fine, simple, early
Renaissance building (1487-1503) by Francesco di Giorgio
Martini; the walls are of brick and the window and door-frames
of stone, with severely restrained ornamentation. The court-
yard with its loggie was built by Andrea Sansovino in 1 5 19. The
library contains some good pictures by Lorenzo Lotto. The
castle was built by Baccio Pontelli (1488), designer of the castl«
at Ostia (1483-1486). Jesi was the birthplace of the emperor
Frederic II. (1194), and also of the musical composer, Giovanni
Battista Pergolesi (1710-1736). The river Aesis formed the
boundary of Italy proper from about 250 B.C. to the time of
Sulla (c. 82 B.C.); and, in Augustus' division of Italy, that
between Umbria (the 6th region) and Picenum (the sth). The
town itself was a colony, of little importance, except, apparently,
as a recruiting ground for the Roman army.
JESSE, in the Bible, the father of David (?.».), and as such
often regarded as the first in. the genealogy of Jesus Christ (cf .
Isa. xi. i, 10). Hence the phrase " tree of Jesse " is applied to
a design representing the descent of Jesus from the royal line of
David, formerly a favourite ecclesiastical ornament. From a
recumbent figure of Jesse springs a tree bearing in its branches
the chief figures in the line of descent, and terminating in the
figure of Jesus, or of the Virgin and Child. There are remains of
such a tree in the church of St Mary at Abergavenny, carved in
wood, and supposed to have once stood behind the high altar.
Jesse candelabra were also made. At Laon and Amiens there
are sculptured Jesses over the central west doorways of the
cathedrals. The design was chiefly used in windows. The
great east window at Wells and the window at the west end of
the nave at Chartres are fine examples. There is a 16th-century
Jesse window from Mechlin in St George's, Hanover Square,
London. The Jesse window in the choir of Dorchester Abbey,
Oxfordshire, is remarkable in that the tree forms the central
mullion, and many of the figures are represented as statuettes
on the branches of the upper tracery; other figures are in the
stained glass; the whole gives a beautiful example of the com-
bination of glass and carved stonework in one design.
JESSE, EDWARD (1780-1868), English writer on natural
history, was born on the I4th of January 1780, at Button Crans-
wick, Yorkshire, where his father was vicar of the parish. He
became clerk in a government office in 1798, and for a time was
secretary to Lord Dartmouth, when president of the Board of
Control. In 1812 he was appointed commissioner of hackney
coaches, and later he became deputy surveyor-general of the
royal parks and palaces. On the abolition of this office he
retired on a pension, and he died at Brighton on the 28th of
March 1868.
The result of his interest in the habits and characteristics of
animals was a series of pleasant and popular books on natural
history, the principal of which are Gleanings in Natural History
(1832-1835) ; An Angler's Rambles (1836) ; Anecdotes of Dogs (1846) ;
and Lectures on Natural History (1863). He also edited Izaak
Walton's Compleat Angler, Gilbert White s Selborne, and L. Ritchie's
Windsor Castle, and wrote a number of handbooks to places of
interest, including Windsor and Hampton Court.
JESSE, JOHN HENEAGE (1815-1874), English historian,
son of Edward Jesse, was educated at Eton, and afterwards
336
JESSEL— JESSORE
became a clerk in the secretary's department of the admiralty.
He died in London on the 7th of July 1874. His poem on Mary
Queen of Scots was published about 1831, and was followed by
a collection of poems entitled Tales of the Dead. He also wrote
a drama, Richard III., and a fragmentary poem entitled London.
None of these ventures achieved any success, but his numerous
historical works are written with vivacity and interest, and, in
their own style, are an important contribution to the history of
England. They include Memoirs of the Court of England during
the Reign of the Stuarts (1840), Memoirs of the Court of England
from the Revolution of 1688 to the Death of George II. (1843), George
Selwyn and his Contemporaries (1843, new ed. 1882), Memoirs of
the Pretenders and their Adherents (1845), Memoirs of Richard the
Third and his Contemporaries (1861), and Memoirs of the Life and
Reign of King George the Third (1867). The titles of these works
are sufficiently indicative of their character. They are sketches
of the principal personages and of the social details of various
periods in the history of England rather than complete and com-
prehensive historical narratives. In addition to these works
Jesse wrote Literary and Historical Memorials of London (1847),
London and its Celebrities (1850), and a new edition of this work as
London: its Celebrated Characters and Remarkable Places (1871).
His Memoirs of Celebrated Etonians appeared in 1875.
A collected edition containing most of his works in thirty volumes
was published in London in 1901.
JESSEL, SIR GEORGE (1824-1883), English judge, was born
in London on the I3th of February 1824. He was the son of
Zadok Aaron Jessel, a Jewish coral merchant. George Jessel
was educated at a school for Jews at Kew, and being prevented by
then existing religious disabilities from proceeding to Oxford or
Cambridge, went to University College, London. He entered as a
student at Lincoln's Inn in 1842, and a year later took his B.A.
degree at the university of London, becoming M.A. and gold
medallist in mathematics and natural philosophy in 1844. In
1846 he became a fellow of University College, and in 1847 he was
called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn. His earnings during his first
three years at the bar were 52,346, and 795 guineas, from which
it will be seen that his rise to a tolerably large practice was rapid.
His work, however, was mainly conveyancing, and for long his
income remained almost stationary. By degrees, however, he
got more work, and was called within the bar in 1865, becoming a
bencher of his Inn in the same year and practising in the Rolls
Court. Jessel entered parliament as Liberal member for Dover
in 1868, and although neither his intellect nor his oratory was of a
class likely to commend itself to his fellow-members, he attracted
Gladstone's attention by two learned speeches on the Bankruptcy
Bill which was before the house in 1869, with the result that in
1871 he was appointed solicitor-general. His reputation at this
time stood high in the chancery courts; on the common law side he
was unknown, and on the first occasion upon which he came into
the court of Queen's bench to move on behalf of the Crown, there
was very nearly a collision between him and the bench. His force-
ful and direct method of bringing his arguments home to the
bench was not modified in his subsequent practice before it. His
great powers were fully recognized; his business in addition to that
on behalf of the Crown became very large, and his income for three
years before he was raised to the bench amounted to nearly
£25,000 per annum. In 1873 Jessel succeeded Lord Romilly as
master of the rolls. From 1873 to 1881 Jessel sat as a judge
of first instance in the rolls court, being also a member of the
court of appeal. In November 1874 the first Judicature Act came
into effect, and in 1881 the Judicature Act of that year made the
master of the rolls the ordinary president of the first court of
appeal, relieving him of his duties as a judge of first instance. In
the court of appeal Jessel presided almost to the day of his
death. For some time before 1883 he suffered from diabetes with
chronic disorder of the heart and liver, but struggled against it;
on the 1 6th of March 1883 he sat in court for the last time, and
on the zist of March he died at his residence in London, the
immediate cause of death being cardiac syncope.
As a judge of first instance Jessel was a revelation to those
accustomed to the proverbial slowness of the chancery courts
and of the master of the rolls who preceded him. He disposed of
the business before him with rapidity combined with correctness
of judgment, and he not only had no arrears himself, but was
frequently able to help other judges to clear their lists. His
knowledge of law and equity was wide and accurate, and his
memory for cases and command of the principles laid down in
them extraordinary. In the rolls court he never reserved a
judgment, not even in the Epping Forest case (Commissioners of
Sewers v. Glasse, L.R. 19 Eq.; The Times, nth November 1874),
in which the evidence and arguments lasted twenty-two days
(150 witnesses being examined in court, while the documents went
back to the days of King John), and in the court of appeal he
did so only twice, and then in deference to the wishes of his
colleagues. The second of these two occasions was the case of
Robarts v. The Corporation of London (49 Law Times 455; The
Times, loth March 1883), and those who may read Jessel's judg-
ment should remember that, reviewing as it does the law and cus-
tom on the subject, and the records of the city with regard to the
appointment of a remembrancer from the i6th century, together
with the facts of the case before the court, it occupied nearly
an hour to deliver, but was nevertheless delivered without notes —
this, too, on the 9th of March 1883, when the judge who uttered
it was within a fortnight of his death. Never during the igth
century was the business of any court performed so rapidly,
punctually, and satisfactorily as it was when Jessel presided.
He was master of the rolls at a momentous period of legal history.
The Judicature Acts, completing the fusion of law and equity,,
were passed while he was judge of first instance, and were still new
to the courts when he died. His knowledge and power of assimi-
lating knowledge of all subjects, his mastery of every branch of
law with which he had to concern himself, as well as of equity,
together with his willingness to give effect to the new system,
caused it to be said when he died that the success of the Judi-
cature Acts would have been impossible without him. His
faults as a judge lay in his disposition to be intolerant of those
who, not able to follow the rapidity of his judgment, endeavoured
to persist in argument after he had made up his mind; but
though he was peremptory with the most eminent counsel, young
men had no cause to complain of his treatment of them.
Jessel sat on the royal commission for the amendment of the
Medical Acts, taking an active part in the preparation of its
report. He actively interested himself in the management of Lon-
don University, of which he was a fellow from 1861, and of which
he was elected vice-chancellor in 1880. He was one of the
commissioners of patents, and trustee of the British Museum.
He was also chairman of the committee of judges which drafted
the new rules rendered necessary by the Judicature Acts. He
was treasurer of Lincoln's Inn in 1883, and vice-president of the
council of legal education. He was also a fellow of the Royal
Society. Jessel's career marks an epoch on the bench, owing to
the active part taken by him in rendering the Judicature Acts
effective, and also because he was the last judge capable of
sitting in the House of Commons, a privilege of which he did not
avail himself. He was the first Jew who, as solicitor-general,
took a share in the executive government of his country, the
first Jew who was sworn a regular member of the privy council,
and the first Jew who took a seat on the judicial bench of Great
Britain; he was also, for many years after being called to the
bar, so situated that any one might have driven him from it,
because, being a Jew, he was not qualified to be a member of the
bar. In person Jessel was a stoutish, square-built man of
middle height, with dark hair, somewhat heavy features, a fresh
ruddy complexion, and a large mouth. He married in 1856
Amelia, daughter of Joseph Moses, who survived him together
with three daughters and two sons, the elder of whom, Charles
James (b. 1860), was made a baronet shortly after the death
of his distinguished father and in recognition of his services.
See The Times, March 23, 1883; E. Manson, Builders of our Law
(1904).
JESSORE, a town and district of British India, in the Presi-
dency division of Bengal. The town is on the Bhairab river,
with a railway station 75 m. N.E. of Calcutta. Pop. (1901), 8054.
JESTER— JESUITS
The DISTRICT OF JESSORE has an area of 2925 sq. m. Pop.
(1901), 1,813,155, showing a decrease of 4% in the decade. The
district forms the central portion of the delta between the Hugli
and the united Ganges and Brahmaputra. It is a vast alluvial
plain intersected by rivers and watercourses, which in the
southern portion spread out into large marshes. The northern
part is verdant, with extensive groves of date-palms; villages
are numerous and large; and the people are prosperous. In the
central portion the population is sparse, the only part suitable
for dwellings being the high land on the banks of rivers.
The principal rivers are the Madhumati or Haringhata (which
forms the eastern boundary of the district), with its tributaries
the Nabaganga, Chitra, and Bhairab; the Kumar, Kabadak,
Katki, Harihar, Bhadra and Atharabanka. Within the last
century the rivers in the interior of Jessore have ceased to be
true deltaic rivers; and, whereas the northern portion of the
district formerly lay under water for several months every year,
it is now reached only by unusual inundations. The tide
reaches as far north as the latitude of Jessore town. Jessore
is the centre of sugar manufacture from date palms. The exports
are sugar, rice, pulse, timber, honey, shells, &c. ; the imports
are salt, English goods, and cloth. The district is crossed by
the Eastern Bengal railway, but the chief means of communi-
cation are waterways.
British administration was completely established in the
district in 1781, when the governor-general ordered the opening
of a court at Murali near Jessore. Before that, however, the
fiscal administration had been in the hands of the English, having
been transferred to the East India company with that of the rest
of Bengal in 1765. The changes in jurisdiction in Jessore have
been very numerous. After many transfers and rectifications,
the district was in 1863 finally constituted as it at present stands.
The rajas of Jessore or Chanchra trace their origin to Bhabeswar
Rai, a soldier in the army of Khan-i-Azam, an imperial general,
who deprived Raja Pratapaditya, the popular hero of the Sundar-
bans, of several fiscal divisions, and conferred them on Bhabeswar.
But Manohar Rai (1649-1705) is regarded as the principal
founder of the family. The estate when he inherited it was of
moderate size, but he acquired one pargana after another, until,
at his death, the property was by far the largest in the neighbour-
hood.
JESTER, a provider of " jests " or amusements, a buffoon,
especially a professional fool at a royal court or in a nobleman's
household (see FOOL). The word " jest," from which " jester "
is formed, is used from the i6th century for the earlier " gest,"
Lat. gesta, or res gestae, things done, from gerere, to do, hence
deeds, exploits, especially as told in history, and so used of the
metrical and prose romances and chronicles of the middle ages.
The word became applied to satirical writings and to any long-
winded empty tale, and thence to a joke or piece of fun, the
current meaning of the word.
JESUATI, a religious order founded by Giovanni Colombini of
Siena in 1360. Colombini had been a prosperous merchant and a
senator in his native city, but, coming under ecstatic religious
influences, abandoned secular affairs and his wife and daughter
(after making provision for them), and with a friend of like
temperament, Francesco Miani, gave himself to a life of apostolic
poverty, penitential discipline, hospital service and public
preaching. The name Jesuati was given to Colombini and his
disciples from the habit of calling loudly on the name of Jesus at
the beginning and end of their ecstatic sermons. The senate
banished Colombini from Siena for imparting foolish ideas to the
young men of the city, and he continued his mission in Arezzo
and other places, only to be honourably recalled home on the
outbreak of a devastating pestilence. He went out to meet
Urban V. on his return from Avignon to Rome in 1367, and craved
his sanction for the new order and a distinctive habit. Before
this was granted Colombini had to clear the movement of a sus-
picion that it was connected with the heretical sect of Fraticelli,
and he died on the 3 ist of July I367,soon after the papal approval
had been given. The guidance of the new order, whose members
(all lay brothers) gave themselves entirely to works of mercy,
337
devolved upon Miani. Their rule of life, originally a compound
of Benedictine and Franciscan elements, was later modified
on Augustinian lines, but traces of the early penitential idea
persisted, e.g. the wearing of sandals and a daily flagellation.
Paul V.ini6o6 arranged for a small proportionof clerical members,
and later in the I7th century the Jesuati became so secularized
that the members were known as the Aquavitae Fathers, and the
order was dissolved by Clement IX. in 1668. The female branch
of the order, the Jesuati sisters, founded by Caterina Colombini
(d. 1387) in Siena, and thence widely dispersed, more consistently
maintained the primitive strictness of the society and survived
the male branch by 200 years, existing until 1872 in small com-
munities in Italy.
JESUITS, the name generally given to the members of the
Society of Jesus, a religious order in the Roman Catholic Church,
founded in 1539. This Society may be defined, in its original
conception and well-avowed object, as a body of highly
trained religious men of various degrees, bound by the three
personal vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, together with,
in some cases, a special vow to the pope's service, with the object
of labouring for the spiritual good of themselves and their
neighbours. They are declared to be mendicants and enjoy
all the privileges of the other mendicant orders. They are
governed and live by constitutions and rules, mostly drawn up
by their founder, St Ignatius of Loyola, and approved by the
popes. Their proper title is " Clerks Regulars of the Society of
Jesus," the word Socielas being taken as synonymous with the
original Spanish term, Campania; perhaps the military term
Cohors might more fully have expressed the original idea of a
band of spiritual soldiers living under martial law and discipline.
The ordinary term "Jesuit " was given to the Society by its
avowed opponents; it is first found in the writings of Calvin and
in the registers of the Parlement of Paris as early as 1552.
Constitution and Character. — The formation of the Society was
a masterpiece of genius on the part of a man (see LOYOLA) who
was quick to realize the necessity of the moment. Just before
Ignatius was experiencing the call to conversion, Luther had
begun his revolt against the Roman Church by burning the papal
bull of excommunication on the loth of December 1520. But
while Luther's most formidable opponent was thus being
prepared in Spain, the actual formation of the Society was
not to take place for eighteen years. Its conception seems
to have developed very slowly in the mind of Ignatius.
It introduced a new idea into the Church. Hitherto all
regulars made a point of the choral office in choir. But as
Ignatius conceived the Church to be in a state of war, what was
desirable in days of peace ceased when the life of the cloister
had to be exchanged for the discipline of the camp; so in the
sketch of the new society which he laid before Paul III., Ignatius
laid down the principle that the obligation of the breviary
should be fulfilled privately and separately and not in choir.
The other orders, too, were bound by the idea of a constitu-
tional monarchy based on the democratic spirit. Not so with
the Society. The founder placed the general for life in an almost
uncontrolled position of authority, giving him the faculty of
dispensing individuals from the decrees of the highest legislative
body, the general congregations. Thus the principle of military
obedience was exalted to a degree higher than that existing in
the older orders, which preserved to their members certain
constitutional rights.
The soldier-mind of Ignatius can be seen throughout the constitu-
tions. Even in the spiritual labours which the Society shares with
the other orders, its own ways of dealing with persons and things
result from the system of training which succeeds in forming men
to a type that is considered desirable. But it must not be thought
that in practice the rule of the Society and the high degree of obedi-
ence demanded result in mere mechanism. By a system of check
and counter check devised in the constitutions the power of local
superiors is modified, so that in practice the working is smooth.
Ignatius knew that while a high ideal was necessary for every
society, his followers were flesh and blood, not machines. He made
it clear from the first that the Society was everything and the
individual nothing, except so far as he might prove a useful instru-
ment for carrying out the Society's objects. Ignatius said to his
338
JESUITS
secretary Polanco that " in those who offered themselves he looked
less to purely natural goodness than to firmness of character and
ability for business, for he was of opinion that those who were not
fit for public business were not adapted for filling offices in the
Society." He further declared that even exceptional qualities and
endowments in a candidate were valuable in his eyes only on the
condition of their being brought into play, or held in abeyance,
strictly at the command of a superior. Hence his teaching on
obedience. His letter on this subject, addressed to the Jesuits of
Coimbra in 1553, is still one of the standard formularies of the
Society, ranking with those other products of his pen, the Spiritual
Exercises and the Constitutions. In this letter Ignatius clothes the
general with the powers of a commander-in-chief in time of war,
giving him the absolute disposal of all members of the Society in
every place and for every purpose. He pushes the claim even
further, requiring, besides entire outward submission to command,
also the complete identification of the inferior's will with that of the
superior. He lays down that the superior is to be obeyed simply
as such and as standing in the place of God, without reference to his
personal wisdom, piety or discretion; that any obedience which falls
short of making the superior's will one's own, in inward affection as
well as in outward effect, is lax and imperfect; that going beyond
the letter of command, even in things abstractly good and praise-
worthy, is disobedience, and that the " sacrifice of the intellect " is
the third and highest grade of obedience, well pleasing to God, when
the inferior not only wills what the superior wills, but thinks what
he thinks, submitting his judgment, so far as it is possible for the
will to influence and lead the judgment. This Letter on Obedience
was written for the guidance and formation of Ignatius's own
followers; it was an entirely domestic affair. But when it became
known beyond the Society the teaching met with great opposition,
especially from members of other orders whose institutes repre-
sented the normal days of peace rather than those of war. The
letter was condemned by the Inquisitions of Spain and Portugal;
and it tasked all the skill and learning of Bellarmine as its apologist,
together with the whole influence of the Society, to avert what seemed
to be a probable condemnation at Rome.
The teaching of the Letter must be understood in the living spirit
of the Society. Ignatius himself lays down the rule that an inferior
is bound to make all necessary representations to his superior so as
to guide him in imposing a precept of obedience. When a superior
knows the views of his inferior and still commands, it is because he
is aware of other sides of the question which appear of greater
importance than those that the inferior has brought forward.
Ignatius distinctly excepts the case where obedience in itself would
be sinful: " In all things except sin I ought to do the will of my
superior and not my own." There may Be cases where an inferior
judges that what is commanded is sinful. What is to be done?
Ignatius says: "When it seems to me that I am commanded by
my superior to do a thing against which my conscience revolts as
sinful and my superior judges otherwise, it is my duty to yield my
doubts to him unless I am otherwise constrained by evident reasons.
... If submissions do not appease my conscience I must impart
my doubts to two or three persons of discretion and abide by their
decision." From this it is clear that only in doubtful cases concerning
sin should an inferior try to submit his judgment to that of his
superior, who ex officio is held to be not only one who would not order
what is clearly sinful, but also a competent judge who knows and
understands, better than the inferior, the nature and aspect of the
command. As the Jesuit obedience is based on the law of God, it is
clearly impossible that he should be bound to obey in what is directly
opposed to the divine service. A Jesuit lives in obedience all his
life, though the yoke is not galling nor always felt. He can accept
no dignity or office which will make him independent of the Society;
and even if ordered by the pope to accept the cardinalate or the
episcopate, he is still bound, if not to obey, yet to listen to the
advice of those whom the general deputes to counsel him in important
matters.
The Jesuits had to find their principal work in the world and in
direct and immediate contact with mankind. To seek spiritual
perfection in a retired life of contemplation and prayer did not seem
to Ignatius to be the best way of reforming the evils which had
brought about the revolt from Rome. He withdrew his followers
from this sort of retirement, except as a mere temporary preparation
for later activity; he made habitual intercourse with the world a
prime duty ; and to this end he rigidly suppressed all such external
peculiarities of dress or rule as tended to put obstacles in the way of
his followers acting freely as emissaries, agents or missionaries in
the most various places and circumstances. Another change he
introduced even more completely than did the founders of the
Friars. The Jesuit has no home: the whole world is his parish.
Mobility and cosmopolitanism are of the very essence of the Society.
As Ignatius said, the ancient monastic communities were the
infantry of the Church, whose duty was to stand firmly in one place
on the battlefield ; the Jesuits were to be her light horse, capable of
going anywhere at a moment's notice, but especially apt and de-
signed for scouting and skirmishing. To carry out this view, it
was one of his plans to send foreigners as superiors or officers to the
Jesuit houses in each country, requiring of these envoys, however,
invariably to use the language of their new place of residence and
to study it both in speaking and writing till entire mastery of it
had been acquired — thus by degrees making all the parts of his
system mutually interchangeable, and so largely increasing the
number of persons eligible to fill any given post without reference
to locality. But subsequent experience has, in practice, modified
this interchange, as far as local government goes, though the central
government of the Society is always cosmopolitan.
Next we must consider the machinery by which the Society
is constituted and governed so as to make its spirit a living energy
and not a mere abstract theory. The Society is distributed
into six grades: novices, scholastics, temporal coadjutors (lay
brothers), spiritual coadjutors, professed of the three vows,
and professed of the four vows. No one can become a postulant
for admission to the Society until fourteen years old, unless
by special dispensation. The novice is classified according as his
destination is the priesthood or lay brotherhood, while a third
class of " indifferents " receives such as are reserved for further
inquiry before a decision of this kind is made. The novice has
first to undergo a strict retreat, practically in solitary con-
finement, during which he receives from a director the Spiritual
Exercises and makes a general confession of his whole life; after
which the first novitiate of two years' duration begins. In this
period of trial the real character of the man is discerned, his
weak points are noted and his will is tested. Prayer and the
practices of asceticism, as means to an end, are the chief occu-
pations of the novice. He may leave or be dismissed at any
time during the two years; but at the end of the period if he is
approved and destined for the priesthood, he is advanced to
the grade of scholastic and takes the following simple vows in the
presence of certain witnesses, but not to any person: —
" Almighty Everlasting God, albeit everyway most unworthy in
Thy holy sight, yet relying on Thine infinite kindness and mercy
and impelled by the desire of serving Thee, before the Most Holy
Virgin Mary and all Thy heavenly host, I, N., vow to Thy divine
Majesty Poverty, Chastity and Perpetual Obedience to the Society
of Jesus, and promise that I will enter the same Society to live in it
perpetually, understanding all things according to the Constitutions
of the Society. I humbly pray from Thine immense goodness and
clemency, through the Blood of Jesus Christ, that Thou wilt deign
to accept this sacrifice in the odour of sweetness; and as Thou hast
grantee! me to desire and to offer this, so wilt Thou bestow abundant
grace to fulfil it."
The scholastic then follows the ordinary course of an under-
graduate at a university. After passing five years in arts he has,
while still keeping up his own studies, to devote five or six years
more to teaching the junior classes in various Jesuit schools or
colleges. About this period he takes his simple vows in the
following terms: —
" I, N., promise to Almighty God, before His Virgin Mother and
the whole heavenly host, and to thee, Reverend Father General
of the Society of Jesus, holding the place of God, and to thy succes-
sors (or to thee, Reverend Father M. in place of the General of the
Society of Jesus and his successors holding the place of God), Per-
petual Poverty, Chastity and Obedience ; and according to it a peculiar
care in the education of boys, according to the manner expressed in
the Apostolic Letter and Constitutions of the said Society."
The lay brothers leave out the clause concerning education.
The scholastic does not begin the study of theology until he is
twenty-eight or thirty, and then passes through a four or six
years' course. Only when he is thirty-four or thirty-six can he
be ordained a priest and enter on the grade of a spiritual co-
adjutor. A lay brother, before he can become a temporal
coadjutor for the discharge of domestic duties, must pass ten
years before he is admitted to vows. Sometimes after ordina-
tion the priest, in the midst of his work, is again called away
to a third year's novitiate, called the tertianship, as a prepara-
tion for his solemn profession of the three vows. His former
vows were simple and the Society was at liberty to dismiss him
for any canonical reason. The formula of the famous Jesuit
vow is as follows: —
" I, N., promise to Almighty God, before His Virgin Mother and
the whole heavenly host, and to all standing by ; and to thee, Reverend
Father General of the Society of Jesus, holding the place of God,
and to thy successors (or to thee, Reverend Father M. in place of
the General of the Society of Jesus and his successors holding the
place of God), Perpetual Poverty, Chastity and Obedience; and
according to it a peculiar care in the education of boys according to
JESUITS
339
the form of life contained in the Apostolic Letters of the Society of
Jesus and in its Constitutions."
Immediately after the vows the Jesuit adds the following
simple vows: (i) that he will never act nor consent that the
provisions in the constitutions concerning poverty should be
changed; (2) that he will not directly nor indirectly procure
election or promotion for himself to any prelacy or dignity
in the Society; (3) that he will not accept or consent to his
election to any dignity or prelacy outside the Society unless
forced thereunto by obedience; (4) that if he knows of others
doing these things he will denounce them to the superiors;
(5) that if elected to a bishopric he will never refuse to hear
such advice as the general may deign to send him and will
follow it if he judges it is better than his own opinion. The
professed is now eligible to certain offices in the Society, and he
may remain as a professed father of the three vows for the rest
of his life. The highest class, who constitute the real core of the
Society, whence all its chief officers are taken, are the professed
of the four vows. This giade can seldom be reached until
the candidate is in his forty-fifth year, which involves a proba-
tion of thirty-one years in the case of those who have entered on
the novitiate at the earliest legal age. The number of these
select members is small in comparison with the whole Society;
the exact proportion varies from time to time, the present ten-
dency being to increase the number. The vows of this grade
are the same as the last formula, with the addition of the follow-
ing important clause: —
" Moreover I promise the special obedience to the Sovereign
Pontiff concerning missions, as is contained in the same Apostolic
Letter and Constitutions."
These various members of the Society are distributed in its
novitiate houses, its colleges, its professed houses and its mis-
sion residences. The question has been hotly debated whether,
in addition to these six grades, there be not a seventh answering
in some degree to the tertiaries of the Franciscan and Dominican
orders, but secretly affiliated to the Society and acting as its
emissaries in various lay positions. This class was styled in
France " Jesuits of the short robe," and there is some evidence
in support of its actual existence under Louis XV. The Jesuits
themselves deny the existence of any such body, and are able to
adduce the negative disproof that no provision for it is to be
found in their constitutions. On the other hand there are
clauses therein which make the creation of such a class perfectly
feasible if thought expedient. An admitted instance is the case of
Francisco Borgia, who in 1548, while still duke of Gandia, was
received into the Society. What has given colour to the idea is
that certain persons have made vows of obedience to individual
Jesuits; as Thomas Worthington, rector of the Douai seminary,
to Father Robert Parsons; Ann Vaux to Fr. Henry Garnet,
who told her that he was not indeed allowed to receive her vows,
but that she might make them if she wished and then receive his
direction. The archaeologist George Oliver of Exeter was,
according to Foley's Records of the English Province, the last
of the secular priests of England who vowed obedience to the
Society before its suppression.
The general lives permanently at Rome and holds in his hands
the right to appoint, not only to the office of provincial over each
of the head districts into which the Society is mapped, but to
the offices of each house in particular. There is no standard of
electoral right in the Society except in the election of the general
himself. By a minute and frequent system of official and private
reports he is informed of the doings and progress of every
member of the Society and of everything that concerns it
throughout the world. Every Jesuit has not only the right
but the duty in certain cases of communicating, directly and
privately, with his general. While the general thus controls
everything, he himself is not exempt from supervision on the
part of the Society. A consultative council is imposed upon him
by the general congregation, consisting of the assistants of the
various nations, a socius, or adviser, to warn him of mistakes, and
a confessor. These he cannot remove nor select ; and he is bound,
in certain circumstances, to listen to their advice, although
he is not obliged to follow it. Once elected the general may
not refuse the office, nor abdicate, nor accept any dignity
or office outside of the Society; on the other hand, for certain
definite reasons, he may be suspended or even deposed by the
authority of the Society, which can thus preserve itself from
destruction. No such instance has occurred, although steps
were once taken in this direction in the case of a general who
had set himself against the current feeling.
It is said that the general of the Jesuits is independent of the
pope; and his popular name, " the black pope," has gone to confirm
this idea. But it is based on an entirely wrong conception of the
two offices. The suppression of the Society by Clement XIV. in
177-5 was an object-lesson in the supremacy of the pope. The
Society became very numerous and, from time to time, received
extraordinary privileges from popes, who were warranted by the
necessities of the times in granting them. A great number of
influential friends, also, gathered round the fathers who, naturally,
sought in every way to retain what had been granted. Popes who
thought it well to bring about certain changes, or to withdraw
privileges that were found to have passed their intentions or to
interfere unduly with the rights of other bodies, often met with
loyal resistances against their proposed measures. Resistance up
to a certain point is lawful and is not disobedience, for every society
has the right of self-preservation. In cases where the popes insisted,
in spite of the representations of the Jesuits, their commands were
obeyed. Many of the popes were distinctly unfavourable to the
Society, while others were as friendly, and often what one pope did
against them the next pope withdrew. Whatever was done in times
when strong divergence of opinion existed, and whatever may have
been the actions of individuals who, even in so highly organized
a body as the Society of Jesus, cannot always be successfully
controlled by their superiors, yet the ultimate result on the part of
the Society has always been obedience to the pope, who authorized,
protected and privileged them, and on whom they ultimately
depend for their very existence.
Thus constituted, with a skilful union of strictness and
freedom, of complex organization with a minimum of friction
in working, the Society was admirably devised for its purpose
of introducing a new power into the Church and the world.
Its immediate services to the Church were great. The Society
did much, single-handed, to roll back the tide of Protestant
advance when half of Europe, which had not already shaken
off its allegiance to the papacy, was threatening to do so. The
honours of the reaction belong to the Jesuits, and the reactionary
spirit has become their tradition. They had the wisdom to see
and to admit, in their correspondence with their superiors,
that the real cause of the Reformation was the ignorance,
neglect and vicious lives of so many priests. They recognized,
as most earnest men did, that the difficulty was in the higher
places, and that these could best be touched by indirect methods.
At a time when primary or even secondary education had in
most places become a mere effete and pedantic adherence to
obsolete methods, they were bold enough to innovate, both in
system and material. Putting fresh spirit and devotion into the
work, they not merely taught and catechized in a new, fresh
and attractive manner, besides establishing free schools of
good quality, but provided new school books for their pupils
which were an enormous advance on those they found in use;
so that for nearly three centuries the Jesuits were accounted
the best schoolmasters in Europe, as they were, till their forcible
suppression in 1901, confessedly the best in France. The Jesuit
teachers conciliated the goodwill of their pupils by mingled
firmness and gentleness. Although the method of the Ratio
Studiorum has ceased to be acceptable, yet it played in its time as
serious a part in the intellectual development of Europe as did
the method of Frederick the Great in modern warfare. Bacon
succinctly gives his opinion of the Jesuit teaching in these
words: " As for the pedagogical part, the shortest rule would
be, Consult the schools of the Jesuits; for nothing better has
been put in practice " (De Augmentis, vi. 4). In instruction
they were excellent; but in education, or formation of character,
deficient. Again, when most of the continental clergy had
sunk, more or less, into the moral and intellectual slough which
is pictured for us in the writings of Erasmus and the Epislolae
obscurorum virorum (see HUTTEN, ULRICH VON), the Jesuits won
back respect for the clerical calling by their personal culture
340
JESUITS
and the unimpeachable purity of their lives. These qualities they
have carefully maintained; and probably no large body of men
in the world has been so free from the reproach of discreditable
members or has kept up, on the whole, an equally high average
of intelligence and conduct. As preachers, too, they delivered
the pulpit from the bondage of an effete scholasticism and
reached at once a clearness and simplicity of treatment such as
the English pulpit scarcely begins to exhibit till after the days
of Tillotson; while in literature and theology they count a far
larger number of respectable writers than any other religious
society can boast. It is in the mission field, however, that their
achievements have been most remarkable. Whether toiling
among the teeming millions in Hindustan and China, labouring
amongst the Hurons and Iroquois of North America, govern-
ing and civilizing the natives of Brazil and Paraguay in the
missions and " reductions," or ministering, at the hourly risk
of his life to his fellow-Catholics in England under Elizabeth
and the Stuarts, the Jesuit appears alike devoted, indefatigable,
cheerful and worthy of hearty admiration and respect.
Nevertheless, two startling and indisputable facts meet the
student who pursues the history of the Society. The first is the
universal suspicion and hostility it has incurred — not merely
from the Protestants whose avowed foe it has been, not yet from
the enemies of all clericalism and dogma, but from every Catholic
state and nation in the world. Its chief enemies have been
those of the household of the Roman Catholic faith. The
second fact is the ultimate failure which seems to dog all
its most promising schemes and efforts. These two results
are to be observed alike in the provinces of morals and
politics. The first cause of the opposition indeed redounds
to the Jesuits' credit, for it was largely due to their success.
Their pulpits rang with a studied eloquence; their churches,
sumptuous and attractive, were crowded; and in the confes-
sional their advice was eagerly sought in all kinds of
difficulties, for they were the fashionable professors of the art
of direction. Full of enthusiasm and zeal, devoted wholly to
their Society, they were able to bring in numbers of rich and
influential persons to their ranks; for, with a clear understanding
of the power of wealth, they became, of set purpose, the apostles
of the rich and influential. The Jesuits felt that they were the
new men, the men of the time; so with a perfect confidence in
themselves they went out to set the Church to rights. It was
no wonder that success, so well worked for and so well de-
served, failed to win the approval or sympathy of those who
found themselves supplanted. Old-fashioned men, to whom
the apostles' advice to " do all to the glory of God " seemed
sufficient, mistrusted those who professed to go beyond all
others and adopted as their motto the famous Ad majorem Dei
gloriam, " To the greater glory of God." But, besides this, the
esfril de corps which is necessary for every body of men was, it
was held, carried to an excess and made the Jesuits intolerant
of any one or anything if not of " ours." The novelties too
which they introduced into the conception of the religious life,
naturally, were displeasing to the older orders, who felt like old
aristocratic families towards a newly rich or purse-proud up-
start. The Society, or rather its members, were too aggressive
and sel/-assertive to be welcomed; and a certain characteristic,
which soon began to manifest itself in an impatience of episcopal
control, showed that the quality of " Jesuitry," usually associ-
ated with the Society, was singularly lacking in their dealings
with opponents. Their political attitude also alienated many.
Many of the Jesuits could not separate religion from politics.
To say this is only to assert that they were not clearer-minded
than most men of their age. But unfortunately they invariably
took the wrong side and allowed themselves to be made the tools
of men who saw farther and more clearly than they did. They
had their share, direct or indirect, in the embroiling of states, in
concocting conspiracies and in kindling wars. They were also
responsible by their theoretical teachings in theological schools,
where cases were considered and treated in the abstract, for not
a few assassinations of the enemies of the cause. Weak minds
heard tyrannicide discussed and defended in the abstract; and
it was no wonder that, when opportunity served, the train that
had been heedlessly laid by speculative professors was fired by
rash hands. What professors like Suarez taught in the calm
atmosphere of the lecture hall, what writers like Mariana upheld
and praised, practical men took as justification for deeds of
blood. There is no evidence that any Jesuit took a direct part
in political assassinations; however, indirectly, they may have
been morally responsible. They were playing with edged tools
and often got wounded through their own carelessness. Other
grievances were raised by their perpetual meddling in politics,
e.g. their large share in fanning the flames of political hatred
against the Huguenots under the last two Valois kings; their
perpetual plotting against England in the reign of Elizabeth;
their share in the Thirty Years' War and in the religious miseries
of Bohemia; their decisive influence in causing the revocation
of the edict of Nantes and the expulsion of the Protestants from
France; the ruin of the Stuart cause under James II., and the
establishment of the Protestant succession. In a number of
cases where the evidence against them is defective, it is at least
an unfortunate coincidence that there is always direct proof of
some Jesuit having been in communication with the actual agents
engaged. They were the stormy petrels of politics. Yet the
Jesuits, as a body, should not be made responsible for the doings
of men who, in their political intrigues, were going directly
against the distinct law of the Society, which in strict terms, and
under heavy penalties, forbade them to have anything to do
with such matters. The politicians were comparatively few
in number, though unfortunately they held high rank; and their
disobedience to the rule besmirched the name of the society and
destroyed the good work of the other Jesuits who were faithfully
carrying out their own proper duties.
A far graver cause for uneasiness was given by the Jesuits'
activity in the region of doctrine and morals. Here the charges
against them are precise, early, numerous and weighty. Their
founder himself was arrested, more than once, by the Inquisition
and required to give account of his belief and conduct. But
St Ignatius, with all his powerful gifts of intellect, was entirely
practical and ethical in his range, and had no turn whatever for
speculation, nor desire to discuss, much less to question, any of
the received dogmas of the Church. He gives it as a rule of
orthodoxy to be ready to say that black is white if the Church
says so. He was therefore acquitted on every occasion, and
applied each time for a formally attested certificate of his ortho-
doxy, knowing well that, in default of such documents, the fact
of his arrest as a suspected heretic would be more distinctly
recollected by opponents than that of his honourable dismissal
from custody. His followers, however, have not been so for-
tunate. On doctrinal questions indeed, though their teaching
on grace, especially in the form given to it by Molina (?.».), ran
contrary to the accepted teaching on the subject by the Augus-
tinians, Dominicans and other representative schools; yet by
their pertinacity they gained for their views a recognized and
established position. A special congregation of cardinals and
theologians known as de auxiliis was summoned by the pope to
settle the dispute, for the odium Iheologicum had risen to a
desperate height between the representatives of the old and the
new theology; but after many years they failed to arrive at any
satisfactory conclusion, and the pope, instead of settling the
dispute, was only able to impose mutual silence on all opponents.
Among those who held out stiffly against the Jesuits on the
subject of grace were the Jansenists, who held that they were
following the special teaching of St Augustine, known par
excellence as the doctor of grace. The Jesuits and the Jansenists
soon became deadly enemies; and in the ensuing conflict both
parties accused each other of flinging scruples to the wind. (See
JANSENISM.)
But the accusations against the Jesuit system of moral theo-
logy and their action as guides of conduct have had a more serious
effect on their reputation. It is undeniable that some of their
moral writers were lax in their teaching; and conscience was
strained to the snapping point. The Society was trying to
make itself all things to all men. Propositions extracted from
Jesuit moral theologians have again and again been condemned
by the pope and declared untenable. Many of these can be-
found in Viva's Condemned Propositions. As early as 1554 the
Jesuits were 'censured by the Sorbonne, chiefly at the instance
of Eustache de Bellay, bishop of Paris, as being dangerous in
matters of faith. Melchor Cano, a Dominican, one of the ablest
divines of the i6th century, never ceased to lift up his testimony
against them, from their first beginnings till his own death in
1560; and, unmollified by the bribe of the bishopric of the
Canaries, which their interest procured for him, he succeeded
in banishing them from the university of Salamanca. Carlo
Borromeo, to whose original advocacy they owed much, especially
in the council of Trent, found himself attacked in his own cathe-
dral pulpit and interfered with in his jurisdiction. He withdrew
his protection and expelled them from his colleges and churches;
and he was followed in 1604 in this policy by his cousin and
successor Cardinal Federigo Borromeo. St Theresa learnt,
in after years, to mistrust their methods, although she was grate-
ful to them for much assistance in the first years of her work.
The credit of the Society was seriously damaged by the publica-
tion, at Cracow, in 1612, of the Manila Secreta. This book,
which is undoubtedly a forgery, professes to contain the authori-
tative secret instructions drawn up by the general Acquaviva and
given by the superiors of the Society to its various officers and
members. A bold caricature of Jesuit methods, the book has
been ascribed to John Zaorowsky or to Cambilone and Schloss,
all ex-Jesuits, and it is stated to have been discovered in manu-
script by Christian of Brunswick in the Jesuit college at Prague.
It consists of suggestions and methods for extending the influence
of the Jesuits in various ways, for securing a footing in fresh
places, for acquiring wealth, for creeping into households and
leading silly rich widows captive and so forth, all marked with
ambition, craft and unscrupulousness. It had a wide success
and popularity, passing through several editions, and even to
this day it is used by controversialists as unscrupulous as the
original writers. It may, perhaps, represent the actions of some
individuals who allowed their zeal to outrun their discretion,
but surely no society which exists for good and is marked by so
many worthy men could systematically have conducted its
operations in such a manner. Later on a formidable assault
was made on Jesuit moral theology in the famous Provincial
Letters of Blaise Pascal (<?.!>.), eighteen in number, issued under
the pen-name of Louis de Montalte, from January 1656 to March
1657. Their wit, irony, eloquence and finished style have kept
them alive as one' of the great French classics — a destiny more
fortunate than that of the kindred works by Antoine Arnauld,
Theologie morale des Jesuites, consisting of extracts from writings
of members of the Society, and Morale pratique des Jesuites,
made up of narratives professing to set forth the manner in
which they carried out their own maxims. But, like most
controversial writers, the authors were not scrupulous in their
quotations, and by giving passages divorced from their contexts
often entirely misrepresented their opponents. The immediate
reply on the part of the Jesuits, The Discourses of Cleander and
Eudoxus by Pere Daniel, could not compete with Pascal's work
in brilliancy, wit or style; moreover, it was unfortunate enough
to be put upon the Index of prohibited books in 1701. The
'reply on behalf of the Society to Pascal's charges of lax
morality, apart from mere general'denials, is broadly as follows: —
(l) St Ignatius himself, the founder of the Society, had a special
aversion from untruthfulness in all its forms, from quibbling,
equivocation or even studied obscurity of language, and it would be
contrary to the spirit of conformity with his example and institutions
for his followers to think and act otherwise. Hence, any who
practised equivocation were, so far, unfaithful to the Society.
(2) Several of the cases cited by Pascal are mere abstract hypotheses,
many of them now obsolete, argued simply as intellectual exercises,
but having no practical bearing whatever. (3) Even such as do
belong to the sphere of actual life are of the nature of -counsel to
spiritual physicians, how to deal with exceptional maladies; and
were never intended to fix the standard of moral obligation for the
general public. (4) The theory that they were intended for this
latter purpose and do represent the normal teaching of the Society
becomes more untenable in exact proportion as this immorality
is insisted on, because it is a matter of notoriety that the Jesuits
JESUITS 341
themselves have been singularly free from personal, as distinguished
from corporate, evil repute; and no one pretends that the large num-
ber of lay-folk whom they have educated or influenced exhibit
greater moral inferiority than others.
The third of these replies is the most cogent as regards Pascal,
but the real weakness of his attack lies in that nervous dread of
appeal to first principles and their logical result which has been
the besetting snare of Gallicanism. Pascal, at his best, has mis-
taken the part for the whole; he charges to the Society what,
at the most, are the doings of individuals; and from these he
asserts the degeneration of the body from its original standard;
whereas the stronger the life and the more extensive the natural
development, side by side will exist marks of degeneration; and a
society like the Jesuits has no difficulty in asserting its life inde-
pendently of such excrescences or, in time, in freeing itself from
them.
A charge persistently made against the Society is that it teaches
that the end justifies the means. And the words of Busembaum,
whose Medulla Iheologiae has gone through more than fifty editions,
are quoted in proof. True it is that Busembaum uses these words:
.Cut licitus est finis etiam licent media. But on turning to his work
(ed. Paris 1729, p. 584, or Lib. vi. Tract vi. cap. ii., De sacramentis,
dubium ii.) it will be found that the author is making no universal
application of an old legal maxim; but is treating of a particular
subject (concerning certain lawful liberties in the marital relation)
beyond which his words cannot be forced. The sense in which other
Jesuit theologians — e.g. Paul Laymann (1575-1635), in his Theologia
mpralis (Munich, 1625), and Ludwig Wagemann (1713-1792), in
his Synopsis theologiae moralis (Innsbruck, 1762) — quote the axiom
is an equally harmless piece of common sense. For instance, if it
is lawful to go on a journey by railway it is lawful to take a ticket.
No one who put forth that proposition would be thought to mean
that it is lawful to defraud the company by stealing a ticket; for
the proviso is always to be understood, that the means employed
should, in themselves, not be bad but good or at least indifferent.
So when Wagemann says tersely Finis determinat probitatem actus
he is clearly referring to acts which in themselves are indifferent,
i.e. indeterminate. For instance: shooting is an indifferent act,
neither good nor bad in itself. The morality of any specified
shooting depends upon what is shot, and the circumstances attending
that act: shooting a man in self-defence is, as a moral act, on an
entirely different plane to shooting a man in murder. It has never
been proved, and never can be proved, although the attempt has
frequently been made, that the Jesuits ever taught the nefarious
proposition ascribed to them, which would be entirely subversive of
all morality. Again, the doctrine of probabilism is utterly mis-
understood. It is based on an accurate conception of law. Law
to bind must be clear and definite ; if it be not so, its obligation ceases
and liberty of action remains. No probable opinion can stand
against a clear and definite law; but when a law is doubtful in
its application, in certain circumstances, so is the obligation of
obedience : and as a doubtful law is, for practical purposes, no law
at all, so it superinduces no obligation. Hence a probable opinion
is one, founded on reason and held on serious grounds, that the law
does not apply to certain specified cases; and that the law-giver
therefore did not intend to bind. It is the principle of equity applied
to law. In moral matters a probable opinion, that is one held on
no trivial grounds but by unprejudiced and solid thinkers, has no
place where the voice of conscience is clear, distinct and formed.
Two causes have been at work to produce the universal
failure of the great Society in all its plans and efforts. First
stands its lack of really great intellects. It has had its golden
age. No society can keep up to its highest level. Nothing can
be wider of the truth than the popular conception of the ordinary
Jesuit as a being of almost superhuman abilities and universal
knowledge. The Society, numbering as it does so many thou-
sands, and with abundant means of devoting men to special
branches of study, has, without doubt, produced men of great
intelligence and solid learning. The average member, too, on
account of his long and systematic training, is always equal
and often superior to the average member of any other equally
large body, besides being disciplined by a far more perfect drill.
But it takes great men to carry out great plans; and of really
great men, as the outside world knows and judges, the Society
has been markedly barren from almost the first. Apart from
its founder and his early companion, St Francis Xavier, there is
none who stands in the very first rank. Laynez and Acquaviva
were able administrators and politicians; the Bollandists (q.v.)
were industrious workers and have developed a critical spirit
from which much good can be expected; Francisco Suarez,
342 JESUITS
Leonhard Lessius and Cardinal Franzelin were some of the leading
Jesuit theologians; Cornelius a Lapide (1567-1637) represents
their old school of scriptural studies, while their new German
writers are the most advanced of all orthodox higher critics;
the French Louis Bourdaloue (<?.».), the Italian Paolo Segneri
(1624-1694), and the Portuguese Antonio Vieyra (1608-1697)
represent their best pulpit orators; while of the many mathema-
ticians and astronomers produced by the Society Angelo Secchi,
Ruggiero Giuseppe Boscovich and G.B. Beccaria are conspicuous,
and in modern times Stephen Joseph Perry (1833-1889), director
of the Stonyhurst College observatory, took a high rank among
men of science. Their boldest and most original thinker, Denis
Petau, so many years neglected, is now, by inspiring Cardinal
Newman's Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine, pro-
ducing a permanent influence over the current of human thought.
The Jesuits have produced no Aquinas, no Anselm, no Bacon,
no Richelieu. Men whom they trained, and who broke loose
from their teaching, Pascal, Descartes, Voltaire, have power-
fully affected the philosophical and religious beliefs of great
masses of mankind; but respectable mediocrity is the brand on
the long list of Jesuit names in the catalogues of Alegambe and
De Backer. This is doubtless due in great measure to the destruc-
tive process of scooping out the will of the Jesuit novice, to replace
it with that of his superior (as a watchmaker might fit a new
movement into a case), and thereby tending, in most cases, to
annihilate those subtle qualities of individuality and originality
which are essential to genius. Men of the higher stamp will
either refuse to submit to the process and leave the Society, or
run the danger of coming forth from the mill with their finest
qualities pulverized and useless. In accordance with the spirit
of its founder, who wished to secure uniformity in the judgment
of his followers even in points left open by the Church (" Let us
all think the same way, let us all speak in the same manner if
possible"), the Society has shown itself to be impatient of those
who think or write in a way different from what is current in its
ranks.
Nor is this all. The Ratio Studiorum, devised by Acquaviva and
still obligatory in the colleges of the Society, lays down rules which
are incompatible with all breadth and progress in the higher forms
of education. True to the anti-speculative and traditional side of
the founder's mind, it prescribes that, even where religious topics are
not in question, the teacher is not to permit any novel opinions or
discussions to be mooted ; nor to cite or allow others to cite the
opinions of an author not of known repute; nor to teach or suffer
to be taught anything contrary to the prevalent opinions of acknow-
ledged doctors current in the schools. Obsolete and false opinions
are not to be mentioned at all, even for refutation, nor are objections
to received teaching to be dwelt on at any length. The result is
that the Jesuit emerges from his schools without any real knowledge
of any other method of thought than that which his professors have
instilled into him. The professor of Biblical Literature is always to
support and defend the Vulgate and can never prefer the marginal
readings from the Hebrew and Greek. The Septuagint, as far as it
is incorrupt, is to be held not less authentic than the Vulgate. In
philosophy Aristotle is always to be followed, and St Thomas
Aquinas generally, care being taken to speak respectfully of him
even when abandoning his opinions, though now it is customary
for the Jesuit teachers to explain him in their own sense. De vera
mente D. Thomas is no unfamiliar expression in their books. It is
pot wonderful, under such a method of training, fixed as it has been
in minute detail for more than three hundred years, that highly
cultivated commonplaces should be the inevitable average result;
and that in proportion as Jesuit power has become dominant in
Christendom, especially in ecclesiastical circles, the same doom of
intellectual sterility and consequent loss of influence with the higher
and thoughtful classes, has separated the part from the whole. The
initial mistake in the formation of character is that the Jesuits have
aimed at educating lay boys in the same manner as they consider
advisable for their own novices, for whom obedience and direction
is the one thing necessary; whereas for lay people the right use of
liberty and initiative are to be desired.
The second cause which has blighted the efforts of the Society
is the lesson, too faithfully learnt and practised, of making its
corporate interests the first object at all times and in all places.
Men were quick to see that Jesuits did not aim at co-operation
with the other members of the Church but directly or indirectly
at mastery. The most brilliant exception to this rule is found in
some of the missions of the Society and notably in that of St
Francis Xavier (<?.».). But he quitted Europe in 1541 before the
•new society, especially under Laynez, had hardened into its final
mould; and he never returned. His work, so far as can be
gathered from contemporary accounts, was not done on true
Jesuit lines as they afterwards developed, though the Society
has reaped all the credit; and it is even possible that, had he
succeeded the founder as general, the institute might not have
received that political and self-seeking turn which Laynez, as
second general, gave at the critical moment.
It would almost seem that careful selection was made of the men
of the greatest piety and enthusiasm, whose unworldliness made
them less apt for diplomatic intrigues, to break new ground in the
various missions where their success would throw lustre on the
Society and their scruples need never come into play. But such
men are not to be found easily ; and, as they died off, the tendency
was to fill their places with more ordinary characters, whose aim was
to increase the power and resources of the body. Hence the conde-
scension to heathen rites in Hindustan and China, and the attempted
subjugation of the English Catholic clergy. The first successes of
the Indian mission were entirely among the lower classes; but when
in Madura, in 1606, Robert de Nobili, a nephew of Bellarmine, to
win the Brahmins, adopted their dress and mode of life — a step
sanctioned by Gregory XV. in 1623 and by Clement XI. in 1707 — the
fathers who followed his example pushed the new caste-feeling so far
as absolutely to refuse the ministrations and sacraments to the
pariahs, lest the Brahmin converts should take offence — an attempt
which was reported to Rome and was vainly censured by the breves
of Innocent X. in 1645, Clement IX. in 1669, Clement XII. in 1734
and 1739, and Benedict XIV. in 1745. The Chinese rites, assailed
with equal unsuccess by one pope after another, were not finally
put down until 1744 by a bull of Benedict XIV. For Japan, where
their side of the story is that best known, we have a remarkable
letter, printed by Lucas Wadding in the Annales minorum, addressed
to Paul V. by Soleto, a Franciscan missionary, who was martyred
in 1624, in which he complains to the pope that the Jesuits system-
atically postponed the spiritual welfare of the native Christians to
their own convenience and advantage; while as regards the test of
martyrdom, no such result had followed on their teaching, but only
on that of the other orders who had undertaken missionary work
in Japan. Yet soon many Jesuit martyrs in Japan were to shed a
new glory on the Society (see JAPAN: Foreign Intercourse). Again,
even in Paraguay, the most promising of all Jesuit undertakings,
the evidence shows that the fathers, though civilizing the Guarani
population just sufficiently to make them useful and docile servants,
happier no doubt than they were, before or after, stopped there.
While the mission was begun on the rational principle of governing
races still in their childhood by methods adapted to that stage in
their mental development, yet for one hundred and fifty years the
" reductions " were conducted in the same manner, and when the
hour of trial came the Jesuit civilization fell like a house of cards.
These examples are sufficient to explain the final collapse of so
many promising efforts. The individual Jesuit might be, and
often was, a hero, saint and martyr, but the system which he
was obliged to administer was foredoomed to failure; and the
suppression which came in 1773 was the natural result of forces
and elements they had set in antagonism without the power of
controlling.
The influence of the Society since its restoration in 1814 has
not been marked with greater success than in its previous history.
It was natural after the restoration that an attempt should be
made to pick up again the threads that were dropped; but soon
they came to realize the truth of the saying of St Ignatius:
" The Society shall adapt itself to the times and not the times
to the Society." ' The political conditions of Europe have com-
pletely changed, and constitutionalism is unfavourable to that
personal influence which, in former times', the Jesuits were able
to bring to bear upon the heads of states. In Europe they
confine themselves mainly to educational and ecclesiastical
politics, although both Germany and France have followed the
example of Portugal and refuse, on political grounds, to allow
them to be in these countries. It would appear as though
some of the Jesuits had not, even yet, learnt the lesson that
meddling with politics has always been their ruin. The main
cause of any difficulty that may exist to-day with the Society is
that the Jesuits are true to the teaching of that remarkable
panegyric, the Imago primi saeculi Societatis (probably written
by John Tollenarius in 1640), by identifying the Church with their
own body, and being intolerant of all who will not share this view.
Their power is still large in certain sections of the ecclesiastical
world, but in secular affairs it is small. Moreover within the
church itself there is a strong and growing feeling that the
interests of Catholicism may necessitate a second and final
suppression of the Society. Cardinal Manning, a keen observer
of times and influences, was wont to say: — " The work of 1773
was the work of God: and there is another 1773 coming."
But, if this come, it will be due not to the pressure of secular
governments, as in the i8th century, but to the action of the
Church itself. The very nations which have cast out the Society
have shown no disposition to accept its own estimate and identify
it with the Church; while the Church itself is not conscious of
depending upon the Society. To the Church the Jesuits have
been what the Janissaries were to the Ottoman Empire, at first
its defenders and its champions, but in the end its taskmasters.
History. — The separate article on Loyola tells of his early
years, his conversion, and his first gathering of companions. It
was not until November 1537, when all hope of going to the Holy
Land was given up, that any outward steps were taken to form
these companions into an organized body. It was on the eve
of their going to Rome, for the second time, that the fathers
met Ignatius at Vicenza and it was determined to adopt a com-
mon rule and, at the suggestion of Ignatius, the name of the
Company of Jesus. Whatever may have been his private hopes
and intentions, it was not until he, Laynez and Faber (Pierre
Lefevre), in the name of their companions, were sent to lay their
services at the feet of the pope that the history of the Society
really begins.
On their arrival at Rome the three Jesuits were favourably re-
ceived by Paul III., who at once appointed Faber to the chair of
scripture and Laynez to that of scholastic theology in the university
of the Sapienza. But they encountered much opposition and were
even charged with heresy ; when this accusation had been disposed
of, there were still difficulties in the way of starting any new order.
Despite the approval of Cardinal Contarini and the goodwill of the
pope (who is said to have exclaimed on perusing the scheme of
Ignatius, " The finger of God is here "), there was a strong and
general feeling that the regular system had broken down and could
not be wisely developed farther. Cardinal Guidiccioni, one of the
commission of three appointed to examine the draft constitution,
was known to advocate the abolition of all existing orders, save four
which were to be remodelled and put under strict control. That
very year, i_538, a commission of cardinals, including Reginald
Pole, Contarini, Sadolet, Caraffa (afterwards Paul IV.), Fregoso
and others, had reported that the conventual orders, which they had
to deal with, had drifted into such a state that they should all be
abolished. Not only so, but, when greater strictness of rule and of
enclosure seemed the most needful reforms in communities that had
become too secular in tone, the proposal of Ignatius, to make it a
first principle that the members of his institute should mix freely in
the world and be as little marked off as possible externally from secu-
lar clerical life and usages, ran counter to all tradition and prejudice,
save that Caraffa's then recent order of Theatines, which had some
analogy with the proposed Society, had taken some steps in the same
direction.
Ignatius and his companions, however, had but little doubt of
ultimate success, and so bound themselves, on the 1 5th of April 1539,
to obey any superior chosen from amongst their body, and added
on the 4th of May certain other rules, the most important of which
was a vow of special allegiance to the pope for mission purposes to
be taken by all the members of the society. But Guidiccioni, on a
careful study of the papers, changed his mind ; it is supposed that the
cause of this change was in large measure the strong interest in the
new scheme exhibited by John III., king of Portugal, who instructed
his ambassador to press it on the pope and to ask Ignatius to send
some priests of his Society for mission work in Portugal and its
Indian possessions. Francis Xavier and Simon Rodriguez were
sent to the king in March 1540. Obstacles being cleared away,
Paul III., on the 27th of September 1540, issued his bull Regimini
militantis ecclesiae, by which he confirmed the new Society (the term
" order " does not belong to it), but limited the members to sixty,
a restriction which was removed by the same pope in the bull
Injunctum nobis of the I4th of March 1543. In the former bull,
the pope gives the text of the formula submitted by Ignatius as the
scheme of the proposed society, and in it we get the founder's
own ideas: "... This Society, instituted to this special end,
namely, to offer spiritual consolation for the advancement of souls
in life and Christian doctrine, for the propagation of the faith by
public preaching and the ministry of the word of God, spiritual
exercises and works of charity and, especially, by the instruction
of children and ignorant people in Christianity, and by the spiritual
consolation of the faithful in Christ in hearing confessions. . . . "
In this original scheme it is clearly marked out " that this entire
JESUITS 343
Society and all its members fight for God under the faithful obedience
of the most sacred lord, the pope, and the other Roman pontiffs his
successors " ; and Ignatius makes particular mention that each mem-
ber should " be bound by a special vow," beyond that formal
obligation under which all Christians are of obeying the pope, " so
that whatsoever the present and other Roman pontiffs for the time
being shall ordain, pertaining to the advancement of souls and the
propagation of the faith, to whatever provinces he shall resolve to
send us, we are straightway bound to obey, as far as in us lies, without
any tergiversation or excuse, whether he send us among the Turks
or to any other unbelievers in being, even to those parts called India,
or to any heretics or schismatics or likewise to any believers."
Obedience to the general is enjoined " in all things pertaining to the
institute of the Society . . . and in him they shall acknowledge
Christ as though present, and as far as is becoming shall venerate
him "; poverty is enjoined, and this rule affects not only the indi-
vidual but the common sustentation or care of the Society, except
that in the case of colleges revenues are allowed " to be applied to
the wants and necessities of the students "; and the private recita-
tion of the Office is distinctly mentioned. On the other hand, the
perpetuity of the general's office during his life was no part of the
original scheme.
On the 7th of April 1541, Ignatius was unanimously chosen
general. His refusal of this post was overruled, so he entered
on his office on the 1 3th of April; and two days after, the newly
constituted Society took its formal corporate vows in the basilica
of San Paolo fuori le mura. Scarcely was the Society launched
when its members dispersed in various directions to their new
tasks. Alfonso Salmeron and Pasquier-Brouet, as papal dele-
gates, were sent on a secret mission to Ireland to encourage the
native clergy and people to resist the religious changes introduced
by Henry VIII.; Nicholas Bobadilla went to Naples; Faber, first
to the diet of Worms and then to Spain; Laynez and Claude le Jay
to Germany, while Ignatius busied himself at Rome in good works
and in drawing up the constitutions and completing the Spiritual
Exercises. Success crowned these first efforts; and the Society
began to win golden opinions. The first college was founded at
Coimbra in 1542 by John III. of Portugal and put under the
rectorship of Rodriguez. It was designed as a training school to
feed the Indian mission of which Francis Xavier had already
taken the oversight, while a seminary at Goa was the second
institution founded outside Rome in connexion with the Society.
Both from the original scheme and from the foundation at
Coimbra it is clear that the original idea of the colleges was to
provide for the education of future Jesuits. In Spain, national
pride in the founder aided the Society's cause almost as much as
royal patronage did in Portugal; and the third house was opened
in Gandia under the protection of its duke, Francisco Borgia, a
grandson of Alexander VI. In Germany, the Jesuits were
eagerly welcomed as the only persons able to meet the Lutherans
on equal terms. Only in France, among the countries which
still were united with the Roman Church, was their advance
checked, owing to political distrust of their Spanish origin, to-
gether with the hostility of the Sorbonne and the bishop of Paris.
However, after many difficulties, they succeeded in getting a
footing through the help of Guillaume du Prat, bishop of
Clermont (d. 1560), who founded a college for them in 1545 in the
town of Billom, besides making over to them his house at Paris,
the hotel de Clermont, which became the nucleus of the after-
wards famous college of Louis-Ie-Grand, while a formal legaliza-
tion was granted to them by the states-general at Poissy in 1561.
In Rome, Paul III.'s favour did not lessen. He bestowed on
them the church of St Andrea and conferred at the same time
.the valuable privilege of making and altering their own statutes;
besides the other points, in 1546, which Ignatius had still more at
heart, as touching the very essence of his institute, namely,
exemption from ecclesiastical offices and dignities and from the
task of acting as directors and confessors to convents of women.
The former of these measures effectually stopped any drain of
the best members away from the society and limited their hopes
within its bounds, by putting them more freely at the general's
disposal, especially as it was provided that the final vows could
not be annulled, nor could a professed member be dismissed, save
by the joint action of the general and the pope. The regulation
as to convents seems partly due to a desire to avoid the worry
and expenditure of time involved in the discharge of such offices
344
JESUITS
and partly to a conviction that penitents living in enclosure, as
all religious persons then were, would be of no effective use to the
Society; whereas the f bunder, against the wishes of several of his
companions, laid much stress on the duty of accepting the post
of confessor to kings, queens and women of high rank when
opportunity presented itself. And the year 1546 is notable in
the annals of the Society as that in which it embarked on its
great educational career, especially by the annexation of free
day-schools to all its colleges.
The council of Trent, in its first period, seemed to increase the
reputation of the Society; for the pope chose Laynez, Faber and
Salmeron to act as his theologians in that assembly, and in this
capacity they had no little influence in framing its decrees. When
the council reassembled under Pius IV., Laynez and Salmeron again
attended in the same capacity. It is sometimes said that the council
formally approved of the Society. This is impossible; for as the
Society had received the papal approval, that of the council would
have been impertinent as well as unnecessary. St Charles Bprromeo
wrote to the presiding cardinals, on the I Ith of May 1562, saying that,
as France was disaffected to the Jesuits whom the pope wished to
see established in every country, Pius IV. desired, when the council
was occupying itself about regulars, that it should make some
honourable mention of the Society in order to recommend it. This
was done in the twenty-fifth session (cap. XVI., d.r.) when the
decree was passed that at the end of the time of probation novices
should either be professed or dismissed ; and the words of the council
are: " By these things, however, the Synod does not intend to make
any innovation or prohibition, so as to hinder the religious order of
Clerks of the Society of Jesus from being able to serve God and His
Church, in accordance with their pious institute approved of by the
Holy Apostolic See."
In 1548 the Society received a valuable recruit in the perso'n of
Francisco Borgia, duke of Gandia, afterwards thrice general,
while two important events marked 1550 — the foundation of the
Collegio Romano and a fresh confirmation of the Society by
Julius III. The German college, for the children of poor nobles,
was founded in 1532; and in the same year Ignatius firmly settled
the discipline of the Society by putting down, with promptness
and severity, some attempts at independent action on the part
of Rodriguez at Coimbra — this being the occasion of the famous
letter on obedience; while 1553 saw the despatch of a mission to
Abyssinia with one of the fathers as patriarch, and the first rift
within the lute when the pope thought that the Spanish Jesuits
were taking part with the emperor against the Holy See.
Paul IV. (whose election alarmed the Jesuits, for they had not
found him very friendly as cardinal) was for a time managed
with supreme tact by Ignatius, whom he respected personally.
In 1556, the founder died and left the Society consisting of forty-
five professed fathers and two thousand ordinary members,
distributed over twelve provinces, with more than a hundred
colleges and houses.
After the death of the first general there was an interregnum of
two years, with Laynez as vicar. During this long period he occu-
pied himself with completing the constitutions By incorporating:
certain declarations, said to be Ignatian, which explained and
sometimes completely altered the meaning of the original text.
Laynez was an astute politician and saw the vast capabilities of
the Society over a far wider field than the founder contemplated;
and he prepared to give it the direction that it has since followed.
In some senses, this learned and consummately clever man may be
looked upon as the real founder of the Society as history knows it.
Having carefully prepared the way, he summoned the general
congregation from which he emerged as second general in 1556.
As soon as Ignatius had died Paul IV. announced his intention of in-
stituting reforms in the Society, especially in two points: the public
recitation of the office in choir and the limitation of the general's
office to a term of three years. Despite all the protests and nego-
tiations of Laynez, the pope remained obstinate; and there was
nothing but to submit. On the 8th of September 1558, two points
were added to the constitutions: that the generalship should be
triennial and not perpetual, although after the three years the general
might be confirmed ; and that the canonical hours should be observed
in choir after the manner of the other orders, but with that modera-
tion which should seem expedient to the general. Taking advantage
of this last clause, Laynez applied the new law to two houses only,
namely, Rome and Lisbon, the other houses contenting themselves
with singing vespers on feast days; and as soon as Paul IV. died,
Laynez, acting on advice, quietly ignored for the future the orders
of the late pope. He also succeeded in increasing further the already
enormous powers of the general. Laynez took a leading part in the
colloquy of Poissy in 1561 between the Catholics and Huguenots;
and obtained a legal footing from the states-general for colleges
of the Society in France. He died in 1564, leaving the Society
increased to eighteen provinces with a hundred and thirty colleges,
and was succeeded by Francisco Borgia. During the third general-
ate, Pius V. confirmed all the former privileges, and in the amplest
form extended to the Society, as being a mendicant institute, all
favours that had been or might afterwards be granted to such mendi-
cant bodies. It was a trifling set-off that in 1567 the pope again
enjoined the fathers to keep choir and to admit only the professed
to priests' orders, especially as Gregory XIII. rescinded both these
injunctions in 1573; and indeed, as regards the hours, all that
Pius V. was able to obtain was the nominal concession that the bre-
viary should be recited in choir in the professed houses only, and
that not of necessity by more than two persons at a time. Everard
Mercurian, a Fleming, and a subject of Spain, succeeded Borgia in
'573. being forced on the Society by the pope, in preference to
Polanco, Ignatius's secretary and the vicar-general, who was re-
jected partly as a Spaniard and still more because he was a " New
Christian " of Jewish origin and therefore objected to in Spain
itself. During his term of office there took place the troubles in
Rome concerning the English college and the subsequent Jesuit
rule over that institution; and in 1580 the first Jesuit mission,
headed by the redoubtable Robert Parsons and the saintly Edmund
Campion, set out for England. This mission, on one side, carried
on an active propaganda against Elizabeth in favour of Spain ; and
on the other, among the true missionaries, was marked with devoted .
zeal and heroism even to the ghastly death of traitors. Claude
Acquaviva, the fifth general, held office from 1581 to 1615, a time
almost coinciding with the high tide of the successful reaction, chiefly
due to the Jesuits. He was an able, strong-willed man, and crushed
what was tantamount to a rebellion in Spain. It was during this
struggle that Mariana, the historian and the author of the famous
De rege in which he defends tyrannicide, wrote his treatise On the
Defects in the Government of the Society. He confessed freely that the
Society had faults and that there was a great deal of unrest among
the members; and he mentioned among the various points calling
for reform the education of the novices and students; the state 01
the lay brother and the possessions of the Society ; the spying system,
which he declared to be carried so far that, if the general's archives
at Rome should be searched, not one Jesuit's character would be
found to escape ; the monopoly of the higher offices by a small clique :
and the absence of all encouragement and recompense for the best
men of the Society.
It was chiefly during the generalship of Acquaviva that the
Society began to gain an evil reputation which eclipsed its good
report. In France the Jesuits joined, if they did not originate,
the league against Henry of Navarre. Absolution was refused
by them to those who would not join in the Guise rebellion, and
Acquaviva is said to have tried to stop them, but in vain. The
assassination of Henry III. in the interests of the league and the
wounding of Henry IV. in 1594 by Chastel, a pupil of theirs,
revealed the danger that the whole Society was running by the
intrigues of a few men. The Jesuits were banished from France
in 1594, but were allowed to return by Henry IV. under condi-
tions; as Sully has recorded, the king declared his only motive
to be the expediency of not driving them into a corner with
possible disastrous results to his life, and because his only hope of
tranquillity lay in appeasing them and their powerful friends.
In England the political schemings of Parsons were no small
factors in the odium which fell on the Society at large; and his
determination to capture the English Catholics as an apanage
of the Society, to the exclusion of all else, was an object lesson to
the rest of Europe of a restless ambition and lust of domination
which were to find many imitators. The political turn which
was being given by some to the Society, to the detriment of its
real spiritual work, evoked the fears of the wiser heads of the
body; and in the fifth general congregation held in 1593-1594 it
was decreed: " Whereas in these times of difficulty and danger
it has happened through the fault of certain individuals, through
ambition and intemperate zeal, that our institute has been ill
spoken of in divers places and before divers sovereigns . . .
it is severely and strictly forbidden to all members of the Society
to interfere in any manner whatever in public affairs even though
they be thereto invited; or to deviate from the institute through
entreaty, persuasion or any other motive whatever." It would
have been well had Acquaviva enforced this decree; but Parsons
was allowed to keep on with his work, and other Jesuits in
France for many years after directed, to the loss of religion,
affairs of state. In 1605 took place in England the Gunpowder
Plot, in which Henry Garnet, the superior of the Society in
England, was implicated. That the Jesuits were the instigators
of the plot there is no evidence, but they were in close touch with
the conspirators, of whose designs Garnet had a general know-
ledge. There is now no reasonable doubt that he and other
Jesuits were legally accessories, and that the condemnation of
Garnet as a traitor was substantially just (see GARNET, HENRY).
It was during Acquaviva's generalship that Philip II. of Spain
complained bitterly of the Society to Sixtus V., and encouraged him
in those plans of reform (even to changing the name) which were
only cut short by the pope's death in 1590, and also that the long
protracted discussions on grace, wherein the Dominicans contended
against the Jesuits, were carried on at Rome with little practical
result, by the Congregation de auxiliis, which sat from 1598 till 1607.
The Ratio Studiorum took its shape during this time. The Jesuit in-
fluence at Rome was supported by the Spanish ambassador ; but when
Henry IV. " went to Mass," the balance inclined to the side of
France, and the Spanish monopoly became a thing of the past.
Acquayiva saw the expulsion of the Jesuits from Venice in 1606
for siding with Paul V. when he placed the republic under interdict,
but did not live to see their recall, which took place at the inter-
cession of Louis XIV. in 1657. He also had to banish Parsons from
Rome, by order of Clement VIII., who was wearied with the per-
petual complaints made against that intriguer. Gregory XIV., by
the bull Ecclesiae Christi (July 28, 1591), again confirmed the
Society, and granted that Jesuits might, for true cause, be expelled
from the body without any form of trial or even documentary pro-
cedure, besides denouncing excommunications against every one,
save the pope or his legates, who directly or indirectly infringed the
constitutions of the Society or attempted to bring about any change
therein.
Under Vitelleschi, the next general, the Society celebrated its
first centenary on the 25th of September 1639, the hundredth anni-
versary of the verbal approbation given to the scheme by Paul III.
During this hundred years the Society had grown to thirty-six
provinces, with eight hundred houses containing some fifteen
thousand members. In 1640 broke out the great Jansenist contro-
versy, in which the Society took the leading part on one side
and finally secured the victory. In this same year, considering
themselves ill-used by Olivarez, prime minister of Philip IV. of
Spain, the Jesuits powerfully aided the revolution which placed the
duke of Braganza on the throne of Portugal ; and their services were
rewarded for nearly one hundred years with the practical control
of ecclesiastical and almost of civil affairs in that kingdom.
The Society also gained ground steadily in France; for, though
held in check by Richelieu and little more favoured by Mazarm,
yet from the moment that Louis XIV. took the reins, their star
was in the ascendant, and Jesuit confessors, the most celebrated of
whom were Francois de La Chaise (q.v.) and Michel Le Tellier (1643-
1719), guided the policy of the king, not hesitating to take his side
in his quarrel with the Holy See, which nearly resulted in a schism,
nor to sign the Gallican articles. Their hostility to the Huguenots
forced on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, and their
war against their Jansenist opponents did not cease till the very
walls of Port Royal were demolished in 1710, even to the very abbey
church itself, and the bodies of the dead taken with every mark of
insult from their graves and literally flung to the dogs to devour.
But while thus gaining power in one direction, the Society was losing
it in another. The Japanese mission had vanished in blood in 1651 ;
and though many Jesuits died with their converts bravely as martyrs
for the faith, yet it is impossible to acquit them of a large share in the
causes of that overthrow. It was also about this same period that
the grave scandal of the Chinese and Malabar rites began to attract
attention in Europe, and to make thinking men ask seriously
whether the Jesuit missionaries in those parts taught anything which
could fairly be called Christianity at all. When it was remembered,
too, that they had decided, at a council held at Lima, that it was
inexpedient to impose any act of Christian devotion except baptism
on the South American converts, without the greatest precautions,
on the ground of intellectual difficulties, it is not wonderful that this
doubt was not satisfactorily cleared up, notably in face of the
charges brought against the Society by Bernardin de Cardonas,
bishop of Paraguay, and the saintly Juan de Palafox (q.v.), bishop
of Angelopolis in Mexico.
But " the terrible power in the universal church, the great riches
and the extraordinary prestige " of the Society, which Palafox
complained had raised it " above all dignities, laws, councils and
apostolic constitutions," carried with them the seeds of rapid and
inevitable decay. A succession of devout but incapable generals,
after the death of Acquaviva, saw the gradual secularization of tone
by the flocking in of recruits of rank and wealth desirous to share in
the glories and influence of the Society, but not well adapted to in-
crease them. The general's supremacy received a shock when the
eleventh general congregation appointed Oliva as vicar, with the
right of succession and powers that practically superseded those of
the general Goswin Nickel, whose infirmities, it is said, did not permit
him to govern with the necessary application and vigour; and an
attempt was made to depose Tirso Gonzalez, the thirteenth general,
whose views on probabilism diverged from those favoured by the rest
JESUITS 345
of the Jesuits. Though the political weight of the Society continued
to increase in the cabinets of Europe, it was being steadily weakened
internally. The Jesuits abandoned the system of free education
which had won them so much influence and honour; by attaching
themselves exclusively to the interests of courts, they lost favour
with the middle and lower classes; and above all, their monopoly
of power and patronage in France, with the fatal use they had made of
it, drew down the bitterest hostility upon them. It was to their credit,
indeed, that the encyclopaedists attacked them as the foremost
representatives of Christianity, but they are accountable in no small
degree in France, as in England, for alienating the minds of men
from the religion for which they professed to work.
But the most fatal part of the policy of the Society was its
activity, wealth and importance as a great trading firm with
branch houses scattered over the richest countries of the world.
Its founder, with a wise instinct, had forbidden the accumulation
of wealth; its own constitutions, as revised in the 84th decree of
the sixth general congregation, had forbidden all pursuits of a
commercial nature, as also had various popes; but nevertheless
the trade went on unceasingly, necessarily with the full know-
ledge of the general, unless it be pleaded that the system of
obligatory espionage had completely broken down. The first
muttering of the storm which was soon to break was heard in a
breve issued in 1741 by Benedict XIV., wherein he denounced
the Jesuit offenders as " disobedient, contumacious, captious and
reprobate persons," and enacted many stringent regulations for
their better government. The first serious attack came from a
country where they had been long dominant. In 1753 Spain
and Portugal exchanged certain American provinces with each
other, which involved a transfer of sovereign rights over Para-
guay; but it was also provided that the populations should
severally migrate also, that the subjects of each crown might
remain the same as before. The inhabitants of the " reductions, ' '
whom the Jesuits had trained in the use of European arms and
discipline, naturally rose in defence of their homes, and attacked
the troops and authorities. Their previous docility and their
entire submission to the Jesuits left no possible doubt as to the
source of the rebellion, and gave the enemies of the Jesuits a
handle against them that was not forgotten. In 1757 Carvalho,
marquis of Pombal, prime minister of Joseph I. of Portugal, and
an old pupil of the Jesuits at Coimbra, dismissed the three Jesuit
chaplains of the king and named three secular priests in their
stead. He next complained to Benedict XIV. that the trading
operations of the Society hampered the commercial prosperity
of the nation, and asked for remedial measures. The pope, who
knew the situation, committed a visitation of the Society to
Cardinal Saldanha, an intimate friend of Pombal, who issued a
severe decree against the Jesuits and ordered the confiscation
of all their merchandise. But at this juncture Benedict XIV.,
the most learned and able pope of the period, was succeeded by
a pope strongly in favour of the Jesuits, Clement XIII. Pombal,
finding no help from Rome, adopted other means. The king was
fired at and wounded on returning from a visit to his mistress
on the 3rd of September 1758. The duke of Aveiro and other
high personages were tried and executed for conspiracy; while
some of the Jesuits, who had undoubtedly been in communica-
tion with them, were charged, on doubtful evidence, with
complicity in the attempted assassination. Pombal charged the
whole Society with the possible guilt of a few, and, unwilling to
wait the dubious issue of an application to the pope for licence
to try them in the civil courts, whence they were exempt, issued
on the ist of September 1759 a decree ordering the immediate
deportation of every Jesuit from Portugal and all its dependencies
and their suppression by the bishops in the schools and universi-
ties. Those in Portugal were at once shipped, in great misery, to
the papal states, and were soon followed by those in the colonies.
In France, Madame de Pompadour was their enemy because they
had refused her absolution while she remained the king's mistress;
but the immediate cause of their ruin was the bankruptcy of
Father Lavalette, the Jesuit superior in Martinique, a daring
speculator, who failed, after trading for some years, for 2,400,000
francs and brought ruin upon some French commercial houses
of note. Lorenzo Ricci, then general of the Society, repudiated
the debt, alleging lack of authority on Lavalette's part to pledge
346
JESUITS
the credit of the Society, and he was sued by the creditors. Losing
his cause, he appealed to the parlement of Paris, and it, to
decide the issue raised by Ricci, required the constitutions of the
Jesuits to be produced in evidence, and affirmed the judgment of
the courts below. But the publicity given to a document scarcely
known till then raised the utmost indignation against the Society.
A royal commission, appointed by the due de Choiseul to examine
the constitutions, convoked a private assembly of fifty-one arch-
bishops and bishops under the presidency of Cardinal de Luynes,
all of whom except six voted that the unlimited authority of the
general was incompatible with the laws of France, and that the
appointment of a resident vicar, subject to those laws, was the
only solution of the question fair on all sides. Ricci replied with
the historical answer, Sint ut sunt, aut non sint; and after some
further delay, during which much interest was exerted in their
favour, the Jesuits were suppressed by an edict in November
1764, but suffered to remain on the footing of secular priests,
a grace withdrawn in 1767, when they were expelled from the
kingdom. In the very same year, Charles III. of Spain, a
monarch known for personal devoutness, convinced, on evidence
not now forthcoming, that the Jesuits were plotting against his
authority, prepared, through his minister D'Aranda, a decree
suppressing the Society in every part of his dominions. Sealed
despatches were sent to every Spanish colony, to be opened on
the same day, the 2nd of April 1767, when the measure was to
take effect in Spain itself, and the expulsion was relentlessly
carried out, nearly six thousand priests being deported from
Spain alone, and sent to the Italian coast, whence, however, they
were repelled by the orders of the pope and Ricci himself, finding
a refuge at Corte in Corsica, after some months' suffering in over-
crowded vessels at sea. The general's object may probably have
been to accentuate the harshness with which the fathers had been
treated, and so to increase public sympathy, but the actual result
of his policy was blame for the cruelty with which he enhanced
their misfortunes, for the poverty of Corsica made even a bare
subsistence scarcely procurable for them there. The Bourbon
courts of Naples and Parma followed the example of France and
Spain; Clement XIII. retorted with a bull launched at the
weakest adversary, and declaring the rank and title of the duke
of Parma forfeit. The Bourbon sovereigns threatened to make
war on the pope in return (France, indeed, seizing on the county
of Avignon), and a joint note demanding a retractation, and the
abolition of the Jesuits, was presented by the French ambassador
at Rome on the icth of December 1768 in the name of France,
Spain and the two Sicilies. The pope, a man of eighty-two, died
of apoplexy, brought on by the shock, early in 1769. Cardinal
Lorenzo Ganganelli, a conventual Franciscan, was chosen to
succeed him, and took the name of Clement XIV. He endea-
voured to avert the decision forced upon him, but, as Portugal
joined the Bourbon league, and Maria Theresa with her son the
emperor Joseph II. ceased to protect the Jesuits, there remained
only the petty kingdom of Sardinia in their favour, though the fall
of Chdiseul in France raised the hopes of the Society for a time.
The pope began with some preliminary measures, permitting
first the renewal of lawsuits against the Society, which had been
suspended by papal authority, and which, indeed, had in no case
been ever successful at Rome. He then closed the Collegio
Romano, on the plea of its insolvency, seized the houses at
Frascati and Tivoli, and broke up the establishments in Bologna
and the Legations. Finally on the 2ist of July 1773 the famous
breve Dominusac Redemptor appeared, suppressingthe Society of
Jesus. This remarkable document opens by citing a long series
of precedents for the suppression of religious orders by the Holy
See, amongst which occurs the ill-omened instance of the
Templars. It then briefly sketches the objects and history of
the Jesuits themselves. It speaks of their defiance of their own
constitution, expressly revived by Paul V., forbidding them to
meddle in politics; of the great ruin to souls caused by their
quarrels with local ordinaries and the other religious orders, their
condescension to heathen usages in the East, and the disturbances,
resulting in persecutions of the Church, which they had stirred
up even in Catholic countries, so that several popes had been
obliged to punish them. Seeing then that the Catholic sove-
reigns had been forced to expel them, that many bishops and other
eminent persons demanded their extinction, and that the Society
had ceased to fulfil the intention of its institute, the pope declares
it necessary for the peace of the Church that it should be sup-
pressed, extinguished, abolished and abrogated for ever, with
all its houses, colleges, schools and hospitals; transfers all the
authority of its general or officers to the local ordinaries; forbids
the reception of any more novices, directing that such as were
actually in probation should be dismissed, and declaring that
profession in the Society should not serve as a title to holy orders.
Priests of the Society are given the option of either joining other
orders or remaining as secular clergy, under obedience to the
ordinaries, who are empowered to grant or withhold from them
licences to hear confessions. Such of the fathers as are engaged
in the work of education are permitted to continue, on condition
of abstaining from lax and questionable doctrines apt to cause
strife and trouble. The question of missions is reserved, and the
relaxations granted to the Society in such matters as fasting,
reciting the hours and reading heretical books, are withdrawn;
while the breve ends with clauses carefully drawn to bar any
legal exceptions that might be taken against its full validity and
obligation. It has been necessary to cite these heads of the breve
because the apologists of the Society allege that no motive
influenced the pope save the desire of peace at any price, and that
he did not believe in the culpability of the fathers. The catego-
rical charges made in the document rebut this plea. The pope
followed up this breve by appointing a congregation of cardinals
to take possession of the temporalities of the Society, and armed
it with summary powers against all who should attempt to
retain or conceal any of the property. He also threw Lorenzo
Ricci, the general, into prison, first in the English college and
then in the castle of St Angelo, where he died in 1775, under the
pontificate of Pius VI., who, though not unfavourable to the
Society, and owing his own advancement to it, dared not release
him, probably because his continued imprisonment was made a
condition by the powers who enjoyed a right of veto in papal
elections. In September 1774 Clement XIV. died after much
suffering, and the question has been hotly debated ever since
whether poison was the cause of his death. But the latest re-
searches have shown that there is no evidence to support the
theory of poison. Salicetti, the pope's physician, denied that
the body showed signs of poisoning, and Tanucci, Neapolitan
ambassador at Rome, who had a large share in procuring
the breve of suppression, entirely acquits the Jesuits, while
F. Theiner, no friend to the Society, does the like.
At the date of this suppression, the Society had 41 provinces
and 22,589 members, of whom 11,295 were priests. Far from
submitting to the papal breve, the ex- Jesuits, after some in-
effectual attempts at direct resistance, withdrew into the terri-
tories of the free-thinking sovereigns of Russia and Prussia,
Frederick II. and Catherine II., who became their active friends
and protectors; and the fathers alleged as a principle, in so far as
their theology is concerned, that no papal bull is binding in a
state whose sovereign has not approved and authorized its publi-
cation and execution. Russia formed the headquarters of the
Society, and two forged breves were speedily circulated, being
dated June 9 and June 29, 1774, approving their establishment
in Russia, and implying the repeal of the breve of suppression.
But these are contradicted by the tenor of five genuine breves
issued in September 17 74 to the archbishop of Gnesen, and making
certain assurances to the ex-Jesuits, on condition of their complete
obedience to the injunctions already laid on them. The Jesuits
also pleaded a verbal approbation by Pius VI., technically known
as an Oraculum vivae vocis, but this is invalid for purposes of law
unless reduced to writing and duly authenticated.
They elected three Poles successively as generals, taking, how-
ever, only the title of vicars, till on the 7th of March 1801 Pius
VII. granted them liberty to reconstitute themselves in north
Russia, and permitted Kareu, then vicar, to exercise full authority
as general. On the 3oth of July 1804 a similar breve restored the
Jesuits in the Two Sicilies, at the express desire of Ferdinand IV.,
the pope thus anticipating the further action of 1814, when, by
the constitution Sollicitudo omnium Ecclesiarum, he revoked the
action of Clement XIV., and formally restored the Society to
corporate legal existence, yet not only omitted any censure of his
predecessor's conduct, but all vindication of the Jesuits from the
heavy charges in the breve Dominus ac Redemptor. In France,
even after their expulsion in 1765, they had maintained a pre-
carious footing in the country under the partial disguise and
names of " Fathers of the Faith " or " Clerks of the Sacred Heart,"
but were obliged by Napoleon I. to retire in 1804. They re-
appeared under their true name in 1814, and obtained formal
licence in 1822, but became the objects of so much hostility
that Charles X. deprived them by ordinance of the right of in-
struction, and obliged all applicants for licences as teachers to
make oath that they did not belong to any community unrecog-
nized by the laws. They were dispersed again by the revolution of
July 1830, but soon reappeared and, though put to much incon-
venience during the latter years of Louis Philippe's reign, notably
in 1845, maintained their footing, recovered the right to teach
freely after the revolution of 1848, and gradually became the
leading educational and ecclesiastical power in France, notably
under the Second Empire, till they were once more expelled by
the Ferry laws of 1880, though they quietly returned since the
execution of those measures. They were again expelled by the
Law of Associations of 1901. In Spain they came back with
Ferdinand VII., but were expelled at the constitutional rising in
1820, returning in 1823, when the duke of Angouleme's army
replaced Ferdinand on his throne; they were driven out once
more by Espartero in 1835, and have had no legal position since,
though their presence is openly tolerated. In Portugal, ranging
themselves on the side of Dom Miguel, they fell with his cause,
and were exiled in 1834. There are some to this day in Lisbon
under the name of " Fathers of the Faith." Russia, which had
been their warmest patron, drove them from St Petersburg and
Moscow in 1813, and from the whole empire in 1820, mainly
on the plea of attempted proselytizing in the imperial army.
Holland drove them out in 1816, and, by giving them thus a
valid excuse for aiding the Belgian revolution of 1830, secured
them the strong position they have ever since held in Belgium;
but they have succeeded in returning to Holland. They were
expelled from Switzerland in 1847-1848 for the part they were
charged with in exciting the war of the Sonderbund. In south
Germany, inclusive of Austria and Bavaria, their annals since
their restoration have been uneventful; but in north Germany,
owing to the footing Frederick II. had given them in Prussia,
they became very powerful, especially in the Rhine provinces,
and, gradually moulding the younger generation of clergy after
the close of the War of Liberation, succeeded in spreading Ultra-
montane views amongst them, and so leading up to the difficul-
ties with the civil government which issued in the Falk laws,
and their own expulsion by decree of the German parliament
(June 19, 1872). Since then many attempts have been made to
procure the recall of the Society to the German Empire, but
without success, although as individuals they are now allowed in
the country. In Great Britain, whither they began to straggle
over during the revolutionary troubles at the close of the i8th
century, and where, practically unaffected by the clause directed
against them in the Emancipation Act of 1829, their chief settle-
ment has been at Stonyhurst in Lancashire, an estate conferred
on them by Thomas Weld in 1795, they have been unmolested;
but there has been little affinity to the order in the British
temperament, and the English province has consequently never
risen to numerical or intellectual importance in the Society. In
Rome itself, its progress after the restoration was at first slow, and
it was not till the reign of Leo XII. (1823-1829) that it recovered
its place as the chief educational body there. It advanced
steadily under Gregory XVI., and, though it was at first shunned
by Pius IX., it secured his entire confidence after his return
from Gaeta in 1849, and obtained from him a special breve erect-
ing the staff of its literary journal, the Civilta Cattolica, into a
perpetual college under the general of the Jesuits, for the purpose
of teaching and propagating the faith in its pages. How, with
JESUP 347
this pope's support throughout his long reign, tne gradual filling
of nearly all the sees of Latin Christendom with bishops of their
own selection, and their practical capture, directly or indirectly,
of the education of the clergy in seminaries, they contrived to
stamp out the last remains of independence everywhere, and to
crown the Ultramontane triumph with the Vatican Decrees, is
matter of familiar knowledge. Leo XIII., while favouring them
somewhat, never gave them his full confidence; and by his ad-
hesion to the Thomist philosophy and theology, and his active
work for the regeneration and progress of the older orders, he
made another suppression possible by destroying much of their
prestige. But the usual sequence has been observed under
Pius X., who appeared to be greatly in favour of the Society and
to rely upon them for many of the measures of his pontificate.
The Society has been ruled by twenty-five generals and four
vicars from its foundation to the present day (1910). Of all the
various nationalities represented in the Society, neither France,
its original cradle, nor England, has ever given it a head, while
Spain, Italy, Holland, Belgium, Germany and Poland, were all
represented. The numbers of the Society are not accurately
known, but are estimated at about 20,000, in all parts of the
world; and of these the English, Irish and American Jesuits are
under 3000.
The generals of the Jesuits have been as follow: —
1. Ignatius de Loyola (Spaniard) ... . 1541-1556
2. Diego Laynez (Spaniard) .... . 1558—1565
3. Francisco Borgia (Spaniard) ... . 1565-1572
4. Everard Mercurian (Belgian) ... . 1573-1580
5. Claudio Acquaviya (Neapolitan) . . . 1581-1615
6. Mutio Vitelleschi (Roman) .... . 1615-1645
7. Vincenzio Caraffa (Neapolitan) . . . 1646-1649
8. Francesco Piccolomini (Florentine) . . . 1649-1651
9. Alessandro Gottofredi (Roman) . . . 1652
10. Goswin Nickel (German) .... . 1652-1664
11. Giovanni Paolo Oliva (Genoese) vicar-general and
coadjutor, 1661 ; general .... . 1664-1681
12. Charles de Noyelle (Belgian) ... . 1682-1686
13. Tirso Gonzalez (Spaniard) .... . 1687-1705
14. Michele Angelo Tamburini (Modenese) . 1706-1730
15. Franz Retz (Bohemian) .... . 1730-1750
16. Ignazio Visconti (Milanese) .... . I75I-I755
17. Alessandro Centurion! (Genoese) . . . 1755-1757
1 8. Lorenzo Ricci (Florentine) .... . 1758-1775
a. Stanislaus Czerniewicz (Pole), vicar-general 1782-1785
6. Gabriel Lienkiewicz (Pole), „ . 1785-1798
c. Franciscus Xavier Kareu (Pole), (general in
Russia, 7th March 1801) ... . 1799-1802
d. Gabriel Gruber (German) . . . . 1802-1805
19. Thaddaeus Brzozowski (Pole) . . . . 1805-1820
20. Aloysio Fortis (Veronese) . . . . . 1820-1829
21. Johannes Roothaan (Dutchman) . . . 1829-1853
22. Peter Johannes Beckx (Belgian) . . . 1853-1884
23. Antoine Anderledy (Swiss) . . . . . 1884-1892
24. Luis Martin (Spanish) ... . . . 1892-1906
25. Francis Xavier Wernz (German) . . . . 1906-
The bibliography of Jesuitism is of enormous extent, and it is im-
practicable to cite more than a few of the most important works.
They are as follows: Institutum Societatis Jesu (7 vols., Avignon,
1830-1838); Orlandini, Historia Societatis Jesu (Antwerp, 1620);
Imago primi saeculi Societatis Jesu (Antwerp, 1640); Nieremberg,
Vida de San Ignacio de Loyola (9 vols., fol., Madrid, 1645-1736);
Genelli, Life of St Ignatius of Loyola (London, 1872); Backer,
Bibliotheque des ecrivatns de la Compagnie de Jesus (7 vols., Paris,
1853-1861 );Cr6tineau Joly, Histoire de la Compagnie de Jesus (6 vols.,
Pans, 1844) ; Guettee, Histoire des J&suites (3 vols., Paris, 1858-1859) ;
Wolff, Allgemeine Geschichte der Jesuiten (4 vols., Zurich, 1789-1792) ;
Gioberti, II Gesuita moderno (Lausanne, 1846) ; F. Parkman, Pioneers
of France in the New World and The Jesuits in North America
(Boston, 1868); Lettres edifiantes et curieuses, ecrites des missions
itrangeres, avec les Annales de la propagation de la foi (40 vols.,
Lyons, 1819-1854); Saint-Priest, Histoire de la chute des Jesuites au
XVIII' Siecle (Paris, 1844) ; Ranke, Rpmische Pdpste (3 vols., Berlin,
1838); E. Taunton, History of the Jesuits in England (London, 1901);
Thomas Hughes, S.J., History of the Society of Jesus in North America
(London and New York, 1907); R. G. Thwaites, Jesuit Relations
and Allied Documents (73 vols. Cleveland, 1896-1901).
(R:F.L.; E. TN.)
JESUP, MORRIS KETCHUM (1830-1908), American banker
and philanthropist, was born at Westport, Connecticut, on the
2ist of June 1830. In 1842 he went to New York City, where
after some experience in business he established a banking house
348
JESUS CHRIST
in 1852. In 1856 he organized the banking firm of M. K. Jesup
& Company, which after two reorganizations became Cuyler,
Morgan & Jesup. He became widely known as a financier,
retiring from active business in 1884. He was best known,
however, as a munificent patron of scientific research, a large
contributor to the needs of education, and a public-spirited
citizen of wide interests, who did much for the betterment of
social conditions in New York. He contributed largely to the
funds for the Arctic expeditions of Commander Robert E. Peary,
becoming president of the Peary Arctic Club in 1899. To the
American museum of natural history, in New York City, he gave
large sums in his lifetime and bequeathed $1,000,000. He
was president of the New York chamber of commerce from 1899
until 1907, and was the largest subscriber to its new building.
To his native town he gave a fine public library. He died in
New York City on the 22nd of January 1908.
JESUS CHRIST. To write a summary account of the life
of Christ, though always involving a grave responsibility, was
until recent years a comparatively straightforward task; for it
was assumed that all that was needed, or could be offered, was a
chronological outline based on a harmony of the four canonical
Gospels. But to-day history is not satisfied by this simple pro-
cedure. Literary criticism has analysed the documents, and has
already established some important results; and many questions
are still in debate, the answers to which must affect our judg-
ment of the historical value of the existing narratives. It seems
therefore consonant alike with prudence and reverence to re-
frain from attempting to combine afresh into a single picture
the materials derivable from the various documents, and to
endeavour instead to describe the main contents of the sources
from which our knowledge of the Lord Jesus Christ as an
historical personage is ultimately drawn, and to observe the
picture of Him which each writer in turn has offered to us.
The chief elements of the evidence with which we shall deal are
the following: —
1. First, because earliest in point of time, the references to the
Lord Jesus Christ in the earliest Epistles of St Paul.
2. The Gospel according to St Mark.
3. Adocument, no longer extant, which was partially incorporated
into the Gospels of St Nlatthew and St Luke.
4. Further information added by St Matthew's Gospel.
5. Further information added by St Luke's Gospel.
6. The Gospel according to St John.
With regard to traditional sayings or doings of our Lord, which were
only written down at a later period, it will suffice to say that those
which have any claim to be genuine are very scanty, and that their
genuineness has to be tested by their correspondence with the great
bulk of information which is derived from the sources already
enumerated. The fictitious literature of the second and third
centuries, known as the Apocryphal Gospels, offers no direct evidence
of any historical value at all : it is chiefly valuable for the contrast
which it presents to the grave simplicity of the canonical Gospels,
and as showing how incapable a later age was of adding anything to
the Gospel history which was not palpably absurd.
i. Letters of St Paul. — In the order of chronology we must give
the first place to the earliest letters of St Paul. The first piece
of Christian literature which has an independent existence and
to which we can fix a date is St Paul's first Epistle to the Thcssa-
lonians. Lightfoot dates it in 52 or 53; Harnack places it
five years earlier. We may say, then, that it was written some
twenty years after the Crucifixion. St Paul is not an historian;
he is not attempting to describe what Jesus Christ said or did.
He is writing a letter to encourage a little Christian society which
he, a Jew, had founded in a distant Greek city; and he reminds
his readers of many things which he had told them when he was
with them. The evidence to be collected from his epistles
generally must not detain us here, but we may glance for a
moment at this one letter, because it contains what appears to be
the first mention of Jesus Christ in the literature of the world.
Those who would get a true history cannot afford to neglect their
earliest documents. Now the opening sentence of this letter is
as follows: " Paul and Silvanus and Timothy to the Church of
the Thessalonians in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ:
Grace to you, and peace." Three men with Greek or Latin
names, are writing to some kind of assembly in a city of Mace-
donia. The writers are Jews, to judge by their salutation of
" peace," and by their mention of " God the Father," and of the
assembly or society as being " in " Him. But what is this new
name which is placed side by side with the Divine Name — " in
God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ "? An educated
Greek, who knew something (as many at that time did) cf the
Greek translation of the ancient Hebrew Scriptures, if he had
picked up this letter before he had ever heard the name of Jesus
Christ, would have been deeply interested in these opening
words. He would have known that " Jesus " was the Greek
form of Joshua; that " Christ " was the Greek rendering of
Messiah, or Anointed, the title of the great King for whom the
Jews were looking; he might further have remembered that
" the Lord " is the expression which the Greek Old Testament
constantly uses instead of the ineffable name of God, which we
now call " Jehovah " (q.v.). Who, then, he might well ask
is this Jesus Christ who is lifted to this unexampled height?
For it is plain that Jesus Christ stands in some close relation to
" God the Father," and that on the ground of that relation a
society has been built up, apparently by Jews, in a Greek city
far distant from Palestine. He would learn something as he
read on; for the letter makes a passing reference to the founda-
tion of the society, and to the expansion of its influence in other
parts of Greece; to the conversion of its members from heathen-
ism, and to the consequent sufferings at the hands of their
heathen neighbours. The writers speak of themselves as
" apostles," or messengers, of Christ; they refer to similar
societies " in Christ Jesus," which they call " churches of God,"
in Judaea, and they say that these also suffer from the Jews
there, who had " killed the Lord Jesus " some time before.
But they further speak of Jesus as " raised from the dead,"
and they refer to the belief which they had led the society to
entertain, that He would come again " from heaven to deliver
them from the coming wrath." Moreover, they urge them
not to grieve for certain members of the society who have al-
ready died, saying that, " if we believe that Jesus died and
rose again," we may also be assured that " the dead in Christ
will rise " and will live for ever with Him. Thus the letter
assumes that its readers already have considerable knowledge
as to " the Lord Jesus Christ," and as to His relation to " God
the Father," a knowledge derived from teaching given in person
on a former visit. The purpose of the letter is not to give in-
formation as to the past, but to stimulate its readers to perse-
verance by giving fresh teaching as to the future. Historically
it is of great value as showing how widely within twenty or
twenty-five years of the Crucifixion a religion which proclaimed
developed theological teaching as to " the Lord Jesus Christ "
had spread in the Roman Empire. We may draw a further cpn-
clusion from this and other letters of St Paul before we go on.
St Paul's missionary work must have created a demand. Those
who had heard him and read his letters would want to know
more than he had told them of the earthly life of the Lord
Jesus. They would wish to be able to picture Him to their
minds; and especially to understand what could have led to
His being put to death by the Romans at the requisition of the
Jews. St Paul had not been one of his personal disciples in
Galilee or Jerusalem; he had no memories to relate of His
miracles and teaching. Some written account of these was an
obvious need. And we may be sure that any such narrative
concerning One who was so deeply reverenced would be most
carefully scrutinized at a time when many were still living whose
memories went back to the period of Our Lord's public ministry.
One such narrative we now proceed to describe.
2. St Mark's Gospel. — The Gospel according to St Mark was
written within fifteen years of the first letter of St Paul to the
Thessalonians — i.e. about 65. It seems designed to meet the
requirements of Christians living far away from Palestine. The
author was not an eye-witness of what he relates, but he writes
with the firm security of a man who has the best authority
behind him. The characteristics of his work confirm the early
belief that St Mark wrote this Gospel for the Christians of Rome
under the guidance of St Peter. It is of the first importance that
JESUS CHRIST
we should endeavour to see this book as a whole; to gain the tola!
impression which it makes on the mind; to look at the picture ol
Jesus Christ which it offers. That picture must inevitably be
an incomplete representation of Him; it will need to be supple-
mented by other pictures which other writers have drawn
But it is important to consider it by itself, as showing us what im-
press the Master had made on the memory of one disciple who
had been almost constantly by His side.
The book opens thus: " The beginning of the Gospel ol
Jesus Christ." This " beginning " is shown to be itself rootec
Beginning in the past. Hebrew prophets had foretold that
of Christ's God would send a " messenger "; that a voice
Mission. wouj(j be heard saying, " Prepare the way of the
Lord." And so, in fact, John came, baptizing in the wilderness
and turning the heart of the nation back to God. But John was
only a forerunner. He was himself a prophet, and his prophecy
was this, " He that is stronger than I am is coming after me.'
Then, we read, " Jesus came." St Mark introduces Him quite
abruptly, just as he had introduced John; for he is writing
for those who already know the outlines of the story. " Jesus
came from Nazareth of Galilee." He was baptized by John, and
as He came out of the water He had a vision of the opened
heavens and the Holy Spirit, like a dove, descending upon
Him; and He heard a Voice saying, "Thou art My Son, the
Beloved: in Thee I am well pleased." He then passed away
into the wilderness, where He was tempted by Satan and fed
by angels. Then He begins His work; and from the very
first we feel that He fulfils John's sign: He is strong. His first
words are words of strength; " the time is fulfilled " — that is to
say, all the past has been leading up to this great moment;
" the kingdom of God is at hand " — that is to say, all your
best hopes are on the point of being fulfilled; " repent, and
believe the Gospel " — that is to say, turn from your sins and
accept the tidings which I bring you. It is but a brief summary
of what He must have said; but we feel its strength. He does
not hesitate to fix all eyes upon Himself. Then we see Him call
two brothers who are fishermen. " Come after Me," He says,
" and I will make you fishers of men." They dropped their nets
and went after Him, and so did two other brothers, their partners;
for they all felt the power of this Master of men: He was strong.
He began to teach in the synagogue; they were astonished at His
teaching, for he spoke with authority. He was interrupted
by a demoniac, but He quelled the evil spirit by a word ; He was
stronger than the power of evil. When the sun set the Sabbath
was at an end, and the people could carry out their sick into
the street where He was; and He came forth and healed them
all. The demoniacs showed a strange faculty of recognition,
and cried that He was " the holy one of God," and " the Christ,"
but He silenced them at once. The next morning He was
gone. He had sought a quiet spot for prayer. Peter, one of
those fishermen whom He had called, whose wife's mother had
been healed the day before, found Him and tried to bring
Him back. " All men are seeking Thee," he pleaded. " Let
us go elsewhere " was the quiet reply of one who could not
be moved by popular enthusiasm. Once again, we observe, He
fulfils John's sign: He is strong. This is our first sight of
Jesus Christ. The next shows us that this great strength is
united to a most tender sympathy. To touch a leper was
forbidden, and the offence involved ceremonial defilement. Yet
when a leper declared that Jesus could heal him, if only He
would, " He put forth His hand and touched him." The act
perfected the leper's faith, and he was healed immediately.
But he disobeyed the command to be silent about the matter,
and the result was that Jesus could not openly enter into the
town, but remained outside in the country. It is the first shadow
that falls across His path; His power finds a check in human
wilfulness. Presently He is in Capernaum again. He heals a
paralysed man, but not until He has come into touch, as we
say, with him also, by reaching his deepest need and declaring the
forgiveness of his sins. This declaration disturbs the rabbis,
who regard it as a blasphemous usurpation of Divine authority.
But He claims that " the Son of Man hath authority on earth to
349
forgive sins." The title which He thus adopts must be con-
sidered later.
We may note, as we pass on, that He has again, in the
exercise of His power and His sympathy, come into conflict
with the established religious tradition. This free- Attitude
dom from the trammels of convention appears yet towards
again when he claims as a new disciple a publican, a Religious
man whose calling as a tax-gatherer for the Roman Traaitlon-
government made him odious to every patriotic Jew. Publicans
were classed with open sinners; and when Jesus went to this
man's house and met a company of his fellows the rabbis were
scandalized: " Why eateth your Master with publicans and
sinners ? " The gentle answer of Jesus showed His sympathy even
with those who opposed Him: " The doctor," He said, " must go
to the sick." And again, when they challenged His disciples for
not observing the regular fasts, He gently reminded them that
they themselves relaxed the discipline of fasting for a bride-
groom's friends. And He added, in picturesque and pregnant
sayings, that an old garment could not bear a new patch, and
that old wine-skins could not take new wine. Such language was
at once gentle and strong; without condemning the old, it
claimed liberty for the new. To what lengths would this
liberty go ? The sacred badge of the Jews' religion, which
marked them off from other men all the world over, was their
observance of the Sabbath. It was a national emblem, the test
of religion and patriotism. The rabbis had fenced the Sabbath
round with minute commands, lest any Jews should even seem
to work on the Sabbath day. Thus, plucking and rubbing the
ears of corn was counted a form of reaping and threshing. The
hungry disciples had so transgressed as they walked through the
fields of ripe corn. Jesus defended them by the example of
David, who had eaten the shewbread, which only priests might
eat, and had given it to his hungry men. Necessity absolves
from ritual restrictions. And he went farther, and proclaimed
a principle: " The Sabbath was made for man, and not man
for the Sabbath, so that the Son of Man is lord even of the
Sabbath." For a second time, in justifying His position, He
used the expression " the Son of Man." The words might sound
to Jewish ears merely as a synonym for " man." For Himself,
and possibly for some others, they involved a reference, as
appears later, to the " one like to a son of man " in Daniel's
prophecy of the coming kingdom. They emphasized His relation
to humanity as a whole, in contrast to such narrower titles as
" Son of Abraham " or " Son of^David." They were fitted to
express a wider mission than that of a merely Jewish Messiah:
He stood and spoke for mankind. The controversy was renewed
when a man with a withered hand appeared in the synagogue
on the Sabbath, and the rabbis watched to see whether Jesus
would heal him. For the first time, we read that Jesus was
angry. They were wilfully blind, and they would rather not
see good done than see it done in a way that contradicted their
teachings and undermined their influence. After a sharp remon-
strance, He healed the man by a mere word. And they went
out to make a compact with the followers of the worldly Herod
to kill Him, and so to stave off a religious revolution which
might easily have been followed by political trouble.
Up to this point what have we seen ? On the stage of Palestine,
an outlying district of the Roman Empire, the home of the
Jewish nation, now subject but still fired with the Recapitu-
lope of freedom and even of universal domination l*ttoa.
under the leadership of a divinely anointed King, a new figure
las appeared. His appearance has been announced by a
reforming prophet, who has summoned the nation to return
:o its God, and promised that a stronger than himself is to
bllow. In fulfilment of this promise, who is it that has come ?
a rough prophet in the desert like John, not a leader striking
'or political freedom, not a pretender aiming at the petty throne
of the Herods, not even a great rabbi, building on the patriotic
bundation of the Pharisees who had secured the national life
)y a new devotion to the ancient law. None of these, but, on the
contrary, an unknown figure from the remote hills of Galilee,
•landing on the populous shores of its lake, proclaiming as
350
a message from God that the highest hopes were about to be
fulfilled, fastening attention on Himself by speaking with
authority and attaching a few followers to His person, exhibiting
wonderful powers of healing as a sign that He has come to
fulfil all needs, manifesting at the same time an unparalleled
sympathy, and setting quietly aside every religious convention
which limited the outflow of this sympathy; and as the result
of all this arousing the enthusiasm of astonished multitudes and
evoking the opposition and even the murderous resentment
of the religious guides of the nation. Of His teaching we have
heard nothing, except in the occasional sentences by which He
justified some of His unexpected actions. No party is formed,
no programme is announced, no doctrine is formulated; without
assuming the title of Messiah, He offers Himself as the centre of
expectation, and seems to invite an unlimited confidence in
His person. This, then, in brief summary, is what we have seen:
the natural development of an historical situation, a march
of events leading rapidly to a climax; an unexampled strength
and an unexampled sympathy issuing inevitably in an unex-
ampled liberty; and then the forces of orthodox religion com-
bining with the forces of worldly indifference in order to suppress
a dangerous innovator. Yet the writer who in a few pages pre-
sents us with so remarkable a representation shows no conscious-
ness at all of artistic treatment. He tells a simple tale in the
plainest words: he never stops to offer a comment or to point a
moral. The wonder of it all is not in the writing, but in the
subject itself. We feel that we have here no skilful composi-
tion, but a bare transcript of what occurred. And we feel be-
sides that such a narrative as this is the worthy commencement
of an answer to the question with which its readers would have
come to it: What was the beginning of the Gospel? How
did the Lord Jesus speak and act? and why did He arouse such
malignant enmity amongst His own people?
We have followed St Mark's narrative up to the point at
which it became clear that conciliatory argument could have
no effect upon the Jewish religious leaders. The controversy
about the Sabbath had brought their dissatisfaction to a climax.
Henceforth Jesus was to them a revolutionary, who must, by
any means, be suppressed. After this decisive breach a new
period opens. Jesus leaves Capernaum, never again, it would
seem, to appear in its synagogue. Henceforward He was to be
found, with His disciples, on the shore of the lake, where vast
multitudes gathered round Him, drawn not only from Galilee and
Judaea, but also from the farther districts north and east of
these. He would take refuge from the crowds in a boat, which
carried Him from shore to shore; and His healing activity was
now at its height. Yet in the midst of this popular enthusiasm
He knew that the time had come to prepare for a very different
future, and accordingly a fresh departure was made when He
selected twelve of His disciples for a more intimate companion-
ship, with a view to a special mission: " He appointed twelve
that they might be with Him, and that He might send them
forth to preach and to have power to cast out the devils."
The excitement and pressure of the crowds was at this time
almost overwhelming, and the relatives of Jesus endeavoured to
restrain Him; " for they said, He is mad." The scribes from
Jerusalem offered a more sinister explanation, saying that He
was possessed by the prince of the devils, and that this was why
He was able to control all the evil spirits. He answered them
first in figurative language, speaking of the certain downfall
of a kingdom or a family divided against itself, and of the strong
man's house which could not be looted unless the strong man
were first bound. Then followed the tremendous warning, that
to assign His work to Satan, and so to call good evil, was to
blaspheme against the Holy Spirit — the one sin which admitted
of no forgiveness. Presently, when He was told that His mother
and brethren were calling for Him, He disclaimed their interfer-
ence by pointing to a new circle of family relationship, consisting
of all those who " do the will of God."
Again we find Him teaching by the lake, and the pressure of
the multitude is still so great that He sits in a boat while they
line the shore. For the first time we are allowed to hear how
JESUS CHRIST
He taught them. He gives them a parable from nature — the
sower's three kinds of failure, compensated by the rich produce
of the good soil. At the close He utters the preg- Christ'*
nant saying: " He that hath ears to hear let him Teaching.
hear." When His disciples afterwards asked for an explana-
tion, He prefaced it by saying that the inner circle only
were intended to understand. The disciples might learn that
the message would often prove fruitless, but that nevertheless an
abundant harvest would result. For the light was intended to
shine, and the hidden was meant to be revealed. Another
parable compared the kingdom of God to seed which, when
once planted, must inevitably germinate; the process was
secret and slow, but the harvest was certain. Again, it was
like the tiny mustard-seed which grew out of all proportion
to its original size, till the birds could shelter in its great branches.
These enigmatic speeches were all that the multitudes got,
but the disciples in private were taught their lesson of hope.
As we review this teaching it is very remarkable. The world
of common things is seen to be a lesson-book of the kingdom of
God to those who have eyes to read it. What that kingdom is to
be we are not told; we are' only taught that its coming is secret,
slow and certain. If nature in its ordinary processes was thus
seen to be full of significance, the disciples were also to learn
that it was under His control. As the boat from which He had
been teaching passed to the other side, the tired Teacher slept.
A sudden storm terrified the disciples, and they roused Him in
alarm. He stilled the storm with a word and rebuked their
want of faith. " Who then is this," they whispered with awe,
" that even the wind and the sea obey Him? " On the opposite
hills a solitary spectator had watched the rise and the lull of the
tempest, a fierce demoniac who dwelt among the tombs on
the mountain-side. He believed himself to be possessed by a
regiment of demons. When Jesus bade them go forth, he begged
that they might be allowed to enter into a herd of swine which
was hard by. His request was granted, and the swine rushed
over a steep place into the lake. It is worth while to note that
while most of the cures which Jesus had performed appear to
have belonged to this class, this particular case is described as
an exceptionally severe one, and the visible effect of the removal
of his tormentors may have greatly helped to restore the man's
shattered personality.
We must not attempt to trace in detail the whole of St Mark's
story. We have followed it long enough to see its directness and
simplicity, to observe the naturalness with which one incident
succeeds another, and to watch the gradual manifestation of a
personality at once strong and sympathetic, wielding extra-
ordinary powers, which are placed wholly at the service of others,
and refusing to be hindered from helping men by the ordinary
restrictions of social or religious custom. And we have seen as
the consequence of all this the development of an historical
situation in which the leaders of current orthodoxy ally them-
selves with the indifferentism which accepts existing political
conditions in order to put down a disturber of the peace. We
must now be content with a broader survey of the course of
events.
Two notable cures were wrought on the western side of the
lake — the healing of the woman with the issue and the raising of
Jairus's daughter. In each of these cures prominence Healing
is given to the requirement and the reward of faith — flowers.
that is to say, of personal confidence in the Healer: " Thy
faith hath made thee whole." " Fear not, only believe."
After this Jesus passed away from the enthusiastic crowds by
the lake to visit His own Nazareth, and to find there a strange
incredulity in regard to one whom the villagers knew as the
carpenter. Once more we come across a mysterious limitation
of His powers: " He could not do there any miracle," save the
cure of a few sick folk; and He marvelled because of their want
of faith. The moment had now come when the twelve disciples
were to be entrusted with a share of His healing power and with
the proclamation of repentance. While they are journeying
two and two in various directions St Mark takes occasion to tell
us the current conjectures as to who Jesus really was. Some
JESUS CHRIST
thought him Elijah or one of the ancient prophets returned to
earth — a suggestion based on popular tradition; others said He
was John the Baptist risen from the dead — the superstition
of Herod who had put him to death. When the disciples
returned, Jesus took them apart for rest; but the crowds re-
assembled when they found Him again near the lake, and His
yearning compassion for these shepherdless sheep led Him to give
them an impressive sign that He had indeed come to supply all
human needs. Hitherto His power had gone forth to individuals,
but now He fed five thousand men from the scanty stock of five
loaves and two fishes. That night He came to His disciples
walking upon the waters, and in the period which immediately
followed there was once more a great manifestation of healing
power.
We have heard nothing for some time of any opposition; but
now a fresh conflict arose with certain scribes who had come down
Opposition from Jerusalem, and who complained that the dis-
ofthe ciples neglected the ceremonial washing of their
Scribes. hands before meals. Jesus replied with a stern re-
buke, addressing the questioners as hypocrites, and exposing the
falsity of a system which allowed the breach of fundamental
commandments in order that traditional regulations might be
observed. He then turned from them to the multitude, and
uttered a saying which in effect annulled the Jewish distinction
between clean and unclean meats. This was a direct attack on
the whole Pharisaic position. The controversy was plainly
irreconcilable, and Jesus withdrew to the north, actually passing
outside the limits of the Holy Land. He desired to remain
unknown, and not to extend His mission to the heathen popula-
tion, but the extraordinary faith and the modest importunity of
a Syrophenician woman induced Him to heal her daughter.
Then He returned by a circuitous route to the Sea of Galilee.
His return was marked by another miraculous feeding of the
multitude, and also by two healing miracles which present
unusual features. In both the patient was withdrawn from the
multitude and the cure was wrought with the accompaniment of
symbolic actions. Moreover, in one case Jesus is described as
groaning before He spoke; in the other the cure was at first in-
complete; and both of the men were strictly charged to observe
silence afterwards. It cannot be a mere coincidence that these
are the last cures which St Mark records as performed in Galilee.
In fact the Galilean ministry is now closed. Jesus retires
northwards to Caesarea Philippi, and appears henceforth to
Messianic devote Himself entirely to the instruction of his dis-
Teachiag. ciples, who needed to be prepared for the fatal issue
which could not long be delayed. He begins by asking them
the popular opinion as to His Person. The suggestions are
still the same — John the Baptist, or Elijah, or some other of
the prophets. But when He asked their own belief, Peter
replied, " Thou art the Christ." He warned them not to make
this known; and He proceeded to give them the wholly new
teaching that the Son of Man must suffer and be killed, adding
that after three days He must rise again. Peter took Him aside
and urged Him not to speak so. But He turned to the other
disciples and openly rebuked Peter. And then, addressing a yet
wider circle, He demanded of those who should follow Him a
self-sacrifice like His own. He even used the metaphor of the
cross which was carried by the sufferer to the place of execution.
Life, he declared, could only be saved by voluntary death. He
went on to demand an unswerving loyalty to Himself and His
teaching in the face of a threatening world ; and then He promised
that some of those who were present should not die before they
had seen the coming of the kingdom of God. We have had no
hint of such teaching as this in the whole of the Galilean ministry.
Jesus had stood forth as the strong healer and helper of men; it
was bewildering to hear Him speak of dying. He had promised
to fulfil men's highest expectations, if only they would not
doubt His willingness and power. He had been enthusiastically
reverenced by the common people, though suspected and attacked
by the religious leaders. He had spoken of " the will of God "
as supreme, and had set aside ceremonial traditions. He had
announced the nearness of the kingdom of God, but had
described it only in parables from nature. He had adopted the
vague title of the " Son of Man," but had refrained from pro-
claiming Himself as the expected Messiah. At last the disciples
had expressed their conviction that He Was the Christ, and imme-
diately He tells them that He goes to meet humiliation and death
as the necessary steps to a resurrection and a coming of the Son
of Man in the glory of His Father. It was an amazing announce-
ment and He plainly added that their path like His own lay
through death to life. The dark shadows of this picture of the
future alone could impress their minds, but a week later three of
them were allowed a momentary vision of the light which should
overcome the darkness. They saw Jesus transfigured in a
radiance of glory: Elijah appeared with Moses, and they talked
with Jesus. A cloud came over them, and a Voice, like that of
the Baptism, proclaimed " This is My Son, the Beloved: hear
ye Him." They were bidden to keep the vision secret till the
Son of Man should have risen from the dead. It was in itself a
foretaste of resurrection, and the puzzled disciples remembered
that the scribes declared that before the resurrection Elijah
would appear. Their minds were confused as to what resurrec-
tion was meant. Jesus told them thatElijah had in fact come;
and He also said that the Scriptures foretold the sufferings of
the Son of Man. But the situation was wholly beyond their
grasp, and the very language of St Mark at this point seems to
reflect the confusion of their minds.
The other disciples, in the meantime, had been vainly en-
deavouring to cure a peculiarly violent case of demoniacal
possession. Jesus Himself cast out the demon, but not before
the suffering child had been rendered seemingly lifeless by a
final assault. Then they journeyed secretly through Galilee
towards Judaea and the eastern side of the Jordan. On the way
Jesus reinforced the new lesson of self-renunciation. He offered
the little children as the type of those to whom the kingdom of
God belonged; and He disappointed a young and wealthy aspi-
rant to His favour, amazing His disciples by saying that the
kingdom of God could hardly be entered by the rich; he who
forsook all should have all, and more than all; the world's
estimates were to be reversed — the first should be last and the
last first. They were now journeying towards Jerusalem, and
the prediction of the Passion was repeated. James and John,
who had witnessed the Transfiguration, and who were confident
of the coming glory, asked for the places nearest to their Master,
and professed their readiness to share His sufferings. When
the other ten were aggrieved Jesus declared that greatness was
measured by service, not by rank; and that the Son of Man had
come not to be served but to serve, and to give His life to
ransom many other lives. As they came up from the Jordan
valley and passed through Jericho, an incident occurred which
signalized the beginning of the final period. A blind man
appealed to Jesus as " the Son of David," and was answered
by the restoration of his sight; and when, a little later, Jesus
fulfilled an ancient prophecy by mounting an ass and riding into
Jerusalem, the multitudes shouted their welcome to the returning
"kingdom of David." Hitherto He had not permitted any
public recognition of His Messiahship, but now He entered
David's city in lowly but significant pomp as David's promised
heir.
Two incidents illustrate the spirit of judgment with which He
approached the splendid but apostate city. On His arrival He
had carefully observed the condition of the Temple, Entry into
and had retired to sleep outside the city. On the Jerusalem.
following morning, finding no fruit on a fig-tree in full leaf,
He said, " Let no man eat fruit of thee henceforth for ever." It
was a parable of impending doom. Then, when He entered
the Temple, He swept away with a fiery zeal the merchants and
merchandise which had turned God's House into "a robbers'
den." The act was at once an assertion of commanding au-
thority and an open condemnation of the religious rulers who
had permitted the desecration. Its immediate effect was to
make new and powerful enemies; for the chief priests, as well as
their rivals the scribes, were now inflamed against Him. At the
moment they could do nothing, but the next day they formally
352
JESUS CHRIST
demanded whence He derived His right so to act. When they
refused to answer His question as to the authority of John the
Baptist He in turn refused to tell them His own. But He
uttered a parable which more than answered them. The owner
of the vineyard, who had sent his servants and last of all his only
son, would visit their rejection and murder on the wicked
husbandmen. He added a reminder that the stone which the
builders refused was, after all, the Divine choice. They were
restrained from arresting Him by fear of the people, to whom
the meaning of the parable was plain. They therefore sent a
joint deputation of Pharisees an,d Herodians to entrap Him
with a question as to the Roman tribute, in answering which He
must either lose His influence with the people or else lay Him-
self open to a charge of treason. When they were baffled, the
Sadducees, to whose party the chief priests belonged, sought in
vain to pose Him with a problem as to the resurrection of the
dead; and after that a more honest scribe confessed the truth
of His teaching as to the supremacy of love to God and man over
all the sacrificial worship of the Temple, and was told in reply
that he was not far from the kingdom of God. Jesus Himself
now put a question as to the teaching of the scribes which
identified the Messiah with " the Son of David "; and then
He denounced those scribes whose pride and extortion and
hypocrisy were preparing for them a terrible doom. Before He
left the Temple, never to return, one incident gave Him pure
satisfaction. His own teaching that all must be given for God
was illustrated by the devotion of a poor widow who cast into
the treasury the two tiny coins which were all that she had.
As He passed out He foretold, in words which corresponded to
the doom of the fig-tree, the utter demolition of the imposing
but profitless Temple; and presently He opened up to four of
His disciples a vision of the future, warning them against false
Christs, bidding them expect great sorrows, national and
personal, declaring that the gospel must be proclaimed to all
the nations, and that after a great tribulation the Son of Man
should appear, " coming with the clouds of heaven." The day
and the hour none knew, neither the angels nor the Son, but
only the Father: it was the duty of all to watch.
We now come to the final scenes. The passover was approach-
ing, and plots were being laid for His destruction. He Himself
Final spoke mysteriously of His burial, when a woman
Scene*. poured a vase of costly ointment upon His head.
To some this seemed a wasteful act; but He accepted it as
a token of the love which gave all that was in its power, and
He promised that it should never cease to illustrate His Gospel.
Two of the disciples were sent into Jerusalem to prepare the
Passover meal. During the meal Jesus declared that He should
be betrayed by one of their number. Later in the evening He
gave them bread and wine, proclaiming that these were His body
and His blood — the tokens of His giving Himself to them, and
of a new covenant with God through His death. As they with-
drew to the Mount of Olives He foretold their general flight, but
promised that when He was risen He would go before them into
Galilee. Peter protested faithfulness unto death, but was told
that he would deny his Master three times that very night.
Then coming to a place called Gethsemane, He bade the disciples
wait while He should pray; and taking the three who had been
with Him at the Transfiguration He told them to tarry near
Him and to watch. He went forward, and fell on the ground,
praying that " the cup might be taken away " from Him, but
resigning Himself to His Father's will. Presently Judas arrived
with a band of armed men, and greeted his Master with a kiss —
the signal for His arrest. The disciples fled in panic, after one
of them had wounded the high priest's servant. Only a nameless
young man tried to follow, but he too fled when hands were laid
upon him. Before the high priest Jesus was charged, among
other accusations, with threatening to destroy the Temple; but
the matter was brought to an issue when He was plainly asked
if He were "the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One." He
answered that He was, and He predicted that they should see
the fulfilment of Daniel's vision of the Son of Man sitting on the
right hand of power. Thereupon He was condemned to death
for manifest blasphemy, and a scene of cruel mockery followed.
Meanwhile Peter in the court below had been sitting with the
servants, and in his anxiety to escape recognition had thrice
declared that he did not know Jesus. Thus the night passed,
and in the morning Jesus was taken to Pilate, for the Jewish
council had no power to execute their decree of death. Pilate's
question, " Art Thou the King of the Jews?" shows the nature
of the accusation which was thought likely to tell with the
Roman governor. He had already in bonds one leader of
revolution, whose hands were stained with blood — a striking
contrast to the calm and silent figure who stood before him. At
this moment a crowd came up to ask the fulfilment of his annual
act of grace, the pardon of a prisoner at the Passover. Pilate,
discerning that it was the envy of the rulers which sought to
destroy an inconvenient rival, offered " the King of the Jews "
as the prisoner to be released. But the chief priests succeeded
in making the people ask for Barabbas and demand the cruci-
fixion of Jesus. Pilate fulfilled his pledge by giving them the
man of their choice, and Jesus, whom he had vainly hoped to
release on a satisfactory pretext, he now condemned to the
shameful punishments of scourging and crucifixion; for the
cross, as Jesus had foreseen, was the inevitable fate of a Jewish
pretender to sovereignty. The Roman soldiers mocked " the
King of the Jews " with a purple robe and a crown of thorns.
As they led Him out they forced the cross, which the sufferer
commonly carried, upon the shoulders of one Simon of Cyrene,
whose sons Alexander and Rufus are here mentioned — probably
as being known to St Mark's readers; at any rate, it is interesting
to note that, in writing to the Christians at Rome, St Paul a
few years earlier had sent a greeting to" Rufus and his mother."
Over the cross, which stood between two others, was the con-
demnatory inscription, " The King of the Jews." This was the
Roman designation of Him whom the Jewish rulers tauntingly
addressed as " the King of Israel." The same revilers, with a
deeper truth than they knew, summed up the mystery of His
life and death when they said, " He saved others, Himself He
cannot save."
A great darkness shrouded the scene for three hours, and then,
in His native Aramaic, Jesus cried in the words of the Psalm,
" My God, My God, why has Thou forsaken Me?" One other
cry He uttered, and the end came, and at that moment the veil
of the Temple was rent from top to bottom — an omen of fearful
import to those who had mocked Him, even on the cross, as the
destroyer of the Temple, who in three days should build it anew.
The disciples of Jesus do not appear as spectators of the end, but
only a group of women who had ministered to His needs in
Galilee, and had followed Him up to Jerusalem. These women
watched His burial, which was performed by a Jewish councillor,
to whom Pilate had granted the body after the centurion had
certified the reality of the unexpectedly early death. The body
was placed in a rock-hewn tomb, and a great stone was rolled
against the entrance. Sunset brought on the Jewish sabbath,
but the next evening the women brought spices to anoint the
body, and at sunrise on the third day they arrived at the tomb,
and saw that the stone was rolled away. They entered and
found a young man in a white robe, who said, " He is risen, He
is not here," and bade them say to His disciples and Peter, " He
goeth before you into Galilee; there ye shall see Him, as He said
unto you." In terror they fled from the tomb, " and they said
nothing to any man, for they feared ..."
So with a broken sentence the narrative ends. The document
is imperfect, owing probably to the accidental loss of its last
leaf. In very early times attempts were made to furnish it with
a fitting close; but neither of the supplements which we find in
manuscripts can be regarded as coming from the original writer.
If we ask what must, on grounds of literary probability, have
been added before the record was closed, we may content our-
selves here with saying that some incident must certainly have
been narrated which should have realized the twice-repeated
promise that Jesus would be seen by His disciples in Galilee.
3. Document used bySt Matthew and Si Luke. — We pass on now
to compare with this narrative of St Mark another very early
JESUS CHRIST
document which no longer exists in an independent form, but
which can be partially reconstructed from the portions of it
which have been embodied in the Gospels of St Matthew and
St Luke.
When we review St Mark's narrative as a whole we are struck,
first of all, with its directness and simplicity. It moves straight-
forward upon a well-defined path. It shows us the Lord Jesus
entering on the mission predicted by the Baptist without de-
claring Himself to be the Messiah; attracting the multitudes
in Galilee by His healing power and His unbounded sympathy,
and at the same time awakening the envy and suspicion of the
leaders of religion; training a few disciples till they reach the
conviction that He is the Christ, and then, but not till then,
admitting them into fhe secret of His coming sufferings, and
preparing them for a mission in which they also must sacrifice
themselves; then journeying to Jerusalem to fulfil the destiny
which He foresaw, accepting the responsibility of the Messianic
title, only to be condemned by the religious authorities as a
blasphemer and handed over to the Roman power as a pretender
to the Jewish throne. That is the story in its barest outline.
It is adequate to its presumed purpose of offering to distant
Gentile converts a clear account of their Master's earthly work,
and of the causes which led to His rejection by His own people
and to His death by Roman crucifixion. The writer makes no
comment on the wonderful story which he tells. Allusions to
Jewish customs are, indeed, explained as they occur, but apart
from this the narrative appears to be a mere transcript of
remembered facts. The actors are never characterized; their
actions are simply noted down; there is no praise and no blame.
To this simplicity and directness of narrative we may in large
measure attribute the fact that when two later evangelists
desired to give fuller accounts of our Lord's life they both
made this early book the basis of their work. In those days
there was no sense of unfairness in using up existing materials
in order to make a more complete treatise. Accordingly so
much of St Mark's Gospel has been taken over word for word in
the Gospels of St Luke and St Matthew that, if every copy of it
had perished, we could still reconstruct large portions of it by
carefully comparing their narratives. They did not hesitate,
however, to alter St Mark's language where it seemed to them
rough or obscure, for each of them had a distinctive style of his
own, and St Luke was a literary artist of a high order. Moreover,
though they both accepted the general scheme of St Mark's
narrative, each of them was obliged to omit many incidents in
order to find room for other material which was at their disposal,
by which they were able to supplement the deficiencies of the
earlier book. The most conspicuous deficiency was in regard
to our Lord's teaching, of which, as we have seen, St Mark had
given surprisingly little. Here they were happily in a position
to make a very important contribution.
For side by side with St Mark's Gospel there was current in
the earliest times another account of the doings and sayings of
Jesus Christ. Our knowledge of it to-day is entirely derived
from a comparison of the two later .evangelists who embodied
large portions of it, working it in and out of the general scheme
which they derived from St Mark, according as each of them
thought most appropriate. St Luke appears to have taken it
over in sections for the most part without much modification;
but in St Matthew's Gospel its incidents seldom find an indepen-
dent place; the sayings to which they gave rise are often detached
from their context and grouped with say ings of a similar character
so as to form considerable discourses, or else they are linked on
to sayings which were uttered on other occasions recorded by
St Mark. It is probable that many passages of St Luke's Gospel
which have no parallel in St Matthew were also derived from
this early source; but this is not easily capable of distinct proof;
and, therefore, in order to gain a secure conception of the docu-
ment we must confine ourselves at first to those parts of it which
were borrowed by both writers. We shall, however, look to
St Luke in the main as preserving for us the more nearly its
original form.
We proceed now to give an outline of the contents of this
xv. 12
353
document. To begin with, it contained a fuller account of the
teaching of John the Baptist. St Mark tells us only his message
of hope; but here we read the severer language with which he
called men to repentance. We hear his warning of " the coming
wrath ": his mighty Successor will baptize with fire; the fruitless
tree will be cast into the fire; the chaff will be separated from the
wheat and burned with unquenchable fire; the claim to be
children of Abraham will not avail, for God can raise up other
children to Abraham, if it be from the stones of the desert.
Next, we have a narrative of the Temptation, of which St Mark
had but recorded the bare fact. It was grounded on the
Divine sonship, which we already know was proclaimed at the
Baptism. In a threefold vision Jesus is invited to enter upon
His inheritance at once; to satisfy His own needs, to accept of
earthly dominion, to presume on the Divine protection. The
passage stands almost alone as a revelation of inner conflict in a
life which outwardly was marked by unusual calm.
Not far from the beginning of the document there stood a
remarkable discourse delivered among the hills above the lake.
It opens with a startling reversal of the common esti- The Sermon
mates of happiness and misery. In the light of the on the
coming kingdom it proclaims the blessedness of the Mouat-
poor, the hungry, the sad and the maligned; and the wofulness
of the rich, the full, the merry and the popular. It goes on to
reverse the ordinary maxims of conduct. Enemies are to be
loved, helped, blessed, prayed for. No blow is to be returned;
every demand, just or unjust, is to be granted: in short, "as
ye desire that men should do to you, do in like manner to them."
Then the motive and the model of this conduct are adduced:
" Love your enemies . . . and ye shall be sons of the Highest;
for He is kind to the thankless and wicked. Be merciful, as
your Father is merciful; and judge not, and ye shall not be
judged." We note in passing that this is the first introduction
of our Lord's teaching of the fatherhood of God. God is your
Father, He says in effect; you will be His sons if like Him you
will refuse to make distinctions, loving without looking for a
return, sure that in the end love will not be wholly lost. Then
follow grave warnings-^-generous towards others, you must be
strict with yourselves; only the good can truly do good; hearers
of these words must be doers also, if they would build on the
rock and not on the sand. So, with the parable of the two
builders, the discourse reached its formal close.
It was followed by the entry of Jesus into Capernaum, where
He was asked to heal the servant of a Roman officer. This
man's unusual faith, based on his soldierly sense of discipline,
surprised the Lord, who declared that it had no equal in Israel
itself. Somewhat later messengers arrived from the imprisoned
Baptist, who asked if Jesus were indeed " the coming One "
of whom he had spoken. Jesus pointed to His acts of healing
the sick, raising the dead and proclaiming good news for the poor;
thereby suggesting to those who could understand that He ful-
filled the ancient prophecy of the Messiah. He then declared
the greatness of John in exalted terms, adding, however, that the
least in the kingdom of God was John's superior. Then He
complained of the unreasonableness of an age which refused
John as too austere and Himself as too lax and as being " the
friend of publicans and sinners." This narrative clearly pre-
supposes a series of miracles already performed, and also such a
conflict with the Pharisees as we have seen recorded by St Mark.
Presently we find an offer of discipleship met by the warning
that " the Son of Man " is a homeless wanderer; and then the
stern refusal of a request for leave to perform a father's funeral
rites.
Close upon these incidents follows a special mission of disciples,
introduced by the saying: " The harvest is great, but the
labourers are few." The disciples as they journey other
are to take no provisions, but to throw themselves Sayings of
on the bounty of their hearers; they are to heal the Jesus-
sick and to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God.
The city that rejects them shall have a less lenient judgment
than Sodom; Tyre and Sidon shall be better off than cities
like Chorazin and Bethsaida which have seen His miracles;
354
Capernaum, favoured above all, shall sink to the deepest depth.
If words could be sterner than these, they are those which
follow: " He that heareth you heareth Me; and he that rejecteth
you rejecteth Me; but He that rejecteth Me rejecteth Him that
sent Me." This reference to His own personal mission is strik-
ingly expanded in words which He uttered on the return of the
disciples. After thanking the Father for revealing to babes
what He hides from the wise, He continued in mysterious
language: " All things are delivered to Me by My Father; and
none knoweth who the Son is but the Father; and who the
Father is but the Son, and he to whom the Son chooseth to
reveal Him." Happy were the disciples in seeing and hearing
what prophets and kings had looked for in vain.
When His disciples, having watched Him at prayer, desired
to be taught how to pray, they were bidden to address God as
" Father "; to ask first for the hallowing of the Father's name,
and the coming of His kingdom; then for their daily food, for
the pardon of their sins and for freedom from temptation. It
was the prayer of a family — that the sons might be true to the
Father, and the Father true to the sons; and they were further
encouraged by a parable of the family: " Ask and ye shall
receive. . . . Every one that asketh receiveth " : for the heavenly
Father will do more, not less, than an earthly father would do for
his children. After He had cast out a dumb demon, some said
that His power was due to Beelzebub. He accordingly asked
them by whom the Jews themselves cast out demons; and He
claimed that His power was a sign that the kingdom of God was
come. But He warned them that demons cast out once might
return in greater force. When they asked for a sign from heaven,
He would give them no more than the sign of Jonah, explaining
that the repentant Ninevites should condemn the present
generation: so, too, should the queen of Sheba; for that which
they were now rejecting was more than Jonah and more than
Solomon. Yet further warnings were given when a Pharisee
invited Him to his table, and expressed surprise that He did not
wash His hands before the meal. The cleansing of externals and
the tithing of garden-produce, He declares, have usurped the
place of judgment and the love of God. Woe is pronounced
upon the Pharisees: they are successors to the murderers of
the prophets. Then citing from Genesis and 2 Chronicles, the
first and last books in the order of the Jewish Bible, He declared
that all righteous blood from that of Abel to that of Zachariah
should be required of that generation. After this the disciples
•are encouraged not to fear their murderous opponents. The
very sparrows are God's care — much more shall they be; the
hairs of their head are all counted. In the end the Son of Man
will openly own those who have owned Him before men. For
earthly needs no thought is to be taken: the birds and the
flowers make no provision for their life and beauty. God will
give food and raiment to those who are seeking His kingdom.
Earthly goods should be given away in exchange for the
imperishable treasures. Suddenly will the Son of Man come:
happy the servant whom His Master finds at his appointed task.
In brief parables the kingdom of God is likened to a mustard-
seed and to leaven. When Jesus is asked if the saved shall be
few, He replies that the door is a narrow one. Then, changing
His illustration, He says that many shall seek entrance in vain;
for the master of the house will refuse to recognize them. But
while they are excluded, a multitude from all quarters of the
earth shall sit down with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and the
prophets in the kingdom of God.
His eyes are now fixed on Jerusalem, where, like the prophets,
He must die. " Jerusalem, Jerusalem, how often have I desired
to gather thy children together, as a bird her brood beneath her
wings, but ye refused." " Ye shall not see Me, until ye shall say,
Blessed is He that cometh in the name of the Lord." After this
we have the healing of a dropsical man on the Sabbath, with a
reply to the murmuring Pharisees; and then a parable of the
failure of invited guests and the filling of their places from the
streets. A few fragmentary passages remain, of which it will be
sufficient to cite a word or two to call them to remembrance.
There is a warning that he who forsakes not father and mother
JESUS CHRIST
cannot be a disciple, nor he who does not bear his cross. Savour-
less salt is fit for nothing. The lost sheep is brought home with
a special joy. " Ye cannot serve God and Mammon." Scandals
must arise, but woe to him through whom they arise. The Son
of Man will come with the suddenness of lightning; the days of
Noah and the days of Lot will find a parallel in their blind gaiety
and their inevitable disaster. He who seeks to gain his life will
lose it. " One shall be taken, and the other left." " Where
the carcase is, the vultures will gather." Then, lastly, we have
a parable of the servant who failed to employ the money en-
trusted to him; and a promise that the disciples shall sit on
twelve thrones to judge the twelve tribes of Israel. We cannot
say by our present method of determination, how this document
closed; for in the narratives of the Passion and the Resurrection
St Matthew and St Luke only coincide in passages which they
have taken from St Mark.
Now that we have reconstructed in outline this early account
of the Lord Jesus, so far as it has been used by both the later
evangelists, we may attempt to compare the picture Comparison
which it presents to us with that which was offered with
by St Mark. But in doing so we must remember s* Mark-
that we know it only in fragments. There can be little doubt
that much more of it is embedded in St Luke's Gospel, and
something more also in St Matthew's; but in order to stand on
firm ground we have considered thus far only those portions
which both of these writers elected to use in composing
their later narratives. To go beyond this is a work of delicate
discrimination. It can only be effected by a close examination
of the style and language of the document, which may enable us
in some instances to identify with comparative security certain
passages which are found in St Luke, but which St Matthew did
not regard as suitable for his purpose. Among these we may
venture, quite tentatively, to mention the sermon at Nazareth
which opened with a passage from the Book of Isaiah, the raising
of the widow's son at Nain, and the parable of the good Samari-
tan. These are found in St Luke, but not in St Matthew. On
the other hand, it is not improbable that the wonderful words
which begin, " Come unto Me all ye that labour," were drawn
by St Matthew from the same document, though they are not
recorded by St Luke. But here we have entered upon a region
of less certainty, in which critical scholarship has still much to do;
and these passages are mentioned here only as a reminder that
the document must have contained more than what St Matthew
and St Luke each independently determined to borrow from it.
Looking, then, at the portions which we have indicated as having
this two-fold testimony, we see that in their fragmentary con-
dition we cannot trace the clear historical development which
was so conspicuous a feature of St Mark's Gospel; yet we need
not conclude that in its complete form it failed to present an
orderly narrative. Next, we see that wherever we are able to
observe its method of relating an incident, as in the case of the
healing of the centurion's servant, we have the same charac-
teristics of brevity and simplicity which we admired in St Mark.
No comment is made by the narrator; he tells his tale in the
fewest words and passes on. Again, we note that it supplies
just what we feel we most need when we have reached the end
of St Mark's story, a fuller account of the teaching which Jesus
gave to His disciples and to the people at large. And we see
that the substance of that teaching is in complete harmony
with the scattered hints that we found in St Mark. If the father-
hood of God stands out clearly, we may remember a passage of
St Mark also which speaks of " the Heavenly Father " as for-
giving those who forgive. If prayer is encouraged, we may also
remember that the same passage of St Mark records the saying:
" All things whatsoever ye pray for and ask, believe that ye
have received them and ye shall have them." If in one myste-
rious passage Jesus speaks of " the Father " and " the Son "-
terms with which the Gospel of St John has made us familiar
— St Mark also in one passage uses the same impressive terms
— " the Son " and " the Father." There are, of course, many
other parallels with St Mark, and at some points the two docu-
ments seem to overlap and to relate the same incidents in
JESUS CHRIST
somewhat different forms. There is the same use of parables
from nature, the same incisiveness of speech and employment of
paradox, the same demand to sacrifice all to Him and for His
cause, the same importunate claim made by Him on the human
soul.
But the contrast between the two writers is even more impor-
tant for our purpose. No one can read through the passages to
which we have pointed without feeling the solemn
J*H^'ra/n^.'sternness °f t'ie 8reat Teacher, a sternness which can
indeed be traced here and there in St Mark, but which
does not give its tone to the whole of his picture. Here
we see Christ standing forth in solitary grandeur, looking
with the eyes of another world on a society which is blindly
hastening to its dissolution. It may be that if this document
had come down to us in its entirety, we should have gathered
from it an exaggerated idea of the seventy of our Lord's charac-
ter. Certain it is that as we read over these fragments we are
somewhat startled by the predominance of the element of warn-
ing, and by the assertion of rules of conduct which seem almost
inconsistent with a normal condition of settled social life. The
warning to the nation sounded by the Baptist, that God could
raise up a new family for Abraham, is heard again and again in
our Lord's teaching. Gentile faith puts Israel to shame. The
sons of the kingdom will be left outside, while strangers feast
with Abraham. Capernaum shall go to perdition; Jerusalem
shall be a desolate ruin. The doom of the nation is pronounced;
its fate is imminent; there is no ray of hope for the existing con-
stitution of religion and society. As to individuals within the
nation, the despised publicans and sinners will find God's favour
before the self-satisfied representatives of the national religion.
In such a condition of affairs it is hardly surprising to find that
the great and stern Teacher congratulates the poor and has
nothing but pity for the rich; that He has no interest at all in
comfort or property. If a man asks you for anything, give it him ;
if he takes it without asking, do not seek to recover it. Nothing
material is worth a thought; anxiety is folly; your Father, who
feeds His birds and clothes His flowers, will feed and clothe you.
Rise to the height of your sonship to God; love your enemies even
as God loves His; and if they kill you, God will care for you still;
fear them not, fear only Him who loves you all.
Here is a new philosophy of life, offering solid consolation
amid the ruin of a world. We have no idea who the disciple
may have been who thus seized upon the sadder elements of
the teaching of Jesus; but we may well think of him as one of
those who were living in Palestine in the dark and threatening
years of internecine strife, when the Roman eagles were gathering
round their prey, and the first thunder was muttering of the
storm which was to leave Jerusalem a heap of stones. At such a
moment the warnings of our Lord would claim a large place in a
record of His teaching, and the strange comfort which He had
offered would be the only hope which it would seem possible to
entertain.
4. Additions by the Gospel according to St Matthew. — We have
now examined in turn the two e'arliest pictures which have been
preserved to us of the life of Jesus Christ. The first
Narratives. Portrays Him chiefly by a record of His actions,
and illustrates His strength, His sympathy, and His
freedom from conventional restraints. It shows the disturbing
forces of these characteristics, which aroused the envy and appre-
hension of the leaders of religion. The first bright days of wel-
come and popularity are soon clouded: the storm begins to lower.
More and more the Master devotes Himself to the little circle
of His disciples, who are taught that they, as well as He, can only
triumph through defeat, succeed by failure, and find their life in
giving it away. At length, in fear of religious innovations and
pretending that He is a political usurper, the Jews deliver Him
up to die on a Roman cross. The last page of the story is torn
away, just at the point when it has been declared that He is
alive again and about to show Himself to His disciples. The
second picture has a somewhat different tone. It is mainly a
record of teaching, and the teaching is for the most part stern
and paradoxical. It might be described as revolutionary. It is
355
good tidings to the poor: it sets no store on property and material
comfort: it pities the wealthy and congratulates the needy. It
reverses ordinary judgments and conventional maxims of con-
duct. It proclaims the downfall of institutions, and compares the
present blind security to the days of Noah and of Lot: a few only
shall escape the coming overthrow. Yet even in this sterner
setting the figure portrayed is unmistakably the same. There is
the same strength, the same tender sympathy, the same freedom
from convention: there is the same promise to fulfil the highest
hopes, the same surrender of life, and the same imperious demand
on the lives of others. No thoughtful man who examines and
compares these pictures can doubt that they are genuine historical
portraits of a figure wholly different from any which had hitherto
appeared on the world's stage. They are beyond the power
of human invention. They are drawn with a simplicity which is
their own guarantee. If we had these, and these only, we should
have an adequate explanation of the beginnings of Christianity.
There would still be a great gap to be filled before we reached the
earliest letters of St Paul; but yet we should know what the
Apostle meant when he wrote to " the Church of the Thessalo-
nians in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ," and reminded
them how they had " turned from idols to serve the living and
true God, and to wait for His Son from heaven, whom He raised
from the dead, even Jesus who delivereth us from the wrath to
come."
If these two narratives served the first needs of Christian
believers, it is easy to see that they would presently stimulate
further activity in the same direction. For, to begin with, they
were obviously incomplete: many incidents and teachings known
to the earliest disciples found no place in them; and they con-
tained no account of the life of Jesus Christ before His public
ministry, no record of His pedigree, His birth or His childhood.
Secondly, their form left much to be desired; for one of them at
least was rude in style, sometimes needlessly repetitive and some-
times brief to obscurity. Moreover the very fact that there were
two challenged a new and combined work which perhaps should
supersede both.
Accordingly, some years after the fall of Jerusalem — we
cannot tell the exact date or the author's name — the book
which we call the Gospel according to St Matthew The Gospel
was written to give the Palestinian Christians a of St
full account of Jesus Christ, which should present Matll>ew.
Him as the promised Messiah, fulfilling the ancient Hebrew
prophecies, proclaiming the kingdom of heaven, and founding
the Christian society. The writer takes St Mark as his
basis, but he incorporates into the story large portions of
the teaching which he has found in the other document. He
groups his materials with small regard to chronological order;
and he fashions out of the many scattered sayings of our Lord
continuous discourses, everywhere bringing like to like, with
considerable literary art. A wide knowledge of the Old Testament
supplies him with a text to illustrate one incident after another;
and so deeply is he impressed with the correspondence between
the life of Christ and the words of ancient prophecy, that he does
not hesitate to introduce his quotations by the formula " that it
might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophet."
His Hebrew instinct leads him to begin with a table of genea-
logy, artificially constructed in groups of fourteen generations —
from Abraham to David, from David to the Captivity, and from
the Captivity to the Christ. The royal descent of the Messiah is
thus declared, and from the outset His figure is set against the
background of the Old Testament. He then proceeds to show
that, though His lineage is traced through Joseph's ancestors,
He was but the adopted son of Joseph, and he tells the story of
the Virgin-birth. The coming of the Child draws Eastern sages
to his cradle and fills the court of Herod with suspicious fears.
The cruel tyrant kills the babes of Bethlehem, but the Child has
been withdrawn by a secret flight into Egypt, whence he presently
returns to the family home at Nazareth in Galilee. • All this is
necessarily fresh material, for the other records had dealt only
with the period of public ministry. We have no knowledge of the
source from which it was drawn. From the historical standpoint
JESUS CHRIST
its value must be appraised by the estimate which is formed of
the writer's general trustworthiness as a narrator, and by the
extent to which the incidents receive confirmation from other
quarters. The central fact of the Virgin-birth, as we shall
presently see, has high attestation from another early writer.
The next addition which St Matthew's Gospel makes to our
knowledge is of a different kind. It consists of various important
Discourses sayings of our Lord, which are combined with dis-
aad courses found in the second document and are worked
Parables. Up jnto tj,e great utterance which we call the Sermon
on the Mount. Such grouping of materials is a feature of this
Gospel, and was possibly designed for purposes of public in-
struction ; so that continuous passages might be read aloud in the
services of the Church, just as passages from the Old Testament
were read in the Jewish synagogues. This motive would account
not only for the arrangement of the material, but also for certain
changes in the language which seem intended to remove difficul-
ties, and to interpret what is ambiguous or obscure. An example
of such interpretation meets us at the outset. The startling saying,
" Blessed are ye poor," followed by the woe pronounced upon the
rich, might seem like a condemnation of the very principle of
property; and when the Christian Church had come to be organ-
ized as a society containing rich and poor, the heart of the saying
was felt to be more truly and clearly expressed in the words,
" Blessed are the poor in spirit." This interpretative process
may be traced again and again in this Gospel, which frequently
seems to reflect the definite tradition of a settled Church.
Apart from the important parables of the tares, the pearl and
the net, the writer adds little to his sources until we come to the
remarkable passage in ch. xvi., in which Peter the Rock is
declared to be the foundation of the future Church, and is en-
trusted with the keys of the kingdom of heaven. The function
of " binding and loosing," here assigned to him, is in identi-
cal terms assigned to the disciples generally in' a passage in
ch. xviii. in which for the second time we meet with the word
"Church" — a word not found elsewhere in the Gospels. There
is no sufficient ground for denying that these sayings were uttered
by our Lord, but the fact that they were now first placed upon
record harmonizes with what has been said already as to the
more settled condition of the Christian society which this Gospel
appears to reflect.
The parables of the two debtors, the labourers in the vineyard,
the two sons, the ten virgins, the sheep and goats, are recorded
only by this evangelist. But by way of incident he has almost
nothing to add till we come to the closing scenes. The earth-
quake at the moment of our Lord's death and the subsequent
appearance of departed saints are strange traditions unattested
by other writers. The same is to be said of the soldiers placed to
guard the tomb, and of the story that they had been bribed to
say that the sacred body had been stolen while they slept. On
the other hand, the appearance of the risen Christ to the women
may have been taken from the lost pages of St Mark, being the
sequel to the narrative which is broken off abruptly in this Gospel :
and it is not improbable that St Mark's Gospel was the source
of the great commission to preach and baptize with which
St Matthew closes, though the wording of it has probably
been modified in accordance with a settled tradition.
The work which the writer of this Gospel thus performed
received the immediate sanction of a wide acceptance. It met
a definite spiritual need. It presented the Gospel in a suitable
form for the edification of the Church; and it confirmed its truth
by constant appeals to the Old Testament scriptures, thus mani-
festing its intimate relation with the past as the outcome of a
long preparation and as the fulfilment of a Divine purpose. No
Gospel is so frequently quoted by the early post-apostolic writers :
none has exercised a greater influence upon Christianity, and
consequently upon the history of the world.
Yet from the purely historical point of view its evidential
value is not the same as that of St Mark. Its facts for the most
part are simply taken over from the earlier evangelist, and the
historian must obviously prefer the primary source. Its true
importance lies in its attestation of the genuineness of the earlier
portraits to which it has so little to add, in its recognition of the
relation of Christ to the whole purpose of God as revealed in the
Old Testament, and in its interpretation of the Gospel message
in its bearing on the Living Church of the primitive days.
5. Additions by St Luke. — While the needs of Jewish be-
lievers were amply met by St Matthew's Gospel, a like service
was rendered to Gentile converts by a very different writer.
St Luke was a physician who had accompanied St Paul on his
missionary journeys. He undertook a history of the beginnings
of Christianity, two volumes of which have come down to us,
entitled the Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles. His Gospel,
like St Matthew's, is founded on St Mark, with the incorporation
of large portions of the second document of which we have
spoken above. But the way in which the two writers have used
the same materials is strikingly different. In St Matthew's
Gospel the original sources are frequently blended: the incidents
of St Mark are rearranged and often grouped afresh according
to subject matter: harsh and ambiguous sentences of both
documents are toned down or interpreted. St Luke, on the
contrary, chooses between parallel stories of his two sources,
preferring neither to duplicate nor to combine: he incorporates
St Mark in continuous sections, following him alone for a time,
then leaving him entirely, and then returning to introduce a new
block of his narrative. He modifies St Mark's style very freely,
but he makes less change in the recorded words of our Lord, and
he adheres more closely to the original language of the second
document.
In his first two chapters he gives an account of the birth and
childhood of St John the Baptist and of our Lord Himself,
gathered perhaps directly from the traditions of the Holy Family,
and written in close imitation of the sacred stories of the Old
Testament which were familiar to him in their Greek translation.
The whole series of incidents differ from that which we find in
St Matthew's Gospel, but there is no direct variance between
them. The two narratives are in agreement as to the central fact
of the Virgin-birth. St Luke gives a table of genealogy which is
irreconcilable with the artificial table of St Matthew's Gospel,
and which traces our Lord's ancestry up to Adam, " which was
the son of God."
The opening scene of the Galilean ministry is the discourse at
Nazareth, in which our Lord claims to fulfil Isaiah's prophecy
of the proclamation of good tidings to the poor. The same
prophecy is alluded to in His reply to the Baptist's messengers
which is incorporated subsequently from the second document.
The scene ends with the rejection of Christ by His own townsfolk,
as in the parallel story of St Mark which St Luke does not give.
It is probable that St Luke found this narrative in the second
document, and chose it after his manner in preference to the less
instructive story in St Mark. He similarly omits the Marcan
account of the call of the fishermen, substituting the story of the
miraculous draught. After that he follows St Mark alone, until
he introduces after the call of the twelve apostles the sermon
which begins with the beatitudes and woes. This is from the
second document, which he continues to use, and that without
interruption (if we may venture to assign to it the raising of the
widow's son at Nain and the anointing by the sinful woman in
the Pharisee's house), until he returns to incorporate another
section from St Mark.
This in turn is followed by the most characteristic section of
his Gospel (ix. si-xviii. 14), a long series of incidents wholly
independent of St Mark, and introduced as belonging character-
to the period of the final journey from Galilee to istic Section
Jerusalem. Much of this material is demonstrably olst Luke's
derived from the second document; and it is quite ospe '
possible that the whole of it may come from that source.
There are special reasons for thinking so in regard to certain
passages, as for example the mission of the seventy disciples
and the parable of the good Samaritan, although they are not
contained in St Matthew's Gospel.
For the closing scenes at Jerusalem St Luke makes considerable
additions to St Mark's narrative: he gives a different account of
the Last Supper, and he adds the trial before Herod and the
JESUS CHRIST
incident of the penitent robber. He appears to have had no
information as to the appearance of the risen Lord in Galilee,
and he accordingly omits from his reproduction of St Mark's
narrative the twice-repeated promise of a meeting with the
disciples there. He supplies, however, an account of the
appearance to the two disciples at Emmaus and to the whole
body of the apostles in Jerusalem.
St Luke's use of his two main sources has preserved the
characteristics of both of them. The sternness of certain passages,
which has . led some critics to imagine that he was an Ebionite,
is mainly, if not entirely, due to his faithful reproduction of the
language of the second document. The key-note of his Gospel
is universality: the mission of the Christ embraces the poor, the
weak, the despised, the heretic and the sinful: it is good tidings
to all mankind. He tells of the devotion of Mary and Martha,
and of the band of women who ministered to our Lord's needs
and followed Him to Jerusalem: he tells also of His kindness to
more than one sinful woman. Zacchaeus the publican and the
grateful Samaritan leper further illustrate this characteristic.
Writing as he does for Gentile believers he omits many details
which from their strongly Jewish cast might be unintelligible or
uninteresting. He also modifies the harshness of St Mark's
style, and frequently recasts his language in reference to diseases.
From an historical point of view his Gospel is of high value.
The proved accuracy of detail elsewhere, as in his narration of
events which he witnessed in company with St Paul, enhances
our genera] estimation of his work. A trustworthy observer and a
literary artist, the one non-Jewish evangelist has given us — to use
M. Renan's words — " the most beautiful book in the world."
6. Additions by St John. — We come lastly to consider what
addition to our knowledge of Christ's life and work is made by
the Fourth Gospel. St Mark's narrative of our Lord's ministry
and passion is so simple and straightforward that it satisfies our
historical sense. We trace a natural development in it: we seem
to see why with such power and such sympathy He necessarily
came into conflict with the religious leaders of the people,
who were jealous of the influence which He gained and were scan-
dalized by His refusal to be hindered in His mission of mercy
by rules and conventions to which they attached the highest
importance. The issue is fought out in Galilee, and when our Lord
finally journeys to Jerusalem He knows that He goes there to
die. The story is so plain and convincing in itself that it gives
at first sight an impression of completeness. This impression
is confirmed by the Gospels of St Matthew and St Luke, which
though they add much fresh material do not disturb the general
scheme presented by St Mark. But on reflection we are led to
question the sufficiency of the account thus offered to us. Is it
probable, we ask, that our Lord should have neglected the sacred
custom in accordance with which the pious Jew visited Jerusalem
several times each year for the observance of the divinely
appointed feasts? It is true that St Mark does not break his
narrative of the Galilean ministry to record such visits: but this
does not prove that such visits were not made. Again, is it
probable that He should have so far neglected Jerusalem as to
give it no opportunity of seeing Him and hearing His message
until the last week of His life ? If the writers of the other two
Gospels had no means at their disposal for enlarging the narrow
framework of St Mark's narrative by recording definite visits to
Jerusalem, at least they preserve to us words from the second
document which seem to imply such visits: for how else are we
to explain the pathetic complaint, " Jerusalem, Jerusalem, how
often would I have gathered thee, as a hen gathereth her chickens
under her wings; but ye would not"?
St John's Gospel meets our questionings by a wholly new
series of incidents. and by an account of a ministry which is con-
cerned mainly not with Galileans but with Judaeans, and which
centres in Jerusalem. It is carried on to a large extent con-
currently with the Galilean ministry : it is not continuous, but is
taken up from feast to feast as our Lord visits the sacred city
at the times of its greatest religious activity. It differs in
character from the Galilean ministry: for among the simple,
unsophisticated folk of Galilee Jesus presents Himself as a healer
357
and helper and teacher, keeping in the background as far as
possible His claim to be the Messiah; whereas in Jerusalem His
authority is challenged at His first appearance, the element of
controversy is never absent, His relation to God is from the out-
set the vital issue, and consequently His Divine claim is of neces-
sity made explicit. Time after time His life is threatened before
the feast is ended, and when the last passover has come we can
well understand, what was not made sufficiently clear in the
brief Marcan narrative, why Jerusalem proved so fatally hostile
to His Messianic claim.
The Fourth Gospel thus offers us a most important supplement
to the limited sketch of our Lord's life which we find in the
Synoptic Gospels. Yet this was not the purpose which The Purpose
led to its composition. That purpose is plainly stated otst John's
by the author himself: " These things have beenGospe/-
written that ye may believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of
God, and that believing ye may have life in His name." His
avowed aim is, not to write history, but to produce conviction.
He desires to interpret the coming of Jesus Christ into the world,
to declare whence and why He came, and to explain how His
coming, as light in the midst of darkness, brought a crisis into
the lives of all with whom He came in contact. The issue of this
crisis in His rejection by the Jews at Jerusalem is the main theme
of the book.
St John's prologue prepares us to find that he is not writing
for persons who require a succinct narrative of facts, but for
those who having such already in familiar use are asking deep
questions as to our Lord's mission. It goes back far behind
human birth or lines of ancestry. It begins, like the sacred story
of creation, " In the beginning." The Book of Genesis had told
how all things were called into existence by a Divine utterance:
" God said, Let there be ... and there was." The creative
Word had been long personified by Jewish thought, especially
in connexion with the prophets to whom " the Word of the Lord "
came. " In the beginning," then, St John tells us, the Word
was — was with God — yea, was God. He was the medium of
creation, the source of its light and its life — especially of that
higher life which finds its manifestation in men. So He was in
the world, and the world was made by Him, and yet the world
knew Him not. At length He came, came to the home which
had been prepared for Him, but His own people rejected Him.
But such as did receive Him found a new birth, beyond their
birth of flesh and blood: they became children of God, were
born of God. In order thus to manifest Himself He had under-
gone a human birth : "the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among
us, and we beheld His glory " — the glory, as the evangelist has
learned to see, of the Father's only-begotten Son, who has
come into the world to reveal to men that God whom " no man
hath ever seen." In these opening words we are invited to study
the life of Christ from a new point of view, to observe His self-
manifestation and its issue. The evangelist looks back across
a period of half a century, and writes of Christ not merely as he
saw Him in those far-off days, but as he has come by long experi-
ence to think and speak of Him. The past is now filled with a
glory which could not be so fully perceived at the time, but
which, as St John tells, it was the function of the Holy Spirit to
reveal to Christ's disciples.
The first name which occurs in this Gospel is that of John the
Baptist. He is even introduced into the prologue which sketches
in general terms the manifestation of the Divine Word: "There
was a man sent from God, whose name was John: he came for
witness, to witness to the Light, that through him all might
believe." This witness of John holds a position of high impor-
tance in this Gospel. His mission is described as running on for
a while concurrently with that of our Lord, whereas in the other
Gospels we have no record of our Lord's work until John is cast
into prison. It is among the disciples of the Baptist on the
banks of the Jordan that Jesus finds His first disciples. The
Baptist has pointed Him out to them in striking language, which
recalls at once the symbolic ritual of the law and the spiritual
lessons of the prophets:" Behold, the Lamb of God, which taketh
away the sin of the world."
35«
JET
Soon afterwards at Cana of Galilee Jesus gives His first " sign,"
as the evangelist calls it, in the change of water into wine to
supply the deficiency at a marriage feast. This scene has all the
happy brightness of the early Galilean ministry which St Mark
records. It stands in sharp contrast with the subsequent appear-
ance of Jesus in Jerusalem at the Passover, when His first act is
to drive the traders from the Temple courts. In this He seems
to be carrying the Baptist's stern mission of purification from the
desert into the heart of the sacred city, and so fulfilling, perhaps
consciously, the solemn prophecy of Malachi which opens with
the words: " Behold, I will send My Messenger, and He shall
prepare the way before Me; and the Lord whom ye seek shall
suddenly come to His Temple " (Mai. iii.' 1-5). This significant
action provokes a challenge of His authority, which is answered
by a mysterious saying, not understood at the time, but interpreted
afterwards as referring to the Resurrection. After this our Lord
was visited secretly by a Pharisee named Nicodemus, whose
advances were severely met by the words, " Except a man be
born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God." When Nico-
demus objected that this was to demand a physical impossibility,
he was answered that the new birth was " of water and spirit " —
words which doubtless contained a reference to the mission of the
Baptist and to his prophecy of One who should baptize with the
Holy Spirit. Towards the end of this conversation the evangelist
passes imperceptibly from reporting the words of the Lord into
an interpretation or amplification of them, and in language which
recalls the prologue he unfolds the meaning of Christ's mission
and indicates the crisis of self-judgment which necessarily ac-
companies the manifestation of the Light to each individual.
When he resumes his narrative the Lord has left Jerusalem, and
is found baptizing disciples, in even greater numbers than the
Baptist himself. Though Jesus did not personally perform the
rite, it is plain once again that in this early period He closely
linked His own mission with that of John the Baptist. When
men hinted at a rivalry between them, John plainly declared
" He must increase, and I must decrease": and the reply of Jesus
was to leave Judaea for Galilee.
Away from the atmosphere of contention we find Him mani-
festing the same broad sympathy and freedom from convention
which we have noted in the other Gospels, especially in that of
St Luke. He converses with a woman, with a woman moreover
who is a Samaritan, and who is of unchaste life. He offers her
the " living water " which shall supply all her needs: she readily
accepts Him as the expected Messiah, and He receives a welcome
from the Samaritans. He passes on to Galilee, where also He
is welcomed, and where He performs His second " sign," healing
the son of one of Herod's courtiers.
But St John's interest does not lie in Galilee, and he soon brings
our Lord back to Jerusalem on the occasion of a feast. The
The Mini- Baptist's work is now ended; and, though Jesus still
stryai appeals to the testimony of John, the new conflict
Jerusalem. witj, tne jew;si, authorities shows that He is moving
now on His own independent and characteristic lines. In
cleansing the Temple He had given offence by what might seem
an excess of rigour: now, by healing a sick man and bidding him
carry his bed on the Sabbath, He offended by His laxity. He
answered His accusers by the brief but pregnant sentence: " My
Father worketh even until now, and I work." They at once
understood that He thus claimed a unique relation to God, and
their antagonism became the more intense: " the Jews therefore
sought the more to kill Him, because He had not only broken the
Sabbath, but had also said that God was His own Father, making
Himself equal to God." His first reply is then expanded to
cover the whole region of life.. The Son beholds the Father at
work, and works concurrently, doing nothing of Himself. He
does the Father's will. The very principle of life is entrusted to
Him. He quickens, and He judges. As Son of Man He judges
man.
The next incident is the feeding of the five thousand, which
belongs to the Galilean ministry and is recorded by the three
other evangelists. St John's purpose in introducing it is not his-
torical but didactic. It is made the occasion of instruction as to
the heavenly food, the flesh and blood of Him who came down
from heaven. This teaching leads to a conflict with certain
Judaeans who seem to have come from Jerusalem, and it proves
a severe test even to the faith of disciples.
The feast of tabernacles brings fresh disputes in Jerusalem,
and an attempt is made to arrest Jesus. A climax of indignation
is reached when a blind man is healed at the pool of Siloam on the
sabbath day. At the feast of the dedication a fresh effort at
arrest was made, and Jesus then withdrew beyond the Jordan.
Here He learned of the sickness of Lazarus, and presently He
returned and came to Bethany to raise him from the dead. The
excitement produced by this miracle led to yet another attack,
destined this time to be successful, on the life of Jesus. The
Passover was at hand, and the last supper of our Lord with His
disciples on the evening before the Passover lamb was killed is
made the occasion of the most inspiring consolations. Our Lord
interprets His relation to the disciples by the figure of a tree and
its branches — He is the whole of which they are the parts; He
promises the mission of the Holy Spirit to continue His work
in the world ; and He solemnly commends to His Father the dis-
ciples whom He is about to leave.
The account of the trial and the crucifixion differs considerably
from the accounts given in the other Gospels. St John's narra-
tives are in large part personal memories, and in more than one
incident he himself figures as the unnamed disciple " whom Jesus
loved." In the Resurrection scenes he also gives incidents in
which he has played a part; and the appearances of the risen
Lord are not confined either to Jerusalem or to Galilee, but occur
in both localities.
If we ask what is the special contribution to history, apart
from theology, which St John's Gospel makes, the answer would
seem to be this — that beside the Galilean ministry reported by
St Mark there was a ministry to " Jews " (Judaeans) in Jeru-
salem, not continuous, but occasional, taken up from time to time
as the great feasts came round; that its teaching was widely
different from that which was given to Galileans, and that the
situation created was wholly unlike that which arose out of the
Galilean ministry. The Galilean ministry opens with enthu-
siasm, ripening into a popularity which even endangers a satis-
factory result. Where opposition manifests itself, it is not
native opposition, but comes from religious teachers who are
parts of a system which centres in Jerusalem, and who are some-
times expressly noted as having come from Jerusalem. The
Jerusalem ministry on the contrary is never welcomed with
enthusiasm. It has to do with those who challenge it from the
first. There is no atmosphere of simplicity and teachableness
which rejoices in the manifestation of power and sympathy and
liberty. It is a witness delivered to a hostile audience, whether
they will hear or no. Ultimate issues are quickly raised: keen
critics see at once the claims which underlie deeds and words,
and the claims in consequence become explicit: the relation of
the teacher to God Himself is the vital interest. The conflict
which thus arose explains what St Mark's succinct narrative had
left unexplained — the fatal hostility of Jerusalem. It may have
been a part of St John's purpose to give this explanation, and to
make other supplements or corrections where earlier narratives
appeared to him incomplete or misleading. But he says nothing
to indicate this, while on the other hand he distinctly proclaims
that his purpose is to produce and confirm conviction of the divine
claims of Jesus Christ.
Forbibliography see BIBLE; CHRISTIANITY; CHURCH HISTORY; and
the articles on the separate Gospels. (J. A. R.)
JET (Fr. jais, Ger. Gagal), a substance which seems to be
a peculiar kind of lignite or anthracite; often cut and polished
for ornaments. The word " jet " probably comes, through O. Fr.
jaiet, from the classical gagales, a word which was derived,
according to Pliny, from Gagas, in Lycia, where jet, or a similar
substance, was originally found. Jet was used in Britain in
prehistoric times; many round barrows of the Bronze age have
yielded jet beads, buttons, rings, armlets and other ornaments.
The abundance of jet in Britain is alluded to by Caius Julius
JETHRO— JETTY
Solinus (fl. 3rd century) and jet ornaments are found with Roman
relics in Britain. Probably the supply was obtained from the
coast of Yorkshire, especially near Whitby, where nodules of jet
were formerly picked up on the shore. Caedmon refers to this
jet, and at a later date it was used for rosary beads by the monks
of Whitby Abbey.
The Whitby jet occurs in irregular masses, often of lenticular
shape, embedded in hard shales known as jet-rock. The jet-rock
series belongs to that division of the Upper Lias which is termed
the zone of Ammonites serpentinus. Microscopic examination of
jet occasionally reveals the structure of coniferous wood, which
A. C. Seward has shown to be araucarian. Probably masses of
wood were brought down by a river, and drifted out to sea, where
becoming water-logged they sank, and became gradually buried in
a deposit of fine mud, which eventually hardened into shale. Under
pressure, perhaps assisted by heat, and with exclusion of air, the
wood suffered a peculiar kind of decomposition, probably modified
by the presence of salt water, as suggested by Percy E. Spielmann.
Scales of fish and other fossils of the jet-rock are frequently impreg-
nated with bituminous products, which may replace the original
tissues. Drops of liquid bitumen occur in the cavities of some
fossils, whilst inflammable gas is not uncommon in the jet-workings,
and petroleum may be detected by its smell. Iron pyrites is often
associated with the jet.
Formerly sufficient jet was found in loose pieces on the shore, set
free by the disintegration of the cliffs, or washed up from a submarine
source. When this supply became insufficient, the rock was attacked
by the jet-workers; ultimately the workings took the form of true
mines, levels being driven into the shales not only at their outcrop
in the cliffs but in some of the inland dales of the Yorkshire moor-
lands, such as Eskdale. The best jet has a uniform black colour,
and is hard, compact and homogeneous in texture, breaking with a
conchoidal fracture. It must be tough enough to be readily carved
or turned on the lathe, and sufficiently compact in texture to receive
a high polish. The final polish was formerly given by means of
rouge, which produces a beautiful velvety surface, but rotten-stone
and lampblack are often employed instead. The softer kinds, not
capable of being freely worked, are known as bastard jet. A soft
jet is obtained from the estuarine series of the Lower Oolites of
Yorkshire.
Much jet is imported from Spain, but it is generally less hard and
lustrous than true Whitby jet. In Spain the chief locality is
Villaviciosa, in the province of Asturias. France furnishes jet,
especially in the department of the Aude. Much jet, too, occurs in
the Lias of Wurttemberg, and works have been established for its
utilization. In the United States jet is known at many localities
but is not systematically worked. Pennsylvanian anthracite,
however, has been occasionally employed as a substitute. In like
manner Scotch cannel coal has been sometimes used at Whitby.
Imitations of jet, or substitutes for it, are furnished by vulcanite,
glass, black obsidian and black onyx, or stained chalcedony. Jet
is sometimes improperly termed black amber, because like amber,
though in less degree, it becomes electric by friction.
See P. E. Spielmann, " On the Origin of Jet," Chemical News
xxii. p. 80).
JETHRO (or JETHER, Exod. iv. 18), the priest of Midian, in the
Bible, whose daughter Zipporah became the wife of Moses. He is
known as Hobab the son of Reuel the Kenite (Num. x. 29; Judg.
iv. 1 1), and once as Reuel (Exod. ii. 18); and if Zipporah is the wife
of Moses referred to in Num. xii. i, the family could be regarded
as Cushite (see CUSH). Jethro was the priest of Yahweh, and
resided at the sacred mountain where the deity commissioned
Moses to deliver the Israelites from Egypt. Subsequently
Jethro came to Moses (probably at Kadesh), a great sacrificial
feast was held, and the priest instructed Moses in legislative
procedure; Exod. xviii. 27 (see EXODUS) and Num. x. 30 imply
that the scene was not Sinai. Jethro was invited to accompany
the people into the promised land, and later, we find his clan
settling in the south of Judah (Judg. i. 16); see KENITES. The
traditions agree in representing the kin of Moses as related to
the mixed tribes of the south of Palestine (see EDOM) and in
ascribing to the family an important share in the early develop-
ment of the worship of Yahweh. Cheyne suggests that the
names of Hobab and of Jonadab the father of the Rechabites
(q.v.) were originally identical (Ency. Bib. ii. col. 2101).
^ JETTY. The term jetty, derived from Fr. jetie, and therefore
signifying something " thrown out," is applied to a variety of
structures employed in river, dock and maritime works, which
359
are generally carried out in pairs from river banks, or in continua-
tion of river channels at their outlets into deep water; or out into
docks, and outside their entrances; or for forming basins along
the sea-coast for ports in tideless seas. The forms and construc-
tion of these jetties are as varied as their uses; for though they
invariably extend out into water, and serve either for directing
a current or for accommodating vessels, they are sometimes
formed of high open timber-work, sometimes of low solid pro-
jections, and occasionally only differ from breakwaters in their
object.
Jetties for regulating Rivers.— Formerly jetties of timber-work were
very commonly extended out, opposite one another, from each bank
of a river, at intervals, to contract a wide channel, and by concentra-
tion of the current to produce a deepening of the central channel ; or
sometimes mounds of rubble stone, stretching down the foreshose
from each bank, served the same purpose. As, however, this system
occasioned a greater scour between the ends of the jetties than in
the intervening channels, and consequently produced an irregular
depth, it has to a great extent been superseded by longitudinal
training works, or by dipping cross dikes pointing somewhat up-
stream (see RIVER ENGINEERING).
Jetties at Docks. — Where docks are given sloping sides, openwork
timber jetties are generally carried across the slope, at the ends of
which vessels can lie in deep water (fig. i) ; or more solid structures
FIG. i. — Timber Jetty across Dock Slope.
are erected over the slope for supporting coal-tips. Pilework jetties
are also constructed in the water outside the entrances to docks on
each side, so as to form an enlarging trumpet-shaped channel
between the entrance, lock or tidal basin and the approach channel,
in order to guide vessels in entering or leaving the docks. Solid
jetties, moreover, lined with quay walls, are sometimes carried out
into a wide dock, at right angles to the line of quays at the side, to
enlarge the accommodation ; and they also serve, when extended on
a jarge scale from the coast of a tideless sea under shelter of an out-
lying breakwater, to form the basins in which vessels lie when
discharging and taking in cargoes in such a port as Marseilles (see
DOCK).
Jetties at Entrances to Jetty Harbours. — The approach channel to
some ports situated on sandy coasts is guided and protected across
the beach by parallel jetties, made solid up to a little above low water
of neap tides, on which open timber-work is erected, provided with
a planked platform at the top raised above the highest tides. The
channel between the jetties was originally maintained by tidal scour
from low-lying areas close to the coast, and subsequently by the
current from sluicing basins; but it is now often considerably
deepened by sand-pump dredging. It is protected to some extent
by the solid portion of the jetties from the inroad of sand from the
adjacent beach, and from the levelling action of the waves; whilst
the upper open portion serves to indicate the channel, and to guide
the vessels if necessary (see HARBOUR). The bottom part of the
older jetties, in such long-established jetty ports as Calais, Dunkirk
and Ostend, was composed of clay or rubble stone, covered on the
top by fascine- work or pitching; but the deepening of the jetty
channel by dredging, and the need which arose for its enlargement,
led to the reconstruction of the jetties at these ports. The new
jetties at Dunkirk were founded in the sandy beach, by the aid of
compressed air, at a depth of 22 J ft. below low water of spring
tides; and their solid masonry portion, on a concrete foundation,
was raised 5? ft. above low water of neap tides (fig. 2).
Jetties at Lagoon Outlets. — A small tidal rise spreading tidal water
over a large expanse of lagoon or inland back-water causes the influx
and efflux of the tide to maintain a deep channel through a narrow
outlet; but the issuing current on emerging from the outlet, being
36°
JEVER— JEVEROS
no longer confined by a bank on each side, becomes dispersed, and
owing to the reduction of its scouring force, is no longer able at a
moderate distance from the shore
effectually to resist the action of
the waves and littoral currents
tending to form a continuous beach
in front of the outlet. Hence a
bar is produced which diminishes
the available depth in the ap-
proach channel. By carrying out
a solid jetty over the bar, however,
on each side of the outlet, the tidal
currents are concentrated in the
channel across the bar, and lower it
by scour. Thus the available depth
of the approach channels to Venice
through the Malamocco and Lido
outlets from the Venetian lagoon
have been deepened several feet
over their bars by jetties of rubble
stone surmounted by a small super-
structure (fig. 3), carried out across
the foreshore into deep water on
both sides of the channel. Other examples are provided by the long
jetties extended into the sea in front of the entrance to Charleston
harbour, formerly constructed of fascines, weighted with stone and
__ SEA.
O.8.L.
SCALE aex>.
FIG. 2. — Dunkirk East Jetty.
Riven.
FIG. 3.— Lido Outlet Jetty, Venice.
logs, but subsequently of rubble stone, and by the two converging
rubble jetties carried out from each shore of Dublin bay for deepening
the approach to Dublin harbour.
Jetties at the Outlet of Tideless
Rivers. — Jetties have been con-
structed on each side of the outlet
of some of the rivers flowing into
the Baltic, with the objects of
prolonging the scour of the river
and protecting the channel from
being shoaled by the littoral drift
along the shore. The most inter-
esting application of parallel
jetties is in lowering the bar in
front of one of the mouths of a _
deltaic river flowing into a tide- —
less sea, by extending the scour
of the river out to the bar by
a virtual prolongation of its •
banks. Jetties prolonging the
Sulina branch of the Danube
into the Black Sea, and the
south pass of the Mississippi
into the Gulf of Mexico (fig.
shifting outlet of the river Yare to the south of Yarmouth, and has
also been successfully employed for fixing the wandering mouth of
the Adur near Shoreham, and of the Adour flowing into the Bay of
Biscay below Bayonne. When a new channel was cut across the
Hook of Holland to provide a straighter and deeper outlet channel
for the river Maas, forming the approach channel to Rotterdam, low,
broad, parallel jetties, composed of fascine mattresses weighted with
stone (fig. 5), were carried across the foreshore into the sea on either
side of the new mouth of the river, to protect the jetty channel from
littoral drift, and cause the discharge of the river to maintain it
out to deep water (see RIVER ENGINEERING). The channel, also,
beyond the outlet of the river Nervion into the Bay of Biscay has
SCALE »OO.
FIG. 5. — River Maas Outlet, North Jetty.
been regulated by jetties; and by extending the south-west jetty
out for nearly half a mile with a curve concave towards the channel
the outlet has not only been protected to some extent from the
easterly drift, but the bar in front has been lowered by the scour
produced by the discharge of the river following the concave bend
of the south-west jetty. As the outer portion of this jetty was
exposed to westerly storms from the Bay of Biscay before the outer
harbour was constructed, it has been given the form and strength
of a breakwater situated in shallow water (fig. 6). (L. F. V.-H.)
SOALK
FIG. 6. — River Nervion Outlet, Western Jetty.
RlVCM
SCA.
SCALE foo .
FIG. 4. — Mississippi South Pass
Outlet Jetty.
4), formed of rubble stone
and concrete blocks, and
fascine mattresses weighted
with stone and surmounted
with large concrete blocks
respectively, have enabled the
discharge of these rivers to
scour away the bars ob-
structing the access to them ;
and they have also carried
the sediment-bearing waters
sufficiently far out to come
under the influence of littoral
currents, which, by conveying away some of the sediment, post
pone the eventual formation of a fresh bar farther out (see RIVER
ENGINEERING).
Jetties at the Mouth of Tidal Rivers. — Where a river is narrow near
its mouth, and its discharge is generally feeble, the sea is liable on
an exposed coast, when the tidal range is small, to block up its outlet
during severe storms. The river is thus forced to seek another exit
at a weak spot of the beach, which along a low coast may be at some
distance off; and this new outlet in its turn may be blocked up, so
that the river from time to time shifts the position of its mouth.
This inconvenient cycle of changes may be stopped by fixing the
outlet of the river at a suitable site, by carrying a jetty on each side
of this outlet across the beach, thereby concentrating its discharge
in a definite channel and protecting the mouth from being blocked
up by littoral drift. This system was long ago applied to the
JEVER, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Oldenburg,
13 m. by rail N.W. of Wilhelmshaven, and connected with the
North Sea by a navigable canal. Pop. (1901), 5486. The chief
industries are weaving, spinning, dyeing, brewing and milling;
there is also a trade in horses and cattle. The fathers (Die
Getreuen) of the town used to send an annual birthday present
of 101 plovers' eggs to Bismarck, with a dedication in verse.
The castle of Jever was built by Prince Edo Wiemken (d. 1410),
the ruler of Jeverland, a populous district which in 1575 came
under the rule of the dukes of Oldenburg. In 1603 it passed to
the house of Anhalt and was later the property of the empress
Catherine II. of Russia, a member of this family. In 1814 it came
again into the possession of Oldenburg.
See D. Hphnholz, Aus Jevers Vorgangenheit (Jever, 1886); Hagena,
Jeverland bis zum Jahr 1500 (Oldenburg, 1902) ; and F. W. Riemann,
Gesckichte des Jeverlandes (Jever, 1896).
JEVEROS (JEBEROS, JIBAROS, JIVAROS or GIVAROS), a tribe of
South American Indians on the upper Maranon, Peru, where
they wander in the forests. The tribe has many branches and
there are frequent tribal wars, but they have always united
against a common enemy. Juan de Velasco declares them to be
faithful, noble and amiable. They are brave and warlike, and
JEVONS
361
though upon the conquest of Peru they temporarily submitted,
a general insurrection in 1599 won them back their liberty.
Curious dried human heads, supposed to have been objects of
worship, have been found among the Jeveros (see Ethnol. Soc.
Trans. 1862, W. Bollaert).
JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY (1835-1882), English econo-
mist and logician, was born at Liverpool on the ist of September
1835. His father, Thomas Jevons, a man of strong scientific
tastes and a writer on legal and economic subjects, was an iron
merchant. His mother was the daughter of William Roscoe. At
the age of fifteen he was sent to London to attend University
College school. He appears at this time to have already formed
the belief that important achievements as a thinker were possible
to him, and at more than one critical period in his career this
belief was the decisive factor in determining his conduct. To-
wards the end of 1853, after having spent two years at University
College, where his favourite subjects were chemistry and botany,
he unexpectedly received the offer of the assayership to the new
mint in Australia. The idea of leaving England was distasteful,
but pecuniary considerations had, in consequence of the failure
of his father's firm in 1847, become of vital importance, and he
accepted the post. He left England for Sydney in June 1854,
and remained there for five years. At the end of that period he
resigned his appointment, and in the autumn of 1859 entered
again as a student at University College, London, proceeding in
due course to the B.A. and M.A. degrees of the university of
London. He now gave his principal attention to the moral
sciences, but his interest in natural science was by no means
exhausted: throughout his life he continued to write occasional
papers on scientific subjects, and his intimate knowledge of the
physical sciences greatly contributed to the success of his chief
logical work, The Principles of Science. Not long after taking
his M.A. degree Jevons obtained a post as tutor at Owens College,
Manchester. In 1 866 he was elected professor of logic and mental
and moral philosophy and Cobden professor of political economy
in Owens college. Next year he married Harriet Ann Taylor,
whose father had been the founder and proprietor of the Man-
chester Guardian. Jevons suffered a good deal from ill health
and sleeplessness, and found the delivery of lectures covering
so wide a range of subjects very burdensome. In 1876 he was
glad to exchange the Owens professorship for the professorship
of political economy in University College, London. Travelling
and music were the principal recreations of his life; but his health
continued bad, and he suffered from depression. He found his
professorial duties increasingly irksome, and feeling that the
pressure of literary work left him no spare energy, he decided in
1880 to resign the post. On the I3th of August 1882 he was
drowned whilst bathing near Hastings. Throughout his life he
had pursued with devotion and industry the ideals with which
he had set out, and his journal and letters display a noble sim-
plicity of disposition and an unswerving honesty of purpose.
He was a prolific writer, and at the time of his death he occupied
the foremost position in England both as a logician and as an
economist. Professor Marshall has said of his work in economics
that it " will probably be found to have more constructive force
than any, save that of Ricardo, that has been done during the
last hundred years." At the time of his death he was engaged
upon an economic work that promised to be at least as important
as any that he had previously undertaken. It would be difficult
to exaggerate the loss which logic and poh'tical economy sustained
through the accident by which his life was prematurely cut short.
Jevons arrived quite early in his career at the doctrines that
constituted his most characteristic and original contributions to
economics and logic. The theory of utility, which became the
keynote of his general theory of political economy, was practi-
cally formulated in a letter written in 1860; and the germ of his
logical principles of the substitution of similars may be found in
the view which he propounded in another letter written in 1861,
that " philosophy would be found to consist solely in pointing
out the likeness of things." The theory of utility above referred
to, namely, that the degree of utility of a commodity is some
continuous mathematical function of the quantity of the com-
modity available, together with the implied doctrine that
economics is essentially a mathematical science, took more
definite form in a paper on " A General Mathematical Theory of
Political Economy," written for the British Association in 1862.
This paper does not appear to have attracted much attention
either in 1862 or on its publication four years later in the Journal
of the Statistical Society; and it was not till 1871, when the Theory
of Political Economy appeared, that Jevons set forth his doctrines
in a fully developed form. It was not till after the publication
of this work that Jevons became acquainted with the applications
of mathematics to political economy made by earlier writers,
notably Antoine Augustin Cournot and H. H. Gossen. The
theory of utility was about 1870 being independently developed
on somewhat similar lines by Carl Menger in Austria and M.E.L.
Walras in Switzerland. As regards the discovery of the con-
nexion between value in exchange and final (or marginal) utility,
the priority belongs to Gossen, but this in no way detracts from
the great importance of the service which Jevons rendered to
English economics by his fresh discovery of the principle, and
by the way in which he ultimately forced it into notice. In his
reaction from the prevailing view he sometimes expressed himself
without due qualification: the declaration, for instance, made
at the commencement of the Theory of Political Economy, that
" value depends entirely upon utility," lent itself to misinter-
pretation. But a certain exaggeration of emphasis may be
pardoned in a writer seeking to attract the attention of an in-
different public. It was not, however, as a theorist dealing with
the fundamental data of economic science, but as a brilliant
writer on practical economic questions, that Jevons first received
general recognition. A Serious Fall in the Value of Gold (1863) and
The Coal Question (1865) placed him in the front rank as a writer
on applied economics and statistics; and he would be remembered
as one of the leading economists of the igth century even had
his Theory of Political Economy never been written. Amongst
his economic works may be mentioned Money and the Mechanism
of Exchange (1875), written in a popular style, and descriptive
rather than theoretical, but wonderfully fresh and original in
treatment and full of suggestiveness, a Primer on Political
Economy (1878), The State in Relation to Labour (1882), and two
works published after his death, namely, Methods of Social Reform
and Investigations in Currency and Finance, containing papers that
had appeared separately during his lifetime. The last-named
volume contains Jevons's interesting speculations on the con-
nexion between commercial crises and sun-spots. He was
engaged at the time of his death upon the preparation of a large
treatise on economics and had drawn up a table of contents and
completed some chapters and parts of chapters. This fragment
was published in 1905 under the title of The Principles of Eco-
nomics: a Fragment of a Treatise on the Industrial Mechanism of
Society, and other Papers.
Jevons's work in logic went on pari passu with his work
in political economy. In 1864 he published a small volume,
entitled Pure Logic; or, the Logic of Quality apart from Quantity,
which was based on Boole's system of logic, but freed from what
he considered the false mathematical dress of that system. In
the years immediately following he devoted considerable atten-
tion to the construction of a logical machine, exhibited before the
Royal Society in 1870, by means of which the conclusion deriv-
able from any given set of premisses could be mechanically
obtained. In 1866 what he regarded as the great and universal
principle of all reasoning dawned upon him; and in 1869 he
published a sketch of this fundamental doctrine under the title
of The Substitution of Similars. He expressed the principle in its
simplest form as follows: "Whatever is true of a thing Is true of
its like," and he worked out in detail its various applications.
In the following year appeared the Elementary Lessons on Logic,
which soon became the most widely read elementary textbook
on logic in the English language. In the meantime he was
engaged upon a much more important logical treatise, which
appeared in 1874 under the title of The Principles of Science.
In this work Jevons embodied the substance of his earlier works
on pure logic and the substitution of similars; he also enunciated
362
JEW, THE WANDERING
and developed the view that induction is simply an inverse
employment of deduction; he treated in a luminous manner the
general theory of probability, and the relation between proba-
bility and induction; and his knowledge of the various natural
sciences enabled him throughout to relieve the abstract character
of logical doctrine by concrete scientific illustrations, often
worked out in great detail. Jevons's general theory of induction
was a revival of the theory laid down by Whewell and criticized
by Mill; but it was put in a new form, and was free from -some
of the non-essential adjuncts which rendered Whewell's exposi-
tion open to attack. The work as a whole was one of the most
notable contributions to logical doctrine that appeared in Great
Britain in the iglh century. His Studies in Deductive Logic,
consisting mainly of exercises and problems for the use of
students, was published in 1880. In 1877 and the following years
Jevons contributed to the Contemporary Review some articles
on J. S. Mill, which he had intended to supplement by further
articles, and eventually publish in a volume as a criticism of
Mill's philosophy. These articles and one other were republished
after Jevons's death, together with his earlier logical treatises, in
a volume, entitled Pure Logic, and other Minor Works. The criti-
cisms on Mill contain much that is ingenious and much that is
forcible, but on the whole they cannot be regarded as taking rank
with Jevons's other work. His strength lay in his power as an
original thinker rather than as a critic; and he will be remembered
by his constructive work as logician, economist and statistician.
See Letters and Journal of W. Stanley Jevons, edited by his wife
(1886). This work contains a bibliography of Jevons's writings.
See also LOGIC: History. (J. N. K.)
JEW, THE WANDERING, a legendary Jew (see JEWS) doomed
to wander till the second coming of Christ because he had taunted
Jesus as he passed bearing the cross, saying, " Go on quicker."
Jesus is said to have replied, " I go, but thou shall wait till I
return." The legend in this form first appeared in a pamphlet
of four leaves alleged to have been printed at Leiden in 1602.
This pamphlet relates that Paulus von Eizen (d. 1598), bishop
of Schleswig, had met at Hamburg in 1542 a Jew named Ahas-
uerus (Ahasverus), who declared he was " eternal " and was the
same who had been punished in the above-mentioned manner by
Jesus at the time of the crucifixion. The pamphlet is supposed
to have been written by Chrysostomus Dudulaeus of Westphalia
and printed by one Christoff Crutzer, but as no such author or
printer is known at this time — the latter name indeed refers
directly to the legend — it has been conjectured that the whole
story is a myth invented to support the Protestant contention
of a continuous witness to the truth of Holy Writ in the person
of this " eternal " Jew; he was to form, in his way, a counterpart
to the apostolic tradition of the Catholic Church.
The story met with ready acceptance and popularity. Eight
editions of the pamphlet appeared in 1602, and the fortieth
edition before the end of the following century. It was translated
into Dutch and Flemish with almost equal success. The first
French edition appeared in 1609, and the story was known in
England before 1625, when a parody was produced. Denmark
and Sweden followed suit with translations, and the expression
" eternal Jew " passed as a current term into Czech. In other
words, the story in its usual form spread wherever there was a
tincture of Protestantism. In southern Europe little is heard
of it in this version, though Rudolph Botoreus, parliamentary
advocate of Paris (Comm. histor., 1604), writing in Paris two
years after its first appearance, speaks contemptuously of the
popular belief in the Wandering Jew in Germany, Spain and
Italy.
The popularity of the pamphlet and its translations soon led
to reports of the appearance of this mysterious being in almost
all parts of the civilized world. Besides the original meeting of
the bishop and Ahasuerus in 1 542 and others referred back to
1575 in Spain and 1599 at Vienna, the Wandering Jew was stated
to have appeared at Prague (1602), at Lubeck (1603), in Bavaria
1604), at Ypres (1623), Brussels (1640), Leipzig (1642), Paris
(1644, by the " Turkish Spy "), Stamford (1658), Astrakhan
(1672), and Frankenstein (1678). In the next century the
Wandering Jew was seen at Munich (1721), Altbach (1766),
Brussels (1774), Newcastle (1790, see Brand, Pop. Antiquities,
s.v.), and on the streets of London between 1818 and 1830 (see
Athenaeum, 1866, ii. 561). So far as can be ascertained, the
latest report of his appearance was in the neighbourhood of Salt
Lake City in 1868, when he is said to have made himself known
to a Mormon named O'Grady. It is difficult to tell in any one
of these cases how far the story is an entire fiction and how far
some ingenious impostor took advantage of the existence of the
myth.
The reiterated reports of the actual existence of a wandering
being, who retained in his memory the details of the crucifixion,
show how the idea had fixed itself in popular imagination and
found its way into the 19th-century collections of German legends.
The two ideas combined in the story of the restless fugitive akin
to Cain and wandering for ever are separately represented in the
current names given to this figure in different countries. In
most Teutonic languages the stress is laid on the perpetual
character of his punishment and he is known as the " everlast-
ing, " or " eternal " Jew (Ger. " Ewige Jude "). In the lands
speaking a Romance tongue, the usual form has reference to the
wanderings (Fr. " le Juif errant "). The English form follows
the Romance analogy, possibly because derived directly from
France. The actual name given to the mysterious Jew varies
in the different versions: the original pamphlet calls him Ahasver,
and this has been followed in most of the literary versions,
though it is difficult to imagine any Jew being called by the name
of the typical anti-Semitic king of the Book of Esther. In one of
his appearances at Brussels his name is given as Isaac Laque-
dem, implying an imperfect knowledge of Hebrew in an attempt
to represent Isaac " from of old." Alexandre Dumas also made
use of this title. In the Turkish Spy the Wandering Jew is called
Paul Marrane and is supposed to have suffered persecution at the
hands of the Inquisition, which was mainly occupied in dealing
with the Marranos, i.e. the secret Jews of the Iberian peninsula.
In the few references to the legend in Spanish writings the
Wandering Jew is called Juan Espera en Dios, which gives a
more hopeful turn to the legend.
Under other names, a story very similar to that given in the
pamphlet of 1602 occurs nearly 400 years earlier on English soil.
According to Roger of Wcndover in his Flares historiarum under
the year 1228, an Armenian archbishop, then visiting England,
was asked by the monks of St Albans about the well-known
Joseph of Arimathaea, who had spoken to Jesus and was said to
be still alive. The archbishop claimed to have seen him in
Armenia under the name of Carthaphilus or Cartaphilus, who had
confessed that he had taunted Jesus in the manner above related.
This Carthaphilus had afterwards been baptized by the name of
Joseph. Matthew Paris, in repeating the passage from Roger of
Wendovcr, reported that other Armenians had confirmed the
story on visiting St Albans in 1252, and regarded it as a great
proof of the Christian religion. A similar account is given in the
chronicles of Philippe Mouskes (d. 1243). A variant of the same
story was known to Guido Bonati, an astronomer quoted by
Dante, who calls his hero or villain Butta Deus because he struck
Jesus. Under this name he is said to have appeared at Mugello
in 1413 and at Bologna in 1415 (in the garb of a Franciscan of the
third order).
The source of all these reports of an ever-living witness of the
crucifixion is probably Matthew xvi. 28: " There be some of
them that stand here which shall in no wise taste of death till
they see the Son of Man coming in his kingdom." As the
kingdom had not come, it was assumed that there must be
persons living who had been present at the crucifixion; the same
reasoning is at the root of the Anglo-Israel belief. These words
are indeed quoted in the pamphlet of 1602. Again, a legend was
based on John xxi. 20 that the beloved disciple would not die
before the second coming; while another legend (current in the
i6th century) condemned Malchus, whose ear Peter cut off in the
garden of Gethsemane (John xvii. 10), to wander perpetually
till the second coming. The legend alleges that he had been so
condemned for having scoffed at Jesus. These legends and the
JEWEL
363
utterance of Matt. xvi. 28 became "contaminated" by the
legend of St Joseph of Arimathaea and the Holy Grail, and took
the form given in Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris. But
there is nothing to show the spread of this story among the people
before the pamphlet of 1602, and it is difficult to see how this
Carthaphilus could have given rise to the legend of the Wander-
ing Jew, since he is not a Jew nor does he wander. The author
of 1602 was probably acquainted either directly or indirectly
with the story as given by Matthew Paris, since he gives almost
the same account. But he gives a new name to his hero and
directly connects his fate with Matt. xvi. 28.
Moncure D. Conway (Ency. Brit., pth ed., xiii. 673) attempted
to connect the legend of the Wandering Jew with a whole series
of myths relating to never-dying heroes like King Arthur,
Frederick Barbarossa, the Seven Sleepers, and Thomas the
Rhymer, not to speak of Rip Van Winkle. He goes even farther
and connects our legend with mortals visiting earth, as the Yima
in Parsism, and the " Ancient of Days " in the Books of Daniel
and Enoch, and further connects the legend with the whole
medieval tendency to regard the Jew as something uncanny and
mysterious. But all these mythological explanations are super-
erogatory, since the actual legend in question can be definitely
traced to the pamphlet of 1602. The same remark applies to
the identification with the Mahommedan legend of the " eternal "
Chadhir proposed by M. Lidzbarski (Zeit.f. Assyr. vii. 116) and
I. Friedlander (Arch.f. Religionswiss. xiii. no).
This combination of eternal punishment with restless wandering
has attracted the imagination of innumerable writers in almost
all European tongues. The Wandering Jew has been regarded
as a symbolic figure representing the wanderings and sufferings
of his race. The Germans have been especially attracted by
the legend, which has been made the subject of poems by
Schubart, Schreiber, W. Miiller, Lenau, Chamisso, Schlegel,
Mosen and Koehler, from which enumeration it will be seen that
it was a particularly favourite subject with the Romantic school.
They were perhaps influenced by the example of Goethe, who
in his Autobiography describes, at considerable length, the plan of
a poem he had designed on the Wandering Jew. More recently
poems have been composed on the subject in German by Adolf
Wilbrandt, Fritz Lienhard and others; in English by Robert
Buchanan, and in Dutch by H. Heijermans. German novels also
exist on the subject, by Franz Horn, Oeklers, Laun and Schuck-
ing, tragedies by Klinemann, Haushofer and Zedlitz. Sigismund
Heller wrote three cantos on the wanderings of Ahasuerus, while
Hans Andersen made of him an " Angel of Doubt." Robert
Hamerling even identifies Nero with the Wandering Jew. In
France, E. Quinet published a prose epic on the subject in 1833,
and Eugene Sue, in his best-known work, Le Juif errant (1844),
introduces the Wandering Jew in the prologues of its different
sections and associates him with the legend of Herodias. In
modern times the subject has been made still more popular by
Gustave Dore's elaborate designs (1856), containing some of his
most striking and imaginative work. Thus, probably, he sug-
gested Grenier's poem on the subject (1857).
In England, besides the ballads in Percy's Reliques, William
Godwin introduced the idea of an eternal witness of the course
of civilization in his St Leon (1799), and his son-in-law Shelley
introduces Ahasuerus in his Queen Mab. It is doubtful how far
Swift derived his idea of the immortal Struldbrugs from the notion
of the Wandering Jew. George Croly's Salathiel, which appeared
anonymously in 1828, gave a highly elaborate turn to the legend;
this has been re-published under the title Tarry Thou Till I Come.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. G. Th. Graesse, Die Sage vom ewigen Juden
(1844); F. Helbig, Die Sage vom ewigen Juden (1874); G. Paris, Le
Juif errant (1881); M. D. Conway, The Wandering Jew (1881);
S. Morpugo, L' Ebreo errante in Italia (1891); L. Neubaur, Die
Sage vom ewigen Juden (2nd ed., 1893). The recent literary handling
of the subject has been dealt with by J. Prost, Die Sage vom ewigen
Juden in der neueren deutschen Literatur (1905); T. Kappstein,
Ahasver in der Weltpoesie (1905). (J. JA.)
JEWEL, JOHN (1522-1571), bishop of Salisbury, son of John
Jewel of Buden, Devonshire, was born on the 24th of May 1522,
and educated under his uncle John Bellamy, rector of Hampton,
and other private tutors until his matriculation at Merton
college, Oxford, in July 1535. There he was taught by John
Parkhurst, afterwards bishop of Norwich; but on the igth of
August 1539 he was elected scholar of Corpus Christi college.
He graduated B.A. in 1540, and M.A. in 1545, having been
elected fellow of his college in 1542; He made some mark as
a teacher at Oxford, and became after 1547 one of the chief
disciples of Peter Martyr. He graduated B.D. in 1552, and was
made vicar of Sunningwell, and public orator of the university,
in which capacity he had to compose a congratulatory epistle to
Mary on her accession. In April 1554 he acted as notary to
Cranmer and Ridley at their disputation, but in the autumn he
signed a series of Catholic articles. He was, nevertheless, sus-
pected, fled to London, and thence to Frankfort, which he
reached in March 1555. There he sided with Coxe against
Knox, but soon joined Martyr at Strassburg, accompanied him
to Zurich, and then paid a visit to Padua.
Under Elizabeth's succession he returned to England, and made
earnest efforts to secure what would now be called a low-church
settlement of religion. Indeed, his attitude was hardly dis-
tinguishable from that of the Elizabethan Puritans, but he
gradually modified it under the stress of office and responsibility.
He was one of the disputants selected to confute the Romanists
at the conference of Westminster after Easter 1559; he was select
preacher at St Paul's cross on the I5th of June; and in the
autumn was engaged as one of the royal visitors of the western
counties. His conge d'elire as bishop of Salisbury had been made
out on the 27th of July, but he was not consecrated until the
2ist of January 1560. He now constituted himself the literary
apologist of the Elizabethan settlement. He had on the 26th of
November 1559, in a sermon at St Paul's Cross, challenged all
comers to prove the Roman case out of the Scriptures, or the
councils or Fathers for the first six hundred years after Christ.
He repeated his challenge in 1560, and Dr Henry Cole took it up.
The chief result was Jewel's Apologia ecclesiae Anglicanae,
published in 1562, which in Bishop Creighton's words is " the
first methodical statement of the position of the Church of
England against the Church of Rome, and forms the ground-
work of all subsequent controversy." A more formidable
antagonist than Cole now entered the lists in the person of Thomas
Harding, an Oxford contemporary whom Jewel had deprived of
his prebend in Salisbury Cathedral for recusancy. He published
an elaborate and bitter Answer in 1564, to which Jewel issued a
Reply in 1565. Harding followed with a Confutation, and Jewel
with a Defence, of the Apology in 1566 and 1567; the combatants
ranged over the whole field of the Anglo-Roman controversy, and
Jewel's theology was officially enjoined upon the Church by
Archbishop Bancroft in the reign of James I. Latterly Jewel
had been confronted with criticism from a different quarter.
The arguments that had weaned him from his Zwinglian sim-
plicity did not satisfy his unpromoted brethren, and Jewel had
to refuse admission to a benefice to his friend Laurence Humphrey
(q.v.), who would not wear a surplice. He was consulted a good
deal by the government on such questions as England's aftitude
towards the council of Trent, and political considerations made
him more and more hostile to Puritan demands with which he
had previously sympathized. He wrote an attack on Cart-
wright, which was published after his death by Whitgift. He
died on the 23rd of September 1571, and was buried in Salisbury
Cathedral, where he had built a library. Hooker, who speaks
of Jewel as " the worthiest divine that Christendom hath bred
for some hundreds of years," was one of the boys whom Jewel
prepared in his house for the university; and his Ecclesiastical
Polity owes much to Jewel's training.
Jewel's works were published in'a folio in 1609 under the direction
of Bancroft, who ordered the Apology to be placed in churches, in
some of which it may still be seen chained to the lectern; other
editions appeared at Oxford (1848, 8 vols.) and Cambridge (Parker
Soc., 4 vols.). See also Cough's Index to Parker Soc. Publ. ; Strype's
Works (General Index); Acts of the Privy Council; Calendars of
Domestic and Spanish State Papers; Dixon's and Frere's Church
Histories; and Dictionary of National Biography (art. by Bishop
Creighton). (A. F. P.)
364
JEWELRY
JEWELRY (O. Fr. jouel, Fr. joyau, perhaps from joie, joy;
Lat. gaudium; retranslated into Low Lat. jocale, a toy, from
jocus, by misapprehension of the origin of the word), a collective
term for jewels, or the art connected with them — jewels being
personal ornaments, usually made of gems, precious stones, &c.,
with a setting of precious metal; in a restricted sense it is also
common to speak of a gem-stone itself as a jewel, when utilized
in this way. Personal ornaments appear to have been among
the very first objects on which the invention and ingenuity of
man were exercised ; and there is no record of any people so rude
as not to employ some kind of personal decoration. Natural
objects, such as small shells, dried berries, small perforated
stones, feathers of variegated colours, were combined by stringing
or tying together to ornament the head, neck, arms and legs, the
fingers, and even the toes, whilst the cartilages of the nose and
ears were frequently perforated for the more ready suspension
of suitable ornaments.
Amongst modern Oriental nations we find almost every kind
of personal decoration, from the simple caste mark on the fore-
head of the Hindu to the gorgeous examples of beaten gold and
silver work of the various cities and provinces of India. Nor
are such decorations mere ornaments without use or meaning.
The hook with its corresponding perforation or eye, the clasp,
the buckle, the button, grew step by step into a special ornament,
according to the rank, means, taste and wants of the wearer, or
became an evidence of the dignity of office. Nor was the jewel
deemed to have served its purpose with the death of its owner,
for it is to the tombs of ancient peoples that we must look for
evidence of the early existence of the jeweller's art.
The jewelry of the ancient Egyptians has been preserved for
us in their tombs, sometimes in, and sometimes near the sarco-
phagi which contained the embalmed bodies of the wearers.
An amazing series of finds of the intact jewels of five princesses
of the Xllth Dynasty (c. 2400 B.C.) was the result of the excava-
tions of J. de Morgan at Dahshur in 1894-1895. The treasure
of Princess Hathor-Set contained jewels with the names of
Senwosri (Usertesen) II. and III., one of whom was probably her
father. The treasure of Princess Merit contained the names of
the same two monarchs, and also that of Amenemhe III., to
whose family Princess Nebhotp may have belonged. The two
remaining princesses were Ita and Khnumit.
FIG. i.
The art of the nameless Memphite jewellers of the Xllth Dynasty
is marked by perfect accuracy of execution, by sureness of intention,
by decorative instinct and sobriety in design, and by the service-
able nature of the jewels for actual wear. All forms of work are
represented — including chiselling, soldering, inlaying with coloured
stones, moulding and working with twisted wires and filigree.
Here also occurs the earliest instance of granulated work, with small
grains of gold, soldered on a flat surface (fig. l). The principal
items in this dazzling group are the following; Three gold pectorals
(fig. 2 and Plate I. figs. 35, 36) worked d, jour (with the interstices
left open) ; on the front side they are inlaid with coloured stones, the
fine cloisons being the only portion of the gold that is visible ; on the
back, the gold surfaces are most delicately carved, in low relief.
Two gold crowns (Plate I. figs. 32, 34), found together, are curiously
contrasted in character. The one (fig. 32) is of a formal design, of
gold, inlaid (the plume, Plate I. fig 33, was attached to it) ; the other
(fig. 34) has a multitude of star-like flowers, embodied in a filigree
of daintily twisted wires. A dagger with inlaid patterns on the
handle shows extraordinary perfection of finish.
FIG. 2.
Nearly a thousand years later we have another remarkable
collection of Egyptian art in the jewelry taken from the coffin of
Queen Aah-hotp, discovered in 1859 by Mariette in the entrance
to the valley of the tombs of the kings and now preserved in
the Cairo museum. Compared with the Dahshur treasure the
jewelry of Aah-hotp is in parts rough and coarse, but none the
less it is marked by the ingenuity and mastery of the materials
that characterize all the work of the Egyptians. Hammered
work, incised and chased work, the evidence of soldering, the
combinations of layers of gold plates, together with coloured
stones, are all present, and the handicraft is complete in every
respect.
A diadem of gold and
enamel, found at the back
of the head of the mummy
of the queen (fig. 3), was
fixed in the back hair, show-
ing the cartouche in front.
The box holding this car-
touche has on the upper
surface the titles of the
king, " the son of the sun,
Aahmes, living for ever and
ever," in gold on a ground
of lapis lazuli, with a
chequered ornament in bjue
and red pastes, and a sphinx pIG. 3.
couchant on each side. A
necklace with three pendant flies (fig. 4) is entirely of gold, having
a hook and loop to fasten it round the neck. Fig. 5 is a gold drop,
inlaid with turquoise or blue paste, in the shape of a fig. A gold
FIG. 4.
FIG. 5.
JEWELRY
365
chain (fig. 6) is formed of wires closely plaited and very flexible,
the ends terminating in the heads of water fowl, and having small
rings to secure the collar behind. To the centre is suspended by a
FIG. 6.
small ring a scarabaeus of solid gold inlaid with lapis lazuli. We
have an example of a bracelet, similar to those in modern use (fig. 7),
FIG. 7.
FIG. 8.
and worn by all persons of rank. It is formed of two pieces joined
by a hinge, and is decorated with figures in repouss6 on a ground
inlaid with lapis lazuli.
That the Assyrians used personal decorations of a very dis-
tinct character, and no doubt made of precious materials, is
proved by the bas-re-
liefs from which a con-
siderable collection of
jewels could be gather-
ed, such as bracelets,
ear-rings and necklaces.
Thus, for example, in
the British Museum
we have representa-
tions of Assur-nazir-
pal, king of Assyria
(c. 885-860 B.C.), wear-
ing a cross (fig. 8) very
similar to the Maltese
cross of modern times.
It happens, however,
that the excavations
have not hitherto been
fertile in actual re-
mains of gold work
from Assyria. Chance
also has so far ordained
that the excavations
in Crete should not be
particularly rich in
ornaments of gold. A
few isolated objects have been found, such as a duck and
other pendants, and also several necklaces with beads of
the Argonaut shell-fish pattern. More striking than these is a
short bronze sword. The handle has an agate pommel, and is
covered with gold plates, engraved with spirited scenes of lions
and wild goats (fig. 9, A. J. Evans in Archaeologia, 59, 447).
In general, however, the gold jewelry of the later Minoan periods
is more brilliantly represented by the finds made on the main-
land of Greece and at Enkomi in Cyprus. Among the former
the gold ornaments found by Heinrich Schliemann in the graves
of Mycenae are pre-eminent.
The objects found ranged over most of the personal ornaments
still in use; necklaces with gold beads and pendants, butterflies
(fig. 10), cuttlefish (fig. n), single and concentric circles, rosettes
and leafage, with perforations for attachment to clothing, crosses
FIG. 9. — From Archaeologia, vol. 59,
p. 447, by permission of the Society of
Antiquaries of London.
and stars formed of combined crosses, with crosses in the centre
forming spikes — all elaborately ornamented in detail. The spiral
forms an incessant decoration from its facile production and repeti-
tion by means of twisted gold wire. Grasshoppers or tree crickets
in gold repousse1 suspended by chains and orobably used for the
FIG. 10.
FIG. n.
decoration of the hair, and a griffin (fig. 12), having the upper part
of the body of an eagle and the lower parts of a lion, with wings
decorated with spirals, are among the more remarkable examples
of perforated ornaments for
attachment to the clothing.
There are also perforated
ornaments belonging to neck-
laces, with intaglio engravings,
of such subjects as a contest"
of a man and lion, and a duel
of two warriors, one of whom pIG
stabs his antagonist in the
throat. There are also, pinheads and brooches formed of two
stags lying down (fig. 13), the bodies and necks crossing each other,
and the horns meeting symmetrically above the heads, forming a finial.
The heads of these ornaments were of gold,
with silver blades or pointed pins inserted for
use. The bodies of the two stags rest on
fronds of the date-palm growing out of the stem
which receives the pin. Another remarkable
series is composed of figures of women with
doves. Some have one dove resting on the
head; others have three doves, one on the
head and the others resting on arms. The
arms in both instances are extended to the
elbow, the hands being placed on the breasts.
These ornaments are also perforated, and
were evidently sewed on the dresses, although
there is some evidence that an example with
three doves has been fastened with a pin.
An extraordinary diadem was found upon the head of one of the
bodies discovered in the same tomb with many objects similar to
those noticed above. It is 25 in. in length, covered with shield-like
or rosette ornaments in repousse1, the relief being very low but per-
fectly distinct, and further ornamented by thirty-six large leaves of
repouss^ gold attached to it. As an example of design and perfec-
tion of detail, another smaller diadem found in another tomb may be
noted (fig. 14). It is of gold plate, so thick as to require no " piping "
FIG. 13.
FIG. 14.
at the back to sustain it ; but in general the repousse1 examples have
a piping of copper wire.
The admirable inlaid daggers of the IVth grave at Mycenae are
unique in their kind, with their subjects of a lion hunt, of a lion
chasing a herd of antelopes, of running lions, of cats hunting wild
duck, of inlaid lilies, and of geometric patterns. The subjects are
inlaid in gold of various tints, and silver, in bronze plates which are
inserted in the flat surfaces of the dagger-blades. In part also the
subjects are rendered in relief and gilded. The whole is executed
with marvellous precision and vivid representation of motion. To a
certain limited extent these daggers are paralleled by a dagger and
hatchet found in the treasure of Queen Aah-hotp mentioned above,
but in their most characteristic features there is little resemblance.
The gold ornaments found by Schliemann at Hissarlik, the supposed
site of Troy, divide themselves, generally speaking, into two groups,
one being the " great treasure " of diadems, ear-rings, beads, brace-
lets, &c., which seem the product of a local and uncultured art.
The other group, which were found in smaller " treasures," have
spirals and rosettes similar to those of Mycenae. The discovery,
however, of the gold treasures of the Artemision at Ephesus has
brought out points of affinity between the Hissarlik treasures and
those of Ephesus, and has made any reasoning difficult, in view_of
the uncertainties surrounding the Hissarlik finds. The group witk
366
JEWELRY
Mycenaean affinities (fig. 15) includes necklaces, brooches, bracelets
(g), hair-pins (a), ear-rings (c, d, e, f), with and without pendants,
beads and twisted wire drops. The majority of these are ornamented
with spirals of twisted wire, or small rosettes, with fragments of
stones in the centres. The twisted wire ornaments were evidently
portions of necklaces. A circular plaque decorated with a rosette
Fig. 51 (Plate I.)
,. 52
„ 53
FIG. 15.
(h) is very similar to those found at Mycenae, and a conventionalized
eagle (k) is characteristic of much of the detail found at that place
as well as at Hissarlik. They were all of pure gold, and the wire
must have been drawn through a plate of harder metal — probably
bronze. The principal ornaments differing from those found at
Mycenae are diadems or head fillets of pure hammered gold (b)
cut into thin plates, attached to rings by double gold wires, and
fastened together at the back with thin twisted wire. To these
pendants (of which those at the two ends are nearly three times the
length of those forming the central portions) are attached small
figures, probably of idols. It has been assumed that these were
worn across the forehead by women, the long pendants falling on
each side of the face.
The jewelry of the close of the Mycenaean period is best
represented by the rich finds of the cemetery of Enkomi near
Salamis, in Cyprus. This field was excavated by the British
Museum in 1896, and a considerable portion of the finds is
now at Bloomsbury. It was rich in all forms of jewelry, but
especially in pins, rings and diadems with patterns in relief. In
its geometric patterns the art of Enkomi is entirely Mycenaean,
but special stress is laid on the mythical forms that were in-
herited by Greek art, such as the sphinx and the gryphon.
Figs. 37~48 (Plate I.) are examples of the late Mycenaean
treasures from Enkomi.
ii 37i 38 „ Ear-rings.
„ 39 „ Diadem, to be tied on the forehead. The
impressed figure of a sphinx is repeated
twelve times.
„ 40, 41, 46 ,, Ear-rings, originally in bull's head form
(fig. 40). Later, the same general form
is retained, but decorative patterns (figs.
41 , 46) take the place of the bull's head.
„ 42 „ Pin, probably connected by a chain with a
fellow, to be used as a cloak fastening.
„ 43 ,, Pomegranate pendant, with fine granulated
work.
„ 44, 45 „ Pins as No. 42. The heads are of vitreous
paste.
., 46 (See above.)
., 47 ii Pendant ornament, in lotus-form, of a
pectoral, inlaid with coloured pastes.
„ 48 „ Small slate cylinder, set in filigree.
Another find of importance was that of a collection of gold
ornaments from one of the Greek islands (said to be Aegina)
which also found its way to the British Museum. Here we
find the themes of archaic Greek art, such as a figure holding up
two water-birds, in immediate connexion with Mycenaean gold
patterns.
Figs. 49-53 (Plate I.) are specimens from this treasure.
„ 49 „ Plate with repouss6 ornament for sewing on
a dress.
» 50 „ Pendant. Figure with two water-birds, on
a lotus base, and having serpents issuing
from near his middle, modified from
Egyptian forms.
Ring, with cut blue glass-pastes in the
grooves.
Pendant ornament, repouss6, and originally
inlaid with pieces of cut glass-paste.
Pendant ornament, with dogs and apes,
modified from Egyptian forms.
For the beginnings of
Greek art proper, the
most striking series of
personal jewels is the
great deposit of orna-
ments which was found
in 1905 by D. G. Hogarth
in the soil beneath the
central basis of the ar-
chaic temple of Artemis
of Ephesus. The gold
ornaments in question
(amounting in all to about
1000 pieces) were mingled
with the closely packed
earth, and must neces-
sarily, it would seem, have
been in the nature of vo-
tive offerings, made at the end of the 7th or the beginning of the
6th century B.C. The hoard was rich in pins, brooches, beads and
stamped disks of gold. The greater part of the find is at Con-
stantinople, but a portion was assigned to the British Museum,
which had undertaken the excavations.
Figs. 54-58 (Plate II.) Examples of the Ephesus hoard.
„ 54 i> • Electrum pin, with pomegranate head.
.. 55 » Hawk ornament.
.. 56 „ Electrum pin.
•i 57. 58 ,i Electrum ornaments for sewing on drapery.
The cemeteries of Cyprus have yielded a rich harvest of
jewelry of Graeco-Phoenician style of the 7th and following
centuries B.C. Figs. 16 and 17 are typical examples of a ring and
ear-ring from Cyprus.
FIG. 16. FIG. 17.
Greek, Etruscan and Roman ornaments partake of very
similar characteristics. Of course there is variety in design and
sometimes in treatment, but it does not rise to any special
individuality. Fretwork is a distinguishing feature of all,
together with the wave ornament, the guilloche, and the
occasional use of the human figure. The workmanship is often
of a character which modern gold-workers can only rival with
their best skill, and can never surpass.
FIG. 18.
JEWELRY
PLATE I.
EARLY EGYPTIAN.
46
48
53
(FROM ENKOMI.)
LATE MYCENAEAN. (FROU THE GREEK IsLANDS-)
XV. 366.
PLATE II.
JEWELRY
70
GREEK.
76
ETRUSCAN.
ROMAN.
JEWELRY
The Greek jewelry of the best period is of extraordinary
delicacy and beauty. Fine examples are shown in the British
Museum from Melos and elsewhere. Undoubtedly, however, the
most brilliant collection of such ornaments is that of the Hermi-
tage, which was derived from the tombs of Kerch and the Crimea.
It contains examples of the purest Greek work, together with
objects which must have been of local origin, as is shown by the
themes which the artist has chosen for his reliefs. Fig. 18
illustrates the jewelry of the Hermitage (see also EAR-RING) .
As further examples of Greek jewelry see the pendant oblong
ornament for containing a scroll (fig. 19).
FIG. 19.
FIG. 20.
FIG. 21.
The ear-rings (figs. 20, 21) are also characteristic.
Figs. 59-70 (Plate II.) Examples of fine Greek jewelry, in the
British Museum.
„ 59-60 ,i Pair of ear-rings, from a grave at Cyme in
Aeolis, with filigree work and pendant
Erotes.
„ 61 ,, Small bracelet.
,, 62-63 •• Small gold reel with repouss^ figures of
Nereid with helmet of Achilles, and Eros.
From Cameiros (Rhodes).
„ 64 „ Filigree ornament (ear-ring?) with Eros
in centre. From Syria.
„ 65 ,, Medallion ornament with repouss6 head of
Dionysos and filigree work. (Blacas
coll.)
„ 66 „ Stud, with filigree work.
„ 67-68 ,, Pair of ear-rings, of gold, with filigree and
enamel, from Eretria.
„ 69 ,, Diadem, with filigree, and enamel scales,
from Tarquinii.
,,70 ,, Necklace pendants.
Etruscan jewlery at its best is not easily distinguished from
the Greek, but it tends in its later forms to become florid
and diffuse, without precision of design. The granulation of
surfaces practised with the highest degree of refinement by the
Etruscans was long a puzzle and a problem to the modern
jeweller, until Castellani of Rome discovered gold-workers in
the Abruzzi to whom the method had descended through many
generations. He induced some of these men to go to Naples,
and so revived the art, of which he contributed examples to the
London Exhibition of 1872 (see FILIGREE).
Figs. 71-77 (Plate II.) are well-marked examples of Etruscan
work, in the British Museum.
,, 71 ,, Pair of sirens, repouss6, forming a hook
and eye fastening. From Chiusi (?).
72 Early fibula. Horse and chimaera. (Blacas
coll.)
,, 74 „ Medallion-shaped fibula, of fine granulated
work, with figures of sirens in relief, and
set with dark blue pastes. (Bale coll.)
.. 73- 75 » Paif °f 'ate Etruscan ear-rings.
,, 76, 77 „ Pair of late Etruscan ear-rings, in the
florid style.
The jewels of the Roman empire are marked by a greater use
of large cut stones in combination with the gold, and by larger
surfaces of plain and undecorated metal. The adaptation of
imperial gold coins to the purposes of the jeweller is also not
uncommon.
Figs. 78-82 (Plate II.) Late Roman imperial jewelry, in the
British Museum.
,,78 „ Large pendant ear-ring, set with stones
and pearls. From Tunis, 4th century.
79 ,, Pierced-work pendant, set with a coin of
the emperor Philip.
" So Ear-ring, roughly set with garnets.
„ 81 ,, Bracelet, with a winged cornucopia as
central ornament, set with plasmas, and
with filigree and leaf work.
,, 82 „ Bracelet, roughly set with pearls and
stones. From Tunis, 4th century.
With the decay of the Roman empire, and the approach of the
barbarian tribes, a new Teutonic style was developed. An
important example of this style is the remarkable gold treasure,
discovered at Petrossa in Transylvanian Alps in 1837, and
now preserved, as far as it survives, in the museum of Bucharest.
A runic inscription shows that it belonged to the Goths. Its
style is in part the classical tradition, debased and modified; in
part it is a singularly rude and vigorous form of barbaric art.
Its chief characteristics are a free use of strongly conventional-
ized animal forms, such as great bird-shaped fibulae, and an
ornamentation consisting of pierced gold work, combined with
a free use of stones cut to special shapes, and inlaid either
cloisonne-fashion or in a perforated gold plate. This part of the
hoard has its affinities in objects found over a wide field from
Siberia to Spain. Its rudest and most naturalistic forms occur
in the East in uncouth objects from Siberian tombs, whose
lineage however has been traced to Persepolis, Assyria and
Egypt. In its later and more refined forms the style is known
by the name, now somewhat out of favour (except as applied to
a limited number of finds), of Merovingian.
The so-called Merovingian jewelry of the sth century, and the
Anglo-Saxon of a later date, have as their distinctive feature
thin plates of gold, decorated with thin slabs of garnet, set in
walls of gold soldered vertically like the lines of cloisonne enamel,
with the addition of very decorative details of filigree work,
beading and twisted gold. The typical group are the contents
of the tomb of King Childeric (A.D. 481) now in the Bibliotheque
Nationale at Paris. In Figs. 22 and 23 we have examples of
Anglo-Saxon fibulae, the first being decorated with a species
FIG. 22. FIG. 23. FIG. 24.
of cloisonne, in which garnets are inserted, while the other is in
hammered work in relief. A pendant (fig. 24) is also set with
garnets. The buckles (figs. 25, 26, 27) are remarkably charac-
FIG. 25. FIG. 26. FIG. 27.
teristic examples, and very elegant in design. A girdle ornament
in gold, set with garnets (fig. 28), is an example of Carolingian
design of a high class. Another remarkable
group of barbaric jewelry, dated by coins as of
the beginning of the 7th century, was excavated
at Castel Trosino near the Picenian Ascoli, and
is attributed to the Lombards. See Monumenti
antichi (Accademia dei Lincei), xii. 145.
We turn now to the Celtic group of jewelled
ornaments, which has an equally long and inde-
pendent line of descent. The characteristic
Celtic ornaments are of hammered work with
details in repousse, having fillings-in of vitreous
paste, coloured enamels, amber, and in the later examples rock
crystal with a smooth rounded surface cut en cabochon. The
FIG. 28.
368
JEWELRY
whole group is a special development within the British Isles
of the art of the mid-European Early Iron age, which in its
turn had been considerably influenced by early Mediterranean
culture. In its early stages its special marks are combinations
of curves, with peculiar central thickenings which give a quasi-
naturalistic effect; a skilful use of inlaid enamels, and the
chased line. After the introduction of Christianity, a con-
tinuous tradition combined the old system with the interlaced
winding scrolls and other new forms of decoration, and so led
up to the extreme complexity of early Irish illumination and
metal work.
A remarkable group of gold ornaments of the pre-Christian
time (probably of the ist century) was discovered about 1896,
in the north-west of Ireland, and acquired by the British Museum.
It was subsequently claimed by the Crown as treasure trove, and
after litigation was transferred to Dublin (see Archaeologia, lv.,
pi. 22).
Figs. 29 and 30 are illustrations of two brooches of the latest
FIG. 29.
period in this class of work. The first is i3th century; the latter
is probably I2th century, and is set with paste, amber and
blue.
Rings are the chief specimens now seen of medieval jewelry
from the loth to the I3th century. They are generally massive
and simple. Through the i6th century a variety of changes
arose; in the traditions and designs of the cinquecento we have
plenty of evidence that the workmen used their own designs,
and the results culminated in the triumphs of Albert Diirer,
Benvenuto Cellini and Hans Holbein. The goldsmiths of the
FIG. 30.
Italian republics must have produced works of surpassing
excellence in workmanship, and reaching the highest point in
design as applied to handicrafts of any kind. The use of
enamels, precious stones, niello work and engraving, in combina-
tion with skilful execution of the human figure and animal life,
produced effects which modern art in this direction is not likely
to approach, still less to rival.
In fig. 31 illustrations are given of various characteristic specimens
of the Renaissance and later forms of jewelry. A crystal cross set
in enamelled gold (a) is German work of the l6th century. The
pendant reliquary (6), enamelled and jewelled, is of i6th century
Italian work, and so probably is the jewel (c) of gold set with dia-
monds and rubies. The Darnley or Lennox jewel (d), now in the
possession of the Icing, was made about 1576-1577 for Lady Margaret
Douglas, countess of Lennox, the mother of Henry Darnley. It is
a pendant golden heart set with a heart-shaped sapphire, richly
jewelled and enamelled with emblematic figures and devices. It
also has Scottish mottoes around and within it. The ear-ring (e) of
gold, enamelled, hung with small pearls, is an example of 1 7th cen-
tury Russian work, and another (/) is Italian of the same period,
being of gold and filigree with enamel, also with pendant pearls.
A Spanish ear-ring, of l8th century work (g), is a combination of
ribbon, cord and filigree in gold; and another (h) is Flemish, of
probably the same period ; it is of gold open work set with diamonds
in projecting collets. The old French-Normandy pendant cross and
locket (/) presents a characteristic example of peasant jewelry; it is
of branched open work set with bosses and ridged ornaments of
crystal. The ear-ring (j) is French of 1 7th century, also of gold open
work set with crystals. A small pendant locket (k) is of rock
crystal, with the cross of Santiago in gold and translucent crimson
enamel; it is l6th or I7th century Spanish work. A pretty ear-ring
of gold open scroll work (m), set with minute diamonds and three
pendant pearls, is Portuguese of 1 7th century, and another ear-ring
(n) of gold circular open work, set also with minute diamonds, is
Portuguese work of 1 8th century. These examples fairly illustrate
the general features of the most characteristic jewelry of the dates
quoted.
During the I7th and i8th centuries we see only a mechanical
kind of excellence, the results of the mere tradition of the work-
shop—the lingering of the power which when wisely directed
had done so much and so well, but now simply living on tra-
ditional forms, often combined in a most incongruous fashion.
Gorgeous effects were aimed at by massing the gold, and intro-
ducing stones elaborately cut in themselves or clustered in
groups. Thus diamonds were clustered in rosettes and bou-
quets; rubies, pearls, emeralds and other coloured special stones
were brought together for little other purpose than to get them
into a given space in conjunction with a certain quantity of gold.
The question was not of design in its relation to use as personal
decoration, but of the value which could be got into a given space
to produce the most striking effect.
The traditions of Oriental design as they had come down
through the various periods quoted, were comparatively lost
in the wretched results of the. rococo of Louis XIV. and the
inanities of what modern revivalists of the Anglo-Dutch call
" Queen Anne." In the London exhibition of 1851, the ex-
travagances of modern jewelry had to stand comparison with
the Oriental examples contributed from India. Since then we
have learnt more about these works, and have been compelled
to acknowledge, in spite of what is sometimes called inferiority
of workmanship, how completely the Oriental jeweller under-
stood his work, and with what singular simplicity of method
he carried it out. The combinations are always harmonious,
the result aimed at is always achieved; and if in attempting
to work to European ideas the jeweller failed, this was rather
the fault of the forms he had to follow, than due to any want
of skill in making the most of a subject in which half the thought
and the intended use were foreign to his experience.
A collection of peasant jewelry got together by Castellani for
the Paris exhibition of 1867, and now in the Victoria and Albert
Museum, illustrates in an admirable manner the traditional
jewelry and personal ornaments of a wide range of peoples in
Europe. This collection, and the additions made to it since
its acquisition by the nation, show the forms in which these
objects existed over several generations among the peasantry
of France (chiefly Normandy), Spain, Portugal, Holland, Den-
Mark, Germany and Switzerland, and also show how the forms
popular in one country are followed and adopted in another,
almost invariably because of their perfect adaptation to the
purpose for which they were designed.
Apart from these humbler branches of the subject, in the
middle of the igth century the production of jewelry, regarded
as a personal art, and not as a commercial and anonymous
industry, was almost extinct. Its revival must be associated
with the artistic movement which marked the close of that
century, and which found emphatic expression in the Paris
international exhibition of 1900. For many years before 1895
this industry, though prosperous from the commercial point of
view, and always remarkable from that of technical finish,
remained stationary as an art. French jewelry rested on it&
JEWELRY
369
reputation. The traditions were maintained of either the i;th
and i8th centuries or the style affected at the close of the second
empire — light pierced work and design borrowed from natural
flowers. The last type, introduced by Massin, had exercised,
indeed, a revolutionary influence on the treatment of jewelry.
This clever artist, not less skilful as a craftsman, produced a new
genre by copying the grace and lightness of living blossoms, thus
introducing a perfectly fresh element into the limited variety of
traditional style, and by the use of filigree gold work altering
its character and giving it greater elegance. Massin still held
the first rank in the exhibition of 1878; he had a marked
influence on his contemporaries, and his name will be remem-
bered in the history of the goldsmith's art to designate a style
further confirmed in his remarkable position by the exhibition of
1900. What specially stamps the works of Lalique is their
striking originality. His work may be considered from the point
of view of design and from that of execution. As an artist he
has completely reconstructed from the foundation the scheme
of design which had fed the poverty-stricken imagination of the
last generation of goldsmiths. He had recourse to the art of
the past, but to the spirit rather than the letter, and to nature
for many new elements of design — free double curves, suave or
soft ; opalescent harmonies of colouring; reminiscences, with quite
a new feeling, of Egypt, Chaldea, Greece and the East, or of the
art of the Renaissance; and infinite variety of floral forms even
of the humblest. He introduces also the female nude in the
FIG. 31.
and a period. Throughout these years the craft was exclusively
devoted to perfection of workmanship. The utmost finish was
aimed at in the mounting and setting of gems; jewelry was, in
fact, not so much an art as a high-class industry; individual
effort and purpose were absent.
Up to that time precious stones had been of such intrinsic
value that the jeweller's chief skill lay in displaying these costly
stones to the best advantage; the mounting was a secondary
consideration. The settings were seldom long preserved in
their original condition, but in the case of family jewels were
renewed with each generation and each change of fashion, a
state of things which could not be favourable to any truly artistic
development of taste, since the work was doomed, sooner or
later, to destruction. However, the evil led to its own remedy.
As soon as diamonds fell in value they lost at the same time
their overwhelming prestige, and refined taste could give a
preference to trinkets which derived their value and character
from artistic design. This revolutionized the jeweller's craft,
and revived the simple ornament of gold or silver, which came
forward but timidly at first, till, in the Salon of 1895, it burst
upon the world in the exhibits of Rene Lalique, an artist who was
form of sirens and sphinxes. As a craftsman he has effected a
radical change, breaking through old routine, combining all
the processes of the goldsmith, the chaser, the enameller and the
gem-setter, and freeing himself from the narrow lines in which
the art had been confined. He ignores the hierarchy of gems,
caring no more on occasion for a diamond than for a flint, since,
in his view, no stone, whatever its original estimation, has any
value beyond the characteristic expression he lends it as a means
to his end. Thus, while he sometimes uses diamonds, rubies,
sapphires or emeralds as a background, he will, on the other
hand, give a conspicuous position to common stones — carnelian,
agate, malachite, jasper, coral, and even materials of no intrinsic
value, such as horn. One of his favourite stones is the opal,
which lends itself to his arrangements of colour, and which has
in consequence become a fashionable stone in French jewelry.
In criticism of the art of Lalique and his school it should be
observed that the works of the school are apt to be unsuited to the
wear and tear of actual use, and inconveniently eccentric in their
details. Moreover, the preciousness of the material is an almost
inevitable consideration in the jeweller's craft, and cannot be set
at naught by the artist without violating the canons of his art.
JEWELRY
The movement which took its rise in France spread in due
course to other countries. In England the movement con-
veniently described as the " arts and crafts movement " affected
the design of jewelry. A group of designers has aimed at purg-
ing the jeweller's craft of its character of mere gem-mounting in
conventional forms (of which the more unimaginative, represent-
ing stars, bows, flowers and the like, are varied by such absurdi-
ties as insects, birds, animals, figures of men and objects made
up simply of stones clustered together). Their work is often
excellently and fancifully designed, but it lacks that exquisite
perfection of execution achieved by the incomparable craftsmen
of France. At the same time English sculptor-decorators —
such as Alfred Gilbert, R.A., and George J. Frampton, A.R.A. —
have produced objects of a still higher class, but it is usually the
work of the goldsmith rather than of the jeweller. Examples
may be seen in the badge executed by Gilbert for the president
of the Institute of Painters in Water Colours and in the mayoral
chain for Preston. Symbolism here enters into the design,
which has not only an ornamental but a didactic purpose.
The movement was represented in other countries also. In
the United States it was led by L. C. Tiffany, in Belgium by
Philippe Wolfers, who occupies in Belgium the position which in
France is held by Rene Lalique. If his design is a little heavier,
it is not less beautiful in imagination or less masterly in execu-
tion. Graceful, ingenious, fanciful, elegant, fantastic by turns,
his objects of jewelry and goldsmithery have a solid claim to
be considered creations d'art. It has also been felt in Germany,
Austria, Russia and Switzerland. It must be admitted that many
of the best artists who have devoted themselves to jewelry have
been more successful in design than in securing the lightness
and strength which are required by the wearer, and which were a
characteristic in the works of the Italian craftsmen of the Renais-
sance. For this reason many of their masterpieces are more
beautiful in the case than upon the person.
Modern Jewelry. — So far we have gone over the progress and
results of the jeweller's art. We have now to speak of the pro-
duction of jewelry as a modern art industry, in which large
numbers of men and women are employed in the larger cities
of Europe. Paris, Vienna, London and Birmingham are the
most important centres. An illustration of the manufacture as
carried on in London and Birmingham will be sufficient to give
an insight into the technique and artistic manipulation of this
branch of art industry; but, by way of contrast, it may be inter-
esting to give in the first place a description of the native working
jeweller of Hindustan.
He travels very much after the fashion of a tinker in England;
his budget contains tools, materials, fire pots, and all the requisites
of his handicraft. The gold to be used is generally supplied by
the patron or employer, and is frequently in gold coin, which the
travelling jeweller undertakes to convert into the ornaments required.
He squats down jn the corner of a courtyard, or under cover of a
veranda, lights his fire, cuts up the gold pieces entrusted to him,
hammers, cuts, shapes, drills, solders with the blow-pipe, files,
scrapes and burnishes until he has produced the desired effect.
If he has stones to set or coloured enamels to introduce, he never
seems to make a mistake; his instinct for harmony of colour, like
that of his brother craftsman the weaver, is as unerring as that of
the bird in the construction of its nest. Whether the materials
are common or rich and rare, he invariably does the very best possible
with them, according to native ideas of beauty in design and com-
bination. It is only when he is interfered with by European
dictation that he ever vulgarizes his art or makes a mistake. The
resujt may appear rude in its finish, but the design and the thought
are invariably right. We thus see how a trade in the working of
which the " plant " is so simple and wants are so readily met could
spread itself, as in years past it did at Clerkenwell and at Birmingham
before gigantic factories were invented for producing everything
under the sun.
It is impossible to find any date at which the systematic pro-
duction of jewelry was introduced into England. Probably
the Clerkenwell trade dates its origin from the revocation of the
edict of Nantes, as the skilled artisans in the jewelry, clock
and watch, and trinket trades appear to have been descendants
of the emigrant Huguenots. The Birmingham trade would
appear to have had its origin in the skill to which the workers
in fine steel had attained towards the middle and end of the i8th
century, a branch of industry which collapsed after the French
Revolution.
Modern jewelry may be classified under three heads: (l) objects
in which gems and stones form the principal portions, and in
which the work in silver, platinum or gold is really only a means
for carrying out the design by fixing the gems or stones in the
position arranged by the designer, the metal employed being
visible only as a setting; (2) when gold work plays an important part
in the development of the design, being itself ornamented by en-
graving (now rarely used) or enamelling or both, the stones and
gems being arranged in subordination to the gold work in such
positions as to give a decorative effect to the whole ; (3) when gold
or other metal is alone used, the design being wrought out by ham-
mering in repousse1, casting, engraving, chasing or by the addition
of filigree work (see FILIGREE), or when the surfaces are left abso-
lutely plain but polished and highly finished.
Of course the most ancient and primitive methods are those
wholly dependent upon the craft of the workman; but gradually
various ingenious processes were invented, by which greater accuracy
in the portions to be repeated in a design could be produced with
certainty and economy: hence the various methods of stamping
used in the production of hand-made jewelry, which are in themselves
as much mechanical in relation to the end in view as if the whole
object were stamped out at a blow, twisted into its proper position
as regards the detail, or the various stamped portions fitted into
each other for the mechanical completion of the work. It is there-
fore rather difficult to draw an absolute line between hand-made
and machine-made jewelry, except in extreme cases of hand-made,
when everything is worked, so to speak, from the solid, or of machine-
made, when the hand has only to give the ornament a few touches
of a tool, or fit the parts together if of more than one piece.
The best and most costly hand-made jewelry produced in England,
whether as regards gold work, gems, enamelling or engraving, is
made in London, and chiefly at Clerkenwell. A design is first made
with pencil, sepia or water colour, and when needful with separate
enlargement of details, everything in short to make the drawing
thoroughly intelligible to the working jeweller. According to the
nature and purpose of the design, he cuts out, hammers, files and
brings into shape the constructive portions of the work as a basis.
Upon this, as each detail is wrought out, he solders, or (more rarely)
fixes by rivets, &c., the ornamentation necessary to the effect.
The human figure, representations of animal life, leaves, fruit, &c.,
are modelled in wax, moulded and cast in gold, to be chased up and
finished. As the hammering goes on the metal becomes brittle
and hard, and then it is passed though the fire to anneal or soften
it. In the case of elaborate examples of repouss6, after the general
forms are beaten up, the interior is filled with a resinous compound,
pitch mixed with fire-brick dust; and this, forming a solid but
pliable body underneath the metal, allows of the finished details
being wrought out on the front of the design, and being finally
completed by chasing. When stones are to be set, or when they
form the principal portions of the design, the gold or other metal
has to be wrought by hand so as to receive them in little cup-like
orifices, these walls of gold enclosing the stone and allowing the
edges to be bent over to secure it. Setting is never effected by
cement in well-made jewelry. Machine-made settings have in
recent years been made, but these are simply cheap imitations of
the true hand-made setting. Even strips of gold have been used,
serrated at the edges to allow of being easily bent over, for the
retention of the stones, true or false.
Great skill and experience are necessary in the proper setting
of stones apd gems of high value, in order to bring out the greatest
amount of brilliancy and colour, and the angle at which a diamond
(say) shall be set, in order that the light shall penetrate at the proper
point to bring out the " spark " or " flash," is a subject of grave
consideration to the setter. Stones set in a haphazard, slovenly
manner, however brilliant in themselves, will look commonplace
by the side of skilfully set gems of much less fine quality and water.
Enamelling (see ENAMEL) has of late years largely taken the place
of " paste ' or false stones.
Engraving is a simple process in itself, and diversity of effect
can be produced by skilful manipulation. An interesting variety
in the effect of a single ornament may be produced by the combina-
tion of coloured gold of various tints. This colouring is a process
requiring skill and experience in the manipulation of the materials
according to the quahtv of the gold and the amount of silver alloy
in it. The objects to be coloured are dipped in a boiling mixture
of salt, alum and saltpetre. Of general colouring it may be said
that the object aimed at is to enhance the appearance of the gold
by removing the particles of alloy on the surface, and thus allowing
the pure gold only to remain visible to the eye. The process has,
however, gone much out of fashion. It is apt to rot the solder,
and repairs to gold work can be better finished by electro-gilding.
The application of machinery to the economical production of
certain classes of jewelry, not necessarily imitations, but as much
" real gold " work, to use a trade phrase, as the best hand-made, has
been on the increase for many years. Nearly every kind of gold
chain now made is manufactured by machinery, and nothing like
JEWETT--JEWS
the beauty of design or perfection of workmanship could be obtained
by hand at, probably, any cost. The question therefore in relation
to chains is not the mode of manufacture, but the quality of the metal.
Eighteen carat gold is of course preferred by those who wear chains,
but this is only gold in the proportion of 1 8 to 24, pure gold being
represented by 24. The gold coin of the realm is 22 carat; that is,
it contains one-twelfth of alloy to harden it to stand wear and tear.
Thus 1 8 carat gold has one-fourth of alloy, and so on with lower
qualities down to 12, which is in reality only gold by courtesy.
It must be remembered that the alloys are made by weight, and as
gold is nearly twice as heavy as the metal it is mixed with, it only
forms a third of the bulk of a 12 carat mixture.
The application of machinery to the production of personal
ornaments in gold and silver can only be economically and success-
fully carried on when there is a large demand for similar objects,
that is to say, objects of precisely the same design and decoration
throughout. In machine-made jewelry everything is stereotyped,
so to speak, and the only work required for the hand is to fit the parts
together — in some instances scarcely that. A design is made, and
from it steel dies are sunk for stamping out as rapidly as possible
from a plate of rolled metal the portion represented by each die.
It is in these steel dies that the skill of the artist die-sinker is mani-
fested. Brooches, ear-rings, pinheads, bracelets, lockets, pendants,
&c., are struck out by the gross. This is more especially the case
in silver and in plated work — that is, imitation jewelry — the base
of which is an alloy, afterwards gilt by electro-plating. With these
ornaments imitation stones in paste and glass, pearls, &c., are used,
and it is remarkable that of late years some of the best designs, the
most simple, appropriate and artistic, have appeared in imitation
jewelry. It is only just to those engaged in this manufacture to
state distinctly that their work is never sold wholesale for anything
else than what it is. The worker in gold only makes gold or real
jewelry, and he only makes of a quality well known to his customers.
The producer of silver work only manufactures silver ornaments,
and so on throughout the whole class of plated goods.
It is the retailer who, if he is unprincipled, takes advantage of the
ignorance of the buyer and sells for gold that which is in reality an
imitation, and which he bought as such. The imitations of old
styles of jewelry which are largely sold in curiosity shops at foreign
places of fashionable resort are said to be made in Germany, especially
at Munich.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For the Dahshur jewels, see J. de Morgan and
others; Fouilles a Dahchour, Mars-Juin 1894 (Vienna, 1895) and
Fouilles a Dahchour en 1894-189$ (Vienna, 1903). Forthe Aah-hotp
jewels, see Mariette, Album de Musee de Boulaq, pis. 29-31 ; Birch,
Facsimiles of the Egyptian Relics discovered in the Tomb of Queen Aah-
hotep (1863). For Cretan excavations, see A. J. Evans, in Annual of
the British School at Athens, Nos. 7 to 1 1 ; Archaeologia, vol. lix. For
excavations at Enkomi, see Excavations in Cyprus, by A. S. Murray
and others (1900). For Schliemann's excavations, see Schliemann's
works; also Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Excavations; Perrot &
Chipiez, Histoire de I' Art, vi. For the Greek Island treasure, see
A. J. Evans, Journal of Hellenic Studies, xiii. For Ephesus gold
treasure, see D. G. Hogarth, British Museum Excavations at Ephesus ;
The Archaic Artemisia. For the Hermitage Collection from South
Russia, see Gille', Antiquiles du Bosphore Cimmerien (reissued by
S. Reinach), and the Comptes rendus of the Russian Archaeological
Commission (St Petersburg). For later jewelry, Pollak, Gold-
schmiedearbeit. For Treasure of P6trossa, A. Qdobesco, Le Tresor
de Petrossa. For the European and west Asiatic barbaric jewelry,
see O. M. Dalton, in Archaeologia, Iviii. 237, and the Treasure of
the Oxus (British Museum, 1905). For the whole history, G.
Fontenay, Les Bijoux anciens et modernes (Paris [Quantin], 1887).
For the recent movement, L6once B<$n£dite, " La Bijouterie et la
joaillerie, 4 1'exposition universelle; Ren6 Lalique," in the Revue des
arts decoratifs, 1900 (July, August). (A. H. SM.)
JEWETT, SARAH ORNE (1840-1909), American novelist,
was born in South Berwick, Maine, on the 3rd of September 1849.
She was a daughter of the physician Theodore H. Jewett (1815-
1878), by whom she was greatly influenced, and whom she has
drawn in A Country Doctor (1884). She studied at the Berwick
Academy, and began her literary career in 1869, when she con-
tributed her first story to the Atlantic Monthly. Her best work
consists of short stories and sketches, such as those in The
Country of the Pointed Firs (1896). The People of Maine, with
their characteristic speech, manners and traditions, she describes
with peculiar charm ancf realism, often recalling the work of
Hawthorne. She died at South Berwick, Maine, on the 24th of
June 1909.
Among her publications are: Deephaven (1877), a series of
sketches; Old Friends and New (1879); Country By-ways (1881);
A Country Doctor (1884), a novel; A Marsh Island (1885), a novel-
A White Heron and other Stories (1886) ; The King of Folly Island and
other People (1888); Strangers and Wayfarers (1890); A Native of
Winby and other Tales (1893); The Queen's Twin and other Stories
(1899), and The Tory Lover (1901), an historical novel.
JEWS (Heb. Y&hudl, man of Judah; Gr. 'lovSatoi; Lat.
Judaei), the general name for the Semitic people which inhabited
Palestine from early times, and is known in various connexions
as " the Hebrews," " the Jews," and " Israel " (see §5 below).
Their history may be divided into three great periods: (i) That
covered by the Old Testament to the foundation of Judaism in
the Persian age, (2) that of the Greek and Roman domination
to the destruction of Jerusalem, and (3) that of the Diaspora or
Dispersion to the present day.
I. — OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
1. The Land and the People.— for the first two periods the
history of the Jews is mainly that of Palestine. It begins among
those peoples which occupied the area lying between the Nile
on the one side and the Tigris and the Euphrates on the other.
Surrounded by ancient seats of culture in Egypt and Baby-
lonia, by the mysterious deserts of Arabia, and by the highlands
of Asia Minor, Palestine, with Syria on the north, was the
high road of civilization, trade and warlike enterprise, and
the meeting-place of religions. Its small principalities were
entirely dominated by the great Powers, whose weakness or
acquiescence alone enabled them to rise above dependence or
vassalage. The land was traversed by old-established trade
routes and possessed important harbours on the Gulf of 'Akaba
and on the Mediterranean coast, the latter exposing it to the
influence of the Levantine culture. It was " the physical centre
of those movements of history from which the world has
grown." The portion of this district abutting upon the Mediter-
ranean may be divided into two main parts: — Syria (from the
Taurus to Hermon) and Palestine (southward to the desert
bordering upon Egypt). The latter is about 150 m. from
north to south (the proverbial " Dan to Beersheba "), with a
breadth varying from 25 to 80 m., i.e. about 6040 sq. m.
This excludes the land east of the Jordan, on which see
PALESTINE.
From time to time streams of migration swept into Palestine
and Syria. Semitic tribes wandered northwards from their home
in Arabia to seek sustenance in its more fertile fields, to plunder,
or to escape the pressure of tribes in the rear. The course leads
naturally into either Palestine or Babylonia, and, following the
Euphrates, northern Syria is eventually reached. Tribes also
moved down from the north: nomads, or offshoots from the
powerful states which stretch into Asia Minor. Such frequently
recurring movements introduced new blood. Tribes, chiefly of
pastoral habits, settled down among others who were so nearly
of their own type that a complete amalgamation could be
effected, and this without any marked modification of the
general characteristics of the earlier inhabitants. It is from
such a fusion as this that the ancestors of the Jews were
descended, and both the history and the genius of this people
can be properly understood only by taking into account the
physical features of their land and the characteristics of the
Semitic races in general (see PALESTINE, SEMITIC LANGUAGES).
2. Society and Religion. — The similarity uniting the peoples
of the East in respect of racial and social characteristics is
accompanied by a striking similarity of mental outlook which
has survived to modern times. Palestine, in spite of the numer-
ous vicissitudes to which it has been subjected, has not lost
its fundamental characteristics. The political changes involved
in the Babylonian, Assyrian, Egyptian or Persian conquests
surely affected it as little as the subsequent waves of Greek,
Roman and other European invasions. Even during the tem-
porary Hellenization in the second great period the character
of the people as a whole was untouched by the various external
influences which produced so great an effect on the upper classes.
When the foreign civilization perished, the old culture once more
came to the surface. Hence it is possible, by a comprehensive
comparative study of Eastern peoples, in both ancient and
modern times, to supplement and illustrate within certain
limits our direct knowledge of the early Jewish people, and
thus to understand more clearly those characteristics which were
372
JEWS
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
peculiar to them, in relation to those which they shared with
other Oriental peoples.
Even before authentic history begins, the elements of religion
and society had already crystallized into a solid coherent struc-
ture which was to persist without essential modification. Reli-
gion was inseparable from ordinary life, and, like that of all
peoples who are dependent on the fruits of the earth, was a
nature-worship. The tie between deities and worshippers
was regarded as physical and entailed mutual obligations. The
study of the clan-group as an organization is as instructive
here as in other fields. The members of each group lived on
terms of equality, the families forming a society of worship
the rites of which were conducted by the head. Such groups
(each with its local deity) would combine for definite purposes
under the impulse of external needs, but owing to inevitable
internal jealousies and the incessant feuds among a people
averse from discipline and authority, the unions were not
necessarily lasting. The elders of these groups possessed some
influence, and tended to form an aristocracy, which took the
lead in social life, although their authority generally depended
merely upon custom. Individual leaders in times of stress
acquired a recognized supremacy, and, once a tribe outstripped
the rest, the opportunities for continued advance gave further
scope to their authority. " The interminable feuds of tribes,
conducted on the theory of blood-revenge, . . . can seldom
be durably healed without the intervention of a third party
who is called in as arbiter, and in this way an impartial and
wise power acquires of necessity a great and beneficent influence
over all around it " (W. R. Smith). In time, notwithstanding a
certain inherent individualism and impatience of control, veri-
table despotisms arose in the Semitic world, although such
organizations were invariably liable to sudden collapse as the old
forms of life broke down with changing conditions.1
3. Early History? — Already in the i sth century B.C. Palestine
was inhabited by a settled people whose language, thought and
religion were not radically different several hundred years later.
Small native princes ruled as vassals of Egypt which, after
expelling the Hyksos from its borders, had entered upon a series
of conquests as far as the Euphrates. Some centuries pre-
viously, however, Babylonia had laid claim to the western states,
and the Babylonian (i.e. Assyrian) script and language were now
used, not merely in the diplomatic correspondence between
Egypt and Asia, but also for matters of private and everyday
life among the Palestinian princes themselves. To what extent
specific Babylonian influence showed itself in other directions
is not completely known. Canaan (Palestine and the south
Phoenician coast land) and Amor (Lebanon district and beyond)
were under the constant supervision of Egypt, and Egyptian
officials journeyed round to collect tribute, to attend to com-
plaints, and to assure themselves of the allegiance of the vassals.
The Amarna tablets and those more recently found at Taannek
(bibl. Taanach), together with the contemporary archaeological
evidence (from Lachish, Gezer, Megiddo, Jericho, &c.), represent
advanced conditions of life and culture, the precise chronological
limits of which cannot be determined with certainty. This
age, with its regular maritime intercourse between the Aegean
settlements, Phoenicia and the Delta, and with lines of caravans
connecting Babylonia, North Syria, Arabia and Egypt, presents
a remarkable picture of life and activity, in the centre of which
lies Palestine, with here and there Egyptian colonies and some
traces of Egyptian cults. The history of this, the " Amarna "
age, reveals a state of anarchy in Palestine for which the weak-
ness of Egypt and the downward pressure of north Syrian
1 On the homogeneity of the population, Bee further, W. R. Smith,
Religion of the Semites (and ed., chaps, i.-iii.); T. Noldeke, Sketches
from Eastern History, pp. 1-20 (on " Some Characteristics of the
Semitic Race "); and especially E. Meyer, Gesch.d. Altertums (and ed.,
j- J J 33°. sqq.). For the relation between the geographical character-
istics and the political history, see G. A. Smith, Historical Geography
of the Holy Land.
1 For fuller information on this section see PALESTINE : History,
and the related portions of BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, EGYPT,
HITTITES, SYRIA.
peoples were responsible. Subdivided into a number of little
local principalities, Palestine was suffering both from internal
intrigues and from the designs of this northern power. It is
now that we find the restless Habiru, a name which is commonly
identified with that of the " Hebrews " ('ibrim). They offer
themselves where necessary to either party, and some at least
perhaps belonged to the settled population. The growing
prominence of the new northern group of " Hittite " states con-
tinued to occupy the energies of Egypt, and when again we have
more external light upon Palestinian history, the Hittites (q.v.)
are found strongly entrenched in the land. But by the end of
the first quarter of the i3th century B.C. Egypt had recovered its
province (precise boundary uncertain), leaving its rivals in pos-
session of Syria. Towards the close of the i3th century the
Egyptian king Merneptah (Mineptah) records a successful cam-
paign in Palestine, and alludes to the defeat of Canaan, Ascalon,
Gezer, Yenuam (in Lebanon) and (the people or tribe) Israel.3
Bodies of aliens from the Levantine coast had previously
threatened Egypt and Syria, and at the beginning of the i2th
century they formed a coalition on land and sea which taxed
all the resources of Rameses III. In the Purasati, apparently
the most influential of these peoples, may be recognized the origin
of the name " Philistine." The Hittite power became weaker,
and the invaders, in spite of defeat, appear to have succeeded
in maintaining themselves on the sea coast. External history,
however, is very fragmentary just at the age when its evidence
would be most welcome. For a time the fate of Syria and Pales-
tine seems to have been no longer controlled by the great powers.
When the curtain rises again we enter upon the historical
traditions of the Old Testament.
4. Biblical History. — For the rest of the first period the Old
Testament forms the main source. It contains in fact the
history itself in two forms: (a) from the creation of man to
the fall of Judah (Genesis-2 Kings), which is supplemented and
continued further — (b) to the foundation of Judaism in the
Sth century B.C. (Chronicles — Ezra-Nehemiah). In the light of
contemporary monuments, archaeological evidence, the progress
of scientific knowledge and the recognized methods of modern
historical criticism, the representation of the origin of mankind
and of the history of the Jews in the Old Testament can no longer
be implicitly accepted. Written by an Oriental people and
clothed in an Oriental dress, the Old Testament does not contain
objective records, but subjective history written and incorporated
for specific purposes. Like many Oriental works it is a compila-
tion, as may be illustrated from a comparison of Chronicles with
Samuel-Kings, and the representation of the past in the light of
the present (as exemplified in Chronicles) is a frequently recur-
ring phenomenon.. The critical examination of the nature and
growth of this compilation has removed much that had formerly
caused insuperable difficulties and had quite unnecessarily been
made an integral or a relevant part of practical religion. On
the other hand, criticism has given a deeper meaning to the Old
Testament history, and has brought into relief the central
truths which really are vital; it may be said to have replaced
a divine account of man by man's account of the divine.
Scholars are now almost unanimously agreed that the internal
features are best explained by the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis.
This involves the view that the historical traditions are mainly
due to two characteristic though very complicated recensions,
one under the influence of the teaching of Deuteronomy (Joshua
to Kings, see § 20), the other, of a more priestly character
(akin to Leviticus), of somewhat later date (Genesis to Joshua,
with traces in Judges to Kings, see § 23). There are, of course,
numerous problems relating to the nature, limits and dates
of the two recensions, of the incorporated sources, and of other
sources (whether early or late) of independent origin; and here
there is naturally room for much divergence of opinion. Older
material (often of composite origin) has been used, not so much
for the purpose of providing historical information, as with
the object of showing the religious significance of past history;
1 Or land Israel, W. Spiegelberg, Orient. Lit. Zeit. xi. (1908), cols.
403-405-
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
and the series Joshua-Kings is actually included among the
" prophets " in Jewish reckoning (see MIDRASH). In general,
one may often observe that freedom which is characteristic of
early and unscientific historians. Thus one may note the
reshaping of older material to agree with later thought, the
building up of past periods from the records of other periods,
and a frequent loss of perspective. The historical traditions
are to be supplemented by the great body of prophetic, legal
and poetic literature which reveal contemporary conditions in
various internal literary, theological or sociological features.
The investigation of their true historical background and of the
trustworthiness of their external setting (e.g. titles of psalms,
dates and headings of prophecies) involves a criticism of the
historical traditions themselves, and thus the two major classes
of material must be constantly examined both separately and in
their bearing on one another. In a word, the study of biblical
history, which is dependent in the first instance upon the written
sources, demands constant attention to the text (which has
had an interesting history) and to the literary features; and it
requires a sympathetic acquaintance with Oriental life and
thought, both ancient and modern, an appreciation of the neces-
sity of employing the methods of scientific research, and (from
the theological side) a reasoned estimate of the dependence of
individual religious convictions upon the letter of the Old
Testament.1
In view of the numerous articles in this work dealing with biblical
subjects,2 the present sketch is limited to the outlines of the tra-
ditional history; the religious aspect in its bearing upon biblical
theology (which is closely bound up with the traditions) is
handled separately under HEBREW RELIGION. The related litera-
ture is enormous (see the bibliographies to the special articles) ; it
is indexed annually in Orientalische Bibliographie (Berlin), and is
usefully summarized in the Theologische Jahresbericht (Berlin). On
the development of the study of biblical history see C. A. Briggs,
Study of Holy Scripture (1899), especially ch. xx. The first scientific
historical work was by H. Ewald, Gesch. d. Volkes Israel (1843; 3rd
ed., 1864-1868; Eng. trans., 1869-1883), popularized by Arthur
Penrhyn Stanley in his Hist, of the Jewish Church (1863-1879). The
works of J. Wellhausen (especially Prolegomena to the Hist, of Israel,
Eng. trans., 1885, also the brilliant article " Israel " in the 9th ed. of
the Ency. Brit., 1879) were epoch-making; his position was inter-
preted to English readers by W. Robertson Smith (Old Test, in
Jeivish Church, 1881, 2nd ed., 1892; Prophets of Israel, 1882, 2nd
ed. by T. K. Cheyne, 1902). The historical (and related) works
of T. K. Cheyne, H. Graetz, H. Guthe, F. C. Kent, A. Kittel, W. H.
Kosters, A. Kuenen, C. Piepenbring, and especially B. Stade, al-
though varying greatly in standpoint, are among the most valuable
by recent scholars; H. P. Smith's Old Test. Hist. (" International
Theological Library," Edinburgh, 1903) is in many respects the
most serviceable and complete study; a modern and more critical
" Ewald " is a desideratum. For the works of numerous other
scholars who have furthered Old Testament research in the past it
must suffice to refer to the annotated list by J. M. P. Smith, Books
for O.T. Study (Chicago, 1908).
For the external history, E. Schrader, Cuneiform Inscr. and the
Old Testament (Eng. trans, by O. C. Whitehouse, 1885-1888) is still
helpful ; among the less technical works are J. F. McCurdy, History,
Prophecy and the Monuments; B. Paton, Syria and Palestine (1902);
G. Maspero, Hist, ancienne (6th ed., 1904) ; A. Jeremias, Alte Test, im
Lichte d. Alien Orients (2nd ed., 1906) ; and especially Altoriental.
Texte u. Bilder zum Alien Test., ed. by H. Gressman, with A. Ungnad
and H. Ranke (1909). The most complete is that of Ed. Meyer,
Gesch. d. Alterthums (2nd ed., 1907 sqq.). That of Jeremias follows
upon the lines of H. Winckler, whose works depart from the some-
what narrow limits of purely " Israelite " histories, emphasize the
necessity of observing the characteristics of Oriental thought and
policy, and are invaluable for discriminating students. Winckler's
own views are condensed in the 3rd edition — a re-writing — of
Schrader's work (Keilinschr. u. d. Alte Testament, 1903), and, with an
instructive account of the history of " ancient nearer Asia," in
H. F. Helmolt's World's History, iii. 1-252 (1903). All modern
1 It is useful to compare the critical study of the Koran (?•»•),
where, however, the investigation of its various " revelations " is
simpler than that of the biblical " prophecies " on account of the
greater wealth of independent historical tradition. See also G. B.
Gray, Contemporary Review (July 1907); A. A. Bevan, Cambridge
Biblical Essays (ed. Swete, 1909), pp. 1-19.
'See primarily BIBLE: Old Testament; the articles on the con-
tents and literary structure of the several books; the various bio-
'graphical, topographical and ethnical articles, and the separate
treatmenfgpf the more important subjects (e.g. LEVITES, PROPHET,
SACRIFICE).
JEWS 373
histories of any value are necessarily compromises between the
biblical traditions and the results of recent investigation, and those
studies which appear to depart most widely from the biblical or
canonical representation often do greater, justice to the evidence as
a whole than the slighter or more conservative and apologetic
reconstructions.3 Scientific biblical historical study, nevertheless,
is still in a relatively backward condition; and although the labours
of scholars since Ewald constitute a distinct epoch, the trend of
research points to the recognition of the fact that the purely subjec-
tive literary material requires a more historical treatment in the light
of our increasing knowledge of external and internal conditions in
the oid Oriental world. But an inductive and deductive treatment,
both comprehensive and in due proportion, does not as yet (1910)
exist, and awaits fuller external evidence.4
5. Traditions of Origin. — The Old Testament preserves the
remains of an extensive literature, representing different stand-
points, which passed through several hands before it reached its
present form. Surrounded by ancient civilizations where writing
had long been known, and enjoying, as excavation has proved, a
considerable amount of material culture, Palestine could look
back upon a lengthy and stirring history which, however, has
rarely left its mark upon our records. Whatever ancient sources
may have been accessible, whatever trustworthy traditions were
in circulation, and whatever a knowledge of the ancient Oriental
world might lead one to expect, one is naturally restricted in
the first instance to those undated records which have survived
in the form which the last editors gave to them. The critical
investigation of these records is the indispensable prelude to
all serious biblical study, and hasty or sweeping deductions
from monumental or archaeological evidence, or versions com-
piled promiscuously from materials of distinct origin, are alike
hazardous. A glimpse at Palestine in the latter half of the
second millennium B.C. (§ 3) prepares us for busy scenes and
active intercourse, but it is not a history of this kind which the
biblical historians themselves transmit. At an age when — on
literary-critical grounds — the Old Testament writings were
assuming their present form, it was possible to divide the im-
mediately preceding centuries into three distinct periods, (a) The
first, that of the two rival kingdoms: Israel (Ephraim or Samaria)
in the northern half of Palestine, and Judah in the south. Then
(b) the former lost its independence towards the close of the 8th
century B.C., when a number of its inhabitants were carried
away; and the latter shared the fate of exile at the beginning of
the 6th, but succeeded in making a fresh reconstruction some fifty
or sixty years later. Finally (c), in the so-called " post-exilic "
period, religion and life were reorganized under the influence of a
new spirit; relations with Samaria were broken off, and Judaism
took its definite character, perhaps about the middle or close
of the sth century. Throughout these vicissitudes there were
important political and religious changes which render the study
of the composite sources a work of unique difficulty. In addition
to this it should be noticed that the term " Jew " (originally
Yehudi), in spite of its wider application, means properly " man
of Judah," i.e. of that small district which, with Jerusalem as
its capital, became the centre of Judaism. The favourite name
" Israel " with all its religious and national associations is some-
what ambiguous in an historical sketch, since, although it is used
as opposed to Judah (a), it ultimately came to designate the true
nucleus of the worshippers of the national god Yahweh as op-
posed to the Samaritans, the later inhabitants of Israelite territory
(c). A more general term is " Hebrew " (see HEBREW LANGUAGE),
which, whether originally identical with the Habiru or not (§ 3),
is used in contrast to foreigners, and this non-committal ethnic
* On the bearing of external evidence upon the internal biblical
records, see especially S. R. Driver's essay in Hogarth's Authority
and Archaeology; cf. also A. A. Bevan, Critical Review (1897), p. 406
sqq., 1898, pp. 131 sqq.); G. B. Gray, Expositor, May 1898; W. G.
Jordan, Bib. Crit. and Modern Thought (1909), pp. 42 sqq.
* For the sections which follow the present writer may be per-
mitted to refer to his introductory contributions in the Expositor
(June, 1906; "The Criticism of the O.T."); the Jewish Quarterly
Review (July ipos-January 1907 = Critical Notes qn O.T. History,
especially sections vii.-ix.); July and October 1907, April 1908;
Amer. Journ. Theol. (July 1909, "Simeon and Levi: the Problem
of the Old Testament"); and Swete's Cambridge Bib. Essays,
pp. 54-89 (" The Present Stage of O.T. Research ").
374
JEWS
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
deserves preference where precise distinction is unnecessary or
impossible.
The traditions which prevailed among the Hebrews concerning
their origin belong to a time when Judah and Israel were regarded
as a unit. Twelve divisions or tribes, of which Judah was one,
held together by a traditional sentiment, were traced back to
the sons of Jacob (otherwise known as Israel), the son of Isaac
and grandson of Abraham. Their names vary in origin and
probably also in point of age, and where they represent fixed
territorial limits, the districts so described were in some cases
certainly peopled by groups of non-Israelite ancestry. But as
tribal names they invited explanation, and of the many character-
istic traditions which were doubtless current a number have
been preserved, though not in any very early dress. Close
relationship was recognized with the Aramaeans, with Edom,
Moab and Ammon. This is characteristically expressed when
Esau, the ancestor of Edom, is represented as the brother of
Jacob, or when Moab and Ammon are the children of Lot, Abra-
ham's nephew (see GENEALOGY: Biblical). Abraham, it was
believed, came from Harran (Carrhae), primarily from Babylonia,
and Jacob re-enters from Gilead in the north-east with his
Aramaean wives and concubines and their families (Benjamin
excepted). It is on this occasion that Jacob's name is changed
to Israel. These traditions of migration and kinship are in them-
selves entirely credible, but the detailed accounts of the ancestors
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, as given in Genesis, are inherently
doubtful as regards both the internal conditions, which the (late)
chronological scheme ascribes to the first half of the second
millennium B.C., and the general circumstances of the life of these
strangers in a foreign land. From a variety of independent
reasons one is forced to conclude that, whatever historical
elements they may contain, the stories of this remote past
represent the form which tradition had taken in a very much
later age.
Opinion is at variance regarding the patriarchal narratives as a
whole. To deny their historical character is to reject them as
trustworthy accounts of the age to which they are ascribed, and
even those scholars who claim that they are essentially historical
already go so far as to concede idealization and the possibility or
probability of later revision. The failure to apprehend historical
method has often led to the fallacious argument that the trust-
worthiness of individual features justifies our accepting the whole,
or that the elimination of unhistorical elements will leave an historical
residuum. Here and frequently elsewhere in biblical history it is
necessary to allow that a genuine historical tradition may be clothed
in an unhistorical dress, but since many diverse motives are often
concentrated upon one narrative (e.g. Gen. xxxii. 22-32, xxxiv.,
xxxviii.), the work of internal historical criticism (in view of the
scantiness of the evidence) can rarely claim finality. The patriarchal
narratives themselves belong to the popular stock of tradition of
which only a portion has been preserved. Many of the elements lie
outside questions of time and place and are almost immemorial.
Some appear written for the first time in the book of Jubilees, in
" the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs " (both perhaps 2nd
century B.C.) and in later sources; and although in Genesis the
stories are now in a post-exilic setting (a stage earlier than Jubilees),
the older portions may well belong to the 7th or 6th cent. This
question, however, will rest upon those criteria alone which are of
true chronological validity (see further GENESIS).
The story of the settlement of the national and tribal ancestors
in Palestine is interrupted by an account of the southward move-
ment of Jacob (or Israel) and his sons into a district under the
immediate influence of the kings of Egypt. After an interval
of uncertain duration we find in Exodus a numerous people
subjected to rigorous oppression. No longer individual sons of
Jacob or Israel, united tribes were led out by Moses and Aaron;
and, after a series of incidents extending over forty years, the
" children of Israel " invaded the land in which their ancestors
had lived. The traditions embodied in the books Exodus-
Joshua are considerably later than the apparent date of the
events themselves, and amid the diverse and often conflicting
data it is possible to recognize distinct groups due to some extent
to distinct historical conditions. The story of the " exodus " is
that of the religious birth of " Israel," joined by covenant with
the national god Yahweh1 whose aid in times of peril and need
1 On the name see JEHOVAH, TETRAGRAMMATON.
proved his supremacy. In Moses (?.».) was seen the founder of
Israel's religion and laws; in Aaron (q.v.) the prototype of the
Israelite priesthood. Although it is difficult to determine the
true historical kernel, two features are most prominent in the
narratives which the post-exilic compiler has incorporated: the
revelation of Yahweh, and the movement into Palestine. Yahweh
had admittedly been the God of Israel's ancestors, but his name
was only now made known (Exod. iii. 13 sqq., vi. 2 seq.), and this
conception of a new era in Yahweh's relations with the people
is associated with the family of Moses and with small groups
from the south of Palestine which reappear in religious move-
ments in later history (see KENITES). Amid a great variety of
motives the prominence of Kadesh in south Palestine is to be
recognized, but it is uncertain what clans or tribes were at
Kadesh, and it is possible that traditions, originally confined to
those with whom the new conception of Yahweh is connected,
were subsequently adopted by others who came to regard them-
selves as the worshippers of the only true Yahweh. At all
events, two quite distinct views seem to underlie the opening
books of the Old Testament. The one associates itself with the
ancestors of the Hebrews and has an ethnic character. The
other, part of the religious history of " Israel," is essentially
bound up with the religious genius of the people, and is partly
connected with clans from the south of Palestine whose influence
appears in later times. Other factors in the literary growth of
the present narratives are not excluded (see further § 8, and
EXODUS, THE).2
6. The Monarchy of Israel. — The book of Joshua continues the
fortunes of the " children of Israel " and describes a successful
occupation of Palestine by the united tribes. This stands in
striking contrast to other records of the partial successes of
individual groups (Judg. i.). The former, however, is based
upon the account of victories by the Ephraimite Joshua over
confederations of petty kings to the south and north of central
Palestine, apparently the specific traditions of the people of
Ephraim describing from their standpoint the entire conquest
of Palestine.3 The book of Judges represents a period of unrest
after the settlement of the people. External oppression and
internal rivalries rent the Israelites, and in the religious philo-
sophy of a later (Deuteronomic) age the period is represented as
one of alternate apostasy from and of penitent return to the
Yahweh of the " exodus." Some vague recollection of known
historical events (§ 3 end) might be claimed among the traditions
ascribed to the closing centuries of the second millennium, but
the view that the prelude to the monarchy was an era when
individual leaders " judged " all Israel finds no support in the
older narratives, where the heroes of the age (whose correct
sequence is uncertain) enjoy only a local fame. The best
historical narratives belong to Israel and Gilead; Judah scarcely
appears, and in a relatively old poetical account of a great fight
of the united tribes against a northern adversary lies outside the
writer's horizon or interest (Judg. v., see DEBORAH). Stories
of successful warfare and of temporary leaders (see ABIMELECH;
EHUD; GIDEON; JEPHTHAH) form an introduction to the institu-
tion of the Israelite monarchy, an epoch of supreme importance
in biblical history. The heroic figure who stands at the head
is Saul (" asked "), and two accounts of his rise are recorded,
(i) The Philistines, a foreign people whose presence in Palestine
* The story of Joseph has distinctive internal features of its own,
and appears to be from an independent cycle, which has been used
to form a connecting link between the Settlement and the Exodus;
see also Ed. Meyer, Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstamme (1906),
pp. 228, 433; B. Luther, ibid. pp. 108 seq., 142 sqq. Neither of the
poems in Deut. xxxii. seq. alludes to an escape from Egypt; Israel
is merely a desert tribe inspired to settle in Palestine. Apparently
even the older accounts of the exodus are not of very great anti-
quity; according to Jeremiah ii. 2, 7 (cf. Hos. ii. 15) some traditions
of the wilderness must have represented Israel in a very favourable
light; for the " canonical " view, see Ezekiel xvi., xx., xxiii.
3 The capture of central Palestine itself is not recorded; ac-
cording to its own traditions the district had been seized by Jacob
(Gen. xlviii. 22; cf. the late form of the tradition in Jubilees xxxiv.).
This conception of a conquering hero is entirely distinct from the
narratives of the descent of Jacob into Egypt, &c. (see Meyer and
Luther, op. cit. pp. no, 227 seq., 415, 433).
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
has already been noticed, had oppressed Israel (cf. SAMSON) until
a brilliant victory was gained by the prophet Samuel, some
account of whose early history is recorded. He himself held
supreme sway over all Israel as the last of the " judges " until
compelled to accede to the popular demand for a king. The
young Saul was chosen by lot and gained unanimous recognition
by delivering Jabesh in Gilead from the Ammonites. (2) But
other traditions represent the people scattered and in hiding;
Israel is groaning under the Philistine yoke, and the unknown
Saul is raised up by Yahweh to save his people. This he accom-
plishes with the help of his son Jonathan. The first account,
although now essential to the canonical history, clearly gives
a less authentic account of the change from the " judges " to the
monarchy, while the second is fragmentary and can hardly be
fitted into the present historical thread (see SAUL). At all events
the first of a series of annalistic notices of the kings of Israel
ascribes to Saul conquests over the surrounding peoples to an
extent which implies that the district of Judah formed part of
his kingdom (i Sam. xiv. 47 seq). His might is attested also by
the fine elegy (2 Sam. i. 19 sqq.) over the death of two great
Israelite heroes, Saul and Jonathan, knit together by mutual love,
inseparable in life and death, whose unhappy end after a career
of success was a national misfortune. Disaster had come upon
the north, and the plain of Jezreel saw the total defeat of the
king and the rout of his army. The court was hastily removed
across the Jordan to Mahanaim, where Saul's son Ishbaal
(Ish-bosheth), thanks to his general Abner, recovered some of the
lost prestige. In circumstances which are not detailed, the
kingdom seems to have regained its strength, and Ishbaal is
credited with a reign of two years over Israel and Gilead (2 Sam.
ii. 8-10; contrast v. n). But at this point the scantyannals are
suspended and the history of the age is given in more popular
sources. Both Israel and Judah had their own annals, brief
excerpts from which appear in the books of Samuel, Kings and
Chronicles, and they are supplemented by fuller narratives of dis-
tinct and more popular origin. The writings are the result of a
continued literary process, and the Israelite national history has
come down to us through Judaean hands, with the result that much
of it has been coloured by late Judaean feeling. It is precisely
in Saul's time that the account of the Judaean monarchy, or
perhaps of the monarchy from the Judaean standpoint, now
begins.
7. The Monarchy of Judah. — Certain traditions of Judah and
Jerusalem appear to have looked back upon a movement from
the south, traces of which underlie the present account of the
" exodus." The land was full of " sons of Anak," giants who had
terrified the scouts sent from Kadesh. Caleb (<?.».) alone had
distinguished himself by his fearlessness, and the clan Caleb
drove them out from Hebron in south Judah (Josh. xv. 14 sqq.;
cf. also xi. 21 seq.). David and his followers are found in the
south of Hebron, and as they advanced northwards they en-
countered wondrous heroes between Gath and Jerusalem (2 Sam.
xxi. 15 sqq.; xxiii. 8 sqq.). After strenuous fighting the district
was cleared, and Jerusalem, taken by the sword, became the
capital. History saw in David the head of a lengthy line of
kings, the founder of the Judaean monarchy, the psalmist and
the priest-king who inaugurated religious institutions now
recognized to be of a distinctly later character. As a result of
this backward projection of later conceptions, the recovery of
the true historical nucleus is difficult. The prominence of Jeru-
salem, the centre of post-exilic Judaism, necessarily invited
reflection. Israelite tradition had ascribed the conquest of
Jerusalem, Hebron and other cities of Judah to the Ephraimite
Joshua; Judaean tradition, on the other hand, relates the capture
of the sacred city from a strange and hostile people (2 Sam. v.).
The famous city, within easy reach of the southern desert and
central Palestine (to Hebron and to Samaria the distances are
about 1 8 and 3 5 miles respectively) , had already entered into Pales-
tinian history in the " Amarna "age (§3). Anathoth, a few miles
to the north-east, points to the cult of the goddess Anath, the
near-lying Nob has suggested the name of the Babylonian Nebo,
and the neighbouring, though unidentified, Beth-Ninib of the
JEWS 375
Amarna tablets may indicate the worship of a Babylonian war
and astral god (cf. the solar name Beth-Shemesh). Such was the
religious environment of the ancient city which was destined to
become the centre of Judaism. Judaean tradition dated the
sanctity of Jerusalem from the installation of the ark, a sacred
movable object which symbolized the presence of Yahweh. It
is associated with the half-nomad clans in the south of Palestine,
or with the wanderings of David and his own priest Abiathar;
it is ultimately placed within the newly captured city. Quite
another body of tradition associates it with the invasion of all
the tribes of Israel from beyond the Jordan (see ARK). To
combine the heterogeneous narratives and isolated statements
into a consecutive account is impossible; to ignore those which
conflict with the now predominating views would be unmetho-
dical. When the narratives describe the life of the young David
at the court of the first king of the northern kingdom, when the
scenes cover the district which he took with the sword, and when
the brave Saul is represented in an unfavourable light, one must
allow for the popular tendency to idealize great figures, and for
the Judaean origin of the compilation. To David is ascribed
the sovereignty over a united people. But the stages in his
progress are not clear. After being the popular favourite of
Israel in the little district of Benjamin, he was driven away by
the jealousy and animosity of Saul. Gradually strengthening
his position by alliance with Judaean clans, he became king at
Hebron at the time when Israel suffered defeat in the north.
His subsequent advance to the kingship over Judah and Israel
at Jerusalem is represented as due to the weak condition of
Israel, facilitated by the compliance of Abner; partly, also, to
the long-expressed wish of the Israelites that their old hero should
reign over them. Yet again, Saul had been chosen by Yahweh
to free his people from the Philistines; he had been rejected for
his sins, and had suffered continuously from this enemy; Israel
at his death was left in the unhappy state in which he had found
it; it was the Judaean David, the faithful servant of Yahweh,
who was now chosen to deliver Israel, and to the last the people
gratefully remembered their debt. David accomplished the
conquests of Saul but on a grander scale; " Saul hath slain his
thousands and David his tens of thousands " is the popular
couplet comparing the relative merits of the rival dynasts. A
series of campaigns against Edom, Moab, Ammon and the
Aramaean states, friendly relations with Hiram of Tyre, and
the recognition of his sovereignty by the king of Hamath
on the Orontes, combine to portray a monarchy which was the
ideal.
But in passing from the books of Samuel, with their many rich
and vivid narratives, to the books of Kings, we enter upon
another phase of literature; it is a different atmosphere, due to
the character of the material and the aims of other compilers
(see § 9 beginning). David, the conqueror, was followed by his
son Solomon, famous for his wealth, wisdom and piety, above all
for the magnificent Temple which he built at Jerusalem. Phoe-
nician artificers were enlisted for the purpose, and with Phoenician
sailors successful trading-journeys were regularly undertaken.
Commercial intercourse with Asia Minor, Arabia, Tarshish
(probably in Spain) and Ophir (q.v.} filled his coffers, and his
realm extended from the Euphrates to the border of Egypt.
Tradition depicts him as a worthy successor to his father, and
represents a state of luxury and riches impressive to all who were
familiar with the great Oriental courts. The commercial activity
of the king and the picture of intercourse and wealth are quite
in accordance with what is known of the ancient monarchies,
and could already be illustrated from the Amarna age. Judah
and Israel dwelt at ease, or held the superior position of military
officials, while the earlier inhabitants of the land were put to
forced labour. But another side of the picture shows the
domestic intrigues which darkened the last days of David. The
accession of Solomon had not been without bloodshed, and
Judah, together with David's old general Joab and his faithful
priest Abiathar, were opposed to the son of a woman who had
been the wife of a Hittite warrior. The era of the Temple of
Jerusalem starts with a new regime, another captain of the army
376
JEWS
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
and another priest. Nevertheless, the enmity of Judah is passed
over, and when the kingdom is divided for administrative pur-
poses into twelve districts, which ignore the tribal divisions,
the centre of David's early power is exempt from the duty
of providing supplies (i Kings iv.). Yet again, the approach of
the divided monarchy is foreshadowed. The employment of
Judaeans and Israelites for Solomon's palatial buildings, and the
heavy taxation for the upkeep of a court which was the wonder
of the world, caused grave internal discontent. External rela-
tions, too, were unsatisfactory. The Edomites, who had been
almost extirpated by David in the valley of Salt, south of the Dead
Sea, were now strong enough to seek revenge; and the powerful
kingdom of Damascus, whose foundation is ascribed to this
period, began to threaten Israel on the north and north-east.
These troubles, we learn, had affected all Solomon's reign, and
even Hiram appears to have acquired a portion of Galilee. In
the approaching disruption writers saw the punishment for the
king's apostasy, and they condemn the sanctuaries in Jerusalem
which he erected to the gods of his heathen wives. Nevertheless,
these places of cult remained some 300 years until almost the
close of the monarchy, when their destruction is attributed to
Josiah (§ 1 6). When at length Solomon died the opportunity
was at once seized to request from his son Rehoboam a more
generous treatment. The reply is memorable: " My little finger
is thicker than my father's loins; my father chastised you with
whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions." These words were
calculated to inflame a people whom history proves to have been
haughty and high-spirited, and the great Israel renounced its
union with the small district of Judah. Jeroboam (q.v.), once one
of Solomon's officers, became king over the north, and thus the
history of the divided monarchy begins (about 930 B.C.) with the
Israelite power on both sides of the Jordan and with Judah
extending southwards from a point a few miles north of Jerusalem.
8. Problems of the Earliest History. — Biblical history previous to
the separation of Judah and Israel holds a prominent place in current
ideas, since over two-fifths of the entire Old Testament deals with
these early ages. The historical sources for the crucial period, from
the separation to the fall of Jerusalem (586 B.C.), occupy only about
one-twelfth, and even of this about one-third is spread over some
fifteen years (see below, § 1 1 ). From the flourishing days of the later
monarchy and onwards, different writers handled the early history
of their land from different standpoints. The feeling of national
unity between north and south would require historical treatment,
the existence of rival monarchies would demand an explanation.
But the surviving material is extremely uneven; vital events in
these centuries are treated with a slightness in striking contrast to
the relatively detailed evidence for the preceding period — evidence,
however, which is far from being contemporary. Where the
material is fuller, serious discrepancies are found ; and where external
evidence is fortunately available, the independent character of the
biblical history is vividly illustrated. The varied traditions up to
this stage cannot be regarded as objective history. It is naturally
impossible to treat them from any modern standpoint as fiction;
they are honest even where they are most untrustworthy. But the
recovery of successive historical nuclei does not furnish a continuous
thread, and if one is to be guided by the historical context of events
the true background to each nucleus must be sought. The northern
kingdom cherished the institution of a monarchy, and in this, as in
all great political events, the prophets took part. The precise part
these figures play is often idealized and expresses the later views of
their prominence. It was only after a bitter experience that the
kingship was no longer regarded as a divine gift, and traditions'.have
been revised in order to illustrate the opposition to secular authority.
In this and in many other respects the records of the first monarchy
have been elaborated and now reveal traces of differing conceptions
of the events (see DAN; DAVID; ELI; SAMUEL; SAUL; SOLOMON).
The oldest narratives are not in their original contexts, and they
contain features which render it questionable whether a very trust-
worthy recollection of the period was retained. Although the rise
of the Hebrew state, at an age when the great powers were quiescent
and when such a people as the Philistines is known to have appeared
upon the scene, is entirely intelligible, it is not improbable that
legends of Saul and David, the heroic founders of the two kingdoms,
have been put in a historical setting with the help of later historical
tradition. It is at least necessary to distinguish provisionally
between a possibly historical framework and narratives which may
be of later growth — between the general outlines which only external
evidence can test and details which cannot be tested and appear
isolated without any cause or devoid of any effect.
Many attempts have been made to present a satisfactory sketch
of the early history and to do justice to (a) the patriarchal narratives,
(b) the exodus from Egypt and the Israelite invasion, and (c) the
rise of the monarchy. As regards (b), external evidence has already
suggested to scholars that there were Israelites in Palestine before
the invasion ; internal historical criticism is against the view that all
the tribes entered under Joshua; and in (a) there are traces of an
actual settlement in the land, entirely distinct from the cycle of
narratives which prepare the way for (b). The various reconstruc-
tions and compromises by modern apologetic and critical writers
alike involve without exception an extremely free treatment of the
biblical sources and the rejection of many important and circum-
stantial data.1 On the one hand, a sweeping invasion of all the
tribes of Israel moved by a common zeal may, like the conquests of
Islam, have produced permanent results. According to this view
the enervating luxury of Palestinian culture almost destroyed
the lofty ideal monotheism inculcated in the desert, and after the
fall of the northern tribes (latter part of the 8th cent.) Judah is
naturally regarded as the sole heir. But such a conquest, and all
that it signifies, conflict both with external evidence (e.g. the results
of excavation), and with any careful inspection of the narratives
themselves. On the other hand, the reconstructions which allow a
gradual settlement (perhaps of distinct groups), and an intermingling
with the earlier inhabitants, certainly find support in biblical
evidence, and they have been ingeniously built up with the help of
tribal and other data (e.g. Gen. xxxiv., xxxviii. ; Judg. i. ix.). But
they imply political, sociological and religious developments which
do not do justice either to the biblical evidence as a whole or to a
comprehensive survey of contemporary conditions.2 Thus, one of
the important questions is the relation between those who had taken
part in the exodus and the invasion and those who had not. This
inquiry is further complicated by (c), where the history of Israel and
Judah, as related in Judges and I Samuel, has caused endless
perplexity. The traditions of the Ephraimite Joshua and of Saul
the first king of (north) Israel virtually treat Judah as part of
Israel and are related to the underlying representations in (a). But
the specific independent Judaean standpoint treats the unification
of the two divisions as the work of David who leaves the heritage
to Solomon. The varied narratives, now due to Judaean editors,
preserve distinct points of view, and it is extremely difficult to
unravel the threads and to determine their relative position in the
history. Finally, the consciousness that the people as a religious
body owed everything to the desert clans (6) (see § 5) subsequently
leaves its mark upon (north) Israelite history (§ 14), but has not the
profound significance which it has in the records of Judah and
Jerusalem. Without sufficient external and independent evidence
wherewith to interpret in the light of history the internal features
of the intricate narratives, any reconstruction would naturally be
hazardous, and all attempts must invariably be considered in the
light of the biblical evidence itself, the date of the Israelite exodus,
and the external conditions. Biblical criticism is concerned with a
composite (Judaean) history based upon other histories (partjy of
non-Judaean origin), and the relation between native written
sources and external contemporary evidence (monumental and
archaeological) distinctly forbids any haphazard selection from
accessible sources. The true nature of this relation can be readily
observed in other fields (ancient Britain, Greece, Egypt, &c.),
where, however, the native documents and sources have not that
complexity which characterizes the composite biblical history. (For
the period under review, as it appears in the light of existing external
evidence, see PALESTINE: History.)
9. The Rival Kingdoms. — The Palestine of the Hebrews was
but part of a great area breathing the same atmosphere, and there
was little to distinguish Judah from Israel except when they were
distinct political entities. The history of the two kingdoms is
contained in Kings and the later and relatively less trustworthy
Chronicles, which deals with Judah alone. In the former a
separate history of the northern kingdom has been combined
with Judaean history by means of synchronisms in accordance
with a definite scheme. The 480 years from the foundation of the
temple of Jerusalem back to the date of the exodus (i Kings vi. i)
corresponds to the period forward to the return from the exile
(§ 20). This falls into three equal divisions, of which the first
ends with Jehoash's temple-reforms and the second with Heze-
kiah's death. The kingdom of Israel lasts exactly half the time.
1 This is especially true of the various ingenious attempts to com-
bine the invasion ofthe Israelites with the movements of the Habiru
in the Amarna period (§ 3).
2 cf. Winckler, Keil. u. das Alte Test. p. 212 seq. ; also his " Der alte
Orient und die Geschichtsforschung " in Mitteilungen der Vorderasiat.
Gesellschaft (Berlin, 1906) and Religionsgeschichtlicher u. gesch. Orient
(Leipzig, 1906); A. Jeremias, Alte Test. (p. 464 seq.); B. Baentsch,
Altorient. u. israel. Monotheismus (pp. 53, 79, 105, &c.); also Theolog.
Lit. Blatt (1907) No. 19. On the reconstructions of the tribal
history, see especially T. K. Cheyne, Ency. Bib. art. " Tribes." The
most suggestive study of the pre-monarchical narratives is that of
E. Meyer and B. Luther (above ; see the former's criticisms on the
reconstructions, pp. 50, 251 sqq., 422, n. I and passim).
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
JEWS
377
Of the 240 years from Jeroboam I., 80 elapse before the Syrian
wars in Ahab's reign, these cover another 80; the famous king
Jeroboam II. reigns 40 years, and 40 years of decline bring the
kingdom to an end. These figures speak for themselves, and the
present chronology can be accepted only where it is indepen-
dently proved to be trustworthy (see further W. R. Smith,
Prophets of Israel, pp. 144-149). Next, the Judaean compiler
regularly finds in Israel's troubles the punishment for its schis-
matic idolatry; nor does he spare Judah, but judges its kings by
a standard which agrees with the standpoint of Deuteronomy
and is scarcely earlier than the end of the 7th century B.C.
(§§ 16, 20). But the history of (north) Israel had naturally its
own independent political backgrounds and the literary sources
contain the same internal features as the annals and prophetic
narratives which are already met with in i Samuel. Similarly
the thread of the Judaean annals in Kings is also found in
2 Samuel, although the supplementary narratives in Kings are not
so rich or varied as the more popular records in the preceding
books. The striking differences between Samuel and Kings are
due to differences in the writing of the history ; independent
Israelite records having been incorporated with those of Judah
and supplemented (with revision) from the Judaean standpoint
(see CHRONICLES; KINGS; SAMUEL).
The Judaean compiler, with his history of the two kingdoms,
looks back upon the time when each laid the foundation of its
subsequent fortunes. His small kingdom of Judah enjoyed an
unbroken dynasty which survived the most serious crises, a
temple which grew in splendour and wealth under royal patron-
age, and a legitimate priesthood which owed its origin to
Zadok, the successful rival of David's priest Abiathar. Israel,
on the other hand, had signed its death-warrant by the institu-
tion of calf-cult, a cult which, however, was scarcely recognized
as contrary to the worship of Yahweh before the denunciations
of Hosea. The scantiness of political information and the dis-
tinctive arrangement of material preclude the attempt to trace
the relative position of the two rivals. Judah had natural
connexions with Edom and southern Palestine; Israel was more
closely associated with Gilead and the Aramaeans of the north.
That Israel was the stronger may be suggested by the acquies-
cence of Judah in the new situation. A diversion was caused
by Shishak's invasion, but of this reappearance of Egypt after
nearly three centuries of inactivity little is preserved in biblical
history. Only the Temple records recall the spoliation of the
sanctuary of Jerusalem, and traditions of Jeroboam I. show
that Shishak's prominence was well known.1 Although both
kingdoms suffered, common misfortune did not throw them
together. On the contrary, the statement that there was con-
tinual warfare is supplemented in Chronicles by the story of a
victory over Israel by Abijah the son of Rehoboam. Jeroboam's
son Nadab perished in a conspiracy whilst besieging the Philistine
city of Gibbethon, and Baasha of (north) Israel seized the throne.
His reign is noteworthy for the entrance of Damascus into
Palestinian politics. Its natural fertility and its commanding
position at the meeting-place of trade-routes from every quarter
made it a dominant factor until its overthrow. In the absence
of its native records its relations with Palestine are not always
clear, but it may be supposed that amid varying political changes
it was able to play a double game. According to the annals,
incessant war prevailed between Baasha and Abijah's successor,
Asa. It is understood that the former was in league with
Damascus, which had once been hostile to Solomon (i Kings
xi. 24 seq.) — it is not stated upon whom Asa could rely. How-
ever, Baasha at length seized Ramah about five miles north of
Jerusalem, and the very existence of Judah was threatened. Asa
utilized the treasure of the Temple and palace to induce the
Syrians to break off their relations with Baasha. These sent
troops to harry north Israel, and Baasha was compelled to retire.
Asa, it is evident, was too weak to achieve the remarkable victory
ascribed to him in 2 Chron. xiv. (see ASA). As for Baasha, his
1 2 Chron. xii. 8, which is independent of the chronicler's artificial
treatment of his material, apparently points to some tradition of
Egyptian suzerainty.
short-lived dynasty resembles that of his predecessors. His son
Elah had reigned only two years (like Ishbaal and Nadab) when
he was slain in the midst of a drunken carousal by his captain
Zimri. Meanwhile the Israelite army was again besieging the
Philistines at Gibbethon, and the recurrence of these conflicts
points to a critical situation in a Danite locality in which Judah
itself (although ignored by the writers), must have been vitally
concerned. The army preferred their general Omri, and march-
ing upon Zimri at Tirzah burnt the palace over his head. A
fresh rival immediately appeared, the otherwise unknown Tibni,
son of Ginath. Israel was divided into two camps, until, on the
death of Tibni and his brother Joram, Omri became sole king
(c. 887 B.C.). The scanty details of these important events
must naturally be contrasted with the comparatively full
accounts of earlier Philistine wars and internal conflicts in
narratives which date from this or even a later age.
10. The Dynasty of Omri. — Omri (q.v.), the founder of one of
the greatest dynasties of Israel, was contemporary with the
revival of Tyre under Ithobaal, and the relationship between
the states is seen in the marriage of Omri's son Ahab to Jezebel,
the priest-king's daughter. His most notable recorded achieve-
ment was the subjugation of Moab and the seizure of part of its
territory. The discovery of the inscription of a later king of
Moab (q.v.) has proved that the east-Jordanic tribes were no
uncivilized or barbaric folk; material wealth, a considerable
religious and political organization, and the cultivation of
letters (as exemplified in the style of the inscription) portray
conditions which allow us to form some Conception of life in
Israel itself. Moreover, Judah (now under Jehoshaphat) enjoyed
intimate relations with Israel during Omri's dynasty, and the
traditions of intermarriage, and of co-operation in commerce and
war, imply what was practically a united Palestine. Alliance
with Phoenicia gave the impulse to extended intercourse; trading
expeditions were undertaken from the Gulf of Akaba, and Ahab
built himself a palace decorated with ivory. The cult of the Baal
of Tyre followed Jezebel to the royal city Samaria and even found
its way into Jerusalem. This, the natural result of matrimonial
and political alliance, already met with under Solomon, receives
the usual denunciation. The conflict between Yahweh and Baal
and the defeat of the latter are the characteristic notes of the
religious history of the period, and they leave their impression
upon the records, which are now more abundant. Although
little is preserved of Omri's history, the fact that the northern
kingdom long continued to be called by the Assyrians after his
name is a significant indication of his great reputation. Assyria2
was now making itself felt in the west for the first time since the
days of Tiglath-Pileser I. (c. 1 100 B.C.), and external sources come
to our aid. Assur-nazir-pal III. had exacted tribute from north
Syria (c. 870 B.C.), and his successor Shalmaneser II., in the
course of a series of expeditions, succeeded in gaining the greater
part of that land. A defensive coalition was formed in which
the kings of Cilicia, Hamath, the Phoenician coast, Damascus
and Ammon. the Arabs of the Syrian desert, and " Ahabbu
Sirlai " were concerned. In the last, we must recognize the
Israelite Ahab. His own contribution of 10,000 men and 12,000
chariots perhaps included levies from Judah and Moab (cf . for the
number i Kings x. 26). In 854 the allies at least maintained
themselves at the battle of Karkar (perhaps Apamea to the north
of Hamath) . In 849 and 846 other indecisive battles were fought,
but the precise constitution of the coalition is not recorded. In
842 Shalmaneser records a campaign against Hazael of Damascus;
no coalition is mentioned, although a battle was fought at Sanir
(Hermon, Deut. iii. 9), and the cities of Hauran to the south of
Damascus were spoiled. Tribute was received from Tyre and
Sidon; and Jehu, who was now king of Israel, sent his gifts of
gold, silver, &c., to the conqueror. The Assyrian inscription
(the so-called " Black Obelisk " now in the British Museum),
which records the submission of the petty kings, gives an inter-
esting representation of the humble Israelite emissaries with
their long fringed robes and strongly marked physiognomy (see
COSTUME, fig. 9). Yet another expedition in 839 would seem to
2 See for chronology, BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, §§ v. and viii.
378
JEWS
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
show that Damascus was neither crushed nor helpless, but thence-
forth for a number of years Assyria was fully occupied elsewhere
and the west was left to itself. The value of this external evi-
dence for the history of Israel is enhanced by the fact that biblical
tradition associates the changes in the thrones of Israel and
Damascus with the work of the prophets Elijah and Elisha, but
handles the period without a single reference to the Assyrian
Empire. Ahab, it seems, had aroused popular resentment by
encroaching upon the rights of the people to their landed posses-
sions; had it not been for Jezebel (q.v.) the tragedy of Naboth
would not have occurred. The worship of Baal of Tyre roused
a small circle of zealots, and again the Phoenician marriage was
the cause of the evil. We read the history from the point of
view of prophets. Elijah of Gilead led the revolt. To one who
favoured simplicity of cult the new worship was a desecration of
Yahweh, and, braving the anger of the king and queen, he fore-
shadowed their fate. Hostility towards the dynasty culminated
a few years later in a conspiracy which placed on the throne the
general Jehu, the son of one Jehoshaphat (or, otherwise, of
Nimshi). The work which Elijah began was completed by
Elisha, who supported Jehu and the new dynasty. A massacre
ensued in which the royal families of Israel and Judah perished.
While the extirpation of the cult of Baal was furthered in Israel
by Jonadab the Rechabite, it was the " people of the land " who
undertook a similar reform in Judah. Jehu (q.v.) became king
as the champion of the purer worship of Yahweh. The descen-
dants of the detested Phoenician marriage were rooted out, and
unless the close intercourse between Israel and Judah had been
suddenly broken, it would be supposed that the new king at
least laid claim to the south. The events form one of the
fundamental problems of biblical history.
ii. Damascus, Israel and Judah. — The appearance of Assyria
in the Mediterranean coast-lands had produced the results
which inevitably follow when a great empire comes into contact
with minor states. It awakened fresh possibilities — successful
combination against a common foe, the sinking of petty rivalries,
the chance of gaining favour by a neutrality which was scarcely
benevolent. The alliances, counter-alliances and far-reaching
political combinations which spring up at every advance of the
greater powers are often perplexing in the absence of records of
the states concerned. Even the biblical traditions alone do not
always represent the same attitude, and our present sources pre-
serve the work of several hands. Hazael of Damascus, Jehu of
Israel and Elisha the prophet are the three men of the new age
linked together in the words of one writer as though commissioned
for like ends (i Kings xix. 15-17). Hostility to Phoenicia (i.e.
the Baal of Tyre) is as intelligible as a tendency to look to Ara-
maean neighbours. Though Elisha sent to anoint Jehu as king,
he was none the less on most intimate terms with Bar-hadad
(Old. Test. Ben-hadad) of Damascus and recognized Hazael as
its future ruler. It is a natural assumption that Damascus
could still count upon Israel as an ally in 842; not until the with-
drawal of Assyria and the accession of Jehu did the situation
change. " In those days Yahweh began to cut short " (or,
altering the text, " to be angry with ") " Israel." This brief
notice heralds the commencement of Hazael's attack upon
Israelite territory east of the Jordan (2 Kings x. 32). The origin
of the outbreak is uncertain. It has been assumed that Israel
had withdrawn from the great coalition, that Jehu sent tribute
to Shalmaneser to obtain that monarch's recognition, and that
Hazael consequently seized the first opportunity to retaliate.
Certain traditions, it is true, indicate that Israel had been at war
with the Aramaeans from before 854 to 842, and that Hazael
was attacking Gilead at the time when Jehu revolted; but in
the midst of these are other traditions of the close and friendly
relations between Israel and Damascus ! With these perplexing
data the position of Judah is inextricably involved.
The special points which have to be noticed in the records for
this brief period (l Kings xvii.-2 Kings xi.) concern both literary
and historical criticism. ' A number of narratives illustrate the
'See Jew. Quart. Rev. (1908), pp. 597-630. The independent
Israelite traditions which here become more numerous have points
work of the prophets, and sometimes purely political records appear
to have been used for the purpose (see ELIJAH; ELISHA). If Elijah
is the prophet of the fall of Omri's dynasty, Elisha is no less the
prophet of Jehu and his successors; and it is extremely probable
that his lifework was confined to the dynasty which he inaugurated.2
In the present narratives, however, the stories in which he possesses
influence with king and court are placed before the rise of Jehu,
and some of them point to a state of hostility with Damascus before
he foresees the atrocities which Hazael will perpetrate. But Ahab's
wars with Syria can with difficulty be reconciled with the Assyrian
evidence (see AHAB), and the narratives, largely anonymous, agree
in a singular manner with what is known of the serious conflicts
which, it is said, began in Jehu's time. Moreover, the account of the
joint undertaking by Judah (under Jehoshaphat) and Israel against
Syria at Ramoth-Gilead at the time of Ahab's death, and again
(under Ahaziah) when Jehoram was wounded, shortly before the
accession of Jehu, are historical doublets, and they can hardly
be harmonized either with the known events of 854 and 842 or with
the course of the intervening years. Further, all the traditions
point clearly to the very close union of Israel and Judah at this
period, a union which is apt to be obscured by the fact that the
annalistic summaries of each kingdom are mainly independent.
Thus we may contrast the favourable Judaean view of Jehoshaphat
with the condemnation passed upon Ahab and Jezebel, whose
daughter Athaliah married Jehoram, son of Jehoshaphat. It is
noteworthy, also, that an Ahaziah and a Jehoram appear as kings of
Israel, and (in the reverse order) of Judah, and somewhat similar
incidents recur in the now separate histories of the two kingdoms.
The most striking is a great revolt in south Palestine. The alliance
between Jehoshaphat and Ahab doubtless continued when the latter
was succeeded by his son Ahaziah, and some disaster befell their
trading fleet in the Gulf of Akaba (l Kings xxii. 48 seq. ; 2 Chron. xx.
35-37)- Next came the revolt of Moab (2 Kings i. i), and Ahaziah,
after the briefest of reigns, was followed by Jehoram, whose Judaean
contemporary was Jehoshaphat (ch. iii.), or perhaps rather his own
namesake (i. 17). The popular story of Jehoram's campaign against
Moab, with which Edom was probably allied (see MOAB), hints at a
disastrous ending, and the Judaean annals, in their turn, record the
revolt of Edom and the Philistine Libnah (see PHILISTINES) , and allude
obscurely to a defeat of the Judaean Jehoram (2 Kings viii. 20-22).
Further details in 2 Chron. xxi.-xxii. I even record an invasion of
Philistines and Arabians (? Edomites), an attack upon Jerusalem,
the removal of the palace treasures and of all the royal sons with the
sole exception of Jehoahaz, i.e. Ahaziah (see JEHORAM; JEHOSHA-
PHAT). Had the two kingdoms been under a single head, these
features might find an explanation, but it must be allowed that it is
extremely difficult to fit the general situation into our present
history, and to determine where the line is to be drawn between
trustworthy and untrustworthy details. Moreover, of the various
accounts of the massacre of the princes of Judah, the Judaean
ascribes it not to Jehu and the reforming party (2 Kings x. 13 seq.)
but to Athaliah (^.».). Only the babe Jehoash was saved, and he
remained hidden in the Temple adjoining the palace itself. The
queen, Athaliah, despite the weak state of Judah after the revolt
in Philistia and Edom, actually appears to have maintained herself
for six years, until the priests slew her in a conspiracy, overthrew the
cult of Baal, and crowned the young child. It is a new source which
is here suddenly introduced, belonging apparently to a history of the
Temple; it throws no light upon the relations between Judah with
its priests and Israel with its prophets, the circumstances of the
regency under the priest Jehoiada are ignored, and the Temple re-
forms occupy the first place in the compiler's interest. The Judaean
annals then relate Hazael's advance to Gath; the city was captured
and Jerusalem was saved only by using the Temple and palace
treasure as a bribe. On the other hand, Chronicles has a different
story with a novel prelude. Jehoash, it is said, turned away from
Yahweh after the death of Jehoiada and gave heed to the Judaean
nobles, " wrath came upon Judah and Jerusalem for their guilt,"
prophets were sent to bring them back but they turned a deaf ear.
The climax of iniquity was the murder of Jehoiada's son Zechariah.
Soon after, a small band of Syrians entered Judah, destroyed its
princes, and sent the spoil to the king of Damascus; the disaster is
regarded as a prompt retribution (2 Chron. xxiv.). The inferiority of
Chronicles as a historical source and its varied examples of " ten-
dency-writing " must be set against its possible. access to traditions
of contact with those of Saul in i Samuel, and the relation is highly
suggestive for the study of their growth, as also for the perspective
of the various writers.
"See W. R. Smith (after Kuenen), Ency. Bib., col. 2670; also
W. E. Addis, ib., 1276, the commentaries of Bcnzinger (p. 130) and
Kittel (pp. 153 seq.) on Kings; J. S. Strachan, Hastings's Diet. Bible,
i. 694 ; G. A. Smith, Hist. Geog. of Holy Land, p. 582 ; Konig and
Hirsch, Jew. Ency. v. 137 seq. (" legend ... as indifferent to accuracy
in dates as it is to definiteness of places and names ") ; W. R. Harper,
Amos and Hosea, p. xli. seq. (" the lack of chronological order ....
the result is to create a wrong impression of Elisha's career ").
The bearing of this displacement upon the literary and historical
criticism of the narratives has never been worked out.
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
as trustworthy as those in Kings.1 In the present instance the
novel details cannot be lightly brushed aside. The position of
Judah at this period must be estimated (a) from the preceding
years of intimate relationship with Israel to the accession of Jehu, and
(b) from the calamity about half a century later when Jerusalem
was sacked by Israel. The Judaean narratives do not allow us to
fill the gap or to determine whether Judaean policy under the regent
Jehoiada would be friendly or hostile to Israel, or whether Judaean
nobles may have severed the earlier bond of union. If the latter
actually occurred, the hostility of the Israelite prophets is only to be
expected. But it is to be presumed that the punishment came from
Israel — the use of Syrian mercenaries not excluded — and if, instead
of using his treasure to ward off the invasion of Syria, Jehoash bribed
Damascus to break off relations with Israel, an alternative explana-
tion of the origin of the Aramaean wars may be found.2
1 2. The Aramaean Wars. — If the records leave it uncertain (a)
whether Jehu (like Tyre and Sidon) sent tribute to Shalmaneser
as a sign of submission or, while severing relations with Hazael,
sought the favour of Assyria, and (b) whether Judah only es-
caped Hazael's vengeance by a timely bribe or, in freeing itself
from Israel, had bribed Hazael to create a diversion, it appears
that the southern kingdom suffered little in the disastrous wars
between Damascus and Israel. There were, indeed, internal
troubles, and Jehoash perished in a conspiracy. His son
Amaziah had some difficulty in gaining the kingdom and showed
unwonted leniency in sparing the children of his father's mur-
derers. This was a departure from the customs of the age, and
was perhaps influenced less by generosity than by expediency.
Israel, on the other hand, was almost annihilated. The Syrians
seized Gilead, crossed over into Palestine, and occupied the land.
Jehu's son Jehoahaz saw his army made " like the dust in thresh-
ing," and the desperate condition of the country recalls the
straits in the time of Saul (i Sam. xiii. 6, 7, 10-22), and the days
before the great overthrow of the northern power as described
in Judges v. 6-8. The impression left by the horrors of the
age is clear from the allusions to the barbarities committed by
Damascus and its Ammonite allies upon Gilead (Amos i. 3, 13),
and in the account of the interview between Elisha and Hazael
(2 Kings viii. 12). Several of the situations can be more vividly
realized from the narratives of Syrian wars ascribed to the time
of Omri's dynasty, even if these did not originally refer to the
later period. Under Joash, son of Jehoahaz, the tide turned.
Elisha was apparently the champion, and posterity told of his
exploits when Samaria was visited with the sword. Thrice
Joash smote the Syrians — in accordance with the last words of
the dying prophet — and Aphek in the Sharon plain, famous in
history for Israel's disasters, now witnessed three victories.
The enemy under Hazael's son Ben-hadad (properly Bar-hadad)
was driven out and Joash regained the territory which his father
had lost (2 Kings xiii. 25); it may reasonably be supposed that a
treaty was concluded (cf. i Kings xx. 34). But the peace does
not seem to have been popular. The story of the last scene in
Elisha's life implies in Joash an easily contented disposition
which hindered him from completing his successes. Syria
had not been crushed, and the failure to utilize the opportunity
was an act of impolitic leniency for which Israel was bound to
suffer (2 Kings xiii. 19). Elisha's indignation can be illustrated
by the denunciation passed upon an anonymous king by the
prophetic party on a similar occasion (i Kings xx. 35-43).
At this stage it is necessary to notice the fresh invasion of Syria
by Hadad (Adad)-nirari, who besieged Mari, king of Damascus,
and exacted a heavy tribute (c. 800 B.C.). A diversion of this
kind may explain the Israelite victories; the subsequent with-
drawal of Assyria may have afforded the occasion for retaliation.
Those in Israel who remembered the previous war between
1 Careful examination shows that no a priori distinction can
be drawn between "trustworthy" books of Kings and "untrust-
worthy books " of Chronicles. Although the latter have special late
and unreliable features, they agree with the former in presenting the
same general trend of past history. The " canonical " history in
Kings is further embellished in Chronicles, but the gulf between them
is not so profound as that between the former and the under-
lying and half-suppressed historical traditions which can still be
recognized. (See also PALESTINE : History.)
1 For the former (2 Kings xii. 17 seq.) cf. Hezekiah and Sen-
nacherib (xviii. 13-15), and for the latter, cf. Asa and Baasha
(i Kings xv. 18-20; above).
JEWS 379
Assyria and Damascus would realize the recuperative power of
the latter, and would perceive the danger of the short-sighted
policy of Joash. It is interesting to find that Hadad-nirari
claims tribute from Tyre, Sidon and Beth-Omri (Israel), also
from Edom and Palastu (Philistia). There are no signs of an
extensive coalition as in the days of Shalmaneser; Ammon is
probably included under Damascus; the position of Moab —
which had freed itself from Jehoram of Israel — can hardly be
calculated. But the absence of Judah is surprising. Both
Jehoash (of Judah) and his son Amaziah left behind them a great
name; and the latter was comparable only to David (2 Kings
xiv. 3). He defeated Edom in the Valley of Salt, and hence it
is conceivable that Amaziah's kingdom extended over both Edom
and Philistia. A vaunting challenge to Joash (of Israel) gave
rise to one of the two fables that are preserved in the Old Testa-
ment (Judg. ix. 8 sqq.; see ABIMELECH). It was followed by
a battle at Beth-shemesh; the scene would suggest that Philistia
also was involved. The result was the route of Judah, the capture
of Amaziah, the destruction of the northern wall of Jerusalem, the
sacking of the temple and palace, and the removal of hostages to
Samaria (2 Kings xiv. 12 sqq.). Only a few words are preserved,
but the details, when carefully weighed, are extremely significant.
This momentous event for the southern kingdom was scarcely
the outcome of a challenge to a trial of strength; it was rather the
sequel to a period of smouldering jealousy and hostility.
The Judaean records have obscured the history since the days of
Omri's dynasty, when Israel and Judah were as one, when they
were moved by common aims and by a single reforming zeal, and
only Israel's vengeance gives the measure of the injuries she had
received. That the Judaean compiler has not given fuller informa-
tion is not surprising; the wonder is that he should have given so
much. It is one of those epoch-making facts in the light of which
the course of the history of the preceding and following years
must be estimated. It is taken, strangely enough, from an Israelite
source, but the tone of the whole is quite dispassionate and objective.
It needs little reflection to perceive that the position of Jerusalem
and Judah was now hardly one of independence, and the conflicting
chronological notices betray the attempt to maintain intact the thread
of Judaean history. So, on the one hand, the year of the disaster
sees the death of the Israelite king, and Amaziah survives for fifteen
years, while, on the other, twenty-seven years elapse between the
battle and the accession of Uzziah, the next king of Judah.*
The importance of the historical questions regarding relations
between Damascus, Israel and Judah is clear. The defeat of Syria
by Joash (of Israel) was not final. The decisive victories were
gained by Jeroboam II. He saved Israel from being blotted out,
and through his successes " the children of Israel dwelt in their tents
as of old " (2 Kings xiii. 5, xiv. 26 seq.). Syria must have resumed
warfare with redoubled energy, and a state of affairs is presup-
posed which can be pictured with the help of narratives that deal
with similar historical situations. In particular, the overthrow
of Israel as foreshadowed in I Kings xxii. implies an Aramaean
invasion (cf. w. 17, 25), after a treaty (xx. 35 sqq.), although this
can scarcely be justified by the events which followed the death of
Ahab, in whose time they are now placed.
For the understanding of these great wars between Syria and
Israel (which the traditional chronology spreads over eighty years),
for the significance of the crushing defeats and inspiring victories,
and for the alternations of despair and hope, a careful study of all
the records of relations between Israel and the north is at least
instructive, and it is important to remember that, although the
present historical outlines are scanty and incomplete, some — if not
all — of the analogous descriptions in their present form are certainly
later than the second half of the 9th century B.C., the period in which
these great events fall.4
13. Political Development. — Under Jeroboam II. the borders
of Israel were restored, and in this political revival the prophets
again took part.6 The defeat of Ben-hadad by the king of
3 It is possible that Hadad-nirari's inscription refers to conditions
in the latter part of his reign (812-783 B.C.), when Judah apparently
was no longer independent and when Jeroboam II. was king of
Israel. The accession of the latter has been placed between 785 and
782. It is now known, also, that Ben-hadad and a small coalition
were defeated by the king of Hamath; but the bearing of this upon
Israelite history is uncertain.
4 Cf. generally, I Sam. iv., xxxi. ; 2 Sam. ii. 8; I Kings xx., xxii.;
2 Kings vi. 8-vii. 20; also Judges v. (see DEBORAH).
6 Special mention is made of Jonah, a prophet of Zebulun in
(north) Israel (2 Kings xiv. 25). Nothing is known of him, unless
the very late prophetical writing with the account of his visit to
Nineveh rests upon some old tradition, which, however, can scarcely
be recovered (see JONAH).
38o
JEWS
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
Hamath and the quiescence of Assyria may have encouraged
Israelite ambitions, but until more is known of the campaigns
of Hadad-nirari and of Shalmaneser III. (against Damascus,
773 B.C.) the situation cannot be safely gauged. Moab was
probably tributary; the position of Judah and Edom is involved
with the chronological problems. According to the Judaean
annals, the " people of Judah " set Azariah (Uzziah) upon his
father's throne; and to his long reign of fifty-two years are
ascribed conquests over Philistia and Edom, the fortification of
Jerusalem and the reorganization of the army. As the relations
with Israel are not specified, the sequel to Amaziah's defeat is a
matter for conjecture; although, when at the death of Jeroboam
Israel hastened to its end amid anarchy and dissension, it is
hardly likely that the southern kingdom was unmoved. All
that can be recognized from the biblical records, however, is
the period of internal prosperity which Israel and Judah enjoyed
under Jeroboam and Uzziah (qq.v.) respectively.
It is difficult to trace the biblical history century by century
as it reaches these last years of bitter conflict and of renewed
prosperity. The northern kingdom at the height of its power
included Judah, it extended its territory east of the Jordan
towards the north and the south, and maintained close relations
with Phoenicia and the Aramaean states. It had a national
history which left its impress upon the popular imagination,
and sundry fragments of tradition reveal the pride which the
patriot felt in the past. An original close connexion is felt with
the east of the Jordan and with Gilead; stories of invasion and
conquest express themselves in varied forms. In so far as in-
ternal wealth and luxury presuppose the control of the trade-
routes, periodical alliances are implied in whiqh Judah, willingly
or unwillingly, was included. But the Judaean records do not
allow us to trace its independent history with confidence, and
our estimate can scarcely base itself solely upon the accidental
fulness or scantiness of political details. In the subsequent
disasters of Israel (§ 15) we may perceive the growing supremacy
of Judah, and the Assyrian inscriptions clearly indicate the
dependence of Judaean politics upon its relations with Edom and
Arab tribes on the south-east and with Philistia on the west.
Whatever had been the effect of the movement of the Purasati
some centuries previously, the Philistines (i.e. the people of
Philistia) are now found in possession of a mature organization,
and the Assyrian evidence is of considerable value for an estimate
of the stories of conflict and covenant, of hostility and friendship,
which were current in south Palestine. The extension of the
term " Judah " (cf. that of " Israel " and " Samaria ") is in-
volved with the incorporation of non-Judaean elements. The
country for ten miles north of Jerusalem was the exposed and
highly debatable district ascribed to the young tribe of Benjamin
(the favourite "brother" of both Judah and Joseph; Gen.
xxxvii., xxxix. sqq.); the border-line between the rival kingdoms
oscillated, and consequently the political position of the smaller
and half-desert Judaean state depended upon the attitude of its
neighbours. It is possible that tradition is right hi supposing
that "Judah went down from his brethren" (Gen. xxxviii. i;
cf. Judg. i. 3). Its monarchy traced its origin to Hebron in
the south, and its growth is contemporary with a decline in
Israel (§ 7). It is at least probable that when Israel was supreme
an independent Judah would centre around a more southerly
site than Jerusalem. It is naturally uncertain how far the
traditions of David can be utilized; but they illustrate Judaean
situations when they depict intrigues with Israelite officials,
vassalage under Philistia, and friendly relations with Moab, or
when they suggest how enmity between Israel and Ammon
could be turned to useful account. Tradition, in fact, is
concentrated upon the rise of the Judaean dynasty under David,
but there are significant periods before the rise of both Jehoash
and Uzziah upon which the historical records maintain a
perplexing silence.
The Hebrews of Israel and Judah were, political history apart,
men of the same general stamp, with the same cult and custom;
for the study of religion and social usages, therefore, they can
be treated as a single people. The institution of the monarchy
was opposed to the simpler local forms of government, and a
military regime had distinct disadvantages (cf. i Sam. viii. 11-18).
The king stood at the head, as the court of final appeal, and upon
him and his officers depended the people's welfare. A more in-
tricate social organization caused internal weakness, and Eastern
history shows with what rapidity peoples who have become
strong by discipline and moderation pass from the height of
their glory into extreme corruption and disintegration.1 This
was Israel's fate. Opposition to social abuses and enmity
towards religious innovations are regarded as the factors which
led to the overthrow of Omri's dynasty by Jehu, and when
Israel seemed to be at the height of its glory under Jeroboam II.
warning voices again made themselves heard. The two factors
are inseparable, for in ancient times no sharp dividing-line was
drawn between religious and civic duties: righteousness and
equity, religious duty and national custom were one.
Elaborate legal enactments codified in Babylonia by the 2Oth
century B.C. find striking parallels in Hebrew, late Jewish (Talmudic),
Syrian and Mahommedan law, or in the unwritten usages of all ages;
for even where there were neither written laws nor duly instituted
lawgivers, there was no lawlessness, since custom and belief were,
and still are, almost inflexible. Various collections are preserved
in the Old Testament; they are attributed to the time of Moses the
lawgiver, who stands at the beginning of Israelite national and
religious history. But many of the laws were quite unsuitable
for the circumstances of his age, and the belief that a body of intricate
and even contradictory legislation was imposed suddenly upon a
people newly emerged from bondage in Egypt raises insurmountable
objections, and underestimates the fact that legal usage existed in
the earliest stages of society, and therefore in pre-Mosaic times.
The more important question is the date of the laws in their present
form and content. Collections of laws are found in Deuteronomy
and in exilic and post-exilic writings; groups of a relatively earlier
type are preserved in Exod. xxxiv. 14-26, xx. 23-xxiii., and (of an-
other stamp) in Lev.xvii.— xxvi. (now in post-exilic form). For a useful
conspectus of details, see J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby.
The Hexateuch (vol. i., appendix) ; C. F. Kent, Israel's Laws and
Legal Enactments (1907); and in general I. Benzinger, articles
"Government," "Family" and "Law and Justice," Ency. Bib., and
G. B. Gray, " Law Literature," ib. (the literary growth of legislation).
Reference may also be made, for illustrative material, to W. R.
Smith, Kinship and Marriage, Religion of the Semites; to E. Day,
Social Life of the Hebrews; and, for some comparison of customary
usage in the Semitic field, to S. A. Cook, Laws of Moses and Code of
Hammurabi.
14. Religion and the Prophets. — The elements of the thought
and religion of the Hebrews do not sever them from their
neighbours; similar features of cult are met with elsewhere
under different names. Hebrew religious institutions can be
understood from the biblical evidence studied in the light of
comparative religion; and without going afield to Babylonia,
Assyria or Egypt, valuable data are furnished by the cults of
Phoenicia, Syria and Arabia, and these in turn can be illustrated
from excavation and from modern custom. Every religion has
its customary cult and ritual, its recognized times, places and
persons for the observance. Worship is simpler at the smaller
shrines than at the more famous temples; and, as the rulers are
the patrons of the religion and are brought into contact with
the religious personnel, the character of the social organization
leaves its mark upon those who hold religious and judicial func-
tions alike. The Hebrews shared the paradoxes of Orientals,
and religious enthusiasm and ecstasy were prominent features.
Seers and prophets of all kinds ranged from those who were
consulted for daily mundane affairs to those who revealed the
oracles in times of stress, from those who haunted local holy
sites to those high in royal favour, from the quiet domestic
communities to the austere mountain recluse. Among these
were to be found the most sordid opportunism and the most
heroic self-effacement, the crassest supernaturalism and — the
loftiest conceptions of practical morality. A development of
ideals and a growth of spirituality can be traced which render
the biblical writings with their series of prophecies a unique
1 This is philosophically handled by the Arabian historian Ibn
Khaldun, whose Prolegomena is well worthy of attention; see De
Slane, Not. et extraits, vols. xix.-xxi., with Von Kremer's criticisms
in the Sitz. d. Kais. Akad. of Vienna (vol. xciii., 1879); cf. also
R. Flint, History of the Philosophy of History, i. 157 sqq.
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
JEWS
381
phenomenon.1 The prophets taught that the national exis-
tence of the people was bound up with religious and social con-
ditions; they were in a sense the politicians of the age, and to
regard them simply as foretellers of the future is to limit their
sphere unduly. They took a keen interest in all the political
vicissitudes of the Oriental world. Men of all standards of
integrity, they were exposed to external influences, but whether
divided among themselves in their adherence to conflicting
parties, or isolated in their fierce denunciation of contemporary
abuses, they shared alike in the worship of Yahweh whose inspira-
tion they claimed. A recollection of the manifold forms which
religious life and thought have taken in Christendom or in Islam,
and the passions which are so easily engendered among opposing
sects, will prevent a one-sided estimate of the religious stand-
points which the writings betray; and to the recognition that
they represent lofty ideals it must be added that the great
prophets, like all great thinkers, were in advance of their age.
The prophets are thoroughly Oriental figures, and the inter-
pretation of their profound religious experiences requires a
particular sympathy which is not inherent in Western minds.
Their writings are to be understood in the light of their age and of
- the conditions which gave birth to them.. With few exceptions
they are preserved in fragmentary form, with additions and ad-
justments which were necessary in order to make them applicable
to later conditions. When, as often, the great figures have been
made the spokesmen of the thought of subsequent generations,
the historical criticism of the prophecies becomes one of peculiar
difficulty.2 According to the historical traditions it is precisely
in the age of Jeroboam II. and Uzziah that the first of the
extant prophecies begin (see AMOS and HOSEA). Here it is
enough to observe that the highly advanced doctrines of the dis-
tinctive character of Yahweh, as ascribed to the 8th century B.C.,
presuppose a foundation and development. But the evidence
does not allow us to trace the earlier progress of the ideas.
Yahwism presents itself under a variety of aspects, and the
history of Israel's relations to the God Yahweh (whose name is
not necessarily of Israelite origin) can hardly be disentangled
amid the complicated threads of the earlier history. The view
that the seeds of Yahwism were planted in the young Israelite
nation in the days of the " exodus " conflicts with the belief that
the worship of Yahweh began in the pre-Mosaic age. Neverthe-
less, it implies that religion passed into a new stage through
the influence of Moses, and to this we find a relatively less com-
plete analogy in the specific north Israelite traditions of the
age of Jehu. The change from the dynasty of Omri to that of
Jehu has been treated by several hands, and the writers, in their
recognition of the introduction of a new tendency, have obscured
the fact that the cult of Yahweh had flourished even under such
a king as Ahab. While the influence of the great prophets
Elijah and Elisha is clearly visible, it is instructive to find that
the south, too, has its share in the inauguration of the new era.
At Horeb, the mount of God, was located the dramatic theophany
which heralded to Elijah the advent of the sword, and Jehu's
supporter in his sanguinary measures belongs to the Rechabites,
a sect which felt itself to be the true worshipping community
of Yahweh and is closely associated with the Kenites, the kin
of Moses. It was at the holy well of Kadesh, in the sacred
mounts of Sinai and Horeb, and in the field of Edom that the
1 Cf. J. G. Frazer, Adonis, Attis, Osiris (1907), p. 67: " Prophecy
of the Hebrew type has not been limited to Israel; it is indeed a
phenomenon of almost world- wide occurrence; in many lands and
in many ages the wild, whirling words of frenzied men and women
have been accepted as the utterances of an in-dwelling deity. What
does distinguish Hebrew prophecy from all others is that the genius
of a few members of the profession wrested this vulgar but powerful
instrument from baser uses, and by wielding it in the interest of a
high morality rendered a service of incalculable value to humanity.
That is indeed the glory of Israel. ..."
2 The use which was made in Apocalyptic literature of the tradi-
tions of Moses, Isaiah and others finds its analogy within the Old
Testament itself; cf. the relation between the present late prophecies
of Jonah and the unknown prophet of the time of Jeroboam II.
(see § 13, note 5). To condemn re-shaping or adaptation of this nature
from a modern Western standpoint is to misunderstand entirely
the Oriental mind and Oriental usage.
Yahweh of Moses was found, and scattered traces survive of a
definite belief in the entrance into Palestine of a movement
uncompromisingly devoted to the purer worship of Yahweh.
The course of the dynasty of Jehu — the reforms, the disastrous
Aramaean wars, and, at length, Yahweh's " arrow of victory "
— constituted an epoch in the Israelite history, and it is regarded
as such.3
The problem of the history of Yahwism depends essentially upon
the view adopted as to the date and origin of the biblical details
and their validity for the various historical and religious conditions
they presuppose. Yahwism is a religion which appears upon a soil
saturated with ideas and usages which find their parallel in extra-
biblical sources and in neighbouring lands. The problem cannot
be approached from modern preconceptions because there was much
associated with the worship of Yahweh which only gradually came
to be- recognized as repugnant, and there was much in earlier ages
and in other lands which reflects an elevated and even complex
religious philosophy. In the south of the Sinaitic peninsula, remains
have been found of an elaborate half-Egyptian, half-Semitic cultus
(Petrie, Researches in Sinai, xiii.), and not only does Edom possess
some reputation for " wisdom," but, where this district is concerned,
the old Arabian religion (whose historical connexion with Palestine
is still imperfectly known) claims some attention. The character-
istic denunciations of corruption and lifeless ritual in the writings
of the prophets and the emphasis which is laid upon purity and
simplicity of religious life are suggestive of the influence of the
nomadic spirit rather than of an internal evolution on Palestinian
soil. Desert pastoral life does not necessarily imply any intellectual
inferiority, and its religious conceptions, though susceptible of modi-
fication, are not artificially moulded through the influence of other
civilizations. Nomadic life is recognized by Arabian writers them-
selves as possessing a relative superiority, and its characteristic
purity of manner and its reaction against corruption and luxury
are not incompatible with a warlike spirit. If nomadism may be
recognized as one of the factors in the growth of Yahwism, there is
something to be said for the hypothesis which associates it with the
clans connected with the Levites (see E. Meyer, Israeliten, pp. 82
sqq.; B. Luther, ib. 138). It is, however, obvious that the influ-
ence due to immigrants could be, and doubtless was, exerted at
morethan one period (see§§i8, 20; also HEBREW RELIGION; PRIEST).
15. The Fall of the Israelite Monarchy. — The prosperity of
Israel was its undoing. The disorders that hastened its end find
an analogy in the events of the more obscure period after the
death of the earlier Jeroboam. Only the briefest details are
given. Zechariah was slain after six months by Shallum ben
Jabesh in Ibleam; but the usurper fell a month later to Menahem
(?.».), who only after much bloodshed established his posi-
tion. Assyria again appeared upon the scene under Tiglath-
pileser IV. (745-728 B.C.).4 His approach was the signal for the
formation of a coalition, which .was overthrown in 738. Among
those who paid tribute were Rasun (the biblical Rezin) of
Damascus, Menahem of Samaria, the kings of Tyre, Byblos and
Hamath and the queen of Aribi (Arabia, the Syrian desert).
Israel was once more in league with Damascus and Phoenicia,
and the biblical records must be read in the light of political
history. Judah was probably holding aloof. Its king, Uzziah,
was a leper in his latter days, and his son and regent, Jotham,
claims notice for the circumstantial reference (2 Chron. xxvii.; cf.
xxvi. 8) to his subjugation of Ammon — the natural allies of Damas-
cus— for three years. Scarcely had Assyria withdrawn before
Menahem lost his life in a conspiracy, and Pekah with the help
of Gilead made himself king. The new movement was evidently
anti-Assyrian, and strenuous endeavours were made to present
a united front. It is suggestive to find Judah the centre
of attack.6 Rasun and Pekah directed their blows from the
north, Philistia threatened the west flank, and the Edomites
who drove out the Judaeans from Elath (on the Gulf of 'Akaba)
were no doubt only taking their part in the concerted action.
A more critical situation could scarcely be imagined. The throne
of David was then occupied by the young Ahaz, Jotham's son.
8 The condemnation passed upon the impetuous and fiery zeal
of the adherents of the new movement (cf. Hos. i. 4), like the remark-
able vicissitudes in the traditions of Moses, Aaron and the Levites
(qq.v.), represents changing situations of real significance, whose true
place in the history can with difficulty be recovered.
4 Formerly thought to be the third of the name.
5 Perhaps Judah had come to an understanding with Tiglath-
pileser (H. M. Haydn, Journ. Bib. Lit., xxviii. 1909, pp. 182-199);
see UZZIAH.
382
JEWS
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
In this crisis we meet with Isaiah (q.v.), one of the finest of
Hebrew prophets. The disorganized state of Egypt and the un-
certain allegiance of the desert tribes left Judah without direct
aid; on the other hand, opposition to Assyria among the con-
flicting interests of Palestine and Syria was rarely unanimous.
Either in the natural course of events — to preserve the unity of
his empire — or influenced by the rich presents of gold and silver
with which Ahaz accompanied his appeal for help, Tiglath-
pileser intervened with campaigns against Philistia (734 B.C.) and
Damascus (733-732). Israel was punished by the ravaging
of the northern districts, and the king claims to have carried
away the people of " the house of Omri." Pekah was slain and
one Hoshea (q.v.) was recognized as his successor. Assyrian
officers were placed in the land and Judah thus gained its
deliverance at the expense of Israel. But the proud Israelites
did not remain submissive for long; Damascus had indeed
fallen, but neither Philistia nor Edom had yet been crushed.
At this stage a new problem becomes urgent. A number of
petty peoples, of whom little definite is known, fringed Palestine
from the south of Judah and the Delta to the Syrian desert.
They belong to an area which merges itself in the west into Egypt,
and Egypt in fact had a hereditary claim upon it. Continued
intercourse between Egypt, Gaza and north Arabia is natural
in view of the trade-routes which connected them, and on several
occasions joint action on the part of Edomites (with allied
tribes) and the Philistines is recorded, or may be inferred. The
part played by Egypt proper in the ensuing anti-Assyrian
combinations is not clearly known; with a number of petty
dynasts fomenting discontent and revolt, there was an absence
of cohesion in that ancient empire previous to the rise of the
Ethiopian dynasty. Consequently the references to " Egypt "
(Heb. Mis.rayim, Ass. Mus.ri) sometimes suggest that the geo-
graphical term was really extended beyond the bounds of Egypt
proper towards those districts where Egyptian influence or domi-
nation was or had been recognized (see further MIZRAIM).
When Israel began to recover its prosperity and regained
confidence, its policy halted between obedience to Assyria and
reliance upon this ambiguous " Egypt." The situation is illus-
trated in .the writings of Hosea (q.v.). When at length Tiglath-
pileser died, in 727, the slumbering revolt became general; Israel
refused the usual tribute to its overlord, and definitely threw in
its lot with " Egypt." In due course Samaria was besieged
for three years by Shalmaneser IV. The alliance with So
(Seveh, Sibi) of " Egypt," upon whom hopes had been placed,
proved futile, and the forebodings of keen-sighted prophets were
justified. Although no evidence is at hand, it is probable that
Ahaz of Judah rendered service to Assyria by keeping the allies
in check; possible, also, that the former enemies of Jerusalem
had now been induced to turn against Samaria. The actual
capture of the Israelite capital is claimed by Sargon (722), who
removed 27,290 of its inhabitants and fifty chariots. Other
peoples were introduced, officers were placed in charge, and the
usual tribute re-imposed. Another revolt was planned in 720 in
which the province of Samaria joined with Hamath and Damas-
cus, with the Phoenician Arpad and Simura, and with Gaza and
" Egypt." Two battles, one at Karkar in the north, another at
Rapih (Raphia) on the border of Egypt, sufficed to quell the
disturbance. The desert peoples who paid tribute on this
occasion still continued restless, and in 715 Sargon removed men
of Tamud, Ibadid, Marsiman, Hayapa, " the remote Arabs of
the desert," and placed them in the land of Beth-Omri. Sar-
gon's statement is significant for the internal history; but
unfortunately the biblical historians take no further interest
in the fortunes of the northern kingdom after the fall of Samaria,
and see in Judah the sole survivor of the Israelite tribes (see
2 Kings xvii. 7-23). Yet the situation in this neglected district
must continue to provoke inquiry.
16. Judah and Assyria. — Amid these changes Judah was inti-
mately connected with the south Palestinian peoples (see further
PHILISTINES). Ahaz had recognized the sovereignty of Assyria
and visited Tiglath-pileser at Damascus. The Temple records
describe the innovations he introduced on his return. Under his
son Hezekiah there were fresh disturbances in the southern states,
and anti-Assyrian intrigues began to take a more definite shape
among the Philistine cities. Ashdod openly revolted and found
support in Moab, Edom, Judah, and the still ambiguous " Egypt."
This step may possibly be connected with the attempt of Marduk
(Merodach)-baladan in south Babylonia to form a league against
Assyria (cf. 2 Kings xx. 12) ; at all events Ashdod fell after a three
years' siege (711) and for a time there was peace. But with the
death of Sargon in 705 there was another great outburst;
practically the whole of Palestine and Syria was in arms, and
the integrity of Sennacherib's empire was threatened. In both
Judah and Philistia the anti-Assyrian party was not without
opposition, and those who adhered or favoured adherence to
the great power were justified by the result. The inevitable
lack of cohesion among the petty states weakened the national
cause. At Sennacherib's approach, Ashdod, Ammon, Moab and
Edom submitted; Ekron, Ascalon, Lachish and Jerusalem held
out strenuously. The southern allies (with " Egypt ") were
defeated at Eltekeh (Josh. xix. 44). Hezekiah was besieged
and compelled to submit (701). The small kings who had
remained faithful were rewarded by an extension of their terri-
tories, and Ashdod, Ekron and Gaza were enriched at Judah's
expense. These events are related in Sennacherib's inscription;
the biblical records preserve their own traditions (see HEZEKIAH).
If the impression left upon current thought can be estimated
from certain of the utterances of the court-prophet Isaiah and
the Judaean countryman Micah (q.v.), the light which these
throw upon internal conditions must also be used to gauge the
real extent of the religious changes ascribed to Hezekiah. A
brazen serpent, whose institution was attributed to Moses, had
not hitherto been considered out of place in the cult; its destruc-
tion was perhaps the king's most notable reform.
In the long reign of his son Manasseh later writers saw the
deathblow to the Judaean kingdom. Much is related of his
wickedness and enmity to the followers of Yahweh, but few
political details have come down. It is uncertain whether
Sennacherib invaded Judah again shortly before his death, never-
theless the land was practically under the control of Assyria.
Both Esar-haddon (681-668) and Assur-bani-pal (668-c. 626)
number among their tributaries Tyre, Ammon, Moab, Edom,
Ascalon, Gaza and Manasseh himself,1 and cuneiform dockets
unearthed at Gezer suggest the presence of Assyrian garrisons
there (and no doubt also elsewhere) to ensure allegiance. The
situation was conducive to the spread of foreign customs, and
the condemnation passed upon Manasseh thus perhaps becomes
more significant. Precisely what form his worship took is a
matter of conjecture; but it is possible that the religion must
not be judged too strictly from the standpoint of the late com-
piler, and that Manasseh merely assimilated the older Yahweh-
worship to new Assyrian forms.2 Politics and religion, how-
ever, were inseparable, and the supremacy of Assyria meant the
supremacy of the Assyrian pantheon.
If Judah was compelled to take part in the Assyrian campaigns
against Egypt, Arabia (the Syrian desert) and Tyre, this would
only be in accordance with a vassal's duty. But when tradition
preserves some recollection of an offence for which Manasseh was
taken to Babylon to explain his conduct (2 Chron. xxxiii.), also
of the settling of foreign colonists in Samaria by Esar-haddon
(Ezra iv. 2), there is just a possibility that Judah made some
attempt to gain independence. According to Assur-bani-pal all
the western lands were inflamed by the revolt of his brother
Samas-sum-ukin. What part Judah took in the Transjordanic
disturbances, in which Moab fought invading Arabian tribes on
behalf of Assyria, is unknown (see MOAB). Manasseh's son Amon
fell in a court intrigue and " the people of the land," after avenging
the murder, set up in his place the infant Josiah (637). The
circumstances imply a regency, but the records are silent upon
1 The fact that these lists are of the kings of the " land Haiti "
would suggest that the term " Hittite " had been extended to
Palestine.
* So K. Budde, Rel. of Israel to Exile, pp. 165-167. For an
attempt to recover the character of the cults, see W. Erbt, Hebrder
(Leipzig, 1006), pp. 150 sqq.
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
JEWS
383
the outlook. The assumption that the decay of Assyria awoke
the national feeling of independence is perhaps justified by those
events which made the greatest impression upon the compiler,
and an account is given of Josiah's religious reforms, based upon
a source apparently identical with that which described the work
of Jehoash. In an age when the oppression and corruption of the
ruling classes had been such that those who cherished the old
worship of Yahweh dared not confide in their most intimate com-
panions (Mic. vii. 5, 6), no social reform was possible; but now
the young Josiah, the popular choice, was upon the throne. A
roll, it is said, was found in the Temple, its contents struck
terror into the hearts of the priests and king, and it led to a
solemn covenant before Yahweh to observe the provisions of the
law-book which had been so opportunely recovered.
That the writer (2 Kings xxii. seq.) meant to describe the discovery
of Deuteronomy is evident from the events which followed ; and this
identification of the roll, already made by Jerome, Chrysostom
and others, has been substantiated by modern literary criticism
since De Wette (1805). (See DEUTERONOMY; JOSIAH.) Some very
interesting parallels have been cited from Egyptian and Assyrian
records where religious texts, said to have been found in temples,
or oracles from the distant past, have come to light at the very time
when " the days were full. ' * There is, however, no real proof for
the traditional antiquity of Deuteronomy. The book forms a very
distinctive landmark in the religious history by reason of its attitude
to cult and ritual (see HEBREW RELIGION, § 7). In particular
it is aimed against the worship at the numerous minor sanctuaries
and inculcates the sole pre-eminence of the one great sanctuary — the
Temple of Jerusalem. This centralization involved the removal of
the local priests and a modification of ritual and legal observance.
The fall of Samaria, Sennacherib's devastation of Judah, and the
growth of Jerusalem as the capital, had tended to raise the position
of the Temple, although Israel itself, as also Judah, had famous
sanctuaries of its own. From the standpoint of the popular religion,
the removal of the local altars, like Hezekiah's destruction of the
brazen serpent, would be an act of desecration, an iconpclasm which
can be partly appreciated from the sentiments of 2 Kings xviii. 22,
and partly also from the modern Wahhabite reformation (of the igth
century). But the details and success of the reforms, when viewed
in the light of the testimony of contemporary prophets, are uncer-
tain. The book of Deuteronomy crystallizes a doctrine; it is the
codification of teaching which presupposes a carefully prepared soil.
The account of Josiah's work, like that of Hezekiah, is written by one
of the Deuteronomic school : that is to say, the writer describes the
promulgation of the teaching under which he lives. It is part of
the scheme which runs through the book of Kings, and its apparent
object is to show that the Temple planned by David and founded by
Solomon ultimately gained its true position as the only sanctuary
of Yahweh to which his worshippers should repair. Accordingly,
in handling Josiah's successors the writer no longer refers to the
high places. But if Josiah carried out the reforms ascribed to him
they were of no lasting effect. This is conclusively shown by the
writings of Jeremiah (xxv. 3-7, xxxvi. 2 seq.) and Ezekiel. Josiah
himself is praised for his justice, but faithless Judah is insincere
(Jer. iii. 10), and those who claim to possess Yahweh's law are
denounced (viii. 8). If Israel could appear to be better than Judah
(iii. 1 1 ; Ezek. xvi., xxiii.), the religious revival was a practical failure,
and it was not until a century later that the opportunity again came
to put any new teaching into effect (§ 20). On the other hand,
the book of Deuteronomy has a characteristic social-religious side;
its humanity, philanthropy and charity are the distinctive features
of its laws, and Josiah's reputation (Jer. xxii. 15 seq.) and the
circumstances in which he was chosen king may suggest that
he, like Jehoash (2 Kings xi. 17; cf. xxiii. 3), had entered into a
reciprocal covenant with a people who, as Micah's writings would
indicate, had suffered grievous oppression and misery.2
17. The Fall of the Judaean Monarchy. — In Josiah's reign a
new era was beginning in the history of the world. Assyria was
rapidly decaying and Egypt had recovered from the blows of
Assur-bani-pal (to which the Hebrew prophet Nahum alludes,
iii. 8-10). Psammetichus (Psamtek) I., one of the ablest of
Egyptian rulers for many centuries, threw off the Assyrian yoke
1 See G. Maspero, Gesch. d. morgenland. Volker (1877), p. 446;
E. Naville, Proc. Sac. Bibl. Archaeol. (1907), pp. 232 sqq., and T. K.
Cheyne, Decline and Fall of Judah (1908), p. 13, with references.
[The genuineness of such discoveries is naturally a matter for his-
torical criticism to decide. Thus the discovery of Numa's laws in
Rome (Livy xl. 29), upon which undue weight has sometimes been
laid (see Klostermann, Der Pentateuch (1906), pp. 155 sqq., was not
accepted as genuine by the senate (who had the laws destroyed),
and probably not by Pliny himself. Only the later antiquaries
clung to the belief in their trustworthiness. — (Communicated.)}
* Both kings came to the throne after a conspiracy aimed at
existing abuses, and other parallels can be found (see KINGS).
with the help of troops from Asia Minor and employed these to
guard his eastern frontiers at Defneh. He also revived the old
trading-connexions between Egypt and Phoenicia. A Chaldean
prince, Nabopolassar, set himself up in Babylonia, and Assyria
was compelled to invoke the aid of the Askuza. It was perhaps
after this that an inroad of Scythians (q.ii.~) occurred (c. 626 B.C.);
if it did not actually touch Judah, the advent of the people of
the north appears to have caused great alarm (Jer. iv.-vi.:
Zephaniah). Bethshean in Samaria has perhaps preserved in its
later (though temporary) name Scythopolis an echo of the inva-
sion.3 Later, Necho, son of Psammetichus, proposed to add
to Egypt some of the Assyrian provinces, and marched through
Palestine. Josiah at once interposed; it is uncertain whether, in
spite of the power of Egypt, he had hopes of extending his king-
dom, or whether the famous reformer was, like Manasseh, a vassal
of Assyria. The book of Kings gives the standpoint of a later
Judaean writer, but Josiah's authority over a much larger area
than Judah alone is suggested by xxiii. 19 (part of an addition),
and by the references to the border at Riblah in Ezek. vi. 14,
xi. 10 seq. He was slain at Megiddo in 608, and Egypt, as in the
long-distant past, again held Palestine and Syria. The Judaeans
made Jehoahaz (or Shallum) their king, but the Pharaoh banished
him to Egypt three months later and appointed his brother
Jehoiakim. Shortly afterwards Nineveh fell, and with it the
empire which had dominated the fortunes of Palestine for over
two centuries (see § 10). Nabonidus (Nabunaid) king of Baby-
lonia (556 B.C.) saw in the disaster the vengeance of the gods for
the sacrilege of Sennacherib; the Hebrew prophets, for their
part, exulted over Yahweh's far-reaching judgment. The newly
formed Chaldean power at once recognized in Necho a dangerous
rival and Nabopolassar sent his son Nebuchadrezzar, who over-
threw the Egyptian forces at Carchemish (605). The battle was
the turning-point of the age, and with it the succession of the new
Chaldean or Babylonian kingdom was assured. But the relations
between Egypt and Judah were not broken off. The course
of events is not clear, but Jehoiakim (q.v.) at all events was in-
clined to rely upon Egypt. He died just as Nebuchadrezzar,
seeing his warnings disregarded, was preparing to lay siege to
Jerusalem. His young son Jehoiachin surrendered after a
three months' reign, with his mother and the court; they were
taken away to Babylonia, together with a number of the artisan
class (596). Jehoiakim's brother, Mattaniah or Zedekiah, was
set in his place under an oath of allegiance, which he broke, pre-
ferring Hophra the new king of Egypt. A few years later the
second siege took place. It began on the tenth day of the tenth
month, January 587. The looked-for intervention of Egypt was
unavailing, although a temporary raising of the siege inspired wild
hopes. Desertion, pestilence and famine added to the usual
horrors of a siege, and at length on the ninth day of the fourth
month 586, a breach was made in the walls. Zedekiah fled
towards the Jordan valley but was seized and taken to Nebuchad-
rezzar at Riblah (45 m. south of Hamath). His sons were slain
before his eyes, and he himself was blinded and carried off to
Babylon after a reign of eleven years. The Babylonian Nebuzar-
adan was sent to take vengeance upon the rebellious city, and
on the seventh day of the fifth month 586 B.C. Jerusalem was
destroyed. The Temple, palace and city buildings were burned,
the walls broken down, the chief priest Seraiah, the second priest
Zephaniah, and other leaders were put to death, and a large body
of people was again carried away. The disaster became the
great epoch-making event for Jewish history and literature.
Throughout these stormy years the prophet Jeremiah (q.v.) had
realized that Judah's only hope lay in submission to Babylonia.
Stigmatized as a traitor, scorned and even imprisoned, he had not
ceased to utter his warnings to deaf ears, although Zedekiah
himself was perhaps open to persuasion. Now the penalty had
been paid, and the Babylonians, whose policy was less destructive
than that of Assyria, contented themselves with appointing as
governor a certain Gedaliah. The new centre was Mizpah, a
commanding eminence and sanctuary, about 5 m. N.W. of
Jerusalem; and here Gedaliah issued an appeal to the people to
3 But see N. Schmidt, Ency. Bib., " Scythians," § I.
384
JEWS
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
be loyal to Babylonia and to resume their former peaceful occu-
pations. The land had not been devastated, and many gladly
returned from their hiding-places in Moab, Edom and Ammon.
But discontented survivors of the royal family under Ishmael
intrigued with Baalis, king of Ammon. The plot resulted in
the murder of Gedaliah and an unsuccessful attempt to carry off
various princesses and officials who had been left in the governor's
care. This new confusion and a natural fear of Babylonia's
vengeance led many to feel that-their only safety lay in flight to
Egypt, and, although warned by Jeremiah that even there the
sword would find them, they fled south and took refuge in
Tahpanhes (Daphnae, q.v.), afterwards forming small settle-
ments in other parts of Egypt. But the thread of the history
is broken, and apart from an allusion to the favour shown to
the captive Jehoiachin (with which the books of Jeremiah and
Kings conclude), there is a gap in the records, and subsequent
events are viewed from a new standpoint (§ 20).
The last few years of the Judaean kingdom present several difficult
problems.
(a) That there was some fluctuation of tradition is evident in the
case of Jehoiakim, with whose quiet end (2 Kings xxiv. 6 [see also
LUCIAN); 2 Chrbn. xxxvi. 8 [Septuagint]) contrast the fate fore-
shadowed in Jer. xxii. 18 seq., xxxvi. 30 (cf. Jos. Ant. x. 6, 2 seq.).
The tradition of his captivity (2 Chron. xxxvi. 6 ; Dan^ i. 2) has
apparently confused him with Jehoiachin, and the latter's reign is
so brief that some overlapping is conceivable. Moreover, the
prophecy in Jer. xxxiv. 5 that Zedekiah would die in peace is not
borne out by the history, nor does Josiah's fate agree with the
promise in 2 Kings xxii. 20. There is also an evident relation between
the pairs: Jehoahaz and Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah
(e.g. length of reigns), and the difficulty felt in regard to the second
and third is obvious in the attempts of the Jewish historian Josephus
to provide a compromise. The contemporary prophecies ascribed
to Jeremiah and Ezekiel require careful examination in this con-
nexion, partly as regards their traditional background (especially
the headings and setting), and partly for their contents, the details of
which sometimes do not admit of a literal interpretation in accor-
dance with our present historical material (cf. Ezek. xix. 3-0, where
the two brothers carried off to Egypt and Babylon respectively would
seem to be Jehoahaz and his nephew Jehoiachin).
(fc) Some fluctuation is obvious in the number, dates and extent
of the deportations. Jer. Hi. 28-30 gives a total of 4600 persons,
in contrast to 2 Kings xxiv. 14, 16 (the numbers are not inclusive),
and reckons three deportations in the 7th (? lyth), i8th and 23rd
years of Nebuchadrezzar. Only the second is specifically said to be
from Jerusalem (the remaining are of Judaeans), and the last has
been plausibly connected with the murder of Gedaliah, an interval
of five years being assumed. For this twenty-third year Josephus
(Ant. x. 9, 7) gives an invasion of Egypt and an attack upon Ammon,
Moab and Palestine (see NEBUCHADREZZAR).
(c) That the exile lasted seventy years (? from 586 B.C. to the com-
pletion of the second temple) is the view of the canonical history
(2 Chron. xxxvi. 21; Jer. xxv. II, xxix. 10; Zech. i. 12; cf. Tyre,
Isa. xxiii. 15), but it is usually reckoned from the first deportation,
which was looked upon as of greater significance than the second
(Jer. xxiv. xxix.), and it may be a round number. Another difficulty
is the interpretation of the 40 years in Ezek. iv. 6 (cf . Egypt, xxix. 1 1 ) ,
and the 390 in v. 5 (Septuagint 150 or 190; 130 in Jos. x. 9, 7 end).
A period of fifty years is allowed by the chronological scheme
(i Kings vi. I ;cf. Jos. c. Ap. i. 21), and the late book of Baruch (vi. 3)
even speaks of seven generations. Varying chronological schemes
may have been current and some weight must be laid upon the
remarkable vagueness of the historical information in later
writings (see DANIEL).
(d)Theattitudeof the neighbouring peoplesconstitutesanother seri-
ous problem (cf. 2 Kings xxiv. 2 and 2 Chron. xxxvi. 5, where Lucian's
recension and the Septuagint respectively add the Samaritans!), in
view of the circumstances of Gedaliah's appointment (Jer. xl. 1 1, see
above) as contrasted with the frequent prophecies against Ammon,
Moab and Edom which seem to be contemporary (see EDOM ; MOAB).
(e) Finally, the recurrence of similar ^historical situations in Judaean
history must be considered. The period under review, with its rela-
tions between Judah and Egypt, can be illustrated by prophecies
ascribed to a similar situation in the time of Hezekiah. But the
destruction of Jerusalem is not quite unique, and somewhat later
we meet with indirect evidence for at least one similar disaster upon
which the records are silent. There are a number of apparently
related passages which, however, on internal grounds, are unsuitable
to the present period, and when they show independent signs of a
later date (in their present form), there is a very strong probability
that they refer to such subsequent disasters. The scantiness of
historical tradition makes a final solution impossible, but the study
of these years has an important bearing on the history of the later
Judaean state, which has been characteristically treated from the
standpoint of exiles who returned from Babylonia and regard them-
selves as the kernel of " Israel." From this point of view, the
desire to intensify the denudation of Palestine and the fate of its
remnant, and to look to the Babylonian exiles for the future, can
probably be recognized in the writings attributed to contemporary
prophets.1
1 8. Internal Conditions and the Exile. — Many of the exiles
accepted their lot and settled down in Babylonia (cf. Jer. xxix.
4-7); Jewish colonies, too, were being founded in Egypt. The
agriculturists and herdsmen who had been left in Palestine
formed, as always, the staple population, and it is impossible to
imagine either Judah or Israel as denuded of its inhabitants.
The down-trodden peasants were left in peace to divide the land
among them, and new conditions arose as they took over the
ownerless estates. But the old continuity was not entirely
broken; there was a return to earlier conditions, and life moved
more freely in its wonted channels. The fall of the monarchy
involved a reversion to a pre-monarchical state. It had scarcely
been otherwise in Israel. The Israelites who had been carried
off by the Assyrians were also removed from the cult of the land
(cf. i Sam. xxvi. 19; Ruth i. 15 seq.). It is possible that some had
escaped by taking timely refuge among their brethren in Judah;
indeed, if national tradition availed, there were doubtless times
when Judah cast its eye upon the land with which it had been
so intimately connected. It would certainly be unwise to draw a
sharp boundary line between the two districts; kings of Judah
could be tempted to restore the kingdom of their traditional
founder, or Assyria might be complaisant towards a faithful
Judaean vassal. The character of the Assyrian domination over
Israel must not be misunderstood; the regular payment of
tribute and the provision of troops were the main requirements,
and the position of the masses underwent little change if an
Assyrian governor took the place of an unpopular native ruler.
The two sections of the Hebrews who had had so much in
common were scarcely severed by a border-line only a few miles
to the north of Jerusalem. But Israel after the fall of Samaria
is artificially excluded from the Judaean horizon, and lies as a
foreign land, although Judah itself had suffered from the intru-
sion of foreigners in the preceding centuries of war and turmoil,
and strangers had settled in her midst, had formed part of the
royal guard, or had even served as janissaries (§ 15, end).
Samaria had experienced several changes in its original
population,8 and an instructive story tells how the colonists,
in their ignorance of the religion of their new home, incurred the
divine wrath. Cujus regio ejus religio — settlement upon a new
soil involved dependence upon its god, and accordingly priests
were sent to instruct the Samaritans in the fear of Yahweh.
Thenceforth they continued the worship of the Israelite Yahweh
along with their own native cults (2 Kings xvii. 24-28, 33).
Their descendants claimed participation in the privileges of
the Judaeans (cf. Jer. xli. 5), and must have identified themselves
with the old stock (Ezra iv. 2). Whatever recollection they
preserved of their origin and of the circumstances of their entry
would be retold from a new standpoint; the ethnological tradi-
tions would gain a new meaning; the assimilation would in
time become complete. In view of subsequent events it would
be difficult to find a more interesting subject of inquiry than
the internal religious and sociological conditions in Samaria at
this age.
To the prophets the religious position was lower in Judah
than in Samaria, whose iniquities were less grievous (Jer. iii.
ii seq., xxiii. n sqq.; Ezek. xvi. 51). The greater prevalence
of heathen elements in Jerusalem, as detailed in the reforms of
Josiah or in the writings of the prophets (cf. Ezek. viii.), would
1 So also one can'now compare the estimate taken of the Jews in
Egypt in Jer. xliv. with the actual religious conditions which are
known to nave prevailed later at Elephantine, where a small Jewish
colony worshipped Yahu (Yahweh) at their own temple (see E.
Sachau, " Drei aram. Papyrusurkunde," in the Abhandlungen of
the Prussian Academy, Berlin, 1907).
* Sargon had removed Babylonians into the land of Hatti (Syria
and Palestine), and in 715 B.C. among the colonists were tribes appar-
ently of desert origin (Tamud, Hayapa, &c.); other settlements are
ascribed to Esar-haddon and perhaps Assur-bani-pal (Ezra iv. 2, 10).
See for the evidence, A. E. Cowley, Ency. Bib., col. 4257; J. A.
Montgomery, The Samaritans, pp. 46-57 (Philadelphia, 1907).
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
JEWS
385
at least suggest that the destruction of the state was not entirely
a disaster. To this catastrophe may be due the fragmentary
character of old Judaean historical traditions. Moreover, the
land was purified when it became divorced from the practices
of a luxurious court and lost many of its worst inhabitants.
In Israel as in Judah the political disasters not only meant
a shifting of population, they also brought into prominence
the old popular and non-official religion, the character
of which is not to be condemned because of the attitude of
lofty prophets in advance of their age. When there were sects
like the Rechabites (Jer. xxxv.), when the Judaean fields could
produce a Micah or a Zephaniah, and when Israel no doubt
had men who inherited the spirit of a Hosea, the nature of the
underlying conditions can be more justly appreciated. The
writings of the prophets were cherished, not only in the un-
favourable atmosphere of courts (see Jer. xxxvi., 21 sqq.), but
also in the circles of their followers (Isa. viii. 16). In the quiet
smaller sanctuaries the old-time beliefs were maintained, and the
priests, often perhaps of the older native stock (cf. 2 Kings
xvii. 28 and above), were the recognized guardians of the reli-
gious cults. The old stories of earlier days encircle places which,
though denounced for their corruption, were not regarded as
illegitimate, and in the form in which the dim traditions of the
past are now preserved they reveal an attempt to purify popular
belief and thought. In the domestic circles of prophetic
communities the part played by their great heads in history
did not suffer in the telling, and it is probable that some part
at least of the extant history of the Israelite kingdom passed
through the hands of men whose interest lay in the pre-eminence
of their seers and their beneficent deeds on behalf of these small
communities. This interest and the popular tone of the history
may be combined with the fact that the literature does not take
us into the midst of that world of activity in which the events
unfolded themselves.
Although the records preserve complete silence upon the period
now under review, it is necessary to free oneself from the narrow out-
look of the later Judaean compilers. It is a gratuitous assumption
that the history of (north) Israel ceased with the fall of Samaria or
that Judah then took over Israelite literature and inherited the old
Israelite spirit: the question of the preservation of earlier writings
is of historical importance. It is true that the situation in Israel
or Samaria continues obscure, but a careful study of literary pro-
ductions, evidently not earlier than the 7th century B.C., reveals a
particular loftiness of conception and a tendency which finds its
parallels in Hosea and approximates the peculiar characteristics
of the Deuteronomic school of thought. But the history which the
Judaean writers have handed down is influenced by the later hostility
between Judah and Samaria. The traditional bond between the
north and south which nothing could efface (cf. Jos. Ant., xi. 8, 6) has
been carried back to the earliest ages; yet the present period, after
the age of rival kingdoms, Judah and Israel, and before the founda-
tion of Judaism, is that in which the historical background for the
inclusion of Judah among the " sons " of Israel is equally suit-
able (§§ 5, 20, end). The circumstances favoured a closer alliance
between the people of Palestine, and a greater prominence of the
old holy places (Hebron, Bethel, Shechem, &c.), of which the ruined
Jerusalem would not be one, and the existing condition of Judah
and Israel from internal and non-political points of view — not their
condition in the pre-monarchical ages — is the more crucial problem
in biblical history.1
19. Persian Period.2 — The course of events from the middle
of the 6th century B.C. to the close of the Persian period is
lamentably obscure, although much indirect evidence indicates
that this age holds the key to the growth of written biblical
history. It was an age of literary activity which manifested
itself, not in contemporary historical records — only a few of
which have survived — but rather in the special treatment of
previously existing sources. The problems are of unusual
1 The growing recognition that the land was not depopulated after
586 is of fundamental significance for the criticism of " exilic "
and " post-exilic " history. G. A. Smith thus sums up a dis-
cussion of the extent of the deportations: "... A large majority
of the Jewish people remained on the land. This conclusion may
startle us with our generally received notions of the whole nation as
exiled. But there are facts which support it " (Jerusalem, ii. 268).
2 On the place of Palestine in Persian history see PERSIA: History,
ancient, especially § 5 ii. ; also ARTAXERXES; CAMBYSES; CYRUS;
DARIUS, &c.
intricacy and. additional light is needed from external evidence.
It will be convenient to turn to this first. Scarcely 40 years
after the destruction of Jerusalem, a new power appeared in the
east in the person of Cyrus the Great. Babylon speedily fell
(539 B.C.) and a fresh era opened. To the petty states this meant
only a change of masters; they now became part of one of the
largest empires of antiquity. The prophets who had marked
in the past the advent of Assyrians and Chaldeans now fixed
their eyes upon the advance of Cyrus, confident that the fall
of Babylon would bring the restoration of their fortunes. Cyrus
was hailed as the divinely appointed saviour, the anointed one
of Yahweh. The poetic imagery in which the prophets clothed
the doom of Babylon, like the romantic account of Herodotus
(i. 191), falls short of the simple contemporary account of Cyrus
himself. He did not fulfil the detailed predictions, and the
events did not reach the ideals of Hebrew writers; but these
anticipations may have influenced the form which the Jewish
traditions subsequently took. Nevertheless, if Cyrus was not
originally a Persian and was not a worshipper of Yahweh
(Isa. xli. 25), he was at least tolerant towards subject races and
their religions, and the persistent traditions unmistakably point
to the honour in which his memory was held. Throughout the
Persian supremacy Palestine was necessarily influenced by
the course of events in Phoenicia and Egypt (with which
intercourse was continual), and some light may thus be in-
directly thrown on its otherwise obscure political history. Thus,
when Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, made his great expedition
against Egypt, with the fleets of Phoenicia and Cyprus and
with the camels of the Arabians, it is highly probable that
Palestine itself was concerned. Also, the revolt which broke
out in the Persian provinces at this juncture may have extended
to Palestine; although the usurper Darius encountered his most
serious opposition in the north and north-east of his empire. An
outburst of Jewish religious feeling is dated in the second year
of Darius (520), but whether Judah was making a bold bid for
independence or had received special favour for abstaining
from the above revolts, external evidence alone can decide.
Towards the close of the reign of Darius there was a fresh revolt
in Egypt; it was quelled by Xerxes (485-465), who did not
imitate the religious tolerance of his predecessors. Artaxerxes I.
Longimanus (465-425), attracts attention because the famous
Jewish reformers Ezra and Nehemiah flourished under a king
of this name. Other revolts occurred in Egypt, and for these
and also for the rebellion of the Persian satrap Megabyzos
(c. 448-447), independent evidence for the position of Judah is
needed, since a catastrophe apparently befell the unfortunate
state before Nehemiah appears upon the scene. Little is known
of the mild and indolent Artaxerxes II. Mnemon (404-359).
With the growing weakness of the Persian empire Egypt reas-
serted its independence for a time. In the reign of Artaxerxes III.
Ochus (359-338), Egypt, Phoenicia and Cyprus were in revolt;
the rising was quelled without mercy, and the details of
the vengeance are valuable for the possible fate of Palestine
itself. The Jewish historian Josephus (Ant. xi. 7) records
the enslavement of the Jews, the pollution of the Temple by a
certain Bagoses (see BAGOAS), and a seven years' punishment.
Other late sources narrate the destruction of Jericho and a
deportation of the Jews to Babylonia and to Hyrcania (on the
Caspian Sea). The evidence for the catastrophes under
Artaxerxes I. and III. (see ARTAXERXES), exclusively contained
in biblical and in external tradition respectively, is of particular
importance, since several biblical passages refer to disasters
similar to those of 586 but presuppose different conditions and are
apparently of later origin.8 The murder of Artaxerxes III. by
3 The evidence for Artaxerxes III., accepted by Ewald and others
(see W. R. Smith, Old Testament in Jewish Church, p. 438 seq. ; W.
Judeich, Kleinasiat. Stud., -p. 170; T. K. Cheyne, Ency. Bib., col.
2202; F. C. Kent, Hist. [1899], pp. 230 sqq.) has however been ques-
tioned by Willrich, Judaica, 35-39 (see Cheyne, Ency. Bib., col.
3941). The account of Josephus (above) raises several difficulties,
especially the identity of Bagoses. It has been supposed that he has
placed the record too late, and that this Bagoses is the Judaean
governor who flourished about 408 B.C. (See p. 286, n. 3.)
xv. 13
386
JEWS
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
Bagoses gave a set-back to the revival of the Persian Empire.
Under Darius Codomannus (336-330) the advancing Greek
power brought matters to a head, and at the battle of Issus
in 333 Alexander settled its fate. The overthrow of Tyre
and Gaza secured the possession of the coast and the Jewish
state entered upon the Greek period. (See § 25.)
During these two centuries the Jews in Palestine had been only
one of an aggregate of subject peoples enjoying internal freedom
provided in return for a regular tribute. They lived in comparative
quietude; although Herodotus knows the Palestinian coast he does
not mention the Jews. The earlier Persian kings acknowledged
the various religions of the petty peoples ; they were also patrons of
their temples and would take care to preserve an ancient right of
asylum or the privileges of long-established cults.1 Cyrus on enter-
ing Babylon had even restored the gods to the cities to which they
belonged.1 Consequently much interest attaches to the evidence
which illustrates the environment of the Jews during this period.
Those who had been scattered from Palestine lived in small colonies,
sometimes mingling and intermarrying with the natives, sometimes
strictly preserving their own individuality. Some took root in the
strange lands, and, as later popular stories indicate, evidently reached
high positions; others, retaining a more vivid tradition of the land
of their fathers, cherished the ideal of a restored Jerusalem. Excava-
tion at Nippur (<?.».) in Babylonia has brought to light numerous
contract tablets of the 5th century B.C. with Hebrew proper names
(Haggai, Hanani, Gedaliah, &c.). Papyri from Elephantine in
Upper Egypt, of the same age, proceed from Jewish families
who carry on a nourishing business, live among Egyptians and
Persians, and take their oaths in courts of law in the name of the god
" Yahu," the " God of Heaven," whose temple dated from the last
Egyptian kings. Indeed, it was claimed that Cambyses had left
the sanctuary unharmed but had destroyed the temples of the
Egyptians. In Elephantine, as in Nippur, the legal usages show
that similar elements of Babylonio-Assyrian culture prevailed, and
the evidence from two such widely separated fields is instructive
for conditions in Palestine itself.*
20. The Restoration of Judah. — The biblical history for the
Persian period is contained in a new source — the books of
Ezra and Nehemiah, whose standpoint and period are that of
Chronicles, with which they are closely joined. After a brief
description of the fall of Jerusalem the " seventy years " of
the exile are passed over, and we are plunged into a history of
the return (2 Chron. xxxvi. ; Ezra i.). Although Palestine had not
been depopulated, and many of the exiled Jews remained in
Persia, the standpoint is that of those who returned from
Babylon. Settled in and around Jerusalem, they look upon
themselves as the sole community, the true Israel, even as it was
believed that once before Israel entered and developed inde-
pendently in the land of its ancestors. They look back from the
age when half-suppressed hostility with Samaria had broken
out, and when an exclusive Judaism had been formed. The
interest of the writers is as usual in the religious history; they
were indifferent to, or perhaps rather ignorant of, the strict
order of events. Their narratives can be partially supplemented
from other sources (Haggai; Zechariah i.-viii.; Isa. xl.-lxvi.;
Malachi), but a consecutive sketch is impossible.4
1 Thus a decree of Darius I. takes the part of his subjects against
the excessive zeal of the official Gadatas, and grants freedom of
taxation and exemption from forced labour to those connected with a
temple of Apollo in Asia Minor (Bulletin de correspondance heltenique,
xiii. 529; E. Meyer, Entstehung des Judentkums, p. 19 seq.; cf. id.
Forschungen, ii. 497).
* In addition to this, the Egyptian story of the priest Uza-hor
at the court of Cambyses and Darius reflects a policy of religious
tolerance which illustrates the biblical account of Ezra and Nehemiah
(Brugsch, Gesch. Aeg. pp. 784 sqq. ; see Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life after
the Exile, pp. 40^-43).
1 From Tema in north Arabia, also, there is monumental evidence
of the 5th century B.C. for Babylonian and Assyrian influence upon
the language, cult and art. For Nippur, see Bab. Exped. of Univ. of
Pennsylvania, series A., vol. ix. (1898), by H. V. Hilprecht; for
Elephantine, the Mond papyri, A. H. Sayce and A. E. Cowley,
Aramaic Papyri Discovered at Assuan (1906), and those cited above
(p. 282, n. i)._ For the Jewish colonies in general, see H. Guthe, Ency.
Sib., art. " Dispersion " (with references) ; also below, § 25 sqq.
4 See EZRA AND NEHEMIAH with bibliographical references,
also T. K. Cheyne, Introd. to Isaiah (1895); Jew. Religious Life
ftfter the Exile (1898); E. Sellin, Stud. z. Entstehungsgesch. d. iud.
Gemeinde (1901); R. H. Kennett in Swete's Cambridge Biblical
Essays (pp. 92 sqq.); G. Jahn, Die Biicher Esra u. Nehemja (1909);
and C. C. Torrey, Ezra Studies (1910).
In 561 B.C. the captive Judaean king, Jehoiachin, had received
special marks of favour from Nebuchadrezzar's son Amil-
marduk. So little is known of this act of recognition that
its significance can only be conjectured. A little later Tyre
received as its king Merbaal (555-552) who had been fetched from
Babylonia. Babylonia was politically unsettled, the repre-
sentative of the Davidic dynasty had descendants; if Babylon
was assured of the allegiance of Judah further acts of clemency
may well have followed. But the later recension of Judaean
history — our sole source — entirely ignores the elevation of
Jehoiachin (2 Kings xxv. 27 sqq.; Jer. Hi. 31-34), and proceeds
at once to the first year of Cyrus, who proclaims as his divine
mission the rebuilding of the Temple (538). The Judaean
Sheshbazzar (a corruption of some Babylonian name) brought
back the Temple vessels which Nebuchadrezzar had carried
away and prepared to undertake the work at the expense of
the royal purse. An immense body of exiles is said to have
returned at this time to Jerusalem under Zerubbabel, who was
of Davidic descent, and the priest Jeshua or Joshua, the
grandson of the murdered Seraiah (Ezra i.-iii.; v. i3-vi. 5).
When these refused the proffered help of the people of Samaria,
men of the same faith as themselves (iv. 2), their troubles began,
and the Samaritans retaliated by preventing the rebuilding. The
next historical notice is dated in the second year of Darius (520)
when two prophets, Haggai and Zechariah, came forward to
kindle the Judaeans to new efforts, and in spite of opposition
the work went steadily onwards, thanks to the favour of Darius,
until the Temple was completed four years later (Ezra v. 2, vi. 13
sqq.). On the other hand, from the independent writings
ascribed to these prophets, it appears that no considerable body
of exiles could have returned — it is still an event of the future
(Zech. ii. 7, vi. 15); little, if anything, had been done to the
Temple (Hag. ii. 15); and Zerubbabel is the one to take in
hand and complete the great undertaking (Zech. iv. 9). The
prophets address themselves to men living in comfortable
abodes with olive-fields and vineyards, suffering from bad seasons
and agricultural depression, and though the country is un-
settled there is no reference to any active opposition on the
part of Samaritans. So far from drawing any lesson from
the brilliant event in the reign of Cyrus, the prophets imply
that Yahweh's wrath is still upon the unfortunate city and that
Persia is still the oppressor. Consequently, although small
bodies of individuals no doubt came back to Judah from time
to time, and some special mark of favour may have been shown
by Cyrus, the opinion has gained ground since the early arguments
of E. Schrader (Stud. u. Krit., 1867, pp. 460-504), that the com-
piler's representation of the history is untrustworthy. His main
object is to make the new Israel, the post-exilic community at
Jerusalem, continuous, as a society, with the old Israel.6 Greater
weight must be laid upon the independent evidence of the
prophetical writings, and the objection that Palestine could not
have produced the religious fervency of Haggai or Zechariah
without an initial impulse from Babylonia begs the question.
Unfortunately the internal conditions in the 6th century B.C.
can be only indirectly estimated (§ 18), and the political position
must remain for the present quite uncertain. In Zerubbabel
the people beheld once more a ruler of the Davidic race. The
new temple heralded a new future; the mournful fasts com-
memorative of Jerusalem's disasters would become feasts;
Yahweh had left the Temple at the fall of Jerusalem, but had now
returned to sanctify it with his presence; the city had purged
its iniquity and was fit once more to become the central sanc-
tuary. So Haggai sees in Zerubbabel the representative of the
8 There is an obvious effort to preserve the continuity of tradition
(a) in Ezra ii. which gives a list of families who returned from exile
each to its own city, and (b) in the return of the holy vessels in the
time of Cyrus (contrast I Esdras iv. 43 seq.), a view which, in spite
of Dan. i. 2, v. 2 seq., conflicts with 2 Kings xxiv. 13 and xxv. 13
(see, however, v. 14). That attempts have been made to adjust
contradictory representations is suggested by the prophecy ascribed
to Jeremiah (xxvii. 16 sqq.) where the restoration of the holy vessels
finds no place in the snorter text of the Septuagint (see W. R.
Smith, Old Test, and Jew. Church, pp. 104 sqq.).
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY] JEWS
ideal kingdom, the trusted and highly favoured minister who was
the signet-ring upon Yahweh's hand (contrast Hag. ii. 24 with Jer.
xxii. 23). Zechariah, in his turn, proclaims the overthrow of
all difficulties hi the path of the new king, who shall rule in
glory supported by the priest (Zech. vi.). What political
aspirations were revived, what other writers were inspired by
these momentous events are questions of inference.
A work which inculcates the dependence of the state upon the
purity of its ruler is the unfinished book of Kings with its history
of the Davidic dynasty and the Temple. Its ideals culminate in
Josiah (§ 16, end), and there is a strong presumption that it is
intended to impress upon the new era the lessons drawn from the
past. Its treatment of the monarchy is only part of a gjeat and now
highly complicated literary undertaking (traceable in the books
Joshua to Kings), inspired with the thought and coloured by
language characteristic of Deuteronomy (especially the secondary
portions), which forms the necessary introduction. Whatever
reforms Josiah actually accomplished, the restoration afforded the
opportunity of bringing the Deuteronomic teaching into action;
though it is more probable that Deuteronomy itself in the main is
not much earlier than the second half of the 6th century B.C.1 It
shows a strong nationalist feeling which is not restricted to Judah
alone, but comprises a greater Israel from Kadesh in Naphtali in
the north to Hebron in the south, and even extends beyond the
Jordan. Distinctive non-Judaean features are included, as in the
Samaritan liturgical office (Deut. xxvii. 14-26), and the evidence for
the conclusion that traditions originally of (north) Israelite interest
were taken over and adapted to the later standpoint of Judah and
Jerusalem (viz. in the Deuteronomic book of Kings) independently
confirms the inferences drawn from Deuteronomy itself. The ab-
sence of direct testimony can be partially supplied by later events
which presuppose the break-up of no inconsiderable state, and imply
relations with Samaria which had been by no means so unfriendly
as the historians represent. A common ground for Judaism and
Samaritanism is obvious, and it is in this obscure age that it is to be
sought. But the curtain is raised for too brief an interval to allow
of more than a passing glimpse at the restoration of Judaean for-
tunes; not until the time of Nehemiah, about 140 years after the
fall of Jerusalem, does the historical material become less imperfect.
Upon this blank period before the foundation of Judaism (§§ 21,
23) much light is also thrown by another body of evidence. It has
long been recognized that I Chron. ii. and iv. represent a Judah
composed mainly of groups which had moved up from the south
(Hebron) to the vicinity of Jerusalem. It includes Caleb and Jerah-
meel, Kenite or Rechabite families, scribes, &c., and these, as
" sons " of Hezron, claim some relationship with Gilead. The names
point generally to an affinity with south Palestine and north Arabia
(Edom, Midian, &c.; see especially the lists in Gen. xxxvi.), and
suggest that certain members of a closely related collection of
groups had separated from the main body and were ultimately
enrolled as Israelites. It is also recognized by many scholars that
in the present account of the exodus there are indications of the
original prominence of traditions of Kadesh, and also of a journey
northwards in which Caleb, Kenites and others took part (§ 5). On
these and on other grounds besides, it has long been felt that south
Palestine, with its north Arabian connexions, is of real importance in
biblical research, and for many years efforts have been made to
determine the true significance of the evidence. The usual tendency
has been to regard it in the light of the criticism of early Israelite
history, which demands some reconstruction (§ 8), and to discern
distinct tribal movements previous to the union of Judah and Israel
under David. On the other hand, the elaborate theory of T. K.
Cheyne involves the view that a history dealing with the south
actually underlies our sources and can be recovered by emendation
of the text. Against the former is the fact that although certain
groups are ultimately found in Judah (Judg. i.), the evidence for
the movement — a conquest north of Kadesh, almost at the gate of
the promised land — explicitly mentions Israel; and against the latter
the evidence again shows that this representation has been deliber-
ately subordinated to the entrance of Israel from beyond the Jordan.2
387
1 The view that Deuteronomy is later than the 7th century has
been suggested by M. Vernes, Nouvelle hypothbse sur la, comp. et
Vorigine du Deut. (1887); Havet, Christian, et ses origines (1878);
Horst, in Rev. de I'hist. des relig., 1888 ; and more recently by E. Day,
Journ. Bib. Lit. (1902), pp. 202 sqq.; and R. H. Kennett, Journ.
Theol. Stud. (1906), pp. 486 sqq. The strongest counter-arguments
(see W. E. Addis, Doc. of Hexat. ii. 2-9) rely upon the historical
trustworthiness of 2 Kings xxii. seq. Weighty reasons are brought
also by conservative writers against the theory that Deuteronomy
dates from or about the age of Josiah, and their objections to the
" discovery " of a new law-roll apply equally to the " re-discovery
and promulgation of an old and authentic code.
1 See, for Cheyne's view, his Decline and Fall of Judah'Introduction
(1908). The former tendency has many supporters; see, among
recent writers, N. Schmidt, Hibbert Journal (1908), pp. 322 sqq. ; C.F.
Burney, Journ. Theol. Stud. (1908), pp. 321 sqq.; O. A. Toffteen,
[n either case the history of separate sections of people may have
been extended to Israel as a whole, but there is no evidence for any
adequate reconstruction. Yet the presence of distinct representa-
tions of the history may be recognized, and since the Judaean
compilers of the Old Testament have incorporated non-Judaean
sources (e.g. the history of the northern monarchy), it is obvious
that, apart from indigenous Judaean tradition, the southern groups
which were ultimately enrolled in Judah would possess their own
stock of oral and written lore. Hence it is noteworthy that the late
editor of Judges has given the first place to Othniel, a Kenizzite,
and therefore of Edpmite affinity, though subsequently reckoned
as a Judaean (Judg i. 13, iii. 9; cf. Gen. xxxvi. n ; I Chron. iv. 13).
Of Kenite interest is the position'of Cain, ancestor of heroes of culture
and of the worship of Yahweh (Gen. iv. 17 sqq.). One fragmentary
source alludes to a journey to the Midianite or Kenite father-in-law
of Moses with the Ark (<^.i>.) ; another knows of its movements with
David and the priest Abiathar (a name closely related to Jether or
Jethro; cf. also I Chron. iv. 17). Distinctively Calebite are the
stories of the eppnym who, fearless of the " giants " of Palestine,
gained striking divine promises (Num.xiv. 1 1—24) ; Caleb's overthrow
of the Hebronite giants finds a parallel in David's conflicts before
the capture of Jerusalem, and may be associated with the belief that
these primitive giants once filled the land (Josh. xi. 21 seq.; see § 7,
and DAVID ; SAMUEL, BOOKS OF) . Calebite, too, are Hebron and its
patron Abraham, and both increase in prominence in the patriarchal
narratives, where, moreover, an important body of tradition can have
emanated only from outside Israel and Judah (see GENESIS).
Although Judah was always closely connected with the south, these
" southern " features (once clearly more extensive and complete)
are found in the Deuteronomic and priestly compilations, and their
presence in the historical records can hardly be severed from the
prominence of " southern " families in the vicinity of Jerusalem,
some time after the fall of Jerusalem. The background in I Chron. ii.
presupposes the desolation after that disaster, and some traces of
these families are found in Nehemiah's time ; and while the traditions
know of a separation from Edom (viz. stories of Jacob and his
" brother " Esau), elsewhere Edom is frequently denounced for
unbrotherly conduct in connexion with some disaster which befell
Jerusalem, apparently long after 586 B.C. (see § 22).' The true
inwardness of this movement, its extent and its history, can hardly
be recovered at present, but it is noteworthy that the evidence
generally involves the Levites, an ecclesiastical body which under-
went an extremely intricate development. To a certain extent it
would seem that even as Chronicles (g.».) has passed through the
hands of one who was keenly interested in the Temple service, so
the other historical books have been shaped not only by the late
priestly writers (symbolized in literary criticism by P), but also by
rather earlier writers, also of priestly sympathies, but of " southern "
or half-Edomite affinity. This is independently suggested by the
contents and vicissitudes of the purely ecclesiastical traditions.4
Recent criticism goes to show that there is a very considerable
body of biblical material, more important for its attitude to the
history than for its historical accuracy, the true meaning of which
cannot as yet be clearly perceived. It raises many serious problems
which concentrate upon that age which is of the greatest importance
for the biblical and theological student. The perplexing relation
between the admittedly late compilations and the actual course
of the early history becomes still more intricate when one
observes such a feature as the late interest in the Israelite tribes. No
doubt there is much that is purely artificial and untrustworthy in
the late (post-exilic) representations of these divisions, but it is
almost incredible that the historical foundation for their early
career is severed from the written sources by centuries of warfare,
immigration and other disturbing factors. On the one hand,
conservative scholars insist upon the close material relation between
the constituent sources; critical scholars, on the other hand, while
recognizing much that is relatively untrustworthy, refrain from
departing from the general outlines of the canonical history more
than is absolutely necessary. Hence the various reconstructions
of the earlier history, with all their inherent weaknesses. But
The Historic Exodus (1909), pp. 120 sqq.; especially Meyer and
Luther, Die Israeliten, pp. 442-440, &c. For the early recognition of
the evidence in question, see J. Wellhausen, De gentibus et familiis
Judaeis (Gottingen, 1870); Prolegomena (Eng. trans.), pp. 216 sqq.,
342 sqq., and 441-443 (from art. " Israel," § 2, Ency. Brit, gth ed.);
also A. Kuenen, Relig. of Israel (i. 135 seq., 176-182); W. R. Smith,
Prophets of Israel, pp. 28 seq., 379.
8 For the prominence of the " southern " element in Judah see
E. Meyer, Entstehung d. Judenthums (1896), pp. 119, 147, 167, 177,
183 n. i ; Israeliten, pp. 352 n. 5, 402, 429 seq.
4 See § 23 end, and LEVITES. When Edom is renowned for wis-
dom and a small Judaean family boasts of sages whose names have
south Palestinian affinity (i Chron. ii. 6), and when such names as
Korah, Heman, Ethan and Obed-edom, are associated with psalmody,
there is no inherent improbability in the conjecture that the " south-
ern " families settled around Jerusalem may have left their mark in
other parts of the Old Testament. It is another question whether
such literature can be identified (for Cheyne's views, see Ency. Bib.
" Prophetic Literature," " Psalms," and his recent studies).
388
JEWS
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
historical criticism is faced with the established literary conclusions
which, it should be noticed, place the Deuteronomic and priestly
compilations posterior to the great changes at and after the fall of
the northern monarchy,' and, to some extent, contemporary with
the equally serious changes in Judah. There were catastrophes
detrimental to the preservation of older literary records, and vicis-
situdes which, if they have not left their mark on contemporary
history — which is singularly blank — may be traced on the represen-
tations of the past. There are external historical circumstances
and internal literary features which unite to show that the application
of the literary hypotheses of the Old Testament to the course of
Israelite history is still incomplete, and they warn us that the
intrinsic value of religious and didactic writings should not depend
upon the accuracy of their history.1 Future research may not be
able to solve the problems which arise in the study of the period now
under discussion ; it is the more necessary, therefore, that all efforts
should be tested in the light of purely external evidence (see further
§ 24; and PALESTINE: History).
21. Nehemiah and Ezra. — There is another remarkable gap in
the historical traditions between the time of Zerubbabel and
the reign of Artaxerxes I. In obscure circumstances the
enthusiastic hopes have melted away, the Davidic scion has dis-
appeared, and Jerusalem has been the victim of another disaster.
The country is under Persian officials, the nobles and priests form
the local government, and the ground is being prepared for the
erection of a hierocracy. It is the work of rebuilding and re-
organization, of social and of religious reforms, which we en-
counter in the last pages of biblical history, and in the records of
Ezra and Nehemiah we stand in Jerusalem in the very centre of
epoch-making events. Nehemiah, the cup-bearer of Artaxerxes
at Susa, plunged in grief at the news of the desolation of Jerusalem,
obtained permission from the king to rebuild the ruins. Provided
with an escort and with the right to obtain supplies of wood for
the buildings, he returned to the city of his fathers' sepulchres
(the allusion may suggest his royal ancestry). His zeal is repre-
sented in a twofold aspect. Having satisfied himself of the
extent of the ruins, he aroused the people to the necessity of
fortifying and repopulating the city, and a vivid account is given
in his name of the many dangers which beset the rebuilding of
the walls. Sanballat of Horon, Tobiah the Ammonite, and
Gashmu the Arabian (? Edomite) unceasingly opposed him.
Tobiah and his son Johanan were related by marriage to Judaean
secular and priestly families, and active intrigues resulted, in
which nobles and prophets took their part. It was insinuated
that Nehemiah had his prophets to proclaim that Judah had again
its own king; it was even suggested that he was intending to rebel
against Persia! Nehemiah naturally gives us only his version,
and the attitude of Haggai and Zechariah to Zerubbabel may
illustrate the feeling of his partisans. But Tobiah and Johanan
themselves were worshippers of Yahweh (as their names also
show), and consequently, with prophets taking different sides
and with the Samaritan claims summarily repudiated (Neh. ii.
20; cf. Ezra iv. 3), all the facts cannot be gathered from the
narratives. Nevertheless the undaunted Judaean pressed on
unmoved by the threatening letters which were sent around,
and succeeded in completing the walls within fifty-two days.2
In the next place, Nehemiah appears as governor of the small
district of Judah and Benjamin. Famine, the avarice of the rich,
and the necessity of providing tribute had brought the humbler
classes to the lowest straits. Some had mortgaged their houses,
fields and vineyards to buy corn; others had borrowed to pay
the taxes, and had sold their children to their richer brethren to
repay the debt. Nehemiah was faced with old abuses, and
vehemently contrasted the harshness of the nobles with the
generosity of the exiles who would redeem their poor countrymen
from slavery. He himself had always refrained from exacting
the usual provision which other governors had claimed; indeed,
he had readily entertained over 150 officials and dependants at
his table, apart from casual refugees (Neh. v.). We hear some-
1 One may recall, in this connexion, Caxton's very interesting
prologue to Malory's Morte d' Arthur and his remarks on the per-
manent value of the " histories " of this British hero. [Cf. also
Horace, Ep. i. ii. and R. Browning, " Development."]
* It is noteworthy that Josephus, who has his own representation
of the post-exilic age, allows two years and four months for the
work (Ant. xi. 5, 8).
thing of a twelve-years' governorship and of a second visit, but
the evidence does not enable us to determine the sequence (xiii. 6).
Neh. v. is placed in the middle of the building of the walls in
fifty-two days; the other reforms during the second visit are
closely connected with the dedication of the walls and with the
events which immediately follow his first arrival when he had
come to rebuild the city. Nehemiah also turns his attention to
religious abuses. The sabbath, once a festival, had become
more strictly observed, and when he found the busy agriculturists
and traders (some of them from Tyre) pursuing their usual
labours on that day, he pointed to the disasters which had
resulted in the past from such profanation, and immediately took
measures to put down the evil (Neh. xiii. 18; cf. Jer. xvii. 20 sqq.;
Ezek. xx. 13-24; Isa. Ivi. 2, 6; Iviii. 13). Moreover, the mainten-
ance of the Temple servants called for supervision; the customary
allowances had not been paid to the Levites who had come to
Jerusalem after the smaller shrines had been put down, and they
had now forsaken the city. His last acts were the most conspicu-
ous of all. Some of the Jews had married women of Ashdod,
Ammon and Moab, and the impetuous governor indignantly
adjured them to desist from a practice which was the historic
cause of national sin. Even members of the priestly families had
intermarried with Tobiah and Sanballat ; the former had his own
chamber in the precincts of the Temple, the daughter of the latter
was the wife of a son of Joiada the son of the high priest Eliashib.
Again Nehemiah's wrath was kindled. Tobiah was cast out, the
offending priest expelled, and a general purging followed, in
which all the foreign element was removed. With this Nehemiah
brings the account of his reforms to a conclusion, and the words
" Remember me, O my God, for good " (xiii. 31) are not meaning-
less. The incidents can be supplemented from Josephus.
According to this writer (Ant. xi. 7, 2), a certain Manasseh, the
brother of Jaddua and grandson of Joiada, refused to divorce his
wife, the daughter of Sanballat. For this he was driven out,
and, taking refuge with the Samaritans, founded a rival temple
and priesthood upon Mt Gerizim, to which repaired other
priests and Levites who had been guilty of mixed marriages.
There is little doubt that Josephus refers to the same events;
but there is considerable confusion in his history of the
Persian age, and when he places the schism and the founda-
tion of the new Temple in the time of Alexander the Great (after
the obscure disasters of the reign of Artaxerxes III.), it is
usually supposed that he is a century tooJate.3 At all events,
there is now a complete rupture with Samaria, and thus, in the
concluding chapter of the last of the historical books of the Old
Testament, Judah maintains its claim to the heritage of Israel
and rejects the right of the Samaritans to the title4 (see § 5).
In this separation of the Judaeans from religious and social
intercourse with their neighbours, the work of Ezra (q.v.) re-
quires notice. The story of this scribe (now combined with the
memoirs of Nehemiah) crystallizes the new movement inaugu-
rated after a return of exiles from Babylonia. The age can also
be illustrated from Isa. Ivi.-lxvi. and Malachi (q.v.). There was
a poor and weak Jerusalem, its Temple stood in need of renovation,
its temple-service was mean, its priests unworthy of their office.
On the one side was the grinding poverty of the poor; on the
other the abuses of the governors. There were two leading
religious parties: one of oppressive formalists, exclusive, strict
•The papyri from Elephantine (p. 282, n. I, above) mention as
contemporaries the Jerusalem priest Johanan (cf. the son of Joiada
and father of Jaddua, Neh. xii. 22), Bagohi (Bagoas), governor of
Judah, and Delaiah and Shelemiah sons of Sanballat (408-407 B.C.)
They ignore any strained relations between Samaria and Judah,
and Delaiah and Bagohi unite in granting permission to the Jewish
colony to rebuild their place of worship. If this fixes the date of
Sanballat and Nehemiah in the time of the first Artaxerxes, the
probability of confusion in the later written sources is enhanced
by the recurrence of identical names of kings, priests, &c., in the
history.
4 The Samaritans, for their part, claimed the traditions of their
land and called themselves the posterity of Joseph, Ephraim and
Manasseh. But they were ready to deny their kinship with the
Jews when the latter were in adversity, and could have replied to the
tradition that they were foreigners with a tu quogue (Josephus, Ant.
ix. 14, 3; xi. 8, 6; xii. 5, 5) (see SAMARITANS).
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
JEWS
389
and ritualistic; the other, more cosmopolitan, extended a freer
welcome to strangers, and tolerated the popular elements and
the superstitious cults which are vividly depicted (Isa. Ixv. seq.).
But the former gained the day, and, realizing that the only hope
of maintaining a pure worship of Yahweh lay in a forcible isolation
from foreign influence, its adherents were prepared to take
measures to ensure the religious independence of their assembly.
It is related that Ezra, the scribe and priest, returned to Jerusalem
with priests and Levites, lay exiles, and a store of vessels for the
Temple. He was commissioned to inquire into the religious con-
dition of the land and to disseminate the teaching of the Law to
which he had devoted himself (Ezra vii.). On his arrival the
people were gathered together, and in due course he read the
" book of the Law of Moses " daily for seven days (Neh. viii.).
They entered into an agreement to obey its teaching, undertaking
in particular to avoid marriages with foreigners (x. 28 sqq.). A
special account is given of this reform (Ezra ix. seq.) and the
description of Ezra's horror at the prevalence of intermarriage,
which^threatened to destroy the distinctive character of the
community, sufficiently indicates the attitude of the stricter
party. The true seed of Israel separated themselves from all
foreigners (not, however, without some opposition) and formed
an exclusively religious body or " congregation." Dreams of
political freedom gave place to hopes of religious independence,
and " Israel " became a church, the foundation of which it sought
in the desert of Sinai a thousand years before.
22. Post-exilic History. — The biblical history for the period in
the books of Ezra and Neherniah is exceptionally obscure, and it
is doubtful how far the traditions can be trusted before we reach
the reign of Artaxerxes (Ezra vii. sqq., Neh.). The records belonging
to this reign represent four different stages: (a) The Samaritans re-
ported that the Jews who had returned from the king to Jerusalem
were rebuilding the city and completing its walls, an act calculated
to endanger the integrity of the province. Artaxerxes accordingly
instructed them to stop the work until he should give the necessary
decree, and this was done by force (Ezra iv. 7-23, undated; I Esdras
ii. 16 sqq. mentions a building of the Temple !). (b) It was in the
7th year (i.e. 458 B.C.) that Ezra returned with a small body of exiles
to promulgate the new laws he had brought and to set the Temple
service in order.1 Fortified with remarkable powers, some of
which far exceed the known tolerance of Persian kings, he began
wide-sweeping marriage reforms; but the record ceases abruptly
(vii.-x.). (c) In the 2Oth year (445 B.C.) Nehemiah returned with
permission to rebuild the walls, the citadel and the governor's house
(Neh. ii. 5, 8; see § 21 above). But (d), whilst as governor he
accomplishes various needed reforms, there is much confusion in
the present narratives, due partly to the resumption of Ezra's labours
after an interval of twelve years, and partly to the closely related
events of Nehemiah's activity in which room must be found for
his twelve-years' governorship and a second visit. The internal
literary and historical questions are extremely intricate, and the
necessity for some reconstruction is very generally felt (for prelimi-
nary details, see EZRA AND NEHEMIAH). The disaster which aroused
Nehemiah's grief was scarcely the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.,
but a more recent one, and it has been conjectured that it followed
the work of Ezra (in 6 above). On the other hand, a place can
hardly be found for the history of Ezra before the appearance of
Nehemiah ; he moves in a settled and peaceful community such as
Nehemiah had helped to form, his reforms appear to be more mature
and schematic than those of Nehemiah ; and, whilst Josephus handles
the two separately, giving Ezra the priority, many recent scholars
incline to place Nehemiah's first visit before the arrival of Ezra.2
That later tradition should give the pre-eminence to the priestly
reforms of Ezra is in every way natural, but it has been found
extremely difficult to combine the two in any reconstruction of the
period. Next, since there are three distinct sources, for (a) above,
and for the work of Nehemiah and of Ezra, implicit reliance cannot
be placed upon the present sequence of narratives. Thus (a), with
its allusion to a further decree, forms a plausible prelude to the return
of either Ezra (vii. 13) or Nehemiah (i. 3, ii. 3) ; and if it is surprising
that the Samaritans and other opponents, who had previously
waited to address Artaxerxes (Ezra iv. 14 sqq., v. 5, 17), should now
interfere when Nehemiah was armed with a royal mandate (Neh.
ii. 7-9), it is very difficult not to conclude that the royal permits,
as now detailed, have been coloured by Jewish patriotism and
the history by enmity to Samaria. Finally, the situation in the
1 The statement that the king desired to avoid the divine wrath
may possibly have some deeper meaning (e.g. some recent revolt,
Ezra vii. 23).
1 It must suffice to refer to the opinions of Bertholet, Buhl,
Cheyne, Guthe, Van Hoonacker, Jahn, Kennett, Kent, Kosters,
Marquart, Torrey, and Wildeboer.
independent and undated record (a) points to a return, a rebuilding
(apparently after some previous destruction), and some interference.
This agrees substantially with the independent records of Nehemiah,
and unless we assume two disasters not widely separated in date
— viz. those presupposed in (a) and (c) — the record in (a) may refer
to that stage in the history where the other source describes the
intrigues of the Samaritans and the letters sent by Tobiah (cf.
Tabeel in Ezra iv. 7) to frighten Nehemiah (Neh. vi. 19).* Their
insinuations that Nehemiah was seeking to be ruler and their repre-
sentations to Artaxerxes would be enough to alarm the king (cf.
Neh. vi. 5-9, 19, and Ezra iv. 15 seq., 20 seq.), and it may possibly be
gathered that Nehemiah at once departed to justify himself (Neh.
vii. 2, xiii. 4, 6). Nevertheless, since the narratives are no longer in
their original form or sequence, it is impossible to trace the successive
steps of the sequel; although if the royal favour was endorsed
(cf. the account ascribed to the time of Darius, Ezra v. seq.), Nehe-
miah's position as a reformer would be more secure.
Although there was a stock of tradition for the post-exilic age
(cf. Daniel, Esther, I Esdras, Josephus), the historical narratives
are of the scantiest and vaguest until the time of Artaxerxes, when
the account of a return (Ezra iv. I2),which otherwise is quite ignored,
appears to have been used for the times of Darius (i Esdras iv. seq.)
and subsequently of Cyrus (Ezra i.— iii.). Moreover, although general
opinion identifies our Artaxerxes with the first of that name, certain
features suggest that there has been some confusion with the
traditions of the time of Artaxerxes II. and III. (§ 19). But the
problems are admittedly complicated, and since one is necessarily
dependent upon scanty narratives arranged and rearranged by later
hands in accordance with their own historical theories, it is difficult
to lay stress upon internal evidence which appears to be conclusive
for this or that reconstruction.4 The main facts, however, are clear.
Jerusalem had suffered some serious catastrophe before Nehemiah's
return; a body of exiles returned, and in spite of interference the
work of rebuilding was completed; through their influence the
Judaean community underwent reorganization, and separated itself
from its so-called heathen neighbours. How many years elapsed
from beginning to end can hardly be said. Tradition concentrated
upon Ezra and his age many events and changes of fundamental
importance. The canonical history has allowed only one great
destruction of Jerusalem, and the disaster of 586 B.C. became the
type for similar disasters, but how many there were criticism can
scarcely decide.6 Allusions to Judah's sufferings at the hands of
Edom, Moab and Ammon often imply conditions which are not
applicable to 586. A definite series knows of an invasion and occu-
pation by Edom (q.v. end), a people with whom Judah, as the genea-
logies show, had once been intimately connected. The unfriendli-
ness of the " brother " people, which added so much to the bitterness
of Judah, although associated with the events of 586 (so especially
I Esdras iv. 45), probably belongs to a much later date.6 The tradition
that Edomites burned the Temple and occupied part of Judah (ib.
m- 45. 5°) is partially confirmed by Ezek. xxxv. 5, 10, xxxvi. 5;
Ps. cxxxvii. 7; but the assumption that Darius, as in I Esdras, helped
the Jews against them can with difficulty be maintained. The in-
teresting conjecture that the second Temple suffered another disaster
in the obscure gap which follows the time of Zerubbabel has been
urged, after Isa. Ixiii. 7-lxiy. 12, by Kuenen (afterwards withdrawn)
and by Sellin, and can be independently confirmed. In the records
of Nehemiah the ruins of the city are extensive (ii. 8, 17, iii.; cf.
Ecclus. xlix. 13), and the tradition that Nehemiah rebuilt this Temple
(Jos. Ant. xi. 5, 6; 2 Mace. i. 18) is supported (a) by the explicit
3 C. F. Kent, Israel's Hist, and Biog. Narratives (1905), p. 358 seq.
The objections against this very probable view undervalue Ezra iv.
7—23 and overlook the serious intricacies in the book of Nehemiah.
4 There are three inquiries: (a) the critical value of I Esdras,
(6) the character of the different representations of post-exilic inter-
nal and external history, and (c) the recovery of the historical facts.
To start with the last before considering (a) and (b) would be futile.
6 For example, to the sufferings under Artaxerxes III. (§ 19) have
been ascribed such passages as Isa. Ixiii. 7~lxiv. 12; Ps. xliv., Ixxiv.,
Ixxix., Ixxx., Ixxxiii. (see also LAMENTATIONS). In their present
form they are not of the beginning of the 6th century and, if the
evidence for Artaxerxes III. proves too doubtful, they may belong
to the history preceding Nehemiah's return, provided the internal
features do not stand in the way (e.g. prior or posterior to the forma-
tion of the exclusive Judaean community, &c.). Since the book of
Baruch (named after Jeremiah's scribe) is now recognized to be con-
siderably later (probably after the destruction of Jerusalem A.D. 70),
it will be seen that the recurrence of similar causes leads to a similar-
ity in the contemporary literary productions (with a reshaping of
earlier tradition), the precise date of which depends upon delicate
points of detail and not upon the apparently obvious historical
elements.
6 See H. Winckler, Keil. u. Alte Test., 295, and Kennett, Journ.
Theol. Stud. (1906), p. 487; Camb. Bib. Essays, p. 117. The Chaldeans
alone destroyed Jerusalem (2 Kings xxv.); Edom was friendly
or at least neutral (Jer. xxvii. 3, xl. 1 1 seq.). The proposal to read
" Edomites " for " Syrians " in the list of bands which troubled
Jehoiakim (2 Kings xxiv. 2) is not supported by the contemporary
reference, Jer. xxxv. ii.
390 JEWS
references to the rebuilding of the Temple in the reign of Artaxerxes
(l Esdras ii. 18, not in Ezra iv. 12 ; but both in a context relating to
the history of the Temple), and (6) by the otherwise inaccurate state-
ment that the Temple was finished according to the decree of " Cyrus,
Darius and Artaxerxes king of Persia " (Ezra vi. 14).
The untrustworthy account of the return in the time of Cyrus (Ezra
i. so,q.) or Darius (l Esdras iv. seq.; probably the older form) is
curiously indebted to material which seems to have belonged to the
history of the work of Nehemiah (cf. Ezra ii. with Neh. vii.), and
the important return in the reign of Artaxerxes (Ezra iv. 12) seems
to be connected with other references to some new settlement (Neh.
xi. 20, 23, 25, especially xii. 29). The independent testimony of the
names in Neh. iii. is against any previous large return from Babylon,
and clearly illustrates the strength of the groups of " southern "
origin whose presence is only to be expected (p. 285). Moreover,
the late compiler of I Chronicles distinguishes a Judah composed
almost wholly of " southern " groups (i Chron. ii. and iv.) from a
subsequent stage when the first inhabitants of Jerusalem correspond
in the main to the new population after Nehemiah had repaired the
ruins (i Chron. ix. and Neh. xi.). Consequently, underlying the
canonical form of post-exilic history, one may perhaps recognize
some fresh disaster, after the completion of Zerubbabel's temple,
when Judah suffered grievously at the hands of its Edomite brethren
(in Malachi, date uncertain, vengeance has at last been taken) ;
Nehemiah restored the city, and the traditions of the exiles who
returned at this period have been thrown back and focussed upon the
work of Zerubbabel. The criticism of the history of Nehemiah,
which leads to this conjecture, suggests also that if Nehemiah repulsed
the Samaritan claims (ii. 20; cf. Ezra iv. 3, where the building of the
Temple is concerned) and refused a compromise .(vi. 2), it is extremely
unlikely that Samaria had hitherto been seriously hostile; see also
C. C. Torrey, Ezra Studies, pp. 321-333.
Bibilical history ends with the triumph of the Judaean community,
the true " Israel," the right to which title is found in the distant
past. The Judaean view pervades the present sources, and whilst
its David and Solomon ruled over a united land, the separation
under Jeroboam is viewed as one of calf-worshipping northern tribes
from Jerusalem with its one central temple and the legitimate
priesthood of the Zadokites. It is from this narrower standpoint of
an exclusive and confined Judah (and Benjamin) that the traditions
as incorporated in the late recensions gain fresh force, and in Israel's
renunciation of the Judaean yoke the later hostility between the
two may be read between the lines. The history in Kings was not
finally settled until a very late date, as is evident from the important
variations in the Septuagint, and it is especially in the description
of the time of Solomon and the disruption that there continued to
be considerable fluctuations.1 The book has no finale and the sudden
break may not be accidental. It is replaced by Chronicles, which,
confining itself to Judaean history froni a later standpoint (after
the Persian age), includes new characteristic traditions wherein some
recollection of more recent events may be recognized. Thus, the
south Judaean or south Palestinian element shows itself in Judaean
genealogies and lists; there are circumstantial stories of the rehabili-
tation of the Temple and the reorganization of cultus; there are
fuller traditions of inroads upon Judah by southern peoples and
their allies. There is also a more definite subordination of the royal
authority to the priesthood (so too in the writings of Ezekiel, q.v.) ;
and the stories of punishment inflicted upon kings who dared to
contend against the priests (Jchoash, Uzziah) point to a conflict of
authority, a hint of which is already found in the reconciliation of
Zerubbabel and the priest Joshua in a passage ascribed to Zechariah
(ch. vi.).
23. Post-exilic Judaism. — With Nehemiah and Ezra we enter
upon the era in which a new impulse gave to Jewish life and
thought that form which became the characteristic orthodox
Judaism. It was not a new religion that took root; older ten-
dencies were diverted into new paths, the existing material was
shaped to new ends. Judah was now a religious community
whose representative was the high priest of Jerusalem. Instead
of sacerdotal kings, there were royal priests, anointed with oil,
arrayed with kingly insignia, claiming the usual royal dues in
addition to the customary rights of the priests. With his priests
and Levites, and with the chiefs and nobles of the Jewish
families, the high priest directs this small state, and his death
marks an epoch as truly as did that of the monarchs in the past.
This hierarchical government, which can find no founda-
tion in the Hebrew monarchy, is the forerunner of the Sanhe-
drin (9.11.); it is an institution which, however inaugurated, set
its stamp upon the narratives which have survived. Laws were
'It js at least a coincidence that the prophet who took the part
of Tobiah and Sanballat against Nehemiah (vi. 10 seq.) bears the same
name as the one who advised Rehoboam to acquiesce in the disrup-
tion (i Kings xii. 21-24), °r announced the divine selection of Jero-
boam (ib. v. 24, Septuagint only).
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
recast in accordance with the requirements of the time, with the
result that, by the side of usages evidently of very great anti-
quity, details now appear which were previously unknown or
wholly unsuitable. The age, which the scanty historical tra-
ditions themselves represent as one of supreme importance for
the history of the Jews, once seemed devoid of interest, and it
is entirely through the laborious scholarship of the ipth century
that it now begins to reveal its profound significance. The
Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis, th^t the hierarchical law in its
complete form in the Pentateuch stands at the close and not at
the beginning of biblical history, that this mature Judaism
was the fruit of the $th century B.C. and not a divinely appointed
institution at the exodus (nearly ten centuries previously), has
won the recognition of almost all Old Testament scholars. It
has been substantiated by numerous subsidiary investigations
in diverse departments, from different standpoints, and under
various aspects, and can be replaced only by one which shall
more adequately explain the literary and historical evidence
(see further, p. 289).
The post -exilic priestly spirit represents a tendency which is
absent from the Judaean Deuteronomic book of Kings but is
fully mature in the later, and to some extent parallel, book
of Chronicles (q.v.). The " priestly " traditions of the creation
and of the patriarchs mark a very distinct advance upon the
earlier narratives, and appear in a further developed form in
the still later book of Jubilees, or " Little Genesis," where they
are used to demonstrate the pre-Mosaic antiquity of the priestly
or Levitical institutions. There is also an unmistakable de-
velopment in the laws; and the priestly legislation, though ahead
of both Ezekiel and Deuteronomy, not to mention still earlier
usage, not only continues to undergo continual internal modi-
fication, but finds a further distinct development, in the way of
definition and interpretation, outside the Old Testament — in
the Talmud (q.v.). Upon the characteristics of the post-exilic
priestly writings we need not dwell.2 Though one may often be
repelled by their lifelessness, their lack of spontaneity and the
externalization of the ritual, it must be recognized that they
placed a strict monotheism upon a legal basis. " It was a
necessity that Judaism should incrust itself in this manner;
without those hard and ossified forms the preservation of its
essential elements would have proved impossible. At a time
when all nationalities, and at the same time all bonds of religion
and national customs, were beginning to be broken up in the
seeming cosmos and real chaos of the Graeco-Roman Empire,
the Jews stood out like a rock in the midst of the ocean.
When the natural conditions of independent nationality all
failed them, they nevertheless artificially maintained it with an
energy truly marvellous, and thereby preserved for themselves,
and at the same time for the whole world, an eternal good."3
If one is apt to acquire too narrow a view of Jewish legalism,
the whole experience of subsequent history, through the heroic
age of the Maccabees (q.v.) and onwards, only proves that the
minuteness of ritual procedure could not cramp the heart.
Besides, this was only one of the aspects of Jewish literary
activity. The work represented in Nehemiah and Ezra, and put
into action by the supporters of an exclusive Judaism, certainly
won the day, and their hands have left their impress upon the
historical traditions. But Yahwism, like Islam, had its sects
and tendencies, and the opponents to the stricter ritualism always
had followers. Whatever the predominant party might think
of foreign marriages, the tradition of the half-Moabite origin
of David serves, in the beautiful idyll of Ruth (q.v.), to suggest
the debt which Judah and Jerusalem owed to one at least
of its neighbours. Again, although some may have desired
a self-contained community opposed to the heathen neigh-
bours of Jerusalem, the story of Jonah implicitly contends
against the attempt of Judaism to close its doors. The conflict-
ing tendencies were incompatible, but Judaism retained the
1 See HEBREW RELIGION, § 8 seq., and the relevant portions of the
histories of Israel.
* J. Wellhausen, art. " Israel," Ency. Brit. 9th ed., vol. xiii. p. 419;
or his Prolegomena, pp. 497 seq.
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
JEWS
incompatibilities within its limits, and the two tendencies
prophetical and priestly, continue, the former finding its further
development in Christianity.1
The Graf-WeJIhausen hypothesis (§ 4) does not pretend to be com
plete in all its details and it is independent of its application to the
historical criticism of the Old Testament. No alternative hypo
thesis prevails, mere desultory criticism of the internal intricacies
being quite inadequate. Maintaining that the position of the
Pentateuch alone explains the books which follow, conservative
writers concede that it is composite, has had some literary history
and has suffered some revision in the post-exilic age. Their con-
cessions continue to become ever more significant, and all that
follows from them should be carefully noticed by those who are
impressed by their arguments. They identify with Deuteronomy the
law-roll which explains the noteworthy reforms of Josiah (§ 16)
but since it is naturally admitted that religious conditions hac
become quite inconsistent with Mosaism, the conservative view
implies that the " long-lost " Deuteronomy must have differed
profoundly from any known Mosaic writings to which earlier pious
kings and prophets had presumably adhered. Similarly, the " book
of the Law of Moses," brought from Babylon by Ezra (Ezra vii •
Neh. viii.), clearly contained much of which the people were ignorant'
and conservative writers, who oppose the theory that a new Law was
then introduced, emphasize (a) the previous existence of legislation
(to prove that Ezra's book was not entirely a novelty), ancf (b) the
gross wickedness in Judah (as illustrated by the prophets) from the
time of Josiah to the strenuous efforts of the reformers on behalf
of the most fundamental principles of the national religion This
again simply means that the Mosaism of Ezra or Nehemiah must
have differed essentially from the priestly teaching prior to their
arrival. The arguments of conservative writers involve concessions
which, though often overlooked by their readers, are very detri-
mental to the position they endeavour to support, and the objections
they bring against the theory of the introduction of new law-books
(under a Josiah or an Ezra) apply with equal force to the promulga-
tion of Mosaic Reaching which had been admittedly ignored or
forgotten. Their arguments have most weight, however, when
they show the hazardous character of reconstructions which rely
upon the trustworthiness of the historical narratives. What book
Ezra really brought from Babylon is uncertain ; the writer, it seems,
is merely narrating the introduction of the Law ascribed to Moses,
even as a predecessor has recounted the discovery of the Book of
the Law, the Deuteronomic code subsequently included in the
Pentateuch.
The importance which the biblical writers attach to the return
from Babylon in the reign of Artaxerxes forms a starting-point for
several interesting inquiries. Thus, in any estimate of the influence
of Babylonia upon the Old Testament, it is obviously necessary to
ask whether certain features (a) are of true Babylonian origin, or
(b) merely find parallels or analogies in its stores of literature ; whether
the indebtedness goes back to very early times or to the age of the
Assyrian domination or to the exiles who now returned. Again,
there were priestly and other families— some originally of " southern "
origin — already settled around Jerusalem, and questions inevitably
arise concerning their relation to the new-comers and the literary
vicissitudes which gave us the Old Testament in its present form.
To this age we may ascribe the literature of the Priestly writers
(symbolized by P), which differs markedly from the other sources.
Yet it is clear from the book of Genesis alone that in the age of
Priestly writers and compilers there were other phases of thought.
Popular stories with many features of popular religion were current.
They could be, and indeed had been made more edifying; but the
very noteworthy conservatism of even the last compiler or editor,
in contrast to the re-shaping and re-writing of the material in the
book of Jubilees, indicates that the Priestly spirit was not that of
the whole community. But through the Priestly hands the Old
Testament history passed, and their standpoint colours its records.
This is especially true of the history of the exilic and post-exilic
periods, where the effort is made to preserve the continuity of Israel
and the Israelite community (Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah). The
bitterness aroused by the ardent and to some extent unjust zeal of
the reforming element can only be conjectured. The traditions
reveal a tendency to legitimate new circumstances. Priesthoods,
whose traditions connect them with the south, are subordinated;
the ecclesiastical records are re-shaped or re-adjusted; and a picture
is presented of hierarchical jealousies and rivalries which (it was
thought) were settled once and for all in the days of the exodus from
Egypt. Many features gain in significance as the account of the
Exodus, the foundation of Israel, is read in the light of the age when,
after the advent of a new element from Babylonia, the Pentateuch
assumed its present shape; it must suffice to mention the supremacy
of the Aaronite priests and the glorification of uncompromising
1 An instructive account of Judaism in the early post-exilic age
on critical lines (from the Jewish standpoint) is given by C. G.
Montefiore, Hibbert Lectures (1892), pp. 355 sqq.; cf. also the sketch
by I. Abrahams, Judaism (1907).
39
hostility to foreign marriages.2 The most " unhistorical " tradition
has some significance for the development of 'thought or of history-
writing, and thus its internal features are ultimately of historical
value. Only from an exhaustive comparison of controlling data
can the scattered hints be collected and classified. There is much
that is suggestive, for example, in the relation between the " post-
exilic additions to the prophecies and their immediately earlier
form; or in the singular prominence of the Judaean family of Perez
(its elevation over Zerah, a half-Edomite family, Gen. xxxviii • its
connexion with the Davidic dynasty, Ruth iv. ; its position as head
of all the Judaean sub-divisions, I Chron. ii. 5 sqq.); or in the late
insertion of local tradition encircling Jerusalem ; or in the perplexing
attitude of the histories towards the district of Benjamin and its
famous sanctuary of Bethel (only about 10 m. north of Jerusalem).
Although these and other phenomena cannot yet be safely placed
in a historical frame, the methodical labours of past scholars have
shed much light upon the obscurities of the exilic and post-exilic
ages, and one must await the more comprehensive study of the
two or three centuries which are of the first importance for biblical
history and theology.
24. Old Testament History and External Evidence. — Thus the Old
Testament, the history of the Jews during the first great period,
describes the relation of the Hebrews to surrounding peoples, the
superiority of Judah over the faithless (north) Israelite tribes, and
the reorganization of the Jewish community in and around Jerusalem
at the arrival of Ezra with the Book of the Law. The whole gives
an impression of unity, which is designed, and is to be expected in a
compilation. But closer examination reveals remarkable gaps and
irreconcilable historical standpoints. For all serious biblical study,
the stages in the growth of the written traditions and the historical
circumstances which they imply, must inevitably be carefully
considered, and upon the result depends, directly or indirectly,
almost every subject of Old Testament investigation. Yet it is
impossible to recover with confidence or completeness the develop-
ment of Hebrew history from the pages of the Old Testament alone.
The keen interest taken by the great prophets in the world around
them is not prominent in the national records; political history has
been subordinated, and the Palestine which modern discovery is
revealing is not conspicuous in the didactic narratives. To external
evidence one must look, therefore, for that which did not fall
within the scope or the horizon of the religious historians. They
do not give us the records of the age of the Babylonian monarch
Khammurabi (perhaps Amraphel, Gen. xiv.), of the Egyptian
conquests in the XVIIIth and following dynasties, or of the period
illustrated by the Amarna tablets (§ 3). They treat with almost
unique fullness a few years in the middle of the 9th century B.C., but
ignore Assyria ; yet only the Assyrian inscriptions explain the politi-
cal situation (§ 10 seq.), and were it not for them the true significance
of the 8th-7th centuries could scarcely be realized (§ 15 seq.). It
would be erroneous to confuse the extant sources with the historical
material which might or must have been accessible, or to assume
that the antiquity of the elements of history proves or presupposes
the antiquity of the records themselves, or even to deny the presence
of some historical kernel merely on account of unhistorical elements
or the late dress in which the events are now clothed. External
•esearch constantly justifies the cautious attitude which has its
ogical basis in the internal conflicting character of the written
:raditions or in their divergence from ascertained facts ; at the same
time it has clearly shown that the internal study of the Old Testa-
ment has its limits. Hence, in the absence of more complete external
evidence one is obliged to recognize the limitations of Old Testament
ustoncal criticism, even though this recognition means that positive
reconstructions are more precarious than negative conclusions.
The naive impression that each period of history was handled by
some more or less contemporary authority is not confirmed by a
criticism which confines itself strictly to the literary evidence. An
nterest m the past is not necessarily confined to any one age, and
the critical view that the biblical history has been compiled from
relatively late standpoints finds support in the still later treatment
of the events — in Chronicles as contrasted with Samuel-Kings or
n Jubilees as contrasted with Genesis.3 It is instructive to observe
n Egypt the form which old traditions have taken in Manetho
(Maspero, Rec. de travaux, xxvii., 1905, 1. 22 seq.) ; cf. also the late
story of Rameses II. and the Hittites (J. H. Breasted, Anc. Rec. of
Egypt, iii. 189 seq.); while in Babylonia one may note the didactic
treatment, after the age of Cyrus, of the events of the time of Kham-
murabi (A. H. Sayce, Prpc. Soc. Biblical Archaeol., 1907, pp. 13 sqq.).
The links which unite the traditional heroes with Babylonia
e.g. Abraham, Ezra), Mesopotamia (e.g. Jacob), Egypt (e.g. Joseph,
2 Cf. the story of Phinehas, Num. xxv. 6 sqq.; on Gen. xxxiv., see
IIMEON. Apropos of hostility towards Samaria, it is singular that
he term of reproach, " Cutheans," applied to the Samaritans is
derived from Cutha, the famous seat of the god Nergal, only some
25 m. N.E. of Babylon itself (see above, p. 286, n. 4).
3 The various tendencies which can be observed in the later
jseudepigraphical and apocalyptical writings are of considerable
/alue in any consideration of the development of thought illustrated
n the Old Testament itself.
392 JEWS
Jeroboam), Midian (e.g. Moses, Jethro), &c., like the intimate
relationship between Israel and surrounding lands, havea significance
in the light of recent research. Israel can no longer be isolated from
the politics, culture, folk-lore, thought and religion of western Asia
and Egypt. Biblical, or rather Palestinian, thought has been brought
into the world of ancient Oriental life, and this life, in spite of the
various forms in which it has from time to time been shaped, still
rules in the East. This has far-reaching consequences for the
traditional attitude to Israelite history and religion. Research is
seriously complicated by the growing stores of material, which
unfortunately are often utilized without attention to the principles
of the various departments of knowledge or aspects of study. The
complexity of modern knowledge and the interrelation of its different
branches are often insufficiently realized, and that by writers who
differ widely in the application of such material as they use to
their particular views of the manifold problems of the Old Testament.
It has been easy to confuse the study of the Old Testament in its
relation to modern religious needs with the technical scientific
study of the much edited remains of the literature of a small part
of the ancient East. If there was once a tendency to isolate the
Old Testament and ignore comparative research, it is now sometimes
found possible to exaggerate its general agreement with Oriental
history, life and thought. Difficulties have been found in the super-
natural or marvellous stories which would be taken as a matter of
course by contemporary readers, and efforts are often made to
recover historical facts or to adapt the records to modern theology
without sufficient attention to the historical data as a whole or
to their religious environment. The preliminary preparation for
research of any value becomes yearly more exacting.
Many traces of myth, legend and primitive " thought survive in
the Old Testament, and on the most cautious estimate they pre-
suppose a vitality which is not a little astonishing. But they are
now softened and often bereft of their earlier significance, and it is
this and their divergence from common Oriental thought which make
Old Testament thought so profound and unique. The process finds
its normal development in later and non-biblical literature; but one
can recognize earlier, cruder and less distinctive stages, and, as
surely as writings reflect the mentality of an author or of his age, the
peculiar characteristics of the extant sources, viewed in the light of
a comprehensive survey of Palestinian and surrounding culture,
demand a reasonable explanation. The differences between the
form of the written history and the conditions which prevailed have
impressed themselves variously upon modern writers, and efforts
have been made to recover from the Old Testament earlier forms
more in accordance with the external evidence. It may be doubted,
however, whether the material is sufficient for such restoration or
reconstruction.1 In the Old Testament we have the outcome of
specific developments, and the stage at which we see each_element
of tradition or belief is not always isolated or final (cf. Kings and
Chronicles). The early myths, legends and traditions which can be
traced differ profoundly from the canonical history, and the gap is
wider than that between the latter and the subsequent apocalyptical
and pseudepigraphical literature.
Where it is possible to make legitimate and unambiguous com-
parisons, the ethical and spiritual superiority of Old Testament
thought has been convincingly demonstrated, and to the re-shaping
and re- writing of the older history and the older traditions the Old
Testament owes its permanent value. While the history of the great
area between the Nile and the Tigris irresistibly emphasizes the
insignificance of Palestine, this land's achievements for humanity
grow the more remarkable as research tells more of its environ-
ment. Although the light thrown upon ancient conditions of life
and thought has destroyed much that sometimes seems vital for
the Old Testament, it has brought into relief a more permanent and
indisputable appreciation of its significance, and it is gradually
dispelling that pseudo-scientific literalism which would letter the
greatest of ancient Oriental writings with an insistence upon the
verity of historical facts. Not internal criticism, but the incontest-
able results of objective observation have shown once and for
all that the relationship between the biblical account of the earliest
history (Gen. i.-xi.) and its value either as an authentic record
(which requires unprejudiced examination) or as a religious document
(which remains untouched) is typical. If, as seems probable, the
continued methodical investigation, which is demanded by the
advance of modern knowledge, becomes more drastic in its results,
it will recognize ever more clearly that there were certain unique
influences in the history of Palestine which cannot be explained by
purely historical research. The change from Palestinian polytheism
to the pre-eminence of Yahweh and the gradual development of
ethical monotheism are facts which external evidence continues to
emphasize, which biblical criticism must investigate as completely
as possible. And if the work of criticism has brought a fuller
appreciation of the value of these facts, the debt which is owed to
the Jews is enhanced when one proceeds to realize the immense
difficulties against which those who transmitted the Old Testament
had to contend in the period of Greek domination. The growth of
[GREEK DOMINATION
1 Reference may be made to H. Winckler, Gesch. Israels, ii. (1900) ;
W. Erbt, Die Hebraer (1906); and T. K. Cheyne, Traditions and
Beliefs of Ancient Israel (1907).
the Old Testament into its present form, and its preservation despite
hostile forces, are the two remarkable phenomena which most arrest
the attention of the historian; it is for the theologian to interpret
their bearing upon the history of religious thought. (S. A. C.)
II. — GREEK DOMINATION
25. Alexander the Great. — The second great period of the
history of the Jews begins with the conquest of Asia by Alexander
the Great, disciple of Aristotle, king of Macedon and captain-
general of the Greeks. It ends with the destruction of Jeru-
salem by the armies of the Roman Empire, which was, like
Alexander, at once the masterful pupil and the docile patron
of Hellenism. The destruction of Jerusalem might be regarded
as an event of merely domestic importance; for the Roman
cosmopolitan it was only the removal of the titular metropolis
of a national and an Oriental religion. But, since a derivative
of that religion has come to be a power in the world at large, this
event has to be regarded in a different light. The destruction
of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 concludes the period of four centuries,
during which the Jews as a nation were in contact with the
Greeks and exposed to the influence of Hellenism, not wholly of
their own will nor yet against it. Whether the master of the
provinces, in which there were Jews, be an Alexander, a Ptolemy,
a Seleucid or a Roman, the force by which he rules is the force
of Greek culture. These four centuries are the Greek period of
Jewish history.
The ancient historians, who together cover this period, are
strangely indifferent to the importance of the Jews, upon which
Josephus is at pains to insist. When Alexander invaded the
interior of the Eastern world, which had hitherto remained
inviolable, he came as the champion of Hellenism. His death
prevented the achievement of his designs; but he had broken
down the barrier, he had planted the seed of the Greek's influ-
ence in the four quarters of the Persian Empire. His successors,
the Diadochi, carried on his work, but Antiochus Epiphanes was
the first who deliberately took in hand to deal with the Jews.
Daniel (viii. 8) describes the interval between Alexander and
Antiochus thus: " The he-goat (the king of Greece) did very
greatly: and when he was strong the great horn (Alexander) was
broken; and instead of it came up four other ones — four king-
doms shall stand up out of his nation but not with his power.
And out of one of them came forth a little horn (Antiochus
Epiphanes) which waxed exceeding great towards the south
(Egypt) and towards the East (Babylon) and towards the
beauteous land (the land of Israel)." The insignificance of the
Jewish community in Palestine was their salvation. The re-
forms of Nehemiah were directed towards the establishment of
a religious community at Jerusalem, in which the rigour of the
law should be observed. As a part of the Persian Empire the
community was obscure and unimportant. But the race whose
chief sanctuary it guarded and maintained was the heir of great
traditions and ideals. In Egypt, moreover, in Babylon and in
Persia individual Jews had responded to the influences of their
environment and won the respect of the aliens whom they
despised. The law which they cherished as their standard and
guide kept them united and conscious of their unity. And the
individuals, who acquired power or wisdom among those outside
Palestine shed a reflected glory upon the nation and its Temple.
In connexion with Alexander's march through Palestine Josephus
gives a tradition of his visit to Jerusalem. In Arrian's narrative
of Alexander's exploits, whose fame had already faded before the
greater glory of Rome, there is no mention of the visit or the city or
the Jews. Only Tyre and Gaza barred the way to Egypt. He
took, presumably, the coast-road in order to establish and retain
his command of the sea. The rest of Palestine, which is called
Coele-Syria, made its submission and furnished supplies. Seven
days after the capture of Gaza Alexander was at Pelusium.
According to the tradition which Josephus has preserved the high
priest refused to transfer his allegiance, and Alexander marched
against Jerusalem after the capture of Gaza. The high priest
dressed in his robes went out to meet him, and at the sight Alexander
remembered a dream, in which such a man had appeared to him
as the appointed leader of his expedition. So the danger was
averted: Alexander offered sacrifice and was shown the prophecy
of Daniel, which spoke of him. It is alleged, further, that at this
time certain Jews who could not refrain from intermarriage with
GREEK DOMINATION]
the heathen set up a temple on Mt Gerizim and became the Samari-
tan schism (§21 above). The combination is certainly artificial and
not historical. But it has a value of its own inasmuch as it illus-
trates the permanent tendencies which mould the history of the
Jews. It is true that Alexander was subject to dreams and visited
shrines in order to assure himself or his followers of victory. But it
is not clear that he had such need of the Jews or such regard for the
Temple of Jerusalem that he should turn aside on his way to Egypt
for such a purpose.
However this may be, Alexander's tutor had been in Asia and had
met a Jew there, if his disciple Clearchus of Soli is to be trusted.
" The man," Aristotle says, " was by race a Jew out of Coele-Syria.
His people are descendants of the Indian philosophers. It is re-
ported that philosophers are called Calani among the Indians and
Jews among the Syrians. The Jews take their name from their
place of abode, which is called Judaea. The name of their city is
very difficult; they call it Hierusaleme. This man, then, having
been a guest in many homes and having come down gradually from
the highlands to the sea-coast, was Hellenic not only in speech but
also in soul. And as we were staying in Asia at the time, the man
cast up at the same place and interviewed us and other scholars,
making trial of their wisdom. But inasmuch as he had come to
be at home with many cultured persons he imparted more than he
got." The date of this interview is probably determined by the
fact that Aristotle visited his friend Hermias, tyrant of Atarneus,
in 347-345 B.C. There is no reason to doubt the probability or even
the accuracy of the narrative. Megasthenes also describes the Jews
as the philosophers of Syria and couples them with the Brahmins
of India. This hellenized Jew who descended from the hills to the
coast is a figure typical of the period.
26. The Ptolemies, — After the death of Alexander Palestine
fell in the end to Ptolemy (301 B.C.) and remained an Egyptian
province until 198 B.C. For a century the Jews in Palestine and
in Alexandria had no history — or none that Josephus knew.
But two individuals exemplify the different attitudes which
the nation adopted towards its new environment and its wider
opportunities, Joseph the tax-farmer and Jesus the sage.
The wisdom of Jesus ben Sira (Sirach) is contained in the book
commonly called Ecclesiasticus (q.v.). At a time when men were
attracted by the wisdom and science of the Greeks, he taught that
all wisdom came from Yahweh who had chosen Israel to receive it
in trust. He discouraged inquiries into the nature and purpose
of things: it was enough for him that Yahweh had created and
ruled the universe. If a man had leisure to be wise — and this is
not for many — he should study the Scriptures which had come
down, and so become a scribe. For the scribe, as for the man at
the plough-tail, the Law was the rule of life. All, however much
or little preoccupied with worldly business, must fear God, from
whom come good things and evil, life, death, poverty and riches.
It was not for men to meddle with secrets which are beyond human
intelligence. Enough that the individual did his duty in the state
of life in which he was set and left behind him a good name at his
death. The race survives — " the days of Israel are unnumbered."
Every member of the congregation of Israel must labour, as God
has appointed, at some handicraft or profession to provide for his
home. It is his sacred duty and his private interest to beget
children and to train them to take his place. The scholar is apt to
pity the smith, the potter, the carpenter and the farmer: with better
reason he is apt to condemn the trader who becomes absorbed in
greed of gain and so deserts the way of righteousness and fair dealing.
As a teacher Jesus gave his own services freely. For the soldier
he had no commendation. There were physicians who understood
the use of herbs, and must be rewarded when their help was invited.
But, whatever means each head of a family adopted to get a liveli-
hood, he must pay the priest's dues. The centre of the life of Israel
was the Temple, over which the high priest presided and which was
inhabited by Yahweh, the God of Israel. The scribe could train the
individual in morals and in manners; but the high priest was the
ruler of the nation.
As ruler of the nation the high priest paid its tribute to Egypt, its
overlord. But Josephus reports of one Onias that for avarice he
withheld it. The sequel shows how a Jew might rise to power in
the civil service of the Egyptian Empire and yet remain a hero to
some of the Jews — provided that he did not intermarry with a
Gentile. For Joseph, the son of Tobiah and nephew of Onias, went
to court and secured the taxes of Palestine, when they were put up
to auction. As tax-farmer he oppressed the non-Jewish cities and
so won the admiration of Josephus.
But while such men went out into the world and brought back
wealth of one kind or another to Palestine, other Jews were
content to make their homes in foreign parts. At Alexandria
in particular Alexander provided for a Jewish colony which soon
became Hellenic enough in speech to require a translation of
the Law. It is probable that, as in Palestine an Aramaic para-
phrase of the Hebrew text was found to be necessary, so in
JEWS 393
Alexandria the Septuagint grew up gradually, as need arose.
The legendary tradition which even Philo accepts gives it a
formal nativity, a royal patron and inspired authors. From
the text which Philo uses, it is probable that the translation had
been transmitted in writing; and his legend probably fixes the
date of the commencement of the undertaking for the reign of
Ptolemy Lagus.
The apology for the necessary defects of a translation put forward
by the translator of Ecclesiasticus in his Prologue shows that the
work was carried on beyond the limits of the Law. Apparently it
was in progress at the time of his coming to Egypt in the reign of
Ptolemy Euergetes I. or II. He seems to regard this body of
literature as the answer to the charge that the Jews had contributed
nothing useful for human life. Once translated into Greek, the
Scriptures became a bond of union for the Jews of the dispersion
and were at least capable of being used as an instrument for the
conversion of the world to Judaism. So far as the latter function
is concerned Philo confesses that the Law in his day shared the ob-
scurity of the people, and seems to imply that the proselytes adopted
little more than the monotheistic principle and the observance of the
Sabbath. According to Juvenal the sons of such proselytes were
apt to go farther and to substitute the Jewish Law for the Roman —
Romanas autem soliti contemnere leges;
Judaicum ediscunt et servant ac metuunt ius
Tradidit arcano quodcunque volumine Moyses.
27. The Seleucids. — Toward the end of the 3rd century the
Palestinian Jews became involved in the struggle between
Egypt and Syria. In Jerusalem there were partisans of both
the combatants. The more orthodox or conservative Jews
preferred the tolerant rule of the Ptolemies: the rest, who chafed
at the isolation of the nation, looked to the Seleucids, who
inherited Alexander's ideal of a united empire based on a
universal adoption of Hellenism. At this point Josephus cites
the testimony of Polybius: — " Scopas, the general of Ptolemy,
advanced into the highlands and subdued the nation of the Jews
in the winter. After the defeat of Scopas, Antiochus gained
Batanaea and Samaria and Abila and Gadara, and a little later
those of the Jews who live round the Temple called Jerusalem
adhered to him." From this it appears that the pro-Syrian
faction of the Jews had been strong and active enough to bring
an Egyptian army upon them (199-198 B.C.). Josephus adds
that an Egyptian garrison was left in Jerusalem. This act of
oppression presumably strengthened the Syrian faction of the
Jews and led to the transference of the nation's allegiance.
The language of Polybius suggests that he was acquainted with
other Jewish communities and with the fame of the Temple: in
his view they are not an organized state. They were not even
a pawn in the game which Antiochus proposed to play with Rome
for the possession of Greece and Asia Minor. His defeat left the
resources of his kingdom exhausted and its extent diminished;
and so the Jews became important to his successors for the sake
of their wealth and their position on the frontier. To pay his
debt to Rome he was compelled to resort to extraordinary
methods of raising money; he actually met his death (187 B.C.) in
an attempt to loot the temple of Elymais.
The pro-Syrian faction of the Palestinian Jews found their
opportunity in this emergency and informed the governor of
Coele-Syria that the treasury in Jerusalem contained untold
sums of money. Heliodorus, prime minister of Seleucus
Philopator, who succeeded Antiochus, arrived at Jerusalem
in his progress through Coele-Syria and Phoenicia and declared
the treasure confiscate to the royal exchequer. According to
the Jewish legend Heliodorus was attacked when he entered the
Temple by a horse with a terrible rider and by two young men.
He was scourged and only escaped with his life at the inter-
cession of Onias the high priest, who had pleaded with him
vainly that the treasure included the deposits of widows and
orphans and also some belonging to Hyrcanus, " a man in very
high position." Onias was accused by his enemies of having
given the information which led to this outrage and when, rely-
ing upon the support of the provincial governor, they proceeded
to attempt assassination, he fled to Antioch and appealed to the
king.
When Seleucus was assassinated by Heliodorus, Antiochus
IV., his brother, who had been chief magistrate at Athens, came
XV. 130
394 JEWS
back secretly " to seize the kingdom by guile " (Dan. xi. 21 seq.).
On his accession he appointed Jesus, the brother of Onias, to the
high-priesthood, and sanctioned his proposals for the conversion
of Jerusalem into a Greek city. The high priest changed his
name to Jason and made a gymnasium near the citadel. The
principle of separation was abandoned. The priests deserted
the Temple for the palaestra and the young nobles wore the Greek
cap. The Jews of Jerusalem were enrolled as citizens of Antioch.
Jason sent money for a sacrifice to Heracles at Tyre; and the
only recorded opposition to his policy came from his envoys,
who pleaded that the money might be applied to naval expen-
diture. Thus Jason stripped the high-priesthood of its sacred
character and did what he could to stamp out Judaism.
Menelaus supplanted Jason, obtaining his appointment from
the king by the promise of a larger contribution. In order to
secure his position, he contrived the murder of Onias, who had
taken sanctuary at Daphne. This outrage, coupled with his
appropriation of temple vessels, which he used as bribes, raised
against Menelaus the senate and the people of Jerusalem. His
brother and deputy was killed in a serious riot, and an accusation
was laid against Menelaus before Antiochus. At the inquiry
he bought his acquittal from a courtier and his accusers were
executed. Antiochus required peace in Jerusalem and probably
regarded Onias as the representative of the pro- Egyptian faction,
the allies of his enemy.
During his second Egyptian campaign a rumour came that
Antiochus was dead, and Jason made a raid upon Jerusalem.
Menelaus held the citadel and Jason was unable to establish
himself in the city. The people were presumably out of sym-
pathy with hellenizers, whether they belonged to the house of
Onias or that of Tobiah. When Antiochus finally evacuated
Egypt in obedience to the decree of Rome, he thought that
Judaea was in revolt. Though Jason had fled, it was necessary
to storm the city; the drastic measures which Menelaus advised
seem to indicate that the poorer classes had been roused to
defend the Temple from further sacrilege. A massacre took place,
and Antiochus braved the anger of Yahweh by entering and
pillaging the Temple with impunity. The author of 2 Maccabees
infers from his success that the nation had forfeited all right to
divine protection for the time (2 Mace. v. 18-20).
The policy which Antiochus thus inaugurated he carried on
rigorously and systematically. His whole kingdom was to be
unified; Judaism was an eccentricity and as such doomed to
extinction. The Temple of Jerusalem was made over to Zeus
Qlympius: the temple of Gerizim to Zeus Xenius. All the
religious rites of Judaism were proscribed and the neighbouring
Greek cities were requested to enforce the prohibition upon their
Jewish citizens. Jerusalem was occupied by an army which
took advantage of the Sabbath and proceeded to suppress its
observance. An Athenian came to be the missionary of Hellen-
ism and to direct its ceremonies, which were established by force
up and down the country.
28. The Maccabees. — Jerusalem and Gerizim were purged and
converted to the state religion with some ease. Elsewhere, as
there, some conformed and some became martyrs for the faith.
And the passive resistance of those who refused to conform at
length gave rise to active opposition. " The king's officers
who were enforcing the apostasy came into the city of Modein
to sacrifice, and many of Israel went over to them, but Matta-
thias . . . slew a Jew who came to sacrifice and the king's
officer and pulled down the altar "(i Mace. ii. issqq.). Whether
led by this Mattathias or not, certain Jews fled into the wilder-
ness and found a leader in Judas Maccabaeus his reputed son,
the first of the five Asmonean (Hasmonean) brethren. The
warfare which followed was like that which Saul and David
waged against the Philistines. Antiochus was occupied with
his Parthian campaign and trusted that the Hellenized Jews
would maintain their ascendancy with the aid of the provincial
troops. In his last illness he wrote to express his confidence in
their loyalty. But the rebels collected adherents from the
villages; and, when they resolved to violate the sabbath to the
extent of resisting attack, they were joined by the company of
[GREEK DOMINATION
the Assideans (Hasidim). Such a breach of the sabbath was
necessary if the whole Law was to survive at all in Palestine.
But the transgression is enough to explain the disfavour into
which the Maccabees seem to fall in the judgment of later
Judaism, as, in that judgment, it is enough to account for the
instability of their dynasty. Unstable as it was, their dynasty
was soon established. In the country-side of Judaea, Judaism
— and no longer Hellenism — was propagated by force. Apollo-
nius, the commander of the Syrian garrison in Jerusalem, and
Seron the commander of the army in Syria, came in turn against
Judas and his bands and were defeated. The revolt thus became
important enough to engage the attention of the governor of
Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, if not of Lysias the regent himself.
Nicanor was despatched with a large army to put down the
rebels and to pay the tribute due to Rome by selling them as
slaves. Judas was at Emmaus; " the men of the citadel "
guided a detachment of the Syrian troops to his encampment by
night. The rebels escaped in time, but not into the hills, as
their enemies surmised. At dawn they made an unexpected
attack upon the main body and routed it. Next year (165 B.C.)
Lysias himself entered the Idumaean country and laid siege
to the fortress of Bethsura. Judas gathered what men he could
and joined battle. The siege was raised, more probably in
consequence of the death of Antiochus Epiphanes than because
Judas had gained any real victory. The proscription of the
Jewish religion was withdrawn and the Temple restored to them.
But it was Menelaus who was sent by the king " to encourage "
(2 Mace. xi.>32) the Jews, and in the official letters no reference
is made to Judas. Such hints as these indicate the impossibility
of recovering a complete picture of the Jews during the sove-
reignty of the Greeks, which the Talmudists regard as the dark
age, best left in oblivion.
Judas entered Jerusalem, the citadel of which was still occupied
by a Syrian garrison, and the Temple was re-dedicated on the
25th of Kislev (164 B.C.). So " the Pious " achieved the object
for which presumably they took up arms. The re-establishment
of Judaism, which alone of current religions was intolerant of
a rival, seems to have excited the jealousy of their neighbours
who had embraced the Greek way of life. The hellenizers had
not lost all hope of converting the nation and were indisposed
to acquiesce in the concordat. Judas and his zealots were thus
able to maintain their prominence and gradually to increase
their power. At Joppa, for example, the Jewish settlers — two
hundred in all — " were invited to go into boats provided in ac-
cordance with the common decree of the city." They accepted
the invitation and were drowned. Judas avenged them by
burning the harbour and the shipping, and set to work to bring
into Judaea all such communities of Jews who had kept them-
selves separate from their heathen neighbours. In this way he
became strong enough to deal with the apostates of Judaea.
In 163 Lysias led another expedition against these disturbers
of the king's peace and defeated Judas at Bethzachariah. But
while the forces were besieging Bethzur and the fortress on
Mount Zion, a pretender arose in Antioch, and Lysias was com-
pelled to come to terms — and now with Judas. The Jewish
refugees had turned the balance, and so Judas became strategus
of Judaea, whilst Menelaus was put to death.
In 162 Demetrius escaped from Rome and got possession of
the kingdom of Syria. Jakim, whose name outside religion was
Alcimus, waited upon the new king on behalf of the loyal Jews
who had hellenized. He himself was qualified to be the legiti-
mate head of a united state, for he was of the tribe of Aaron.
Judas and the Asmoneans were usurpers, who owed their title
to Lysias. So Alcimus-Jakim was made high priest and Bacchides
brought an army to instal him in his office. The Assideans
made their submission at once. Judas had won for them
religious freedom: but the Temple required a descendant of
Aaron for priest and he was come. But his first act was to seize
and slay sixty of them: so it was clear to Judas at any rate, if
not also to the Assideans who survived, that political inde-
pendence was necessary if the religion was to be secure. In
face of his active opposition Alcimus could not maintain himself
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without the support of Bacchides and was forced to retire to
Antioch. In response to his complaints Nicanor was appointed
governor of Judaea with power to treat with Judas, It appears
that the two became friends at first, but fresh orders from
Antioch made Nicanor .guilty of treachery in the eyes of
Judas's partisans. Warned by the change of his friend's
manner Judas fled. Nicanor threatened to destroy the Temple
if the priests would not deliver Judas into his hands. Soon it
came to his knowledge that Judas was in Samaria, whither he
followed him on a sabbath with Jews pressed into his service.
The day was known afterwards as Nicanor's day, for he was found
dead on the field (Capharsalama) by the victorious followers of
Judas (i3th of Adar, March 161 B.C.). After this victory Judas
made an alliance with the people of Rome, who had no love
for Demetrius his enemy, nor any intention of putting their
professions of friendship into practice. Bacchides and Alcimus
returned meanwhile into the land of Judah; at Elasa " Judas
fell and the rest fled " (i Mace. ix. 18). Bacchides occupied
Judaea and made a chain of forts. Jonathan, who succeeded
his brother Judas, was captain of a band of fugitive outlaws.
But on the death of Alcimus Bacchides retired and Jonathan
with his followers settled down beyond the range of the Syrian
garrisons. The Hellenizers still enjoyed the royal favour and
Jonathan made no attempt to dispossess them. After an inter-
val of two years they tried to capture him and failed. This
failure seems to have convinced Bacchides that it would be well
to recognize Jonathan and to secure a balance of parties. In
158 Jonathan began to rule as a judge in Michmash and he
destroyed the godless out of Israel — so far, that is, as his power
extended. In 153 Alexander Balas withdrew Jonathan from
his allegiance to Demetrius by the offer of the high-priesthood.
He had already made Jerusalem his capital and fortified the
Temple mount : the Syrian garrisons had already been withdrawn
with the exception of those of the Akra and Bethzur. In 147
Jonathan repaid his benefactor by destroying the army of the
governor of Coele-Syria, who had espoused the cause of Deme-
trius. The fugitives took sanctuary in the temple of Dagon at
' Azotus. " But Jonathan burned the temple of Dagon and those
who fled into it. " After the death of Balas he laid siege to the
Akra; and " the apostates, who hated their own nation," ap-
pealed to Demetrius. Jonathan was summoned to Antioch,
made his peace and apparently relinquished his attempt in
return for the addition of three Samaritan districts to his terri-
tory. Later, when the people of Antioch rose against the king,
Jonathan despatched a force of 3000 men who played a notable
part in the merciless suppression of the insurrection, i Macca-
bees credits them with 100,000 victims. Trypho, the regent of
Antiochus VI., put even greater political power into the hands of
Jonathan and his brother Simon, but finally seized Jonathan on
the pretext of a conference. Simon was thus left to consolidate
what had been won in Palestine for the Jews and the family
whose head he had become. The weakness of the king enabled
him to demand and to secure immunity from taxation. The
Jewish aristocracy became peers of the Seleucid kingdom.
Simon was declared high priest: Rome and Sparta rejoiced in
the elevation of their friend and ally. In the hundred and
seventieth year (142 B.C.) the yoke of the heathen was taken
away from Israel and the people began to date their legal
documents "in the first year of Simon the great high priest and
commander and leader of the Jews." The popular verdict
received official and formal sanction. Simon was declared by
the Jews and the priests their governor and high priest for ever,
until there should arise a faithful prophet. The garrison of the
Akra had been starved by a close blockade into submission, and
beyond the boundaries of Judaea " he took Joppa for a haven
and made himself master of Gazara and Bethsura."
29. John Hyrcanus and the Sadducees. — But in 138 B.C.
Antiochus Sidetes entered Seleucia and required the submission
of all the petty states, which had taken advantage of the weak-
ness of preceding kings. From Simon he demanded an indem-
nity of 1000 talents for his oppression and invasion of non-
Jewish territory : Simon offered 100 talents. At length Antiochus
JEWS 395
appeared to enforce his demand in 134. Simon was dead
(135 B.C.) and John Hyrcanus had succeeded his father. The
Jewish forces were driven back upon Jerusalem and the city was
closely invested. At the feast of tabernacles of 132 Hyrcanus
requested and Antiochus granted a week's truce. The only
hope of the Jews lay in the clemency of their victorious suzerain,
and it did not fail them. Some of his advisers urged the demo-
lition of the nation on the ground of their exclusiveness, but he
sent a sacrifice and won thereby the name of " Pious." In
subsequent negotiations he accepted the disarmament of the
besieged and a tribute as conditions of peace, and in response
to their entreaty left Jerusalem without a garrison. When he
went on his last disastrous campaign, Hyrcanus led a Jewish
contingent to join his army, partly perhaps a troop of mercenaries
(for Hyrcanus was the first of the Jewish kings to hire mercen-
aries, with the treasure found in David's tomb). After his death
Hyrcanus took advantage of the general confusion to extend
Jewish territory with the countenance of Rome. He destroyed
the temple of Gerizim and compelled the Idumaeans to submit
to circumcision and embrace the laws of the Jews on pain of
deportation. <i
In Jerusalem and in the country, in Alexandria, Egypt and
Cyprus, the Jews were prosperous (Jos. Ant. xiii. 284). This
prosperity and the apparent security of Judaism led to a breach
between Hyrcanus and his spiritual directors, the Pharisees.
His lineage was (in the opinion of one of them at least) of doubtful
purity; and so it was his duty to lay down the high-priesthood
and be content to rule the nation. That one man should hold
both offices was indeed against the example of Moses, and could
only be admitted as a temporary concession to necessity.
Hyrcanus could not entertain the proposal that he should resign
the sacred office to which he owed much of his authority. The
allegation about his mother was false: the Pharisee who retailed
it was guilty of no small offence. A Sadducean friend advised
Hyrcanus to ask the whole body of the Pharisees to prescribe the
penalty. Their leniency, which was notorious, alienated the
king or probably furnished him with a pretext for breaking
with them. The Pharisees were troublesome counsellors and
doubtful allies for an ambitious prince. They were all-powerful
with the people, but Hyrcanus with his mercenaries was inde-
pendent of the people, and the wealthy belonged to the sect of
the Sadducees. The suppression of the Pharisaic ordinances
and the punishment of those who observed them led to some
disturbance. But Hyrcanus " was judged worthy of the three
great privileges, the rule of the nation, the high-priestly dignity,
and prophecy." This verdict suggests that the Sadducees,
with whom he allied himself, had learned to affect some show of
Judaism in.Judaea. If the poor were ardent nationalists who
would not intermingle with the Greeks, the rich had long out-
grown and now could humour such prejudices; and the title
of their party was capable of recalling at any rate the sound of
the national ideal of righteousness, i.e. Sadaqah.
The successor of Hyrcanus (d. 105) was Judas Aristobulus,
" the friend of the Greeks," who first assumed the title of king.
According to Strabo he was a courteous man and in many ways
useful to the Jews. His great achievement was the conquest
of a part of Ituraea, which he added to Judaea and whose inhabi-
tants he compelled to accept Judaism.
The Sadducean nobility continued in power under his brother
and successor Alexander Jannaeus (103-78); and the breach
between the king and the mass of the people widened. But
Salome Alexandra, his brother's widow, who released him from
prison on the death of her husband and married him, was con-
nected with the Pharisees through her brother Simon ben Shetach.
If his influence or theirs dictated her policy, there is no evidence of
any objection to the union of the secular power with the high-
priesthood. The party may have thought that Jannaeus was
likely to bring the dynasty to an end. His first action was to
besiege Ptolemais. Its citizens appealed to Ptolemy Lathyrus,
who had been driven from the throne of Egypt by his mother
Cleopatra and was reigning in Cyprus. Alexander raised the
siege, made peace with Ptolemy and secretly sent to Cleopatra
396
JEWS
[GREEK DOMINATION
for help against her son. The result of this double-dealing was
that his army was destroyed by Ptolemy, who advanced into
Egypt leaving Palestine at the mercy of Cleopatra. But Cleo-
patra's generals were Jews and by their protests prevented her
from annexing it. Being thus freed from fear on the side of
Ptolemy, Alexander continued his desultory campaigns across
the Jordan and on the coast without any apparent policy and
with indifferent success. Finally, when he officiated as high
priest at the feast of tabernacles he roused the fury of the
people by a derisive breach of the Pharisaic ritual. They cried
out that he was unworthy of his office, and pelted him with the
citrons which they were carrying as the Law prescribed. Alex-
ander summoned his mercenaries, and 6000 Jews were killed
before he set out on his disastrous campaign against an Arabian
king. He returned a fugitive to find the nation in armed re-
bellion. After six years of civil war he appealed to them to
.state the conditions under which they would lay aside their
hostility. They replied by demanding his death and called in
the Syrians. But when the Syrians chased him into the moun-
tains, 6000 Jews went over to him and, with their aid, he put
down the rebellion. Eight hundred Jews who had held a fortress
against him were crucified; 8000 Pharisees fled to Egypt and
remained there. Offering an ineffectual resistance to the passage
of the Syrian troops, Alexander was driven back by Aretas,
king of Arabia, against whom they had marched. His later
years brought him small victories over isolated cities.
On his deathbed it is said that Alexander advised his wife
to reverse this policy and rely upon the Pharisees. According
to the Talmud, he warned her " to fear neither the Pharisees
nor their opponents but the hypocrites who do the deed of Zimri
and claim the reward of Phinehas: " the warning indicates his
justification of his policy in the matter of the crucifixions. In
any case the Pharisees were predominant under Alexandra,
who became queen (78-69) under her husband's will. Hyrcanus
her elder son was only high priest, as the stricter Pharisees
required. All the Pharisaic ordinances which Hyrcanus had
abolished were reaffirmed as binding. Simon ben Shatach
stood beside the queen: the exiles were restored and among
them his great colleague Jehudah ben Tabai. The great saying
of each of these rabbis is concerned with the duties of a judge;
the selection does justice to the importance of the Sanhedrin,
which was filled with Pharisees. The legal reforms which they
introduced tended for the most part to mercy, but the Talmud
refers to one case which is an exception: false witnesses were
condemned to suffer the penalty due to their victim, even if he
escaped. This ruling may be interpreted as part of a campaign
directed against the counsellors of Alexander or as an instance
of their general principle that intention is equivalenUto commis-
sion in the eye of the Law. The queen interposed to prevent
the execution of those who had counselled the crucifixion of the
rebels and permitted them to withdraw with her younger son
Aristobulus to the fortresses outside Jerusalem. Against their
natural desire for revenge may be set the fact that the Pharisees
did much to improve the status of women among the Jews.
On the death of Alexandra (69 B.C.) Aristobulus disputed the
succession of Hyrcanus. When their forces met at Jericho,
Hyrcanus, finding that the bulk of his following deserted to
Aristobulus, fled with those who remained to the tower Antonia
and seized Aristobulus's wife and children as hostages for his
own safety. Having this advantage, he was able to abdicate
in favour of Aristobulus and to retire into private life. But he
was not able to save his friends, who were also the enemies of
the reigning king. In fear of reprisals Antipas (or Antipater),
the Idumaean, his counsellor, played on the fears of Hyrcanus
and persuaded him to buy the aid of the Nabataean Arabs with
promises. Aristobulus could not withstand the army of Aretas:
he was driven back upon Jerusalem and there besieged. The
Jews deserted to the victorious Hyrcanus: only the priests
remained loyal to their accepted king; many fled to Egypt.
30. The Romans and the Idumaeans. — At this point the power
of Rome appeared upon the scene in the person of M. Aemilius
Scaurus (stepson of Sulla) who had been sent into Syria by
Pompey (65 B.C.). Both brothers appealed to this new tribunal
and Aristobulus bought a verdict in his favour. The siege was
raised. Aretas retired from Judaea; and Aristobulus pursued
the retreating army. But, when Pompey himself arrived at
Damascus, Antipater, who pulled the strings and exploited the
claims of Hyrcanus, realized that Rome and not the Arabs, who
were cowed by the threats of Scaurus, was the ruler of the East.
To Rome, therefore, he must pay his court. Others shared this
conviction: Strabo speaks of embassies from Egypt and Judaea
bearing presents — one deposited in the temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus bore the inscription of Alexander, the king of the
Jews. From Judaea there were three embassies pleading, for
Aristobulus, for Hyrcanus, and for the nation, who would have
no king at all but their God.
Pompey deferred his decision until he should have inquired
into the state of the Nabataeans, who had shown themselves
to be capable of dominating the Jews in the absence of the
Roman army. In the interval Aristobulus provoked him by his
display of a certain impatience. The people had no responsible
head, of whom Rome could take cognisance: so Pompey decided
in favour of Hyrcanus and humoured the people by recognizing
him, not as king, but as high priest. Antipater remained secure,
in power if not in place. The Roman supremacy was established :
the Jews were once more one of the subject states of Syria, now
a Roman province. Their national aspirations had received
a contemptuous acknowledgment, when their Temple had been
desecrated by the entry of a foreign conqueror.
Aristobulus himself had less resolution than his partisans.
When he repented of his attempted resistance and treated with
Pompey for peace, his followers threw themselves into Jeru-
salem, and, when the faction of Hyrcanus resolved to open the
gates, into the Temple. There they held out for three months,
succumbing finally because in obedience to the Law (as inter-
preted since the time of Antiochus Epiphanes) they would only
defend themselves from actual assault upon the sabbath day.
The Romans profited by this inaction to push on the siege-
works, without provoking resistance by actual assaults until the
very end. Pompey finally took the stronghold by choosing
the day of the fast, when the Jews abstain from all work, that is
the sabbath (Strabo). Dio Cassius calls it the day of Cronos.
On this bloody sabbath the priests showed a devotion to their
worship which matched the inaction of the fighting men. Though
they saw the enemy advancing upon them sword in hand they
remained at worship untroubled and were slaughtered as they
poured libation and burned incense, for they put their own
safety second to the service of God. And there were Jews among
the murderers of the 12, coo Jews who fell.
The Jews of Palestine thus became once more a subject state,
stripped of their conquests and confined to their own borders.
Aristobulus and his children were conveyed to Rome to grace
their conqueror's triumphal procession. But his son Alexander
escaped during the journey, gathered some force, and overran
Judaea. The Pharisees decided that they could not take action
on either side, since the elder son of Alexandra was directed
by the Idumaean Antipater; and the people had an affection for
such Asmonean princes as dared to challenge the Roman domina-
tion of their ancestral kingdom. The civil war was renewed;
but Aulus Gabinius, the proconsul, soon crushed the pretender
and set up an aristocracy in Judaea with Hyrcanus as guardian
of the Temple. The country was divided into five districts with
five synods; and Josephus asserts that the people welcomed
the change from the monarchy. In spite of this, Aristobulus
(56 B.C.) and Alexander (55 B.C.) found loyalists to follow them
in their successive raids. But Antipater found supplies for the
army of Gabinius, who, despite Egyptian and Parthian distrac-
tions, restored order according to the will of Antipater. M.
Crassus, who succeeded him, plundered the Temple of its gold
and the treasure (54 B.C.) which the Jews of the dispersion had
contributed for its maintenance. It is said that Eleazar, the
priest who guarded the treasure, offered Crassus the golden
beam as ransom for the whole, knowing, what no one else knew,
that it was mainly composed of wood. So Crassus departed to
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Parthia and died. When the Parthians, elated by their victory
over Crassus (53 B.C.) advanced upon Syria, Cassius opposed
them. Some of the Jews, presumably the partisans of Aristo-
bulus, were ready to co-operate with the Parthians. At any rate
Antipater was ready to aid Cassius with advice; Taricheae was
taken and 30,000 Jews were sold into slavery (51 B.C.). In
spite of this vigorous coercion Cassius came to terms with
Alexander, before he returned to the Euphrates to hold it
against the Parthians.
Two years later Julius Caesar made himself master of Rome
and despatched the captive Aristobulus with two legions to
win Judaea (49 B.C.). But Pompey's partisans were beforehand
with him: he was taken off by poison and got not so much as a
burial in his fatherland. At the same time his son Alexander
was beheaded at Antioch by Pompey's order as an enemy of
Rome. After the defeat and death of Pompey (48 B.C.) Antipater
transferred his allegiance to Caesar and demonstrated its value
during Caesar's Egyptian campaign. He carried with him the
Arabs and the princes of Syria, and through Hyrcanus he was
able to transform the hostility of the Egyptian Jews into active
friendliness. These services, which incidentally illustrate the
solidarity and unity of the Jewish nation and the respect of the
communities of the dispersion for the metropolis, were recog-
nized and rewarded. Before his assassination in 44 B.C. Julius
Caesar had confirmed Hyrcanus in the high-priesthood and added
the title of ethnarch. Antipater had been made a Roman
citizen and procurator of the reunited Judaea. Further, as
confederates of the senate and people of Rome, the Jews had
received accession of territory, including the port of Joppa and,
with other material privileges, the right of observing their
religious customs not only in Palestine but also in Alexandria
and elsewhere. Idumaean or Philistine of Ascalon, Antipater
had displayed the capacity of his adoptive or adopted nation for
his own profit and theirs. And when Caesar died Suetonius
notes that he was mourned by foreign nations, especially by the
Jews (Caes. 84).
In the midst of all this civil strife the Pharisees and all who
were preoccupied with religion found it almost impossible to
discern what they should do to please God. The people whom
they directed were called out to fight, at the bidding of an alien,
for this and that foreigner who seemed most powerful and most
likely to succeed. In Palestine few could command leisure for
meditation; as for opportunities of effective intervention in
affairs, they had none, it would seem, once Alexander was
dead.
There is a story of a priest named Onias preserved both by
Josephus and in the Talmud, which throws some light upon the in-
decision of the religious in the period just reviewed. When Aretas
intervened in the interest of Hyrcanus and defeated Aristobulus,
the usurper of his brother's inheritance, the people accepted the
verdict of battle, sided with the victor's client, and joined in the
siege of Jerusalem. The most reputable of the Jews fled to Egypt;
but Onias, a righteous man and dear to God, who had hidden himself,
was discovered by the besiegers. He had a name for power in prayer ;
for once in a drought he prayed for rain and God had heard his prayer.
His captors now required of him that he should put a curse upon
Aristobulus and his faction. On compulsion he stood in their midst
and said: " O God, king of the universe, since these who stand with
me are thy people and the besieged are thy priests, I pray thee that
thou hearken not to those against these, nor accomplish what
these entreat against those." So he prayed— and the wicked Jews
stoned him.
Unrighteous Jews were in the ascendant. There were only
Asmonean princes, degenerate and barely titular sons of Levi, to
serve as judges of Israel— and they were at feud and both relied upon
foreign aid. The righteous could only flee or hide, and so wait
dreaming of the mercy of God past and to come. As yet our authori-
ties do not permit us to follow them to Egypt with any certainty
but the Psalms of Solomon express the mind of one who survivec
to see Pompey the Great brought low. Although Pompey hac
spared the temple treasure, he was the embodiment of the power o
Rome, which was not always so considerately exercised. And s<
the psalmist exults in his death and dishonour (Ps. 11.) : he prayed
that the pride of the dragon might be humbled and God shewed him
the dead body lying upon the waves — and there was none to bury it
As one of those who fear the Lord in truth and in patience, he look
forward to the punishment of all sinners who oppress the nghteou
and profane the sanctuary. For the sins of the rulers God had
JEWS 397
ejected his people; but the remnant could not but inherit the promises,
vhich belong to the chosen people. For the Lord is faithful unto
.hose who walk in the righteousness of his commandments (xiv. l) :
n the exercise of their freewill and with God's help they will attain
alvation. As God's servant, Pompey destroyed theirrulersand every
svise councillor: soon the righteous and sinless king of David's house
,hall reign over them and over all the nations (xvii.).
31. Herod the Great. — After the departure of Caesar, Antipater
warned the adherents of Hyrcanus against taking part in any
•evolutionary attempts, and his son Herod, who, in spite of his
youth, had been appointed governor of Galilee, dealt summarily
with Hezekiah, the robber captain who was overrunning the
adjacent part of Syria. The gratitude of the Syrians brought
lim to the knowledge of Sextus Caesar the governor of Syria;
jut his action inspired the chief men of the Jews with appre-
lension. Complaint was made to Hyrcanus that Herod had
violated the law which prohibited the execution of even an evil
man, unless he had been first condemned to death by the San-
ledrin. At the same time the mothers of the murdered men
came to the Temple to demand vengeance. So Herod was
summoned to stand his trial. He came in answer to the summons
• — but attended by a bodyguard and protected by the word of
Sextus. Of all the Sanhedrin only Sameas " a righteous man
and therefore superior to fear " dared to speak. Being a Pharisee
he faced the facts of Herod's power and warned the tribunal
of the event, just as later he counselled the people to receive
turn, saying that for their sins they could not escape him. Herod
put his own profit above the Law, acting after his kind, and he
also was God's instrument. The effect of the speech was to
goad the Sanhedrin into condemning Herod: Hyrcanus post-
poned their decision and persuaded him to flee. Sextus Caesar
made him lieutenant-governor of Coele Syria, and only his
father restrained him from returning to wreak his revenge
upon Hyrcanus.
It is to be remembered that, in this and all narratives of the life
of Herod, Josephus was dependent upon the history of Herod's
client, Nicolaus of Damascus, and was himself a supporter of law and
order. The action of the Sanhedrin and the presence of the women
suppliants in the Temple suggest, if they do not prove, that this
Hezekiah who harassed the Syrians was a Jewish patriot, who could
not acquiesce and wait with Sameas.
Malichus also, the murderer or reputed murderer of Anti-
pater, appears to have been a partisan of Hyrcanus, who had
a zeal for Judaism. When Cassius demanded a tribute of
700 talents from Palestine, Antipater set Herod, Phasael and
this Malichus, his enemy, to collect it. Herod thought it im-
prudent to secure the favour of Rome by the sufferings of others.
But some cities defaulted, and they were apparently among those
assigned to Malichus. If he had been lenient for their sakes or
in the hope of damaging Antipater, he was disappointed; for
Cassius sold four cities into slavery and Hyrcanus made up the
deficit. Soon after this (43 B.C.) Malichus succeeded, it is said,
in poisoning Antipater as he dined with Hyrcanus, and was assas-
sinated by Herod's bravoes.
After the departure of Cassius, Antipater being dead, there
was confusion in Judaea. Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus,
made a raid and was with difficulty repulsed by Herod. The
prince of Tyre occupied part of Galilee. When Antony assumed
the dominion of the East after the defeat of Cassius at Philippi,
an embassy of the Jews, amongst other embassies, approached
him in Bithynia and accused the sons of Antipater as usurpers
of the power which rightly belonged to Hyrcanus. Another
approached him at Antioch. But Hyrcanus was weU content
to forgo the title to political power, which he could not exercise
in practice, and Antony had been a friend of Antipater. So
Herod and Phasael continued to be virtually kings of the Jews:
Antony's court required large remittances and Palestine was not
exempt.
In 40 B.C. Antony was absent in Egypt or Italy; and the
Parthians swept down upon Syria with Antigonus in their train.
Hyrcanus and Phasael were trapped: Herod fled by way of
Egypt to Rome. Hyrcanus, who was Antigonus' only rival, was
mutilated and carried to Parthia. So he could no more be
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high priest, and his life was spared only at the intercession of
the Parthian Jews, who had a regard for the Asmonean prince.
Thus Antigonus succeeded his uncle as " King Antigonus " in
the Greek and " Matta.thiah the high priest " in the Hebrew by
grace of the Parthians.
The senate of Rome under the influence of Antony and
Octavian ratified the claims of Herod, and after some delay lent
him the armed force necessary to make them good. In the hope
of healing the breach, which his success could only aggravate,
and for Ipve, he took to wife Mariamne, grandniece of Hyrcanus.
Galilee was pacified, Jerusalem taken and Antigonus beheaded
by the Romans. From this point to the end of the period the
Jews were dependents of Rome, free to attend to their own
affairs, so long as they paid taxes to the subordinate rulers,
Herodian or Roman, whom they detested equally. If some
from time to time dared to hope for political independence their
futility was demonstrated. One by one the descendants of the
Asmoneans were removed. The national hope was relegated to
an indefinite future and to another sphere. At any rate the
Jews were free to worship their God and to study his law: their
religion was recognized by the state and indeed established.
This development of Judaism was eminently to the mind of
the rulers; and Herod did much to encourage it. More and
more it became identified with the synagogue, in which the
Law was expounded: more and more it became a matter for
the individual and his private life. This was so even in Palestine
— the land which the Jews hoped to possess — and in Jerusalem
itself, the holy city, in which the Temple stood. Herod had
put down Jewish rebels and Herod appointed the high priests.
In his appointments he was careful to avoid or to suppress
any person who, being popular, might legitimize a rebellion by
heading it. The Pharisees, who regarded his rule as an inevitable
penalty for the sins of the people, he encouraged. Pollio the
Pharisee and Sameas his disciple were in special honour with
him, Josephus says, when he re-entered Jerusalem and put to
death the leaders of the faction of Antigonus. How well their
teaching served his purpose is shown by the sayings of two
rabbis who, if not identical with these Pharisees, belong to their
period and their party. Shemaiah said, " Love work and hate
lordship and make not thyself known to the government."
Abtalion said, " Ye wise, be guarded in your words: perchance
ye may incur the debt of exile." Precepts such as these could
hardly fail to effect some modification of the reckless zeal of
the Galileans in the pupils of the synagogue. Many if not all
of the professed rabbis had travelled outside Palestine: some
were even members of the dispersion, like Hillel the Babylonian,
who with Shammai forms the second of the pairs. Through
them the experience of the dispersion was brought to bear upon
the Palestinian Jews. Herod's nominees were not the men to
extend the prestige of the high-priesthood at the expense of
these rabbis: even in Jerusalem the synagogue became of more
importance than the Temple. Hillel also inculcated the duty of
making converts to Judaism. He said, " Be of the disciples of
Aaron, loving peace, and pursuing peace, loving mankind and
bringing them nigh to the Law." But even he reckoned the
books of Daniel and Esther as canonical, and these were
dangerous food for men who did not realize the full power of
Rome.
So long as Herod lived there was no insurrection. Formally
he was an orthodox Jew and set his face against intermarriage
with the uncircumcised. He was also ready and able to protect
the Jews of the dispersion. But that ability was largely due to
his whole-hearted Hellenism, which was shown by the Greek
cities which he founded in Palestine and the buildings he erected
in Jerusalem. In its material embodiments Greek civilization
became as much a part of Jewish life in Palestine as it was in
Alexandria or Antioch; and herein the rabbis could not follow
him.
When all the Jewish people swore to be loyal to Caesar and
the king's policy, the Pharisees — above 6000 — refused to swear.
The king imposed a fine upon them, and the wife of Pheroras —
Herod's brother — paid it on their behalf. In return for her
kindness, being entrusted with foreknowledge by the visitation
of God, they prophesied that God had decreed an end of rule for
Herod and his line and that the sovereignty devolved upon her
and Pheroras and their children.
From the sequel it appears that the prophecy was uttered by
one Pharisee only, and that it was in no way endorsed by the
party. When it came to the ears of the king he slew the most
responsible of the Pharisees and every member of his household
who accepted what the Pharisee said. An explanation of this
unwarrantable generalization may be found in the fact that the
incident is derived from a source which was unfavourable to the
Pharisees: they are described as a Jewish section of men who
pretend to set great store by the exactitude of the ancestral
tradition and the laws in which the deity delights — as dominant
over women-folk — and as sudden and quick in quarrel.
Towards the end of Herod's life two rabbis attempted to up-
hold by physical force the cardinal dogma of Judaism, which
prohibited the use of images. Their action is intelligible enough.
Herod was stricken with an incurable disease. He had sinned
against the Law; and at last God had punished him. At last
the law-abiding Jews might and must assert the majesty of the
outraged Law. The most conspicuous of the many symbols and
signs of his transgression was the golden eagle which he had
placed over the great gate of the Temple; its destruction was
the obvious means to adopt for the quickening and assertion
of Jewish principles.
By their labours in the education of the youth of the nation,
these rabbis, Judas and Matthias, had endeared themselves to
the populace and had gained influence over their disciples. A
report that Herod was dead co-operated with their exhortations
to send the iconoclasts to their appointed work. And so they
went to earn the rewards of their practical piety from the Law.
If they died, death was inevitable, the rabbis said, and no better
death would they ever find. Moreover, their children and kindred
would benefit by the good name and fame belonging to those who
died for the Law. Such is the account which Josephus gives
in the Antiquities; in the Jewish War he represents the rabbis
and their disciples as looking forward to greater happiness for
themselves after such a death. But Herod was not dead yet, and
the instigators and the agents of this sacrilege were burned
alive.
32. The Settlement of Augustus. — On the death of Herod in 4 B.C.
Archelaus kept open house for mourners as the Jewish custom,
which reduced many Jews to beggary, prescribed. The people
petitioned for the punishment of those who were responsible for
the execution of Matthias and his associates and for the removal of
the high priest. Archelaus temporized; the loyalty of the people
no longer constituted a valid title to the throne; his succession
must first be sanctioned by Augustus. Before he departed to
Rome on this errand, which was itself an insult to the nation,
there were riots in Jerusalem at the Passover which he needed
all his soldiery to put down. When he presented himself before
the emperor — apart from rival claimants of his own family —
there was an embassy from the Jewish people who prayed to
be rid of a monarchy and rulers such as Herod. As part of
the Roman province of Syria and under its governors they
would prove that they were not really disaffected and rebellious.
During the absence of Archelaus, who would — the Jews feared —
prove his legitimacy by emulating his father's ferocity, and to
whom their ambassadors preferred Antipas, the Jews of Palestine
gave the lie to their protestations of loyalty and peaceableness. At
the Passover the pilgrims attacked the Roman troops. After
hard fighting the procurator, whose cruelty provoked the attack,
captured the Temple and robbed the treasury. On this the
insurgents were joined by some of Herod's army and besieged the
Romans in Herod's palace. Elsewhere the occasion tempted
many to play at being king — Judas, son of Hezekiah, in Galilee;
Simon, one of the king's slaves, in Peraea. Most notable of all
perhaps was the shepherd Athronges, who assumed the pomp of
royalty and employed his four brothers as captains and satraps in
the war which he waged upon Romans and king's men alike — not
even Jews escaped him unless they brought him contributions.
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Order was restored by Varus the governor of Syria in a campaign
which Josephus describes as the most important war between that
of Pompey and that of Vespasian.
At length Augustus summoned the representatives of the nation
and Nicholaus of Damascus, who spoke for Archelaus, to plead
before him in the temple of Apollo. Augustus apportioned
Herod's dominions among his sons in accordance with the pro-
visions of his latest will. Archelaus received the lion's share:
for ten years he was ethnarch of Idumaea, Judaea and Samaria,
with a yearly revenue of 600 talents. Antipas became tetrarch
of Galilee and Peraea, with a revenue of 200 talents. Philip,
who had been left in charge of Palestine pending the decision
and had won the respect of Varus, became tetrarch of Batanaea,
Trachonitis and Auranitis, with too talents. His subjects
included only a sprinkling of Jews. Up to his death (A.D. 34) he
did nothing to forfeit the favour of Rome. His coins bore the
heads of Augustus and Tiberius, and his government was worthy
of the best Roman traditions — he succeeded where proconsuls
had failed. His capital was Caesarea Philippi, where Pan had
been worshipped from ancient times, and where Augustus had a
temple built by Herod the Great.
33. Archelaus. — Augustus had counselled Archelaus to deal
gently with his subjects. But there was an outstanding feud
between him and them; and his first act as ethnarch was to
remove the high priest on the ground of his sympathy with the
rebels. In violation of the Law he married a brother's widow,
who had already borne children, and in general he showed himself
so fierce and tyrannical that the Jews joined with the Samaritans
to accuse him before the emperor. Archelaus was summoned
to Rome and banished to Gaul ; his territory was entrusted to a
series of procurators (A.D. 6-41), among whom was an apostate
Jew, but none with any pretension even to a semi-legitimate
authority. Each procurator represented not David but Caesar.
The Sanhedrin had its police and powers to safeguard the Jewish
religion; but the procurator had the appointment of the high
priests, and no capital sentence could be executed without his
sanction.
34. The Procurators. — So the Jews of Judaea obtained the
settlement for which they had pleaded at the death of Herod;
and some of them beg?n to regret it at once. The first pro-
curator Coponius was accompanied by P. Sulpicius Quirinius,
legate of Syria, who came to organize the new Roman province.
As a necessary preliminary a census (A.D. 6-7) was taken after
the Roman method, which did not conform to the Jewish Law.
The people were affronted, but for the most part acquiesced,
under the influence of Joazar the high priest. But Judas the
Galilean, with a Pharisee named Sadduc (Sadduk), endeavoured
to incite them to rebellion in the name of religion. The result of
this alliance between a revolutionary and a Pharisee was the
formation of the party of Zealots, whose influence— according
to Josephus — brought about the great revolt and so led to the
destruction of Jerusalem in 70. So far as this influence ex-
tended, the Jewish community was threatened with the danger
of suicide, and the distinction drawn by Josephus between the
Pharisees and the Zealots is a valid one. Not all Pharisees were
prepared to take such action, in order that Israel might
" tread on the neck of the eagle " (as is said in The Assumption of
Moses). So long as the Law was not deliberately outraged and
so long as the worship was established, most of the religious
leaders of the Jews were content to wait.
It seems that the Zealots made more headway in Galilee than
in Judaea — so much so that the terms Galilean and Zealot are
practically interchangeable. In Galilee the Jews predominated
over the heathen and their ruler Herod Antipas had some sort
of claim upon their allegiance. His marriage with the daughter
of the Arabian king Aretas (which was at any rate in accordance
with the general policy of Augustus) seems to have preserved his
territory from the incursions of her people, so long as he remained
faithful to her. He conciliated his subjects by his deference
to the observances of Judaism, and — the case is probably
typical of his policy — he joined in protesting, when Pilate set
up a votive shield in the palace of Herod within the sacred city.
He seems to have served Tiberius as an official scrutineer of
the imperial officials and he commemorated his devotion by
the foundation of the city of Tiberias. But he repudiated the
daughter of Aretas in order to marry Herodias and so set the
Arabians against him. Disaster overtook his forces (A.D. 36)
and Tiberius, his patron, died before the Roman power was
brought in full strength to his aid . Caligula was not predisposed
to favour the favourites of Tiberius; and Antipas, having
petitioned him for the title of king at the instigation of Hero-
dias, was banished from his tetrarchy and (apparently) was
put to death in 39.
Antipas is chiefly known to history in connexion with John the
Baptist, who reproached him publicly for his marriage with
Herodias. According to the earliest authority, he seems to
have imprisoned John to save him from the vengeance of
Herodias. But — whatever his motive — Antipas certainly con-
sented to John's death. If the Fourth Gospel is to be
trusted, John had already recognized and acclaimed Jesus of
Nazareth as the Messiah for whom the Jews were looking. By
common consent of Christendom, John was the forerunner of the
founder of the Christian Church. It was, therefore, during the
reign of Antipas, and partly if not wholly within his territory,
that the Gospel was first preached by the rabbi or prophet whom
Christendom came to regard as the one true Christ, the Messiah
of the Jews. Josephus' history of the Jews contains accounts
of John the Baptist and Jesus, the authenticity of which has
been called in question for plausible but not entirely convincing
reasons. However this may be, the Jews who believed Jesus to
be the Christ play no great part in the history of the Jews before
70, as we know it. Many religious teachers and many revolu-
tionaries were crucified within this period; and the early
Christians were outwardly distinguished from other Jews only
by their scrupulous observance of religious duties.
The crucifixion of Jesus was sanctioned by Pontius Pilate,
who was procurator of Judaea A.D. 26-36. Of the Jews under
his predecessors little enough is known. Speaking generally,
they seem to have avoided giving offence to their subjects. But
Pilate so conducted affairs as to attract the attention not only
of Josephus but also of Philo, who represents for us the Jewish
community of Alexandria. Pilate inaugurated his term of
office by ordering his troops to enter Jerusalem at night and to
take their standards with them. There were standards and
standards in the Roman armies: those which bore the image of
the emperor, and therefore constituted a breach of the Jewish
Law, had hitherto been kept aloof from the holy city. On
learning of this, the Jews repaired to Caesarea and besought
Pilate to remove these offensive images. Pilate refused; and,
when they persisted in their petition for six days, he surrounded
them with soldiers and threatened them with instant death.
They protested that they would rather die than dare to transgress
the wisdom of the laws; and Pilate yielded. But he proceeded
to expend the temple treasure upon an aqueduct for Jerusalem;
and some of the Jews regarded the devotion of sacred money to
the service of man as a desecration. Pilate came up to Jerusalem
and dispersed the petitioners by means of disguised soldiers
armed with clubs. So the revolt was put down, but the exces-
sive zeal of the soldiers and Pilate's obstinate adherence to his
policy widened the breach between Rome and the stricter Jews.
But the death of Sejanus in 3r set Tiberius free from prejudice
against the Jews; and, when Pilate put up the votive shields in
Herod's palace at Jerusalem, the four sons of Herod came forward
in defence of Jewish principles and he was ordered to remove
them. In 35 he dispersed a number of Samaritans, who had
assembled near Mt Gerizim at the bidding of an impostor, in
order to see the temple vessels buried there by Moses. Complaint
was made to Vitellius, then legate of Syria, and Pilate was sent
to Rome to answer for his shedding of innocent blood. At the
passover of 36 Vitellius came to Jerusalem and pacified the Jews
by two concessions: he remitted the taxes on fruit sold in the
city, and he restored to their custody the high priest's vestments,
which Herod Archelaus and the Romans had kept in the tower
Antonia. The vestments had been stored there since the time
400
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of the first high priest named Hyrcanus, and Herod had taken
them over along with the tower, thinking that his possession of
them would deter the Jews from rebellion against his rule. At
the same time Vitellius vindicated the Roman supremacy by
degrading Caiaphas from the high-priesthood, and appointing a
son of Annas in his place. The motive for this change does not
appear, and we are equally ignorant of the cause which prompted
his transference of the priesthood from his nominee to another
son of Annas in 37. But it is quite clear that Vitellius was con-
cerned to reconcile the Jews to the authority of Rome. When
he marched against Aretas, his army with their standards did
not enter Judaea at all; but he himself went up to Jerusalem for
the feast and, on receipt of the news that Tiberius was dead,
administered to the Jews the oath of allegiance to Caligula.
35. Caligula and Agrippa I. — The accession of Caligula (A.D.
37-41) was hailed by his subjects generally as the beginning of
the Golden Age. The Jews in particular had a friend at court.
Agrippa, the grandson of Herod the Great, was an avowed
partisan of the new emperor and had paid penalty for a prema-
ture avowal of his preference. But Caligula's favour, though
lavished upon Agrippa, was not available for pious Jews. His
foible was omnipotence, and he aped the gods of Greece in turn.
In the provinces and even in Italy his subjects were ready to
acknowledge his divinity — with the sole exception of the Jews.
So we learn something of the Palestinian Jews and more of the
Jewish community in Alexandria. The great world (as we know
it) took small note of Judaism even when Jews converted its
women to their faith; but now the Jews as a nation refused to
bow before the present god of the civilized world. The new
Catholicism was promulgated by authority and accepted with
deference. Only the Jews protested: they had a notion of the
deity which Caligula at all events did not fulfil.
The people of Alexandria seized the opportunity for an attack
upon the Jews. Images of Caligula were set up in the syna-
gogues, an edict deprived the Jews of their rights as citizens,
and finally the governor authorized the mob to sack the Jewish
quarter, as if it had been a conquered city (38). Jewesses were
forced to eat pork and the elders were scourged in the theatre.
But Agrippa had influence with the emperor and secured the
degradation of the governor. The people and the Jews re-
mained in a state of civil war, until each side sent an embassy
(40) to wait upon the emperor. The Jewish embassy was
headed by Philo, who has described its fortunes in a tract dealing
with the divine punishment of the persecutors. Their opponents
also had secured a friend at court and seem to have prevented any
effective measure of redress. While the matter was still pending,
news arrived that the emperor had commanded Publius Petronius,
the governor of Syria, to set up his statue in the temple of Jeru-
salem. On the intervention of Agrippa the order was counter-
manded, and the assassination of the emperor (41) effectually
stopped the desecration.
36. Claudius and the Procurators. — Claudius, the new emperor,
restored the civic rights of the Alexandrian Jews and made
Agrippa I. king over all the territories of Herod the Great. So
there was once more a king of Judaea, and a king who observed
the tradition of the Pharisees and protected the Jewish religion.
There is a tradition in the Talmud which illustrates his popularity.
As he was reading the Law at the feast of tabernacles he burst
into tears at the words " Thou mayest not set a stranger over
thee which is not thy brother "; and the people cried out,
" Fear not, Agrippa; thou art our brother." The fact that he
began to build a wall round Jerusalem may be taken as further
proof of his patriotism. But the fact that he summoned five
vassal-kings of the empire to a conference at Tiberias suggests
rather a policy of self-aggrandisement. Both projects were
prohibited by the emperor on the intervention of the legate.
In 44 he died. The Christian records treat his death as an act
of divine vengeance upon the persecutor of the Christian Church.
The Jews prayed for his recovery and lamented him. The
Gentile soldiers exulted in the downfall of his dynasty, which
they signalized after their own fashion. Claudius intended that
Agrippa's young son should succeed to the kingdom; but he was
overruled by his advisers, and Judaea was taken over once more
by Roman procurators. The success of Agrippa's brief reign
had revived the hopes of the Jewish nationalists, and concessions
only retarded the inevitable insurrection.
Cuspius Fadus, the first of these procurators, purged the
land of bandits. He also attempted to regain for the Romans
the custody of the high priest's vestments; but the Jews appealed
to the emperor against the revival of this advertisement of their
servitude. The emperor granted the petition, which indeed the
procurator had permitted them to make, and further transferred
the nomination of the high priest and the supervision of the
temple from the procurator to Agrippa's brother, Herod of
Chalcis. But these concessions did not satisfy the hopes of the
people. During the government of Fadus, Theudas, who claimed
to be a prophet and whom Josephus describes as a wizard, per-
suaded a large number to take up their possessions and follow him
to the Jordan, saying that he would cleave the river asunder
with a word of command and so provide them with an easy
crossing. A squadron of cavalry despatched by Fadus took them
ah've, cut off the head of Theudas and brought it to Jerusalem.
Under the second procurator Tiberius Alexander, an apostate
Jew of Alexandria, nephew of Philo, the Jews suffered from a
great famine and were relieved by the queen of Adiabene, a
proselyte to Judaism, who purchased corn from Egypt. The
famine was perhaps interpreted by the Zealots as a punishment
for their acquiescence in the rule of an apostate. At any rate
Alexander crucified two sons of Simon the Galilean, who had
headed a revolt in the time of the census. They had presumably
followed the example of their father.
Under Ventidius Cumanus (48-52) the mutual hatred of Jews
and Romans, Samaritans and Jews, found vent in insults and
bloodshed. At the passover, on the fourth day of the feast, a
soldier mounting guard at the porches of the Temple provoked an
uproar, which ended in a massacre, by indecent exposure of his
person. Some of the rebels intercepted a slave of the emperor
on the high-road near the city and robbed him of his possessions.
Troops were sent to pacify the country, and in one village a
soldier found a copy of Moses' laws and tore it up in public with
jeers and blasphemies. At this the Jews flocked to Caesarea,
and were only restrained from a second outbreak by the execution
of the soldier. Finally, the Samaritans attacked certain Gali-
leans who were (as the custom was) travelling through Samaria
to Jerusalem for the passover. Cumanus was bribed and refused
to avenge the death of the Jews who were killed. So the Gali-
leans with some of the lower classes of " the Jews " allied them-
selves with a " robber " and burned some of the Samaritan
villages. Cumanus armed the Samaritans, and, with them and
his own troops, defeated these Jewish marauders. The leading
men of Jerusalem prevailed upon the rebels who survived the
defeat to disperse. But the quarrel was referred first to the
legate of Syria and then to the emperor. The emperor was still
disposed to conciliate the Jews; and, at the instance of Agrippa,
son of Agrippa I., Cumanus was banished.
37. Felix and the Revolutionaries. — Under Antonius Felix
(52-60) the revolutionary movement grew and spread. The
country, Josephus says, was full of " robbers " and " wizards."
The high priest was murdered in the Temple by pilgrims who
carried daggers under their cloaks. Wizards and impostors per-
suaded the multitude to follow them into the desert, and an
Egyptian, claiming to be a prophet, led his followers to the Mount
of Olives to see the walls of Jerusalem fall at his command. Such
deceivers, according to Josephus, did no less than the murderers
to destroy the happiness of the city. Their hands were cleaner
but their thoughts were more impious, for they pretended to
divine inspiration.
Felix the procurator — a king, as Tacitus says, in power and
in mind a slave — tried in vain to put down the revolutionaries.
The " chief-robber " Eleazar, who had plundered the country for
twenty years, was caught and sent to Rome; countless robbers of
less note were crucified. But this severity cemented the alliance
of religious fanatics with the physical-force party and induced
the ordinary citizens to join them, in spite of the punishments
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which they received when captured. Agrippa II. received a
kingdom — first Chalcis, and then the tetrarchies of Philip and
Lysanias — but, though he had the oversight of the Temple and
the nomination of the high priest, and enjoyed a reputation for
knowledge of Jewish customs and questions, he was unable to
check the growing power of the Zealots. His sister Brasilia had
broken the Law by her marriage with Felix ; and his own notorious
relations with his sister Berenice, and his coins which bore the
images of the emperors, were an open affront to the conscience
of Judaism. When Felix was recalled by Nero in 60 the nation
was divided against itself, the Gentiles within its gates were
watching for their opportunity, and the chief priests robbed the
lower priests with a high hand.
In Caesarea there had been for some time trouble between the
Jewish and the Syrian inhabitants. The Jews claimed that the
city was theirs, because King Herod had founded it. The Syrians
admitted the fact, but insisted that it was a city for Greeks,
as its temples and statues proved. Their rivalry led to street-
fighting: the Jews had the advantage in respect of wealth and
bodily strength, but the Greek party had the assistance of the
soldiers who were stationed there. On one occasion Felix sent
troops against the victorious Jews ; but neither this nor the scourge
and the prison, to which the leaders of both factions had been
consigned, deterred them. The quarrel was therefore referred to
the emperor Nero, who finally gave his decision in favour of the
Syrians or Greeks. The result of this decision was that the
synagogue at Caesarea was insulted on a Sabbath and the Jews
left the city taking their books of the Law with them. So —
Josephus says — the war began in the twelfth year of the reign of
Nero (A.D. 66).
38. Festus, Albinus and Florus. — Meanwhile the procurators
who succeeded Felix — Porcius Festus (60-62), Albinus (62-64)
and Gessius Florus (64-66) — had in their several ways brought
the bulk of the nation into line with the more violent of the Jews
of Caesarea. Festus found Judaea infested with robbers and
the sicarii, who mingled with the crowds at the feasts and
stabbed their enemies with the daggers (sicae) from which their
name was derived. He also had to deal with a wizard, who de-
ceived many by promising them salvation and release from evils,
if they would follow him into the desert. His attempts to crush
all such disturbers of the peace were cut short by his death in
his second year of office.
In the interval which elapsed before the arrival of Albinus,
Ananus son of Annas was made high priest by Agrippa. With
the apparent intention of restoring order in Jerusalem, he
assembled the Sanhedrin, and being, as a Sadducee, cruel in the
matter of penalties, secured the condemnation of certain law-
breakers to death by stoning. For this he was deposed by
Agrippa. Albinus fostered and turned to his profit the struggles
of priests with priests and of Zealots with their enemies. The
general release of prisoners, with which he celebrated his impend-
ing recall, is typical of his policy. Meanwhile Agrippa gave the
Levites the right to wear the linen robe of the priests and sanc-
tioned the use of the temple treasure to provide work — the paving
of the city with white stones — for the workmen who had finished
the Temple (64) and now stood idle. But everything pointed to
the destruction of the city, which one Jesus had prophesied at
the feast of tabernacles in 62. The Zealots' zeal for the Law and
the Temple was flouted by their pro-Roman king.
By comparison with Florus, Albinus was, in the opinion of
Josephus, a benefactor. When the news of the troubles at
Caesarea reached Jerusalem, it became known also that Florus
had seized seventeen talents of the temple treasure (66). At this
the patience of the Jews was exhausted. The sacrilege, as they
considered it, may have been an attempt to recover arrears of
tribute; but they were convinced that Florus was providing for
himself and not for Caesar. The revolutionaries went about
among the excited people with baskets, begging coppers for their
destitute and miserable governor. Stung by this insult, he
neglected the fire of war which had been lighted at Caesarea, and
hastened to Jerusalem. His soldiers sacked the upper city and
killed 630 persons — men, women and children. Berenice, who
was fulfilling a Nazarite vow, interposed in vain. Florus
actually dared to scourge and crucify Jews who belonged to the
Roman order of knights. For the moment the Jews were cowed,
and next day they went submissively to greet the troops coming
from Caesarea. Their greetings were unanswered, and they cried
out against Florus. On this the soldiers drew their swords and
drove the people into the city; but, once inside the city, the
people stood at bay and succeeded in establishing themselves
upon the temple-hill. Florus withdrew with all his troops,
except one cohort, to Caesarea. The Jews laid complaint against
him, and he complained against the Jews before the governor
of Syria, Cestius Gallus, who sent an officer to inquire into the
matter. Agrippa, who had hurried from Alexandria, entered
Jerusalem with the governor's emissary. So long as he counselled
submission to the overwhelming power of Rome the people
complied, but when he spoke of obedience to Florus he was com-
pelled to fly. The rulers, who desired peace, and upon whom
Florus had laid the duty of restoring peace, asked him for troops;
but the civil war ended in their complete discomfiture. The
rebels abode by their decision to stop the daily sacrifice for the
emperor; Agrippa's troops capitulated and marched out unhurt;
and the Romans, who surrendered on the same condition and
laid down their arms, were massacred. As if to emphasize the
spirit and purpose of the rebellion, one and only one of the
Roman soldiers was spared, because he promised to become a
Jew even to the extent of circumcision.
39. Josephus and the Zealots. — Simultaneously with this
massacre the citizens of Caesarea slaughtered the Jews who still
remained there; and throughout Syria Jews effected — and
suffered — reprisals. At length the governor of Syria approached
the centre of the disturbance in Jerusalem, but retreated after
burning down a suburb. In the course of his retreat he was
attacked by the Jews and fled to Antioch, leaving them his
engines of war. Some prominent Jews fled from Jerusalem — as
from a sinking ship — to join him and carried the news to the
emperor. The rest of the pro-Roman party were forced or
persuaded to join the rebels and prepared for war on a grander
scale. Generals were selected by the Sanhedrin from the aristo-
cracy, who had tried to keep the peace and still hoped to make
terms with Rome. Ananus the high priest, their leader, re-
mained in command at Jerusalem; Galilee, where the first attack
was to be expected, was entrusted to Josephus, the historian
of the war. The revolutionary leaders, who had already taken
the field, were superseded.
Josephus set himself to make an army of the inhabitants of
Galilee, many of whom had no wish to fight, and to strengthen
the strongholds. His organization of local government and his
efforts to maintain law and order brought him into collision
with the Zealots and especially with John of Giscala, one of their
leaders. The people, whom he had tried to conciliate, were
roused against him; John sent assassins and finally procured an
order from Jerusalem for his recall. In spite of all this Josephus
held his ground and by force or craft put down those who resisted
his authority.
In the spring of 67 Vespasian, who had been appointed by
Nero to crush the rebellion, advanced from his winter quarters
at Antioch. The inhabitants of Sepphoris — whom Josephus
had judged to be so eager for the war that he left them to build
their wall for themselves — received a Roman garrison at their
own request. Joined by Titus, Vespasian advanced into Galilee
with three legions and the auxiliary troops supplied by Agrippa
and other petty kings. Before his advance the army of Josephus
fled. Josephus with a few stalwarts took refuge in Tiberias, and
sent a letter to Jerusalem asking that he should be relieved of his
command or supplied with an adequate force to continue the war.
Hearing that Vespasian was preparing to besiege Jotapata,
a strong fortress in the hills, which was held by other fugitives,
Josephus entered it just before the road approaching it was made
passable for the Roman horse and foot. A deserter announced
his arrival to Vespasian, who rejoiced (Josephus says) that the
cleverest of his enemies had thus voluntarily imprisoned him-
self. After some six weeks' siege the place was stormed, and its
402
JEWS
[GREEK DOMINATION
exhausted garrison were killed or enslaved. Josephus, whose
pretences had postponed the final assault, hid in a cave with
forty men. His companions refused to permit him to surrender
and were resolved to die. At his suggestion they cast lots, and
the first man was killed by the second and so on, until all were
dead except Josephus and (perhaps) one other. So Josephus
saved them from the sin of suicide and gave himself up to the
Romans. He had prophesied that the place would be taken — as
it was — on the forty-seventh day, and now he prophesied that
both Vespasian and his son Titus would reign over all mankind.
The prophecy saved his life, though many desired his death, and
the rumour of it produced general mourning in Jerusalem. By
the end of the year (67) Galilee was in the hands of Vespasian,
and John of Giscala had fled. Agrippa celebrated the conquest
at Caesarea Philippi with festivities which lasted twenty days.
In accordance with ancient custom Jerusalem welcomed the
fugitive Zealots. The result was civil war and famine. Ananus
incited the people against these robbers, who arrested, imprisoned
and murdered prominent friends of Rome, and arrogated to them-
selves the right of selecting the high priest by lot. The Zealots
took refuge in the Temple and summoned the Idumaeans to their
aid. Under cover of a storm, they opened the city-gates to their
allies and proceeded to murder Ananus the high priest, and,
against the verdict of a formal tribunal, Zacharias the son of
Baruch in the midst of the Temple. The Idumaeans left, but
John of Giscala remained master of Jerusalem.
40. The Fall of Jerusalem. — Vespasian left the rivals to consume
one another and occupied his army with the subjugation of the
country. When he had isolated the capital and was preparing
to besiege it, the news of Nero's death reached him at Caesarea.
For a year (June 68-June 69) he held his hand and watched
events, until the robber-bands of Simon Bar-Giora (son of the
proselyte) required his attention. But, before Vespasian took
action to stop his raids, Simon had been invited to Jerusalem in
the hope that he would act as a counterpoise to the tyrant John.
And so, when Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in fulfilment of
Josephus' prophecy, and deputed the command to Titus, there
were three rivals at war in Jerusalem — Eleazar, Simon and John.
The temple sacrifices were still offered and worshippers were
admitted; but John's catapults were busy, and priest and
worshippers at the altar were killed, because Eleazar's party
occupied the inner courts of the Temple. A few days before the
passover of 70 Titus advanced upon Jerusalem, but the civil
war went on. When Eleazar opened the temple-gates to admit
those who wished to worship God, John of Giscala introduced
some of his own men, fully armed under their garments, and so
got possession of the Temple. Titus pressed the attack, and the
two factions joined hands at last to repel it. In spite of their
desperate sallies, Jerusalem was surrounded by a wall, and its
people, whose numbers were increased by those who had come up
for the passover, were hemmed in to starve. The famine affected
all alike — the populace, who desired peace, and the Zealots, who
were determined to fight to the end. At last John of Giscala por-
tioned out the sacred wine and oil, saying that they who fought
for the Temple might fearlessly use its stores for their sustenance.
Steadily the Romans forced their way through wall after wall,
until the Jews were driven back to the Temple and the daily
sacrifices came to an end on the I7th of July for lack of men.
Once more Josephus appealed in vain to John and his followers to
cease from desecrating and endangering the Temple. The siege
proceeded and the temple-gates were Burned. According to
Josephus, Titus decided to spare the Temple, but — whether
this was so or not — on the loth of August it was fired by a
soldier after a sortie of the Jews had been repelled. The legions
set up their standards in the temple-court and hailed Titus as
impcrator.
Some of the Zealots escaped with John and Simon to the
upper city and held it for another month. But Titus had already
earned the triumph which he celebrated at Rome in 71. The
Jews, wherever they might be, continued to pay the temple-tax;
but now it was devoted to Jupiter Capitolinus. The Romans had
taken their holy place, and the Law was all that was left to them.
41. From A.D. 70 to A.D. 135. — The destruction of the Temple
carried with it the destruction of the priesthood and all its power.
The priests existed to offer sacrifices, and by the Law no sacrifice
could be offered except at the Temple of Jerusalem. Thenceforward
the remnant of the Jews who survived the fiery ordeal formed a
church rather than a nation or a state, and the Pharisees exercised
an unchallenged supremacy. With the Temple and its Sadducean
high priests perished the Sanhedrin in which the Sadducees had
competed with the Pharisees for predominance. The Sicarii or
Zealots who had appealed to the arm of flesh were exterminated.
Only the teachers of the Law survived to direct the nation and to
teach those who remained loyal Jews, how they should render to
Caesar what belonged to Caesar, and to God what belonged to God.
Here and there hot-headed Zealots rose up to repeat the errors and
the disasters of their predecessors. But their fate only served to
deepen the impression already stamped upon the general mind of
the nation. The Temple was gone, but they had the Law. Already
the Jews of the Dispersion had learned to supplement the Temple by
the synagogue, and even the Jews of Jerusalem had not been free
to spend their lives in the worship of the Temple. There were still,
as always, rites which were independent of the place and of the
priest ; there had been a time when the Temple did not exist. So
Judaism survived once more the destruction of its central sanctuary.
When Jerusalem was taken, the Sicarii still continued to hold
three strongholds: one-^Masada — for three years. But the com-
mander of Masada realized at length that there was no hope of
escaping captivity except by death, and urged his comrades to
anticipate their fate. Each man slew his wife and children; ten
men were selected by lot to slay the rest; one man slew the nine
executioners, fired the palace and fell upon his sword. When the
place was stormed the garrison consisted of two old women and five
children who had concealed themselves in caves. So Vespasian
obtained possession of Palestine— the country which Nero had given
him — and for a time it was purged of revolutionaries. Early
Christian writers assert that he proceeded to search out and to
execute all descendants of David who might conceivably come
forward as claimants of the vacant throne.
In Egypt and in Cyrene fugitive Zealots endeavoured to continue
their rebellion against the emperor, but there also with disastrous
results. The doors of the Temple in Egypt were closed, and its sacri-
fices which had been offered for 243 years were prohibited. Soon
afterwards this temple also was destroyed. Apart from these local
outbreaks, the Jews throughout the empire remained loyal citizens
and were not molested. The general hope of the nation was not
necessarily bound up with the house of David, and its realization
was not incompatible with the yoke of Rome. They still looked for
a true prophet, and meanwhile they had their rabbis.
Under Johanan ben Zaccai (g.v.) the Pharisees established them-
selves at Jamnia. A new Sanhedrin was formed there under the
presidency of a ruler, who received yearly dues from all Jewish
communities. The scribes through the synagogues preserved the
national spirit and directed it towards the religious life which was
prescribed by Scripture. The traditions of the elders were tested
and gradually harmonized in their essentials. The canon of Scrip-
ture was decided in accordance with the touchstone of the Penta-
teuch. Israel had retired to their tents to study their Bible.
Under Vespasian and Titus the Jews enjoyed freedom of con-
science and equal political rights with non-Jewish subjects of Rome.
But Domitian, according to pagan historians, bore hardly on them.
The temple-tax was strictly exacted ; Jews who lived the Jewish life
without openly confessing their religion and Jews who concealed
their nationality were brought before the magistrates. Proselytes
to Judaism were condemned either to death or to forfeiture of
their property. Indeed it would seem that Domitian instituted a
persecution of the Jews, to which Nerva his successor put an end.
Towards the end of Trajan's reign (i 14-1 17) the Jews of Egypt and
Cyrene rose against their Greek neighbours and set up a king. The
rebellion spread to Cyprus; and when Trajan advanced from
Mesopotamia into Parthia the Jews of Mesopotamia revolted.
The massacres they perpetrated were avenged in kind and all the
insurrections were quelled when Hadrian succeeded Trajan.
In 132 the Jews of Palestine rebelled again. Hadrian had for-
bidden circumcision as illegal mutilation: he had also replaced
Jerusalem by a city of his own, Aelia Capitolina, and the temple of
Yahweh by a temple of Jupiter. Apart from these bitter provoca-
tions— the prohibition of the sign of the covenant and the desecration
of the sacred place — the Jews had a leader who was recognized as
Messiah by the rabbi Aqiba. Though the majority of the rabbis
looked for no such deliverer and refused to admit his claims, Barcoche-
bas (q.v.) drew the people after him to struggle for their national
independence. For three years and a half he held his own and issued
coins in the name of Simon, which commemorate the liberation of
Jerusalem. Some attempt was apparently made to rebuild the
Temple; and the Jews of the Dispersion, who had perhaps been
won over by Aqiba, supported the rebellion. Indeed even Gentiles
helped them, so that the whole world (Dio Cassius says) was stirred.
Hadrian sent his best generals against the rebels, and at length they
were driven from Jerusalem to Bethar (135). The Jews were for-
bidden to enter the new city of Jerusalem on pain of death.
DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES]
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The most comprehensive of modern booksdealing
with the period is Emil Schurer, Geschichte des Jiidischen Volkes
im Zeitalter Jesu Christi (3 vols., Leipzig, 1901 foil.). Exception
has been taken to a certain lack of sympathy with the Jews, espe-
cially the rabbis, which has been detected in the author. But at least
the book remains an indispensable storehouse of references to ancient
and modern authorities. An earlier edition was translated into
English under the title History of the Jewish People (Edinburgh,
1890, 1891). Of shorter histories, D. A. Schlatter's Geschichte
Israel's von Alexander dem Grossen bis Hadrian (2nd ed., 1906)
is perhaps the least dependent upon Schurer and attempts more
than others to interpret the fragmentary evidence available. Dr
R. H. Charles has done much by his editions to restore to their
proper prominence in connexion with Jewish history the Testaments
of the Twelve Patriarchs, The Book of Jubilees, Enoch, &c. But
Schurer gives a complete bibliography to which it must suffice to
refer. For the Sanhedrin see SYNEDRIUM. (J. H. A. H.)
III. — FROM THE DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES
42. The Later Empire. — With the failure in 135 of the attempt
led by Barcochebas to free Judaea from Roman domination a new
era begins in the history of the Jews. The direct consequence of
the failure was the annihilation of political nationality. Large
numbers fell in the actual fighting. Dio Cassius puts the total at
the incredible figure of 580,000, besides the incalculable number
who succumbed to famine, disease and fire (Dio-Xiphilin Ixix.
11-15). Jerusalem was rebuilt by Hadrian, orders to this effect
being given during the emperor's first journey through Syria in
130, the date of his foundations at Gaza, Tiberias and Petra
(Reinach, Textes relatifs au Juddisme, p. 198). The new city
was named Aelia Capitolina, and on the site of the temple of
Jehovah there arose another temple dedicated to Jupiter. To
Eusebius the erection of a temple of Venus over the sepulchre
of Christ was an act of mockery against the Christian religion.
Rome had been roused to unwonted fury, and the truculence of
the rebels was matched by the cruelty of their masters. The
holy city was barred against the Jews; they were excluded,
under pain of death, from approaching within view of the
walls. Hadrian's policy in this respect was matched later on
by the edict of the caliph Omar (c. 638), who, like his Roman
prototype, prevented the Jews from settling in the capital of
their ancient country. The death of Hadrian and the accession
of Antoninus Pius (138), however, gave the dispersed people
of Palestine a breathing-space. Roman law was by no means
intolerant to the Jews. Under the constitution of Caracalla
(198-217) all inhabitants of the Roman empire enjoyed the civil
rights of the Gives Romani (Scherer, Die Rechtsverhaltnisse der
Juden, p. 10).
Moreover, a spiritual revival mitigated the crushing effects of
material ruin. The synagogue had become a firmly established
institution, and the personal and social life of the masses
had come under the control of communal law. The dialectic
of the school proved stronger to preserve than the edge of the
sword to destroy. Pharisaic Judaism, put to the severest test
to which a religious system has ever been subject, showed itself
able to control and idealize life in all its phases. Whatever
question may be possible as to the force or character of Phari-
saism in the time of Christ, there can be no doubt that it
became both all-pervading and ennobling among the successors of
Aqiba (q.v.), himself one of the martyrs to Hadrian's severity.
Little more than half a century after the overthrow of the Jewish
nationality, the Mishnah was practically completed, and by this
code of rabbinic law — and law is here a term which includes
the social, moral and religious as well as the ritual and legal
phases of human activity — the Jewish people were organized
into a community, living more or less autonomously under the
Sanhedrin or Synedrium (q.v.) and its officials.
Judah the prince, the patriarch or nasi who edited the Mishnah,
died early in the 3rd century. With him the importance of
the Palestinian patriarchate attained its zenith. Gamaliel II.
of Jamnia (Jabne Yebneh) had been raised to this dignity a
century before, and, as members of the house of Hillel and thus
descendants of David, the patriarchs enjoyed almost royal
authority. Their functions were political rather than reli-
gious, though their influence was by no means purely secular.
JEWS 403
They were often on terms of intimate friendship with the
emperors, who scarcely interfered with their jurisdiction.
As late as Theodosius I. (370-395) the internal affairs of the
Jews were formally committed to the patriarchs, and Honorius
(404) authorized the collection of the patriarch's tax (aurum
coronarium), by which a revenue was raised from the Jews of the
diaspora. Under Theodosius II. (408-450) the patriarchate
was finally abolished after a regime of three centuries and a half
(Graetz, History of the Jews, Eng. trans, vol. ii. ch. xxii.), though
ironically enough the last holder of the office had been for a time
elevated by the emperor to the rank of prefect. The real
turning-point had been reached earlier, when Christianity became
the state religion under Constantine I. in 312.
Religion under the Christian emperors became a significant source
of discrimination in legal status, and non-conformity might reach
so far as to produce complete loss of rights. The laws concerning
the Jews had a repressive and preventive object: the repression of
Judaism and the prevention of inroads of Jewish influences into the
state religion. The Jews were thrust into a position of isolation,
and the Code of Theodosius and other authorities characterize the
Jews as a lower order of depraved beings (inferiores and perversi),
their community as a godless, dangerous sect (secta nefaria, feralis),
their religion a superstition, their assemblies for religious worship a
blasphemy (sacrilegi coetus) and a contagion (Scherer, op. cit. pp.
11—12). Yet Judaism under Roman Christian law was a lawful
religion (religio licita), Valentinian I. (364-375) forbade the quarter-
ing of soldiers in the synagogues, Theodosius I. prohibited inter-
ference with the synagogue worship ("Judaeorum sectam nulla lege
prohibitam satis constat "), and in 412 a special edict of protection
was issued. But the admission of Christians into the Jewish fold
was punished by confiscation of goods (357), the erection of new
synagogues was arrested by Theodosius II. (439) under penalty of a
heavy fine, Jews were forbidden to hold Christian slaves under pain
of death (423). A similar penalty attached to intermarriage between
Jews and Christians, and an attempt was made to nullify all Jewish
marriages which were not celebrated in accordance with Roman law.
But Justinian (527-565) was the first to interfere directly in the
religious institutions of the Jewish people. In 553 he interdicted
the use of the Talmud (which had then not long been completed),
and the Byzantine emperors of the 8th and gth centuries passed
even more intolerant regulations. As regards civil law, Jews were
at first allowed to settle disputes between Jew and Jew before their
own courts, but Justinian denied to them and to heretics the right
to appear, as witnesses in the public courts against orthodox Chris-
tians. To Constantine V. (911-959) goes back the Jewish form of
oath which in its later development required the Jew to gird him-
self with thorns; stand in water; and, holding the scroll of the
Torah in his hand, invoke upon his person the leprosy of Naaman,
the curse of Eli and the fate of Korah's sons should he perjure himself.
This was the original of all the medieval forms of oath more judaico,
which still prevailed in many European lands till the igth century,
and are even now maintained by some of the Rumanian courts.
Jews were by the law of Honorius excluded from the army, from
public offices and dignities (418), from acting as advocates (425);
only the curial offices were open to them. Justinian gave the
finishing touch by proclaiming in 537 the Jews absolutely ineligible
for any honour whatsoever (" honore fruantur nullo ").
43. Judaism in Babylonia. — The Jews themselves were during
this period engaged in building up a system of isolation on their
own side, but they treated Roman law with greater hospitality
than it meted out to them. The Talmud shows the influence of
that law in many points, and may justly be compared to it as a
monument of codification based on great principles. The Pales-
tinian Talmud was completed in the 4th century, but the better
known and more influential version was compiled in Baby-
lonia about 500. The land which, a millennium before, had been
a prison for the Jewish exiles was now their asylum of refuge.
For a long time it formed their second fatherland. Here, far
more than on Palestinian soil, was built the enduring edifice of
rabbinism. The population of the southern part of Mesopotamia
— the strip of land enclosed between the Tigris and the Euphrates
— was, according to Graetz, mainly Jewish; while the district
extending for about 70 m. on the east of the Euphrates, from
Nehardea in the north to Sura in the south, became a new
Palestine with Nehardea for its Jerusalem. The Babylonian
Jews were practically independent, and the exilarch (resh-
galutha) or prince of the captivity was an official who ruled
the community as a vassal of the Persian throne. The exilarch
claimed, like the Palestinian patriarch, descent from the royal
house of David, and exercised most of the functions of
404
JEWS
[DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES
government. Babylonia had risen into supreme importance
for Jewish life at about the time when the Mishnah was com-
pleted. The great rabbinic academies at Sura and Nehardea,
the former of which retained something of its dominant role
till the nth century, had been founded, Sura by Abba Arika
(g.v.) (c. 219), but Nehardea, the more ancient seat of the
two, famous in the 3rd century for its association with Abba
Arika's renowned contemporary Samuel, lost its Jewish import-
ance in the age of Mahomet.
To Samuel of Nehardea (q.v.) belongs the honour of formu-
lating the principle which made it possible for Jews to live under
alien laws. Jeremiah had admonished his exiled brothers:
" Seek ye the peace of the city whither I have caused you to be
carried away captives, and pray unto the Lord for it: for in
the peace thereof shall ye have peace " (Jer. xxix. 7). It was
now necessary to go farther, and the rabbis proclaimed a
principle which was as influential with the synagogue as "Give
unto Caesar that which is Caesar's " became with the Church.
" The law of the government is law " (Baba Qama 113 b.), said
Samuel, and ever since it has been a religious duty for the
Jews to obey and accommodate themselves as far as possible
to the laws of the country in which they are settled or reside.
In 259 Odenathus, the Palmyrene adventurer whose memory has
been eclipsed by that of his wife Zenobia, laid Nehardea waste
for the time being, and in its neighbourhood arose the academy
of Pumbedita (Pombeditha) which became a new focus for the
intellectual life of Israel in Babylonia. These academies were
organized on both scholastic and popular lines; their consti-
tution was democratic. An outstanding feature was the
Kallah assemblage twice a year (in Elul at the close of the
summer, and in Adar at the end of the winter), when there
were gathered together vast numbers of outside students of
the most heterogeneous character as regards both age and
attainments. Questions received from various quarters were
discussed and the final decision of the Kallah was signed by the
Resh-Kallah or president of the general assembly, who was only
second in rank to the Resh-Metibta, or president of the scholastic
sessions. Thus the Babylonian academies combined the func-
tions of specialist law-schools, universities and popular parlia-
ments. They were a unique product of rabbinism; and the
authors of the system were also the compilers of its literary
expression, the Talmud.
44. Judaism in Islam. — Another force now appears on the
scene. The new religion inaugurated by Mahomet differed
in its theory from the Roman Catholic Church. The Church,
it is true, in council after council, passed decisions unfriendly
to the Jews. From the synod at Elvira in the 4th century this
process began, and it was continued in the West-Gothic Church
legislation, in the Lateran councils (especially the fourth in
1215), and in the council of Trent (1563). The anti-social
tendency of these councils expressed itself in the infliction
of the badge, in the compulsory domicile of Jews within ghettos,
and in the erection of formidable barriers against all intercourse
between church and synagogue. The protective instinct was
responsible for much of this interference with the natural
impulse of men of various creeds towards mutual esteem and
forbearance. The church, it was conceived, needed defence
against the synagogue at all hazards, and the fear that the latter
would influence and dominate the former was never absent from
the minds of medieval ecclesiastics. But though this defensive
zeal led to active persecution, still in theory Judaism was a
tolerated religion wherever the Church had sway, and many papal
bulls of a friendly character were issued throughout the middle
ages (Scherer, p. 32 seq.).
Islam, on the other hand, had no theoretic place in its scheme
for tolerated religions; its principle was fundamentally in-
tolerant. Where the mosque was erected, there was no room
for church or synagogue. The caliph Omar initiated in the
7th century a code which required Christians and Jews to wear
peculiar dress, denied them the right to hold state offices or to
possess land, inflicted a poll-tax on them, and while forbidding
them to enter mosques, refused them the permission to build
new places of worship for themselves. Again and again these
ordinances were repeated in subsequent ages, and intolerance
for infidels is still a distinct feature of Mahommedan law. But
Islam has often shown itself milder in fact than in theory,
for its laws were made to be broken. The medieval Jews on
the whole lived, under the crescent, a fuller and freer life than
was possible to them under the cross. Mahommedan Baby-
lonia (Persia) was the home of the gaonate (see GAON), the central
authority of religious Judaism, whose power transcended that
of the secular exilarchate, for it influenced the synagogue far and
wide, while the exilarchate was local. The gaonate enjoyed a
practical tolerance remarkable when contrasted with the letter
of Islamic law. And as the Bagdad caliphate tended to become
more and more supreme in Islam, so the gaonate too shared in
this increased influence. Not even the Qaraite schism was able
to break the power of the geonim. But the dispersion of the
Jews was proceeding in directions which carried masses from the
Asiatic inland to the Mediterranean coasts and to Europe.
45. In Medieval Europe: Spain. — This dispersion of the Jews
had begun in the Hellenistic period, but it was after the Bar-
cochebas war that it assumed great dimensions in Europe. There
were Jews in the Byzantine empire, in Rome, in France and
Spain at very early periods, but it is with the Arab conquest of
Spain that the Jews of Europe began to rival in culture and im-
portance their brethren of the Persian gaonate. Before this date
the Jews had been learning the r61e they afterwards filled, that
of the chief promoters of international commerce. Already
under Charlemagne this development is noticeable; in his
generous treatment of the Jews this Christian emperor stood in
marked contrast to his contemporary the caliph Harun al-Rashid,
who persecuted Jews and Christians with equal vigour. But by
the loth century Judaism had received from Islam something
more than persecution. It caught the contagion of poetry,
philosophy and science.1 The schismatic Qaraites initiated or
rather necessitated a new Hebrew philology, which later on
produced Qimhi, the gaon Saadiah founded a Jewish philosophy,
the statesman Hasdai introduced a new Jewish culture — and
all this under Mahommedan rule. It is in Spain that above all
the new spirit manifested itself. The distinctive feature of
the Spanish-Jewish culture was its comprehensiveness. Litera-
ture and affairs, science and statecraft, poetry and medicine,
these various expressions of human nature and activity were so
harmoniously balanced that they might be found in the posses-
sion of one and the same individual. The Jews of Spain attained
to high places in the service of the state from the time of the
Moorish conquest in 711. From Hasdai ibn Shaprut in the
roth century and Samuel the nagid in the nth the line of
Jewish scholar-statesmen continued till we reach Isaac Abrabanel
in 1492, the date of the expulsion of the Jews from Spain. This
last-named event synchronized with the discovery of America;
Columbus being accompanied by at least one Jewish navigator.
While the Spanish period of Jewish history was thus brilliant
from the point of view of public service, it was equally notable
on the literary side. Hebrew religious poetry was revived for
synagogue hymnology, and, partly in imitation of Arabian models,
a secular Hebrew poetry was developed in metre and rhyme.
The new Hebrew Piyut found its first important exponent in
Kalir, who was not a Spaniard. But it is to Spain that we must
look for the best of the medieval poets of the synagogue,
greatest among them being Ibn Gabirol and Halevi. So, too,
the greatest Jew of the middle ages, Maimonides, was a Spaniard.
In him culminates the Jewish expression of the Spanish-Moorish
culture; his writings had an influence on European scholas-
ticism and contributed significant elements to the philosophy of
Spinoza. But the reconquest of Andalusia by the Christians
associated towards the end of the isth century with the
establishment of the Inquisition, introduced a spirit of intoler-
ance which led to the expulsion of the Jews and Moors. The
consequences of this blow were momentous; it may be said to
inaugurate the ghetto period. In Spain Jewish life had parti-
cipated in the general life, but the expulsion — while it dispersed
1 On the writers mentioned below see articles s.v.
DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES]
JEWS
405
the Spanish Jews in Poland, Turkey, Italy and France, and
thus in the end contributed to the Jewish emancipation at the
French Revolution — for the time drove the Jews within their
own confines and barred them from the outside world.1
46. In France, Germany, England, Italy. — In the meantime
Jewish life had been elsewhere subjected to other influences
which produced a result at once narrower and deeper. Under
Charlemagne, the Jews, who had begun to settle in Gaul in
the time of Caesar, were more than tolerated. They were
allowed to hold land and were encouraged to become — what their
ubiquity qualified them to be — the merchant princes of Europe.
The reign of Louis the Pious (814-840) was, as Graetz puts it,
" a golden era for the Jews of his kingdom, such as they had
never enjoyed, and were destined never again to enjoy in
Europe " — prior, that is, totheageof Mendelssohn. In Germany
at the same period the feudal system debarred the Jews from
holding land, and though there was as yet no material persecu-
tion they suffered moral injury by being driven exclusively into
finance and trade. Nor was there any widening of the general
horizon such as was witnessed in Spain. The Jewries of France
and Germany were thus thrown upon their own cultural re-
sources. They rose to the occasion. In Mainz there settled in
the loth century Gershom, the " light of the exile," who, about
1000, published his ordinance forbidding polygamy in Jewish
law as it had long been forbidden in Jewish practice. This
ordinance may be regarded as the beginning of the Synodal
government of Judaism, which was a marked feature of medieval
life in the synagogues of northern and central Europe from
the 1 2th century. Soon after Gershom's death, Rashi (1040-
1 106) founded at Troyes a new school of learning. If Maimon-
ides represented Judaism on its rational side, Rashi was the
expression of its traditions.
French Judaism was thus in a sense more human if less
humane than the Spanish variety; the latter produced
thinkers, statesmen, poets and scientists; the former, men
with whom the Talmud was a passion, men of robuster because
of more naive and concentrated piety. In Spain and North Africa
persecution created that strange and significant phenomenon
Maranism or crypto-Judaism, a public acceptance of Islam or
Christianity combined with a private fidelity to the rites of
Judaism. But in England, France and Germany persecution
altogether failed to shake the courage of the Jews, and martyr-
dom was borne in preference to ostensible apostasy. The
crusades subjected the Jews to this ordeal. The evil was
wrought, not by the regular armies of the cross who were in-
spired by noble ideals, but by the undisciplined mobs which, for
the sake of plunder, associated themselves with the genuine
enthusiasts. In 1096 massacres of Jews occurred in many cities of
the Rhineland. During the second crusade (i 145-1147) Bernard
of Clairvaux heroically protested against similar inhumanities.
The third crusade, famous for the participation of Richard I.,
was the occasion for bloody riots in England, especially in
York, where 150 Jews immolated themselves to escape baptism.
Economically and socially the crusades had disastrous effects
upon the Jews (see J. Jacobs, Jewish Encyclopedia, iv. 379).
Socially they suffered by the outburst of religious animosity.
One of the worst forms taken by this ill-will was the oft-revived
myth of ritual murder (q.v.), and later on when the Black
Death devastated Europe (1348-1349) the Jews were the victims
of an odious charge of well-poisoning. Economically the results
were also injurious. " Before the crusades the Jews had prac-
tically a monopoly of trade in Eastern products, but the
closer connexion between Europe and the East brought about
by the crusades raised up a class of merchant traders among the
Christians, and from this time onwards restrictions on the sale
of goods by Jews became frequent " (op. cit.}. After the second
crusade the German Jews fell into the class of servi camerae,
which at first only implied that they enjoyed the immunity of
imperial servants, but afterwards made of them slaves and
pariahs. At the personal whim of rulers, whether royal or of
1 For the importance of the Portuguese Jews, see PORTUGAL :
History.
lower rank, the Jews were expelled from states and principalities
and were reduced to a condition of precarious uncertainty
as to what the morrow might bring forth. Pope Innocent III.
gave strong impetus to the repression of the Jews, especially
by ordaining the wearing of a badge. Popular animosity was
kindled by the enforced participation of the Jews in public
disputations. In 1306 Philip IV. expelled the Jews from
France, nine years later Louis X. recalled them for a period of
twelve years. Such vicissitudes were the ordinary lot of the
Jews for several centuries, and it was their own inner life — the
pure life of the home, the idealism of the synagogue, and the
belief in ultimate Messianic redemption — that saved them from
utter demoralization and despair. Curiously enough in Italy —
and particularly in Rome — the external conditions were better.
The popes themselves, within their own immediate jurisdiction,
were often far more tolerant than their bulls issued for foreign
communities, and Torquemada was less an expression than
a distortion of the papal policy. In the early i4th century,
the age of Dante, the new spirit of the Renaissance made Italian
rulers the patrons of art and literature, and the Jews to some
extent shared in this gracious change. Robert of Aragon —
vicar-general of the papal states — in particular encouraged the
Jews and supported them in their literary and scientific ambi-
tions. Small coteries of Jewish minor poets and philosophers
were formed, and men like Kalonymos and Immanuel — Dante's
friend — shared the versatility and culture of Italy. But in
Germany there was no echo of this brighter note. Persecution
was elevated into a system, a poll-tax was exacted, and the
rabble was allowed (notably in 1336-1337) to give full vent to
its fury. Following on this came the Black Death with its
terrible consequences in Germany; even in Poland, where the
Jews had previously enjoyed considerable rights, extensive
massacres took place.
In effect the Jews became outlaws, but their presence being
often financially necessary, certain officials were permitted to
" hold Jews," who were liable to all forms of arbitrary treatment
on the side of their " owners." The Jews had been among the
first to appreciate the commercial advantages of permitting the
loan of money on interest, but it was the policy of the Church
that drove the Jews into money-lending as a characteristic
trade. Restrictions on their occupations were everywhere
common, and as the Church forbade Christians to engage in
usury, this was the only trade open to the Jews. The excessive
demands made upon the Jews forbade a fair rate of interest.
" The Jews were unwilling sponges by means of which a large
part of the subjects' wealth found its way into the royal ex-
chequer " (Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, ch. xii.).
Hence, though this procedure made the Jews intensely obnoxious
to the peoples, they became all the more necessary to the rulers.
A favourite form of tolerance was to grant a permit to the Jews
to remain in the state for a limited term of years; their con-
tinuance beyond the specified time was illegal and they were
therefore subject to sudden banishment. Thus a second expul-
sion of the Jews of France occurred in 1394. Early in the isth
century John Hus— under the inspiration of Wycliffe — initiated
at Prague the revolt against the Roman Catholic Church. The
Jews suffered in the persecution 'that followed, and in 1420 all
the Austrian Jews were thrown into prison. Martin V. published
a favourable bull, but it was ineffectual. The darkest days
were nigh. Pope Eugenius (1442) issued a fiercely intolerant
missive; the Franciscan John of Capistrano moved the masses
to activity by his eloquent denunciations; even Casimir IV.
revoked the privileges of the Jews in Poland, when the Turkish >
capture of Constantinople (1453) offered a new asylum for the
hunted Jews of Europe. But in Europe itself the catastrophe
was not arrested. The Inquisition in Spain led to the expulsion
of the Jews (1492), and this event involved not only the latter
but the whole of the Jewish people. " The Jews everywhere
felt as if the temple had again been destroyed " (Graetz).
Nevertheless, the result was not all evil. If fugitives are for
the next half-century to be met with in all parts of Europe,
yet, especially in the Levant, there grew up thriving Jewish
406
JEWS
[DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES
communities often founded by Spanish refugees. Such incidents
as the rise of Joseph Nasi (q.v.) to high position under the
Turkish government as duke of Naxos mark the coming change.
The reformation as such had no favourable influence on Jewish
fortunes in Christian Europe, though the championship of the
cause of toleration by Reuchlin had considerable value. But
the age of the ghetto (q.v.) had set in too firmly for immediate
amelioration to be possible. It is to Holland and to the I7th
century that we must turn for the first real steps towards Jewish
emancipation.
47. Period of Emancipation. — The ghetto, which had prevailed
more or less rigorously for a long period, was not formally pre-
scribed by the papacy until the beginning of the i6th century.
The same century was not ended before the prospect of liberty
dawned on the Jews. Holland from the moment that it joined the
union of Utrecht (1579) deliberately set its face against religious
persecution (Jewish Encyclopedia, i. 537). Maranos, fleeing to
the Netherlands, were welcomed; the immigrants were wealthy,
enterprising and cultured. Many Jews, who had been compelled
to conceal their faith, now came into the open. By the middle
of the 1 7th century the Jews of Holland had become of such
importance that Charles II. of England (then in exile) entered
into negotiations with the Amsterdam Jews (1656). In that
same year the Amsterdam community was faced by a serious
problem in connexion with Spinoza. They brought themselves
into notoriety by excommunicating the philosopher — an act
of weak self-defence on the part of men who had themselves but
recently been admitted to the country, and were timorous of
the suspicion that they shared Spinoza's then execrated views.
It is more than a mere coincidence that this step was taken during
the absence in England of one of the ablest and most notable of
the Amsterdam rabbis. At the time, Menasseh ben Israel (q.v.)
was in London, on a mission to Cromwell. The Jews had been
expelled from England by Edward I., after a sojourn in the
country of rather more than two centuries, during which they
had been the licensed and oppressed money-lenders of the
realm, and had — through the special exchequer of the Jews —
been used by the sovereign as a means of extorting a revenue
from his subjects. In the i7th century a considerable number
of Jews had made a home in the English colonies, where from the
first they enjoyed practically equal rights with the Christian
settlers. Cromwell, upon the inconclusive termination of the
conference summoned in 1655 at Whitehall to consider the
Jewish question, tacitly assented to the return of the Jews to
this country, and at the restoration his action was confirmed.
The English Jews " gradually substituted for the personal
protection of the crown, the sympathy and confidence of the
nation " (L. Wolf, Menasseh ben Israel's Mission to Cromwell,
p. Ixxv.). The city of London was the first to be converted to
the new attitude. " The wealth they brought into the country,
and their fruitful commercial activity, especially in the colonial
trade, soon revealed them as an indispensable element of the
prosperity of the city. As early as 1668, Sir Josiah Child, the
millionaire governor of the East India company, pleaded for
their naturalization on the score of their commercial utility.
For the same reason the city found itself compelled at first to
connive at their illegal representation on 'Change, and then to
violate its own rules by permitting them to act as brokers without
previously taking up the freedom. At this period they con-
trolled more of the foreign and colonial trade than all the other
alien merchants in London put together. The momentum of
their commercial enterprise and stalwart patriotism proved
irresistible. From the exchange to the city council chamber,
thence to the aldermanic court, and eventually to the mayoralty
itself, were inevitable stages of an emancipation to which their
large interests in the city and their high character entitled them.
Finally the city of London — not only as the converted champion
of religious liberty but as the convinced apologist of the Jews —
sent Baron Lionel de Rothschild to knock at the door of the
unconverted House of Commons as parliamentary representative
of the first city in the world " (Wolf, loc. cit.).
The pioneers of this emancipation in Holland and England
were Sephardic (or Spanish) Jews — descendants of the Spanish
exiles. In the meantime the Ashkenazic (or German) Jews had
been working out their own salvation. The chief effects of the
change were not felt till the i8th century. In England emanci-
pation was of democratic origin and concerned itself with
practical questions. On the Continent, the movement was more
aristocratic and theoretical; it was part of the intellectual
renaissance which found its most striking expression in the
principles of the French Revolution. Throughout Europe the
1 8th century was less an era of stagnation than of transition.
The condition of the European Jews seems, on a -superficial
examination, abject enough. But, excluded though they were
from most trades and occupations, confined to special quarters
of the city, disabled from sharing most of the amenities of life,
the Jews nevertheless were gradually making their escape from
the ghetto and from the moral degeneration which it had caused.
Some ghettos (as in Moravia) were actually not founded till the
1 8th century, but the careful observer can perceive clearly that
at that period the ghetto was a doomed institution. In the
" dark ages " Jews enjoyed neither rights nor privileges; in
the 1 8th century they were still without rights but they had
privileges. A grotesque feature of the time in Germany and
Austria was the class of court Jews, such as the Oppenheims,
the personal favourites of rulers and mostly their victims when
their usefulness had ended. These men often rendered great
services to their fellow-Jews, and one of the results was the
growth in Jewish society of an aristocracy of wealth, where
previously there had been an aristocracy of learning. Even
more important was another privileged class — that of the
Schutz-Jude (protected Jew). Where there were no rights,
privileges had to be bought. While the court Jews were the
favourites of kings, the protected Jews were the proteges of
town councils. Corruption is the frequent concomitant of
privilege, and thus the town councils often connived for a price
at the presence in their midst of Jews whose admission was
illegal. Many Jews found it possible to evade laws of domicile
by residing in one place and trading in another. Nor could
they be effectually excluded from the fairs, the great markets
of the 1 8th century. The Sephardic Jews in all these respects
occupied a superior position, and they merited the partiality
shown to them. Their personal dignity and the vast range of
their colonial enterprises were in striking contrast to the retail
traffic of the Ashkenazim and their degenerate bearing and
speech. Peddling had been forced on the latter by the action
of the gilds which were still powerful in the i8th century on the
Continent. Another cause may be sought in the Cossack
assaults on the Jews at an earlier period. Crowds of wanderers
were to be met on every road; Germany, Holland and Italy were
full of Jews who, pack on shoulder, were seeking a precarious live-
lihood at a time when peddling was neither lucrative nor safe.
But underneath all this were signs of a great change. The
1 8th century has a goodly tale of Jewish artists in metal- work,
makers of pottery, and (wherever the gilds permitted it) artisans
and wholesale manufacturers of many important commodities.
The last attempts at exclusion were irritating enough; but they
differed from the earlier persecution. Such strange enactments
as the Familianten-Gesetz, which prohibited more than one
member of a family from marrying, broke up families by forcing
the men to emigrate. In 1781 Dohm pointed to the fact that a
Jewish father could seldom hope to enjoy the happiness of living
with his children. In that very year, however, Joseph II.
initiated in Austria a new era for the Jews. This Austrian
reformation was so typical of other changes elsewhere, and so
expressive of the previous disabilities of the Jews, that, even in
this rapid summary, space must be spared for some of the
details supplied by Graetz. " By this new departure (ipth of
October 1781) the Jews were permitted to learn handicrafts,
arts and sciences, and with certain restrictions to devote them-
selves to agriculture. The doors of the universities and acade-
mies, hitherto closed to them, were thrown open. . . . An
ordinance of November 2 enjoined that the Jews were every-
where considered fellow-men, and all excesses against them were
DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES]
to be avoided. The Leibzoll (body-tax) was also abolished, in
addition to the special law-taxes, the passport duty, the night-
duty and all similiar imposts which had stamped the Jews
as outcast, for they were now (Dec. 19) to have equal
rights with the Christian inhabitants." The Jews were not,
indeed, granted complete citizenship, and their residence and
public worship in Vienna and other Austrian cities were circum-
scribed and even penalized. " But Joseph II. annulled a number
of vexatious, restrictive regulations, such as the compulsory
wearing of beards, the prohibition against going out in the
forenoon on Sundays or holidays, or frequenting public pleasure
resorts. The emperor even permitted Jewish wholesale mer-
chants, notables and their sons, to wear swords (January 2,
1782), and especially insisted that Christians should behave in a
friendly manner towards Jews."
48. The Mendelssohn Movement. — This notable beginning to
the removal of " the ignominy of a thousand years " was
causally connected with the career of Moses Mendelssohn (1729-
1786; q.v.). He found on both sides an unreadiness for approxi-
mation: the Jews had sunk into apathy and degeneration, the
Christians were still moved by hereditary antipathy. The
failure of the hopes entertained of Sabbatai Zebi (q.v.) had
plunged the Jewries of the world into despair. This Smyrnan
pretender not only proclaimed himself Messiah (c. 1650) but he
was accepted in that role by vast numbers of his brethren. At
the moment when Spinoza was publishing a system which is
still a dominating note of modern philosophy, this other son of
Israel was capturing the very heart of Jewry. His miracles
were reported and eagerly believed everywhere; " from Poland,
Hamburg and Amsterdam treasures poured into his court; in the
Levant young men and maidens prophesied before him; the
Persian Jews refused to till the fields. 'We shall pay no more
taxes,' they said, ' our Messiah is come.' " The expectation
that he would lead Israel in triumph to the Holy Land was
doomed to end in disappointment. Sabbatai lacked one quality
without which enthusiasm is ineffective; he failed to believe in
himself. At the critical moment he embraced Islam to escape
death, and though he was still believed in by many — it was not
Sabbatai himself but a phantom resemblance that had assumed
the turban! — his meteoric career did but colour the sky of the
Jews with deeper blackness. Despite all this, one must not fall
into the easy error of exaggerating the degeneration into which
the Jewries of the world fell from the middle of the 1 7th till the
middle of the i8th century. For Judaism had organized itself;
the Shulhan aruch of Joseph Qaro (q.v.), printed in 1564 within
a decade of its completion, though not accepted without demur,
was nevertheless widely admitted as the code of Jewish life. If
in more recent times progress in Judaism has implied more or
less of revolt against the rigors and fetters of Qaro's code, yet
for 250 years it was a powerful safeguard against demoralization
and stagnation. No community living in full accordance with
that code could fail to reach a high moral and intellectual level.
It is truer to say that on the whole the Jews began at this period
to abandon as hopeless the attempt to find a place for themselves
in the general life of their country. Perhaps they even ceased
to desire it. Their children were taught without any regard to
outside conditions, they spoke and wrote a jargon, and their
whole training, both by what it included and by what it excluded,
tended to produce isolation from their neighbours. Moses
Mendelssohn, both by his career and by his propaganda, for
ever put an end to these conditions; he more than any other man.
Born in the ghetto of Dessau, he was not of the ghetto. At the
age of fourteen he found his way to Berlin, where Frederick the
Great, inspired by the spirit of Voltaire, held the maxim that
" to oppress the Jews never brought prosperity to any govern-
ment." Mendelssohn became a warm friend of Lessing, the
hero of whose drama Nathan the Wise was drawn from the Dessau
Jew. Mendelssohn's Phaedo, on the immortality of the soul,
brought the author into immediate fame, and the simple home
of the " Jewish Plato " was sought by many of the leaders of
Gentile society in Berlin. Mendelssohn's translation of the
Pentateuch into German with a new commentary by himself
JEWS 407
and others introduced the Jews to more modern ways of thinking.
Two results emanated from Mendelssohn's work. A new school
of scientific study of Judaism emerged, to be dignified by the
names of Leopold Zunz (q.v.), H. Graetz (q.v.) and many
others. On the other hand Mendelssohn by his pragmatic
conception of religion (specially in his Jerusalem) weakened the
belief of certain minds in the absolute truth of Judaism, and thus
his own grandchildren (including the famous musician Felix
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy) as well as later Heine, Borne, Cans and
Neander, embraced Christianity. Within Judaism itself two
parties were formed, the Liberals and the Conservatives, and as
time went on these tendencies definitely organized themselves.
Holdheim (q.v.) and Geiger (q.v.) led the reform movement in
Germany and at the present day the effects of the movement are
widely felt in America on the Liberal side and on the opposite
side in the work of the neo-orthodox school founded by S. R.
Hirsch (q.v.). Modern seminaries were established first in
Breslau by Zacharias Frankel (q.v.) and later in other cities.
Brilliant results accrued from all this participation in the general
life of Germany. Jews, engaged in all the professions and pur-
suits of the age, came to the front in many branches of public
life, claiming such names as Riesser (d. 1863) and Lasker in
politics, Auerbach in literature, Rubenstein and Joachim in
music, Traube in medicine, and Lazarus in psychology. Especi-
ally famous have been the Jewish linguists, pre-eminent among
them Theodor Benfey (1809-1881), the pioneer of modern
comparative philology; and the Greek scholar and critic Jakob
Bernays (1824-1881).
49. Effect of the French Revolution. — In close relation to the
German progress in Mendelssohn's age, events had been pro-
gressing in France, where the Revolution did much to improve
the Jewish condition, thanks largely to the influence of Mirabeau.
In 1807 Napoleon convoked a Jewish assembly in Paris. Though
the decisions of this body had no binding force on the Jews
generally, yet in some important particulars its decrees represent
principles widely adopted by the Jewish community. They
proclaim the acceptance of the spirit of Mendelssohn's recon-
ciliation of the Jews to modern life. They assert the citizen-
ship and patriotism of Jews, their determination to accommodate
themselves to the present as far as they could while retaining
loyalty to the past. They declare their readiness to adapt the
law of the synagogue to the law of the land, as for instance in
the question of marriage and divorce. No Jew, they decided,
may perform the ceremony of marriage unless civil formalities
have been fulfilled; and divorce is allowed to the Jews only if and
so far as it is confirmatory of a legal divorce pronounced by the
civil law of the land. The French assembly did not succeed in
obtaining formal assent to these decisions (except from Frankfort
and Holland), but they gained the practical adhesion of the
majority of Western and American Jews. Napoleon, after the
report of the assembly, established the consistorial system which
remained in force, with its central consistory in the capital,
until the recent separation of church and state. Many French
Jews acquired fame, among them the ministers Cremieux (1796-
1879), Fould, Gondchaux and Raynal; the archaeologists and
philologians Oppert, Halevy, Munk, the Derenbourgs, Darme-
steters and Reinachs; the musicians Halevy, Waldteufel and
Meyerbeer; the authors and dramatists Catulle Mendes and
A. d'Ennery, and many others, among them several distinguished
occupants of civil and military offices.
50. Modern Italy. — Similar developments occurred in other
countries, though it becomes impossible to treat the history of
the Jews, from this time onwards, in general outline. We must
direct our attention to the most important countries in such
detail as space permits. And first as to Italy, where the Jews
in a special degree have identified themselves with the national
life. The revolutions of 1848, which greatly affected the posi-
tion of the Jews in several parts of Europe, brought considerable
gain to the Jews of Italy. During the war against Austria in
the year named, Isaac Pesaro Marogonato was finance minister
in Venice. Previously to this date the Jews were still confined
to the ghetto, but in 1859, in the Italy united under Victor
408
JEWS
[DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES
Emanuel II., the Jews obtained complete rights, a privilege
which was extended also to Rome itself in 1870. The Italian
Jews devoted themselves with ardour to the service of the state.
Isaac Artom was Cavour's secretary, L' Olper a counsellor of
Mazzini. " The names of the Jewish soldiers who died in the
cause of Italian liberty were placed along with those of their
Christian fellow soldiers on the monuments erected in their
honour" (Jewish Encyclopedia, vii. 10). More recently men
like Wbllemberg, Ottolenghi and Luzzatti rose to high positions
as ministers of state. Most noted of recent Jewish scholars in
Italy was S. D. Luzzatto (q.v.).
51. Austria. — From Italy we may turn to the country which
so much influenced Italian politics, Austria, which had founded
the system of " Court Jews " in 1518, had expelled the Jews
from Vienna as late as 1670, when the synagogue of that city
was converted into a church. But economic laws are often too
strong for civil vagaries or sectarian fanaticism, and as the
commerce of Austria suffered by the absence of the Jews, it was
impossible to exclude the latter from the fairs in the provinces
of from the markets of the capital. As has been pointed out
above, certain protected Jews were permitted to reside in places
where the expulsion of the Jews had been decreed. But Maria
Theresa (1740-1780) was distinguished for her enmity to the
Jews, and in 1744 made a futile attempt to secure their expulsion
from Bohemia. " In 1760 she issued an order that all unbearded
Jews should wear a yellow badge on their left arm " (Jewish
Encyclopedia, ii. 330). The most petty limitations of Jewish
commercial activity continued; thus at about this period the
community of Prague, in a petition, " complain that they are
not permitted to buy victuals in the market before a certain
hour, vegetables not before 9 and cattle not before n o'clock;
to buy fish is sometimes altogether prohibited; Jewish drug-
gists are not permitted to buy victuals at the same time with
Christians " (op. cit.). So, too, with taxation. It was exorbi-
tant and vexatious. To pay for rendering inoperative the
banishment edict of 1744, the Jews were taxed 3,000,000 florins
annually for ten years. In the same year it was decreed that
the Jews should pay " a special tax of 40,000 florins for the right
to import their citrons for the feast of booths." Nevertheless,
Joseph II. (1780-1790) inaugurated a new era for the Jews of
his empire. Soon after his accession he abolished the distinctive
Jewish dress, abrogated the poll-tax, admitted the Jews to
military service and their children to the public schools, and in
general opened the era of emancipation by the Toleranzpalent
of 1782. This enlightened policy was not continued by the
successors of Joseph II. Under Francis II. (1792-1835) eco-
nomic and social restrictions were numerous. Agriculture was
again barred; indeed the Vienna congress of 1815 practically
restored the old discriminations against the Jews. As time
went on, a more progressive policy intervened, the special form
of Jewish oath was abolished in 1846, and in 1848, as a result
of the revolutionary movement in which Jews played an active
part, legislation took a more liberal turn. Francis Joseph I.
ascended the throne in that year, and though the constitution
of 1849 recognized the principle of religious liberty, an era of
reaction supervened, especially when " the concordat of 1855
delivered Austria altogether into the hands of the clericals."
But the day of medieval intolerance had passed, and in 1867 the
new constitution " abolished all disabilities on the ground of
religious differences," though anti-Semitic manipulation of the
law by administrative authority has led to many instances of
intolerance. Many Jews have been members of the Reichsrath,
some have risen to the rank of general in the army, and Austrian
Jews have contributed their quota to learning, the arts and
literature. Low, Jellinek, Kaufmann, as scholars in the Jewish
field; as poets and novelists, Kompert, Franzos, L. A. Frankl;
the pianist Moscheles, the dramatist Mosenthal, and the actor
Sonnenthal, the mathematician Spitzer and the chess-player
Steinitz are some of the most prominent names. The law of
1890 makes it " compulsory for every Jew to be a member of
the congregation of the district in which he resides, and so gives
to every congregation the right to tax the individual members "
(op. cit.). A similar obligation prevails in parts of Germany.
A Jew can avoid the communal tax only by formally declaring
himself as outside the Jewish community. The Jews of Hungary
shared with their brethren in Austria the same alternations of
expulsion and recall. By the law " De Judaeis " passed by the
Diet in 1791 the Jews were accorded protection, but half a century
passed before their tolerated condition was regularized. The
" toleration-tax " was abolished in 1846. During the revolu-
tionary outbreak of 1848, the Jews suffered severely in Hungary,
but as many as 20,000 Jews are said to have joined the army.
Kossuth succeeded in granting them temporary emancipation,
but the suppression of the War of Independence led to an era of
royal autocracy which, while it advanced Jewish culture by
enforcing the establishment of modern schools, retarded the
obtaining of civic and political rights. As in Austria, so in
Hungary, these rights were granted by the constitution of 1867.
But one step remained. The Hungarian Jews did not consider
themselves fully emancipated until the Synagogue was " duly
recognized as one of the legally acknowledged religions of the
country." This recognition was granted by the law of 1895-1896.
In the words of Buchler (Jewish Encydopedia,vi. 503): " Since
their emancipation the Jews have taken an active part in the
political, industrial, scientific and artistic life of Hungary. In
all these fields they have achieved prominence. They have also
founded great religious institutions. Their progress has not been
arrested even by anti-Semitism, which first developed in 1883 at
the time of the Tisza-Eslar accusation of ritual murder."
52. Other European Countries. — According to M. Caimi the
present Jewish communities of Greece are divisible into five
groups : (i) Arta (EpiruS); (2) Chalcis (Euboea); (3) Athens
(Attica) ; (4) Volo, Larissa and Trikala (Thessaly) ; and (5) Corfu
and Zante (Ionian Islands). The Greek constitution admits no
religious disabilities, but anti-Semitic riots in Corfu and Zante in
1891 caused much distress and emigration. In Spain there has
been of late a more liberal attitude towards the Jews, and there
is a small congregation (without a public synagogue) in Madrid.
In 1858 the edict of expulsion was repealed. Portugal, on the
other hand, having abolished the Inquisition in 1821, has since
1826 allowed Jews freedom of religion, and there are synagogues
in Lisbon and Faro. In Holland the Jews were admitted to
political liberty in 1796. At present more than half of the Dutch
Jews are concentrated in Amsterdam, being largely engaged in
the diamond and tobacco trades. Among famous names of
recent times foremost stands that of the artist Josef Israels. In
1675 was consecrated in Amsterdam the synagogue which is still
the most noted Jewish edifice in Europe. Belgium granted full
freedom to the Jews in 1815, and the community has since 1808
been organized on the state consistorial system, which till
recently also prevailed in France. It was not till 1874 that full
religious equality was granted to the Jews of Switzerland. But
there has been considerable interference (ostensibly on humani-
tarian grounds) with the Jewish method of slaughtering animals
for food (Shehitah) and the method was prohibited by a refer-
endum in 1893. In the same year a similar enactment was
passed in Saxony, and the subject is a favourite one with anti-
Semites, who have enlisted on their side some scientific authori-
ties, though the bulk of expert opinion is in favor of Shehitah
(see Dembo, Das Schlachten,i&<)4) . In Sweden the Jews have all
the rights which are open to non-Lutherans; they cannot become
members of the council of state. In Norway there is a small
Jewish settlement (especially in Christiania) who are engaged
in industrial pursuits and enjoy complete liberty. Denmark
has for long been distinguished for its liberal policy towards the
Jews. Since 1814 the latter have been eligible as magistrates,
and in 1849 full equality was formally ratified. Many Copen-
hagen Jews achieved distinction as manufacturers, merchants
and bankers, and among famous Jewish men of letters may be
specially named Georg Brandes.
The story of the Jews in Russia and Rumania remains a black
spot on the European record. In Russia the Jews are more
numerous and more harshly treated than in any other part of
the world. In the remotest past Jews were settled in much of
DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES]
the territory now included in Russia, but they are still treated
as aliens. They are restricted to the pale of settlement which
was first established in 1791. The pale now includes fifteen
governments, and under the May laws of 1892 the congestion of
the Jewish population, the denial of free movement, and the
exclusion from the general rights of citizens were rendered more
oppressive than ever before. The right to leave the pale is indeed
granted to merchants of the first gild, to those possessed of
certain educational diplomas, to veteran soldiers and to certain
classes of skilled artisans. But these concessions are unfavour-
ably interpreted and much extortion results. Despite a huge
emigration of Jews from Russia, the congestion within the pale
is the cause of terrible destitution and misery. Fierce massacres
occurred in Nizhniy-Novgorod in 1882, andin Kishinev in 1903.
Many other pogroms have occurred, and the condition of the
Jews has been reduced to one of abject poverty and despair.
Much was hoped from the duma, but this body has proved
bitterly opposed to the Jewish claim for liberty. Yet in spite
of these disabilities there are amongst the Russian Jews many
enterprising contractors, skilful doctors, and successful lawyers
and scientists. In Rumania, despite the Berlin Treaty, the Jews
are treated as aliens, and but a small number have been natural-
ized. They are excluded from most of the professions and are
hampered in every direction.
53. Oriental Countries. — In the Orient the condition of the
Jews has been much improved by the activity of Western
organizations, of which something is said in a later paragraph.
Modern schools have been set up in many places, and Palestine
has been the scene of a notable educational and agricultural
revival, while technical schools — such as the agricultural college
near Jaffa and the schools of the alliance and the more recent
Bezalel in Jerusalem — have been established. Turkey has always
on the whole tolerated the Jews, and much is hoped from the
new regime. In Morocco the Jews, who until late in the igth
century were often persecuted, are still confined to a mellah
(separate quarter), but at the coast-towns there are prosperous
Jewish communities mostly engaged in commerce. In other
parts of the same continent, in Egypt and in South Africa, many
Jews have settled, participating in all industrial and financial
pursuits. Recently a mission has been sent to the Falashas of
Abyssinia, and much interest has been felt in such outlying
branches of the Jewish people as the Black Jews of Cochin and
the Bene Israel community of Bombay. In Persia Jews are
often the victims of popular outbursts as well as of official extor-
tion, but there are fairly prosperous communities at Bushire,
Isfahan, Teheran andKashan (in Shiraz they are in low estate).
The recent advent of constitutional government may improve
the condition of the Jews.
54. The United Kingdom. — The general course of Jewish
history in England has been indicated above. The Jews came
to England at least as early as the Norman Conquest ; they were
expelled from Bury St Edmunds in 1190, after the massacres at
the coronation of Richard I. ; they were required to wear badges
in 1218. At the end of the I2th century was established the
" exchequer of the Jews," which chiefly dealt with suits concern-
ing money-lending, and arranged a " continual flow of money
from the Jews to the royal treasury," and a so-called " parlia-
ment of the Jews " was summoned in 1241; in 1275 was enacted
the statute de Judaismo which, among other things, permitted
the Jews to hold land. But this concession was illusory, and as
the statute prevented Jews from engaging in finance — the only
occupation which had been open to them— it was a prelude to
their expulsion in 1290. There were few Jews in England from
that date till the Commonwealth, but Jews settled in the American
colonies earlier in the I7th century, and rendered considerable
services in the advancement of English commerce. The White-
hall conference of 1655 marks a change in the status of the Jews
in England itself, for though no definite results emerged it was
clearly defined by the judges that there was no legal obstacle to
the return of the Jews. Charles II. in 1664 continued Cromwell's
tolerant policy. No serious attempt towards the emancipation
of the Jews was made till the Naturalization Act of 1753, which
JEWS 409
was, however, immediately repealed. Jews no longer attached
to the Synagogue, such as the Herschels and Disraelis, attained
to fame. In 1830 the first Jewish emancipation bill was brought
in by Robert Grant, but it was not till the legislation of 1858-
1860 that Jews obtained full parliamentary rights. In other
directions progress was more rapid. The office of sheriff was,
thrown open to Jews in 1 83 5 (Moses Montefiore, sheriff of London
was knighted in 1837); Sir I. L. Goldsmid was made a baronet
in 1841, Baron Lionel de Rothschild was elected to Parliament in
1847 (though he was unable to take his seat), Alderman (Sir
David) Salomons became lord mayor of London in 1855 and
Francis Goldsmid was made a Q.C. in 1858. In 1873 Sir George
Jessel was made a judge, and Lord Rothschild took his seat in the
House of Lords as the first Jewish peer in 1886. A fair propor-
tion of Jews have been elected to the House of Commons, and
Mr Herbert Samuel rose to cabinet rank in 1909. Sir Matthew
Nathan has been governor of Hong- Kong and Natal, and among
Jewish statesmen in the colonies Sir Julius Vogel and V. L.
Solomon have been prime ministers (HYAMSON: A History of the
Jews in England, p. 342). It is unnecessary to remark that in
the British colonies the Jews everywhere enjoy full citizenship.
In fact, the colonies emancipated the Jews earlier than did the
mother country. Jews were settled in Canada from the time
of Wolfe, and a congregation was founded at Montreal in 1768,
and since 1832 Jews have been entitled to sit in the Canadian
parliament. There are some thriving Jewish agricultural colonies
in the same dominion. In Australia the Jews from the first were
welcomed on perfectly equal terms. The oldest congregation
is that of Sydney (1817); the Melbourne community dates from
1844. Reverting to incidents in England itself, in 1870 the
abolition of university tests removed all restrictions on Jews at
Oxford and Cambridge, and both universities have since elected
Jews to professorships and other posts of honour. The communal
organization of English Jewry is somewhat inchoate. In 1841
an independent reform congregation was founded, and the
Spanish and Portuguese Jews have always maintained their
separate existence with a Haham as the ecclesiastical head. In
1870 was founded the United Synagogue, which is a metropolitan
organization, and the same remark applies to the more recent
Federation of Synagogues. The chief rabbi, who is the ecclesi-
astical head of the United Synagogue, has also a certain amount
of authority over the provincial and colonial Jewries, but this
is nominal rather than real. The provincial Jewries, however,
participate in the election of the chief rabbi. At the end of 1909
was held the first conference of Jewish ministers in London, and
from this is expected some more systematic organization of
scattered communities. Anglo- Jewry is rich, however, in chari-
table, educational and literary institutions; chief among these
respectively may be named the Jewish board of guardians
(1859), the Jews' college (1855), and the Jewish historical society
(1893). Besides the distinctions already noted, English Jews
have risen to note in theology (C. G. Montefiore), in literature
(Israel Zangwill and Alfred Sutro), in art (S. Hart, R.A., and
S. J. Solomon, R.A.) in music (Julius Benedict and Frederick
Hymen Cowen). More than 1000 English and colonial Jews
participated as active combatants in the South African War.
The immigration of Jews from Russia was mainly responsible
for the ineffective yet oppressive Aliens Act of 1905. (Full
accounts of Anglo- Jewish institutions are given in the Jewish
Year-Book published annually since 1895.)
5 5 . The A merican Continent. — Closely parallel with the progress
of the Jews in England has been their steady advancement in
America. Jews made their way to America early in the i6tb
century, settling in Brazil prior to the Dutch occupation. Under
Dutch rule they enjoyed full civil rights. In Mexico and Peru
they fell under the ban of the Inquisition. In Surinam the Jews
were treated as British subjects; in Barbadoes, Jamaica and New
York they are found as early as the first half of the I7th century.
During the War of Independence the Jews of America took a
prominent part on both sides, for under the British rule many
had risen to wealth and high social position. After the Declaration
of Independence, Jews are found all over America, where they
JEWSBURY
have long enjoyed complete emancipation, and have enormously
increased in numbers, owing particularly to immigration from
Russia. The American Jews bore their share in the Civil War
(7038 Jews were in the two armies), and have always identified
themselves closely with national movements such as the eman-
cipation of Cuba. They have attained to high rank in all
branches of the public service, and have shown most splendid
instances of far-sighted and generous philanthropy. Within the
Synagogue the reform movement began in 1825, and soon won
many successes, the central conference of American rabbis and
Union College (1875) at Cincinnati being the instruments of this
progress. At the present time orthodox Judaism is also again
acquiring its due position and the Jewish theological seminary
of America was founded for this purpose. In 1908 an organiza-
tion, inclusive of various religious sections, was founded under
the description " the Jewish community of New York." There
have been four Jewish members of the United States senate, and
about 30 of the national House of Representatives. Besides
filling many diplomatic offices, a Jew (O. S. Straus) has been a
member of the cabinet. Many Jews have filled professorial
chairs at the universities, others have been judges, and in art,
literature (there is a notable Jewish publication society), industry
and commerce have rendered considerable services to national
culture and prosperity. American universities have owed much
to Jewish generosity, a foremost benefactor of these (as of many
other American institutions) being Jacob Schiff. Such institu-
tions as the Gratz and Dropsie colleges are further indications
of the splendid activity of American Jews in the educational
field. The Jews of America have also taken a foremost place
in the succour of their oppressed brethren in Russia and other
parts of the world. (Full accounts of American Jewish institu-
tions are given in the American Jewish Y ear-Book, published
annually since 1899.)
56. Anti-Semitism. — It is saddening to be compelled to close
this record with the statement that the progress of the European
Jews received a serious check by the rise of modern anti-Semi-
tism in the last quarter of the igth century. While in Russia
this took the form of actual massacre, in Germany and Austria
it assumed the shape of social and civic ostracism. In Germany
Jews are still rarely admitted to the rank of officers in the army,
university posts are very difficult of access, Judaism and its
doctrines are denounced in medieval language, and a tone of
hostility prevails in many public utterances. In Austria, as in
Germany, anti-Semitism is a factor in the parliamentary elections.
The legend of ritual murder (q.v.) has been revived, and every
obstacle is placed in the way of the free intercourse of Jews with
their Christian fellow-citizens. In France Edouard Adolphe
Drumont led the way to a similar animosity, and the popular
fury was fanned by the Dreyfus case. It is generally felt, how-
ever, that this recrudescence of anti-Semitism is a passing phase
in the history of culture (see ANTI-SEMITISM).
57. The Zionist Movement. — The Zionist movement (see
ZIONISM), founded in 1895 by Theodor Herzl (q.v.) was in a sense
the outcome of anti-Semitism. Its object was the foundation
of a Jewish state in Palestine, but though it aroused much
interest it failed to attract the majority of the emancipated Jews,
and the movement has of late been transforming itself into a
mere effort at colonization. Most Jews not only confidently be-
lieve that their own future lies in progressive development within
the various nationalities of the world, but they also hope that
a similar consummation is in store for the as yet unemancipated
branches of Israel. Hence the Jews are in no sense internation-
ally organized. The influence of the happier communities has
been exercised on behalf of those in a worse position by indivi-
duals such as Sir Moses Montefiore (q.v.) rather than by societies
or leagues. From time to time incidents arise which appeal to
the Jewish sympathies everywhere and joint action ensues.
Such incidents were the Damascus charge of ritual murder (1840),
the forcible baptism of the Italian child Mortara (1858), and the
Russian pogroms at various dates. But all attempts at an
international union of Jews, even in view of such emergencies
as these, have failed. Each countrv has its own local organiza-
tion for dealing with Jewish questions. In France the Alliance
Israelite (founded in 1860), in England the Anglo-Jewish Associa-
tion (founded in 1871), in Germany the Hilfsverein der deutschen
Juden, and in Austria the Israelitische Allianz zu Wien (founded
1 8 7 2) , in America the American Jewish Committee (founded 1 906) ,
and similar organizations in other countries deal only incidentally
with political affairs. They are concerned mainly with the
education of Jews in the Orient, and the establishment of colonies
and technical institutions. Baron Hirsch (q.v.) founded the
Jewish colonial association, which has undertaken vast colonizing
and educational enterprises, especially in Argentina, and more
recently the Jewish territorial organization has been started to
found a home for the oppressed Jews of Russia. All these
institutions are performing a great regenerative work, and the
tribulations and disappointments of the last decades of the igth
century were not all loss. The gain consisted in the rousing of
the Jewish consciousness to more virile efforts towards a double
end, to succour the persecuted and ennoble the ideals of the
emancipated.
58. Statistics. — Owing to the absence of a religious census in
several important countries, the Jewish population of the world can
only be given by inferential estimate. The following approximate
figures are taken from the American Jewish Year-Book for 1909-1910
and are based on similar estimates in the English Jewish Year-Book,
the Jewish Encyclopedia, Nossig's Judische Statistik and the Reports
of the Alliance Israelite Universelle According to these estimates
the total Jewish population of the world in the year named was
approximately 11,500,000. Of this total there were in the British
Empire about 380,000 Jews (British Isles 240,000, London accounts
for 150,000 of these; Canada and British Columbia 60,000; India
18,000; South Africa 40,000). The largest Jewish populations were
those of Russia (5,215,000), Austria-Hungary (2,084,000), United
States of America (1,777,000), Germany (607,000, of whom 409,000
were in Prussia), Turkey (463,000, of whom some 78,000 resided in
Palestine), Rumania (250,000), Morocco (109,000) and Holland
(106,000). Others of the more important totals are: France 95,000
(besides Algeria 63,000 and Tunis 62,000); Italy 52,000; Persia
49,000; Egypt 39,000; Bulgaria 36,000; Argentine Republic 30,000;
Tripoli 19,000; Turkestan and Afghanistan 14,000; Switzerland and
Belgium each 12,000; Mexico 9000; Greece 8000; Servia 6000;
Sweden and Cuba each 4000; Denmark 3500; Brazil and Abyssinia
(Falashas) each 3000; Spain and Portugal 2500; China and Japan
2000. There are also Jews in Cura^oa, Surinam, Luxemburg,
Norway, Peru, Crete and Venezuela; but in none of these does the
Jewish population much exceed 1000.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — H. Graetz, Geschichte der Juden (n vols., 1853-
1875; several subsequent editions of separate volumes; Eng. trans.
5 vols., 1891-1892); the works of L. Zunz; Jewish Encyclopedia
passim; publications of Jewish societies, such as Etudes Juives,
Jewish historical societies of England and America, German histori-
cal commission, Julius Barasch society (Rumania), Societas Litteraria
Hungarico-Judaica, the Viennese communal publications, and many
others to which may be added the 20 vols. of the Jewish Quarterly
Review; Scherer, Rechtsverhaltnisse der Juden (1901); M. Gudemann
Geschichte des Erziehungswesens und der Cultur der Juden (1880, &c.) ;
A. Leroy-Beaulieu, Israel among the Nations (1895); I. Abrahams,
Jewish Life in the Middle Ages (1896); G. F. Abbott, Israel in Europe
(1905) ;G.Caro, Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Juden (1908) ; M. Philipnson,
Neueste Geschichte des judischen Volkes (1907, &c.); Nossig, Judische
Statistik (1903) ; and such special works as H. Gross, Gallia Judaica
(1897), &c.
(I. A.)
JEWSBURY, GERALDINE ENDSOR (1812-1880), English
writer, daughter of Thomas Jewsbury, a Manchester merchant,
was born in 1812 at Measham, Derbyshire. Her first novel, Zoe:
the History of Two Lives, was published in 1845, and was followed
by The Half Sisters (1848), Marian Withers (1851), Constance
Herbert (1855), The Sorrows of Gentility (1856), Right or Wrong
(1859). In 1850 she was invited by Charles Dickens to write
for Household Words; for many years she was a frequent con-
tributor to the Athenaeum and other journals and magazines.
It is, however, mainly on account of her friendship with Thomas
Carlyle and his wife that her name is remembered. Carlyle
described her, after their first meeting in 1841,33" one of the most
interesting young women I have seen for years; clear delicate
sense and courage looking out of her small sylph-like figure."
From this time till Mrs Carlyle's death in 1866, Geraldine Jews-
bury was the most intimate of her friends. The selections from
Geraldine Jewsbury's letters to Jane Welsh Carlyle ( 1892, ed. Mrs
Alexander Ireland) prove how confidential were the relations
JEW'S EARS— JHABUA
between the two women for a quarter of a century. In 1854
Miss Jewsbury removed from Manchester to London to be near
her friend. To her Carlyle turned for sympathy when his wife
died; and at his request she wrote down some " biographical
anecdotes " of Mrs Carlyle's childhood and early married life.
Carlyle's comment was that " few or none of these narratives are
correct in details, but there is a certain mythical truth in all or
most of them;" and he added, " the Geraldine accounts of her
(Mrs Carlyle's) childhood are substantially correct." He ac-
cepted them as the groundwork for his own essay on " Jane
Welsh Carlyle," with which they were therefore incorporated by
Froude when editing Carlyle's Reminiscences. Miss Jewsbury
was consulted by Froude when he was preparing Carlyle's
biography, and her recollection of her friend's confidences con-
firmed the suspicion that Carlyle had on one occasion used
physical violence towards his wife. Miss Jewsbury further
informed Froude that the secret of the domestic troubles of the
Carlyles lay in the fact that Carlyle had been " one of those
persons who ought never to have married," and that Mrs Carlyle
had at one time contemplated having her marriage legally an-
nulled (see My Relations with Carlyle, by James Anthony Froude,
1903). The endeavour has been made to discredit Miss Jews-
bury in relation to this matter, but there seems to be no sufficient
ground for doubting that she accurately repeated what she had
learnt from Mrs Carlyle's own lips. Miss Jewsbury died in
London on the 23rd of September 1880.
JEW'S EARS, the popular name of a fungus, known botani-
cally as Hirneola auricula-judae, so called from its shape, which
somewhat resembles a human ear. It is very thin, flexible, flesh-
coloured to dark brown, and one to three inches broad. It is
common on branches of elder, which it often kills, and is also
found on elm, willow, oak and other trees. It was formerly
prescribed as a remedy for dropsy.
JEW'S HARP, or JEW'S TRUMP (Fr. guimbarde, O. Fr. trompe,
gronde; Ger. Mundharmonica, Maultrommel, Brummeisen; Ital.
scaccia-pensieri or spassa-pensiero) , a small musical instrument
of percussion, known for centuries all over Europe. " Jew's
trump " is the older name, and " trump " is still used in parts
of Great Britain. Attempts have been made to derive " Jew's "
from " jaws " or Fr.jeu, but, though there is no apparent reason
for associating the instrument with the Jews, it is certain that
" Jew's " is the original form (see the New English Dictionary and
C. B. Mount in Notes and Queries (Oct. 23, 1897, p. 322).
The instrument consists of a slender tongue of steel riveted at
one end to the base of a pear-shaped steel loop; the other end of
the tongue, left free and passing out between the two branches
of the frame, terminates in a sharp bend at right angles, to enable
the player to depress it by an elastic blow and thus set it vibrating
while firmly pressing the branches of the frame against his teeth.
The vibrations of the steel tongue produce a compound sound
composed of a fundamental and its harmonics. By using the
cavity of the mouth as a resonator, each harmonic in succession
can be isolated and reinforced, giving the instrument the
compass shown. The lower harmonics of the series cannot be
p
4
5
6
7
1 1 1 1
8 9 10 11 12
^ — j-
—t — |-
--^
-j)— J baJ-tlJ — p—
-1— f- 1— —
4
5
6
7
89 10 11
12
obtained, owing to the limited capacity of the resonating cavity.
The black notes on the stave show the scale which may be
produced by using two harps, one tuned a fourth above the
other. The player on the Jew's harp, in order to isolate the
harmonics, frames his mouth as though intending to pronounce
the various vowels. At the beginning of the igth century,
when much energy and ingenuity were being expended in all
countries upon the invention of new musical instruments, the
Maultrommel, re-christened Mundharmonica (the most rational
of all its names), attracted attention in Germany. Heinrich
Scheibler devised an ingenious holder with a handle, to contain
411
five Jew's harps, all tuned to different notes; by holding one in
each hand, a large compass, with duplicate notes, became avail-
able; he called this complex Jew's harp Aura1 and with it played
themes with variations, marches, Scotch reels, &c. Other
virtuosi, such as Eulenstein, a native of Wurtemberg, achieved
the same result by placing the variously tuned Jew's harps upon
the table in front of him, taking them up and setting them down
as required. Eulenstein created a sensation in London in 1827
by playing on no fewer than sixteen Jew's harps. In 1828
Sir Charles Wheatstone published an essay on the technique of
the instrument in the Quarterly Journal of Science. (K. S.)
JEZEBEL (Heb. i-zebel, perhaps an artificial form to suggest
" un-exalted," a divine name or its equivalent would naturally
be expected instead of the first syllable), wife of Ahab, king of
Israel (i Kings xvi. 31), and mother of Athaliah, in the Bible.
Her father Eth-baal (Ithobal, Jos., contra Ap. i. 18) was king of
Tyre and priest of the goddess Astarte. He had usurped the
throne and was the first important Phoenician king after Hiram
(see PHOENICIA). Jezebel, a true daughter of a priest of Astarte,
showed herself hostile to the worship of Yahweh, and to his
prophets, whom she relentlessly pursued (i Kings xviii. 4-13; see
ELIJAH). She is represented as a woman of virile character, and
became notorious for the part she took in the matter of Naboth's
vineyard. When the Jezreelite2 sheikh refused to sell the
family inheritance to the king, Jezebel treacherously caused him
to be arrested on a charge of treason, and with the help of false
witnesses he was found guilty and condemned to death. For
this the prophet Elijah pronounced a solemn curse upon Ahab
and Jezebel, which was fulfilled when Jehu, who was anointed
king at Elisha's instigation, killed the son Jehoram, massacred
all the family, and had Jezebel destroyed (i Kings xxi.; 2 Kings
ix. 11-28). What is told of her comes from sources written
under the influence of strong religious bias; among the exagger-
ations must be reckoned i Kings xviii. 13, which is inconsistent
with xix. 18 and xxii. 6. A literal interpretation of the reference
to Jezebel's idolatry (2 Kings ix. 22) has made her name a by-
word for a false prophetess in Rev. ii. 20. Her name is often
used in modern English as a synonym for an abandoned woman
or one who paints her face. (S. A. C.)
JEZREEL (Heb. " God sows "), the capital of the Israelite
monarchy under Ahab, and the scene of stirring Biblical events
(i Sam. xxix. i ; i Kings xxi. ; 2 Kings ix. 21-37). The name was
also applied to the great plain (Esdraelon) dominated by the
city (" valley of Jezreel," Josh. xvii. 16, &c.). The site has
never been lost, and the present village Zercln retains the name
radically unchanged. In Greek (e.g. Judith) the name appears
under the form 'EaSparjXa; it is Stradela in the Bordeaux Pilgrim,
and to the Crusaders the place was known as Parvum Gerinum.
The modern stone village stands on a bare rocky knoll, 500 ft.
above the broad northern valley, at the north extremity of a
long ledge, terminating in steep cliffs, forming part of the chain
of Mt Gilboa. The buildings are modern, but some scanty
remains of rock-hewn wine presses and a few scattered sarcophagi
mark the antiquity of the site. The view over the plains is fine
and extensive. It is vain now to look for Ahab's palace or
Naboth's vineyard. The fountain mentioned in i Sam. xxix. i
is perhaps the fine spring 'Ain el Meiyyita, north of the village,
a shallow pool of good water full of small fish, rising between
black basalt boulders: or more probably the copious 'Ain Jalud.
A second city named Jezreel lay in the hill country of Judah,
somewhere near Hebron (Josh. xv. 56). This was the native
place of David's wife Abinoam (i Sam. xxv. 43).
See, for an excellent description of the scenery and history of the
Israelite Jezreel, G. A. Smith, Hist. Geog. xix.
JHABUA, a native state of Central India, in the Bhopawar
agency. Area, with the dependency of Rutanmal, 1336 sq. m.
'See Allg. musik. Ztg. (Leipzig, 1816), p. 506, and Beilaee 5,
where the construction of the instruments is described and illus-
trated and the system of notation shown in various pieces of music.
2 According to another tradition Naboth lived at Samaria (xxi. i
[LXX.1, 18 seq. ; cf. xxii. 38). A similar confusion regarding the
king's home appears in 2 Kings x. n compared with m. i, 17.
JHALAWAR— JHANSI
Pop. (1901), 80,889. More than half the inhabitants belong to
the aboriginal Bhils. Estimated revenue, £7000; tribute,
£1000. Manganese and opium are exported. The chief, whose
title is raja, is a Rajput of the Rathor clan, descended from a
branch of the Jodhpur family. Raja Udai Singh was invested
in 1898 with the powers of administration.
The town of JHABUA (pop. 3354) stands on the bank of a lake,
and is surrounded by a mud wall. A dispensary and a guest-
house were constructed to commemorate Queen Victoria's
Diamond Jubilee in 1897.
JHALAWAR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency,
pop. (1901), 90,175; estimated revenue, £26,000; tribute, £2000.
Area, 810 sq. m. The ruling family of jhalawar belongs to the
Jhala clan of Rajputs, and their ancestors were petty chiefs
of Halwad in the district of Jhalawar, in Kathiawar. About
1709 one of the younger sons of the head of the clan left his
country with his son to try his fortunes at Delhi. At Kotah
he left his son Madhu Singh, who soon became a favourite with
the maharaja, and received from him an important post, which
became hereditary. On the death of one of the Kotah rajas
(1771), the country was left to the charge of Zalim Singh, a
descendant of Madhu Singh. From that time Zalim Singh was
the real ruler of Kotah. He brought it to a wonderful state of
prosperity, and under his administration, which lasted over
forty-five years, the Kotah territory was respected by all parties.
In 1838 it was resolved, with the consent of the chief of Kotah,
to dismember the state, and to create the new principality of
Jhalawar as a separate provision for the descendants of Zalim
Singh. The districts then severed from Kotah were considered
to represent one-third (£120,000) of the income of Kotah; by
treaty they acknowledged the supremacy of the British, and
agreed to pay an annual tribute of £8000. Madan Singh received
the title of maharaja rana, and was placed on the same footing as
the other chiefs in Rajputana. He died in 1845. An adopted son
of his successor took the name of Zalim Singh in 1875 on becom-
ing chief of Jhalawar. He was a minor and was not invested
with governing powers till 1884. Owing to his maladminis-
tration, his relations with the British government became
strained, and he was finally deposed in 1896, " on account of
persistent misgovernment and proved unfitness for the powers
of a ruling chief." He went to live at Benares, on a pension of
£2000; and the administration was placed in the hands of the
British resident. After much consideration, the government
resolved in 1897 to break up the state, restoring the greater part
to Kotah, but forming the two districts of Shahabad and the
Chaumahla into a new state, which came into existence in 1899,
and of which Kunwar Bhawani Singh, a descendant of the
original Zalim Singh, was appointed chief.
The chief town is PATAN, or JHALRAPATAN (pop.7955), founded
close to an old site by Zalim Singh in 1796, by the side of
an artificial lake. It is the centre of trade, the chief exports
of the state being opium, oil-seeds and cotton. The palace is
at the cantonment or chhaoni, 4 m. north. The ancient site
near the town was occupied by the city of Chandrawati, said to
have been destroyed in the time of Aurangzeb. The finest
feature of its remains is the temple of Sitaleswar Mahadeva
(c. 600).
JHANG, a town and district of British India, in the Multan
division of the Punjab. The town, which forms one municipality
with the newer and now more important quarter of Maghiana,
is about 3 m. from the right bank of the river Chenab. Founded
by Mai Khan, a Sial chieftain, in 1462, it long formed the
capital of a Mahommedan state. Pop. (1901), 24,382. Maghiana
has manufactures of leather, soap and metal ware.
The DISTRICT OF JHANG extends along both sides of the
Chenab, including its confluences with the Jhelum and the
Ravi. Area, 3726 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 378,695, showing an
apparent decrease of 13 % in the decade, due to the creation of
the district of Lyallpur in 1904. But actually the population
increased by 132 % on the old area, owing to the opening of the
Chenab canal and the colonization of the tract irrigated by it.
Within Jhang many thousands of acres of government waste
have been allotted to colonists, who are reported to be flourishing.
A branch of the North-Western railway enters the district in
this quarter, extending throughout its entire length. The
Southern Jech Doab railway serves the south. The principal
industries are the ginning, pressing and weaving of cotton.
Jhang contains the ruins of Shorkot, identified with one of
the towns taken by Alexander. In modern times the history of
Jhang centres in the famous clan of Sials, who exercised an
extensive sway over a large tract between Shahpur and Multan,
with little dependence on the imperial court at Delhi, until they
finally fell before the all-absorbing power of Ranjit Singh. The
Sials of Jhang are Mahommedans of Rajput descent, whose
ancestor, Rai Shankar of Daranagar, emigrated early in the
I3th century from the Gangetic Doab. In the beginning of the
1 9th century Maharaja Ranjit Singh invaded Jhang, and cap-
tured the Sial chieftain's territory. The latter recovered a small
portion afterwards, which he was allowed to retain on payment
of a yearly tribute. In 1847, after the establishment of the
British agency at Lahore, the district came under the charge of
the British government; and in 1848 Ismail Khan, the Sial
leader, rendered important services against the rebel chiefs, for
which he received a pension. During the Mutiny of 1857 the
Sial leader again proved his loyalty by serving in person on the
British side. His pension was afterwards increased, and he
obtained the title of khan bahadur, with a small jagir for life.
JHANSI, a city and district of British India, in the Allahabad
division of the United Provinces. The city is the centre of the
Indian Midland railway system, whence four lines diverge to
Agra, Cawnpore, Allahabad and Bhopal. Pop. (1901), 55,724.
A stone fort crowns a neighbouring rock. Formerly the capital
of a Mahratta principality, which lapsed to the British in 1853,
it was during the Mutiny the scene of disaffection and massacre.
It was then made over to Gwalior, but has been taken back in
exchange for other territory. Even when the city was within
Gwalior, the civil headquarters and the cantonment were at
Jhansi Naoabad, under its walls. Jhansi is the principal centre
for the agricultural trade of the district, but its manufactures
are small.
The DISTRICT or JHANSI was enlarged in 1891 by the incor-
poration of the former district of Lalitpur, which extends
farther into the hill country, almost entirely surrounded by
native states. Combined area, 3628 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 616,759
showing a decrease of 10 % in the decade, due to the results of
famine. The main line and branches of the Indian Midland rail-
way serve the district, which forms a portion of the hill country
of Bundelkhand, sloping down from the outliers of the Vindhyan
range on the south to the tributaries of the Jumna on the north.
The extreme south is composed of parallel rows of long and
narrow-ridged hills. Through the intervening valleys the rivers
flow down impetuously over ledges of granite or quartz. North
of the hilly region, the rocky granite chains gradually lose them-
selves in clusters of smaller hills. The northern portion consists
of the level plain of Bundelkhand, distinguished for its deep black
soil, known as mar, and admirably adapted for the cultivation of
cotton. The district is intersected or bounded by three principal
rivers — the Pahuj, Betwa and Dhasan. The district is much cut
up, and portions of it are insulated by the surrounding native
states. The principal crops are millets, cotton, oil-seeds, pulses,
wheat, gram and barley. The destructive kans grass has proved
as great a pest here as elsewhere in Bundelkhand. Jhansi is
especially exposed to blights, droughts, floods, hailstorms, epi-
demics, and their natural consequence — famine.
Nothing is known with certainty as to the history of this
district before the period of Chandel rule, about the nth century
of our era. To this epoch must be referred the artificial reser-
voirs and architectural remains of the hilly region. The Chandels
were succeeded by their servants the Khangars, who built the
fort of Karar, lying just outside the British border. About
the I4th century the Bundelas poured down upon the plains,
and gradually spread themselves over the whole region which
now bears their name. The Mahommedan governors were
constantly making irruptions into the Bundela country; and in
JHELUM— JHERING
1732 Chhatar Sal, the Bundela chieftain, called in the aid of the
Mahrattas. They came to his assistance with their accustomed
promptitude, and were rewarded on the raja's death in 1734,
by the bequest of one-third of his dominions. Their general
founded the city of Jhansi, and peopled it with inhabitants
from Orchha state. In 1806 British protection was promised
to the Mahratta chief, and in 1817 the peshwa ceded to the
East India Company all his rights over Bundelkhand. In 1853
the raja died childless, and his territories lapsed to the British.
The Jhansi state and the Jalaun and Chanderi districts were
then formed into a superintendency. The widow of the raja
considered herself aggrieved because she was not allowed to
adopt an heir, and because the slaughter of cattle was permitted
in the Jhansi territory. Reports were spread which excited
the religious prejudices of the Hindus. The events of 1857
accordingly found Jhansi ripe for mutiny. In June a few men
of the 1 2th native infantry seized the fort containing the treasure
and magazine, and massacred the European officers of the
garrison. Everywhere the usual anarchic quarrels rose among
the rebels, and the country was plundered mercilessly. The
rani put herself at the head of the rebels, and died bravely in
battle. It was not till November 1858, after a series of sharp
contests with various guerilla leaders, that the work of reorgan-
ization was fairly set on foot.
JHELUM, or JEHLAM (Hydaspes of the Greeks), a river of
northern India. It is the most westerly of the " five rivers " of
the Punjab. It rises in the north-east of the Kashmir state,
flows through the city of Srinagar and the Wular lake, issues
through the Pir Panjal range by the narrow pass of Baramula,
and enters British territory in the Jhelum district. Thence it
flows through the plains of the Punjab, forming the boundary
between the Jech Doab and the Sind Sagar Doab, and finally
joins the Chenab at Timmu after a course of 450 miles. The
Jhelum colony, in the Shahpur district of the Punjab, formed on
the example of the Chenab colony in 1901, is designed to contain
a total irrigable area of 1,130,000 acres. The Jhelum canal is a
smaller work than the Chenab canal, but its silt is noted for
its fertilizing qualities. Both projects have brought great
prosperity to the cultivators.
JHELUM, or JEHLAM, a town and district of British India,
in the Rawalpindi division of the Punjab. The town is situated
on the right bank of the river Jhelum, here crossed by a bridge
of the North- Western railway, 103 m. N. of Lahore. Pop. (1901) ,
14,951. It is a modern town with river and railway trade
(principally in timber from Kashmir), boat-building and canton-
ments for a cavalry and four infantry regiments.
The DISTRICT OF JHELUM stretches from the river Jhelum
almost to the Indus. Area, 2813 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 501,424,
showing a decrease of 2 % in the decade. Salt is quarried at the
Mayo mine in the Salt Range. There are two coal-mines, the
only ones worked in the province, from which the North- Western
railway obtains part of its supply of coal. The chief centre of
the salt trade is Pind Dadan Khan (pop. 13,770). The district
is crossed by the main line of the North- Western railway, and
also traversed along the south by a branch line. The river
Jhelum is navigable throughout the district, which forms the
south-eastern portion of a rugged Himalayan spur, extending
between the Indus and Jhelum to the borders of the Sind Sagar
Doab. Its scenery is very picturesque, although not of so wild
a character as the mountain region of Rawalpindi to the north,
and is lighted up in places by smiling patches of cultivated valley.
The backbone of the district is formed by the Salt Range, a
treble line of parallel hills running in three long forks from east
to west throughout its whole breadth. The range rises in bold
precipices, broken by gorges, clothed with brushwood and tra-
versed by streams which are at first pure, but soon become
impregnated with the saline matter over which they pass.
Between the line of hills lies a picturesque table-land, in which
the beautiful little lake of Kallar Kahar nestles amongst the
minor ridges. North of the Salt Range, the country extends
upwards in an elevated plateau, diversified by countless ravines
and fissures, until it loses itself in tangled masses of Rawalpindi
mountains. In this rugged tract cultivation is rare and difficult,
the soil being choked with saline matter. At the foot of the
Salt Range, however, a small strip of level soil lies along the
banks of the Jhelum, and is thickly dotted with prosperous
villages. The drainage of the district is determined by a low
central watershed running north and south at right angles to
the Salt Range. The waters of the western portion find their
way into the Sohan, and finally into the Indus; those of the
opposite slope collect themselves into small torrents, and empty
themselves into the Jhelum.
The history of the district dates back to the semi-mythical
period of the Mahdbharata. Hindu tradition represents the
Salt Range as the refuge of the five Pandava brethren during
the period of their exile, and every salient point in its scenery is
connected with some legend of the national heroes. Modern
research has fixed the site of the conflict between Alexander
and Porus as within Jhelum district, although the exact point
at which Alexander effected the passage of the Jhelum (or
Hydaspes) is disputed. After this event, we have little infor-
mation with regard to the condition of the district until the
Mahommedan conquest brought back literature and history
to Upper India. The Janjuahs and Jats, who now hold the
Salt Range and its northern plateau respectively, appear to
have been the earliest inhabitants. The Ghakkars seem to
represent an early wave of conquest from the east, and they still
inhabit the whole eastern slope of the district; while the Awans,
who now cluster in the western plain, are apparently later
invaders from the opposite quarter. The Ghakkars were the
dominant race at the period of the first Mahommedan incursions,
and long continued to retain their independence. During the
flourishing period of the Mogul dynasty, the Ghakkar chieftains
were prosperous and loyal vassals of the house of Baber; but after
the collapse of the Delhi Empire Jhelum fell, like its neighbours,
under the sway of the Sikhs. In 1765 Gujar Singh defeated the
last independent Ghakkar prince, and reduced the wild moun-
taineers to subjection. His son succeeded to his dominions,
until 1810, when he fell before the irresistible power of Ran jit
Singh. In 1849 the district passed, with the rest of the Sikh
territories, into the hands of the British.
JHERING, RUDOLF VON (1818-1892), German jurist, was
born on the 22nd of August 1818 at Aurich in East Friesland,
where his father practised as a lawyer. Young Jhering entered
the university of Heidelberg in 1836 and, after the fashion of
German students, visited successively Gottingen and Berlin.
G. F. Puchta, the author of Geschichte des Rechts bei dem romischen
Volke, alone of all his teachers appears to have gained his admir-
ation and influenced the bent of his mind. After graduating
doctor juris, Jhering established himself in 1844 at Berlin as
privatdocent for Roman law, and delivered public lectures on
the Geist des romischen Rechts, the theme which may be said to
have constituted his life's work. In 1845 he became an ordinary
professor at Basel, in 1846 at Rostock, in 1849 at Kiel, and in
1851 at Giessen. Upon all these seats of learning he left his
mark; beyond any other of his contemporaries he animated the
dry bones of Roman law. The German juristic world was still
under the dominating influence of the Savigny cult, and the older
school looked askance at the daring of the young professor, who
essayed to adapt the old to new exigencies and to build up a
system of natural jurisprudence. This is the keynote of his
famous work, Geist des romischen Rechts auf den verschiedenen
Stufen seiner Enhuickelung (1852-1865), which for originality of
conception and lucidity of scientific reasoning placed its author
in the forefront of modern Roman jurists. It is no exaggeration
to say that in the second half of the igth century the reputation
of Jhering was as high as that of Savigny in the first. Their
methods were almost diametrically opposed. Savigny and his
school represented the conservative, historical tendency. In
Jhering the philosophical conception of jurisprudence, as a
science to be utilized for the further advancement of the moral
and social interests of mankind, was predominant. In 1868
Jhering accepted the chair of Roman Law at Vienna, where his
lecture-room was crowded, not only with regular students but
JIBITOS— JIDDA
with men of all professions and even of the highest ranks in the
official world. He became one of the lions of society, the
Austrian emperor conferring upon him in 1 8 7 2 a title of hereditary
nobility. But to a mind constituted like his, the social functions
of the Austrian metropolis became wearisome, and he gladly
exchanged its brilliant circles for the repose of Gottingen, where
he became professor in 1872. In this year he had read at Vienna
before an admiring audience a lecture, published under the title
of Der Kampf urn's Recht (1872; Eng. trans., Battle for Right,
1884). Its success was extraordinary. Within two years it
attained twelve editions, and it has been translated into twenty-
six languages. This was followed a few years later by Der Zweck
im Recht (2 vols., 1877-1883). In these two works is clearly
seen Jhering's individuality. The Kampf urn's Recht shows the
firmness of his character, the strength of his sense of justice, and
his juristic method and logic: " to assert his rights is the duty
that every responsible person owes to himself." In the Zweck
im Recht is perceived the bent of the author's intellect. But
perhaps the happiest combination of all his distinctive charac-
teristics is to be found in his Jurisprudent des tiiglichen Lebens
(1870; Eng. trans., 1904). A great feature of his lectures was
his so-called Praktika, problems in Roman law, and a collection
of these with hints for solution was published as early as
1847 under the title Civttrechlsfalle ohne Entscheidungen. In
Gottingen he continued to work until his death on the i7th of
September 1892. A short time previously he had been the centre
of a devoted crowd of friends and former pupils, assembled at
Wilhelmshohe near Cassel to celebrate the jubilee of his doc-
torate. Almost all countries were worthily represented, and
this pilgrimage affords an excellent illustration of the extra-
ordinary fascination and enduring influence that Jhering
commanded. In appearance he was of middle stature, his face
clean-shaven and of classical mould, lit up with vivacity and
beaming with good nature. He was perhaps seen at his best
when dispensing hospitality in his own house. With him died
the best beloved and the most talented of Roman-law professors
of modern times. It was said of him by Professor Adolf Merkel
in a memorial address, R. v. Jhering (1893), that he belonged to
the happy class of persons to whom Goethe's lines are applicable:
" Was ich in der Jugend gewiinscht, das habe ich im Alter die
Fiille," and this may justly be said of him, though he did not
live to complete his Geist des romischen Rechts and his Rechls-
geschichte. For this work the span of a single life would have
been insufficient, but what he has left to the world is a monument
of vigorous intellectual power and stamps Jhering as an original
thinker and unrivalled exponent (in his peculiar interpretation)
of the spirit of Roman law.
Among others of his works, all of them characteristic of the author
and sparkling with wit, may be mentioned the following: Beitra.ee
zur Lehre von Besitz, first published in the Jahrbiicher fur die Dogmatik
des heutigen romischen und deutschen Privat-rechts, and then separ-
ately; Der Besitzwilte, and an article entitled "Besitz" in the
Handworterbuch der Staatswissenschaften (1891), which aroused at
the time much controversy, particularly on account of the opposition
manifested to Savigny's conception of the subject. See also Scherz
und Ernst in der Jurisprudenz ( 1 885) ; Das Schuldmoment im romischen
Privat-recht (1867); Das Trinkeeld (1882); and among the papers he
left behind him his Vorgeschicnte der Indoeuropder, a fragment, has
been published by v. Enrenberg (1894). See for an account of his
life also M. de Jonge, Rudolf v. Jhering (1888); and A. Merkel,
Rudolf von Jhering (1893). (P. A. A.)
JIBITOS, a tribe of South American Indians, first met with
by the Franciscans in 1676 in the forest near the Huallaga
river, in the Peruvian province of Loreto. After their con-
version they settled in villages on the western bank of the
river.
JIBUTI (DJIBOUTI), the chief port and capital of French
Somaliland, in 11° 35' N., 43° 10' E. Jibuti is situated at the
entrance to and on the southern shore of the Gulf of Tajura
about 150 m. S.W. of Aden. The town is built on a horseshoe-
shaped peninsula partly consisting of mud flats, which are
spanned by causeways. The chief buildings are the governor's
palace, customs-house, post office, and the terminal station
of the railway to Abyssinia. The houses in the European
quarter are built of stone, are flat-roofed and provided with
verandas. There is a good water supply, drawn from a reser-
voir about 2$ m. distant. The harbour is land-locked and
capacious. Ocean steamers are able to enter it at all states of
wind and tide. Adjoining the mainland is the native town,
consisting mostly of roughly made wooden houses with well
thatched roofs. In it is held a large market, chiefly for the
disposal of live stock, camels, cattle, &c. The port is a regular
calling-place and also a coaling station for the steamers of the
Messageries Maritimes, and there is a local service to Aden.
Trade is confined to coaling passing ships and to importing goods
for and exporting goods from southern Abyssinia via Harrar,
there being no local industries. (For statistics see SOMALILAND,
FRENCH.) The inhabitants are of many races — Somali, Danakil,
Gallas, Armenians, Jews, Arabs, Indians, besides Greeks, Italians,
French and other Europeans. The population, which in 1900
when the railway was building was about 15,000, had fallen in
1907 to some 5000 or 6000, including 300 Europeans.
Jibuti was founded by the French in 1888 in consequence of its
superiority to Obok both in respect to harbour accommodation
and in nearness to Harrar. It has been the seat of the governor
of the colony since May 1896. Order is maintained by a purely
native police force. The port is not fortified.
JICARILLA, a tribe of North American Indians of Athapascan
stock. Their former range was in New Mexico, about the head-
waters of the Rio Grande and the Pecos, and they are now settled
in a reservation on the northern border of New Mexico. Origin-
ally a scourge of the district, they are now subdued, but remain
uncivilized. They number some 800 and are steadily decreasing.
The name is said to be from the Spanish jicara, a basket tray, in
reference to their excellent basket-work.
JIDDA (also written JEDDAH, DJIDDAH, DJEDDEH), a town in
Arabia on the Red Sea coast in 21° 28' N. and 39° 10' E. It is of
importance mainly as the principal landing place of pilgrims to
Mecca, from which it is about 46 m. distant. It is situated in a
low sandy plain backed by a range of hills 10 m. to the east, with
higher mountains behind. The town extends along the beach for
about a mile, and is enclosed by a wall with towers at intervals, the
seaward angles being commanded by two forts, in the northern
of which are the prison and other public buildings. There are
three gates, the Medina gate on the north, the Mecca gate
on the east, and the Yemen gate (rarely opened) on the south;
there are also three small posterns on the west side, the centre
one leading to the quay. In front of the Mecca gate is a rambling
suburb with shops, coffee houses, and an open market place;
before the Medina gate are the Turkish barracks, and beyond
them the holy place of Jidda, the tomb of " our mother Eve,"
surrounded by the principal cemetery.
The tomb is a walled enclosure said to represent the dimensions
of the body, about 200 paces long and 15 ft. broad. At the head is
a small erection where gifts are deposited, and rather more than
half-way down a whitewashed dome encloses a small dark chapel
within which is the black stone known as El Surrah, the navel.
The grave of Eve is mentioned by Edrisi, but except the black
stone nothing bears any aspect of antiquity (see Burton^ Pilgrimage,
vol. ii.).
The sea face is the best part of the town; the houses there are
lofty and well built of the rough coral that crops out all along
the shore. The streets are narrow and winding. There are
two mosques of considerable size and a number of smaller ones.
The outer suburbs are merely collections of brushwood huts.
The bazaars are well supplied with food-stuffs imported by sea,
and fruit and vegetables from Taif and Wadi Fatima. The water
supply is limited and brackish; there are, however, two sweet
wells and a spring 7$ m. from the town, and most of the houses
have cisterns for storing rain-water. The climate is hot and
damp, but fever is not so prevalent as at Mecca. The harbour
though inconvenient of access is well protected by coral reefs;
there are, however, no wharves or other dock facilities and cargo
is landed in small Arab boats, sambuks.
The governor is a Turkish kaimakam under the vali of Hejaz,
and there is a large Turkish garrison; the sharif of Mecca,
however, through his agent at Jidda exercises an authority
JIG— JIMENES
practically superior to that of the sultan's officials. Consulates
are maintained by Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia,
Holland, Belgium and Persia. The permanent population
is estimated at 20,000, of which less than half are Arabs, and of
these a large number are foreigners from Yemen and Hadramut,
the remainder are negroes and Somali with a few Indian and
Greek traders.
Jidda is said to have been founded by Persian merchants in the
caliphate of Othman, but its great commercial prosperity dates
from the beginning of the isth century- when it became the centre
of trade between Egypt and India. Down to the time of
Burckhardt (1815) the Suez ships went no farther than Jidda,
where they were met by Indian vessels. The introduction of
steamers deprived Jidda of its place as an emporium, not only
for Indian goods but for the products of the Red Sea, which
formerly were collected here, but are now largely exported
direct by steamer from Hodeda, Suakin, Jibuti and Aden.
At the same time it gave a great impulse to the pilgrim traffic
which is now regarded as the annual harvest of Jidda. The
average number of pilgrims arriving by sea exceeds 50,000, and in
1903-1904 the total came to 74,600. The changed status of the
port is shown in its trade returns, for while its exports decreased
from £250,000 in 1880 to £25,000 in 1904, its imports in the
latter year amounted to over £1,400,000. The adverse balance
of trade is paid by a very large export of specie, collected from
the pilgrims during their stay in the country.
JIG, a brisk lively dance, the quick and irregular steps of
which have varied at different times and in the various countries
in which it has been danced (see DANCE). The music of the
" jig," or such as is written in its rhythm, is in various times and
has been used frequently to finish a suite, e.g. by Bach and
Handel. The word has usually been derived from or con-
nected with Fr. gigue, Ital. giga, Ger. Geige, a fiddle. The French
and Italian words are now chiefly used of the dance or dance
rhythm, and in this sense have been taken by etymologists as
adapted from the English " jig," which may have been originally
an onomatopoeic word. The idea of jumping, jerking move-
ment has given rise to many applications of " jig " and its
derivative " jigger " to mechanical and other devices, such as
the machine used for separating the heavier metal-bearing por-
tions from the lighter parts in ore-dressing, or a tackle consisting
of a double and single block and fall, &c. The word " jigger,"
a corruption of the West Indian chigoe, is also used as the name
of a species of flea, the Sarcopsytta penetrans, which burrows and
lays its eggs in the human foot, generally under the toe nails,
and causes great swelling and irritation (see FLEA).
JIHAD (also written JEHAD, JAHAD, DJEHAD), an Arabic word
of which the literal meaning is an effort or a contest. It is used
to designate the religious duty inculcated in the Koran on the
followers of Mahomet to wage war upon those who do not accept
the doctrines of Islam. This duty is laid down in five suras —
all of these suras belonging to the period after Mahomet had
established his power. Conquered peoples who will neither
embrace Islam nor pay a poll-tax (jizya) are to be put to
the sword. (See further MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS.) By
Mahommedan commentators the commands in the Koran are
not interpreted as a general injunction on all Moslems constantly
to make war on the infidels. It is generally supposed that the
order for a general war can only be given by the caliph (an
office now claimed by the sultans of Turkey). Mahommedans
who do not acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Ottoman
sultan, such as the Persians and Moors, look to their own rulers
for the proclamation of a jihad; there has been in fact no
universal warfare by Moslems on unbelievers since the early days
of Mahommedanism. Jihads are generally proclaimed by all
persons who claim to be mahdis, e.g. Mahommed Ahmad (the
Sudanese mahdi) proclaimed a jihad in 1882. In the belief of
Moslems every one of their number slain in a jihad is taken
straight to paradise.
JIMENES (or XIMENES) DE CISNEROS, FRANCISCO (1436-
1517), Spanish cardinal and statesman, was born in 1436 at
Torrelaguna in Castile, of good but poor family. He studied at
Alcala de Henares and afterwards at Salamanca; and in 1459,
having entered holy orders, he went to Rome. Returning to
Spain in 1465, he brought with him an " expective " letter from
the pope, in virtue of which he took possession of the archpriest-
ship of Uzeda in the diocese of Toledo in 1473. Carillo, arch-
bishop of Toledo, opposed him, and on his obstinate refusal to
give way threw him into prison. For six years Jimenes held
out, and at length in 1480 Carillo restored him to his benefice.
This Jimenes exchanged almost at once for a chaplaincy at
Siguenza, under Cardinal Mendoza, bishop of Siguenza, who
shortly appointed him vicar-general of his diocese. In that posi-
tion Jimenes won golden opinions from ecclesiastic and layman;
and he seemed to be on the sure road to distinction among the
secular clergy, when he abruptly resolved to become a monk.
Throwing up all his benefices, and changing his baptismal name
Gonzales for that of Francisco, he entered the Franciscan
monastery of San Juan de los Reyes, recently founded by Fer-
dinand and Isabella at Toledo. Not content with the ordinary
severities of the noviciate, he added voluntary austerities. He
slept on the bare ground, wore a hair-shirt, doubled his fasts,
and scourged himself with much fervour; indeed throughout his
whole life, even when at the acme of his greatness, his private life
was most rigorously ascetic. The report of his sanctity brought
crowds to confess to him; but from them he retired to the lonely
monastery of Our Lady of Castanar; and he even built with his
own hands a rude hut in the neighbouring woods, in which he
lived at times as an anchorite. He was afterwards guardian of
a monastery at Salzeda. Meanwhile Mendoza (now archbishop
of Toledo) had not forgotten him; and in 1492 he recommended
him to Isabella as her confessor. The queen sent for Jimenes,
was pleased with him, and to his great reluctance forced the
office upon him. The post was politically important, for
Isabella submitted to the judgment of her father-confessor not
only her private affairs but also matters of state. Jimenes's
severe sanctity soon won him considerable influence over Isabella;
and thus it was that he first emerged into political life. In
1494 the queen's confessor was appointed provincial of the order
of St Francis, and at once set about reducing the laxity of the
conventual to the strictness of the observantine Franciscans.
Intense opposition was continued even after Jimenes became
archbishop of Toledo. The general of the order himself came from
Rome to interfere with the archbishop's measures of reform,
but the stern inflexibility of Jimenes, backed by the influence of
the queen, subdued every obstacle. Cardinal Mendoza had died
in 1495, and Isabella had secretly procured a papal bull nomina-
ting her confessor to his diocese of Toledo, the richest and most
powerful in Spain, second perhaps to no other dignity of the Roman
Church save the papacy. Long and sincerely Jimenes strove to
evade the honour; but his nolo episcopari was after six months
overcome by a second bull ordering him to accept consecration.
With the primacy of Spain was associated the lofty dignity
of high chancellor of Castile; but Jimenes still maintained his
lowly life; and, although a message from Rome required him
to live in a style befitting his rank, the outward pomp only
concealed his private asceticism. In 1499 Jimenes accompanied
the court to Granada, and there eagerly joined the mild and
pious Archbishop Talavera in his efforts to convert the Moors.
Talavera had begun with gentle measures, but Jimenes preferred
to proceed by haranguing the fakihs, or doctors of religion, and
loading them with gifts. Outwardly the latter method was
successful; in two months the converts were so numerous that
they had to be baptized by aspersion. The indignation of the
unconverted Moors swelled into open revolt. Jimenes was
besieged in his house, and the utmost difficulty was found in
quieting the city. Baptism or exile was offered to the Moors
as a punishment for rebellion. The majority accepted baptism;
and Isabella, who had been momentarily annoyed at her arch-
bishop's imprudence, was satisfied that he had done good
service to Christianity.
On the 24th of November 1504 Isabella died. Ferdinand at
once resigned the title of king of Castile in favour of his daughter
Joan and her husband the archduke Philip, assuming instead
416
JIND— JINGO
that of regent. Philip was keenly jealous of Ferdinand's pre-
tensions to the regency; and it required all the tact of Jimenes
to bring about a friendly interview between the princes.
Ferdinand finally retired from Castile; and, though Jimenes re-
mained, his political weight was less than before. The sudden
death of Philip in September 1506 quite overset the already
tottering intellect of his wife; his son and heir Charles was still a
child; and Ferdinand was at Naples. The nobles of Castile,
mutually jealous, agreed to entrust affairs to the archbishop of
Toledo, who, moved more by patriotic regard for his country's
welfare than by special friendship for Ferdinand, strove to es-
tablish the final influence of that king in Castile. Ferdinand
did not return till August 1507; and he brought a cardinal's
hat for Jimenes. Shortly afterwards the new cardinal of
Spain was appointed grand inquisitor-general for Castile and
Leon.
The next great event in the cardinal's life was the expedition
against the Moorish city of Oran in the north of Africa, in which
his religious zeal was supported by the prospect of the political
and material gain that would accrue to Spain from the possession
of such a station. A preliminary expedition, equipped, like that
which followed, at the expense of Jimenes, captured the port of
Mers-el-Kebir in 1505; and in 1509 a strong force, accompanied
by the cardinal in person, set sail for Africa, and in one day the
wealthy city was taken by storm. Though the army remained to
make fresh conquests, Jimenes returned to Spain, and occupied
himself with the administration of his diocese, and in endeavour-
ing to recover from the regent the expenses of his Oran expedi-
tion. On the 28th of January 1516 Ferdinand died, leaving
Jimenes as regent of Castile for Charles (afterwards Charles V.),
then a youth of sixteen in the Netherlands. Though Jimenes at
once took firm hold of the reins of government, and ruled in
a determined and even autocratic manner, the haughty and
turbulent Castilian nobility and the jealous intriguing Flemish
councillors of Charles combined to render bis position peculiarly
difficult; while the evils consequent upon the unlimited de-
mands of Charles for money threw much undeserved odium
upon the regent. In violation of the laws, Jimenes acceded to
Charles's desire to be proclaimed king; he secured the person
of Charles's younger brother Ferdinand; he fixed the seat
of the cortes at Madrid; and he established a standing army
by drilling the citizens of the great towns. Immediately on
Ferdinand's death, Adrian, dean of Louvain, afterwards pope,
produced a commission from Charles appointing him regent.
Jimenes admitted Rim to a nominal equality, but took care that
neither he nor the subsequent commissioners of Charles ever
had any real share of power. In September 1517 Charles
landed in the province of Asturias, and Jimenes hastened to
meet him. On the way, however, he fell ill, not without a
suspicion of poison. While thus feeble, he received a letter from
Charles coldly thanking him for his services, and giving him
leave to retire to his diocese. A few hours after this virtual
dismissal, which some, however, say the cardinal never saw,
Francisco Jimenes died at Roa, on the 8th of November 1517.
Jimenes was a bold and determined statesman. Sternly
and inflexibly, with a confidence that became at times over-
bearing, he carried through what he had decided to be right, with
as little regard for the convenience of others as for his own. In
the midst of a corrupt clergy his morals were irreproachable. He
was liberal to all, and founded and maintained very many
benevolent institutions in his diocese. His whole time was
devoted either to the state or to religion; his only recreation was
in theological or scholastic discussion. Perhaps one of the most
noteworthy points about the cardinal is the advanced period of
life at which he entered upon the stage where he was to play such
leading parts. Whether his abrupt change from the secular to
the regular clergy was the fervid outcome of religious enthusiasm
or the far-seeing move of a wily schemer has been disputed;
hut the constant austerity of his life, his unvarying superiority
'to small personal aims, are arguments for the former alternative
that are not to be met by merely pointing to the actual honours
and power he at last attained.
In 1500 was founded, and in 1508 was opened, the university of
Alcala de Henares, which, fostered by Cardinal Jimenes, at whose
sole expense it was raised, attained a great pitch of outward magni-
ficence and internal worth. At one time 7000 students met within
its walls. In 1836 the university was removed to Madrid, and the
costly buildings were left vacant. In the hopes of supplanting the
romances generally found in the hands of the young, Jimenes caused
to be published religious treatises by himself and others. He
revived also the Mozarabic liturgy, and endowed a chapel at Toledo,
in which it was to be used. But his most famous literary service
was the printing at Alcala (inLatin Complutum) of theComplutensian
Polyglott, the first edition of the Christian Scriptures in the original
text. In this work, on which he is said to have expended half a
million of ducats, the cardinal was aided by the celebrated Stunica
(D. Lopez de Zuniga), the Greek scholar Nunez de Guzman (Pin-
cianus), the Hebraist Vergara, and the humanist Nebrija, by a
Cretan Greek Demetrius Ducas, and by three Jewish converts, of
whom Zamora edited the Targum to the Pentateuch. The other
Targums are not included. In the Old Testament Jerome's version
stands between the Greek and Hebrew. The synagogue and the
Eastern church, as the preface expresses it, are set like the thieves
on this side and on that, with Jesus (that is, the Roman Church) in
the midst. The text occupies five volumes, and a sixth contains a
Hebrew lexicon, &c. The work commenced in 1502. The New
Testament was finished in January 1514, and the whole in April
1517. It was dedicated to Leo X., and was reprinted in 1572 by
the Antwerp firm of Pjantin, after revision by Benito Arias Montano
at the expense of Philip II. The second edition is known as the
Biblia Regia or Fttipina.
The work by Alvaro Gomez de Castro, De Rebus Gestis Francisci
Ximenii (folio, 1659, AlcalA), is the quarry whence have come the
materials for biographies of timenes — in Spanish by Robles (1604)
and Quintanilla (1633); in French by Baudier (1635), Marsollier
0684), Fidchier (1694) and Richard (1704); in German by Hefele
(1844, translated into English by Canon Dalton, 1860) and Have-
mann (1848) ; and in English by Barrett (1813). See also Prescott's
Ferdinand and Isabella; Revue des Deux Mond.es (May 1841) and
Mem. de I'Acad. d'hist. de Madrid, vol. iv.
JIND, a native state of India, within the Punjab. It ranks
as one of the Cis-Sutlej states, which came under British influence
in 1809. The territory consists of three isolated tracts, amid
British districts. Total area, 1332 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 282,003,
showing a decrease of i% in the decade. Estimated gross
revenue £109,000; there is no tribute. Grain and cotton are ex-
ported, and there are manufactures of gold and silver ornaments,
leather and wooden wares and cloth. The chief, whose title
is raja, is a Sikh of the Sidhu Jat clan and of the Phulkian family.
The principality was founded in 1763, and the chief was recog-
nized by the Mogul emperor in 1 768. The dynasty has always
been famous for its loyalty to the British, especially during the
Mutiny, which has been rewarded with accessions of territory.
In 1857 the raja of Jind was actually the first man, European or
native, who took the field against the mutineers; and his con-
tingent collected supplies in advance for the British troops
marching upon Delhi, besides rendering excellent service during
the siege. Raja Ranbir Singh succeeded as a minor in 1887, and
was granted full powers in 1899. During the Tirah expedition of
1897-98 the Jind imperial service infantry specially distin-
guished themselves. The town of Jind, the former capital, has
a station on the Southern Punjab railway, 80 m. N.W. of Delhi.
Pop. (1901), 8047. The present capital and residence of the
raja since 1827 is Sangrur; pop. (1901), 11,852.
JINGO, a legendary empress of Japan, wife of Chflai, the I4th
mikado (191-200). On her husband's death she assumed the
government, and fitted out an army for the invasion of Korea
(see JAPAN, § 9). She returned to Japan completely victorious
after three years' absence. Subsequently her son Ojen Tenno,
afterwards isth mikado, was born, and later was canonized as
Hachiman, god of war. The empress Jingo ruled over Japan
till 270. She is still worshipped.
As regards the English oath, usually " By Jingo," or " By the
living Jingo," the derivation is doubtful. The identification
with the name of Gingulph or Gengulphus, a Burgundian saint
who was martyred on the i ith of May 760, was a joke on the part
of R. H. Barham, author of the Ingoldsby Legends. Some explain
the word as a corruption of Jainko, the Basque name for God. It
has also been derived from the Persian jang (war), St Jingo being
the equivalent of the Latin god of war, Mars; and is even
explained as a corruption of " Jesus, Son of God," Je-n-go. In
JINN— JOACHIM OF FLORIS
41?
support of the Basque derivation it is alleged that the oath was
first common in Wales, to aid in the conquest of which Edward I.
imported a number of Basque mercenaries. The phrase does not,
however, appear in literature before the I7th century, first as
conjurer's jargon. Motteux, in his " Rabelais," is the first to use
" by jingo," translating par dieu. The political use of the word
as indicating an aggressive patriotism (Jingoes and Jingoism)
originated in 1877 during the weeks of national excitement pre-
luding the despatch of the British Mediterranean squadron to
Gallipoli, thus frustrating Russian designs on Constantinople.
While the public were on the tiptoe of expectation as to what
policy the government would pursue, a bellicose music-hall song
with the refrain " We don't want to fight, but by Jingo if we do,"
&c., was produced in London by a singer known as " the great
MacDermott," and instantly became very popular. Thus the
war-party came to be called Jingoes, and Jingoism has ever since
been the term applied to those who advocate a national policy
of arrogance and pugnacity.
For a discussion of the etymology of Jingo see Notes and Queries,
(August 25, 1894), 8th series, p. 149.
JINN (DJINN), the name of a class of spirits (genii) in Arabian
mythology. They are the offspring of fire, but in their form and
the propagation of their kind they resemble human beings.
They are ruled by a race of kings named " Suleyman," one of
whom is considered to have built the pyramids. Their central
home is the mountain Kaf , and they manifest themselves to men
under both animal and mortal form and become invisible at will.
There are good and evil jinn, and these in each case reach the
extremes of beauty and ugliness.
JIRECEK, JOSEF (1825-1888), Czech scholar, was born at
Vysoke Myto in Bohemia on the pth of October 1825. He entered
the Prague bureau of education in 1850, and' became minister of
the department in the Hohenwart cabinet in 1871. His efforts
to secure equal educational privileges for the Slav nationalities
in the Austrian dominions brought him into disfavour with the
German element. He became a member of the Bohemian Land-
tag in 1878, and of the Austrian Reichsrat in 1879. His merits as
a scholar were recognized in 1875 by his election as president of
the royal Bohemian academy of sciences. He died in Prague on
the 25th of November 1888.
With Hermenegild Jirecek he defended in 1862 the genuineness
of the Koniginhof MS. discovered by Wenceslaus Hanka. He
published in the Czech language an anthology of Czech literature
(3 vols., 1858-1861), a biographical dictionary of Czech writers
(2 vols., 1875-1876), a Czech hymnology, editions of Blahoslaw]s
Czech grammar and of some Czech classics, and of the works of his
father-in-law Pavel Josef Safarik (1795-1861).
His brother HERMENEGILD JIRECEK, Ritter von Samakow
(1827- ), Bohemian jurisconsult, who was born at Vysoke
Myto on the i3th of April 1827, was also an official in the
education department.
Among his important works on Slavonic law were Codex juris
bohemici (n parts, 1867-1892), and a Collection of Slav Folk-Law
(Czech, 1880), Slav Law in Bohemia and Moravia down to the iqih
Century (Czech, 3 vols. 1863-1873).
JIRECEK, KONSTANTIN JOSEF (1854- ), son of Josef,
taught history at Prague. He entered the Bulgarian service in
1879, and in 1881 became minister of education at Sofia. In
1884 he became professor of universal history in Czech at Prague,
and in 1893 professor of Slavonic antiquities at Vienna.
The bulk of Konstantin's writings deal with the history of the
southern Slavs and their literature. They include a History of the
Bulgars (Czech and German, 1876), The Principality of Bulgaria
(1891), Travels in Bulgaria (Czech, 1888), &c.
JIZAKH, a town of Russian Central Asia, in the province of
Samarkand, on the Transcaspian railway, 71 m. N.E. of the city
of Samarkand. Pop. (1897), 16,041. As a fortified post of
Bokhara it was captured by the Russians in 1866.
JOAB (Heb. " Yah[weh] is a father "), in the Bible, the son
of Zeruiah, David's sister (i Chron. ii. 16). His brothers were
Asahel and Abishai. All three were renowned warriors and
played a prominent part in David's history. Abishai on one
occasion saved the king's life from a Philistine giant (2 Sam.
xxi. 17), and Joab as warrior and statesman was directly respon-
xv. 14
sible for much of David's success. Joab won his spurs, according
to one account, by capturing Jerusalem (i Chron. xi. 4-9); with
Abishai and Ittai of Gath he led a small army against the Israel-
ites who had rebelled under Absalom (2 Sam. xviii. 2); and
he superintended the campaign against Ammon and Edom
(2 Sam. xi. i, xii. 26; i Kings xi. 15). He showed his sturdy
character by urging the king after the death of Absalom to
place his duty to his people before his grief for the loss of his
favourite son (2 Sam. xix. 1-8), and by protesting against David's
proposal to number the people, an innovation which may have
been regarded as an infringement of their liberties (2 Sam. xxiv.;
i Chron. xxi. 6).
The hostility of the " sons of Zeruiah " towards the tribe of
Benjamin is characteristically contrasted with David's own gener-
osity towards Saul's fallen house. Abishai proposed to kill Saul
when David surprised him asleep (i Sam. xxvi. 8), and was anxious
to slay Shimei when he cursed the king (2 Sam. xvi. 9). But David
was resigned to the will of Yahweh and refused to entertain the
suggestions. After Asahel met his death at the hands of Abner,
Joab expostulated with David for not taking revenge upon the
guilty one, and indeed the king might be considered bound in honour
to take up his nephew's cause. But when Joab himself killed Abner,
David's imprecation against him and his brother Abishai showed
that he dissociated himself from the act of vengeance, although it
brought him nearer to the throne of all Israel (2 Sam. iii.). Fear of
a possible rival may have influenced Joab, and this at all events led
him to slay Amasa of Judah (2 Sam. xx. 4-13). The two deeds are
similar, and the impression left by them is expressed in David's
last charges to Solomon (i Kings ii.). But here Joab had taken the
side of Adonijah against Solomon, and was put to death by Benaiah
at Solomon's command, and it is possible that the charges are the
fruit of a later tradition to remove all possible blame from Solomon
(q.v.). It is singular that Joab is not blamed for killing Absalom,
but it would indeed be strange if the man who helped to reconcile
father and son (2 Sam. xiv.) should have perpetrated so cruel an act
in direct opposition to the king's wishes (xviii. 5, 10-16). A certain
animus against Joab's family thus seems to underlie some of the
popular narratives of the life of David (q.v.). (S. A. C.)
JOACHIM OF FLORIS (c. 1145-1202), so named from the
monastery of San Giovanni in Fiore, of which he was abbot,
Italian mystic theologian, was born at Celico, near Cosenza, in
Calabria. He was of noble birth and was brought up at the court
of Duke Roger of Apulia. At an early age he went to visit the holy
places. After seeing his comrades decimated by the plague at
Constantinople he resolved to change his mode of life, and, on his
return to Italy, after a rigorous pilgrimage and a period of ascetic
retreat, became a monk in the Cistercian abbey of Casamari. In
August 1177 we know that he was abbot of the monastery of
Corazzo, near Martirano. In 1183 he went to the court of Pope
Lucius III. at Veroli, and in 1185 visited Urban III. at Verona.
There is extant a letter of Pope Clement III., dated the 8th of
June 1188, in which Clement alludes to two of Joachim's works,
the Concordia and the Exposilio in Apocalypsin, and urges him
to continue them. Joachim, however, was unable to continue
his abbatial functions in the midst of his labours in prophetic
exegesis, and, moreover, his asceticism accommodated itself but
ill with the somewhat lax discipline of Corazzo. He accordingly
retired into the solitudes of Pietralata, and subsequently founded
with some companions under a rule of his own creation the abbey
of San Giovanni in Fiore, on Monte Nero, in the massif of La
Sila. The pope and the emperor befriended this foundation;
Frederick II. and his wife Constance made important donations
to it, and promoted the spread of offshoots of the parent house;
while Innocent III., on the 2ist of January 1204, approved the
" ordo Florensis " and the " institutio " which its founder had
bestowed upon it. Joachim died in 1202, probably on the 2oth
of March.
Of the many prophetic and polemical works that were attributed
to Joachim in the I3th and following centuries, only those enu-
merated in his will can be regarded as absolutely authentic. These
are the Concordia novi et veteris Testamenti (first printed at Venice
in 1519), the Expositio in Apocalypsin (Venice, 1527), the Psalterium
decent chordarum (Venice, 1527), together with some "libelli"
against the Jews or the adversaries of the Christian faith. It is
very probable that these " libelli " are the writings entitled Concordia
Evangeliorum, Contra Judaeos, De articulis fidei, Confessio fidei and
De unitate Trinitatis. The last is perhaps the work which was
condemned by the Lateran council in 1215 as containing an erroneous
JOACHIM I.
criticism of the Trinitarian theory of Peter Lombard. This council,
though condemning the book, refrained from condemning the
author, and approved the order of Floris. Nevertheless, the monks
continued to be subjected to insults as followers of a heretic, until
they obtained from Honorius III. in 1220 a bull formally recognizing
Joachim as orthodox and forbidding anyone to injure his disciples.
It is impossible to enumerate here all the works attributed to
Joachim. Some served their avowed object with great success,
being powerful instruments in the anti-papal polemic and sustaining
the revolted Franciscans in their hope of an approaching triumph.
Among the most widely circulated were the commentaries on
Jeremiah, Isaiah and Ezekiel, the Vaticinia pontificum and the
De oneribus ecclesiae. Of his authentic works the doctrinal essential
is very simple. Joachim divides the history of humanity, past,
present and future, into three periods, which, in his Expcsitio in
Apocalypsin (bk. i. ch. 5), he defines as the age of the Law, or of the
Father ; the age of the Gospel, or of the Son ; and the age of the Spirit,
which will bring the ages to an end. Before each of these ages there
is a period of incubation, or initiation: the first age begins with
Abraham, but the period of initiation with the first man Adam.
The initiation period of the third age begins with St Benedict, while
the actual age of the Spirit is not to begin until 1260, the Church —
mulier amicta sole (Rev. xii. l) — remaining hidden in the wilderness
1260 days. We cannot here enter into the infinite details of the
other subdivisions imagined by Joachim, or into his system of
perpetual concordances between the New and the Old Testaments,
which, according to him, furnish the prefiguration of the third age.
Far more interesting as explaining the diffusion and the religious and
social importance of his doctrine is his conception of the second
and third ages. The first age was the age of the Letter, the second
was intermediary between the Letter and the Spirit, and the third
was to be the age of the Spirit. The age of the Son is the period
of study and wisdom, the period of striving towards mystic know-
ledge. In the age of the Father all that was necessary was obedience ;
in the age of the Son reading is enjoined; but the age of the Spirit
was to be devoted to prayer and song. The third is the age of the
plena spiritus libertas, the age of contemplation, the monastic age
par excellence, the age of a monachism wholly directed towards
ecstasy, more Oriental than Benedictine. Joachim does not
conceal his sympathies with the ideal of Basilian monachism. In
his opinion— which is, in form at least, perfectly orthodox — the
church of Peter will be, not abolished, but purified; actually,
the hierarchy effaces itself in the third age before the order of the
monks, the viri spirituals. The entire world will become a vast
monastery in that day, which will be the resting-season, the sabbath
of humanity. In various passages in Joachim's writings the
clerical hierarchy is represented by Rachel and the contemplative
order by her son Joseph, and Rachel is destined to efface herself
before her son. Similarly, the teaching of Christ and the Apostles
on the sacraments is considered, implicitly and explicitly, as transi-
tory, as representing that passage from the significantia to the
significata which Joachim signalizes at every stage of his demonstra-
tion. Joachim was not disturbed during his lifetime. In 1200 he
submitted all his writings to the judgment of the Holy See, and
unreservedly affirmed his orthodoxy; the Lateran council, which
condemned his criticism of Peter Lombard, made no allusion to
his eschatological temerities; and the bull of I22O was a formal
certificate of his orthodoxy.
The Joachimite ideas soon spread into Italy and France, and
especially after a division had been produced in the Franciscan
order. The rigorists, who soon became known as " Spirituals,"
represented St Francis as the initiator of Joachim's third age.
Certain convents became centres of Joachimism. Around the
hermit of Hyeres, Hugh of Digne, was formed a group of Franciscans
who expected from the advent of the third age the triumph of their
ascetic ideas. The Joachimites even obtained a majority in the
general chapter of 1247, and elected John of Parma, one of their
number, general of the order. Pope Alexander IV., however,
compelled John of Parma to renounce his dignity, and the Joachimite
opposition became more and more vehement. Pseudo-Joachimite
treatises sprang up on every hand, and, finally, in 1254, there
appeared in Paris the Liber introductorius ad Evangelium aeternum,
the work of a Spiritual Franciscan, Gherardo da Borgo San Donnino.
This book was published with, and as an introduction to, the three
principal .works of Joachim, in which the Spirituals had made some
interpolations.1 Gherardo, however, did not say, as has been
supposed, that Joachim's books were the new gospel, but merely
that the Calabnan abbot had supplied the key to Holy Writ, and
that with the help of that intelligentia mystica it would be possible
to extract from the Old and New Testaments the eternal meaning,
the gospel according to the Spirit, a gospel which would never be
written ; as for this eternal sense, it had been entrusted to an order
set apart, to the Franciscan order announced by Joachim, and in
this order the ideal of the third age was realized. These affirmations
provoked very keen protests in the ecclesiastical world. The
secular masters of the university of Paris denounced the work to
Pope Innocent IV., and the bishop of Paris sent it to the pope. It
1 Preger is the only writer who has maintained that the three
books in their primitive form date from 1254.
was Innocent's successor, Alexander IV., who appointed a commis-
sion to examine it ; and as a result of this commission, which sat at
Anagni, the destruction of the Liber introductorius was ordered by a
papal breve dated the 23rd of October 1255. In 1260 a council held
at Aries condemned Joachim's writings and his supporters, wha
were very numerous in that region. The Joachimite ideas were
equally persistent among the Spirituals, and acquired new strength
with the publication of the commentary on the Apocalypse. This
book, probably published after the death of its author and probably
interpolated by his disciples, contains, besides Joachimite principles,
an affirmation even clearer than that of Gherardo da Borgo of the
elect character of the Franciscan order, as well as extremely violent
attacks on the papacy. The Joachimite literature is extremely
vast. From the I4th century to the middle of the i6th, Ubertin
of Casale (inhis^4r6or Vitae crucifixae) , Bartholomew of Pisa (author
of the Liber Conformitatum), the Calabrian hermit Telesphorus,
John of La Rochetaillade, Seraphin of Fermo, Johannes Annius of
Viterbo, Coelius Pannonius, and a host of other writers, repeated or
complicated ad infinitum the exegesis of Abbot Joachim. A treatise
entitled De ultima aetate ecclesiae, which appeared in 1356, has been
attributed to Wycliffe, but is undoubtedly from the pen of an
anonymous Joachimite Franciscan. The heterodox movements in
Italy in the I3th and I4th centuries, such as those of the Segarellists,
Dolcinists, and Fraticelli of every description, were penetrated with
Joachimism; while such independent spirits as Roger Bacon,
Arnaldus de Villa Nova and Bernard De'licieux often comforted
themselves with the thought of the era of justice and peace promised
by Joachim. Dante held Joachim in great reverence, and has
placed him in Paradise (Par., xii. 140-141).
See Ada. Sanctorum, Boll. (May), vii. 94-112; W. Preger in
Abhandl. der kgl. Akad. der Wissenschaften, hist, sect., vol. xii.,
pt. 3 (Munich, 1874); idem, Gesch. d. deutschen Mystik im Miltel-
alter, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1874); E. Renan, "Joachim de Flore et
1'Evangile (Sternel " in Nouvelles Etudes d'histoire religieuse (Paris,
1884) ; F Tocco, L'Eresia nel media evo (Florence, 1884) ; H. Denifle,
" Das Evangelium aeternum und die Commission zu Anagni " in
Archiv fiir Literatur- und Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters, vol. i. ; Paul
Fournier, " Joachim de Flore, ses doctrines, son influence " in
Revue des questions historiques, t. i. (1900) ; H. C. Lea, History of
the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, vol. iii. ch. i. (London, 1888);
F. Ehrle's article " Joachim " in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon.
On Joachimism see E. Gebhardt, " Recherches nouvelles sur
1'histoire du Joachimisme " in Revue historique, vol. xxxi. (1886);
H. Haupt, " Zur Gesch. des Joachimismus " in Briegers Zeitschrift
fiir Kirchengesch., vol. vii. (1885). (P. A.)
JOACHIM I. (1484-1 33 5) , surnamed Nestor, elector of Branden-
burg, elder son of John Cicero, elector of Brandenburg, was born
on the 2ist of February 1484. He received an excellent educa-
tion, became elector of Brandenburg on his father's death in
January 1499, and soon afterwards married Elizabeth, daughter
of John, king of Denmark. He took some part in the political
complications of the Scandinavian kingdoms, but the early years
of his reign were mainly spent in the administration of his elector-
ate, where by stern and cruel measures he succeeded in restoring
some degree of order (see BRANDENBURG). He also improved the
administration of justice, aided the development of commerce,
and was a friend to the towns. On the approach of the imperial
election of 1519, Joachim's vote was eagerly solicited by the
partisans of Francis I., king of France, and by those of Charles,
afterwards the emperor Charles V. Having treated with, and
received lavish promises from, both parties, he appears to have
hoped for the dignity for himself; but when the election came he
turned to the winning side and voted for Charles. In spite of
this step, however, the relations between the emperor and the
elector were not friendly, and during the next few years Joachim
was frequently in communication with the enemies of Charles.
Joachim is best known as a pugnacious adherent of Catholic
orthodoxy. He was one of the princes who urged upon the
emperor the necessity of enforcing the Edict of Worms, and at
several diets was prominent among the enemies of the Reformers.
He was among those who met at Dessau in July 1525, and was
a member of the league established at Halle in November 1533.
But his wife adopted the reformed faith, and in 1528 fled
for safety to Saxony; and he had the mortification of seeing
these doctrines also favoured by other members of his family.
Joachim, who was a patron of learning, established the uni-
versity of Frankfort.-on-the-Oder in 1506. He died at Stendal
on the nth of July 1535.
See T. von Buttlar, Der Kampf Joachims I. von Brandenburg gegen
den Add (1889); J. G. Droysen, Ceschichte der Preussischen Pohtik
(1855-1886).
JOACHIM II.— JOACHIM, JOSEPH
419
JOACHIM II. (1505-1571), surnamed Hector, elector of Bran-
denburg, the elder son of Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg,
was born on the i3th of January 1505. Having passed some
time at the court of the emperor Maximilian I., he married in
1524 a daughter of George, duke of Saxony. In 1532 he led a
contingent of the imperial army on a campaign against the
Turks; and soon afterwards, having lost his first wife, married
Hedwig, daughter of Sigismund I., king of Poland. He became
elector of Brandenburg on his father's death in July 1535, and
undertook the government of the old and middle marks, while
the new mark passed to his brother John. Joachim took a
prominent part in imperial politics as an advocate of peace,
though with a due regard for the interests of the house of Habs-
burg. He attempted to make peace between the Protestants
and the emperor Charles V. at Frankfort in 1539, and subse-
quently at other places; but in 1542 he led the German forces on
an unsuccessful campaign against the Turks. When the war
broke out between Charles and the league of Schmalkalden in
1546 the elector at first remained neutral; but he afterwards sent
some troops to serve under the emperor. With Maurice, elector
of Saxony, he persuaded Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to surrender
to Charles after the imperial victory at Muhlberg in April 1547,
and pledged his word that the landgrave would be pardoned.
But, although he felt aggrieved when the emperor declined to
be bound by this promise, he refused to join Maurice in his attack
on Charles. He supported the Interim, which was issued from
Augsburg in May 1548, and took part in the negotiations that
resulted in the treaty of Passau (1552), and the religious peace
of Augsburg (1555). In domestic politics he sought to consoli-
date and strengthen the power of his house by treaties with
neighbouring princes, and succeeded in secularizing the bishoprics,
of Brandenburg, Havelberg and Lebus. Although brought up
as a strict adherent of the older religion, he showed signs of
wavering soon after his accession, and in 1539 allowed free
entrance to the reformed teaching in the electorate. He took
the communion himself in both kinds, and established a new
ecclesiastical organization in Brandenburg, but retained much
of the ceremonial of the Church of Rome. His position was not
unlike that of Henry VIII. in England, and may be partly ex-
plained by a desire to replenish his impoverished exchequer with
the wealth of the Church (see BRANDENBURG). After the peace
of Augsburg the elector mainly confined his attention to Bran-
denburg, where he showed a keener desire to further the principles
of the Reformation. By his luxurious habits and his lavish
expenditure on public buildings he piled up a great accumulation
of debt, which was partly discharged by the estates of the land
in return for important concessions. He cast covetous eyes
upon the archbishopric of Magdeburg and the bishopric of
Halberstadt, both of which he secured for his son Frederick in
1551. When Frederick died in the following year, the elector's
son Sigismund obtained the two sees; and on Sigismund's death in
1566 Magdeburg was secured by his nephew, Joachim Frederick,
afterwards elector of Brandenburg. Joachim, who was a prince
of generous and cultured tastes, died at Kopenick on the 3rd of
January 1571, and was succeeded by his son, John George. In
1880 a statue was erected to his memory at Spandau.
See Steinmuller, Einfuhrung der Reformation in die Kurmark
Brandenburg durch Joachim II. (1903) ; S. Isaacsohn, " Die Finanzen
Joachims 1 1." in the Zeitschrift fur Preussische Geschichte und Landes-
kitnde (1864-1883); J. G. Droysen, Geschichte der Preussischen
Politik (1855-1886).
JOACHIM, JOSEPH (1831-1907), German violinist and com-
poser, was born at Kittsee, near Pressburg, on the 28th of June
1831, the son of Jewish parents. His family moved to Budapest
when he was two years old, and he studied there under Serwac-
zynski, who brought him out at a concert when he was only eight
years old. Afterwards he learnt from the elder Hellmesberger
and Joseph Bohm in Vienna, the latter instructing him in the
management of the bow. In 1843 he went to Leipzig to enter
the newly founded conservatorium. Mendelssohn, after testing
his musical powers, pronounced that the regular training of a
music school was not needed, but recommended that he should
receive a thorough general education in music from Ferdinand
David and Moritz Hauptmann. In 1844 he visited England,
and made his first appearance at Drury Lane Theatre, where his
playing of Ernst's fantasia on Olello made a great sensation; he
also played Beethoven's concerto at a Philharmonic concert
conducted by Mendelssohn. In 1847-1849 and 1852 he revisited
England, and after the foundation of the popular concerts in
1859, up to 1899, he played there regularly in the latter part of
the season. On Liszt's invitation he accepted the post of
Konzertmeisler at Weimar, and was there from 1850 to 1853.
This brought Joachim into close contact with the advanced
school of German musicians, headed by Liszt; and he was
strongly tempted to give his allegiance to what was beginning
to be called the " music of the future "; but his artistic convic-
tions forced him to separate himself from the movement, and the
tact and good taste he displayed in the difficult moment of ex-
plaining his position to Liszt afford one of the finest illustrations
of his character.
His acceptance of a similar post at Hanover brought him into
a different atmosphere, and his playing at the Diisseldorf festival
of 1853 procured him the intimate friendship of Robert Schu-
mann. His introduction of the young Brahms to Schumann is
a famous incident of this time. Schumann and Brahms col-
laborated with Albert Dietrich in a joint sonata for violin and
piano, as a welcome on his arrival in Diisseldorf. At Hanover
he was koniglicher Konzertdirektor from 1853 to 1868, when he
made Berlin his home. He married in 1863 the mezzo soprano
singer, Amalie Weiss, who died in 1899. In 1869 Joachim was
appointed head of the newly founded konigliche Hochschule fiir
Musik in Berlin. The famous " Joachim quartet " was started
in the Sing-Akademie in the following year. Of his later life,
continually occupied with public performances, there is little to
say except that he remained, even in a period which saw the rise
of numerous violinists of the finest technique, the acknowledged
master of all. He died on the isth of August 1907.
Besides the consummate manual skill which helped to make
him famous in his youth, Joachim was gifted with the power of
interpreting the greatest music in absolute perfection: while
Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and Brahms were masters, whose
works he played with a degree of insight that has never been
approached, he was no less supreme in the music of Mendelssohn
and Schumann; in short, the whole of the classical repertory
has become identified with his playing. No survey of Joachim's
artistic career would be complete which omitted mention of his
absolute freedom from tricks or mannerism, his dignified bearing,
and his unselfish character. His devotion to the highest ideals,
combined with a certain austerity and massivity of style, brought
against him an accusation of coldness from admirers of a more
effusive temperament. But the answer to this is given by the
depth and variety of expression which his mastery of the re-
sources of his instrument put at his command. His biographer
(1898), Andreas Moser, expressed his essential characteristic in
the words, " He plays the violin, not for its own sake, but in the
service of an ideal."
As a composer Joachim did but little in his later years, and the
works of his earlier life never attained the public success which,
in the opinion of many, they deserve (see Music). They un-
doubtedly have a certain austerity of character which does not
appeal to every hearer, but they are full of beauty of a grave
and dignified kind; and in such things as his " Hungarian con-
certo " for his own instrument the utmost degree of difficulty
is combined with great charm of melodic treatment. The
" romance " in B flat for violin and the variations for violin and
orchestra are among his finest things, and the noble overture in
memory of Kleist, as well as th^ scena for mezzo soprano from
Schiller's Demetrius, show a wonderful degree of skill in orchestra-
tion as well as originality of thought. Joachim's place in musical
history as a composer can only be properly appreciated in the
light of his intimate relations with Brahms, with whom he
studiously refrained from putting himself into independent
rivalry, and to whose work as a composer he gave the co-opera-
tion of one who might himself have ranked as a master.
420
There are admirable portraits of Joachim by G. F. Watts (1866)
and by J. S. Sargent (1904), the latter presented to him on the i6th
of May 1904, at the celebration of the sixtieth anniversary of his
first appearance in England.
JOAN, a mythical female pope, who is usually placed between
Leo IV. (847-855) and Benedict III. (855-858). One account
has it that she was born in England, another in Germany of
English parents. After an education at Cologne, she fell in
love with a Benedictine monk and fled with him to Athens
disguised as a man. On his death she went to Rome under the
alias of Joannes Anglicus (John of England), and entered the
priesthood, eventually receiving a cardinal's hat. She was
elected pope under the title of John VIII., and died in child-
birth during a papal procession.
A French Dominican, Steven of Bourbon (d. c. 1261) gives the
legend in his Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit. He is believed to have
derived it from an earlier writer. More than a hundred authors
between the I3th and I7th centuries gave circulation to the myth.
Its explosion was first seriously undertaken by David Blondel, a
French Calvinist, in his £claircissement de la question si une femme
a eU assise au siege papal de Rome (1647); and De Joanna Papissa
(1657). The refutation was completed by Johann Dollinger in his
Papstfabeln des Mitlelalters (1863; Eng. trans. 1872).
JOAN OF ARC, more properly JEANNETON DARC, afterwards
known in France as JEANNE o'ARC1 (1411-1431), the " Maid of
Orleans," was born between 1410 and 1412, the daughter of
Jacques Dare, peasant proprietor, of Domremy, a small village
in the Vosges, partly in Champagne and partly in Lorraine, and
of his wife Isabeau, of the village of Vouthon, who from having
made a pilgrimage to Rome had received the usual surname of
Romee. Although her parents were in easy circumstances, Joan
never learned to read or write, and received her sole religious
instruction from her mother, who taught her to recite the Pater
Noster, Ave Maria, and Credo. She sometimes guarded her
father's flocks, but at her trial in 1431 she strongly resented being
referred to as a shepherd girl. In all household work she was
specially proficient, her skill in the use of the needle not being
excelled (she said) by that of any matron even of Rouen. In her
childhood she was noted for her abounding physical energy; but
her vivacity, so far from being tainted by any coarse or un-
feminine trait, was the direct outcome of an abnormally sensitive
nervous temperament. Towards her parents her conduct was
uniformly exemplary, and the charm of her unselfish kindness
made her a favourite in the village. As she grew to womanhood
she became inclined to silence, and spent much of her time in
solitude and prayer. She repelled all attempts of the young
men of her acquaintance to win her favour; and while active in
the performance of her duties, and apparently finding her life
quite congenial, inwardly she was engrossed with thoughts
reaching far beyond the circle of her daily concerns.
At this time, through the alliance and support of Philip of
Burgundy, the English had extended their conquest over the
whole of France north of the Loire in addition to their possession
of Guienne; and while the infant Henry VI. of England had in 1422
been proclaimed king of France at his father's grave at St Denis,
Charles the dauphin (still uncrowned) was forced to watch the
slow dismemberment of his kingdom. Isabella, the dauphin's
mother, had favoured Henry V. of England, the husband of her
daughter Catherine; and under Charles VI. a visionary named
Marie d'Avignon declared that France was being ruined by a
woman and would be restored by an armed virgin from the
marches of Lorraine. To what extent this idea worked in Joan's
mind is doubtful. In Geoffrey of Monmouth's tract, De pro-
phetiis Merlini, there is a reference to an ancient prophecy of the
enchanter Merlin concerning a virgin ex nemore canuto, and it
appears that this nemus canutum had been identified in folk-lore
with the oak wood of Domremy. Joan's knowledge of the
prophecy does not, however, appear till 1429; and already before
that, from 1424, according to her account at her trial, she
1 In the act of ennoblement the name is spelt Day, due probably
to the peculiar pronunciation. It has been disputed whether the
name was written originally d'Arc or Dare. It is beyond doubt
that the father of Joan was not of noble origin, but Bouteiller
suggests that at that period the apostrophe did not indicate nobility.
Her mother, it may be noted, is called " de Vouthon."
JOAN— JOAN OF ARC
had become imbued with a sense of having a mission to free
France from the English. She heard the voices of St Michael,
St Catherine and St Margaret urging her on. In May 1428 she
tried to obtain from Robert de Baudricourt, governor of Vaucou-
leurs, an introduction to the dauphin, saying that God would send
him aid, but she was rebuffed. When, however, in September the
English (under the earl of Salisbury) invested Orleans, the key
to the south of France, she renewed her efforts with Baudricourt,
her mission being to relieve Orleans and crown the dauphin at
Reims. By persistent importunity, the effect of which was in-
creased by the simplicity of her demeanour and her calm assur-
ance of success, she at last prevailed on the governor to grant her
request; and in February 1429, accompanied by six men-at-arms,
she set out on her perilous journey to the court of the dauphin
at Chinon. At first Charles refused to see her, but popular feel-
ing in her favour induced his advisers to persuade him after three
days to grant her an interview. She is said to have persuaded
him of the divine character of her commission by discovering
him though disguised in the crowd of his courtiers, and by
reassuring him regarding his secret doubts as to his legitimacy.
And Charles was impressed by her knowledge of a secret prayer,
which (he told Dunois) could only be known to God and himself.
Accordingly, after a commission of doctors had reported that
they had found in her nothing of evil or contrary to the Catholic
faith, and a council of matrons had reported on her chastity, she
was permitted to set forth with an army of 4000 or 5000 men
designed for the relief of Orleans. At the head of the army she
rode clothed in a coat of mail, armed with an ancient sword, said
to be that with which Charles Martel had vanquished the Sara-
cens, the hiding-place of which, under the altar of the parish
church of the village of Ste Catherine de Fierbois, the " voices "
had revealed to her; she carried a white standard of her own
design embroidered with lilies, and having on the one side the
image of God seated on the clouds and holding the world in His
hand, and on the other a representation of the Annunciation.
Joan succeeded in entering Orleans on the 2gth of April 1429,
and through the vigorous and unremitting sallies of the French
the English gradually became so discouraged that on the 8th of
May they raised the siege. It is admitted that her extraordinary
pluck and sense of leadership were responsible for this result.
In a single week (June 12 to 19), by the capture of Jargeau and
Beaugency, followed by the great victory of Patay, where Talbot
was taken prisoner, the English were driven beyond the Loire.
With some difficulty the dauphin was then persuaded to set out
towards Reims, which he entered with an army of 12,000 men
on the i6th of July, Troyes having yielded on the way. On the
following day, holding the sacred banner, Joan stood beside
Charles at his coronation in the cathedral.
The king then entered into negotiations with a view to detach-
ing Burgundy from the English cause. Joan, at his importunity,
remained with the army, but the king played her false when she
attempted the capture of Paris; and after a failure on the 8th of
September, when Joan was wounded,2 his troops were disbanded.
Joan went into Normandy to assist the duke of Alencon, but in
December returned to the court, and on the 29th she and her
family were ennobled with the surname of du Lis. Unconsoled
by such honours, she rode away from the court in March, to assist
in the defence of Compiegne against the duke of Burgundy; and
on the 24th of May she led an unsuccessful sortie against the
besiegers, when she was surrounded and taken prisoner. Charles,
partly perhaps on account of his natural indolence, partly on
account of the intrigues at the court, made no effort to effect
her ransom, and never showed any sign of interest in her fate.
By means of negotiations instigated and prosecuted with great
perseverance by the university of Paris and the Inquisition, and
through the persistent scheming of Pierre Cauchon, the bishop
of Beauvais — a Burgundian partisan, who, chased from his own
see, hoped to obtain the archbishopric of Rouen — she was sold
in November by John of Luxemburg and Burgundy to the
English, who on the 3rd of January 1431, at the instance of the
2 The Porte St Honor6 where Joan was wounded stood where the
Com6die Francaise now stands.
JOANES— JOANNA I. OF NAPLES
university of Paris, delivered her over to the Inquisition for trial.
After a public examination, begun on the gth of January and
lasting six days, and another conducted in the prison, she was,
on the 2oth of March, publicly accused as a heretic and witch,
and, being in the end found guilty, she made her submission at
the scaffold on the 24th of May, and received pardon. She was
still, however, the prisoner of the English, and, having been in-
duced by those who had her in charge to resume her male clothes,
she was on this account judged to have relapsed, was sentenced
to death, and burned at the stake on the streets of Rouen on the
30th of May 1431. In 1436 an impostor appeared, professing
to be Joan of Arc escaped from the flames, who succeeded in
inducing many people to believe in her statement, but afterwards
confessed her imposture. The sentence passed on Joan of Arc
was revoked by the pope on the 7th of July 1456, and since then
it has been the custom of Catholic writers to uphold the reality
of her divine inspiration.
During the latter part of the loth century a popular cult of the
Maid of Orleans sprang up in France, being greatly stimulated
by the clerical party, which desired to advertise, in the person
of this national heroine, the intimate union between patriotism
and the Catholic faith, and for this purpose ardently desired her
enrolment among the Saints. On the 27th of January 1894
solemn approval was given by Pope Leo XIII., and in February
1903 a formal proposal was entered for her canonization. The
Feast of the Epiphany (Jan. 6), 1904 was made the occasion for
a public declaration by Pope Pius X. that she was entitled to the
designation Venerable. On the i3th of December 1908 the
decree of beatification was published in the Consistory Hall of
the Vatican.
As an historical figure, it is impossible to dogmatize concerning
the personality of Joan of Arc. The modern clerical view has
to some extent provoked what appears, in Anatole France's
learned account, ably presented as it is, to be a retaliation, in
regarding her as a clerical tool in her own day. But her character
was in any case exceptional. She undoubtedly nerved the
French at a critical time, and inspired an army of laggards and
pillagers with a fanatical enthusiasm, comparable with that of
Cromwell's Puritans. Moreover, as regards her genuine military
qualities we have the testimony of Dunois and d'Alencon; and
Captain Marin, in his Jeanne d' Arc, tacticien et strategists (1891),
takes a high view of her achievements. The nobility of her
purpose and the genuineness of her belief in her mission, combined
with her purity of character and simple patriotism, stand clear.
As to her " supranormal " faculties, a matter concerning which
belief largely depends on the point of view, it is to be remarked
that Quicherat, a freethinker wholly devoid of clerical influences,
admits them (Aper^us nouveaux, 1850), saying that the evidence
is as good as for any facts in her history. See also A. Lang on
" the voices '' in Proc. Soc. Psychical Research, vol. xi.
AUTHORITIES. — For bibliography see Le Lime A' or de Jeanne d'Arc
(1894), and A. Molinier, Sources de I'histoire de France (1904). Until
the I gth century the history of Joan of Arc was almost entirely
neglected; Voltaire's scurrilous satire La Pucelle, while indicative
of the attitude of his time, may be compared with the very fair
praises in the Encyclopedic. The first attempt at a study of the
sources was that of L'Averdy in 1790, published in the third volume
of Memoires of the Academy of Inscriptions, which served as the
base for all lives until J. Quicherat 's great work, Le Procbs de Jeanne
d'Arc (1841-1849), a collection of the texts so full and so vivid that
they reveal the character and life of the heroine with great dis-
tinctness. Michelet's sketch of her work in his Histoire de France,
one of the best sections of the history, is hardly more vivid than these
sources, upon which all the later biographies (notably that of H. A.
Wallon, 1860) are based. See also A. Marty, L' Histoire de Jeanne
d'Arc d'apres des documents originaux, with introduction by M. Sepet
(1907) ; P. H. Dunand, Jeanne d'Arc et Veglise (1908) ; and especially
Andrew Lang, The Maid of France (1908). The Vie de Jeanne d'Arc,
by Anatole France (2 vols., 1908), is brilliant and erudite, but in
some respects open to charges of inaccuracy and prejudice in its
handling of the sources (see the criticism by Andrew Lang in The
Times, Lit. Suppl., May 28, 1908). The attempt to establish the
reality of the " revelations " and consequently to obtain the canoni-
zation of Joan of Arc led the Catholic party in France to publish
lives (such as Sepet's, 1869) in support of their claims. Excellent
works worth special mention are: Sime'on Luce, Jeanne d'Arc a
Domremy; L. Jarry, L' Armee anglaise au siege d'Orleans (1892);
421
J. J. Bourassd, Miracles de Madame Sainle Katharine de Fierbois
(1858, trans, by A. Lang); Boucher de Molandon and A. de Beau-
corps, L Armee anglaise vaincue par Jeanne a' Arc (1892); R. P.
uvrKvwvw fU-(-/n- M-t- JSLkf JCLiflflf, U, ./I Tt- I lOy^f J IX. ft
Agroles, S.J., La Vraie Jeanne d'Arc. For the " false Pucelle " see
A. Lang's article in his Valet's Tragedy (1903). Of the numerous
dramas and poems of which Joan of Arc has been the subject,
mention can only be made of Die Jungfrau von Orleans of Schiller,
and of the Joan of Arc of Southey. A drama in verse by Jules
Barbier was set to music by C. Gounod (1873). 0- T. S.*; H. CH.)
JOANES (or JUANES), VICENTE (1506-1579), head of the
Valencian school of painters, and often called " the Spanish
Raphael," was born at Fuente de la Higuera in the province of
Valencia in 1506. He is said to have studied his art for some
time in Rome, with which school his affinities are closest, but
the greater part of his professional life was spent in the city of
Valencia, where most of the extant examples of his work are
now to be found. All relate to religious subjects, and are
characterized by dignity of conception, accuracy of drawing,
truth and beauty of colour, and minuteness of finish. He died
at Bocaitente (near Jativa) while engaged upon an altarpiece in
the church there, on the 2ist of December 1579.
JOANNA (1470-1555), called the Mad (la Z,oco),queen of Castile
and mother of the emperor Charles V., was the second daughter
of Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of Spain, and Was
born at Toledo on the 6th of November 1479. Her youngest
sister was Catherine of Aragon, the first wife of Henry VIII.
In 1496 at Lille she was married to the archduke Philip the Hand-
some, son of the German King Maximilian I., and at Ghent, in
February 1500, she gave birth to the future emperor. The death
of her only brother John, of her eldest sister Isabella, queen of
Portugal, and then of the latter's infant son Miguel, made Joanna
heiress of the Spanish kingdoms, and in 1502 the cortes of Castile
and of Aragon recognized her and her husband as their future
sovereigns. Soon after this Joanna's reason began to give way.
She mourned in an extravagant fashion for her absent husband,
whom at length she joined in Flanders; in this country her pas-
sionate jealousy, although justified by Philip's conduct, led to ,
deplorable scenes. In November 1504 her mother's death left
Joanna queen of Castile, but as she was obviously incapable of
ruling, the duties of government were undertaken by her father,
and then for a short time by her husband. The queen was with
Philip when he was wrecked on the English coast and became
the guest of Henry VII. at Windsor; soon after this event, in
September 1506, he died and Joanna's mind became completely
deranged, it being almost impossible to get her away from the
dead body of her husband. The remaining years of her miserable
existence were spent at Tordesillas, where she died on the nth
of April 1555. In spite of her afflictions the queen was sought
in marriage by Henry VII. just before his death. Nominally
Joanna remained queen of Castile until her death, her name being
joined with that of Charles in all public documents, but of
necessity she took no part in the business of state. In addition
to Charles she had a son Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor
Ferdinand L, and four daughters, among them being Maria
(1505-1558), wife of Louis II., king of Hungary, afterwards
governor-general of. the Netherlands.
See R. Villa, La Reina dona Juana la Loca (Madrid, 1892) ; Rosier,
Johannadie Wahrsinnige (Vienna, 1890) ; W. H. Prescott, Hist, of Fer-
dinand and Isabella (1854) ; and H. Tighe, A Queen of Unrest (1907).
JOANNA I. (c. 1327-1382), queen of Naples, was the daughter
of Charles duke of Calabria (d. 1328), and became sovereign of.
Naples in succession to her grandfather King Robert in 1343.
Her first husband was Andrew, son of Charles Robert, king of
Hungary, who like the queen herself was a member of the house
of Anjou. In 1345 Andrew was assassinated at Aversa, possibly
with his wife's connivance, and at once Joanna married Louis,
son of Philip prince of Taranto. King Louis of Hungary then
came to Naples to avenge his brother's death, and the queen took
refuge in Provence — which came under her rule at the same time
as Naples — purchasing pardon from Pope Clement VI. by selling
to him the town of Avignon, then part of her dominions. Having
returned to Naples in 1352 after the departure of Louis, Joanna
lost her second husband in 1362, and married James, king of
JOANNA II. OF NAPLES— JOB
422
Majorca (d. 1375), and later Otto of Brunswick, prince of Taranto.
The queen had no sons, and as both her daughters were dead she
made Louis I. duke of Anjou, brother of Charles V. of France,
her heir. This proceeding so angered Charles, duke of Durazzo,
who regarded himself as the future king of Naples, that he seized
the city. Joanna was captured and was put to death at Aversa
on the 22nd of May 1382. The queen was a woman of intel-
lectual tastes, and was acquainted with some of the poets and
scholars of her time, including Petrarch and Boccaccio.
See Crivelli, Delia printa e delta seconda Giovanna, regine di Napoli
(1832); G. Battaglia, Giovanna I., regina di Napoli (1835); W.
St C. Baddeley, Queen Joanna I. of Naples (1893); Scarpetta,
Giovanna I. di Napoli (1903) ; and Francesca M. Steele, The Beautiful
Queen Joanna I. of Naples (1910).
JOANNA II. (1371-1435), queen of Naples, was descended from
Charles II. of Anjou through his son John of Durazzo. She had
been married to William, son of Leopold III. of Austria, and at
the death of her brother King Ladislaus in 1414 she succeeded
to the Neapolitan crown. Her life had always been very dissolute,
and although now a widow of forty-five, she chose as her lover
Pandolfo Alopo, a youth of twenty-six, whom she made seneschal
of the kingdom. He and the constable Muzio Attendolo Sforza
completely dominated her, and the turbulent barons wished to
provide her with a husband who would be strong enough to
break her favourites yet not make himself king. The choice
fell on James of Bourbon, a relative of the king of France, and
the marriage took place in 1415. But James at once declared
himself king, had Alopo killed and Sforza imprisoned, and kept
his wife in a state of semi-confinement; this led to a counter-
agitation on the part of the barons, who forced James to liberate
Sforza, renounce his kingship, and eventually to quit the country.
The queen now sent Sforza to re-establish her authority in Rome,
whence the Neapolitans had been expelled after the death of
Ladislaus; Sforza entered the cjty and obliged the condoltiere
Braccio da Montone, who was defending it in the pope's name, to
depart (1416). But when Oddo Colonna was elected pope as
Martin V., he allied himself with Joanna, who promised to give
up Rome, while Sforza returned to Naples. The latter found,
however, that he had lost all influence with the queen, who was
completely dominated by her new lover Giovanni (Sergianni)
Caracciolo. Hoping to re-establish his position and crush
Caracciolo, Sforza favoured the pretensions of Louis III. of
Anjou, who wished to obtain the succession of Naples at Joanna's
death, a course which met with the approval of the pope. Joanna
refused to adopt Louis owing to the influence of Caracciolo, who
hated Sforza; she appealed for help instead to Alphonso of
Aragon, promising to make him her heir. War broke out be-
tween Joanna and the Aragonese on one side and Louis and
Sforza, supported by the pope, on the other. After much fight-
ing by land and sea, Alphonso entered Naples, and in 1422 peace
was made. But dissensions broke out between the Aragonese
and Catalans and the Neapolitans, and Alphonso had Caracciolo
arrested; whereupon Joanna, fearing for her own safety, invoked
the aid of Sforza, who with difficulty carried her off to Aversa.
There she was joined by Louis whom she adopted as her successor
instead of the ungrateful Alphonso. Sforza was accidentally
drowned, but when Alphonso returned to Spain, leaving only a
small force in Naples, the Angevins with the help of a Genoese
fleet recaptured the city. For a few years there was peace in
the kingdom, but in 1432 Caracciolo, having quarrelled with the
queen, was seized and murdered by his enemies. Interna
disorders broke out, and Gian Antonio Orsini, prince of Taranto
led a revolt against Joanna in Apulia; Louis of Anjou died while
conducting a campaign against the rebels (1434). and Joann
herself died on the nth of February 1435, after having appointee
his son Rene her successor. Weak, foolish and dissolute, she
made her reign one long scandal, which reduced the kingdom
to the lowest depths of degradation. Her perpetual intrigues
and her political incapacity made Naples a prey to anarchy am
foreign invasions, destroying all sense of patriotism and loyalty
both in the barons and the people.
AUTHORITIES. — A. von Platen, Storia del reame di Napoli dal 141
il 1423 (1864). C. Cipolla, Storia, aetta signoria Italiana (i 88 1), where
he original authorities are quoted. (See also NAPLES: SFORZA.)
JOASH, or JEHOASH (Heb. " Yahweh is strong, or hath given "),
the name of two kings of Palestine in the Bible.
1. Son of Ahaziah (see JEHORAM, 2) and king of Judah. He
ibtained the throne by means of a revolt in which Athaliah (q.v.)
>erished, and his accession was marked by a solemn covenant,
md by the overthrow of the temple of Baal and of its priest
Mattan(-Baal). In this the priest Jehoiada (who must have
continued to act as regent) took the leading part. The account
of Joash's reign is not from a contemporary source (2 Kings xi. 4
-xii. 16), and 2 Chronicles adds several new details, including
a tradition of a conflict between the king and priests after the
death of Jehoiada (xxii. n; xxiv. 3, 15 sqq.).1 At an unstated
seriod, the Aramaeans under Hazael captured Gath, and Jeru-
salem only escaped by buying off the enemy (2 Kings xii. 17 sqq.).
This may perhaps be associated with the Aramaean attacks upon
[srael ( 2 below) , but the tradition recorded in 2 Chron. xxiv. 23 seq.
differs widely and cannot be wholly rejected. The king perished
in a conspiracy, the origin of which is not clear; it may have been
tor his attack upon the priests, it was scarcely for the course he
took to save Jerusalem. He was succeeded by his son Amaziah,
whose moderation in avenging his father's death receives special
mention. After defeating the Edomites, Amaziah turned his
attention to Israel.
2. Son of Jehoahaz and king of Israel. Like his grandfather
Jehu, he enjoyed the favour of the prophet Elisha, who promised
him a triple defeat of the Aramaeans at Aphek (2 Kings xiii. 14 sqq.
22-25). The cities which had been taken from his father by
Hazael the father of Ben-hadad were recovered (cf. i Kings xx.
34, time of Ahab) and the relief gained by Israel from the previous
blows of Syria prepared the way for its speedy extension of
power. When challenged by Amaziah of Judah, Joash uttered
the famous fable of the thistle and cedar (for another example
see Judg. ix. 8-15; see also ABIMELECH), and a battle was
fought at Beth-shemesh, in which Israel was completely success-
ful. An obscure statement in 2 Chron. xxv. 13 would show
that this was not the only conflict; at all events, Amaziah was
captured, the fortifications of Jerusalem were partially destroyed,
the treasures of the Temple and palace were looted, and hostages
were carried away to Samaria. According to one statement,
Amaziah survived the disaster fifteen years, and lost his life in
a conspiracy; but there is a gap in the history of Judah which
the narratives do not enable us to fill (i Kings xv. i; see
xiv. 17, 23). See further UZZIAH; JEROBOAM (2); and JEWS.
(S. A. C.)
JOB. The book of Job (Heb. ^'lyyob, Gr. 'Io>/3), in the Bible,
the most splendid creation of Hebrew poetry, is so called from the
name of the man whose history and afflictions and sayings form
the theme of it.
Contents. — As it now lies before us it consists of five parts, i . The
prologue, in prose, chr. i.-ii., describes in rapid and dramatic steps
the history of this man, his prosperity and greatness corresponding
to his godliness; then how his life is drawn in under the operation of
the sifting providence of God, through the suspicion suggested by
the Satan, the minister of this aspect of God's providence, that his
godliness is selfish and only the natural return for unexampled
prosperity, and the insinuation that if stripped of his prosperity
he will curse God to His face. These suspicions brine down two
severe calamities on Job, one depriving him of children and possessions
alike, and the other throwing the man himself under a painful
malady. In spite of these afflictions Job retains his integrity and
ascribes no wrong to God. Then is described the advent of Job's
three friends— Eliphaz the Temanite, Bildad the Shuhite, and
Zophar the Naamathite — who, having heard of Job's calamities,
come to condole with him. 2. The body of the book, in poetry,
ch. iii.-xxxi., contains a series of speeches in which the problem
of Job's afflictions and the relation of external evil to the
righteousness of God and the conduct of men are brilliantly dis-
cussed. This part, after Job's passionate outburst in ch. in., is
divided into three cycles, each containing six speeches, one by each
of the friends, and three by Job, one in reply to each of theirs
(ch. iv.-xiv.; xv.-xxi.; xxii.-xxxi.). although in the last cycle the ,
1 That the murder of Zechariah the son of Jehoiada (2 Chron. I.e.)
is referred to in Matt, xxiii. 35, Luke xi. 51 is commonly held; but
see Cheyne, Ency. Bib. col. 5373.
JOB
423
third speaker Zophar fails to answer (unless his answer is to be found
in ch. xxvii.). Job, having driven his opponents from the field,
carries his reply through a series of discourses in which he dwells in
pathetic words upon his early prosperity, contrasting with it his
present humiliation, and ends with a solemn repudiation of all the
offences that might be suggested against him, and a challenge to
God to appear and put His hand to the charge which He had against
him and for which He afflicted him. 3. Elihu, the representative
of a younger generation, who has been a silent observer of the debate,
intervenes to express his dissatisfaction with the manner in which
both Job and his friends conducted the cause, and offers what is
in some respects a new solution of the question (xxxii.-xxxvii.).
4. In answer to Job's repeated demands that God would appear and
solve the riddle of his life, the Lord answers Job out of the whirlwind.
The divine speaker does not condescend to refer to Job's individual
problem, but in a series of ironical interrogations asks him, as he
thinks himself capable of fathoming all things, to expound the
mysteries of the origin and subsistence of the world, the phenomena
of the atmosphere, the instincts of the creatures that inhabit the
desert, and, as he judges God's conduct of the world amiss, invites
him to seize the reins, gird himself with the thunder and quell the
rebellious forces of evil in the universe (xxxviii.— xlii. 6). Job
is humbled and abashed, lays his hand upon his mouth, and repents
his hasty words in dust and ashes. No solution of his problem is
vouchsafed ; but God Himself effects that which neither the man's
own thoughts of God nor the representations of the friends could
accomplish : he had heard of him with the hearing of the ear without
effect, but now his eye sees Him. This is the profoundest religious
deep in the book. 5. The epilogue, in prose, xlii. 7-17, describes
Job's restoration to a prosperity double that of his former estate,
his family felicity and long life.
Design. — With the exception of the episode of Elihu, the con-
nexion of which with the original form of the poem may be doubt-
ful, all five parts of the book are essential elements of the work
as it came from the hand of the first author, although some parts
of the second and fourth divisions may have been expanded by
later writers. The idea of the composition is to be derived not
from any single element of the book, but from the teaching and
movement of the whole piece. Job is unquestionably the hero
of the work, and in his ideas and his history combined we may
assume that we find the author himself speaking and teaching.
The discussion between Job and his friends of the problem of
suffering occupies two-thirds of the book, or, if the space occupied
by Elihu be not considered, nearly three-fourths, and in the direc-
tion which the author causes this discussion to take we may see
revealed the main didactic purpose of the book. When the three
friends, the representatives of former theories of providence, are
reduced to silence, we may be certain that it was the author's
purpose to discredit the ideas which they represent. Job himself
offers no positive contribution to the doctrine of evil; his position
is negative, merely antagonistic to that of the friends. But this
negative position victoriously maintained by him has the effect
of clearing the ground, and the author himself supplies in the
prologue the positive truth, when he communicates the real
explanation of his hero's calamities, and teaches that they were
a trial of his righteousness. It was therefore the author's main
purpose in his work to widen men's views of the providence of
God and set before them a new view of suffering. This purpose,
however, was in all probability subordinate to some wider
practical design. No Hebrew writer is merely a poet or a
thinker. He is always a teacher. He has men before him in
their relations to God,1 and usually not men in their individual
relations, but members of the family of Israel, the people of
God. It is consequently scarcely to be doubted that the
book has a national scope. The author considered his new
truth regarding the meaning of affliction as of national interest,
and as the truth then needful for the heart of his people. But
the teaching of the book is only half its contents. It contains
also a history — deep and inexplicable affliction, a great moral
struggle, and a victory. The author meant his new truth to
inspire new conduct, new faith, and new hopes. In Job's suffer-
ings, undeserved and inexplicable to him, yet capable of an
explanation most consistent with the goodness and faithfulness
of God, and casting honour upon his faithful servants; in his
despair bordering on unbelief; at last overcome; and in the happy
1 Exceptions must be made in the cases of Esther and the Song of
Songs, which do not mention God, and the original writer in Ecclesi-
astes who is a philosopher.
issue of his afflictions — in all this Israel may see itself, and from
the sight take courage, and forecast its own history. Job, how-
ever, is not to be considered Israel, the righteous servant of the
Lord, under a feigned name; he is no mere parable (though such a
view is found as early as the Talmud); he and his history have
both elements of reality in them. It is these elements of reality
common to him with Israel in affliction, common even to him
with humanity as a whole, confined within the straitened limits
set by its own ignorance, wounded to death by the mysterious
sorrows of life, tortured by the uncertainty whether its cry finds
an entrance into God's ear, alarmed and paralysed by the irrecon-
cilable discrepancies which it seems to discover between its
necessary thoughts of Him and its experience of Him in His provi-
dence, and faint with longing that it might come into His place,
and behold him, not girt with His majesty, but in human form,
as one looketh upon his fellow — it is these elements of truth that
make the history of Job instructive to Israel in the times of
affliction when it was set before them, and to men of all races in
all ages. It would probably be a mistake, however, to imagine
that the author consciously stepped outside the limits of his
nation and assumed a human position antagonistic to it. The
chords he touches vibrate through all humanity — but this is
because Israel is the religious kernel of humanity, and because
from Israel's heart the deepest religious music of mankind is
heard, whether of pathos or of joy.
Two threads requiring to be followed, therefore, run through the
book — one the discussion of the problem of evil between Job and
his friends, and the other the varying attitude of Job's mind towards
God, the first being subordinate to the second. Both Job and his
friends advance to the discussion of his sufferings and of the problem
of evil, ignorant of the true cause of his calamities — Job strong in
his sense of innocence, and the friends armed with their theory
of the righteousness of God, who giveth to every man according to
his works. With fine psychological instinct the poet lets Job
altogether lose his self-control first when his three friends came to
visit him. His bereavements and his malady he bore with a steady
courage, and his wife's direct instigations to godlessness he repelled
with severity and resignation. But when his equals and the old
associates of his happiness came to see him, and when he read in their
looks and in their seven days' silence the depth of his own misery,
his self-command deserted him, and he broke out into a cry of
despair, cursing his day and crying for death (iii.). Job had
somewhat misinterpreted the demeanour of his friends. It was not
all pity that it expressed. Along with their pity they had also
brought their theology, and they trusted to heal Job's malady with
this. Till a few days before, Job would have agreed with them on
the sovereign virtues of this remedy. But he had learned through
a higher teaching, the events of God's providence, that it was no
longer a specific in his case. His violent impatience, however,
under his afflictions and his covert attacks upon the divine rectitude
only served to confirm the view of his sufferings which their theory
of evil had already suggested to his friends. And thus commences
the high debate which continues through twenty-nine chapters.
The three friends of Job came to the consideration of his history
with the principle that calamity is the result of evil-doing, as prosper-
ity is the reward of righteousness. Suffering is not an accident or a
spontaneous growth of the soil ; man is born unto trouble as the sparks
fly upwards; there is in human life a tendency to do evil which draws
down upon men the chastisement of God (v. 6). The principle
is thus enunciated by Eliphaz, from whom the other speakers take
their cue: where there is suffering there has been sin in the sufferer.
Not suffering in itself, but the effect of it on the sufferer is what gives
insight into his true character. Suffering is not always punitive:
it is sometimes disciplinary, designed to wean the good'man from his
sin. If he sees in his suffering the monition of God and turns from
his evil, his future shall be rich in peace and happiness, and his latter
estate more prosperous than his first. If he murmurs or resists,
he can only perish under the multiplying chastisements which his
impenitence will provoke. Now this principle is far from being a
peculiar crotchet of the friends; its truth is undeniable, though they
erred in supposing that it would cover the wide providence of God.
The principle is the fundamental idea of moral government, the ex-
pression of the natural conscience, a principle common more or less
to all peoples, though perhaps more prominent in the Semitic mind,
because all religious ideas are more prominent and simple there —
not suggested to Israel first by the law, but found and adopted by the
law, though it may be sharpened by it. It is the fundamental
principle of prophecy no less than of the law, and, if possible, of the
wisdom of philosophy of the Hebrews more than of either. Specula-
tion among the Hebrews had a simpler task before it than it had in
the West or in the farther East. The Greek philosopher began his
operations upon the sum of things; he threw the universe into his
crucible at once. His object was to effect some analysis of it, so
424
that he could call one element cause and another effect. Or, to vary
the figure, his endeavour was to pursue the streams of tendency
which he could observe till he reached at last the central spring which
sent them all forth. God, a single cause and explanation, was the
object of his search. But to the Hebrew of the later time this was
already found. The analysis resulting in the distinction of God and
the world had been effected for him so long ago that the history and
circumstances of the process had been forgotten, and only the
unchallengeable result remained. His philosophy was not a quest
of God whom he did not know, but a recognition on all hands of
God whom he knew. The great primary idea to his mind was that
of God, a Being wholly just, doing all. And the world was little
more than the phenomena that revealed the mind and the presence
and the operations of God. Consequently the nature of God as
known to him and the course of events formed a perfect equation.
The idea of what God was in Himself was in complete harmony
with His manifestation of Himself in providence, in the events of
individual human lives, and in the history of nations. The philosophy
of the wise did not go behind the origin of sin, or referred it to the
freedom of man; but, sin existing, and God being in immediate
personal contact with the world, every event was a direct expression
of His moral will and energy ; calamity fell on wickedness, and success
attended right-doing. This view of the moral harmony between the
nature of God and the events of providence in the fortunes of men
and nations is the view of the Hebrew wisdom in its oldest form,
during what might be called the period of principles, to which belong
Prov. x. seq.; and this is the position maintained by Job's three
friends. And the significance of the book of Job in the history of
Hebrew thought arises in that it marks the point when such a view
was definitely overcome, closing the long period when this principle
was merely subjected to questionings, and makes a new positive
addition to the doctrine of evil.
Job agreed that afflictions came directly from the hand of God,
and also that God afflicted those whom He held guilty of sins.
But his conscience denied the imputation of guilt, whether insinu-
ated by his friends or implied in God'schastisement of him. Hence he
was driven to conclude that God was unjust. The position of Job
appeared to his friends nothing else but impiety; while theirs was
to him mere falsehood and the special pleading of sycophants on
behalf of God because He was the stronger. Within these two iron
walls the debate moves, making little progress, but with much
brilliancy, if not of argument, o? illustration. A certain advance
indeed is perceptible. In the first scries of speeches (iv.-xiv.),
the key-note of which is struck by Eliphaz, the oldest and most
considerate of the three, the position is that affliction is caused by
sin, and is chastisement designed for the sinner's good ; and the moral
is that Job should recognize it and use it for the purpose for which
it was sent. In the second (xv.-xxi.) the terrible fate of the sinner
is emphasized, and those brilliant pictures of a restored future,
thrown in by all the speakers in the first series, are absent. Job's
demeanour under the consolations offered him afforded little hope
of his repentance. In the third series (xxii. seq.) the friends cast
off all disguise, and openly charge Job with a course of evil life.
That their armoury was now exhausted is shown by the brevity of
the second speaker, and the failure of the third (at least in the present
text) to answer in any form. In reply Job disdains for a time to
touch what he well knew lay under all their exhortations; he laments
with touching pathos the defection of his friends, who were like the
winter torrents looked for in vain by the perishing caravan in the
summer heat; he meets with bitter scorn their constant cry that
God will not cast off the righteous man, by asking: How can one
be righteous with God? what can human weakness, however
innocent, do against infinite might and subtlety? they are righteous
whom an omnipotent and perverse will thinks fit to consider so;
he falls into a hopeless wail over the universal misery of man, who
has a weary campaign of life appointed him ; then, rising up in the
strength of his conscience, he upbraids the Almighty with His mis-
use of His power and His indiscriminate tyranny — righteous and
innocent He destroys alike — and challenges Him to lay aside His
majesty and meet His creature as a man, and then he would not
fear Him. Even in the second series Job can hardly bring himself
to face the personal issue raised by the friends. His relations to
God absorb him almost wholly — his pitiable isolation, the indignities
showered on his once honoured head, the loathsome spectacle of
his body; abandoned by all, he turns for pity from God to men and
from men to God. Only in the third series of debates does he put
out his hand and grasp firmly the theory of his friends, and their
" defences of mud ' fall to dust in his hands. Instead of that roseate
moral order on which they are never weary of insisting, he finds only
disorder and moral confusion. When he thinks of it, trembling takes
hold of him. It is not the righteous but the wicked that live,
grow old, yea, wax mighty in strength, that send forth their children
like a flock and establish them in their sight. Before the logic of
facts the theory of the friends goes down; and with this negative
result, which the author skilfully reaches through the debate, has
to be combined his own positive doctrine of the uses of adversity
advanced in the prologue.
To a modern reader it appears strange that both parties were so
entangled in the meshes of their preconceptions regarding God as to
be unable to break through the broader views. The friends, while
JOB
maintaining that injustice on the part of God is inconceivable,
might have given due weight to the persistent testimony of Job's
conscience as that behind which it is impossible to go, and found
refuge in the reflection that there might be something inexplicable
in the ways of God, and that affliction might have some other mean-
ing than to punish the sinner or even to wean him from his sin.
And Job, while maintaining his innocence from overt sins, might
have confessed that there was such sinfulness in every human life as
was sufficient to account for the severest chastisement from heaven,
or at least he might have stopped short of charging God foolishly.
Such a position would certainly be taken up by an afflicted saint now,
and such an explanation of his sufferings would suggest itself to the
sufferer, even though it might be in truth a false explanation.
Perhaps here, where an artistic fault might seem to be committed,
the art of the writer, or his truth to nature, and the extraordinary
freedom with which he moves among his materials, as well as the
power and individuality of his dramatic creations, are most remark-
able. The r61e which the author reserved for himself was to teach
the truth on the question in dispute, and he accomplishes this by
allowing his performers to push their false principles to their proper
extreme. There is nothing about which men are usually so sure as
the character of God. They are ever ready to take Him in their
own hand, to interpret His providence in their own sense, to say
what things are consistent or not with His character and word,
and beat down the opposing consciences of other men by His
so-called authority, which is nothing but their own. The friends
of Job were religious Orientals, men to whom God was a being
in immediate contact with the world and life, to whom the idea
of second causes was unknown, on whom science had not yet begun
to dawn, nor the conception of a divine scheme pursuing a distant
end by complicated means, in which the individual's interest may
suffer for the larger good. The broad sympathies of the author and
his sense of the truth lying in the theory of the friends are seen in the
scope which he allows them, in the richness of the thought and the
splendid luxuriance of the imagery — -drawn from the immemorial
moral consent of mankind, the testimony of the living conscience,
and the observation of life — with which he makes them clothe
their views. He remembered the elements of truth in the theory
from which he was departing, that it was a national heritage, which
he himself perhaps had been constrained not without a struggle to
abandon; and, while showing its insufficiency, he sets it forth in its
most brilliant form.
The extravagance of Job's assertions was occasioned greatly
by the extreme position of his friends, which left no room Tor his
conscious innocence along with the rectitude of God. Again, the
poet's purpose, as the prologue shows, was to teach that afflictions
may fall on a man out of all connexion with any offence of his own,
and merely as the trial of his righteousness; and hence he allows
Job, as by a true instinct of the nature of his sufferings, to repudiate
all connexion between them and sin in himself. And further, the
terrible conflict into which the suspicions of the Satan brought
lob could not be exhibited without pushing him to the verge of
ungodliness. These are all elements of the poet's art; but art and
nature are one. In ancient Hebrew life the sense of sin was less
deep than it is now. In the desert, too, men speak boldly of God.
Nothing is more false than to judge the poet's creation from our
later point of view, and construct a theory of the book according
to a more developed sense of sin and a deeper reverence for God
than belonged to antiquity. In complete contradiction to the testi-
mony of the book itself, some critics, as Hengstenberg and Budde,
have assumed that Job's spiritual pride was the cause of his afflic-
tions, that this was the root of bitterness in him which must be killed
down ere he could become a true saint. The fundamental position
of the book is that Job was already a true saint; this is testified
by God Himself, is the radical idea of the author in the prologue,
and the very hypothesis of the drama. We might be ready to think
that Job's afflictions did not befall him out of all connexion with his
own condition of mind, and we might be disposed to find a vindica-
tion of God's ways in this. There is no evidence that such an idea
was shared by the author of the book. It is remarkable that the
attitude which we imagine it would have been so easy for Job to
assume, namely, while holding fast his integrity, to fall back upon the
inexplicableness of providence, of which there are such imposing
descriptions in his speeches, is just the attitude which is taken up in
ch. xxviii. It is far from certain, however, that this chapter is an
integral part of the original book.
The other line running through the book, the varying attitude of
Job's mind towards God, exhibits dramatic action and tragic
interest of the highest kind, though the movement is internal.
That the exhibition of this struggle in Job's mind was a main point
in the author's purpose is seen from the fact that at the end of each
of his great trials he notes that Job sinned not, nor ascribed wrong
to God (i. 22; ii. 10), and from the effect which the divine voice
from the whirlwind is made to produce upon him (xl. 3). In
the first cycle of debate (iv.-xiv.) Job's mind reaches the deepest
limit of estrangement. There he not merely charges God with
injustice, but, unable to reconcile His former goodness with His
present enmity, he regards the latter as the true expression of
God's attitude towards His creatures, and the former, comprising
all his infinite creative skill in weaving the delicate organism of
JOB
human nature and the rich endowments of His providence, only as
the means of exercising His mad and immoral cruelty in the time to
come. When the Semitic skin of Job is scratched, we find a modern
pessimist beneath. Others in later days have brought the keen
sensibility of the human frame and the torture which it endures
together, and asked with Job to whom at last all this has to be
referred. Towards the end of the cycle a star of heavenly light seems
to rise on the horizon ; the thought seizes the sufferer's mind that man
might have another life, that God's anger pursuing him to the grave
might be sated, and that He might call him out of it to Himself
again (xiv. 13). This idea of a resurrection, unfamiliar to Job
at first, is one which he is allowed to reach out of the necessities of
the moral complications around him, but from the author's manner
of using the idea we may judge that it was familiar to himself.
In the second cycle the thought of a future reconciliation with God
is more firmly grasped. That satisfaction or at least composure
which, when we observe calamities that we cannot morally account
for, we reach by considering that providence is a great scheme
moving according to general la.ws, and that it does not always truly
reflect the relation of God to the individual, Job reached in the only
way possible to a Semitic mind. He drew a distinction between
an outer God whom events obey, pursuing him in His anger, and an
inner God whose heart was with him, who was aware of his innocence ;
and he appeals from God to God, and beseeches God to pledge
Himself that he shall receive justice from God (xvi. !9;-xvii. 3).
And so high at last does this consciousness that God is at one with
him rise that he avows his assurance that He will yet appear to do
him justice before men, and that he shall see Him with his own eyes,
no more estranged but on his side, and for this moment he faints
with longing (xix. 25 seq.).1
After this expression of faith Job's mind remains calm, though
he ends by firmly charging God with perverting his right, and demand-
ing to know the cause of his afflictions (xxvii. 2 seq.; xxxi. 35,
where render: " Oh, that I had the indictment which mine adversary
has written ! "). In answer to this demand the Divine voice answers
Job out of the tempest: " Who is this that darkeneth counsel by
words without knowledge?" The word "counsel" intimates to
Job that God does not act without a design, large and beyond the
comprehension of man; and to impress this is the purpose of the
Divine speeches. The speaker does not enter into Job's particular
cause; there is not a word tending to unravel his riddle; his mind
is drawn away to the wisdom and majesty of God Himself. His
own words and those of his friends are but re-echoed, but it is God
Himself who now utters them. Job is in immediate nearness to the
majesty of heaven, wise, unfathomable, ironical over the littleness
of man, and he is abased ; God Himself effects what neither the man's
1 This remarkable passage reads thus: " But I know that my
redeemer liveth, and afterwards he shall arise upon the dust, and after
my skin, even this body, is destroyed, without my flesh shall I see God;
whom I shall see for myself, and mine eyes shall behold, and not as a
stranger; my reins within me are consumed with longing." The
redeemer who liveth and shall arise or stand upon the earth is God
whom he shall see with his own eyes, on his side. The course of
exegesis was greatly influenced by the translation of Jerome, who,
departing from the Itala, rendered: "In novissimo die de terra
surrecturus sum . . . et rursum circumdabor pelle mea et in carne
mea videbo deum meum." The only point now in question is
whether: (a) Job looks for this manifestation of God to him while he
is still alive, or (b) after death, and therefore in the senseof a spiritual
vision and union with God in another life; that is, whether the
words " destroyed " and " without my flesh " are to be taken
relatively only, of the extremest effects of his disease upon him, or
literally, of the separation of the body in death. A third view which
assumes that the words rendered " without my flesh," which run
literally, " out of my flesh," mean looking out from my flesh,
that is, clothed with a new body, and finds the idea of resurrection
repeated, perhaps imports more into the language than it will
fairly bear. In favour of (b) may be adduced the persistent refusal
of Job throughout to entertain the idea of a restoration in this life :
the word " afterwards "; and perhaps the analogy of other passages
where the same situation appears, as Ps. xlix. and Ixxiii., although
the actual denouement of the tragedy supports (a). The difference
between the two senses is not important, when the Old Testament
view of immortality is considered. To the Hebrew the life beyond
was not what it is to us, a freedom from sin and sorrow and admission
to an immediate divine fellowship not attainable here. To him the
life beyond was at best a prolongation of the life here ; all he desired
was that his fellowship with God here should not be interrupted
in death, and that Sheol, the place into which deceased persons
descended and where they remained, cut off from all life with God,
might be overleapt. On this account the theory of Ewald, which
throws the centre of gravity of the book into this passage in ch. xix.,
considering its purpose to be to teach that the riddles of this life
shall be solved and its inequalities corrected in a future life, appears
one-sided. The point of the passage does not lie in any distinction
which it draws between this life and a future life; it lies, in,the assur-
ance which Job expresses that God, who even now knows his inno-
cence, will vindicate it irt the future, and that, though estranged
now, He will at last take him to His heart.
425
own thoughts of God nor the representations of his friends could
accomplish, though by the same means. The religious insight of
the writer sounds here the profoundest deeps of truth.
Integrity. — Doubts whether particular portions of the present
book belonged to the original form of it have been raised by many.
M. L. De Wette expressed himself as follows: " It appears to
us that the present book of Job has not all flowed from one pen.
As many books of the Old Testament have been several times
written over, so has this also " (Ersch and Gruber, Ency., sect,
ii. vol. viii.). The judgment formed by De Wette has been
adhered to more or less by most of those who have studied the
book. Questions regarding the unity of such books as this are
difficult to settle; there is not unanimity among scholars re-
garding the idea of the book, and consequently they differ as to
what parts are in harmony or conflict with unity; and it is
dangerous to apply modern ideas of literary composition and
artistic unity to the works of antiquity and of the East. The
problem raised in the book of Job has certainly received frequent
treatment in the Old Testament; and there is no likelihood that
all efforts in this direction have been preserved to us. It is
probable that the book of Job was but a great effort amidst
or after many smaller. It is scarcely to be supposed that one
with such poetic and literary power as the author of chap, iii.-
xxxi., xxxviii.-xli. would embody the work of any other writer
in his own. If there be elements in the book which must be
pronounced foreign, they have been inserted in the work of the
author by a later hand. It is not unlikely that our present book
may, in addition to the great work of the original author, contain
some fragments of the thoughts of other religious minds upon
the same question, and that these, instead of being loosely
appended, have been fitted into the mechanism of the first work.
Some of these fragments may have originated at first quite in-
dependently of our book, while others may be expansions and
insertions that never existed separately. At the same time it is
scarcely safe to throw out any portion of the book merely because
it seems to us out of harmony with the unity of the main part of
the poem, or unless several distinct lines of consideration conspire
to point it out as an extraneous element.
The arguments against the originality of the prologue — as,
that it is written in prose, that the name Yahweh appears in it, that
sacrifice is referred to, and that there are inconsistencies between it
and the body of the book — are of little weight. There must have
been some introduction to the poem explaining the circumstances
of Job, otherwise the poetical dispute would have been unintelligible,
for it is improbable that the story of Job was so familiar that a poem
in which he and his friends figured as they do here would have been
understood. And there is no trace of any other prologue or intro-
duction having ever existed. The prologue, too, is an essential
element of the work, containing the author's positive contribution
to the doctrine of suffering, for which the discussion in the poem
prepares the way. The intermixture of prose and poetry is common
in Oriental works containing similar discussions; the reference to
sacrifice is to primitive not to Mosaic sacrifice; and the author,
while using the name Yahweh freely himself, puts the patriarchal
Divine names into the mouth of Job and his friends because he
regards them as belonging to the patriarchal age and to a country
outside of Israel. That the observance of this rule had a certain
awkwardness for the writer appears perhaps from his allowing the
name Yahweh to slip in once or twice (xii. 9, cf . xxviii. 28) in familiar
phrases in the body of the poem. The discrepancies, such as Job's
references to his children as still alive (xix. 17, the interpretation is
doubtful), and to his servants, are trivial, and even if real imply
nothing in a book admittedly poetical and not historical. The
objections to the epilogue are equally unimportant — as that the
Satan is not mentioned in it, and that Job's restoration is in conflict
with the main idea of the poem — that earthly felicity does not
follow righteousness. The epilogue confirms the teaching of the
poem when it gives the divine sanction to Job's doctrine regarding
God in opposition to that of the friends (xlii. 7). And it is certainly
not the intention of the poem to teach that earthly felicity does not
follow righteousness; its purpose is to correct the exclusiveness
with which the friends of Job maintained that principle. The
Satan is introduced in the prologue, exercising his function as minis-
ter of God in heaven; but it is to misinterpret wholly the doctrine
of evil in the Old Testament to assign to the Satan any such personal
importance or independence of power as that he should be called
before the curtain to receive the hisses that accompany his own
discomfiture. The Satan, though he here appears with the begin-
nings of a malevolent will of his own, is but the instrument of the
sifting providence of God. His work was to try; that done he
426
JOB
disappears, his personality being too slight to have any place in the
result.
Much graver are the suspicions that attach to the speeches of
Elihu. Most of those who have studied the book carefully hold
that this part does not belong to the original cast, but has been
introduced at a considerably later time. The piece is one of the
most interesting parts of the book ; both the person and the thoughts
of Elihu are marked by a strong individuality. This individuality
has indeed been very diversely estimated. The ancients for the
most part passed a very severe judgment on Elihu: he is a buffoon,
a boastful youth whose shallow intermeddling is only to be explained
by the fewness of his years, the incarnation of folly, or even the
Satan himself gone a-mumming. Some moderns on the other hand
have regarded him as the incarnation of the voice of God or even
of God himself. The main objections to the connexion of the
episode of Elihu with the original book are: that the prologue and
epilogue know nothing of him; that on the cause of Job's afflictions
he occupies virtually the same position as the friends; that his
speeches destroy the dramatic effect of the divine manifestation
by introducing a lengthened break between Job's challenge and the
answer of God ; that the language and style of the piece are marked
by an excessive mannerism, too great to have been created by the
author of the rest of the poem ; that the allusions to the rest of the
book are so minute as to betray a reader rather than a hearer; and
that the views regarding sin, and especially the scandal given to
the author by the irreverence of Job, indicate a religious advance
which marks a later age. The position taken by Elihu is almost
that of a critic of the book. Regarding the origin of afflictions he
is at one with the friends, although he dwells more on the general
sinfulness of man than on actual sins, and his reprobation of Job's
position is even greater than theirs. His anger was kindled against
Job because he made himself righteous before God, and against his
friends because they found no answer to Job. His whole object is
to refute Job's charge of injustice against God. What is novel in
Elihu, therefore, is not his position but his arguments. These do
not lack cogency, but betray a kind of thought different from that
of the friends. Injustice in God, he argues, can only arise from sel-
fishness in Him; but the very existence of creation implies unselfish
love on God's part, for if He thought only of Himself, He would
cease actively to uphold creation, and it would fall into death.
Again, without justice mere earthly rule is impossible; how then is
injustice conceivable in Him who rules over all ? It is probable
that the original author found his three interlocutors a sufficient
medium for expression, and that this new speaker is the creation
of another. To a devout and thoughtful reader of the original
book, belonging perhaps to a more reverential age, it appeared that
the language and bearing of Job had scarcely been sufficiently
reprobated by the original speakers, and that the religious reason,
apart from any theophany, could suggest arguments sufficient to
condemn such demeanour on the part of any man. (For an able
though hardly convincing argument for the originality of the
discourses of Elihu see Budde's Commentary.)
It is more difficult to come to a decision in regard to some other
portions of the book, particularly ch. xxvii. y-xxviii. In the latter
part of ch. xxvii. Job seems to go over to the camp of his opponents,
and expresses sentiments in complete contradiction to his former
views. Hence some have thought the passage to be the missing
speech of Zophar. Others, as Hitzig, believe that Job is parodying
the ideas of the friends; while others, like Ewald, consider that he is
recanting his former excesses, and making such a modification as
to express correctly his views on evil. None of these opinions is
quite satisfactory, though the last probably expresses the view with
which the passage was introduced, whether it be original or not.
The meaning of ch. xxyiii. can only be that " Wisdom," that is, a
theoretical comprehension of providence, is unattainable by man,
whose only wisdom is the fear of the Lord or practical piety. But
to bring Job to the feeling of this truth was just the purpose of the
theophany and the divine speeches; and, if Job had reached it
already through his own reflection, the theophany becomes an
irrelevancy. It is difficult, therefore, to find a place for these two
chapters in the original work. The hymn on Wisdom is a most
exquisite poem, which probably originated separately, and was
brought into our book with a purpose similar to that which suggested
the speeches of Elihu. Objections have also been raised to the
descriptions of leviathan and behemoth (ch. xl. is-xli.). Regarding
these it may be enough to say that in meaning these passages are
in perfect harmony with other parts of the Divine words, although
there is a breadth and detail in the style unlike the sharp, short,
ironical touches otherwise characteristic of this part of the poem.
(Other longer passages, the originality of which has been called
into question, are: xvii. 8 seq. ; xxi. i6-l8;xxii. 17 seq.; xxiii. 8 seq. ;
xxiv. 9, 18-24; xxvi. 5-14- On these see the commentaries.)
Date. — The age of such a book as Job, dealing only with prin-
ciples and having no direct references to historical events can be
fixed only approximately. Any conclusion can be reached only
by an induction founded on matters which do not afford perfect
certainty, such as the comparative development of certain moral
ideas in different ages, the pressing claims of certain problems for
solution at particular epochs of the history of Israel, and points
of contact with other writings of which the age may with some
certainty be determined. The Jewish tradition that the book
is Mosaic, and the idea that it is a production of the desert,
written in another tongue and translated into Hebrew, want
even a shadow of probability. The book is a genuine outcome
of the religious life and thought of Israel, the product of a
religious knowledge and experience that were possible among
no other people. That the author lays the scene of the poem
outside his own nation and in the patriarchal age is a proceeding
common to him with other dramatic writers, who find freer play
for their principles in a region removed from the present, where
they are not hampered by the obtrusive forms of actual life, but
are free to mould occurrences into the moral form that their
ideas require.
It is the opinion of some scholars, e.g. Delitzsch, that the book
belongs to the age of Solomon. It cannot be earlier than this age,
for Job (vii. 17) travesties the ideas of Ps. viii. in a manner
which shows that this hymn was well known. To infer the
date from a comparis6n of literary coincidences and allusions
is however a very delicate operation. For, first, owing to the
unity of thought and language which prevades the Old Testa-
ment, in which, regarded merely as a national literature, it
differs from all other national literatures, we are apt to be
deceived, and to take mere similarities for Literary allusions and
quotations; and, secondly, even when we are sure that there is
dependence, it is of ten uncommonly difficult to decide which is the
original source. The reference to Job in Ezek. xiv. 14 is not to
our book, but to the man (a legendary figure) who was afterwards
made the hero of it. The affinities on the other hand between Job
and Isa. xl.-lv. are very close. The date, however, of this part
of Isaiah is uncertain, though it cannot have received its final
form, if it be composite, long before the return. Between Job iii.
and Jer. xx. 14 seq. there is, again, certainly literary connexion.
But the judgment of different minds differs on the question
which passage is dependent on the other. The language of
Jeremiah, however, has a natural pathos and genuineness of
feeling in it, somewhat in contrast with the elaborate poetical
finish of Job's words, which might suggest the originality of
the former.
The tendency among recent scholars is to put the book of
Job not earlier than the sth century B.C. There are good reasons
for putting it in the 4th century. It stands at the beginning
of the era of Jewish philosophical inquiry — its affinities are
with Proverbs, Ecclesiasticus, Ecclesiastes, and the Wisdom of
Solomon, a body of writings that belongs to the latest period
of pre-Christian Jewish literary development (see WISDOM
LITERATURE). Its points of connexion with Isa. xl.-lv. relate
only to the problem of the suffering of the righteous, and that
it is later than the Isaiah passage appears from the fact that
this latter is national and ritual in scope, while Job is universal
and ethical.
The book of Job is not literal history, though it reposes on
historical tradition. To this tradition belong probably the name
of Job and his country, and the names of his three friends,
and perhaps also many other details impossible to specify
particularly. The view that the book is entirely a literary
creation with no basis in historical tradition is as old as the
Talmud (Baba Bathra, xv. i), in which a rabbi is cited who says:
Job was not, and was not created, but is an allegory. This
view is supported by Hengstenberg and others. But pure
poetical creations on so extensive a scale are not probable in the
East and at so early an age.
Author. — The author of the book is wholly unknown. The
religious life of Israel was at certain periods very intense, and
at those times the spiritual energy of the nation expressed itself
almost impersonally, through men who forgot themselves and
were speedily forgotten in name by others. Hitzig conjectures
that the author was a native of the north on account of the free
criticism of providence which he allows himself. Others, on
account of some affinities with the prophet Amos, infer that he
belonged to the south of Judah, and this is supposed to account
JOBST--JODHPUR
427
for his intimate acquaintance with the desert. Ewald considers
that he belonged to the exile in Egypt, on account of his minute
acquaintance with that country. But all these conjectures
localize an author whose knowledge was not confined to any
locality, who was a true child of the East and familiar with
life and nature in every country there, who was at the same time
a true Israelite and felt that the earth was the Lord's and the
fullness thereof, and whose sympathies and thought took in all
God's works.
LITERATURE. — -Commentaries by Ewald (1854); Renan (1859);
Delitzsch (1864); Zockler in Lange's Bibelwerk (1872); F. C. Cook
in Speaker's Comm. (1880) ; A. B. Davidson in Cambridge Bible
(1884); Dillmann (1891); K. Budde (1896); Duhm (1897). See
also Hoekstra, " Job de Knecht van Jehovah " in Theol. Tijdschr.
(1871), and, in reply, A. Kuenen, " Job en de leidende Knecht van
jahveh," ibid. (1873) ; C. H. H. Wright in Bib. Essays (1886) ; G. G.
Bradley, Lects. on Job (2nd ed., 1888); Cheyne, Job and Solomon
(1887) ; Dawson, Wisd. Lit. (1893) ; D. B. Macdonald, " The Original
Form of the Legend of Job " in Journ. Bib. Lit. (1895); E. Hatch,
Essays in Bib. Gk. (1889); A. Dillmann, in Trans, of Roy. Pruss.
Acad. (1890). (A-. B. D., C. H. T.*)
JOBST, or JODOCUS (c. 1350-1411), margrave of Moravia,
was a son of John Henry of Luxemburg, margrave of Moravia,
and grandson of John, the blind king of Bohemia. He became
margrave of Moravia on his father's death in 1375, and his clever
and unscrupulous character enabled him to amass a considerable
amount of wealth, while his ambition led him into constant
quarrels with his brother Procop, his cousins, the German king
Wenceslaus and Sigismund, margrave of Brandenburg, and
others. By taking advantage of their difficulties he won consider-
able power, and the record of his life is one of warfare and
treachery, followed by broken promises and transitory recon-
ciliations. In 1385 and 1388 he purchased Brandenburg from
Sigismund, and the duchy of Luxemburg from Wenceslaus; and
in 1397 he also became possessed of upper and lower Lusatia.
For some time he had entertained hopes of the German throne
and had negotiated with Wenceslaus and others to this end.
When, however, King Rupert died in 1410 he maintained at
first that there was no vacancy, as Wenceslaus, who had been
deposed in 1400, was still king; but changing his attitude, he
was chosen German king at Frankfort on the ist of October
1410 in opposition to Sigismund, who had been elected a few days
previously. Jobst however was never crowned, and his death
on the i7th of January 1411 prevented hostilities between the
rival kings.
See F. M. Pelzel, Lebensgeschichte des romischen und bohmischen
Konigs Wenceslaus (1788-1790); J. Heidemann, Die Mark Branden-
burg unter Jobst von Mahren (1881); J. Aschbach, Geschichte Kaiser
Sigmunds (1838-1845); F. Palacky, Geschichte von Bohmen, iii.
(1864-1874); and T. Lindner, Geschichte des Deutschen Reiches vom
Ende des i^Jahrhunderts bis zur Reformation, i. (1875-1880).
JOB'S TEARS, in botany, the popular name for Coix Lachryma-
Jobi, a species of grass, of the tribe maydeae, which also includes
the maize (see GRASSES). The seeds, or properly fruits, are con-
tained singly in a stony involucre or bract, which does not open
until the enclosed seed germinates. The young involucre sur-
rounds the female flower and the stalk supporting the spike of
male flowers, and when ripe has the appearance of bluish-white
porcelain. Being shaped somewhat like a large drop of fluid, the
form has suggested the name. The fruits are esculent, but the
involucres are the part chiefly used, for making necklaces and
other ornaments. The plant is a native of India, but is now
widely spread throughout the tropical zone. It grows in marshy
places; and is cultivated in China, the fruit having a supposed
value as a diuretic and anti-phthisic. It was cultivated by John
Gerard, author of the famous Herball, at the end of the i6th
century as a tender annual.
JOCASTA, or IOCASTA ('IOKCUTTIJ; in Homer, 'Erufav*), n
Greek legend, wife of Lams, mother (afterwards wife) of Oedipus
(q.v.), daughter of Menoeceus, sister (or daughter) of Creon
According to Homer (Od. xi. 271) and Sophocles (Oed. Tyr. 1241)
on learning that Oedipus was her son she immediately hangec
herself; but in Euripides (Phoenissae, 1455) she stabs herself
over the bodies of her sons Eteocles and Polynices, who had slain
each other in single combat before the walls of Thebes.
JOCKEY, a professional rider of race-horses, now the current
usage (see HORSE-RACING). The word is by origin a diminutive
of " Jock," the Northern or Scots colloquial equivalent of the
name " John " (cf. JACK). A familiar instance of the use of the
word as a name is in " Jockey of Norfolk " in Shakespeare's
Richard III. v. 3, 304. In the i6th and i7th centuries the word
was applied to horse-dealers, postilions, itinerant minstrels and
vagabonds, and thus frequently bore the meaning of a cunning
trickster, a " sharp," whence " to jockey," to outwit, or " do "
a person out of something. The current usage is found in John
Evelyn's Diary, 1670, when it was clearly well known. George
Sorrow's attempt to derive the word from the gipsy chukni, a
leavy whip used by horse-dealing gipsies, has no foundation.
JODELLE, fcllENNE, seigneur de Limodin (1532-1573),
French dramatist and poet, was born in. Paris of a noble family.
He attached himself to the poetic circle of the Pleiade (see
DAURAT) and proceeded to apply the principles of the reformers
to dramatic composition. Jodelle aimed at creating a classical
drama that should be in every respect different from the
moralities and soties that then occupied the French stage.
His first play, Cleopdtre captive, was represented before the court
at Reims in 1552. Jodelle himself took the title r61e, and the
cast included his friends Remy Belleau and Jean de la Peruse.
In honour of the play's success the friends organized a little
fete at Arcueil when a goat garlanded with flowers was led in
procession and presented to the author — a ceremony exaggerated
by the enemies of the Ronsardists into a renewal of the pagan
rites of the worship of Bacchus. Jodelle wrote two other plays.
Eugene, a comedy satirizing the superior clergy, had less success
than it deserved. Its preface poured scorn on Jodelle's pre-
decessors in comedy, but in reality his own methods are not so
very different from theirs. Didon se sacrifiant, a tragedy which
follows Virgil's narrative, appears never to have been represented.
Jodelle died in poverty in July 1573. His works were collected
the year after his death by Charles de la Mothe. They include
a quantity of miscellaneous verse dating chiefly from Jodelle's
youth. The intrinsic value of his tragedies is small. Cleopdtre
is lyric rather than dramatic. Throughout the five acts of the
piece nothing actually happens. The death of Antony is an-
nounced by his ghost in the first act; the story of Cleopatra's
suicide is related, but not represented, in the fifth. Each act
is terminated by a chorus which moralizes on such subjects as
the inconstancy of fortune and the judgments of heaven on
human pride. But the play was the starting-point of French
classical tragedy, and was soon followed by the Mtdee (1553) of
Jean de la Peruse and the Aman (1561) of Andre1 de Rivaudeau.
Jodelle was a rapid worker, but idle and fond of dissipation.
His friend Ronsard said that his published poems gave no
adequate idea of his powers.
Jodelle's works are collected (1868) in the PUiade francaise of
Charles Marty-Laveaux. The prefatory notice gives full informa-
tion of the sources of Jodelle's biography, and La Mothe's criticism
is reprinted in its entirety.
JODHPUR, or MARWAR, a native state of India, in • the
Rajputana agency. Area, 34,963 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 1,935,565,
showing a decrease of 23% in the decade, due to the results of
famine. Estimated revenue, £373,600; tribute, £14,000. The
general aspect of the country is that of a sandy plain, divided
into two unequal parts by the river Luni, and dotted with pic-
turesque conical hiils, attaining in places an elevation of 3000 ft.
The river Luni is the principal feature in the physical aspects of
Jodhpur. One of its head-streams rises in the sacred lake of
Pushkar in Ajmere, and the main river flows through Jodhpur
in a south-westerly direction till it is finally lost in the marshy
ground at the head of the Runn of Cutch. It is fed by numerous
tributaries and occasionally overflows its banks, fine crops
of wheat and barley being grown on the saturated soil. Its
water is, as a rule, saline or brackish, but comparatively sweet
water is obtained from wells sunk at a distance of 20 or 30 yds.
from the river bank. The famous salt-lake of Sambhar is situ-
ated on the borders of Jodhpur and Jaipur, and two smaller
lakes of the same description lie within the limits of the state,
428
JOEL
from which large quantities of salt are extracted. Marble
is mined in the north of the state and along the south-east
border.
The population consists of Rathor Rajputs (who form the
ruling class) , Brahmans, Charans, Bhats, Mahajans or traders, and
Jats. The Charans, a sacred race, hold large religious grants of
land, and enjoy peculiar immunities as traders in local produce.
The Bhats are by profession genealogists, but also engage in
trade. Marwari traders are an enterprising class to be found
throughout the length and breadth of India.
The principal crops are millets and pulses, but wheat and
barley are largely produced in the fertile tract watered by the
Luni river. The manufactures comprise leather boxes and
brass utensils; and turbans and scarfs and a description of em-
broidered silk knotted thread are specialities of the country.
The Maharaja belongs to the Rathor clan of Rajputs. The
family chronicles relate that after the downfall of the Rathor
dynasty of Kanauj in 1194, Sivaji, the grandson of Jai Chand,
the last king of Kanauj, entered Marwar on a pilgrimage to
Dwarka, and on halting at the town of Pali he and his followers
settled there to protect the Brahman community from the con-
stant raids of marauding bands. The Rathor chief thus laid the
foundation of the state, but it was not till the time of Rao Chanda,
the tenth in succession from Sivaji, that Marwar was actually
conquered. His grandson Jodha founded the city of Jodhpur,
which he made his capital. In 1561 the country was invaded
by Akbar, and the chief was forced to submit, and to send his
son as a mark of homage to take service under the Mogul emperor.
When this son Udai Singh succeeded to the chiefship, he gave
his sister Jodhbai in marriage to Akbar, and was rewarded by the
restoration of most of his former possessions. Udai Singh's son,
Gaj Singh, held high service under Akbar, and conducted success-
ful expeditions in Gujarat and the Deccan. The bigoted and
intolerant Aurangzeb invaded Marwar in 1679, plundered Jodh-
pur, sacked all the large towns, and commanded the conversion
of the Rathors to Mahommedanism. This cemented all the
Rajput clans into a bond of union, and a triple alliance was
formed by the three states of Jodhpur, Udaipur and Jaipur, to
throw off the Mahommedan yoke. One of the conditions of
this alliance was that the chiefs of Jodhpur and Jaipur should
regain the privilege of marriage with the Udaipur family, which
they had forfeited by contracting alliances with the Mogul em-
perors, on the understanding that the offspring of Udaipur
princesses should succeed to the state in preference to all other
children. The quarrels arising from this stipulation lasted
through many generations, and led to the invitation bf Mahratta
help from the rival aspirants to power, and finally to the sub-
jection of all the Rajput states to the Mahrattas. Jodhpur was
conquered by Sindhia, who levied a tribute of £60,000, and took
from it the fort and town of Ajmere. Internecine disputes and
succession wars disturbed the peace of the early years of the
century, until in January 1818 Jodhpur was taken under British
protection. In 1839 the misgovernment of the raja led to an
insurrection which compelled the interference of the British.
In 1843, the chief having died without a son, and without having
adopted an heir, the nobles and state officials were left to select
a successor from the nearest of kin. Their choice fell upon Raja
Takht Sinh, chief of Ahmednagar. This chief, who did good
service during the Mutiny, died in 1873. Maharaja Jaswant
Singh, who died in 1896, was a very enlightened ruler. His
brother, Sir Pertab Singh (?.».), conducted the administration
until his nephew, Sardar Singh, came of age in 1898. The
imperial service cavalry formed part of the reserve brigade
during the Tirah campaign.
The state maintains a railway running to Bikanir, and there
is also a branch railway into Sind. Gold, silver and copper
money is coined. The state emblems are ajhar or sprig of seven
branches and a khanda or sword. Jodhpur practically escaped
the plague, but it suffered more severely than any other part of
Rajputana from the famine of 1890-1900. In February 1900
more than 110,000 persons were in receipt of famine relief.
The city of JODHPUR is 64 m. by rail N.W. of Marwar junction,
on the Rajputana railway. Pop. (1901), 60,437. It was built
by Rao Jodha in 1459, and from that time has been the seat of
government. It is surrounded by' a strong wall nearly 6 m. in
extent, with seventy gates. The fort, which stands on an iso-
lated rock, contains the maharaja's palace, a large and handsome
building, completely covering the crest of the hill on which it
stands, and overlooking the city, which lies several hundred feet
below. The city contains palaces of the maharaja, and town
residences of the thakurs or nobles, besides numerous fine temples
and tanks. Building stone is plentiful and close at hand, and
the architecture is solid and handsome. Three miles north of
Jodhpur are the ruins of Mandor, the site of the ancient capital
of the Parihar princes of Marwar, before its conquest by the
Rathors. Mills for grinding flour and crushing grain have been
constructed for the imperial service troops. The Jaswant
college is affiliated to the B.A. standard of the Allahabad univer-
sity. To the Hewson hospital a wing for eye diseases was added
in 1898, and the Jaswant hospital for women is under an English
lady doctor.
JOEL. The second book among the minor prophets in the
Bible is entitled The -word of Yahweh that came to Joel the. son of
Pethuel, or, as the Septuagint, Latin, Syriac and other versions
read, Belhuel. Nothing is recorded as to the date or occasion
of the prophecy. Most Hebrew prophecies contain pointed
references to the foreign politics and social relations of the nation
at the time. In the book of Joel there are only scanty allusions
to Phoenicians, Philistines, Egypt and Edom, couched in terms
applicable to very different ages, while the prophet's own people
are exhorted to repentance without specific reference to any of
those national sins of which other prophets speak. The occasion
of the prophecy, described with great force of rhetoric, is no
known historical event, but a plague of locusts, perhaps repeated
in successive seasons; and even here there are features in the
description which have led many expositors to seek an allegorical
interpretation. The most remarkable part of the book is the
eschatological picture with which it closes; and the way in which
the plague of locusts appears to be taken as foreshadowing the
final judgment — the great day or assize of Yahweh, in which
Israel's enemies are destroyed — is so unique as greatly to com-
plicate the exegetical problem. It is not therefore surprising
that the most various views are still held as to the date and mean-
ing of the book. Allegorists and literalists still contend over the
first and still more over the second chapter, and, while the largest
number of recent interpreters accept Credner's view that the
prophecy was written in the reign of Joash of Judah (835-
796 B.C.?), a powerful school of critics (including A. B. Davidson)
follow the view suggested by Vatke (Bib. Theol. p. 462 seq.),
and reckon Joel among the post-exile prophets. Other scholars
give yet other dates: see the particulars in the elaborate work
of Merx. The followers of Credner are literalists; the opposite
school of moderns includes some literalists (as Duhm), while
others (like Hilgenfeld, and in a modified sense Merx) adopt
the old allegorical interpretation which treats the locusts as a
figure for the enemies of Jerusalem.
There are cogent reasons for placing Joel either earlier or later
than the great series of prophets extending from the time when
Amos first proclaimed the approach of the Assyrian down to the
Babylonian exile. In Joel the enemies of Israel are the nations
collectively, and among those specified by name neither Assyria nor
Chaldaea finds a place. This circumstance might, if it stood alone,
be explained by placing Joel with Zephaniah in the brief interval
between the decline of the empire of Nineveh and the advance of
the Babylonians. But it is further obvious that Joql has no part
in the internal struggle between spiritual Yahweh-worship and idola-
try which occupied all the prophets from Amos to the captivity.
He presupposes a nation of Yahweh-worshippers, whose religion
has its centre in the temple and priesthood of Zion, which is indeed
conscious of sin, and needs forgiveness and an outpouring of the
Spirit, but is not visibly divided, as the kingdom of Judah was,
between the adherents of spiritual prophecy and a party whose
national worship of Yahweh involved for them no fundamental
separation from the surrounding nations. The book, therefore,
must have been written before the ethico-spiritual and the popular
conceptions of Yahweh came into conscious antagonism, or else
after the fall of the state and the restoration of the community
of Jerusalem to religious rather than political existence had decided
JOEL
the contest in favour of the prophets, and of the Law in which their
teaching was ultimately crystallized.
The considerations which have given currency to an early date
for Joel are of various kinds. The absence of all mention of one great
oppressing world-power seems most natural before the westward
march of Assyria involved Israel in the general politics of Asia.
The purity of the style is also urged, and a comparison of Amos i. 2,
Joel iii. 16 (Heb. iv. 16), and Amos ix. 13, Joel iii. 18 (iv. 18), has
been taken as proving that Amos knew our book. The last argument
might be inverted with much greater probability, and numerous
points of contact between Joel and other parts of the Old Testament
(e.g. Joel ii. 2, Exod. x. 14; Joel ii. 3, Ezek. xxxvi. 35; Joel iii. 10,
Mic. iv. 3) make it not incredible that the purity of his style^— which
is rather elegant than original and strongly marked — is in large
measure the fruit of literary culture. The absence of allusion to a
hostile or oppressing empire may be fairly taken in connexion with
the fact that the prophecy gives no indication of political life at
Jerusalem. When the whole people is mustered in ch. i., the elders
or sheikhs of the municipality and the priests of the temple are the
most prominent figures. The king is not mentioned — which on
Credner's view is explained by assuming that the plague fell in the
minority of Joash, when the priest Jehoiada held the reins of power —
and the princes, councillors and warriors necessary to an independent
state, and so often referred to by the prophets before the exile,
are altogether lacking. The nation has only a municipal organiza-
tion with a priestly aristocracy, precisely the state of things that
prevailed under the Persian empire. That the Persians do not appear
as enemies of Yahweh and his people is perfectly natural. They were
hard masters but not invaders, and under them the enemies of the
Jews were their neighbours, j ust as appears in Joel.1 Those, however,
who place our prophet in the minority of King Joash draw a special
argument from the mention of Phoenicians, Philistines and Edomites
(iii. 4 seq., 19), pointing to the revolt of Edom under Joram (2 Kings
viii. 20) and the incursion of the Philistines in the same reign
(2 Chron. xxi. 16, xxii. i). These were recent events in the time of
Joash, and in like manner the Phoenician slave trade in Jewish
children is carried back to an early date by the reference in Amos i. 9.
This argument is rather specious than sound. Edom's hostility to
Judah was incessant, but the feud reached its full intensity only
after the time of Deuteronomy (xxiii. 7), when the Edomites joined
the Chaldaeans, drew profit from the overthrow of the Jews, whose
land they partly occupied, and exercised barbarous cruelty towards
the fugitives of Jerusalem (Obad. passim; Mai. i. 2 seq.; Isa. Ixiii.).
The offence of shedding innocent blood charged on them by Joel
.is natural after these events, but hardly so in connexion with the
revolt against Joram.
As regards the Philistines, it is impossible to lay much weight on
the statement of Chronicles, unsupported as it is by the older history,
and in Joel the Philistines plainly stand in one category with the
Phoenicians, as slave dealers, not as armed foes. Gaza in fact was a
slave emporium as early as the time of Amos (i. 6), and continued so
till Roman times.
Thus, if any inference as to date can be drawn from ch. iii., it
must rest on special features of the trade in slaves, which was always
an important part of the commerce of the Levant. In the time of
Amos the slaves collected by Philistines and Tyr'ans were sold en
masse to Edom, and presumably went to Egypt or Arabia. Joel
complains that they were sold to the Grecians (Javan, lonians).2
It is probable that some Hebrew and Syrian s.aves were exported
to the Mediterranean coasts from a very early date, and Isa. xi. II
already speaks of Israelites captive in these districts as well as in
Egypt, Ethiopia and the East. But the traffic in this direction
hardly became extensive till a later date. In Deut. xxviii. 68,
Egypt is still the chief goal of the maritime slave trade, and in
Ezek. xxyii. 13 Javan exports slaves to Tyre, not conversely. Thus
the allusion to Javan in Joel better suits a later date, when Syrian
slaves were in special request in Greece.3 And the name of Javan is
not found in any part of the Old Testament certainly older than
Ezekiel. In Joel it seems to stand as a general representative of
the distant countries reached by the Mediterranean (in contrast
with the southern Arabians, Sabaeans, ch. iii. 8), the farthest nation
reached by the fleets of the Red Sea. This is precisely the geographi-
cal standpoint of the post-exile author of Gen. x. 4, where (assuming
that Elishah = Carthage and Tarshish = Tartessus) Javan includes
Carthage and Tartessus.
Finally, the allusion to Egypt in Joel iii. 19 must on Credner's
theory be explained of the invasion of Shishak a century before
1 In the A.V. of ii. 17 it appears that subjection to a foreign power
is not a present fact but a thing feared. But the parallelism and
v. 19 justify the rendering in margin of R.V. " use a byword against
them."
2 The hypothesis of an Arabian Javan, applied to Joel iii. 6 by
Credner, Hitzig, and others, may be viewed as exploded (see Stade,
" DasVolk Javan," 1880, reprinted in hisAkad.Reden u.Abhandlungen,
1899, pp. 123—142). The question, however, has to be re-examined;
later interpreters, e.g. the LXX translators, may have misunder-
stood. The text of the passages has to be critically treated anew.
See Cheyne, Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel (on Gen. x. 2).
1 Compare Movers, Phonizisches Alterthum, iii. i. 70 seq.
429
Joash. From this time down to the last period of the Hebrew
monarchy Egypt was not the enemy of Judah.
If the arguments chiefly relied on for an, early date are so pre-
carious or can even be turned against their inventors, there are
others of an unambiguous kind which make for a date in the Persian
period. It appears from ch. iii. I, 2, that Joel wrote after the exile.
The phrase " to bring again the captivity " would not alone suffice
to prove this, for it is used in a wide sense, and perhaps means
rather to " reverse the calamity," * but the dispersion of Israel
among the nations, and the allotment of the Holy Land to new occu-
pants, cannot fairly be referred to any calamity less than that of the
captivity. With this the whole standpoint of the prophecy agrees.
To Joel Judah and the people of Yahweh are synonyms; northern
Israel has disappeared. Now it is true that those who take their
view of the history from Chronicles, where the kingdom of Ephraim
is always treated as a sect outside the true religion, can reconcile
this fact with an early date. But in ancient times it was not so;
and under Joash, the contemporary of Elisha, such a limitation
of the people of Yahweh is wholly inconceivable. The earliest
prophetic books have a quite different standpoint ; otherwise indeed
the books of northern prophets and historians could never have been
admitted into the Jewish canon. Again, the significant fact that
there is no mention of a king and princes, but only of sheikhs and
priests, has a force not to be invalidated by the ingenious reference
of the book to the time of Joash's minority and the supposed
regency of Jehoiada. s And the assumption that there was a period
before the prophetic conflicts of the 8th century B.C. when spiritual
prophecy had unchallenged sway, when there was no gross idolatry
or superstition, when the priests of Jerusalem, acting in accord with
prophets like Joel, held the same place as heads of a pure worship
which they occupied after the exile '(cf. Ewald, Propheten, i. 89),
is not consistent with history. It rests on the old theory of the
antiquity of the Levitical legislation, so that in fact all who place
that legislation later than Ezekiel are agreed that the book of Joel
is also late. In this connexion one point deserves special notice.
The religious significance of the plague of drought and locusts is
expressed in ch. i. o in the observation that the daily meat and drink
offering are cut off, and the token of new blessing is the restoration
of this service, ch. ii. 14. In other words, the daily offering is the
continual symbol of gracious intercourse between Yahweh and his
people and the main office of religion. This conception, which
finds its parallel in Dan. viii. II, xi. 31, xii. II, is quite in accordance
with the later law. But under the monarchy the daily oblation was
the king's private offering, and not till Ezra's reformation did it
become the affair of the community and the central act of national
worship (Neh. x.'33 seq.).6 That Joel wrote not only after the exile
but after the work of Ezra and Nehemiah may be viewed as confirmed
by the allusions to the walls of Jerusalem in ch. ii. 7, 9. Such is
the historical basis which we seem to be able to lay for the study of
the exegetical problems of the book.
The style of Joel is clear (which hardly favours an early date) ,
and his language presents peculiarities which are evidences of a
late origin. But the structure of the book, the symbolism and
the connexion of the prophet's thoughts have given rise to much
controversy. It seems safest to start from the fact that the
prophecy is divided into two well-marked sections by ch. ii. 18,
i pa. According to the Massoretic vocalization, which is in
harmony with the most ancient exegetical tradition as contained
in the LXX, these words are historical: " Then the Lord was
jealous, . . . and answered and said unto his people, Behold,"
&c. Such is the natural meaning of the words as pointed.
Thus the book falls into two parts. In the first the prophet
speaks in his own name, addressing himself to the people in a
lively description of a present calamity caused by a terrible plague
of locusts which threatens the entire destruction of the country,
and appears to be the vehicle of a final consuming judgment
(the day of Yahweh). There is no hope save in repentance and
prayer; and in ch. ii. 12 the prophet, speaking now for the first
time in Yahweh's name, calls the people to a solemn fast at the
sanctuary, and invites the intercession of the priests. The
calamity is described in the strongest colours of Hebrew hyper-
bole, and it seems arbitrary to seek too literal an interpretation
of details, e.g. to lay weight on the four names of locusts, or to
take ch. i. 20 of a conflagration produced by drought, when it
appears from ii. 3 that the ravages of the locusts themselves are
compared to those of fire. But when due allowance is made for
4 See Ewald on Jer. xlviii. 47, Kuenen, Theol. Tijdschrift (1873),
p. 519; Schwally, Z.A.T.W., viii. 200, and Briggson Ps. xiv. 7.
6 Stade not unreasonably questions whether 2 Kings xii. 1-3
implies the paramount political influence of Jehoiada.
6 See Wellhausen, Geschichte Israels, p. 78 seq. ; Prolegomena zur
Gesch. Israels (1883), p. 82 seq.
430
JOEL, M.— JOFFRIN
Eastern rhetoric, there is no occasion to seek in this section
anything else than literal locusts. Nay, the allegorical interpre-
tation, which takes the locusts to be hostile invaders, breaks
through the laws of all reasonable writing; for the poetical hyper-
bole which compares the invading swarms to an army (ii. 4 seq.)
would be inconceivably lame if a literal army was already con-
cealed under the figure of the locusts. Nor could the prophet so
far forget himself in his allegory as to speak of a victorious host
as entering the conquered city like a thief (ii. 9). The second
part of the book is Yahweh's answer to the people's prayer.
The answer begins with a promise of- deliverance from famine,
and of fruitful seasons compensating for the ravages of the locusts.
In the new prosperity of the land the union of Yahweh and his
people shall be sealed anew, and so the Lord will proceed to
pour down further and higher blessings. The aspiration of
Moses (Num. xi. 29) and the hope of earlier prophets (Isa. xxxii.
15, lix. 21 ; Jer. xxxi. 33) shall be fully realized in the outpouring
of the Spirit on all the Jews and even upon their servants (Isa.
Ixi. 5 with Ivi. 6, 7); and then the great day of judgment, which
had seemed to overshadow Jerusalem in the now averted plague,
shall draw near with awful tokens of blood and fire and darkness.
But the terrors of that day are not for the Jews but for their
enemies. The worshippers of Yahweh on Zion shall be delivered
(cf. Obad. v. 17, whose words Joel expressly quotes in ch. ii. 32),
and it is their heathen enemies, assembled before Jerusalem
to war against Yahweh, who shall be mowed down in the valley
of Jehoshaphat (" Yahweh judgeth ") by no human arm, but
by heavenly warriors. Thus definitively freed from the profane
foot of the stranger (Isa. lii. i), Jerusalem shall abide a holy city
for ever. The fertility of the land shall be such as was long ago
predicted in Amos ix. 13, and streams issuing from the Temple,
as Ezekiel had described in his picture of the restored Jerusalem
(Ezek. xlvii.), shall fertilize the barren Wadi of Acacias. Egypt
and Edom, on the other hand, shall be desolate, because they
have shed the blood of Yahweh's innocents. Compare the
similar predictions against Edom, Isa. xxxiv. 9 seq. (Mai. i. 3),
and against Egypt, Isa. xix. 5 seq., Ezek. xxix. Joel's eschato-
logical picture appears indeed to be largely a combination of
elements from older unfulfilled prophecies. Its central feature,
the assembling of the nations to judgment, is already found in
Zeph. iii. 8, and in Ezekiel's prophecy concerning Gog and Magog,
where the wonders of fire and blood named in Joel ii. 30 are also
mentioned (Ezek. xxxviii. 2 2). The other physical features of the
great day, the darkening of the lights of heaven, are a standing
figure of the prophets from Amos v. 6, viii. 9, downwards. It is
characteristic of the prophetic eschatology that images suggested
by one prophet are adopted by his successors, and gradually
become part of the permanent scenery of the last times; and it is
a proof of the late date of Joel that almost his whole picture is
made up of such features. In this respect there is a close paral-
lelism, extending to minor details, between Joel and the last
chapters of Zcchariah.
That Joel's delineation of the final deliverance and glory
attaches itself directly to the deliverance of the nation from a
present calamity is quite in the manner of the so-called prophetic
perspective. But the fact that the calamity which bulks so
largely is natural and not political is characteristic of the post-
exile period. Other prophets of the same age speak much of
dearth and failure of crops, which in Palestine then as now were
aggravated by bad government, and were far more serious to
a small and isolated community than they could ever have been
to the old kingdom. It was indeed by no means impossible
that Jerusalem might have been altogether undone by the famine
caused by the locusts; and so the conception of these visitants
as the destroying army, executing Yahweh's final judgment,
is really much more natural than appears to us at first sight, and
does not need to be explained away by allegory. The chief
argument relied upon by those who still find allegory at least in
ch. ii. is the expression ha^ephonl, " the northerner "l [if this
rendering is correct], in ii. 20. In view of the other points of
1 It has been suggested that $aphon, which is often rather trouble-
some if rendered n the north," may be a weakened form of jib'on, a
affinity between Joel and Ezekiel, this word inevitably suggests
Gog and Magog, and it is difficult to see how a swarm of locusts
could receive such a name, or if they came from the north could
perish, as the verse puts it, in the desert between the Mediter-
ranean and the Dead Sea. The verse remains a crux inter prctum,
and no exegesis hitherto given can be deemed thoroughly satis-
factory; but the interpretation of the whole book must not be
made to hinge on a single word in a verse which might be alto-
gether removed without affecting the general course of the
prophet's argument.
The whole verse is perhaps the addition of an allegorizing
glossator. The prediction in v. 19, that the seasons shall hence-
forth be fruitful, is given after Yahweh has shown his zeal and
pity for Israel, not of course by mere words, but by acts, as
appears in verses 20, 21, where the verbs are properly perfects
recording that Yahweh hath already done great things, and that
vegetation has already revived. In other words, the mercy
already experienced in the removal of the plague is taken as a
pledge of future grace not to stop short till all God's old promises
are fulfilled. In this context v. 20 is out of place. Observe
also that in ». 25 the locusts are spoken of in the plain language
of chap. i.
See the separate commentaries on Joel by Credner (1831), Wiinsche
(1872), Merx (1879). The last-named gives an elaborate history of
interpretation from the Septuagint down to Calvin, and appends
the Ethiopic text edited by Dillmann. Nowack and Marti should also
be consulted (see their respective series of commentaries) ; also G. A.
Smith, in The Book of the Twelve Prophets, vol. i. (1896), and S. R.
Driver, Joel and Amos (1897). On the language of Joel, see Holzinger,
Z. A. T. W. (1889), pp. 89-131. Of older commentaries the most
valuable is Pocock's (Oxford, 1691). Bochart's Hierozoicon may
also be consulted. (VV. R. S. ; T. K. C.)
JOEL, MANUEL (1826-1890), Jewish philosopher and preacher.
After teaching for several years at the Breslau rabbinical semi-
nary, founded by Z. Frankel, he became the successor of Abraham
Geiger in the rabbinate of Breslau. He made important con-
tributions to the history of the school of Aqiba (q.v.) as well as
to the history of Jewish philosophy, his essays on Ibn Gabirol
and Maimonides being of permanent worth. But his most
influential work was connected with the relations between
Jewish philosophy and the medieval scholasticism. He showed
how Albertus Magnus derived some of his ideas from Maimonides
and how Spinoza was indebted to the same writer, as well as to
Hasdai Crescas. These essays were collected in two volumes
of Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Philosophic (1876), while another
two volumes of Blicke in die Religionsgeschichte (1880-1883)
threw much light on the development of religious thought in the
early centuries of the Christian era. Equally renowned were
Joel's pulpit addresses. Though he was no orator, his appeal to
the reason was effective, and in their published form his three
volumes of Predigten (issued posthumously) have found many
readers. (I. A.)
JOFFRIN. JULES FRANCOIS ALEXANDRE (1846-1890),
French politician, was born at Troyes on the :6th of March 1846.
He served in the Franco-German War, was involved in the
Commune, and spent eleven years in England as a political exile.
He attached himself to the " possibilist " group of the socialist
party, the section opposed to the root-and-branch measures of
Jules Guesde. He became a member of the municipal council
of Paris in 1882, and vice-president in 1888-1889. Violently
attacked by the Boulangist organs, L'Intransigeant and La
France, he won a suit against them for libel, and in 1889 he con-
tested the 1 8th arrondissement of Paris with General Boulanger,
who obtained a majority of over 2000 votes, but was declared
ineligible. Joffrin was only admitted to the Chamber after a
heated discussion, and continued to be attacked by the nation-
alists. He died in Paris on the i;th of September 1890.
current popular corruption of shimp'n = lshmae\. In Ezek. xxxviii.
15 it is distinctly said that Gog is to come from the recesses of
Saphon. " Meshech " and " Tubal " are no hindrance to this view,
if the names of the so-called " sons of Japhcth " are critically exam-
ined. For they, too, as well as Saphon, can be plausibly shown to
represent regions of North Arabia. See Chey ne, Traditions and Beliefs
of Anc. Israel, on Gen. x. 2-4.
JOGUES— JOHANNESBURG
43
JOGUES, ISAAC (1607-1646), French missionary in North
America, was born at Orleans on the zoth of January 1607.
He entered the Society of Jesus at Rouen in 1624, and in 1636
was ordained and sent, by his own wish, to the Huron mission.
In 1639 he went among the Tobacco Nation, and in 1641 jour-
neyed to Sault Sainte Marie, where he preached to the Algon-
quins. Returning from an expedition to Three Rivers he was
captured by Mohawks, who tortured him and kept him as a slave
until the summer of 1643, when, aided by some Dutchmen, he
escaped to the manor of Rensselaerwyck and thence to New
Amsterdam. After a brief visit to France, where he was treated
with high honour, he returned to the Mohawk country in May
1646 and ratified a treaty between that tribe and the Canadian
government. Working among them as the founder of the
Mission of the Martyrs, he incurred their enmity, was tortured as
a. sorcerer, and finally killed at Ossernenon, near Auriesville, N.Y.
See Parkman, The Jesuits in North America (1898).
JOHANAN BEN ZACCAI, Palestinian rabbi, contemporary
of the Apostles. He was a disciple of Hillel (q.v.), and after
the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem by Titus was the main
instrument in the preservation of the Jewish religion. During
the last decades of the Temple Johanan was a member of the
Sanhedrin and a skilled controversialist against the Sadducees.
He is also reported to have been head of a great school in the
capital. In the war with Rome he belonged to the peace party,
and finding that the Zealots were resolved on carrying their
revolt to its inevitable sequel, Johanan had himself conveyed
out of Jerusalem in a coffin. In the Roman camp the rabbi
was courteously received, and Vespasian (whose future elevation
to the imperial dignity Johanan, like Josephus, is said to have
foretold) agreed to grant him any boon he desired. Johanan
obtained permission to found a college at Jamnia (Jabneh),
which became the centre of Jewish culture. It practically
•exercised the judicial functions of the Sanhedrin (see JEWS, § 40
ad fin.). That chief literary expression of Pharisaism, the
Mishnah, was the outcome of the work begun at Jamnia.
Johanan solaced his disciples on the fall of the Temple by the
double thought that charity could replace sacrifice, and that a
life devoted to the religious law could form a fitting continuation
of the old theocratic state. " Johanan felt the fall of his people
more deeply than anyone else, but — and in this lies his historical
importance — he did more than any one else to prepare the way
for Israel to rise again " (Bacher).
See Graetz, History of the Jews (Eng. trans.), vol. ii. ch. xiii. ;
Weiss, Dor dor ve-doreshav, ii. 36; Bacher, Die Agada der Tannaiten,
vol. i. ch. iii. (I- A.)
JOHANNESBURG, a city of the Transvaal and the centre of
the Rand gold-mining industry. It is the most populous city
and the commercial capital of South Africa. It is built on the
southern slopes of the Witwatersrand in 26° ii' S. 28° 2' E., at
an elevation of 5764 ft. above the sea. The distances by rail
from Johannesburg to the following seaports are: Lourenco
Marques, 364 m.; Durban, 483 m.; East London, 659 m.; Port
Elizabeth, 714 m.; Cape Town, 957 m. Pretoria is, by rail, 46 m.
N. by E.
The town lies immediately north of the central part of the main
gold reef. The streets run in straight lines east and west or
north and south. The chief open spaces are Market Square in
the west and Government Square in the south of the town.
Park railway station lies north of the business quarter, and
farther north are the Wanderers' athletic sports ground and
Joubert's Park. The chief business streets, such as Commis-
sioner Street, Market Street, President Street and Pritchard
Street, run east and west. In these thoroughfares and in
several of the streets which intersect them are the offices of the
mining companies, the banks, clubs, newspaper offices, hotels
and shops, the majority being handsome stone or brick buildings,
while the survival of some wooden shanties and corrugated iron
buildings recalls the early character of the town.
Chief Buildings, &c. — In the centre of Market Square are the
market buildings, and at its east end the post and telegraph
offices, a handsome block of buildings with a facade 200 ft. long
and a tower 106 ft. high. The square itself, a quarter of a mile
long, is the la gest in South Africa. The offices of the Witwaters-
rand chamber of mines face the market buildings. The stock
exchange is in Marshall Square. The telephone exchange is in
the centre of the city, in Von Brandis Square. The law courts
are in the centre of Government Square. The Transvaal
university college is in Plein Square, a little south of Park station.
In the vicinity is St Mary's (Anglican) parish hall (1905-1907),
the first portion of a large building planned to take the place of
" Old " St Mary's Church, the " mother " church of the Rand,
built in 1887. The chief Jewish synagogue is in the same neigh-
bourhood. In Kerk Street, on the outskirts of central Johannes-
burg, is the Roman Catholic Church of the Immaculate Con-
ception, the headquarters of the vicar apostolic of the Transvaal.
North of Joubert's Park is the general hospital, and beyond,
near the crest of the hills, commanding the town and the road
to Pretoria, is a fort built by the Boer government and now
used as a gaol. On the hills, some 3 m. E.N.E. of the town, is
the observatory, built in 1903. Johannesburg has several
theatres and buildings adapted for public meetings. There is
a race-course 2 m. south of the town under the control of the
Johannesburg Turf Club.
The Suburbs. — North, east and west of the city proper are
suburbs, laid out on the same rectangular plan. The most
fashionable are to the east and north — Jeppestown, Belgravia,
Doornfontein, the Berea, Hillbrow, Parktown, Yeoville and Belle-
vue. Braamfontein (with a large cemetery) lies north-west and
Fordsburg due west of the city. At Fordsburg are the gas and
electric light and power works, and north of Doornfontein there
is a large reservoir. There are also on the Rand, and dependent
on the gold-mining, three towns possessing separate municipali-
ties— Germiston and Boksburg (q.v.), respectively 9 m. and ism.
E. of Johannesburg, and Krugersdorp (q.v.), 21 m. W.
The Mines and other Industries. — South, east and west of the
city are the gold mines, indicated by tall chimneys, battery
houses and the compounds of the labourers. The bare veld
is dotted with these unsightly buildings for a distance of over
fifty miles. The mines are worked on the most scientific lines.
Characteristic of the Rand is the fine white dust arising from the
crushing of the ore, and, close to the batteries, the incessant din
caused by the stamps employed in that operation. The com-
pounds in general, especially those originally made for Chinese
labourers, are well built, comfortable, and fulfil every hygienic
requirement. Besides the buildings, the compounds include
wide stretches of veld. To enter and remain in the district,
Kaffirs require a monthly pass for which the employer pays 2s.
(For details of gold-mining, see GOLD.) A railway traverses
the Rand, going westward past Krugersdorp to Klerksdorp and
thence to Kimberley, and eastward past Springs to Delagoa Bay.
From Springs, 25 m. E. of Johannesburg, is obtained much of
the coal used in the Rand mines.
The mines within the municipal area produce nearly half the
total gold output of the Transvaal. The other industries of
Johannesburg include brewing, printing and bookbinding,
timber sawing, flour milling, iron and brass founding, brick
making and the manufacture of tobacco.
Health, Education and Social Conditions. — The elevation of
Johannesburg makes it, despite its nearness to the tropics, a
healthy place for European habitation. Built on open undu-
lating ground, the town is, however, subject to frequent dust
storms and to considerable variations in the temperature. The
nights in winter are frosty and snow falls occasionally. The
average day temperature in winter is 53° F., in summer 75°;
the average annual rainfall is 28 in. The death-rate among white
inhabitants averages about 17 per thousand. The principal
causes of death, both among the white and coloured inhabitants,
are diseases of the lungs — including miners' phthisis and pneu-
monia— diarrhoea, dysentery and enteric. The death-rate
among young children is very high.
Education is provided in primary and secondary schools
maintained by the state. In the primary schools education is
432
JOHANNISBERG— JOHN
free but not compulsory. The Transvaal university college,
founded in 1904 as the technical institute (the change of title
being made in 1906), provides full courses in sc: :nce, mining,
engineering and law. In 1906 Alfred Beit (q.v. bequeathed
£200,000 towards the cost of erecting and equipping university
buildings.
In its social life Johannesburg differs widely from Cape Town
and Durban. The white population is not only far larger but
more cosmopolitan, less stationary and more dependent on a
single industry; it has few links with the past, and both city and
citizens bear the marks of youth. The cost of living is much
higher than in London or New York. House rent, provisions,
clothing, are all very dear, and more than counterbalance the
lowness of rates. The customary unit of expenditure is the
threepenny-bit or " tickey."
Sanitary and other Services. — There is an ample supply of water
to the town and mines, under a water board representing all the
Rand municipalities and the mining companies. A water-
borne sewerage system began to be introduced in 1906. The
general illuminant is electricity, and both electrical and gas
services are owned by the municipality. The tramway service,
opened in 1891, was taken over by the municipality in 1904.
Up to 1906 the trams were horse-drawn; in that year electric
cars began running. Rickshaws are also a favourite means of
conveyance. The police force is controlled by the government.
Area, Government and Rateable Value. — The city proper covers
about 6 sq. m. The municipal boundary extends in every
direction some 5 m. from Market Square, encloses about 82 sq. m.
and includes several of the largest mines. The local government
is carried on by an elected municipal council, the franchise
being restricted to white British subjects (men and women) who
rent or own property of a certain value. In 1908 the rateable
value of the municipality was £36,466,644, the rate 2jd. in the £,
and the town debt £5,500,000.
Population. — In 1887 the population was about 3000. By
the beginning of 1890 it had increased to over 25,000. A census
taken in July 1896 showed a population within a radius of
3 m. from Market Square of 102,078, of whom 50,907 were
whites. At the census of April 1904 the inhabitants of the city
proper numbered 99,022, the population within the municipal
area being 155,642, of whom 83,363 were whites. Of the white
inhabitants, 35% were of British origin, 51,629 were males,
and 3 1 ,734 females. Of persons aged sixteen or over, the number
of males was almost double the number of females. The coloured
population included about 7000 British Indians — chiefly small
traders. A municipal census taken in August 1908 gave the
following result: whites 95,162; natives and coloured 78,781;
Asiatics 6780 — total 180,687.
History. — Johannesburg owes its existence to the discovery
of gold in the Witwatersrand reefs. The town, named after
Johannes Rissik, then surveyor-general of the Transvaal, was
founded in September 1886, the first buildings being erected on
the part of the reef where are now the Ferreira and Wemmer
mines. These buildings were found to cover valuable ore, and
in December following the Boer government marked out the site
of the city proper, and possession of the plots was given to pur-
chasers on the ist of January 1887. The exploitation of the
mines led to a rapid development of the town during the next
three years. The year 1890 was one of great depression
following the exhaustion of tlje surface ore, but the provision of
better machinery and cheaper coal led to a revival in 1891. By
1892 the leading mines had proved their dividend-earning capa-
city, and in 1895 there was a great " boom " in the shares of the
mining companies. The linking of the town to the seaports by
railways during 1892-1895 gave considerable impetus to the gold-
mining industry. Material prosperity was accompanied, how-
ever, by political, educational and other disadvantages, and the
desire of the Johannesburgers — most of whom were foreigners
or " Uitlanders " — to remedy the grievances under which they
suffered led, in January 1896, to an abortive rising against the
Boer government (see TRANSVAAL: History). One result of this
movement was a slight advance in municipal self-government.
Since 1887 the management of the town had been entrusted to
a nominated sanitary board, under the chairmanship of the
mining commissioner appointed by the South African Republic.
In 1890 elected members had been admitted to this board, but
at the end of 1897 an elective stadsraad (town council) was
constituted, though its functions were strictly limited. There
was a great development in the mining industry during 1897-
1898 and 1899, the value of the gold extracted in 1898
exceeding £15,000,000, but the political situation grew worse,
and in September 1899, owing to the imminence of war between
the Transvaal and Great Britain, the majority of the Uitlanders
fled from the city. Between October 1899, when war broke out,
and the 3ist of May 1900, when the city was taken by the British,
the Boer government worked certain mines for their own benefit.
After a period of military administration and of government by a
nominated town council, an ordinance was passed in June 1903
providing for elective municipal councils, and in December
following the first election to the new council took place. In 1905
the town was divided into wards. In that year the number of
municipal voters was 23,338. In 1909 the proportional repre-
sentation system was adopted in the election of town councillors.
During 1901-1903, while the war was still in progress or but
recently concluded, the gold output was comparatively slight.
The difficulty in obtaining sufficient labour for the mines led to
a successful agitation for the importation of coolies from China
(see TRANSVAAL: History). During 1904-1906 over 50,000
coolies were brought to the mines, a greatly increased output
being the result, the value of the gold extracted in 1905 exceeding
£20,000,000. Notwithstanding the increased production of
gold, Johannesburg during 1905-1907 passed through a period
of severe commercial depression, the result in part of the un-
settled political situation. In June 1907 the repatriation of the
Chinese coolies began; it was completed in February 1910.
An excellent compilation, entitled Johannesburg Statistics, dealing
with almost every phase of the city's life, is issued monthly (since
January 1905) by the town council. See also the Post Office Direc-
tory, Transvaal (Johannesburg, annually), which contains specially
prepared maps, and the annual reports of the Johannesburg chamber
of commerce. For the political history of Johannesburg, see the
bibliography under TRANSVAAL.
JOHANNISBERG, a village of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Hesse-Nassau, in the Rheingau, on the right bank
of the Rhine, 6 m. S. of Rudesheim by railway. The place is
mainly celebrated for the beautiful Schloss which crowns a hill
overlooking the Rhine valley, and is surrounded by vineyards
yielding the famous Johannisberger wine. The Schloss, built in
1757~i759 by the abbots of Fulda on the site of a Benedictine
monastery founded in 1090, was bestowed, in 1807, by Napoleon
upon Marshal Kellermann. In 1814 it was given by Francis,
emperor of Austria, to Prince Metternich, in whose family it
still remains.
JOHN (Heb. i«rt'), Yohanan, " Yahweh has been gracious,"
Gr. 'lutaivip, Lat. Joannes, Ital. Giovanni, Span. Juan, Port.
Jodo, Fr. Jean, Ger. Johannes, Johann [abbr. Hans], Gael. Ian,
Pol. and Czech Jan, Hung. Jdnos), a masculine proper name
common in all Christian countries, its popularity being due to
its having been borne by the " Beloved Disciple " of Christ, St
John the Evangelist, and by the forerunner of Christ, St John the
Baptist. It has been the name of twenty-two popes — the style
of Popes John XXII. and XXIII. being due to an error in the
number assumed by John XXI. (q.v.) — and of many sovereigns,
princes, &c. The order followed in the biographical notices
below is as follows: (i) the Apostle, (2) the Baptist, (3) popes,
(4) Roman emperors, (5) kings; John of England first, the rest
in the alphabetical order of their countries, (6) other sovereign
princes, (7) non-sovereign princes, (8) saints, (9) theologians,
chroniclers, &c. Those princes who are known by a name in
addition to John (John Albert, &c.) will be found after the
article JOHN, GOSPEL or.
JOHN, THE APOSTLE, in the Bible, was the son of Zebedee, a
Galilean fisherman, and Salome. It is probable that he was born
at Bethsaida, where along with his brother James he followed
JOHN THE BAPTIST
his father's occupation. The family appears to have been in
easy circumstances; at least we find that Zebedee employed
hired servants, and that Salome was among those women who
contributed to the maintenance of Jesus (Mark i. 20, xv. 40, 41,
xvi. i). John's " call " to follow our Lord occurred simulta-
neously with that addressed to his brother, and shortly after
that addressed to the brothers Andrew and Simon Peter (Mark i.
19, 20). John speedily took his place among the twelve apostles,
sharing with James the title of Boanerges (" sons of thunder,"
perhaps strictly " sons of anger," i.e. men readily angered), and
became a member of that inner circle to which, in addition to
his brother, Peter alone belonged (Mark v. 37, ix. 2, xiv. 33).
John appears throughout the synoptic record as a zealous, fiery
Jew-Christian. It is he who indignantly complains to Jesus,
" We saw one casting out devils in Thy name, and he followeth
not us," and tells Him, " We forbade him " for that reason
(Mark ix. 38); and who with his brother, when a Samaritan
village will not receive Jesus, asks Him, " Wilt thou that we
command fire to come down from heaven and consume them?"
(Luke ix. 54). The book of Acts confirms this tradition. After
the departure of Jesus, John appears as present in Jerusalem
with Peter and the other apostles (i. 13); is next to Peter the
most prominent among those who bear testimony to the fact of
the resurrection (iii. 12-26, iv. 13, 19-22); and is sent with Peter
to Samaria, to confirm the newly converted Christians there
(viii. 14, 25). St Paul tells us similarly that when, on his second
visit to Jerusalem, " James," the Lord's brother, " and Cephas
and John, who were considered pillars, perceived the grace that
was given unto me, they gave to me and Barnabas the right
hand of fellowship, that we should go unto the heathen, and
they unto the circumcision " (Gal. ii. 9). John thus belonged
in 46-47 to the Jewish-Christian school; but we do not know
whether to the stricter group of James or to the milder group
of Peter (ibid. ii. 11-14).
The subsequent history of the apostle is obscure. Polycrates,
bishop of Ephesus (in Euseb., H. E. iii. 31; v. 24), attests in 196
that John " who lay on the bosom of the Lord rests at Ephesus ";
but previously in this very sentence he has declared that " Philip
one of the twelve apostles rests in Hierapolis," although Eusebius
(doubtless rightly) identifies this Philip not with the apostle but
with the deacon-evangelist of Acts xxi. 8. Polycrates also
declares that John was a priest wearing the ireraXoi' (gold
plate) that distinguished the high-priestly mitre. Irenaeus in
various passages of his works, 181-191, holds a similar tradition.
He says that John lived up to the time of Trajan and published
his gospel in Ephesus, and identifies the apostle with John the
disciple of the Lord, who wrote the Apocalypse under Domitian,
whom Irenaeus's teacher Polycarp had known personally and of
whom Polycarp had much to tell. These traditions are accepted
and enlarged by later authors, Tertullian adding that John was
banished to Patmos after he had miraculously survived the
punishment of immersion in burning oil. As it is evident that
legend was busy with John as early as the time of Polycrates,
the real worth of these traditions requires to be tested by exami-
nation of their ultimate source. This inquiry has been pressed
upon scholars since the apostolic authorship of the Apocalypse
or of the Fourth Gospel, or of both these works, has been
disputed. (See JOHN, GOSPEL or, and REVELATION, BOOK or.)
The question has not been strictly one between advanced and
conservative criticism, for the Tubingen school recognized the
Apocalypse as apostolic, and found in it a confirmation of John's
residence in Ephesus. On the other hand, Liitzelberger (1840),
Th. Keim (Jesus v. Naz., vol. i., 1867), J. H. Scholten (1872),
H. J. Holtzmann (esp. in Einl. in d. N. T., 3rd ed., 1902), and
other recent writers, wholly reject the tradition. It has had
able defenders in Steitz (Stud. u. Krit., 1868), Hilgenfeld (Einl.,
1875) and Lightfoot (Essays on Supernatural Religion, collected
1889). W. Sanday (Criticism of Fourth Gospel, 1905) makes
passing admissions eloquent as to the strength of the negative
position; whilst amongst Roman Catholic scholars, A. Loisy
(Le 4me. Ev., 1903) stands with Holtzmann, and Th. Calmes
(Ev. selon S. Jean, 1904, 1906) and L. Duchesne (Hist. anc. de
433
I'Egl., 1906) exhibit, with papal approbation, the inconclusive-
ness of the conservative arguments.
The opponents of the tradition lay weight on the absence of
positive evidence before the latter part of the and century,
especially in Papias and in the epistles of Ignatius and of
Irenaeus's authority, Polycarp. They find it necessary to
assume that Irenaeus mistook Polycarp; but this is not a difficult
task, since already Eusebius (c. 310-313) is compelled to point
out that Papias testifies to two Johns, the Apostle and a
presbyter, and that Irenaeus is mistaken in identifying those
two Johns, and in holding that Papias had seen John the
Apostle (H.E. in. 39, 5, 2). Irenaeus tells us, doubtless
correctly, that Papias was "the companion of Polycarp": this
fact alone would suffice, given his two mistakes concerning
Papias, to make Irenaeus decide that Polycarp had seen John
the Apostle. The chronicler George the Monk (Hamartolus) in
the gth century, and an epitome dating from the 7th or 8th
century but probably based on the Chronicle of Philip of Side
(c. 430), declare, on the authority of the second book of Papias,
that John the Zebedean was killed by Jews (presumably in
60-70). Adolf Harnack, Chron. d. altchr. Litt. (1897), pp. 656-
680), rejects the assertion; but the number of scholars who
accept it as correct is distinctly on the increase. (F. v. H.)
JOHN THE BAPTIST, in the Bible, the " forerunner " of Jesus
Christ in the Gospel story. By his preaching and teaching he
evidently made a great impression upon his contemporaries
(cf. Josephus, Ant. xviii., § 5). According to the birth-narrative
embodied in Luke i. and ii., he was born in " a city of Judah "
in " the hill country " (possibly Hebron ') of priestly parentage.
His father Zacharias was a priest " of the course of Abijah," and
his mother Elizabeth, who was also of priestly descent, was
related to Mary, the mother of Jesus, whose senior John was by
six months. This narrative of the Baptist's birth seems to
embody some very primitive features, Hebraic and Palestinian
in character, and possibly at one time independent of the
Christian tradition. In the apocryphal gospels John is some-
times made the subject of special miraculous experiences (e.g. in
the Protevangelium Jacobi, ch. xxii., where Elizabeth fleeing from
Herod's assassins cried: " Mount of God, receive a mother with
her child," and suddenly the mountain was divided and received
her).
In his 3oth year (isth year of the emperor Tiberius, ? A.D.
25-26) John began his public life in the " wilderness of Judaea,"
the wild district that lies between the Kedron and the Dead Sea,
and particularly in the neighbourhood of the Jordan, where
multitudes were attracted by his eloquence. The central theme
of his preaching was, according to the Synoptic Gospels, the
nearness of the coming of the Messianic kingdom, and the
consequent urgency for preparation by repentance. John was
evidently convinced that he himself had received the divine
commission to bring to a close and complete the prophetic
period, by inaugurating the Messianic age. He identified him-
self with the " voice " of Isa. xl. 3. Noteworthy features of his
preaching were its original and prophetic character, and its high
ethical tone, as shown e.g. in its anti-Pharisaic denunciation of
trust in mere racial privilege (Matt. iii. 9). Herein also lay,
probably, the true import of the baptism which he administered
to those who accepted his message and confessed their sins. It
was an act symbolizing moral purification (cf. Ezek. xxxvi. 25;
Zech. xiii. i) by way of preparation for the coming " kingdom
of heaven," and implied that the Jew so baptized no longer
rested in his privileged position as a child of Abraham. John's
appearance, costume and habits of life, together with the tone
of his preaching, all suggest the prophetic character. He was
popularly regarded as a prophet, more especially as a second
Elijah. His preaching awoke a great popular response, particu-
larly among the masses of the people, " the people of the land."
He had disciples who fasted (Mark ii. 18, &c.), who visited him
1 There is no reason to suppose that Jutta is intended by the *-<5Xts
'loiiSa of Luke i. 39: the tradition which makes 'Ain Karim, near
Jerusalem, the birthplace of the Baptist only dates from the crusad-
ing period.
434
regularly in prison (Matt. xi. 2, xiv. 12), and to whom he taught
special forms of prayer (Luke v. 33, xi. i). Some of these
afterwards became followers of Christ (John i. 37). John's
activity indeed had far-reaching effects. It profoundly influenced
the Messianic movement depicted in the Gospels. The preaching
of Jesus shows traces of this, and the Fourth Gospel (as well as
the Synoptists) displays a marked interest in connecting the
Johannine movement with the beginnings of Christianity. The
fact that after the lapse of a quarter of a century there were
Christians in Ephesus who accepted John's baptism (Acts xviii.
25, xix. 3) is highly significant. This influence also persisted
in later times. Christ's estimate of John (Matt. xi. 7 seq.) was
a. very high one. He also pointedly alludes to John's work and
the people's relation to it, in many sayings and parables (some-
times in a tone of irony). The duration of John's ministry
cannot be determined with certainty: it terminated in his
imprisonment in the fortress of Machaerus, to which he had been
committed by Herod Antipas, whose incestuous marriage with
Herodias, the Baptist had sternly rebuked. His execution
cannot with safety be placed later than A.D. 28.
In the church calendar this event is commemorated on the
29th of August. According to tradition he was buried at
Samaria (Theodoret, H.E. iii. 3). (G. H. Bo.)
JOHN I., pope from 523 to 526, was a Tuscan by birth, and
was consecrated pope on the death of Hormisdas. In 525 he
was sent by Theodoric at the head of an embassy to Constanti-
nople to obtain from the emperor Justin toleration for the
Arians; but he succeeded so imperfectly in his mission that
Theodoric on his return, suspecting that he had acted only half-
heartedly, threw him into prison, where he shortly afterwards
died, Felix IV. succeeding him. He was enrolled among the
martyrs, his day being May 27.
JOHN II., pope from 533 to 535, also named Mercurius, was
elevated to the papal chair on the death of Bo'niface II. During
his pontificate a decree against simony was engraven on marble
and placed before the altar of St Peter's. At the instance of the
emperor Justinian he adopted the proposition unus de Trinitate
passus esl in carne as a test of the orthodoxy of certain Scythian
monks accused of Nestorian tendencies. He was succeeded by
Agapetus I.
JOHN III., pope from 561 to 574, successor to Pelagius, was
•descended from a noble Roman family. He is said to have been
successful in preventing an invasion of Italy by the recall of the
deposed exarch Narses, but the Lombards still continued theii
incursions, and, especially during the pontificate of his successoi
Benedict I., inflicted great miseries on the province.
JOHN IV., pope from 640 to 642, was a Dalmatian by birth,
and succeeded Severinus after the papal chair had been vacant
four months. While he adhered to the repudiation of the
Monothelitic doctrine by Severinus, he endeavoured to explain
away the connexion of Honorius I. with the heresy. His
successor was Theodorus I.
JOHN V., pope from 685 to 686, was a Syrian by birth, and on
account of his knowledge of Greek had in 680 been named papal
legate to the sixth ecumenical council at Constantinople. He
was the successor of Benedict II., and after a pontificate of
little more than a year, passed chiefly in bed, was followed by
Conon.
JOHN VI., pope from 701 to 705, was a native of Greece, and
succeeded to the papal chair two months after the death of
Sergius I. He assisted the exarch Theophylact, who had been
sent into Italy by the emperor Justinian II., and prevented him
from using violence against the Romans. Partly by persuasion
and partly by means of a bribe, John succeeded in inducing
•Gisulf, duke of Benevento, to withdraw from the territories of
the empire.
JOHN VII., pope from 705 to 707, successor of John VI., was
also of Greek nationality. He seems to have acceded to the
request of the emperor Justinian II. that he should give his
sanction to the decrees of the Quinisext or Trullan council of
<>92. There are several monuments of John in the church of
St Maria Antiqua at the foot of the Palatine hill; others were
JOHN (POPES)
formerly in the chapel of the Virgin, built by him in the basilica
of St Peter. He was succeeded by Sisinnius.
JOHN VIII., pope from 872 to 882, successor of Adrian II.,
was a Roman by birth. His chief aim during his pontificate
was to defend the Roman state and the authority of the Holy
See at Rome from the Saracens, and from the nascent feudalism
which was represented outside by the dukes of Spoleto and the
marquises of Tuscany and within by a party of Roman nobles.
Events, however, were so fatally opposed to his designs that no
sooner did one of his schemes begin to realize itself in fact than
it was shattered by an unlooked-for chance. To obtain an
influential alliance against his enemies, he agreed in 875, after
death had deprived him of his natural protector, the emperor
Louis II., to bestow the imperial crown on Charles the Bald; but
that monarch was too much occupied in France to grant him
much effectual aid, and about the time of the death of Charles
he found it necessary to come to terms with the Saracens, who
were only prevented from entering Rome by the promise of an
annual tribute. Carloman, the opponent of Charles's son Louis,
soon after invaded northern Italy, and, securing the support of
the bishops and counts, demanded from the pope the imperial
crown. John attempted to temporize, but Lambert, duke of
Spoleto, a partisan of Carloman, whom sickness had recalled to
Germany, entered Rome in 878 with an overwhelming force,
and for thirty days virtually held John a prisoner in St Peter's.
Lambert was, however, unsuccessful in winning any concession
from the pope, who after his withdrawal carried out a previous
purpose of going to France. There he presided at the council
of Troyes, which promulgated a ban of excommunication against
the supporters of Carloman — amongst others Adalbert of
Tuscany, Lambert of Spoleto, and Formosus, bishop of Porto,
who was afterwards elevated to the papal chair. In 879 John
returned to Italy accompanied by Boso, duke of Provence,
whom he adopted as his son, and made an unsuccessful attempt
to get recognized as king of Italy. In the same year he was
compelled to give a promise of his sanction to the claims of
Charles the Fat, who received from him the imperial crown in
881. Before this, in order to secure the aid of the Greek emperor
against the Saracens, he had agreed to sanction the restoration
of Photius to the see of Constantinople, and had withdrawn his
consent on finding that he reaped from the concession no
substantial benefit. Charles the Fat, partly from unwillingness,
partly from natural inability, gave him also no effectual aid, and
the last years of John VIII. were spent chiefly in hurling vain
anathemas against his various political enemies. According to
the annalist of Fulda, he was murdered by members of his
household. His successor was Marinus.
JOHN IX., pope from 898 to 900, not only confirmed the
judgment of his predecessor Theodore II. in granting Christian
burial to Formosus, but at a council held at Ravenna decreed
that the records of the synod which had condemned him should
be burned. Finding, however, that it was advisable to cement
the ties between the empire and the papacy, John gave unhesi-
tating support to Lambert in preference to Arnulf, and also
induced the council to determine that henceforth the consecra-
tion of the popes should take place only in the presence of the
imperial legates. The sudden death of Lambert shattered
the hopes which this alliance seemed to promise. John was
succeeded by Benedict IV.
JOHN X., pope from 914 to 928, was deacon at Bologna when
he attracted the attention of Theodora, the wife of Theophylact,
the most powerful noble in Rome, through whose influence he was
elevated first to the see of Bologna and then to the archbishopric
of Ravenna. In direct opposition to a decree of council, he was
also at the instigation of Theodora promoted to the papal chair
as the successor of Lando. Like John IX. he endeavoured to
secure himself against his temporal enemies through a close
alliance with Theophylact and Alberic, marquis of Camerino,
then governor of the duchy of Spoleto. In December 915 he
granted the imperial crown to Berengar, and with the assistance
of the forces of all the princes of the Italian peninsula he took
the field in person against the Saracens, over whom he gained a
JOHN (POPES)
435
great victory on the banks of the Garigliano. The defeat and
death of Berengar through the combination of the Italian princes,
again frustrated the hopes of a united Italy, and after witnessing
several years of anarchy and confusion John perished through
the intrigues of Marozia, daughter of Theodora. His successor
was Leo VI.
JOHN XI., pope from 931 to 935, was the son of Marozia and
the reputed son of Sergius III. Through the influence of his
mother he was chosen to succeed Stephen VII. at the early age
of twenty-one. He was the mere exponent of the purposes of
his mother, until her son Alberic succeeded in 933 in over-
throwing their authority. The pope was kept a virtual prisoner
in the Lateran, where he is said to have died in 935, in which
year Leo VII. was consecrated his successor.
JOHN XII., pope from 955 to 964, was the son of Alberic,
whom he succeeded as patrician of Rome in 954, being then only
sixteen years of age. His original name was Octavian, but
when he assumed the papal tiara as successor to Agapetus II., he
adopted the apostolic name of John, the first example, it is said,
of the custom of altering the surname in connexion with elevation
to the papal chair. As a temporal ruler John was devoid of the
vigour and firmness of his father, and his union of the papal
office — which through his scandalous private life he made a by-
word of reproach — with his civil dignities proved a source of
weakness rather than of strength. In order to protect himself
against the intrigues in Rome and the power of Berengar II. of
Italy, he called to his aid Otto the Great of Germany, to whom
he granted the imperial crown in 962. Even before Otto left
Rome the pope had, however, repented of his recognition of a
power which threatened altogether to overshadow his authority,
and had begun to conspire against the new emperor. His
intrigues were discovered by Otto, who, after he had defeated
and taken prisoner Berengar, returned to Rome and summoned
a council which deposed John, who was in hiding in the moun-
tains of Campania, and elected Leo VIII. in his stead. An
attempt at an insurrection was made by the inhabitants of
Rome even before Otto left the city, and on his departure John
returned at the head of a formidable company of friends and
retainers, and caused Leo to seek safety in immediate flight.
Otto determined to make an effort in support of Leo, but before
he reached the city John had died, in what manner is uncertain,
and Benedict V. had mounted the papal chair.
JOHN XIII., pope from 965 to 972, was descended from a
noble Roman family, and at the time of his election as successor
to Leo VIII. was bishop of Narni. He had been somewhat
inconsistent in his relations with his predecessor Leo, but his
election was confirmed by the emperor Otto, and his submissive
attitude towards the imperial power was so distasteful to the
Romans that they expelled him from the city. On account of
the threatening procedure of Otto, they permitted him shortly
afterwards to return, upon which, with the sanction of Otto, he
took savage vengeance on those who had formerly opposed him.
Shortly after holding a council along with the emperor at
Ravenna in 967, he gave the imperial crown to Otto II. at
Rome in assurance of his succession to his father; and in 972 he
also crowned Theophano as empress immediately before her
marriage. On his death in the same year he was followed by
Benedict VI.
JOHN XIV., pope from 983 to 984, successor to Benedict VII.,
was born at Pavia, and before his elevation to the papal chair
was imperial chancellor of Otto II. Otto died shortly after his
election, when Boniface VII., on the strength of the popular
feeling against the new pope, returned from Constantinople and
placed John in prison, where he died either by starvation or
poison.
JOHN XV., pope from 985 to 996, generally recognized as the
successor of Boniface VII., the pope John who was said to have
ruled for four months after John XIV., being now omitted by
the best authorities. John XV. was the son of Leo, a Roman
presbyter. At the time he mounted the papal chair Crescentius
was patrician of Rome, but, although his influence was on this
account very much hampered, the presence of the empress
Theophano in Rome from 989 to 991 restrained also the ambition
of Crescentius. On her departure the pope, whose venality
and nepotism had made him very unpopular with the citizens,
died of fever before the arrival of Otto III., who elevated his
own kinsman Bruno to the papal dignity under the name of
Gregory V.
JOHN XVI., pope or antipope from 997 to 998, was a Calabrian
Greek by birth, and a favourite of the empress Theophano, from
whom he had received the bishopric of Placentia. His original
name was Philagathus. In 995 he was sent by Otto III. on an
embassy to Constantinople to negotiate a marriage with a Greek
princess. On his way back he either accidentally or at the
special request of Crescentius visited Rome. A little before
this Gregory V., at the end of 996, had been compelled to flee
from the city; and the wily and ambitious Greek had now no
scruple in accepting the papal tiara from the hands of Crescentius.
The arrival of Otto at Rome in the spring of 998 put a sudden
end to the teacherous compact. John sought safety in flight,
but was discovered in his place of hiding and brought back to-
Rome, where after enduring cruel and ignominious tortures he
was immured in a dungeon.
JOHN XVII., whose original name was Sicco, succeeded
Silvester II. as pope in June 1003, but died less than five months
afterwards.
JOHN XVIII., pope from 1003 to 1009, was, during his whole
pontificate, the mere creature of the patrician John Crescentius>
and ultimately he abdicated and retired to a monastery, where
he died shortly afterwards. His successor was Sergius IV.
JOHN XIX., pope from 1024 to 1033, succeeded his brother
Benedict VIII., both being members of the powerful house of
Tusculum. He merely took orders to enable him to ascend the
papal chair, having previously been a consul and senator. He
displayed his freedom from ecclesiastical prejudices, if also his
utter ignorance of ecclesiastical history, by agreeing, on the pay-
ment of a large bribe, to grant to the patriarch of Constantinople
the title of an ecumenical bishop, but the general indignation
which the proposal excited throughout the church compelled
him almost immediately to withdraw from his agreement. On
the death of the emperor Henry II. in 1024 he gave his support
to Conrad II., who along with his consort was crowned with
great pomp at St Peter's in Easter of 1027. John died in 1033,
in the full possession of his dignities. A successor was found for
him in his nephew Benedict IX., a boy of only twelve years of age.
(L. D.*)-
JOHN XXI. (Pedro Giuliano-Rebulo), pope from the 8th of
September 1276 to the 2oth of May 1277 (should be named
John XX., but there is an error in the reckoning through the
insertion of an antipope), a native of Portugal, educated for the
church, became archdeacon and then archbishop of Braga, and
so ingratiated himself with Gregory X. at the council of Lyons.
(i 274) that he was taken to Rome as cardinal-bishop of Frascati,
and succeeded Gregory after an interregnum of twenty days.
As pope he excommunicated Alphonso III. of Portugal for
interfering with episcopal elections and sent legates to the
Great Khan. He was devoted to secular science, and his small
affection for the monks awakened the distrust of a large portion
of the clergy. His life was brought to a premature close through,
the fall of the roof in the palace he had built at Viterbo. His
successor was Nicholas III.
JOHN XXI. has been identified since the I4th century, most
probably correctly, with Petrus Hispanus, a celebrated Portu-
guese physician and philosopher, author of several medical
works — notably the curious Liber de ocido, trans, into German
and well edited by A. M. Berger (Munich, 1899), and of a popular
textbook in logic, the Summulae logicales. John XXI. is
constantly referred to as a magician by ignorant chroniclers.
See Les Registres de Gregoire X. et Jean XXI., published by
J. Guiraud and E .Cadier in Bibliothkque des ecoles fran^aises d'A thlnes
et de Rome (Paris, 1898) ; A. Potthast, Regesta pontif. Roman., vol. 2
(Berlin, 1875); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. v.,
trans, by Mrs G.W.Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); R.Stapper, Papst
Johann XXI. (Munster, 1898); J. T. Kohler, Vollstandige Nachricht
von Papst Johann XXI. (Gottingen, 1760). (C. H. HA.)
436
JOHN (POPES)
JOHN XXII., pope from 1316 to 1334, was born at Cahors,
France, in 1249. His original name was Jacques Duese, and he
came either of a family of petty nobility or else of well-to-do
middle-class parents, and was not, as has been popularly
supposed, the son of a shoemaker. He began his education
with the Dominicans at Cahors, subsequently studied law at
Montpellier, and law and medicine in Paris, and finally taught
at Cahors and Toulouse. At Toulouse he became intimate with
the bishop Louis, son of Charles II., king of Naples. In 1300 he
was elevated to the episcopal see of Frejus by Pope Boniface
VIII. at the instance of the king of Naples, and in 1308 was
made chancellor of Naples by Charles, retaining this office under
Charles's successor, Robert of Anjou. In 1310 Pope Clement V.
summoned Jacques to Avignon and instructed him to advise
upon the affair of the Templars and also upon the question of
condemning the memory of Boniface VIII. Jacques decided
on the legality of suppressing the order of the Templars, holding
that the pope would be serving the best interests of the church
by pronouncing its suppression; but he rejected the condemnation
of Boniface as a sacrilegious affront to the church and a mon-
strous abuse of the lay power. On the 23rd of December 1312
Clement appointed him cardinal-bishop of Porto, and it was
while cardinal of Porto that he was elected pope, on the 7th of
August 1316. Clement had died in April 1314, but the cardinals
assembled at Carpentras were unable to agree as to his successor.
As the two-thirds majority requisite for an election could not
be obtained, the cardinals separated, and it was not until the
28th of June 1316 that they reassembled in the cloister of the
Dominicans at Lyons, and then only in deference to the pressure
exerted upon them by Philip V. of France. After deliberating
for more than a month they elected Robert of Anjou's candidate,
Jacques Duese, who was crowned on the 5th of September, and
on the and of October arrived at Avignon, where he remained
for the rest of his life.
More jurist than theologian, John defended the rights of the
papacy with rigorous zeal and as rigorous logic. For the
restoration of the papacy to its old independence, which had
been so gravely compromised under his immediate predecessors,
and for the execution of the vast enterprises which the papacy
deemed useful for its prestige and for Christendom, considerable
sums were required; and to raise the necessary money John
burdened Christian Europe with new taxes and a complicated
fiscal system, which was fraught with serious consequences.
For his personal use, however, he retained but a very small
fraction of the sums thus acquired, and at his death his private
fortune amounted to scarce a million florins. The essentially
practical character of his administration has led many historians
to tax him with avarice, but later research on the fiscal system
of the papacy of the period, particularly the joint work of Samaran
and Mollat, enables us very sensibly to modify the severe judg-
ment passed on John by Gregorovius and others.
John's pontificate was continually disturbed by his conflict
with Louis of Bavaria and by the theological revolt of the
Spiritual Franciscans. In October 1314 Louis of Bavaria and
Frederick of Austria had each been elected German king by the
divided electors. Louis was gradually recognized by the whole
of Germany, especially after his victory at Muhldorf (1322), and
gained numerous adherents in Italy, where he supported the
•Visconti, who had been condemned as heretics by the pope.
John affected to ignore the successes of Louis, and on the 8th
of October 1323 forbade his recognition as king of the Romans.
After demanding a respite, Louis abruptly appealed at Nurem-
berg from the future sentence of the pope to a general council
(December 8, 1323). The conflict then assumed a grave
doctrinal character. The doctrine of the rights of the lay
monarchy sustained by Occam and John of Paris, by Marsilius
of Padua, John of Jandun and Leopold of Bamberg, was affirmed
by the jurists and theologians, penetrated into the parlements
and the universities, and was combated by the upholders of
papal absolutism, such as Alvaro Pelayo and Alonzo Trionfo.
Excommunicated on the 2ist of March 1324, Louis retorted by
appealing for a second time to a general council, which was held
on the 22nd of May 1324, and accused John of being an enemy
to the peace and the law, stigmatizing him as a heretic on the
ground that he opposed the principle of evangelical poverty as
professed by the strict Franciscans. From this moment Louis
appeared in the character of the natural ally and even the
protector of the Spirituals against the persecution of the pope.
On the nth of July 1324 the pope laid under an interdict the
places where Louis or his adherents resided, but this bull had
no effect in Germany. Equally futile was John's declaration
(April 3, 1327) that Louis had forfeited his crown and abetted
heresy by granting protection to Marsilius of Padua. Having
reconciled himself with Frederick of Austria, Louis penetrated
into Italy and seized Rome on the 7th of January 1328, with
the help of the Roman Ghibellines led by Sciarra Colonna. After
installing himself in the Vatican, Louis got himself crowned by
the deputies of the Roman people; instituted proceedings for
the deposition of John, whom the Roman people, displeased by
the spectacle of the papacy abandoning Rome, declared to have
forfeited the pontificate (April 18, 1328); and finally caused
a Minorite friar, Pietro Rainalucci da Corvara, to be elected
pope under the name of Nicholas V. John preached a platonic
crusade against Louis, who burned the pope's effigy at Pisa and
in Amelia. Soon, however, Louis felt his power waning, and
quitted Rome and Italy (1329). Incapable of independent
action, the antipope was abandoned by the Romans and handed
over to John, who forced him to make a solemn submission
with a halter round his neck (August 15, 1330). Nicholas was
condemned to perpetual imprisonment, and died in obscurity
at Avignon; while the Roman people submitted to King Robert,
who governed the church through his vicars. In 1317, in execu-
tion of a bull of Clement V., the royal vicariate in Italy had been
conferred by John on Robert of Anjou, and this appointment
was renewed in 1322 and 1324, with threats of excommunication
against any one who should seize the vicariate of Italy without
the authorization of the pope. One of John's last acts was
his decision to separate Italy from the Empire, but this bull was
of no avail and fell into oblivion. After his death, however, the
interdict was not removed from Germany, and the resistance of
Louis and his theologians continued.
A violent manifestation of this resistance took place in
connexion with the accusation of heresy brought against the
pope. On the third Sunday in Advent 1329, and afterwards in
public consistory, John had preached that the souls of those
who have died in a state of grace go into Abraham's bosom,
sub allari Dei, and do not enjoy the beatific vision (visio facie ad
faciem) of the Lord until after the Last Judgment and the
Resurrection; and he had even instructed a Minorite friar,
Gauthier of Dijon, to collect the passages in the Fathers which
were in favour of this doctrine. On the 27th of December 1331
a Dominican, Thomas of England, preached against this doctrine
at Avignon itself and was thrown into prison. When news of
this affair had reached Paris, the pope sent the general of the
Minorites, Gerard Odonis, accompanied by a Dominican, to
sustain his doctrine in that city, but King Philip VI., perhaps at
the instigation of the refugee Spirituals in Paris, referred the
question to the faculty of theology, which, on the 2nd of January
1333, declared that the souls of the blessed were elevated to the
beatific vision immediately after death; the faculty, nevertheless,
were of opinion that the pope should have propounded his
erroneous doctrine only " recitando," and not " delerminando,
asserendo, seu etiam opinando." The king notified this decision
to the pope, who assembled his consistory in November 1333,
and gave a haughty reply. The theologians in Louis's following
who were opposed to papal absolutism already spoke of " the
new heretic, Jacques de Cahors," and reiterated with increasing
insistency their demands for the convocation of a general
council to try the pope. John appears to have retracted shortly
before his death, which occurred on the 4th of December 1334.*
1 On the agth of January 1336 Pope Benedict XII. pronounced a
long judgment on this point of doctrine, a judgment which he de-
clared had been included by John in a bull which death had prevented
him from scaling.
JOHN (POPES)
437
John had kindled very keen animosity, not only among the
upholders of the independence of the lay power, but also among
the upholders of absolute religious poverty, the exalted Francis-
cans. Clement V., at the council of Vienne, had attempted to
bring back the Spirituals to the common rule by concessions;
John, on the other hand, in the bull Quorundam exigit (April
13. I3I7)> adopted an uncompromising and absolute attitude,
and by the bull Gloriosam ecdesiam (January 23, 1318) con-
demned the protests which had been raised against the bull
Quorundam by a group of seventy-four Spirituals and conveyed
to Avignon by the monk Bernard Delicieux. Shortly afterwards
four Spirituals were burned at Marseilles. These were imme-
diately hailed as martyrs, and in the eyes of the exalted
Franciscans at Naples and in Sicily and the south of France the
pope was regarded as antichrist. In the bull Sancta Romano,
et universa ecclesia (December 28, 1318) John definitively
excommunicated them and condemned their principal book,
the Postil (commentary) on the Apocalypse (February 8,
1326). The bull Quia nonnunquam (March 26, 1322) defined
the derogations from the rule punished by the pope, and the
bull Cum inter nonnullos (November 12, 1323) condemned the
proposition which had been admitted at the general chapter of
the Franciscans held at Perugia in 1322, according to which
Christ and the Apostles were represented as possessing no
property, either personal or common. The minister general,
Michael of Cesena, though opposed to the exaggerations of the
Spirituals, joined with them in protesting against the condemna-
tion of the fundamental principle of evangelical poverty, and
the agitation gradually gained ground. The pope, by the bull
Quia quorundam (November 10, 1324), cited Michael to appear
at Avignon at the same time as Occam and Bonagratia.
All three fled to the court of Louis of Bavaria (May 26, 1328),
while the majority of the Franciscans made submission and
elected a general entirely devoted to the pope. But the resist-
ance, aided by Louis and merged as it now was in the cause
sustained by Marsilius of Padua and John of Jandun, became
daily bolder. Treatises on poverty appeared on every side; the
party of Occam clamoured with increasing imperiousness for the
condemnation of John by a general council; and the Spirituals,
confounded in the persecution with the Beghards and with
Fraticelli of every description, maintained themselves in the
south of France in spite of the reign of terror instituted in that
region by the Inquisition.
See M. Souchon, Die Papstwahlen von Bonifaz VIII. bis Urban VI.
(Brunswick, 1888) ; Abb6 Albe, Autour de Jean XXII. (Rome, 1904) ;
K. Miiller, Der Kampf Ludwigs des Bayern mil der Curie (Tubingen,
1879 scq.) ; W. Preger, " M6moires sur la lutte entre Jean XXII. et
Louis de Baviere " in Abhandl. der bayr. Akad., hist, sec., xv., xvi.,
xvii. ; S. Riezler, Die litterar. Widersacher der Pdpste zur Zeit^ Ludwigs
des Baiers (Leipzig, 1874); F. Ehrle, " Die Spiritualen " in Archiv
fur Litteratur-und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters (vols. i. and ii.) ;
C. Samaran and G. Mollat, La Fiscalite pontificate en France au xiiP
siecle (Paris, 1905); A. Coulon and G. Mollat, Lettres secretes et
curiales de Jean XXII. se rapportant a la France (Paris, 1899,
seq.). (P. A.)
JOHN XXIII. (Baldassare Cossa), pope, or rather anti-pope
from 1410 to 1415, was born of a good Neapolitan family, and
began by leading the life of a corsair before entering the service
of the Church under the pontificate of Boniface IX. His
abilities, which were mainly of an administrative and military
order, were soon rewarded by the cardinal's hat and the legation
of Bologna. On the 29th of June 1408 he and seven of his
colleagues broke away from Gregory XII., and together with six
cardinals of the obedience of Avignon, who had in like manner
separated from Benedict XIII., they agreed to aim at the assem-
bling of a general council, setting aside the two rival pontiffs,
an expedient which they considered would put an end to the
great schism of the Western Church, but which resulted in the
election of yet a third pope. This act was none the less decisive
for Baldassare Cossa's future. Alexander V., the first pope
elected at Pisa, was not perhaps, as has been maintained, merely
a man of straw put forward by the ambitious cardinal of
Bologna; but he reigned only ten months, and on his death,
which happened rather suddenly on the 4th of May 1410,
Baldassare Cossa succeeded him. Whether the latter had bought
his electors by money and promises, or owed his success to his
dominant position in Bologna, and to the support of Florence
and of Louis II. of Anjou, he seems to have received the unani-
mous vote of all the seventeen cardinals gathered together at
Bologna (May 17). He took the name of John XXIII., and
France, England, and part of Italy and Germany recognized him
as head of the Catholic church.
The struggle in which he and Louis II. of Anjou engaged with
Ladislaus of Durazzo, king of Sicily, and Gregory XII. 's chief
protector in Italy, at first went in John's favour. After the
brilliant victory of Roccasecca (May 19, 1411) he had the
satisfaction of dragging the standards of Pope Gregory and King
Ladislaus through the streets of Rome. But the dispersion of
Louis of Anjou's troops and his carelessness, together with the lack
of success which attended the preaching of a crusade in Germany,
France and England, finally decided John XXIII. to abandon
the French claimant to the throne of Sicily; he recognized
Ladislaus, his former enemy, as king of Naples, and Ladislaus
did not fail to salute John XXIII. as pope, abandoning Gregory
XII. (June 15, 1412). This was a fatal step: John XXIII.
was trusting in a dishonest and insatiable prince; he would have
acted more wisely in remaining the ally of the weak but loyal
Louis of Anjou. However, it seemed desirable that the reforms
announced by the council of Pisa, which the popes set up by
this synod seemed in no hurry to carry into effect, should
be further discussed in the new council which it had been
agreed should be summoned about the spring of 1412. But
John was anxious that this council should be held in Rome,
a city where he alone was master; the few prelates and ambassa-
dors who very slowly gathered there held only a small number
of sessions, in which John again condemned the writings of
Wycliffe. John was attacked by the representatives of the
various nations and reprimanded even for his private conduct,
but endeavoured to extricate himself from this uncomfortable
position by gratifying their desires, if not by reforming abuses.
It is, however, only fair to add that he took various half-
measures and gave many promises which, if they had been put
into execution, would have confirmed or completed the reforms
inaugurated at Pisa. But on the 3rd of Mrach 1413 John ad-
journed the council of Rome till December, without even fixing
the place where the next session should be held. It was held
at Constance in Germany, and John could only have resigned
himself to accepting such an uncertain meeting-place because
he was forced by distress, isolation and fear to turn towards
the head of the empire. Less than a year after the treaty con-
cluded with Ladislaus of Durazzo, the latter forced his way into
Rome (June 8, 1413), which he sacked, expelling John, to whom
even the Florentines did not dare to throw open their gates
for fear of the king of Sicily. Sigismund, king of the Romans,
not only extorted, it is said, a sum of 50,000 florins from the
pontiff in his extremity, but insisted upon his summoning the
council at Constance (December 9). It was in vain that,
on the death of Ladislaus, which took place unexpectedly
(August 6, 1414), John was inspired with the idea of breaking
his compact with Sigismund and returning to Rome, at the
same time appealing to Louis of Anjou. It was too late. The
cardinals forced him towards Germany by the most direct
road, without allowing him to go by way of Avignon as he had
projected, in order to make plans with the princes of France.
On the sth of November 1414 John opened the council of
Constance, where, on Christmas Day, he received the homage of
the head of the empire, but where his lack of prestige, the defec-
tion of his allies, the fury of his adversaries, and the general
sense of the necessity for union soon showed only too clearly
how small was the chance of his retaining the tiara. He had to
take a solemn oath to abdicate if his two rivals would do the
same, and this concession, which was not very sincere, gained
him for the last time the honour of seeing Sigismund prostrate at
his feet (March 2, 1415). But on the night of the 2oth-2ist
of March, having donned the garments of a layman, with a
cross-bow slung at his side, he succeeded in making his escape
438
JOHN (ROMAN EMPERORS)
from Constance, accompanied only by a single servant, and took
refuge first in the castle of Schaffhausen, then in that of Laufen-
burg, then at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and finally at Brisach,
whence he hoped to reach Alsace, and doubtless ultimately
Avignon, under the protection of an escort sent by the duke
of Burgundy. The news of the pope's escape was received at
Constance with an extraordinary outburst of rage, and led to the
subversive decrees of the 4th and sth sessions, which proclaimed
the superiority of the council over the pope. Duke Frederick of
Austria had hitherto sheltered John's flight; but, laid under
the ban of the empire, attacked by powerful armies, and feeling
that he was courting ruin, he preferred to give up the pontiff
who had trusted to him. John was brought back to Freiburg
(April 27), and there in vain attempted to appease the
wrath which he had aroused by more or less vague promises
of resignation. His trial, however, was already beginning.
The three cardinals whom he charged with his defence hastily
declined this compromising task. Seventy-four charges were
drawn up, only twenty of which were set aside after the wit-
nesses had been heard. The accusation of having poisoned
Alexander V. and his doctor at Bologna was not maintained.
But enough deeds of immorality, tyranny, ambition and simony
were found proved to justify the severest judgment. He was
suspended from his functions as pope on the I4th of May 1415,
and deposed on the following zgth of May.
However irregular this sentence may have been from the
canonical point of view (for the accusers do not seem to have
actually proved the crime of heresy, which was necessary,
according to most scholars of the period, to justify the deposi-
tion of a sovereign pontiff), the condemned pope was not long
in confirming it. Baldassare Cossa, now as humble and re-
signed as he had before been energetic and tenacious, on his
transference to the castle of Rudolfzell admitted the wrong which
he had done by his flight, refused to bring forward anything in
his defence, acquiesced entirely in the judgment of the council
which he declared to be infallible, and finally, as an extreme
precaution, ratified molu proprio the sentence of deposition,
declaring that he freely and willingly renounced any rights
which he might still have in the papacy. This fact has subse-
quently been often quoted against those who have appealed to
the events of 1415 to maintain that a council can depose a pope
who is scandalizator ecclesiae.
Cossa kept his word never to appeal against the sentence which
stripped him of the pontificate. He was held prisoner for three
years in Germany, but in the end bought his liberty from the
count palatine. He used this liberty only to go to Florence,
in 1419, and throw himself on the mercy of the legitimate pope.
Martin V. appointed him cardinal-bishop of Tusculum, a dignity
which Cossa only enjoyed for a few months. He died on the
22nd of December 1419, and all visitors to the Baptistery at
Florence may admire, under its high baldacchino, the sombre
figure sculptured by Donatello of the dethroned pontiff, who had
at least the merit of bowing his head under his chastisement, and
of contributing by his passive resignation to the extinction of the
series of popes which sprang from the council of Pisa. (N.V.)
JOHN I. (925-976), surnamed Tzimisces, East Roman emperor,
was born of a distinguished Cappadocian family. After helping
his uncle Nicephorus Phocas (q.v.) to obtain the throne and to
restore the empire's eastern provinces he was deprived of his
command by an intrigue, upon which he retaliated by conspiring
with Nicephorus' wife Theophania to assassinate him. Elected
ruler in his stead, John proceeded to justify his usurpation by
the energy with which he repelled the foreign invaders of the
empire. In a series of campaigns against the newly established
Russian power (970-973) he drove the enemy out of Thrace,
crossed Mt Haemus and besieged the fortress of Dorystolon on
the Danube. In several hard-fought battles he broke the
strength of the Russians so completely that they left him master
of eastern Bulgaria. He further secured his northern frontier by
transplanting to Thrace some colonies of Paulicians whom he
suspected of sympathising with their Saracen neighbours in the
east. In 974 he turned against the Abassid empire and easily
recovered the inland parts of Syria and the middle reaches of
the Euphrates. He died suddenly in 976 on his return from his
second campaign against the Saracens. John's surname was
apparently derived from the Armenian tshemshkik (red boot).
See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. vi.
ed. Bury, 1896) ; G. Finlay, History of Greece, ii. 334-360 (ed. 1877) ;
\ Schlumberger, L'Epopee Byzantine, i. 1-326 (1896).
JOHN II. (1088-1143), surnamed Comnenus and also Kalo-
Joannes (John the Good), East Roman emperor, was the eldest son
of the East Roman emperor Alexius, whom he succeeded in 1118.
On account of his mild and just reign he has been called the Byzan-
tine Marcus Aurelius. By the personal purity of his character
he effected a notable improvement in the manners of his age,
but he displayed little vigour in internal administration or in
extirpating the long-standing corruptions of the government.
Nor did his various successes against the Hungarians, Servians
and Seljuk Turks, whom he pressed hard in Asia Minor and pro-
posed to expel from Jerusalem, add much to the stability of his
empire. He was accidentally killed during a wild-boar hunt on
Mt Taurus, on the 8th of April 1143.
See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,v.22B
seq. (ed. Bury, 1896).
JOHN III. (1193-1254), surnamed Vatatzes and also Ducas,
East Roman emperor, earned for himself such distinction as
a soldier that in 1222 he was chosen to succeed his father-
in-law Theodore I. Lascaris. He reorganized the remnant
of the East Roman empire, and by his administrative skill
made it the strongest and richest principality in the Levant.
Having secured his eastern frontier by an agreement with
the Turks, he set himself to recover the European posses-
sions of his predecessors. While his fleet harassed the Latins
in the Aegean Sea and extended his realm to Rhodes, his
army, reinforced by Prankish mercenaries, defeated the Latin
emperor's forces in the open field. Though unsuccessful in a
siege of Constantinople, which he undertook in concert with the
Bulgarians (1235), he obtained supremacy over the despotats of
Thessalonica and Epirus. The ultimate recovery of Constanti-
nople by the Rhomaic emperors is chiefly due to his exertions.
See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vi.
-131-462 (ed. Bury, 1896); G. Finlay, History of Greece, iii. 196-320
(cd. 1877); A. Meliarakes, 'laTopia. TOV Ba«\eJoi> T^S Nixoios «oJ TOV
A«cnroT<irou TJJS 'Hirflpov, pp. 155-421 (1898).
JOHN IV. (c. 1250-c. 1300), surnamed Lascaris, East Roman
emperor, son of Theodore II. His father dying in 1258, Michael
Palaeologus conspired shortly after to make himself regent, and
in 1261 dethroned and blinded the boy monarch, and imprisoned
him in a remote castle, where he died a long time after.
See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vi. 459-
466 (cd. Bury, 1896) ; A. Meliarakes, 'lorcpia TOV BacuXeiou TTJJ Nixo/as
(Athens, 1898), pp. 491-528.
JOHN V. or VI. (1332-1391), surnamed Palaeologus, East
Roman emperor, was the son of Andronicus III., whom he
succeeded in 1341. At first he shared his sovereignty with his
father's friend John Cantacuzene, and after a quarrel with the
latter was practically superseded by him for a number of years
(I347~I3SS)- His reign was marked by the gradual dissolution
of the imperial power through the rebellion of his son Andronicus
and by the encroachments of the Ottomans, to whom in 1381
John acknowledged himself tributary, after a vain attempt to
secure the help of the popes by submitting to the supremacy of
the Roman Church.
See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vi. 495
seq., vii. 38 seq. (ed. Bury, 1896); E. Pears, The Destruction of the
Greek Empire, pp. 70-96 (1903).
JOHN VI. or V. (c. 1292-1383), surnamed Cantacuzene, East
Roman emperor, was born at Constantinople. Connected with
the house of Palaeologus on his mother's side, on the accession of
Andronicus III. (1328) he was entrusted with the supreme
administration of affairs. On the death of the emperor in 1341,
Cantacuzene was left regent, and guardian of his son John
Palaeologus, who was but nine years of age. Being suspected
JOHN PALAEOLOGUS VI.— JOHN OF ENGLAND
by the empress and opposed by a powerful party at court, he
rebelled, and got himself crowned emperor at Didymoteichos in
Thrace, while John Palaeologus and his supporters maintained
themselves at Constantinople. The civil war which ensued
lasted six years, during which the rival parties called in the aid
of the Servians and Turks, and engaged mercenaries of every
description. It was only by the aid of the Turks, with whom
he made a disgraceful bargain, that Cantacuzene brought the
war to a termination favourable to himself. In 1347 he entered
Constantinople in triumph, and forced his opponents to an
arrangement by which he became joint emperor with John
Palaeologus and sole administrator during the minority of his
colleague. During this period, the empire, already broken up
and reduced to the narrowest limits, was assailed on every side.
There were wars with the Genoese, who had a colony at Galata
and had money transactions with the court; and with the
Servians, who were at that time establishing an extensive empire
on the north-western frontiers; and there was a hazardous
alliance with the Turks, who made their first permanent settle-
ment in Europe, at Callipolis in Thrace, towards the end of the
reign (1354). Cantacuzene was far too ready to invoke the aid
of foreigners in his European quarrels; and as he had no money
to pay them, this gave them a ready pretext for seizing upon a
European town. The financial burdens imposed by him had
long been displeasing to his subjects, and a strong party had
always favoured John Palaeologus. Hence, when the latter
entered Constantinople at the end of 1354, his success was easy.
Cantacuzene retired to a monastery (where he assumed the name
of Joasaph Christodulus)and occupied himself in literary labours.
He died in the Peloponnese and was buried by his sons at
Mysithra in Laconia. His History in four books deals with the
years 1320-1356. Really an apologia for his own actions, it
needs to be read with caution; fortunately it can be supplemented
and corrected by the work of a contemporary, Nicephorus
Gregoras. It possesses the merit of being well arranged and
homogeneous, the incidents being grouped round the chief actor
in the person of the author, but the information is defective on
matters with which he is not directly concerned.
Cantacuzene was also the author of a commentary on the first
five books of Aristotle's Ethics, and of several controversial theologi-
cal treatises, one of which (Against Mohammedanism) is printed in
Migne (Patrologia Graeca, cliv.). History, ed. pr. by J. Pontanus
(1603); in Bonn, Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz., by J. Schopen (1828-
1832) and Migne, cliii., cliv. See also Val Parisot, Cantacuzene,
homme d'etat et historien (1845); E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch.
Ixiii.; and C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur
(1897)-
JOHN VI. or VII. (1390-1448), surnamed Palaeologus, East
Roman emperor, son of Manuel II., succeeded to the throne in
1425. To secure protection against the Turks he visited the
pope and consented to the union of the Greek and Roman
churches, which was ratified at Florence in 1439. The union
failed of its purpose, but by his prudent conduct towards the
Ottomans he succeeded in holding possession of Constantinople,
and in 1432 withstood a siege by Sultan Murad I.
See TURKEY: History; and also E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall
of the Roman Empire, vi. 97-107 (ed. Bury, 1896); E. Pears, The
Destruction of the Greek Empire, pp. 115-130 (1903).
JOHN (1167-1216), king of England, the youngest son of
Henry II. by Eleanor of Aquitaine, was born at Oxford on the
24th of December 1167. He was given at an early age the nick-
name of Lackland because, unlike his elder brothers, he received
no apanage in the continental provinces. But his future was a
subject of anxious thought to Henry II. When only five years
old John was betrothed (1173) to the heiress of Maurienne and
Savoy, a principality which, as dominating the chief routes from
France and Burgundy to Italy, enjoyed a consequence out of all
proportion to its area. Later, when this plan had fallen through,
he was endowed with castles, revenues and lands on both sides
of the channel; the vacant earldom of Cornwall was reserved for
him (1175); he was betrothed to Isabella the heiress of the earl-
dom of Gloucester (1176); and he was granted the lordship of
Ireland with the homage of the Anglo-Irish baronage (1177).
439
Henry II. even provoked a civil war by attempting to transfer
the duchy of Aquitaine from the hands of Richard Cceur de Lion
to those of John (i 183). In spite of the incapacity which he dis-
played in this war, John was sent a little later to govern Ireland
(1185); but he returned in a few months covered with disgrace,
having alienated the loyal chiefs by his childish insolence and
entirely failed to defend the settlers from the hostile septs.
Remaining henceforth at his father's side he was treated with
the utmost indulgence. But he joined with his brother Richard
and the French king Philip Augustus in the great conspiracy of
1189, and the discovery of his treason broke the heart of the old
king (see HENRY II.).
Richard on his accession confirmed John's existing possessions;
married him to Isabella of Gloucester; and gave him, besides
other grants, the entire revenues of six English shires; but ex-
cluded him from any share in the regency which was appointed
to govern England during the third crusade; and only allowed
him to live in the kingdom because urged to this concession by
their mother. Soon after the king's departure for the Holy
Land it became known that he had designated his nephew,
the young Arthur of Brittany, as his successor. John at
once began to intrigue against the regents with the aim of
securing England for himself. He picked a quarrel with the un-
popular chancellor William Longchamp (q.v.), and succeeded,
by the help of the barons and the Londoners, in expelling this
minister, whose chief fault was that of fidelity to the absent
Richard. Not being permitted to succeed Longchamp as the
head of the administration, John next turned to Philip Augustus
for help. A bargain was struck; and when Richard was captured
by Leopold, duke of Austria (December 1192), the allies en-
deavoured to prevent his release, and planned a partition of his
dominions. They were, however, unable to win either English
or Norman support and their schemes collapsed with Richard's
return (March 1194). He magnanimously pardoned his brother,
and they lived on not unfriendly terms for the next five years.
On his deathbed Richard, reversing his former arrangements,
caused his barons to swear fealty to John (1199), although the
hereditary claim of Arthur was by the law of primogeniture
undoubtedly superior.
England and Normandy, after some hesitation, recognized
John's title; the attempt of Anjou and Brittany to assert the
rights of Arthur ended disastrously by the capture of the young
prince at Mirebeau in Poitou (1202). But there was no part of his
dominions in which John inspired personal devotion. Originally
accepted as a political necessity, he soon came to be detested by
the people as a tyrant and despised by the nobles for his cowardice
and sloth. He inherited great difficulties — the feud with France,
the dissensions of the continental provinces, the growing indiffer-
ence of England to foreign conquests, the discontent of all his
subjects with a strict executive and severe taxation. But he
cannot be acquitted of personal responsibility for his misfortunes.
Astute in small matters, he had no breadth of view or foresight;
his policy was continually warped by his passions or caprices; he
flaunted vices of the most sordid kind with a cynical indifference
to public opinion, and shocked an age which was far from tender-
hearted by his ferocity to vanquished enemies. He treated his
most respectable supporters with base ingratitude, reserved his
favour for unscrupulous adventurers, and gave a free rein to the
licence of his mercenaries. While possessing considerable gifts
of mind and a latent fund of energy, he seldom acted or reflected
until the favourable moment had passed. Each of his great
humiliations followed as the natural result of crimes or blunders.
By his divorce from Isabella of Gloucester he offended the
English baronage (1200); by his marriage with Isabella of
Angouleme, the betrothed of Hugh of Lusignan, he gave an
opportunity to the discontented Poitevins for invoking French
assistance and to Philip Augustus for pronouncing against him
a sentence of forfeiture. The murder of Arthur (i 203) ruined his
cause in Normandy and Anjou; the story that the court of the
peers of France condemned him for the murder is a fable, but no
legal process was needed to convince men of his guilt. In the
later quarrel with Innocent III. (1207-1213; see LANGTON,
440
JOHN OF ARAGON— JOHN OF BOHEMIA
STEPHEN) he prejudiced his case by proposing a worthless
favourite for the primacy and by plundering those of the clergy
who bowed to the pope's sentences. Threatened with the
desertion of his barons he drove all whom he suspected to despera-
tion by his terrible severity towards the Braose family (1210);
and by his continued misgovernment irrevocably estranged the
lower classes. When submission to Rome had somewhat im-
proved his position he squandered his last resources in a new and
unsuccessful war with France (1214), and enraged the feudal
classes by new claims for military service and scutages. The
barons were consequently able to exact, in Magna Carta (June
1215), much more than the redress of legitimate grievances; and
the people allowed the crown to be placed under the control of
an oligarchical committee. When once the sovereign power had
been thus divided, the natural consequence was civil war and the
intervention of the French king, who had long watched for some
such opportunity. John's struggle against the barons and Prince
Louis (1216), afterwards King Louis VIII., was the most credit-
able episode of his career. But the calamitous situation of
England at the moment of his death, on the ipthof October 1216,
was in the main his work; and while he lived a national reaction
in favour of the dynasty was out of the question.
John's second wife, Isabella of Angouleme (d. 1246), who
married her former lover, Hugh of Lusignan, after the
English king's death, bore the king two sons, Henry III. and
Richard, earl of Cornwall; and three daughters, Joan (1210-1 238),
wife of Alexander II., king of Scotland, Isabella (d. 1241), wife of
the emperor Frederick II., and Eleanor (d. 1274), wife of William
Marshal, earl of Pembroke, and then of Simon de Mont fort, earl
of Leicester. John had also two illegitimate sons, Richard
and Oliver, and a daughter, Joan or Joanna, who married
Llewelyn I. ab lorwerth, prince of North Wales, and who died
in 1236 or 1237.
AUTHORITIES. — The chief chronicles for the reign are Gervase of
Canterbury's Gesta regum, Ralf of Coggeshall's Chronicon, Walter
of Coventry's Memoriale, Roger of Wendover's Flares historiarum,
the Annals of Burton, Dunstaple and Margan — all these in the Rolls
Series. The French chronicle of the so-called " Anonyme de B6-
thune " (Bouquet, Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France,
vol. xxiv.), the Histoire des dues de Normandie et des rois d'Angleterre
(ed. F. Michel, Paris, 1840) and the metrical biography of William
the Marshal (Histoire de Guillaume le Marcchal, ea. Paul Meyer,
3 vols., Paris, 1891, &c.) throw valuable light on certain episodes.
H. S. Sweetman's Calendar of Documents relating to Ireland, vol. i.
(Rolls Series); W.H. Bliss's Calendar of Entries in the Papal Registers,
vol. i. (Rolls Series); Potthast's Regesta pontificum, vol. i. (Berlin,
1874) ; Sir T. D. Hardy's Rotuli lilterarum clausarum (Rec. Commis-
sion, 1835) and Rotuli lilterarum patentium (Rec. Commission, 1835}
and L. Delisle's Catalogue desactes de Philippe Auguste (Paris, 1856)
are the most important guides to the documents. Of modern works
W. Stubbs's Constitutional history, vol. i. (Oxford, 1897); the same
writer's preface to Walter of Coventry, vol. ii. (Rolls Series) ; Miss K.
Norgate s John Lackland (London, 1902); C. Petit-Dutaillis' £tude
sur la vie et le regne de Louis VIII. (Paris, 1894) and W. S.
McKechnie's Magna Carta (Glasgow, 1905) are among the most
useful. (H. W. C. D.)
JOHN I. (1350-1395), king of Aragon, was the son of Peter IV.
and his third wife Eleanor of Sicily. He was born on the
27th of December 1350, and died by a fall from his horse, like
his namesake, cousin and contemporary of Castile. He was a
man of insignificant character, with a taste for artificial verse.
JOHN II. (1397-1479), king of Aragon, son of Ferdinand I. and
of his wife Eleanor of Albuquerque, born on the 29th of June
1397, was one of the most stirring and most unscrupulous kings
of the isth century. In his youth he was one of the infantes
(princes) of Aragon who took part in the dissensions of Castile
during the minority and reign of John II. Till middle life he was
also lieutenant-general in Aragon for his brother and predecessor
Alphonso V., whose reign was mainly spent in Italy. In his old
age he was engaged in incessant conflicts with his Aragonese and
Catalan subjects, with Louis XI. of France, and in preparing the
way for the marriage of his son Ferdinand with Isabella of Castile,
which brought about the union of the crowns. His troubles
with his subjects were closely connected with the tragic dissensions
in his own family. John was first married to Blanche of Navarre,
of the house of Evreux. By right of Blanche he became king
of Navarre, and on her death in 1441 he was left in possession
of the kingdom for his life. But a son Charles, called, as heir of
Navarre, prince of Viana, had been born of the marriage. John
from the first regarded his son with jealousy, which after his
second marriage with Joan Henriquez, and under her influence,
grew into absolute hatred. He endeavoured to deprive his son
of his constitutional right to act as lieutenant-general of Aragon
during his father's absence. The cause of the son was taken up
by the Aragonese, and the king's attempt to join his second wife
in the lieutenant-generalship was set aside. There followed a
long conflict, with alternations of success and defeat, which was
not terminated till the death of the prince of Viana, perhaps by
poison given him by his stepmother, in 1461. The Catalans,
who had adopted the cause of Charles and who had grievances of
their own, called in a succession of foreign pretenders. In conflict
with these the last years of King John were spent. He was
forced to pawn Rousillon, his possession on the north-east of the
Pyrenees, to Louis XL, who refused to part with it. In his old
age he was blinded by cataract, but recovered his eyesight by the
operation of couching. The Catalan revolt was pacified in 1472,
but John had war, in which he was generally unfortunate, with
his neighbour the French king till his death on the 2oth of
January 1479. He was succeeded by Ferdinand, his son by his
second marriage, who was already associated with his wife Isabella
as joint sovereign of Castile.
For the history, see Rivadeneyra, " Cronicas de los reyes de
Castilla," Biblioteca de autores espanoles, vols. Ixvi, Ixviii (Madrid,
1845, &c.); G. Zurita, Anales de Aragon (Saragossa, 1610). The
reign of John II. of Aragon is largely dealt with in W. H. Prescott's
History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella (1854).
JOHN (1296-1346), king of Bohemia, was a son of the emperor
Henry VII. by his wife Margaret, daughter of John I., duke of
Brabant, and was a member of the family of Luxemburg. Born
on the loth of August 1296, he became count of Luxemburg in
1309, and about the same time was offered the crown of Bohemia,
which, after the death of Wenceslas III., the last king of the
Premyslides dynasty in 1306, had passed to Henry, duke of
Carinthia, under whose weak rule the country was in a very
disturbed condition. The emperor accepted this offer on behalf
of his son, who married Elizabeth (d. 1330), a sister of Wenceslas,
and after Henry's departure for Italy, John was crowned king
of Bohemia at Prague in February 1311. Henry of Carinthia
was driven from the land, where a certain measure of order was
restored, and Moravia was again united with Bohemia. As
imperial vicar John represented his father at the diet of Nurem-
berg in January 1313, and was leading an army to his assistance
in Italy when he heard of the emperor's death, which took place
in August 1313. John was now a candidate for the imperial
throne; but, on account of his youth, his claim was not regarded
seriously, and he was persuaded to give his support to Louis,
duke of Upper Bavaria, afterwards the emperor Louis the
Bavarian. At Esslingen and elsewhere he aided Louis in his
struggle with Frederick the Fair, duke of Austria, who also
claimed the Empire; but his time was mainly passed in quelling
disturbances in Bohemia, where his German followers were
greatly disliked and where he himself soon became unpopular,
especially among the nobles; or in Luxemburg, the borders of
which county he was constantly and successfully striving to
extend. Restless, adventurous and warlike, John had soon
tired of governing his kingdom, and even discussed exchanging
it with the emperor Louis for the Palatinate; and while Bohemia
was again relapsing into a state of anarchy, her king was winning
fame as a warrior in almost every part of Europe. He fought
against the citizens of Metz and against his kinsman, John III.,
duke of Brabant; he led the knights of the Teutonic Order against
the heathen in Lithuania and Pomerania and promised Pope
John XXII. to head a crusade; and claiming to be king of Poland
he attacked the Poles and brought Silesia under his rule. He
obtained Tirol by marrying his son, John Henry, to Margaret
Maultasch, the heiress of the county, assisted the emperor to
defeat and capture Frederick the Fair at the battle of Miihldorf
in 1322, and was alternately at peace and at war with the dukes
JOHN OF CASTILE— JOHN OF FRANCE
441
of Austria and with his former foe, Henry of Carinthia. He was
a frequent and welcome visitor to France, in which country he
had a personal and hereditary interest; and on several occasions
his prowess was serviceable to his brother-in-law King Charles IV.,
and to Charles's successor Philip VI., whose son John, afterwards
King John II., married a daughter of the Bohemian king. Soon
after the battle of Muhldorf, the relations between John and the
emperor became somewhat strained, partly owing to the king's
growing friendship with the Papacy and with France, and partly
owing to territorial disputes. An agreement, however, was con-
cluded, and John undertook his invasion of Italy, which was
perhaps the most dazzling of his exploits. Invited by the
citizens of Brescia, he crossed the Alps with a meagre following
in 1331, quickly received the homage of many of the cities of
northern Italy, and soon found himself the ruler of a great part
of the peninsula. But his soldiers were few and his enemies were
many, and a second invasion of Italy in 1333 was followed by the
dissipation of his dreams of making himself king of Lombardy
and Tuscany, and even of supplanting Louis on the imperial
throne. The fresh trouble between king and emperor, caused by
this enterprise, was intensified by a quarrel over the lands left
by Henry of Carinthia, and still later by the interference of Louis
in Tirol; and with bewildering rapidity John was allying himself
with the kings of Hungary and Poland, fighting against the
emperor and his Austrian allies, defending Bohemia, governing
Luxemburg, visiting France and negotiating with the pope.
About 1340 the king was overtaken by blindness, but he con-
tinued to lead an active life, successfully resisting the attacks of
Louis and his allies, and campaigning in Lithuania. In 1346 he
made a decisive move against the emperor. Acting in union with
Pope Clement VI. he secured the formal deposition of Louis and
the election of his own son Charles, margrave of Moravia, as
German king, or king of the Romans, in July 1346. Then
journeying to help Philip of France against the English, he
fought at the battle of Crecy, where his heroic death on the 26th
of August 1346 was a fitting conclusion to his adventurous
life.
John was a chivalrous and romantic personage, who enjoyed a
great reputation for valour both before and after his death; but
as a ruler he was careless and extravagant, interested only in
his kingdom when seeking relief from his constant pecuniary
embarrassments. After the death of his first wife, who bore him
two sons, Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles IV., and John
Henry (d. 1375), and who had been separated from her husband
for some years, the king married Beatrice (d. 1383), daughter of
Louis I., duke of Bourbon, by whom he had a son, Wenceslas
(d. 1383). According to Camden the crest or badge of three
ostrich feathers, with the motto Ich dien, borne by the prince of
Wales was originally that of John of Bohemia and was first
assumed by Edward the Black Prince after the battle of Crecy.
There is no proof, however, that this badge was ever worn by
John — it certainly was not his crest — and its origin must be
sought elsewhere.
See J. Schotter, Johann, Graf von Luxemburg and Konig von
Bohmen (Luxemburg, 1865); F. von Weech, Kaiser Ludwig der
Bayer und Konig Johann von Bohmen (Munich, 1860), and U.
Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques, tome v. (Paris, 1905).
JOHN I. (1358-1390), king of Castile, was the son of Henry II.,
and of his wife Joan, daughter of John Manuel of Villena, head
of a younger branch of the royal house of Castile. In the be-
ginning of his reign he had to contend with the hostility of John
of Gaunt, who claimed the crown by right of his wife Constance,
daughter of Peter the Cruel. The king of Castile finally bought
off the claim of his English competitor by arranging a marriage
between his son Henry and Catherine, daughter of John of Gaunt,
in 1387. Before this date he had been engaged in hostilities with
Portugal which was in alliance with John of Gaunt. His first
quarrel with Portugal was settled by his marriage, in 1382, with
Beatrix, daughter of the Portuguese king Ferdinand. On the
death of his father-in-law in 1383, John endeavoured to enforce
the claims of his wife, Ferdinand's only child, to the crown of
Portugal. He was resisted by the national sentiment of the
people, and was utterly defeated at the battle of Aljubarrota,
on the i4th of August 1385. King John was killed at Alcala on
the gth of October 1390 by the fall of his horse, while he was
riding in a. fantasia with some of the light horsemen known as the
farfanes, who were mounted and equipped in the Arab style.
JOHN II. (1405-1454), king of Castile, was born on the 6th of
March 1405, the son of Henry III. of Castile and of his wife
Catherine, daughter of John of Gaunt. He succeeded his father
on the 25th of December 1406 at the age of a year and ten months.
It was one of the many misfortunes of Castile that the long reign
of John II. — forty-nine years — should have been granted to one
of the most incapable of her kings. John was amiable, weak and
dependent on those about him. He had no taste except for
ornament, and no serious interest except in amusements, verse-
making, hunting and tournaments. He was entirely under the
influence of his favourite, Alvaro de Luna, till his second wife,
Isabella of Portugal, obtained control of his feeble will. At her
instigation he threw over his faithful and able favourite, a mean-
ness which is said to have caused him well-deserved remorse. He
died on the 2oth of July 1454 at Valladolid. By his second
marriage he was the father of Isabella " the Catholic."
JOHN I. (b. and d. 1316), king of France, son of Louis X. and
Clemence, daughter of Charles Martel, who claimed to be king
of Hungary, was born, after his father's death, on the i5th of
November 1316, and only lived seven days. His uncle, after-
wards Philip V. has been accused of having caused his death, or
of having substituted a dead child in his place; but nothing was
ever proved. An impostor calling himself John I., appeared in
Provence, in the reign of John II., but he was captured and died
in prison.
JOHN II. (1319-1364), surnamed the Good, king of France, son
of Philip VI. and Jeanne of Burgundy, succeeded his father in
1350. At the age of 13 he married Bona of Luxemburg, daughter
of John, king of Bohemia. His early exploits against the English
were failures and revealed in the young prince both avarice and
stubborn persistence in projects obviously ill-advised. It was
especially the latter quality which brought about his ruin. His
first act upon becoming king was to order the execution of the
constable, Raoul de Brienne. The reasons for this are unknown,
but from the secrecy with which it was carried out and the readi-
ness with which the honour was transferred to the king's close
friend Charles of La Cesda, it has been attributed to the influence
and ambition of the latter. John surrounded himself with evil
counsellors, Simon de Buci, Robert de Lorris, Nicolas Braque,
men of low origin who robbed the treasury and oppressed the
people, while the king gave "himself up to tournaments and
festivities. In imitation of the English order of the Garter, he
established the knightly order of the Star, and celebrated its
festivals with great display. Raids of the Black Prince in Langue-
doc led to the states-general of 1355, which readily voted money,
but sanctioned the right of resistance against all kinds of pillage
— a distinct commentary on the incompetence of the king. In
September 1356 John gathered the flower of his chivalry and
attacked the Black Prince at Poitiers. The utter defeat of the
French was made the more humiliating by the capture of their
king, who had bravely led the third line of battle. Taken to
England to await ransom, John was at first installed in the Savoy
Palace, then at Windsor, Hertford, Somerton, and at last in
the Tower. He was granted royal state with his captive com-
panions, made a guest at tournaments, and supplied with
luxuries imported by him from France. The treaty of Bretigny
(1360), which fixed his ransom at 3,000,000 crowns, enabled him
to return to France, but although he married his daughter
Isabella to Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan, for a gift of 600,000
golden crowns, imposed a heavy feudal " aid " on merchandise,
and various other taxes, John was unable to pay more than
400,000 crowns to Edward III. His son Louis of Anjou, who had
been left as hostage, escaped from Calais in the summer of 1363,
and John, far in arrears in the payments of the ransom, sur-
rendered himself again " to maintain his royal honour which his
son had sullied." He landed in England in January 1364 and was
received with great honour, lodged again in the Savoy, and was a
442
JOHN OF HUNGARY- -JOHN III. OF POLAND
frequent guest of Edward at Westminster. He died on the Sth of
April, and the body was sent back to France with royal honours.
See Froissart's Chronicles; Due d'Aumale, Notes et documents
relatifs a Jean, roi de France, et a sa captivite (1856) ; A. Coville, in
Lavisse's Histoire de France, vol. iv., and authorities cited there.
JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540), king of Hungary, was the
son of the palatine Stephen Zapolya and the princess Hedwig of
Teschen, and was born at the castle of Szepesvar. He began his
public career at the famous Rakos diet of 1505, when, on his
motion, the assembly decided that after the death of the reigning
king, Wladislaus II., no foreign prince should be elected king
of Hungary. Henceforth he became the national candidate for
the throne, which his family had long coveted. As far back as
1491 his mother had proposed to the sick king that his daughter
Anne should be committed to her care in order, subsequently,
to be married to her son; but Wladislaus frustrated this project
by contracting a matrimonial alliance with the Habsburgs.
In 1510 Zapolya sued in person for the hand of the Princess
Anne in vain, and his appointment to the voivody of Tran-
sylvania (1511) was with the evident intention of removing
him far from court. In 1513, after a successful raid in Turkish
territory, he hastened to Buda at the head of 1000 horsemen and
renewed his suit, which was again rejected. In 1514 he stamped
out the dangerous peasant rising under Dozsa (q.v.) and the
infernal torments by means of which the rebel leader was
slowly done to death were the invention of Zapolya. With the
gentry, whose hideous oppression had moved the peasantry to
revolt, he was now more than ever popular, and, on the death of
Wladislaus II., the second diet of Rakos (1516) appointed him
the governor of the infant king Louis II. He now aimed at the
dignity of palatine also, but the council of state and the court
party combined against him and appointed Istvin Bathory
instead (1519). The strife of factions now burnt more fiercely
than ever at the very time when the pressure of the Turk de-
manded the combination of all the national forces against a
common danger. It was entirely due to the dilatoriness and
dissensions of Zapolya and Bathory that the great fortress of
Belgrade was captured in 1521, a loss which really sealed the
fate of Hungary. In 1522 the diet would have appointed both
Zapolya and Bathory captains-general of the realm, but the
court set Zapolya aside and chose Bathory only. At the diets
of Hatvan and Rakos in 1522, Zapolya placed himself at the head
of a confederation to depose the palatine and the other great
officers of state, but the attempt failed. In the following year,
however, the revolutionary Hatvan diet drove out all the members
of the council of state and made Istvin Verboczy, the great
jurist, and a friend of Zapolya, palatine. In the midst of this
hopeless anarchy, Suleiman I., the Magnificent, invaded Hungary
with a countless army, and the young king perished on the field of
Mohacs in a vain attempt to stay his progress, the contradictory
orders of Louis II. preventing Zapolya from arriving in time to
turn the fortunes of the day. The court party accused him of
deliberate treachery on this occasion; but the charge must be
pronounced groundless. His younger brother George was killed
at Mohacs, where he was second commander-in-chief. Zapolya
was elected king of Hungary at the subsequent diet of Tokaj
(Oct. 14), the election was confirmed by the diet of Szekes-
fehervikr (loth of November), and he was crowned on the follow-
ing day with the holy crown.
A struggle with the rival candidate, the German king Ferdi-
nand I., at once ensued (see HUNGARY: History) and it was only
with the aid of the Turks that king John was able to exhaust his
opponent and compel him to come to terms. Finally, in 1 538,
by the compact of Nagyvarad, Ferdinand recognized John asking
of Hungary, but secured the right of succession on his death.
Nevertheless John broke the compact by bequeathing the king-
dom to his infant son John Sigismund under Turkish protection.
John was the last national king of Hungary. His merit, as a
statesman, lies in his stout vindication of the national indepen-
dence, though without the assistance of his great minister Gyorgy
Utiesenovich, better known as " Frater George " (Cardinal
Martinuzzi q.v.), this would have been impossible. Indirectly
he contributed to the subsequent conquest of Hungary by
admitting the Turk as a friend.
See Vilmos Fraknoi, Ungarn vor der Schlacht bei Mohdcs (Buda-
pest, 1886); L. Kupelwieser, Die Kampfe Ungarns mil den Osmanen
bis zur Schlacht bei Mohdcs (Vienna, 1895); Ignacz Acsady, History
of the Hungarian Realm, vol. i. (Hung.) (Budapest, 1902-1904).
JOHN OF BRIENNE (c. 1148-1237), king of Jerusalem and
Latin emperor of Constantinople, was a man of sixty years of
age before he began to play any considerable part in history.
Destined originally for the Church, he had preferred to become a
knight, and in forty years of tournaments and fights he had
won himself a considerable reputation, when in 1208 envoys
came from the Holy Land to ask Philip Augustus, king of
France, to select one of his barons as husband to the heiress,
and ruler of the kingdom, of Jerusalem. Philip selected John
of Brienne, and promised to support him in his new dignity.
In 1 210 John married the heiress Mary (daughter of Isabella and
Conrad of Montferrat), assuming the title of king in right of his
wife. In. 1 211, after some desultory operations, he concluded
a six years' truce with Malik-el-Adil; in 1212 he lost his wife,
who left him a daughter, Isabella; soon afterwards he married
an Armenian princess. In the fifth crusade (1218-1221) he was
a prominent figure. The legate Pelagius, however, claimed the
command; and insisting on the advance from Damietta, in
spite of the warnings of King John, he refused to accept the
favourable terms of the sultan, as the king advised, until it was
too late. After the failure of the crusade, King John came to
the West to obtain help for his kingdom. In 1223 he met
Honorius III. and the emperor Frederick II. at Ferentino, where,
in order that he might be connected more closely with the Holy
Land, Frederick was betrothed to John's daughter Isabella,
now heiress of the kingdom. After the meeting at Ferentino,
John went to France and England, finding little consolation;
and thence he travelled to Compostella, where he married a
new wife, Berengaria of Castile. After a visit to Germany he
returned to Rome (1225). Here he received a demand from
Frederick II. (who had now married Isabella) that he should
abandon his title and dignity of king, which — so Frederick
claimed — had passed to himself along with the heiress of the
kingdom. John was now a septuagenarian " king in exile," but
he was still vigorous enough to revenge himself on Frederick,
by commanding the papal troops which attacked southern Italy
during the emperor's absence on the sixth crusade (1228-1229).
In 1229 John, now eighty years of age, was invited by the barons
of the Latin empire of Constantinople to become emperor, on
condition that Baldwin of Courtenay should marry his second
daughter and succeed him. For nine years he ruled in Constanti-
nople, and in 1235, with a few troops, he repelled a great siege
of the city by Vataces of Nicaea and Azen of Bulgaria. After
this last feat of arms, which has perhaps been exaggerated by
the Latin chroniclers, who compare him to Hector and the
Maccabees, John died in the habit of a Franciscan friar. An
aged paladin, somewhat uxorious and always penniless, he was a
typical knight errant, whose wanderings led him all over Europe,
and planted him successively on the thrones of Jerusalem and
Constantinople.
The story of John's career must be sought partly in histories of
the kingdom of Jerusalem and of the Latin Empire of the East,
partly in monographs. Among these, of which R. Rohricht gives a
list (Ceschichte aes Konigreichs Jerusalem, p. 699, n. 3), see especially
that of E. de Montcarmet, Un chevalier du temps passe (Limoges,
1876 and 1881).
JOHN III. (SOBIESKI) (1624-1696), king of Poland, was the
eldest son of James Sobieski, castellan of Cracow, and Theofila
Danillowiczowna, grand-daughter of the great Hetman Zol-
kiewski. After being educated at Cracow, he made the grand
tour with his brother Mark and returned to Poland in 1648.
He served against Chmielnicki and the Cossacks and was present
at the battles of Beresteczko (1651) and Batoka (1652), but
was one of the first to desert his unhappy country when invaded
by the Swedes in 1654, and actually assisted them to conquer the
Prussian provinces in 1655. He returned to his lawful allegiance
JOHN I. OF PORTUGAL
in the following year and assisted Czarniecki in his difficult
task of expelling Charles X. of Sweden from the central Polish
provinces. For his subsequent services to King John Casimir,
especially in the Ukraine against the Tatars and Cossacks,
he received the grand baton of the crown, or commandership-
in-chief (1668). He had already (1665) succeeded Czarniecki
as acting commander-in-chief. Sobieski had well earned
these distinctions by his extraordinary military capacity, but
he was now to exhibit a less pleasing side of his character. He
was in fact a typical representative of the unscrupulous self-
seeking Polish magnates of the I7th century who were always
ready to sacrifice everything, their country included, to their
own private ambition. At the election diet of 1669 he accepted
large bribes from Louis XIV. to support one of the French candi-
dates; after the election of Michael Wisniowiecki (June 19,
1669) he openly conspired, again in the French interest, against
his lawful sovereign, and that too at the very time when
the Turk was ravaging the southern frontier of the republic.
Michael was the feeblest monarch the Poles could have placed
upon the throne, and Sobieski deliberately attempted to make
government of any kind impossible. He formed a league with
the primate Prazmowski and other traitors to dethrone the
king; when (1670) the plot was discovered and participation
in it repudiated by Louis XIV., the traitors sought the help of
the elector of Brandenburg against their own justly indignant
countrymen. Two years later the same traitors again conspired
against the king, at the very time when the Turks had defeated
Sobieski's unsupported lieutenant, Luzecki, at Czertwerty-
worska and captured the fortress of Kamieniec (Kamenetz-
Podolskiy), the key of south-eastern Poland, while Lemberg was
only saved by the valour of Elias Lancki. The unhappy king
•did the only thing possible in the circumstances. He summoned
the tuszenia pospolite, or national armed assembly; but it failed
to assemble in time, whereupon Michael was constrained to
sign the disgraceful peace of Buczacz (Oct. 17, 1672) whereby
Poland ceded to the Porte the whole of the Ukraine with Podolia
and Kamieniec. Aroused to duty by a series of disasters for
which he himself was primarily responsible, Sobieski now
hastened to the frontier, and won four victories in ten days.
But he could not recover Kamieniec, and when the tuszenia pas-
polite met at Golenba and ordered an inquiry into the conduct
of Sobieski and his accomplices he frustrated all their efforts by
summoning a counter confederation to meet at Szczebrzeszyn.
Powerless to oppose a rebel who was at the same time com-
mander-in-chief, both the king and the diet had to give way, and
a compromise was come to whereby the peace of Buczacz was
repudiated and Sobieski was given a chance of rehabilitating
himself, which he did by his brilliant victory over an immense
Turkish host at Khotin (Nov. 10, 1673). The same day King
Michael died and Sobieski, determined to secure the throne
for himself, hastened to the capital, though Tatar bands were
swarming over the frontier and the whole situation was acutely
perilous. Appearing at the elective diet of 1674 at the head
of 6000 veterans he overawed every other competitor, and
despite the persistent opposition of the Lithuanians was elected
king on the 2ist of May. By this time, however, the state of
things in the Ukraine was so alarming that the new king had to
hasten to the front. Assisted by French diplomacy at the Porte
(Louis XIV. desiring to employ Poland against Austria), and his
own skilful negotiations with the Tatar khan, John III. now
tried to follow the example of Wladislaus IV. by leaving the
guardianship of the Ukraine entirely in the hands of the Cossacks,
while he assembled as many regulars and militiamen as possible
at Lemberg, whence he might hasten with adequate forces to
defend whichever of the provinces of the Republic might be in
most danger. But the appeal of the king was like the voice of
one crying in the wilderness, and not one gentleman in a hundred
hastened to the assistance of the fatherland. Even at the end
of August Sobieski had but 3000 men at his disposal to oppose to
60,000 Turks. Only his superb strategy and the heroic devo-
tion of his lieutenants — notably the converted Jew, Jan Samuel
Chrzanowski, who held the Ottoman army at bay for eleven days
443
behind the walls of Trembowla — enabled the king to remove
" the pagan yoke from our shoulders "; and he returned to be
crowned at Cracow on the i4th of February 1676. In October
1676, in his entrenched camp at Zaravno, he with 13,000 men
withstood 80,000 Turks for three weeks, and recovered by special
treaty two-thirds of the Ukraine, but without Kamieniec (treaty
of Zaravno, Oct. 16, 1676).
Having now secured peace abroad Sobieski was desirous of
strengthening Poland at home by establishing absolute mon-
archy; but Louis XIV. looked coldly on the project, and from
this time forth the old familiar relations between the republic
and the French monarchy were strained to breaking point,
though the final rupture did not come till 1682 on the arrival
of the Austrian minister, Zerowski, at Warsaw. After resisting
every attempt of the French court to draw him into the anti-
Habsburg league, Sobieski signed the famous treaty of alliance
with the emperor Leopold against the Turks (March 31, 1683),
which was the prelude to the most glorious episode of his life,
the relief of Vienna and the liberation of Hungary from the
Ottoman yoke. The epoch-making victory of the i 2th of Sep-
tember 1683 was ultimately decided by the charge of the Polish
cavalry led by Sobieski in person. Unfortunately Poland
profited little or nothing by this great triumph, and now that
she had broken the back of the enemy she was left to fight
the common enemy in the Ukraine with whatever assistance
she could obtain from the unwilling and unready Muscovites.
The last twelve years of the reign of John III. were a period of
unmitigated humiliation and disaster. He now reaped to the
full the harvest of treason and rebellion which he himself had
sown so abundantly during the first forty years of his life. A
treasonable senate secretly plotting his dethronement, a mutinous
diet rejecting the most necessary reforms for fear of " absolu-
tism," ungrateful allies who profited exclusively by his victories
— these were his inseparable companions during the remainder of
his life. Nay, at last his evil destiny pursued him to the battle-
field and his own home. His last campaign (in 1690) was an
utter failure, and the last years of his life were embittered
by the violence and the intrigues of his dotingly beloved wife,
Marya Kazimiera d'Arquien, by whom he had three sons,
James, Alexander and Constantine. He died on the i7th of
June 1696, a disillusioned and broken-hearted old man.
See Tadeusz Korzon, Fortunes and Misfortunes of John Sobieski
(Pol.) (Cracow, 1898); E. H. R. Tatham, John Sobieski (Oxford,
1881); Kazimierz Waliszewski, Archives of French Foreign Affairs,
1674-1696, v. (Cracow, 1881); Ludwik Piotr Leliwa, John Sobieski
and His Times (Pol.) (Cracow, 1882-1885); Kazimierz Waliszewski,
Marysienka Queen of Poland (London, 1898); Georg Rieder, Johann
Sobieski in Wien (Vienna, 1882). (R. N. B.)
JOHN I. (1357-1433), king of Portugal, the natural son of
Pedro I. (el Justicieiro), was born at Lisbon on the 22nd of
April 1357, and in 1364 was created grand-master of Aviz. On
the death of his lawful brother Ferdinand I., without male issue,
in October 1383, strenuous efforts were made to secure the
succession for Beatrice, the only child of Ferdinand I., who as
heiress-apparent had been married to John I. of Castile (Spain),
but the popular voice declared against an arrangement by which
Portugal would virtually have become a Spanish province, and
John was after violent tumults proclaimed protector and regent
in the following December. In April 1385 he was unanimously
chosen king by the estates of the realm at Coimbra. The king of
Castile invaded Portugal, but his army was compelled by
pestilence to withdraw, and subsequently by the decisive
battle of Aljubarrota (Aug. 14, 1385) the stability of John's
throne was permanently secured. Hostilities continued inter-
mittently until John of Castile died, without leaving issue by
Beatrice, in 1390. Meanwhile the king of Portugal went on
consolidating the power of the crown at home and the influence
of the nation abroad. In 1415 Ceuta was taken from the Moors
by his sons who had been born to him by his wife Philippa,
daughter of John, duke of Lancaster; specially distinguished
in the siege was Prince Henry (q.v.) afterwards generally known
as " the Navigator." John I., sometimes surnamed " the
Great," and sometimes " father of his country," died on the
444
JOHN II. OF PORTUGAL— JOHN OF SAXONY
nth of August 1433, in the forty-eighth year of a reign which
had been characterized by great prudence, ability and success;
he was succeeded by his son Edward or Duarte, so named out of
compliment to Edward III. of England.
See J. P. Oliveira Martins, Os filhos de D. Joao I. and A vida de
Nun' Alvarez (Lisbon, 2nd ed. 1894).
JOHN II. (1455-1495), the Perfect, king of Portugal, succeeded
his father, Alphonso V., in August 1481. His first business
was to curtail the overgrown power of his aristocracy; note-
worthy incidents in the contest were the execution (1483) of
the duke of Braganza for correspondence with Castile, and the
murder, by the king's own hand, of the youthful duke of Viseu
for conspiracy. This reign was signalized by Bartholomeu
Diaz's discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488. Maritime
rivalry led to disputes between Portugal and Castile until
their claims were adjusted by the famous treaty of Tordesillas
(June 7, 1494). John II. died, without leaving male issue, in
October 1495, and was succeeded by his brother-in-law
Emmanuel (Manoel) I.
See J. P. Oliveira Martins; 0 principe perfeito (Lisbon, 1895).
JOHN III. (1502-1557), king of Portugal, was born at Lisbon,
on the 6th of June 1502, and ascended the throne as successor of
his father Emmanuel I. in December 1521. In 1524 he married
Catherine, sister to the Emperor Charles V., who shortly after-
wards married the infanta Isabella, John's sister. Succeeding
to the crown at a time when Portugal was at the height of its
political power, and Lisbon in a position of commercial impor-
tance previously unknown, John III., unfortunately for his
dominions, became subservient to the clerical party among
his subjects, with disastrous consequences to the commercial
and social prosperity of his kingdom. He died of apoplexy on
the 6th of June 1557, and was succeeded by his grandson
Sebastian, then a child of only three years.
JOHN IV. (1603-1656), the Fortunate, king of Portugal, was
born at Villaviciosa in March 1603, succeeded to the dukedom
of Braganza in 1630, and married Luisa de Guzman, eldest
daughter of the duke of Medina Sidonia, in 1633. By the
unanimous voice of the people he was raised to the throne of
Portugal (of which he was held to be the legitimate heir) at the
revolution effected in December 1640 against the Spanish king,
Philip IV. His accession ted to a protracted war with Spain,
which only ended with the recognition of Portuguese inde-
pendence in a subsequent reign (1668). He died on the 6th of
November 1656, and was succeeded by his son Alphonso VI.
JOHN V- (1689-1750), king of Portugal, was born at Lisbon
on the 22nd of October 1689, and succeeded his father Pedro II.
in December 1706, being proclaimed on the ist of January 1707.
One of his first acts was to intimate his adherence to the Grand
Alliance, which his father had joined in 1703. Accordingly his
general Das Minas, along with Lord Galway, advanced into
Castile, but sustained the defeat of Almanza (April 14). In
October 1708 he married Maria Anna, daughter of Leopold I.,
thus strengthening the alliance with Austria; the series of un-
successful campaigns which ensued ultimately terminated in a
favourable peace with France in 1713 and with Spain in 1715.
The rest of his long reign was characterized by royal subservience
to the clergy, the kingdom being administered by ecclesiastical
persons and for ecclesiastical objects to an extent that gave
him the best of rights to the title " Most Faithful King,"
bestowed upon him and his successors by a bull of Pope Bene-
dict XIV. in 1748. John V. died on the 3ist of July 1750, and
was succeeded by his son Joseph.
JOHN VI. (1760-1826), king of Portugal, was born at Lisbon
on the 1 3th of May 1769, and received the title of prince of
Brazil in 1788. In 1792 he assumed the reins of government
in name of his mother Queen Mary I., who had become insane.
He had been brought up in an ecclesiastical atmosphere, and,
being naturally of a somewhat weak and helpless character,
was but ill adapted for the responsibilities he was thus called
on to undertake. In 1799 he assumed the title of regent, which
he retained until his mother's death in 1816. (For the
political history of his regency, see PORTUGAL.) In 1816 he was
recognized as king of Portugal but he continued to reside in
Brazil; the consequent spread of dissatisfaction resulted in
the peaceful revolution of 1820, and the proclamation of a
constitutional government, to which he swore fidelity on his
return to Portugal in 1822. In the same year, and again in
1823, he had to suppress a rebellion led by his son Dom Miguel,
whom he ultimately was compelled to banish in 1824. He died
at Lisbon on the 26th of March 1826, and was succeeded by
Pedro IV.
JOHN (1801-1873), king of Saxony, son of Prince Maxi-
milian of Saxony and his wife Caroline of Parma (d. 1804), was
born at Dresden on the i2th of December 1801. As a boy he
took a keen interest in literature and art (also in history, law,
and political science), and studied with the greatest ardour
classical and German literature (Herder, Schiller, Goethe).
He soon began to compose poetry himself, and drew great
inspiration from a journey in Italy (1821-1822), the pleasure
of which was however darkened by the death of his brother
Clemens. In Pavia the prince met with Biagioli's edition of
Dante, and this gave rise to his lifelong and fruitful studies of
Dante. The first part of his German translation of Dante was
published in 1828, and in 1833 appeared the complete work,
with a valuable commentary, which met with a great success.
Several new editions appeared under his constant supervision,
and he collected a complete library of works on Dante.
On his return from Italy he was betrothed to Princess Amalia
of Bavaria, daughter of King Maximilian Joseph. He thus
became the brother-in-law of Frederick William IV., king of
Prussia, with whom he had a deep and lasting friendship.
His wife Amalia died on the 8th of November 1877, having
borne him nine children, two of whom, Albert and George,
later became kings of Saxony.
On his return to Dresden, John was called in 1822 to the privy
board of finance (Geheimes Finanzkollegium) and in 1825 became
its vice-president. Under the leadership of the president,
Freiherr von Manteuffel, he acquired a thorough knowledge of
administration and of political economy, and laid the founda-
tions of that conservatism which he retained throughout life.
These new activities did not, however, interrupt his literary and
artistic studies. He came into still closer relations with politics
and government after his entry into the privy council in 1830.
During the revolution in Saxony he helped in the pacification of
the country, became commandant of the new national guard,
the political tendencies of which he tried to check, and took
an exceptionally active part in the organization of the con-
stitution of the 4th of September 1831 and especially in the
deliberations of the upper chamber, where he worked with un-
flagging energy and great ability. Following the example of his
father, he taught his children in person, and had a great influence
on their education. On the I2th of August 1845, during a stay
at Leipzig, the prince was the object of hostile public demon-
strations, the people holding him to be the head of an alleged
ultramontane party at court, and the revolution of 1848 com-
pelled him to interrupt his activities in the upper chamber.
Immediately after the suppression of the revolution he resumed
his place and took part chiefly in the discussion of legal questions.
He was also interested in the amalgamation of the German his-
torical and archaeological societies. On the death of his brother
Frederick Augustus II., John became, on the 9th of August 1854,
king of Saxony. As king he soon won great popularity owing
to his simplicity, graciousness and increasingly evident know-
ledge of affairs. In his policy as regards the German confedera-
tion he was entirely on the side of Austria. Though not opposed
to a reform of the federal constitution, he held that its main-
tenance under the presidency of Austria was essential. This
view he supported at the assembly of princes at Frankfort in
August and September 1863. He was unable to uphold his
views against Prussia, and in the war of 1866 fought on the side
of Austria. It was with difficulty that, on the conclusion of
peace, Austrian diplomacy succeeded in enabling the king to
retain his crown. After 1866 King John gradually became recon-
ciled to the new state of affairs. He entered the North German
JOHN I. OF BRABANT- -JOHN THE FEARLESS 445
confederation, and in the war of 1870-71 with France his troops
fought with conspicuous courage. He died at Dresden on the
zgth of October 1873.
See J. Petzholdt, " Zur Litteratur des Konigs Johann," Neuer
Anzeiger fur Bibliographic (1858,1859,1871,1873, 1874) ; "Aphorismen
iiber unsern KSnig J., " Bate von Geising (1866-1869) ; Das Buchlein
vom Konig Johann (Leipzig, 1867); H. v. Treitschke, Preussische
Jahrbiicher 23 (1869); A. Reumont, " Elogio di Giovanni, Re di
Sassonia," Dagli Atti della Accademia della Crusca (Florence, 1874) ;
J. P. von Winterstein, Johann, Konig von Sachsen (Dresden, 1878),
and in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic (1881) ; H. Ermisch, Die Wet-
tiner und die Landesgeschichte (Leipzig, 1902) ;O. Kaejmmel, Sachsische
Geschichte (Leipzig, 1899, Sammlung Goschen). (J. HN.)
JOHN I. (d. 1294), duke of Brabant and Lorraine, surnamed
the Victorious, one of the most gifted and chivalrous princes of
his time, was the second son of Duke Henry III. and Aleidis of
Burgundy. In 1267 his elder brother Henry, being infirm of
mind and body, was deposed in his favour. In 1271 John mar-
ried Margaret, daughter of Louis IX. of France, and on her death
in childbirth he took as his second wife (1273) Margaret of Flan-
ders, daughter of Guy de Dampierre. His sister Marie was es-
poused in 1275 to Philip III. (the Bold) of France, and during
the reign of Philip and his son Philip IV. there were close rela-
tions of friendship and alliance between Brabant and France.
In 1285 John accompanied Philip III. in his expedition against
Peter III., king of Aragon, but the duchy of Limburg was the
scene of his chief activity and greatest successes. After the
death of Waleran IV. in 1279 the succession to this duchy was
disputed. His heiress, Ermengarde, had married Reinald I.
count of Gelderland. She died childless, but her husband con-
tinued to rule in Limburg, although his rights were disputed
by Count Adolph of Berg, nephew to Waleran IV. (see LIMBURG).
Not being strong enough to eject his rival, Adolph sold his
rights to John of Brabant, and hostilities broke out in 1283.
Harassed by desultory warfare and endless negotiations, and
seeing no prospect of holding his own against the powerful duke
of Brabant, Reinald made over his rights to Henry III. count of
Luxemburg, who was a descendant of Waleran III. of Limburg.
Henry III. was sustained by the archbishop of Cologne and other
allies, as well as by Reinald of Gelderland. The duke of Brabant
at once invaded the Rhineland and laid siege to the castle of
Woeringen near Bonn. Here he was attacked by the forces
of the confederacy on the 5th of June 1288. After a bloody
struggle John of Brabant, though at the head of far inferior
numbers, was completely victorious. Limburg was henceforth
attached to the duchy of Brabant. John consolidated his
conquest by giving his daughter in marriage to Henry of Luxem-
burg (1291). John the Victorious was a perfect model of a
feudal prince in the days of chivalry, brave, adventurous, ex-
celling in every form of active exercise, fond of display, generous
in temper. He delighted in tournaments, and was always eager
personally to take part in jousts. On the 3rd of May 1294, on
the occasion of some marriage festivities at Bar, he was wounded
in the arm in an encounter by Pierre de Bausner, and died from
the effects of the hurt.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — H. Barlandus, Rerum gestarum a Brabantiae
ducibus historia usque in annum 1526 (Louvain, 1566) ; G. C. van der
Berghe, Jean le Victorieux, due de Brabant (1259-1294), (Louvain
1857) ; K. F. Stallaert, Gesch. v. Jan I. van Braband en zijne ttjdvak
(Brussels, 1861); A. Wauters, Le Due Jean l" et le Brabant sous le
regne de ce prince (Brussels, 1859).
JOHN, or HANS (1513-1571), margrave of Brandenburg
Custrin, was the younger son of Joachim I., elector of Branden-
burg, and was born at Tangermunde on the 3rd of August 1513
In spite of the dispositio Achillea which decreed the indivisi
bility of the electorate, John inherited the new mark of Branden
burg on his father's death in July 1535. He had been brought up
as a strict Catholic, but soon wavered in his allegiance, and in
1538 ranged himself definitely on the side of the Reformers
About the same time he joined the league of Schmalkalden
but before the war broke out between the league and the em
peror Charles V. the promises of the emperor had won him ove
to the imperial side. After the conclusion of the war, the rela
tions between John and Charles became somewhat strained
?he margrave opposed the Interim, issued from Augsburg in
tfay 1548; and he was the leader of the princes who formed a
eague for the defence of the Lutheran doctrines in February
550. The alliance of these princes, however, with Henry II.,
ting of France, does not appear to have commended itself to
lim and after some differences of opinion with Maurice, elector
f Saxony, he returned to the emperor's side. His remaining
•ears were mainly spent in the new mark, which he ruled care-
ully and economically. He added to its extent by the purchase
)f Beeskow and Storkow, and fortified the towns of Custrin and
'eitz. He died at Custrin on the I3th of January 1571. His
wife Catherine was a daughter of Henry II., duke of Brunswick,
,nd as he left no sons the new mark passed on his death to his
nephew John George, elector of Brandenburg.
See Berg, Beitrage zur Geschichte des Markgrafen Johann von
Kustrin (Landsberg, 1903).
JOHN (1371-1419), called the Fearless (Sans Peur), duke of
burgundy, son of Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and Mar-
jaret of Flanders, was born at Dijon on the 28th of May 1371.
On the death of his maternal grandfather in 1384 he received the
title of count of Nevers, which he bore until his father's death.
Though originally destined to be the husband of Catherine,
sister of Charles VI. of France, he married in 1385 Margaret,
daughter of Duke Albert of Bavaria, an alliance which con-
solidated his position in the Netherlands. In the spring of
1396 he took arms for Hungary against the Turks and on the
28th of September was taken prisoner by the Sultan Bayezid I.
at the bloody battle of Nicopolis, where he earned his surname
of " the Fearless." He did not recover his liberty until 1397,
and then only by paying an enormous ransom. He succeeded
bis father in 1404, and immediately found himself in conflict
with Louis of Orleans, the young brother of Charles VI. The
history of the following years is filled with the struggles between
these two princes and with their attempts to seize the authority
in the name of the demented king. John endeavoured to
strengthen his position by marrying his daughter Margaret to
the dauphin Louis, and by betrothing his son Philip to a daugh-
ter of Charles VI. Like his father, he looked for support to
the popular party, to the tradesmen, particularly the powerful
gild of the butchers, and also to the university of Paris. In 1405
he opposed in the royal council a scheme of taxation proposed
by the duke of Orleans, which was nevertheless adopted.
Louis retaliated by refusing to sanction the duke of Burgundy's
projected expedition against Calais, whereupon John quitted
the court in chagrin on the pretext of taking up his mother's
heritage. He was, however, called back to the council to find
that the duke of Orleans and the queen had carried off the
dauphin. John succeeded in bringing back the' dauphin to
Paris, and open war seemed imminent between the two princes.
But an arrangement was effected in October 1405, and in 1406
John was made by royal decree guardian of the dauphin and the
king's children.
The struggle, however, soon revived with increased force.
Hostilities had been resumed with England; the duke of Orleans
had squandered the money raised for John's expedition against
Calais; and the two rivals broke out into open threats. On the
2oth of November 1407 their uncle, the duke of Berry, brought
about a solemn reconciliation, but three days later Louis was
assassinated by John's orders in the Rue Barbette, Paris. John
at first sought to conceal his share in the murder, but ultimately
decided to confess to his uncles, and abruptly left Paris. His
vassals, however, showed themselves determined to support him
in his struggle against the avengers of the duke of Orleans.
The court decided to negotiate, and called upon the duke to
return. John entered Paris in triumph, and instructed the
Franciscan theologian Jean Petit (d. 1411) to pronounce an
apology for the murder. But he was soon called back to his
estates by a rising of the people of Liege against his brother-in-law,
the bishop of that town. The queen and the Orleans party took
every advantage of his absence and had Petit's discourse solemnly
refuted. John's victory over the Liegeois at Hasbain on the
23rd of September 1408, enabled him to return to Paris, where he
446
JOHN OF SAXONY— JOHN, DON
was reinstated in his ancient privileges. By the peace of
Chartres (March 9, 1409) the king absolved him from the
crime, and Valentina Visconti, the widow of the murdered duke,
and her children pledged themselves to a reconciliation; while an
edict of the 27th of December 1409 gave John the guardianship
of the dauphin. Nevertheless, a new league was formed against
the duke of Burgundy in the following year, principally at the
instance of Bernard, count of Armagnac, from whom the party
opposed to the Burgundians took its name. The peace of
Bicetre (Nov. 2, 1410) prevented the outbreak of hostilities,
inasmuch as the parties were enjoined by its terms to return
to their estates; but in 1411, in consequence of ravages com-
mitted by the Armagnacs in the environs of Paris, the duke of
Burgundy was called back to Paris. He relied more than ever
on the support of the popular party, which then obtained the
reforming Ordonnance Cabochienne (so called from Simon
Caboche, a prominent member of the gild of the butchers).
But the bloodthirsty excesses of the populace brought a change.
John was forced to withdraw to Burgundy (August 1413),
and the university of Paris and John Gerson once more cen-
sured Petit's propositions, which, but for the lavish bribes of
money and wines offered by John to the prelates, would have
been solemnly condemned at the council of Constance. John's
attitude was undecided; he negotiated with the court and also
with the English,- who had just renewed hostilities with France.
Although he talked of helping his sovereign, his troops took no
part in the battle of Agincourt (1415), where, however, two of his
brothers, Anthony, duke of Brabant, and Philip, count of
Nevers, fell fighting for France.
In 1417 John made an attack on Paris, which failed through
his loitering at Lagny; l but on the 3Oth of May 1418 a traitor,
one Perrinet Leclerc, opened the gates of Paris to the Burgundian
captain, Villiers de PIsle Adam. The dauphin, afterwards King
Charles VI., fled from the town, and John betook himself to the
king, who promised to forget the past. John, however, did
nothing to prevent the surrender of Rouen, which had been
besieged by the English, and on which the fate of the kingdom
seemed to depend; and the town was taken in 1419. The
dauphin then decided on a reconciliation, and on the nth 'of
July the two princes swore peace on the bridge of Pouilly, near
Melun. On the ground that peace was not sufficiently assured
by the Pouilly meeting, a fresh interview was proposed by the
dauphin and took place on the loth of September 1419 on the
bridge of Montereau, when the duke of Burgundy was felled
with an axe by Tanneguy du Chastel, one of the dauphin's
companions, and done to death by the other members of the
dauphin's escort. His body was first buried at Montereau and
afterwards removed to the Chartreuse of Dijon and placed in
a magnificent tomb sculptured by Juan de la Huerta; the tomb
was afterwards transferred to the museum in the hdlel de mile. ~
By his wife, Margaret of Bavaria, he had one son, Philip the
Good, who succeeded him; and seven daughters — Margaret,
who married in 1404 Louis, son of Charles VI., and in 1423
Arthur, earl of Richmond and afterwards duke of Brittany;
Mary, wife of Adolph of Cleves; Catherine, promised in 1410
to a son of Louis of Anjou; Isabella, wife of Olivier de Chatillon,
count of Penthi£vre; Joanna, who died young; Anne, who mar-
ried John, duke of Bedford, in 1423; and Agnes, who married
Charles I., duke of Bourbon, in 1425.
See A. G. P. Baron de Barante, Hisloire des dues de Bourgogne,
{Brussels, 1835-1836); B. Zeller, Louis de France et Jean sans Peur
(Paris, 1886) ; and E. Petit, Itineraire de Philippe le Hardi et de Jean
sans Peur (Paris, 1888). (R. Po.)
JOHN (1468-1532), called the Steadfast, elector of Saxony,
fourth son of the elector Ernest, was born on the 3Oth of June
1468. In 1486, when his eldest brother became elector as
Frederick III., John received a part of the paternal inheritance
and afterwards assisted his kinsman, the German king Maxi-
milian I., in several campaigns. He was an early adherent of
Luther, and, becoming elector of Saxony by his brother's death
1 This incident earned for him among the Parisians the con-
temptuous nickname of " John of Lagny, who does not hurry."
in May 1525, was soon prominent among the Reformers. Having
assisted to suppress the rising led by Thomas Munzer in 1525,
he helped Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to found the league of
Gotha, formed in 1526 for the protection of the Reformers. He
was active at the diet of Spires in 1526, and the " recess " of this
diet gave him an opportunity to reform the church in Saxony,
where a plan for divine service was drawn up by Luther. The
assertions of Otto von Pack that a league had been formed
against the elector and his friends induced John to ally himself
again with Philip of Hesse in March 1528, but he restrained
Philip from making an immediate attack upon their opponents.
He signed the protest against the " recess " of the diet of Spires
in 1529, being thus one of the original Protestants, and was
actively hostile to Charles V. at the diet of Augsburg in 1530.
Having signed the confession of Augsburg, he was alone among
the electors in objecting to the election of Ferdinand, afterwards
the emperor Ferdinand I., as king of the Romans. He was
among the first members of the league of Schmalkalden, assented
to the religious peace of Nuremberg in 153 2, and died at Schweid-
nitz on the i6th of August 1532. John was twice married and
left two sons and two daughters. His elder son, John Frederick,
succeeded him as elector, and his younger son was John Ernest
(d. 1553). He rendered great services to the Protestant cause
in its infancy, but as a Lutheran resolutely refused to come to
any understanding with other opponents of the older faith.
See J. Becker, Kurfiirst Johann von Sachsen und seine Beziehungen
zu Luther (Leipzig, 1890); J. Janssen, History of the German People
(English translation), vol. v. (London, 1903) ; L. von Ranke, Deutsche
Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation (Leipzig, 1882).
JOHN, DON (1545-1578), of Austria, was the natural son of
the emperor Charles V. by Barbara Blomberg, the daughter of
an opulent citizen of Regensburg. He was born in that free
imperial city on the 24th of February 1545, the anniversary of
his father's birth and coronation and of the battle of Pavia,
and was at first confided under the name of Geronimo to foster
parents of humble birth, living at a village near Madrid; but in
1554 he was transferred to the charge of Madalena da Ulloa,
the wife of Don Luis de Quijada, and was brought up in ignorance
of his parentage at Quijada's castle of Villagarcia not far from
Valladolid. Charles V. in a codicil of his will recognized Gero-
nimo as his son, and recommended him to the care of his successor.
In September 1559 Philip II. of Spain publicly recognized the
boy as a member of the royal family, and he was known at court
as Don Juan de Austria. For three years he was educated at
Alcala, and had as school companions his nephews, the infante
Don Carlos and Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma. With
Don Carlos his relations were especially friendly. It had been
Philip's intention that Don John should become a monk, but he
showed a strong inclination for a soldier's career and the king
yielded. In 1 568 Don John was appointed to the command of
a squadron of 33 galleys, and his first operations were against the
Algerian pirates. His next services were (1569-70) against the
rebel Moriscos in Granada. In 1571 a nobler field of action was
opened to him. The conquest of Cyprus by the Turks had led
the Christian powers of the Mediterranean to fear for the safety
of the Adriatic. A league between Spain and Venice was
effected by the efforts of Pope Pius V. to resist the Turkish
advance to the west, and Don John was named admiral in chief
of the combined fleets. At the head of 208 galleys, 6 galleasses
and a number of smaller craft, Don John encountered the
Turkish fleet at Lepanto on the 7th of October 1571, and gained
a complete victory. Only forty Turkish vessels effected their
escape, and it was computed that 35,000 of their men were slain
or captured while 15,000 Christian galley slaves were released.
Unfortunately, through divisions and jealousies between the
allies, the fruits of one of the most decisive naval victories in
history were to a great extent lost.
This great triumph aroused Don John's ambition and filled
his imagination with schemes of personal aggrandizement.
He thought of erecting first a principality in Albania and the
Morea, and then a kingdom in Tunis. But the conclusion by
Venice of a separate peace with the sultan put an end to the
JOHN, DON— JOHN OF THE CROSS
league, and though Don John captured Tunis in 1573, it was
again speedily lost. The schemes of Don John found no support
in Philip II., who refused to entertain them, and even withheld
from his half-brother the title of infante of Spain. At last,
however, he was appointed (1576) governor-general of the Nether-
lands, in succession to Luis de Requesens. The administration
of the latter had not been successful, the revolt headed by the
prince of Orange had spread, and at the time of Don John's
nomination the Pacification of Ghent appeared to have united
the whole of the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands in deter-
mined opposition to Spanish rule and the policy of Philip II.
The magic of Don John's name, and the great qualities of which
he had given proof, were to recover what had been lost. He
was, however, now brought into contact with an adversary of
a very different calibre from himself. This was William of
Orange, whose influence was now supreme throughout the Nether-
lands. The Pacification of Ghent, which was really a treaty
between Holland and Zeeland and the other provinces for the
defence of their common interests against Spanish oppression,
had been followed by an agreement between the southern pro-
vinces, known as the Union of Brussels, which, though maintain-
ing the Catholic religion and the king's authority, aimed at the
expulsion of the Spanish soldiery and officials from the Nether-
lands. Confronted by the refusal of the states general to accept
him as governor unless he assented to the conditions of the Paci-
fication of Ghent, swore to maintain the rights and privileges
of the provinces, and to employ only Netherlanders in his
service, Don John, after some months of fruitless negotiations,
saw himself compelled to give way. At Huey on the i2th of
February 1577 he signed a treaty, known as the " Perpetual
Edict," in which he complied with these terms. On the ist of
May he made his entry into Brussels, but he found himself
governor-general only in name, and the prince of Orange master
of the situation. In July he suddenly betook himself to Namur
and withdrew his concessions. William of Orange forthwith
took up his residence at Brussels, and gave his support to the
archduke Matthias, afterwards emperor, whom the states-
general accepted as their sovereign. Meanwhile Philip had sent
large reinforcements to Don John under the leadership of his
cousin Alexander Farnese. At the head of a powerful force
Don John now suddenly attacked the patriot army at Gem-
blours, where, chiefly by the skill and daring of Farnese, a com-
plete victory was gained on the 3ist of January 1578. He
could not, however, follow up his success for lack of funds, and
was compelled to remain inactive all the summer, chafing with
impatience at the cold indifference with which his appeals for
the sinews of war were treated by Philip. His health gave way,
he was attacked with fever, and on the ist of October 1578, at
the early age of 33, Don John died, heartbroken at the failure
of all his soaring ambitions, and at the repeated proofs that he
had received of the king his brother's jealousy and neglect.
See Sir W. Stirling Maxwell, Don John of Austria 1547-157$ (1883)
and the bibliography under PHILIP II. OF SPAIN.
JOHN, DON (1629-1679), of Austria, the younger, recognized
as the natural son of Philip IV., king of Spain, his mother,
Maria Calderon, or Calderona, being an actress. Scandal
accused her of a prodigality of favours which must have rendered
the paternity of Don John very dubious. He was, however,
recognized by the king, received a princely education at Ocafia,
and was amply endowed with commanderies in the military
orders, and other forms of income. Don John was sent in 1647
to Naples — then in the throes of the popular rising first led by
Masaniello — with a squadron and a military force, to support
the viceroy. The restoration of royal authority was due rather
to the exhaustion of the insurgents and the follies of their French
leader, the duke of Guise, than to the forces of Don John. He
was next sent as viceroy to Sicily, whence he was recalled in 1651
to complete the pacification of Catalonia, which had been in
revolt since 1640. The excesses of the French, whom the Catalans
had called in, had produced a reaction, and Don John had not
much more to do than to preside over the final siege of Barcelona
and the convention which terminated the revolt in October 1652.
447
On both occasions he had played the peacemaker, and this
sympathetic part, combined with his own pleasant manners
and handsome person with bright eyes and abundant raven-
black hair — a complete contrast to the fair complexions of the
Habsburgs — made him a popular favourite. In 1656 he was
sent to command in Flanders, in combination with the prince of
Conde, then in revolt against his own sovereign. At the storming
of the French camp at Valenciennes in 1656, Don John displayed
brilliant personal courage at the head of a cavalry charge.
When, however, he took a part in the leadership of the army at
the Dunes in the battle fought against Turenne and the British
forces sent over by Cromwell in 1658, he was completely beaten,
in spite of the efforts of Conde, whose advice he neglected, and
of the hard fighting of English Royalist exiles. During 1661 and
1662 he commanded against the Portuguese in Estremadura.
The Spanish troops were ill-appointed, irregularly paid and un-
trustworthy, but they were superior in numbers and some
successes were gained. If Don John had not suffered from the
indolence which Clarendon, who knew him, considered his chief
defect, the Portuguese would have been hard pressed. The
greater part of the south of Portugal was overrun, but in 1663
the Portuguese were reinforced by a body of English troops,
and were put under the command of the Huguenot Schomberg.
By him Don John was completely beaten at Estremos. Even
now he might not have lost the confidence of his father, if
Queen Mariana, mother of the sickly infante Carlos, the only
surviving legitimate son of the king, had not regarded the bastard
with distrust and dislike. Don John was removed from command
and sent to his commandery at Consuegra. After the death of
Philip IV. in 1665 Don John became the recognized leader of
the opposition to the government of Philip's widow, the queen
regent. She and her favourite, the German Jesuit Nithard,
seized and put to death one of his most trusted servants, Don
Jose Malladas. Don John, in return, put himself at the head of
a rising of Aragon and Catalonia, which led to the expulsion of
Nithard on the 25th of February 1669. Don John was, however,
forced to content himself with the viceroyalty of Aragon. In
1677, the queen mother having aroused universal opposition by
her shameless favour for Fernando de Valenzuela, Don John
was able to drive her from court, and establish himself as prime
minister. Great hopes were entertained of his administration,
but it proved disappointing and short. Don John died on the
1 7th of September 1679.
The career of Don John can be followed in J. C. Dunlop's Memoirs
of Spain 1621-1700 (Edin. 1834).
JOHN OF BEVERLEY, ST (d. 721), English bishop, is said
to have been born of noble parents at Harpham, in the east riding
of Yorkshire. He received his education at Canterbury under
Archbishop Theodore, the statement that he was educated at
Oxford being of course untrue. He was for a time a member of
the Whitby community, under St Hilda, and in 687 he was conse-
crated bishop of Hexham and in 705 was promoted to the bishop-
ric of York. He resigned the latter see in 718, and retired to a
monastery which he had founded at Beverley, where he died on
the 7th of May 721. He was canonized in 1037, and his feast
is celebrated annually in the Roman Church on the 7th of May.
Many miracles of healing are ascribed to John, whose pupils were
numerous and devoted to him. He was celebrated for his
scholarship as well as for his virtues.
The following works are ascribed to John by J. Bale: Pro Luca
exponendo (an exposition of Luke) ; Homiliae in Evangelia; Epistolae
ad Herebaldum, Audenam, et Bertinum; and Epistolae ad Hyldam
abbatissam. See life by Folcard, based on Bede, in Acta SS. Bolland. ;
and J. Raine's Fasti eboracenses (1863).
JOHN OF THE CROSS, ST (1542-1591), Spanish mystic,
was born at Ontiveros (Old Castile) on the 24th of June 1542.
He became a professed Carmelite in 1564, and was ordained
priest at Salamanca in 1567. He met with much opposition in
his efforts to introduce the reforms proposed by St Theresa, and
was more than once imprisoned. His real name was Juan de
Yepez y Alvarez; in religion he was known as Juan de San
Matias till 1568, when he adopted the name of Juan de la Cruz.
448
JOHN OF ASIA— JOHN OF DAMASCUS
Broken by persecution, he was sent to the monastery of Ubeda,
where he died in 1591; his Obras espiriluales were published
posthumously in 1618. He was beatified in 1674 and canonized
on the 27th of December 1726. The lofty symbolism of his prose
is frequently obscure, but his lyrical verses are distinguished for
their rapturous ecstasy and beauty of expression.
Some of his poems have been translated with great success by
Arthur Symons in Images of Good and Evil; the most convenient
edition of his works, which nave been frequently reprinted, is that
contained in vol. xvi. of the Biblioteca de autores espanoles.
JOHN OF ASIA (or OF EPHESUS), a leader of the Monophysite
Syriac-speaking Church in the 6th century, and one of the earliest
and most important of Syriac historians. Born at Amid (Diarbekr)
about 505, he was there ordained as a deacon in 529: but in 534
we find him in Palestine, and in 535 he passed to Constantinople.
The cause of his leaving Amid was probably either the great
pestilence which broke out there in 534 or the furious persecution
directed against the Monophysites by Ephraim (patriarch of
Antioch 520-544) and Abraham (bishop of Amid c. 520-541).
In Constantinople he seems to have early won the notice of
Justinian, one of the main objects of whose policy was the con-
solidation of Eastern Christianity as a bulwark against the
heathen power of Persia. John is said by Barhebraeus (Chron.
eccl. i. 195) to have succeeded Anthimus as Monophysite bishop
of Constantinople, but this is probably a mistake.1 Anyhow he
enjoyed the emperor's favour until the death of the latter in 565
and (as he himself tells us) was entrusted with the administration
of the entire revenues of the Monophysite Church. He was also
sent, with the rank of bishop, on a mission for the conversion of
such heathen as remained in Asia Minor, and informs us that the
number of those whom he baptized amounted to 70,000. He also
built a large monastery at Tralles on the hills skirting the valley
of the Meander, and more than 90 other monasteries. Of the
mission to the Nubians which he promoted, though he did not
himself visit their country, an interesting account is given in
the 4th book of the 3rd Dart of his History? In 546 the emperor
entrusted him with the task of rooting out the secret practice of
idolatry in Constantinople and its neighbourhood. But his
fortunes changed soon after the accession of Justin II. About
571 Paul of Asia, the orthodox or Chalcedonian patriarch, began
(with the sanction of the emperor) a rigorous persecution of the
Monophysite Church leaders, and John was among those who
suffered most. He gives us a detailed account of his sufferings
in prison, his loss of civil rights, &c., in the third part of his
History. The latest events recorded are of the date 585, and the
author cannot have lived much longer; but of the circumstances
of his death nothing is known.
John's main work was his Ecclesiastical History, which covered
more than six centuries, from the time of Julius Caesar to 5&5-
It was composed in three parts, each containing six books. The
first part seems to have wholly perished. The second, which
extended from Theodosius II. to the 6th or 7th year of Justin II.,
was (as F. Nau has recently proved) ' reproduced in full or almost in
full, in John's own words, in the third part of the Chronicle which was
till lately attributed to the patriarch Dionysius Telmaharensis, but
is really the work of an unknown compiler. Of this second division
of John's History, in which he had probably incorporated the so-
called Chronicle of Joshua the Stylite, considerable portions are
found in the British Museum MSS. Add. 14647 and 14650, and these
have been published in the second volume of Land's Anecdota
Syriaca. But the whole is more completely presented in the Vatican
MS. (clxii.), which contains the third part of the Chronicle of
pseudo-Dionysius. The third part of John's history, which is a
detailed account of the ecclesiastical events which happened in
571-585, as well as of some earlier occurrences, survives in a fairly
complete state in Add. 14640, a British Museum MS. of the 7th
century. It forms a contemporary record of great value to the
historian. Its somewhat disordered state, the want of chronological
1 See Land, Joannes Bischof von Ephesos, pp. 57 seq.
1 Cf. Land's Appendix (op. cit. 172-193).
* See Bulletin critique, 15th June and 25th Aug. 1896, and 25th Jan.
1897; Journal asiatique, gth series, vol. viii. (1896) pp. 346 sqq. and
vol. ix. (1897) p. 529 ; also Revue de I'Orient chretien, Suppl. trimeslriel
(1897), PP. 41-54, 455-493; and compare Noldeke in Vienna Oriental
Journal (1896), pp. 160 sqq. The facts are briefly stated in Duval's
Literature syriaque, p. 192. A full analysis of this second part of
John's history has been given by M. Nau.
arrangement, and the occasional repetition of accounts of the same
events are due, as the author himself informs us (ii. 50), to the work
being almost entirely composed during the times of persecution.
The same cause may account for the somewhat slovenly Syriac style.
The writer claims to have treated his subject impartially, and though
written from the narrow point of view of one to whom Monophydte
" orthodoxy " was all-important, it is evidently a faithful reproduc-
tion of events as they occurred. This third part was edited by
Cureton (Oxford, 1853), and was translated into English by R. Payne-
Smith (Oxford, 1860) and into German by J. M. Schonfelder (Munich,
1862).
John's other known work was a series of Biographies of Eastern
Saints, compiled about 569. These have been edited by Land in
Anecdota Syriaca, ii. 1-288, and translated into Latin by Douwen
and Land (Amsterdam, 1889). An interesting estimate of John
as an ecclesiastic and author was given by the Abb6 Duchesne in a
memoir read before the five French Academies on the 25th of
October 1892.
JOHN OF DAMASCUS (JOHANNES DAMASCENUS) (d. before
754), an eminent theologian of the Eastern Church, derives his
surname from Damascus, where he was born about the close of
the 7th century. His Arabic name was Mansur (the victor) , and
he received the epithet Chrysorrhoas (gold-pouring) on account
of his eloquence. The principal account of his life is contained
in a narrative of the loth century, much of which is obviously
legendary. His father Sergius was a Christian, but notwithstand-
ing held a high office under the Saracen caliph, in which he was
succeeded by his son. John is said to have owed his education
in philosophy, mathematics and theology to an Italian monk
named Cosmas, whom Sergius had redeemed from a band of
captive slaves. About the year 730 he wrote several treatises
in defence of image-worship, which the emperor, Leo the Isaurian,
was making strenuous efforts to suppress.
Various pieces of evidence go to show that it was shortly after
this date that he resolved to forsake the world, divided his fortune
among his friends and the poor, and betook himself to the monas-
tery of St Sabas, near Jerusalem, where he spent the rest of his
life. After the customary probation he was ordained priest by
the patriarch of Jerusalem. In his last years he travelled
through Syria contending against the iconoclasts, and in the same
cause he visited Constantinople at the imminent risk of his life
during the reign of Constantine Copronymus. With him the
"mysteries," the entire ritual, are an integral partof the Orthodox
system, and all dogma culminates in image-worship. The date
of his death is uncertain; it is probably about 752. John Damas-
cenus is a saint both in the Greek and in the Latin Churches,
his festival being observed in the former on the 2pth of November
and on the 4th of December, and in the latter on the 6th of May.
The works of Damascenus give him a foremost place among the
theologians of the early Eastern Church, and, according to Dorner,
he " remains in later times the highest authority in the theological
literature of the Greeks." This is not because he is an original
thinker but because he compiled into systematic form the scattered
teaching of his theological predecessors. Several treatises attributed
to him are probably spurious, but his undoubted works are numerous
and embrace a wide range. The most important contains three parts
under the general title n?ryi) yvwatas ("The Fountain of Knowledge").
The first part, entitled Ke^AXaio <JM.\oao<f>iKi, is an exposition and appli-
cation of theology of Aristotle's Dialectic. The second, entitled Iltpl
alpkatuv ("Of Heresies"), is a reproduction of the earlier work of Epiph-
anius, with a continuation giving an account of the heresies that
arose after the time of that writer. The third part, entitled "EicSo<ris
4/cpi0!>5 rj)s Ap0o66|ouirioT€fa>s(" An Accurate Exposition of theOrthodox
Faith "), is much the most important, containing as it does a complete
system of theology founded on the teaching of the fathers and church
councils, from the 4th to the 7th century. It thus embodies the
finished result of the theological thought of the early Greek Church.
Through a Latin translation made by Burgundio of Pisa in the I2th
century, it was well known to Peter Lombard and Aquinas, and in
this way it influenced the scholastic theology of the West. Another
well-known work is the Sacra parallela, a collection of biblical passages
followed by illustrations drawn from other scriptural sources and
from the fathers.^ There is much merit in his hymns and " canons "
one of the latter is very familiar as the hymn " The Day of Resurrec-
tion, Earth tell it out abroad." John of Damascus has sometimes
been called the " Father of Scholasticism," and the " Lombard of the
Greeks," but these epithets are appropriate only in a limited sense.
The Christologicaf position of John may be summed up in the
following description: 4 " He tries to secure the unity of the two
4 G. P. Fisher, Hist, of Chr. Doctrine, 159 seq. More fully in R. L.
Ottley, The Doctrine of the Incarnation, ii. 138-146.
JOHN OF HEXHAM— JOHN OF SALISBURY
natures by relegating to the divine Logos the formative and control-
ling agency. It is not a human individual that the Logos assumes,
nor is it humanity, or human nature in general. It is rather a
potential human individual, a nature not yet developed into a person
or hypostasis. The hypostasis through which this takes place is
the personal Logos through whose union with this potential man,
in the womb of Mary, the potential man acquires a concrete reality,
an individual existence. He has, therefore, no hypostasis of himself
but only in and through the Logos. It is denied that he is non-hypo-
static (Afwr6(rraTos) ; it is affirmed that he is en-hypostatic (Ij-wrioraTos).
Two natures may form a unity, as the body and soul in man. So man,
both soul and body, is brought into unity with the Logos ; there being
then one hypostasis for both natures." There is an interchange of
the divine and human attributes, a communication of the former
which deifies the receptive and passive human nature. In Christ
the human will has become the organ of the divine will. Thus while
John is an adherent of Chalcedon and a dyothelite, the drift of his
teaching is in the monophysite direction. " The Chalcedonian
Definition is victorious, but Apollinaris is not overcome"; what
John gives with the one hand he takes away with the other. On
the question of the Atonement he regards the death of Christ as a
sacrifice offered to God and not a ransom paid to the devil.
LITERATURE. — The Life of John of Damascus was written by
John, patriarch of Jerusalem in the loth century (Migne, Patrol.
Craec., xciv. 429-489). The works were edited by Le Quien (2 vols.,
fol., Paris, 1712) and form vols. 94 to 96 in Migne's Greek series.
A monograph by J. Langen was published in 1879. A. Harnack's
History of Dogma is very full (see especially vols. iii. and iy. ; on the
image-worship controversy, iv. 322 seq.), and so are the similar works
of F. Loofs-Seeberg and A. Dorner. See also O. Bardenhewer's
Patrologie, and other literature cited in F. Kattenbusch's excellent
article in Hauck-Herzog, Realencyklopddie, vol. ix.
JOHN OF HEXHAM (c. 1160-1209), English' chronicler, is
known to us merely as the author of a work called the Historia
XX V. annorum, which continues the Historia regum of Simeon
of Durham and contains an account of English events 1 130-1 1 53.
From the title, as given in the only manuscript, we learn John's
name and the fact that he was prior of Hexham. It must have
been between 1160 and 1209 that he held this position; but the
date at which he lived and wrote cannot be more accurately
determined. Up to the year 1139 he follows closely the history
written by his predecessor, Prior Richard; thenceforward he is
an independent though not a very valuable authority. He is
best informed as to the events of the north country; his want of
care, when he ventures farther afield, may be illustrated by the
fact that he places in 1 145 King Stephen's siege of Oxford, which
really occurred in 1 142. Even for northern affairs his chronology
is faulty; from 1140 onwards his dates are uniformly one year
too late. Prior Richard is not the only author to whom John is
indebted; he incorporates in the annal of 1138 two other narra-
tives of the battle of the Standard, one in verse by the
monk Serlo, another in prose by Abbot Ailred of Rievaux; and
also a poem, by a Glasgow clerk, on the death of Sumerled of the
Isles.
The one manuscript of John's chronicle is a I3th century copy;
MS. C. C. C. Cambridge, cxxxix. 8. The best edition is that of
T. Arnold in Symeonis monachi opera, vol. ii. (Rolls Series, 1885).
There is an English translation in J. Stevenson's Church Historians of
England, vol. iv. (London, 1856). (H. W. C. D.)
JOHN OF IRELAND QOHANNIS DE IRLANDIA), (fl. 1480),
Scottish writer, perhaps of Lowland origin, was resident for thirty
years in Paris and later a professor of theology. He was confessor
to James IV. and also to Louis XI. of France, and was rector of
Yarrow (de Foresta) when he completed, at Edinburgh, the work
on which rests his sole claim as a vernacular writer. This book,
preserved in MS. in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh (MS. 18,
2, 8), and labelled " Johannis de Irlandia opera theologica," is a
treatise in Scots on the wisdom and discipline necessary to a
prince, especially intended for the use of the young James IV.
The book is the earliest extant example of original Scots prose.
It was still in MS. in 1910, but an edition was promised by the
Scottish Text Society. In this book John refers to two other
vernacular writings, one " of the commandementis and uthir
thingis pretenand to the salvacioune of man," the other, " of the
tabill of confessioune." No traces of these have been discovered.
The author's name appears on the registers of the university
of Paris and on the rolls of the Scottish parliaments, and
xv. 15
449
he is referred to by the Scottish historians, Leslie and
Dempster.
See the notices in John Lyden's Introduction to his edition of
the Complaynt of Scotlande (1801), pp. 85 seq.; The Scottish
Antiquary, xiii. 111-115 and xv. 1-14. Annotated extracts are
given in Gregory Smith's Specimens of Middle Scots (1902).
JOHN OF RAVENNA. Two distinct persons of this name,
formerly confused and identified with a third (anonymous)
Ravennese in Petrarch's letters, lived, at the end of the I4th
and the beginning of the isth century.
1. A young Ravennese born about 1347, who in 1364 went
to live with Petrarch as secretary. In 1367 he set out to see
the world and make a name for himself, returned in a state of
destitution, but, growing restless again, left his employer for
good in 1368. He is not mentioned again in Petrarch's corre-
spondence, unless a letter " to a certain wanderer " (vago cuidam) ,
congratulating him on his arrival at Rome in 1373, is addressed
to him.
2. Son of Conversanus (Conversinus, Convertinus). He is
first heard of (Nov. 17, 1368) as appointed to the professor-
ship of rhetoric at Florence, where he had for some time held
the post of notary at the courts of justice. This differentiates
him from (i). He entered (c. 1370) the service of the ducal house
of Padua, the Carraras, in which he continued at least until 1404,
although the whole of that period was not spent in Padua. From
1375 to 1379 he was a schoolmaster at Belluno, and was dismissed
as too good for his post and not adapted for teaching boys. On
the 22nd of March 1382, he was appointed professor of rhetoric
at Padua. During the struggle between the Carraras and
Viscontis, he spent five years at Udine (1387-1392). From
1395-1404 he was chancellor of Francis of Carrara, and is heard
of for the last time in 1406 as living at Venice. His history of
the Carraras, a tasteless production in barbarous Latin, says little
for his literary capacity; but as a teacher he enjoyed a great
reputation, amongst his pupils being Vittorino da Feltre and
Guarino of Verona.
3. Malpaghini (De Malpaghinis), the most important. Born
about 1356, he was a pupil of Petrarch from a very early age to
1374. On the igth of September 1397 he was appointed pro-
fessor of rhetoric and eloquence at Florence. On the 9th of June
1412, on the re-opening of the studio, which had been shut from
1405 to 1411 owing to the plague, his appointment was renewed
for five years, before the expiration of which period he died (May
1417). Although Malpaghini left nothing behind him, he did
much to encourage the study of Latin; among his pupils was
Poggio Bracciolini.
The local documents and other authorities on the subject will be
found in E. T. Klette, Beitrage zur Geschichte und Litteratur der
italienischen Gelehrtenrenaissance, vol. i. (1888); see also G. Voigt,
Die Wiederbelebungdes klassischen Altertums, who, however, identifies
(I) and (2).
JOHN OF SALISBURY (c. 1115-1180), English author,
diplomatist and bishop, was born at Salisbury between the years
1115 and 1 1 20. Beyond the fact that he was of Saxon, not of
Norman race, and applies to himself the cognomen of Parvus,
" short," or " small," few details are known regarding his early
life; but from his own statements it is gathered that he crossed
to France about 1136, and began regular studies in Paris under
Abelard, who had there for a brief period re-opened his famous
school on Mont St Genevieve. After Abelard's retirement, John
carried on his studies under Alberich of Reims and Robert of
Melun. From 1138 to 1140 he studied grammar and the
classics under William of Conches and Richard 1'Eveque, the
disciples of Bernard of Chartres, though it is still a matter of
controversy whether it was in Chartres or not (cf. A. Clerval,
Les ficoles de Chartres an moyen dge, 1895). Bernard's teaching
was distinguished partly by its pronounced Platonic tendency,
partly by the stress laid upon literary study of the greater Latin
writers; and the influence of the latter feature is noticeable in
all John of Salisbury's works. About 1140 he was at Paris
studying theology under Gilbert de la Porree, then under
Robert Pullus and Simon of Poissy. In 1148 he resided at
JOHN OF SWABIA— JOHN, EPISTLES OF
45°
Moutiers la Celle in the diocese of Troyes, with his friend Peter
of Celle. He was present at the council of Reims, presided over
by Pope Eugenius III., and was probably presented by Bernard
of Clairvaux to Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, at whose
court he settled, probably about 1150. Appointed secretary to
Theobald, he was frequently sent on missions to the papal see.
During this time he composed his greatest works, published
almost certainly in 1159, the Policraticus, sive de nugis curialium
et de vesligiis philosophorum and the Metalogicus, writings
invaluable as storehouses of information regarding the matter
and form of scholastic education, and remarkable for their
cultivated style and humanist tendency. After the death of
Theobald in 1161, John continued as secretary to Thomas
Becket, and took an active part in the long disputes between
that primate and his sovereign, Henry II. His letters throw
light on the constitutional struggle then agitating the English
world. With Becket he withdrew to France during the king's
displeasure; he returned with him in 1170, and was present at
his assassination. In the following years, during which he
continued in an influential situation in Canterbury, but at what
precise date is unknown, he drew up the Life of Thomas Becket.
In 1176 he was made bishop of Chartres, where he passed
the remainder of his life. In 1179 he took an active part in the
council of the Lateran. He died at or near Chartres on the
25th «f October 1180.
John's writings enable us to understand with much completeness
the literary and scientific position of the I2th century. His views
imply a cultivated intelligence well versed in practical affairs,
opposing to the extremes of both nominalism and realism a practical
common sense. His doctrine is a kind of utilitarianism, with a
strong leaning on the speculative side to the modified literary
scepticism of Cicero, for whom he had unbounded admiration.
He was a humanist before the Renaissance, surpassing all other
representatives of the school of Chartres in his knowledge of the
Latin classics, as in the purity of his style, which was evidently
moulded on that of Cicero. Of Greek writers he appears to have
known nothing at first hand, and very little in translations. The
Timaeus of Plato in the Latin version of Chalcidius was known to
him as to his contemporaries and predecessors, and probably he
had access to translations of the Phaedp and Meno. Of Aristotle
he possessed the whole of the Organon in Latin; he is, indeed, the
first of the medieval writers of note to whom the whole was known.
Of other Aristotelian writings he appears to have known nothing.
The collected editions of the works are by J. A. Giles (5 vols.,
Oxford, 1848), and by Migne, in the Patrologiae cursus, vol. 199:
neither accurate. The Policraticus was edited with notes and
introductions by C. C. I. Webb, loannis Saresberiensis episcopi
Carnotensis Poluratici (Oxford, 1909), 2 vols. The most complete
study of John of Salisbury is the monograph by C. Schaarschmidt,
Johannes Sarisberiensis nach Leben und Studien, Schriflen und
PhUosophie, 1862, which is a model of accurate and complete work-
manship. See also the article in the Diet. Nat. Biog.
JOHN (i29o-c. 1320), surnamed the Parricide, and called also
John of Swabia, was a son of Rudolph II. count of Habsburg
and Agnes daughter of Ottakar II. king of Bohemia, and
consequently a grandson of the German king Rudolph I. Having
passed his early days at the Bohemian court, when he came of
age he demanded a portion of the family estates from his uncle,
the German king Albert I. His wishes were not gratified, and
with three companions he formed a plan to murder the king.
On the ist of May 1308 Albert in crossing the river Reuss at
Windisch became separated from his attendants, and was at
once attacked and killed by the four conspirators. John
escaped the vengeance of Albert's sons, and was afterwards
found in a monastery at Pisa, where in 1313 he is said to have
been visited by the emperor Henry VII., who had placed him
under the ban. From this time he vanishes from history.
The character of John is used by Schiller in his play Wilhelm
Tell.
JOHN. THE EPISTLES OF. The so-called epistles of John,
in the Bible, are not epistles in the strict sense of the term, for
the first is a homily, and encyclical or pastoral (as has been recog-
nized since the days of Bretschneider and Michaelis), while
the other two are brief notes or letters. Nor are they John's,
if John means the son of Zebedee. The latter conclusion depends
upon the particular hypothesis adopted with regard to the
general Johannine problem, yet even when it is held that John
the apostle (q.v.) survived to old age in Ephesus, the second
and third epistles may be fairly ascribed (with Erasmus, Grotius,
Credner, Bretschneider, Reuss, &c.) to John the presbyter1, as
several circles in the early church held (" Opinio a plerisque
tradita," Jerome: De iiir. ill. 18). An apostle indeed might
call himself a presbyter (cf. i Pet. v. i). But these notes imply
no apostolic claim on the part of the author, and, although their
author is anonymous, the likelihood is that their composition
by the great Asiatic presbyter John led afterwards to their
incorporation in the " instrumentum " of John the apostle's
writings, when the prestige of the latter had obscured the
former. All hypotheses as to their pseudonymity or composition
by different hands may be dismissed. They would never have
floated down the stream of tradition except on the support of
some primitive authority. If this was not connected with John
the apostle the only feasible alternative is to think of John the
presbyter, for Papias refers to the latter in precisely this fashion
(Euseb. H.E. iii. 39, 15; KCU rovro 6 IT. t\e~ft).
The period of all three lies somewhere within the last decade
of the ist century and the first decade of the 2nd. No evidence
is available to determine in what precise order they were written,
but it will be convenient to take the two smaller notes before
the larger. The so-called Second Epistle of John is one of the
excommunicating notes occasionally despatched by early
Christian leaders to a community (cf. 2 Cor. v. 9). The presbyter
or elder warns a Christian community, figuratively addressed
as " the elect lady " (cf. 13 with i Pet. i. i; v, 13; also the plural
of 6, 8, 10 and 13), against some itinerant (cf. Didache xi. 1-2)
teachers who were promulgating advanced Docetic views (7)
upon the person of Christ. The note is merely designed to
serve (12) until the writer arrives in person. He sends greetings
to his correspondents from some community in which he is
residing at present (13), and with which they had evidently
some connexion.
The note was familiar to Irenaeus2 who twice (i. 16, 3, iii. 16, 8)
cites lo-n, once quoting it from the first epistle by mistake,
but no tradition has preserved the name of the community in
question, and all opinions on the matter are guess-work. The
reference to " all who know the truth " (ver. i) is, of course, to
be taken relatively (cf . Rev. ii. 23) ; it does not necessarily imply
a centre like Antioch or Rome (Chapman). Whiston thought
of Philadelphia, and probably it must have been one of the
Asiatic churches.
The so-called Third Epistle of John belongs to the eTn'oroXai
avaT&TiKai (2 Cor. iii. i) of the early church, like Rom. xvi. It
is a private note addressed by the presbyter to a certain Gaius,
a member of the same community or house-church (9) as that
to which 2 John is written. A local errorist, Diotrephes (o-io)
had repudiated the authority of the writer and his party,
threatening even to excommunicate Gaius and others from
the church (cf. Abbott's Dialessarica, § 2258). With this
opponent the writer promises (10) to deal sharply in person
before very long. Meantime (14) he despatches the present
note, in hearty appreciation of his correspondent's attitude
and character.
The allusion in 9 (t7pa^a) refers in all likelihood to the
" second " epistle (so Ewald, Wolf, Salmon, &c.). In order to
avoid the suggestion that it implied a lost epistle, &v was inserted
at an early stage in the textual history of the note. If exxX^atas
could be read in 12, Demetrius would be a presbyter; in any
case, he is not to be identified with Demas (Chapman), nor is
1 So Selwyn, Christian Prophets (pp. 133-145), Harnack, Hcinrici
(Das Urchrtstenthum, 1902, pp. 129 seq.), and von Soden (History of
Early Christian Literature, pp. 445-446), after Renan (L'Eglise
chretienne, pp. 78 seq.). Von Dobschtltz (Christian Life in the
Primitive Church, pp. 218 seq.) and R. Knopf (Das nachapost.
Zeitalter, 1905, pp. 32 seq., &c.) are among the most recent critics
who ascribe all three epistles to the presbyter.
* On the early allusions to these brief notes, cf. Gregory : The
Canon and Text of the New Testament (1907), pp. 131, 190 seq., West-
cott's Canon of the New Testament, pp. 218 seq., 355, 357, 366, &c.,
and Leipoldt's Geschichte d. neut. Kanons (1907), i. pp. 66 seq., 78
seq., 99 seq., 151 seq., 192 seq., 232 seq.
JOHN, EPISTLES OF
there any reason to suppose (with Harnack)1 that the note of 9
was written to, and suppressed by, him. What the presbyter
is afraid of is not so much that his note would not be read
(Ewald, Harnack), as that it would not be acted upon.
These notes, written originally on small sheets of papyrus,
reveal the anonymous presbyter travelling (so Clem. Alex. Quis
dives salv. xlii.) in his circuit or diocese of churches, and writing
occasional pastoral letters, in which he speaks not only in his
own name but in that of a coterie of like-minded Christians.2
It is otherwise with the brochure or manifesto known as the
" first epistle." This was written neither at the request of its
readers nor to meet any definite local emergency, but on the
initiative of its author (i. 4) who was evidently concerned about
the effect produced upon the Church in general by certain
contemporary phases of semi-gnostic teaching. The polemic is
directed against a dualism which developed theoretically into
docetic views of Christ's person (ii. 22, iv. 2, &c.), and practically
into libertinism (ii. 4, &c.).3 It is natural to think, primarily,
of the churches in Asia Minor as the circle addressed, but all
indications of date or place are absent, except those which may
be inferred from its inner connexion with the Fourth Gospel.
The plan of the brochure is unstudied and unpremeditated,
resembling a series of variations upon one or two favourite
themes rather than a carefully constructed melody. Fellowship
(Koivuvia) with God and man is its dominant note. After
defining the essence of Christian nouxavia. (i. 1-3), 4 the writer
passes on to its conditions (i. 5-ii. 17), under the antithesis of
light and darkness. These conditions are twofold: (a) a sense
of sin, which leads Christians to a sense of forgiveness 6 through
Jesus Christ, (b) and obedience to the supreme law of brotherly
love (cf. Ignat. Ad Smyrn. 6). If these conditions are unfulfilled,
moral darkness is the issue, a darkness which spells ruin to the
soul. This prompts the writer to explain the dangers of mivuvia.
(ii. 18-29), under the antithesis of truth and falsehood, the
immediate peril being a novel heretical view of the person of
1 In his ingenious study (Texte und Untersuchungen, xv. 3), whose
main contention is adopted by von Dobschiitz and Knopf. On this
view (for criticism see Belser in the Tubing. Quartalschrift, 1897,
pp. 150 seq., Kriiger in Zeitschrift fur die iviss. Theologie, 1898, pp.
307-311, and Hilgenfeld: ibid. 316-320), Diotrephes was voicing a
successful protest of the local monarchical bishops against the
older itinerant authorities (cf. Schmiedel, Ency. Bib., 3146-3147).
As Wilamowitz-Moellendorf (Hermes, 1898, pp. 529 seq.) points out,
there is a close connexion between ver. 1 1 and ver. 10. The same
writer argues that, as the substitution of iyair/rros for ^Xraros
(ver. i) " ist Schonrednerei und nicht vom besten Geschmacke," the
writer adds iv eyi &ya.ir£> if dXrjSei?.
2 This is the force of the ifcms in 3 John o-io (cf. i John iv. 6, 14)
" The truth " (3 John 3-5) seems to mean a life answering to the
apostolic standard thus enforced and exemplified.
* Several of these traits were reproduced in the teaching of Cerin-
thus, others may have been directly Jewish or Jewish Christian.
The opposition to the Messianic r61e of Jesus had varied adherents.
The denial of the Virgin-birth, which also formed part of the
system of Cerinthus, was met by anticipation in the stories of
Matthew and Luke, which pushed back the reception of the spirit
from the baptism to the birth, but the Johannine school evidently
preferred to answer this heresy by developing the theory of the
Logos, with its implicate of pre-existence.
4 On the vexed question whether the language of this paragraph
is purely spiritual or includes a realistic reference, cf. G. E. Findlay
(Expositor, 1893, pp. 97 seq.), and Dr E. A. Abbott's recent study m
Diatessarica, §§ 1615-1620. The writer is controverting the Docetic
heresy, and at the same time keeping up the line of communications
with the apostolic base.
6 The universal range (ii. 2) ascribed to the redeeming work ot
Christ is directed against Gnostic dualism and the Ebionitic narrow-
ing of salvation to Israel; only I>M<*S here denotes Christians in
general, not Jewish Christians. On the answer to the Gnostic
pride of perfectionism (i. 8), cf. Epict. iv. 12, 19. The emphasis on
Tl you all " (ii. 20) hints at the Gnostic aristocratic system of degrees
among believers, which naturally tended to break up brotherly love
(cf. i Cor. viii. I seq.). The Gnostics also held that a spiritual seed
cf iii 9) was implanted in man, as the germ of his higher develop-
ment into the divine life; for the Valentinian idea cf. Iren. Adv.
Haer. i. 64, and Tertull. De anima, II [haeretici] " nescio quod
spiritale semen infulciunt animae "). Cf. the general discussions
by Haring in Theologische Abhandlungen C. von Weizsacker gemdmet
(1892), pp. 188 seq., and Zahn in Wanderungen durch Schrift u.
Geschi'chte (1892), pp. 3~74-
Christ. The characteristics of the fellowship are then developed
(iii. 1-12), as sinlessness and brotherly love, under the antithesis
of children of God (cf. ii. 29, " born of Him ") and children of
the devil. This brotherly love bulks so largely in the writer's
mind that he proceeds to enlarge upon its main elements of
confidence towards God (iii. 13-24), moral discernment (iv. 1-6),
and assurance of union with God (iv. 7-21), all these being bound
up with a true faith in Jesus as the Christ (v. i-i2).6 A brief
epilogue gives what is for the most part a summary (v. 13-21) of
the leading ideas of the homily.7
Disjointed as the cause of the argument may seem, a close
scrutiny of the context often reveals a subtle connexion between
paragraphs which at first sight appear unlinked. Thus the idea
of the Koo>ios passing away (ii. 17) suggests the following sen-
tences upon the nearness of the Trapouvia. (ii. 18 seq.), whose signs
are carefully noted in order to reassure believers, and whose
moral demands are underlined (ii. 28, iii. 3). Within this
paragraph8 even the abrupt mention of the \plafia has its
genetical place (ii. 20). The heretical ajrixptcroi, it is implied,
have noxpto>iafromGod; Christians have (note the emphasis on
fis), owing to their union with the true Xpioros. Again, the
genetic relation of iii. 4 seq. to what precedes becomes evident
when we consider that the norm of Christian purity (iii. 3) is
the keeping of the divine commandments, or conduct resembling
Christ's on earth (iii. 3~ii. 4-6), so that the Gnostic9 breach of
this law not only puts a man out of touch with Christ (iii. 6 seq.),
but defeats the very end of Christ's work, i.e. the abolition of
sin (iii. 8). Thus iii. 7-10 resumes and completes the idea of
ii. 29; the Gnostic is shown to be out of touch with the righteous
God, partly because he will not share the brotherly love which
is the expression of the righteousness, and partly because his
claims to sinlessness render God's righteous forgiveness (i. 9)
superfluous. Similarly the mention of the Spirit (iii. 24) opens
naturally in to- a discussion of the decisive test for the false
claims of the heretics or gnostic illuminati to spiritual powers
and gifts (iv. i seq.) ; and, as this test of the genuine Spirit of God
is the confession of Jesus Christ as really human and incarnate,
the writer, on returning (in iv. 17 seq.) to his cardinal idea of
brotherly love, expresses it in view of the incarnate Son (iv. 9),
8 Cf.Denney, The Death of Christ(i<)O2), pp. 269-281. The polemi-
cal reference to Cerinthus is specially clear at this point. The death
of Jesus was not that of a phantom, nor was his ministry from the
baptism to the crucifixion that of a heavenly aeon which suffered
nothing: such is the writer's contention. " In every case the his-
torical is asserted, but care is taken that it shall not be material-
ized : a primacy is given to the spiritual. . . . Except through the
historical, there is no Christianity at all, but neither is there any
Christianity till the historical has been spiritually comprehended. '
The well-known interpolation of the three heavenly witnesses (v. 7)
has now been proved by Karl Kiinstle (Das Comma Johanneum,
1905) to have originally come from the pen of the 4th century Span-
iard, Priscillian, who himself denied all distinctions of person in the
Godhead.
7 On the " sin to death "(v. 16) cf. Jubilees xxi. 22, xxvi. 34 with
Karl's Johann. Studien (1898), i. 97 seq. and M. Goguel's La
Notion johannique de I'esprit (1902), pp. 147-153, for the general
theology of the epistle. The conceptions of light and life are best
handled by Grill in his Untersuchungen iiber die Entstehung des vierten
Evgliums (1902), pp. 301 seq., 312 seq.
8 In Preuschen s Zeitschrift fur die neutest. Wissenschaft (1907),
pp. 1-8, von Dobschiitz tries to show that the present text of ii. 28-
lii. 12 indicates a revision or rearrangement of an earlier text.
Cludius (Uransichten des Christentums, Altona, 1808) had already
conjectured that a Gnostic editor must have worked over a Jewish
Christian document.
* Dr Alois Wurm's attempt (Die Irrlehrer im ersten Johannesbriefe,
1903) to read the references to errorists solely in the light of Jewish
Christianity ignores or underrates several of the data. He is sup-
ported on the whole by Clemen, in Preuschen's Zeitschrift (1905),
pp. 271-281. There is certainly an anti-Jewish touch, e.g. in the
claim of iii. I (note the emphatic ^liuf), when one recollects the
saying of Aqiba (Aboth iii. 12) and Philo's remark, na.1 yap el /ifrrw
iKavoi Oeou TraiSes voniffotiai. yeybvantv, &\\a rot rijs d«8oPs eiK&vos afrroO,
X6-you roO Z«pa>T irov Otov yiip &e£n> \6yos & TrptafSbraTos (De conf. ling.
28). But the antithesis of John and Cerinthus, unlike that of
Paul and Cerinthus (Epiph. Haer. xxviii.), is too well based in the
tradition of the early Church to be dismissed as a later dogmatic
reflection, and the internal evidence of this manifesto corroborates
it clearly.
452
JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
whose mission furnishes the proof of God's love as well as the
example and the energy of man's (iv. 10 seq.) . The same concep-
tion of the real humanity of Jesus Christ as essential to faith's
being and well-being is worked out in the following paragraph
(v. 1-12), while the allusion to eternal life (v. 11-12) leads to
the closing recapitulation (v. 13-21) of the homily's leading
ideas under this special category.
The curious idea, mentioned by Augustine (Quaest. evang. ii.
39), that the writing was addressed ad Parthos, has been literally
taken by several Latin fathers and later writers (e.g. Grotius,
Paulus, Hammond) , but this title probably was a corruption of ad
sparsos (Wetstein, Wegschneider) or of irpas Trapdtvovs (Whiston:
the Christians addressed as virgin, i.e. free from heresy), if
not of irapBivos, as applied in early tradition to John the apostle.
The circle for which the homily was meant was probably, in the
first instance, that of the Fourth Gospel, but it is impossible to
determine whether the epistle preceded or followed the larger
treatise. The division of opinion on this point (cf. J. Moffat,
Historical New Testament, 1901, p. 534) is serious, but the
evidence for either position is purely subjective. There are
sufficient peculiarities of style and conception1 to justify
provisionally some hesitation on the matter of the authorship.
The epistle may have been written by a different author, or,
from a more popular standpoint, by the author of the gospel,
possibly (as some critics hold) by the author of John xxi. But
res lubrica, opinio incerta.
It is unsafe to lay much stress upon the apparent reminiscence
of iv. 2-3 (or of 2 John 7) inPolycarp,od Phil. 7 reading eXijXuflora
instead of I\ri\v6ivai) , though, if a literary filiation is assumed,
the probability is that Polycarp is quoting from the epistle, not
vice versa (as Volkmar contends, in his Ursprung d. unseren
Evglien 47 seq.). But Papias is said by Eusebius (H . E. iii. 39) to
have used ij 'lukwovTrparepa ( = ij 'LodwwTrpirij.v. 8?), i.e. the
anonymous tract, which, by the time of Eusebius, had come to
be known as I John, and we have no reason to suspect or reject
this statement, particularly as Justin Martyr, another Asiatic
writer, furnishes clear echoes of the epistle (Dial. 123). The
tract must have been in circulation throughout Asia Minor at
any rate before the end of the first quarter of the 2nd century.2
The terminus a quo is approximately the period of the Fourth
Gospel's composition, but there is no valid evidence to indicate
the priority of either, even upon the hypothesis that both came
from the same pen. The aim of each is too special to warrant
the conclusion that the epistle was intended to accompany or to
introduce the gospel.
LITERATURE. — The most adequate modern editions of the three
epistles are by Westcott (3rd ed., 1892), H. J. Holtzmann (Hand-
Commentar zum N. T., yd ed., 1908), B. Weiss (in Meyer, 6th ed.,!9OO),
Baljon (1904) and J. E. Belser (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1906). Briefer
English notes are furnished by W. Alexander (Speaker's Commentary,
1881), W. H. Bennett (Century Bible, 1901) and H. P. Forbes (Internal.
Handbooks to New Testament, vol. iv. 1^07), while Plummer has
a concise edition of the Greek text (in The Cambridge Creek Testament,
1886). Huther's edition (in Meyer, 1880) has been translated into
English (Edinburgh, 1882), like Rothe's (1878) invaluable commen-
tary on the first epistle (cf. Expository Times, vols. iii. v.). Otto
Baumgarten's popular edition in Die Schriften des N.T. (1907) is,
like that of Forbes, written from practicafly the same standpoint
as Holtzmann's. The earlier commentaries of Alford (2nd ed.,
1 " The style is not flowing and articulated ; the sentences come like
minute-guns, as they would drop from a natural Hebrew. The
writer moves, indeed, amidst that order of religious ideas which
meets us in the Fourth Gospel, and which was that of the Greek
world wherein he found himself. He moves amongst these new
ideas, however, not with the practised felicity of the evangelist,
but with something of helplessness, although the depth and serene
beauty of his spirit give to all he says an infinite impressiveness and
charm " (M. Arnold; God and the Bible, ch. vi.).
* By the end of the 2nd century it appears to have been fairly
well-known, to judge from Origen, Irenaeus (iii. 16, 8), and Clement of
Alexandria (Stran. ii. 15, 66). In the Muratorian canon, which
mentions two epistles of John, it seems to be reckoned (cf. Kuhn,
Das Mural. Fragment, pp. 58 f.) as an appendix or sequel to the
Fourth Gospel. The apparent traces of its use in Ignatius (cf.
Smyrn. vi. 2 =i John iii. 17; Smyrn. vii =i John iii. 14, and Eph.
xviii. = i John v. 6) seem too insecure, of themselves, to warrant any
hypothesis of filiation.
1862), C. A. Wolf (2nded., 1885), Ewald (Die Joh. Briefe iibersetzt und
erklaert, Gottingen, 1861-1862), and Liicke (3rd ed., revised by
Bertheau, 1856) still repay the reader, and among previous editions
those of W. Whiston (Comm. on St John's Three Catholic Epistles,
1719) and de Wette (1837, &c.) contain material of real exegetical
interest. Special editions of the first epistle have been published by
John Cotton (London, 1655), Neander (1851 ; Eng. trans. New York,
1853), E. Haupt (1869; Eng. trans. 1879), Lias (1887) and C.Watson
(1891, expository) among others. Special studies by F. H. Kern
(De epistolae Joh. consilio, Tubingen, 1830), Erdmann (Primae Joh.
epistolae argumentum, nexus et consilium, Berlin, 1855), C. E. Lu-
thardt (De primae Joannis epistolae compositione, 1860), J. Stock-
meyer (Die Structur des ersten Joh. Briefes, Basel, 1873) and, most
elaborately, by H. J. Holtzmann (Jahrb.fiir protest. Theologie, 1881,
pp.69Oseq.; 1882, pp. I28seq.,3i6seq.,46oseq.). To the monographs
already noted in the course of this article may be added the essays by
Wiesinger (Studien und Kritiken, 1899, pp. 575 seq.) and Wohlenberg
(" Glossen zum ersten Johannisbrief, Neue Kirchliche Zeitschrift,
1902, pp. 233 seq., 632 seq.). On 2 John there are special comment-
aries and studies by Ritmeier (De electa domina, 1 706) , C. A. Kriegele
(De Kvpla Johannis, 1758), Carpzov (Theolog. exegetica, pp. 105-208),
H. G. B. Miiller (Comment, in secundam epistolam Joannis, 1783),
C. Klug (De authentia, &c., 1823), J. Rendel Harris (Expositor, 6th
series, 1901, pp. 194 seq.), W. M. Ramsay (ibid., pp. 354 seq.) and
Gibbins (ibid., 1902, pp. 228-236), while, in addition to Hermann's
Comment, in Joan. ep. III. (1778), P. L. Gachon (Authenticity de la
deuxikme et troisieme tpitres de Jean, 1851), Poggel (Der zweite und
dritte Briefe d. Apostel Johannis, 1896), and Chapman (Journal of
Theological Studies, 1904, " The Historical Setting of the Second and
the Third Epistles of St John "), have discussed both of the minor
epistles together. General studies of all three are furnished by H. J.
Holtzmann in Schenkel's Bibel-Lexicon, iii. 342-352, Sabatier (Ency-
clop. des sciences religieuses, vii. 177 seq.), S. Cox (The Private Letters
of St Paul and St John, 1867), Farrar (Early Days of Christianity, chs.
xxxi., xxxiv. seq.), Gloag (Introduction to Catholic Epistles, 1887, pp.
256-350), S. D. F. Salmond in Hasting's Diet. Bible (vol. ii), G. H.
Gilbert (The First Interpreters of Jesus, 1901, pp. 301-332), and V.
Bartlet (The Apostolic Age, 1900, pp. 418 seq. ; from a more advanced
critical position by Cone (The Gospel and its Earliest Interpretations,
'893. PP- 320-327). P. W. Schmiedel (Ency. Bib., 2556-2562, also in a
pamphlet, Evangelium, Briefe, und Offenbarung des Johannes, 1906;
Eng. trans. 1908), J. RcVille (Le Quatrieme Evangile, 1901, pp. 49
seq.) and Pfleiderer (Das Urchristentum, and ed., 1902, pp. 390 seq.).
The problem of the epistles is discussed incidentally by many writers
on the Fourth Gospel, as well as by writers on New Testament
introduction like Zann, Jacquier, Barth and Belser, on the Conserva-
tive side, and Hilgenfeld, Jiilicher and von Soden on the Liberal. On
the older Syriac version of 2 and 3 John, see Gwynn's article in
Hermathena (1890), pp. 281 sea. On the general reception of the
three epistles in the early Church, Zahn's paragraphs (in his
Geschichte d. N. T. Kanons, i. 209 seq., 374 seq., 905 seq.; ii. 48 seq.,
88 seq.) are the most adequate. (J. MT.)
JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST, the fourth and latest of the Gospels,
in the Bible, and, next to that of St Mark, the shortest. The
present article will first describe its general structure and more
obvious contents; compare it with the Synoptic Gospels; and
draw out its leading characteristics and final object. It will
then apply the tests thus gained to the narratives special to this
Gospel; and point out the book's special difficulties and limits,
and its abiding appeal and greatness. And it will finally con-
sider the questions of its origin and authorship.
Analysis of Contents. — The book's chief break is at xiii. I, the
solemn introduction to the feet-washing : all up to here reports Jesus'
signs and apologetic or polemical discourses to the outer world; hence
onwards it pictures the manifestation of His glory to the inner
circle of His disciples. These two parts contain three sections each.
I. (i.) Introduces the whole work (i. l-ii. ii). (a) The prologue,
i. 1-18. The Logos existed beforecreation and time; was with the very
God and was God; and all things were made through Him. For
in this Logos is Life, and this Life is a Light which, though shining
in darkness, cannot be suppressed by it. This true Light became
flesh and tabernacled amongst us; and we beheld His glory, as of an
Only-Begotten from the Father, full of grace and truth. John the
Baptist testified concerning Him, the Logos-Light and Logos-Life
incarnate; but this Logos alone, who is in the bosom of the Father,
hath declared the very God. (6) The four days' work (i. 19-51).
On the first three days John declares that he is not the Christ,
proclaims Jesus to be the Christ, and sends his own disciples away to
Jesus. On the fourth day, Jesus Himself calls Philip and Nathanael.
(c) The seventh day's first manifestation of the Incarnate Light's
glory (ii. l-ll); Jesus at Cana turns water into wine.
(ii.) Records the manifestations of the Light's and Life's glory
and power to friend and foe (ii. 22-vi. 7l). (a) Solemn inauguration
of the Messianic ministry (ii. 12-iii. 21) : cleansing of the Temple and
prophecy of His resurrection; discourse to Nicodemus on baptismal
regeneration, (e) Three scenes in Judea, Samaria, Galilee respec-
tively (iii.32-iv. 54) : the Baptist's second testimony; Jesus' discourse
JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
with the woman at the well concerning the spiritual, universal
character of the new religion; and cure of the ruler's son, the reward
of faith in the simple word of Jesus. (/) Manifestation of Jesus as
the vivifying Life-Logos and its contradiction in Judea, v. : the
paralytic's cure, (g) Manifestation of Jesus as the heaven-descended
living Bread and its contradiction in Galilee, vi. : multiplication of
the loayes; walking on the waters; and His discourse on the holy
Eucharist.
(iii.) Acute conflict between the New Light and the old darkness
(vii.-xii). (h) Self-manifestation of the Logos-Light in the Temple
(vii. i-x. 39). Journey to the feast of tabernacles; invitation to the
soul athirst to come to Him (the fountain of Life) and drink, and
proclamation of Himself as the Light of the world; cure of the man
born blind; allegory of the good shepherd. The allegory continued
at the feast of the dedication. They strive to stone or to take Him.
(i) The Logos-Life brings Lazarus to life; effects of the act (x. 4o-xii.
50). Jesus withdraws beyond Jordan, and then comes to Bethany,
His friend Lazarus being buried three days; proclaims Himself the
Resurrection and the Life; and calls Lazarus back to life. Some who
saw it report the act to the Pharisees ; the Sanhedrim meets, Caiaphas
declares that one man must die for the people, and henceforward they
ceaselessly plan His death. Jesus withdraws to the Judaean desert,
but soon returns, six days before Passover, to Bethany; Mary
anoints Him, a crowd comes to see Him and Lazarus, and the hier-
archs then plan the killing of Lazarus also. Next morning He rides
into Jerusalem on an ass's colt. Certain Greeks desire to see Him :
He declares the hour of His glorification to have come: " Now My
soul is troubled. . . . Father, save Me from this hour. But for
this have I come unto this hour: Father, glorify Thy Name." A
voice answers, " I have glorified it and will glorify it again ": some
think that an angel spoke; but Jesus explains that this voice was
not for His sake but for theirs. When lifted up from earth, He will
draw all men to Himself; they are to believe in Him, the Light.
The writer's concluding reflection : the small success of Jesus' activity
among the Jews. Once again Ke cries: " I am come a Light into
the world, that whoso believeth in Me should not abide in darkness."
2. The Logos-Christ's manifestation of His life and love to His
disciples, during the last supper, the passion, the risen life (xiii.-xx).
(iv.) The Last Supper (xiii.-xvii.) (j) Solemn washing of the dis-
ciples'feet; the beloved disciple; designates the traitor; Judas goes
forth, it is night (xiii. 1-30). (k) Last discourses, first series (xiii.
3i-xiv. 31): the new commandment, the other helper; " Arise, let
us go hence." Second series (xv. l-xvi. 33) : allegory of the true
vine; " Greater love than this hath no man, that he lay down his
life for his friend " ; the world's hatred ; the spirit of truth shall lead
them into all truth; " I came forth from the Father and am come
into the world, again I leave the world and go to the Father";
" Be of good cheer, I have overcome the world." (I) The high-
priestly prayer (xvii). " Father, glorify Thy Son . . . with the
glory which I had with Thee before the world was . . . that to as
many as Thou hast given Him, He should give eternal life." " I
pray for them, I pray not for the world. I pray also for them that
shall believe in Me through their word, that they may be all one, as
Thou Father art in Me, and I in Thee."
(v.) The Passion (xviii. xix.). (m) In thegarden: the Roman soldiers
come to apprehend Him, fall back upon the ground at His declara-
tion " I am He." Peter and Malchus. (n) Before Annas at night
and Caiaphas at dawn; Peter's denials (xviii. 12-27). (°) Before
Pilate (xviii. 28-40). Jesus declares, " My kingdom is not of this
world. I have come into the world that I may bear witness to the
truth : everyone that is of the truth, heareth My voice " ; Pilate asks
sceptically "What is truth?" and the crowd prefers Barabbas.
(p) The true king presented to the people as a mock-king; His
rejection by the Jews and abandonment to them (xix. 1-16). (q)
Jesus carries His cross to Golgotha, and is crucified there between two
others; the cross's title and Pilate's refusal to alter it (xix. 17-22).
(r) The soldiers cast lots upon His garments and seamless tunic;
His mother with two faithful women and the beloved disciple at
the cross's foot ; His commendation of His mother and the disciple
to each other; His last two sayings in deliberate accomplishment
of scripture " I thirst," " It is accomplished." He gives up the
spirit ; His bones remain unbroken ; and from His spear-lanced side
blood and water issue (xix. 23-37). M The two nobles, Joseph of
Arimathaea and Nicodemus, bind the dead body in a winding
sheet with one hundred pounds of precious spices, and place it in a
new monument in a near garden, since the sabbath is at hand.
(vi.) The risen Jesus, Lord and God (xx.). (t) At early dawn on the
first day of the week, Mary Magdalen, finding the stone rolled away
from the monument, runs to tell Peter and the beloved disciple that
the Lord's body has been removed. Peter and the other disciple
run to the grave; the latter, arriving first, enters only after Peter
has gone in and noted the empty grave-clothes — enters and believes.
After their departure, Mary sees two angels where His body had lain
and turning away beholds Jesus standing, yet recognizes Him only
when He addresses her. He bids her " Do not touch Me, for I have
not yet ascended " ; but to tell His brethren " I ascend to My Father
and to your Father, to My God and to your God." And she does so.
(u) Second apparition (xx. 19-23). Later on the same day, the doors
being shut, Jesus appears amongst His disciples, shows them His
(pierced) hands and side, and solemnly commissions and endows
453
them for the apostolate by the words, " As the Father hath sent
Me, so I send you, "and by breathing upon them saying "Receive the
Holy Spirit: whose sins ye remit, they are remitted to them; whose
sins ye retain, they are retained." (v) Third apparition and culmina-
ting saying ; conclusion of entire book (xx. 24-31). Thomas, who had
been absent, doubts the resurrection ; Jesus comes and submits to the
doubter's tests. Thomas exclaims, "My Lord and my God";
but Jesus declares " Blessed are they that have not seen and yet
have believed." " Now Jesus," concludes the writer, " did many
other signs, . . . but these are written, that ye may believe that
Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing ye may have
life in His name."
The above analysis is rough, since even distantly placed sections,
indeed the two parts themselves, are interrelated by delicate com-
plex references on and back. And it omits the account of the
adulteress (vii. 53~viiL ll): (a valuable report of an actual occurrence
which probably belonged to some primitive document otherwise
incorporated by the Synoptists), because it is quite un-Johannine
in vocabulary, style and character, intercepts the Gospel's thread
wherever placed, and is absent from its best MSS. It also omits xxi.
This chapter's first two stages contain an important early historical
document of Synoptic type: Jesus' apparition to seven disciples
by the Lake of Galilee and the miraculous draught of fishes; and
Peter's threefold confession and Jesus' threefold commission to
him. And its third stage, Jesus' prophecies to Peter and to the
beloved disciple concerning their future, and the declaration " This
is the disciple who testifies to these things and who has written them,
and we know that his testimony is true," is' doubtless written by the
redactor of the previous two stages. This writer imitates, but is
different from, the great author of the first twenty chapters.
Comparison with the Synoptists. — The following are the most
obvious differences between the original book and the Synoptists.
John has a metaphysical prologue ; Matthew and Luke have historical
prologues; and Mark is without any prologue. The earthly scene
is here Judea, indeed Jerusalem, with but five breaks (vi. l-yii. 10)
is the only long one ; whilst over two-thirds of each Synoptist deal
with Galilee or Samaria. The ministry here lasts about three and a
half years (it begins some months before the first Passover, ii. 13;
the feast of v. I is probably a second ; the third occurs vi. 4 ; and on
the fourth, xi. 55, He dies): whilst the Synoptists have but the one
Passover of His death, after barely a year of ministry. Here Jesus'
teaching contains no parables and but three allegories, the Synop-
tists present it as parabolic through and through. Here not one
exorcism occurs; in the Synoptists the exorcisms are as prominent
as the cures and the preaching. John has, besides the passion, seven
accounts in common with the Synoptists: the Baptist and Jesus,
(i. 19-34) I cleansing of the Temple (ii. 13-16) ; cure of the centurion's
(ruler's) servant (son) (iv. 46-54) ; multiplication of the loaves (vi.
1-13); walking upon the water (vi. 16-21); anointing at Bethany,
(xii. 1-8) ; entry into Jerusalem (xii. 12-16): all unique occurrences.
In the first, John describes how the Baptist, on Jesus' approach, cries
" Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sins of the world " ;
and how he says " I saw the spirit descending upon Him, and I bore
witness that this is the Son of God." But the Synoptists, especially
Mark, give the slow steps in even the apostles' realization of Jesus'
Messianic character; only at Caesarea Philippi Simon alone, for the
first time, clearly discerns it, Jesus declaring that His Father has
revealed it to Him, and yet Simon is still scandalized at the thought
of a suffering Messiah (Mark viii. 28-34). Only some two weeks
before the end is He proclaimed Messiah at Jericho (x. 46—48) ; then
in Jerusalem, five days before dying for this upon the cross (xi. I— 10,
xv. 37). As to the Baptist, in all three Synoptists, he baptizes Jesus,
and in Mark i. 10, n it is Jesus who sees the Spirit descending upon
Himself on His emerging from beneath the water, and it is to
Himself that God's voice is addressed; in John, Jesus' baptism is
ignored, only the Spirit remains hovering above Him, as a sign for
the Baptist's instruction. And in Matt. xi. 2^-6, the Baptist, several
months after the Jordan scene, sends from his prison to ascertain if
Jesus is indeed the Messiah ; in John, the Baptist remains at large
so as again (iii. 22— 36)' to proclaim Jesus' heavenly provenance.
The cleansing of the Temple occurs in the Synoptists four days
before His death, and instantly determines the hierarchs to seek His
destruction (Mark xi. 15-18); John puts it three years back, as an
appropriate frontispiece to His complete claims and work.
The passion-narratives reveal the following main differences.
John omits, at the last supper, its central point, the great historic
act of the holy eucharist, carefully given by the Synoptists and
St Paul, having provided a highly doctrinal equivalent in the discourse
on the living bread, here spoken by Jesus in Capernaum over a year
before the passion (vi. 4), the day after the multiplication of the
loaves. This transference is doubtless connected with the change in
the relations between the time of the Passover meal and that of His
death: in the Synoptists, the Thursday evening's supper is a true
Passover meal, the lamb had been slain that afternoon and Jesus dies
some twenty-four hours later; in John, the supper is not a Passover-
meal, the Passover is celebrated on Friday, and Jesus, proclaimed
here from the first, the Lamb of God, dies whilst the paschal lambs,
His prototypes, are being slain. The scene in the garden is without
the agony of Gethsemane ; a faint echo of this historic anguish appears
in the scene with the Greeks four days earlier, and even that peaceful
454
appeal to, and answer of, the Father occurs only for His followers'
sakes. In the garden Jesus here Himself goes forth to meet His
captors, and these fall back upon the ground, on His revealing Him-
self as Jesus of Nazai'eth. The long scenes with Pilate culminate
in the great sayings concerning His kingdom not being of this world
and the object of this His coming being to bear witness to the truth,
thus explaining how, though affirming kingship (Mark xv. 2) He
could be innocent. In John He does not declare Himself Messiah
before the Jewish Sanhedrin (Mark xiv. 61) but declares Himself
supermundane regal witness to the truth before the Roman governor.
The scene on Calvary differs as follows: In the Synoptists the
soldiers divide His garments among them, casting lots (Mark xv.
24) ; in John they make four parts of them and cast lots concerning
His seamless tunic, thus fulfilling the text, " They divided My gar-
ments among them and upon My vesture they cast lots ' : the
parallelism of Hebrew poetry, which twice describes one fact,
being taken as witnessing to two, and the tunic doubtless symbol-
izing the unity of the Church, as in Philo the high priest's seamless
robe symbolizes the indivisible unity of the universe, expressive of
the Logos (De ebrietate, xxi.). In the Synoptists, of His followers
only women — the careful, seemingly exhaustive lists do not include
His mother — remain, looking on " from afar " (Mark xv. 40); in
John, His mother stands with the two other Marys and the beloved
disciple beneath the cross, and " from that hour the disciple took her
unto his own (house)," while in the older literature His mother does
not appear in Jerusalem till just before Pentecost, and with " His
brethren " (Acts i. 14). And John alone tells how the bones of the
dead body remained unbroken, fulfilling the ordinance as to the
paschal lamb (Exod. xii. 46) and how blood and water flow from His
spear-pierced side: thus the Lamb " taketh away the sins of the
world " by shedding His blood which " cleanseth us from every sin " ;
and " He cometh by water and blood," historically at His baptism
and crucifixion, and mystically to each faithful soul in baptism and
the eucharist. The story of the risen Christ (xx.) shows dependence
on and contrast to the Synoptic accounts. Its two halves have each
a negative and a positive scene. The empty grave (l-io) and the
apparition to the Magdalen (11-18) together correspond to the mes-
sage brought by the women (Matt, xxviii. l-io) ; and the apparition
to the ten joyously believing apostles (19-23) and then to the sadly
doubting Thomas (24-20) together correspond to Luke xxiv. 36-^43,
where the eleven apostles jointly receive one visit from the risen
One, and both doubt and believe, mourn and rejoice.
The Johannine discourses reveal differences from the Synoptists
so profound as to be admitted by all. Here Jesus, the Baptist and
the writer speak so much alike that it is sometimes impossible to
say where each speaker begins and ends: e.g. in iii. 27-30, 31-36.
The speeches dwell upon Jesus' person and work, as we shall find,
with a didactic directness, philosophical terminology and denuncia-
tory exclusiveness unmatched in the Synoptist sayings. " This is
eternal life, that they may know Thee the only true God and Jesus
Christ whom Thou hast sent " (xvii. 3), is part of the high-priestly
prayer; yet Pere Calmes, with the papal censor's approbation, says,
"It seems to us impossible not to admit that we have here dogmatic
developments explicable rather by the evangelist's habits of mind
than by the actual words of Jesus." " I have told you of earthly
things and you believe not; now shall ye believe if I tell you of
heavenly things ? " (iii. 12), and " Ye are from beneath, I am from
above " (viii. 23), give us a Plato-(Philo-) like upper, " true " world,
and a lower, delusive world. " Ye shall die in your sins " (viii. 21) ;
" ye are from your father the devil " (viii. 44) ; " I am the door of
the sheep, all they that came before Me are thieves and robbers,"
(x. 7, 8); " they have no excuse for their sin " (xv. 22) — contrast
strongly with the yearning over Jerusalem: " The blood of Abel the
just and " the blood of Zacharias son of Barachias " (Matt, xxiii.
35-37 ; a.nd " Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do"
Luke xxiii. 34). And whilst the Synoptist speeches and actions stand
in loose and natural relation to each other, the Johannine deeds so
closely illustrate the sayings that each set everywhere supplements
the other: the history itself here tends to become one long allegory.
So with the woman at the well and "the living water"; the multipli-
cation of the loaves and " the living Bread " ; I am the Light of the
world " and the blind man's cure; " I am the Resurrection and the
Life " and the raising of Lazarus; indeed even with the Temple-
cleansing and the prophecy as to His resurrection, Nicodemus's
night visit and " men loved the darkness rather than the light,"
the cure of the inoperative paralytic and " My Father and I work
hitherto," the walking phantom-like upon the waters (John vi.
15-21 ; Mark vi. 49), and the declaration concerning the eucharist,
" the spirit it is that quickeneth " (John vi. 63). Only some six-
teen Synoptic sayings reappear here; but we are given some great
new sayings full of the Synoptic spirit.
Characteristics and Object. — The book's character results from
the continuous operation of four great tendencies. There is
everywhere a readiness to handle traditional, largely historical,
materials with a sovereign freedom, controlled and limited by
doctrinal convictions and devotional experiences alone. There
is everywhere the mystic's deep love for double, even treble
JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
meanings: e.g. the " again " in iii. 2, means, literally, " from
the beginning," to be physically born again; morally, to become
as a little child; mystically, " from heaven, God," to be spiritu-
ally renewed. " Judgment " (xpuns), in the popular sense,
condemnation, a future act; in the mystical sense, discrimination,
a present fact. There is everywhere the influence of certain
central ideas, partly identical with, but largely developments
of, those less reflectively operative in the Synoptists. Thus six
great terms are characteristic of, or even special to, this Gospel.
" The Only-Begotten " is most nearly reached by St Paul's
term " His own Son." The " Word," or " Logos," is a term
derived from Heracleitus of Ephesus and the Stoics, through
the Alexandrian Jew Philo, but conceived here throughout as
definitely personal. " The Light of the World " the Jesus-
Logos here proclaims Himself to be; in the Synoptists He only
declares His disciples to be such. " The Paraclete," as in
Philo, is a "helper," "intercessor"; but in Philo he is the
intelligible universe, whilst here He is a self-conscious Spirit.
" Truth," " the truth," " to know," have here a prominence
and significance far beyond their Synoptic or even their Pauline
use. And above all stand the uses of " Life," " Eternal Life."
The living ever-working Father (vi. 57; v. 17) has a Logos in
whom is Life (i. 4), an ever- working Son (v. 17), who declares
Himself " the living Bread," " the Resurrection and the Life,"
" the Way, the Truth and the Life " (vi. 51; xi. 25; xiv. 16): so
that Father and Son quicken whom they will (v. 21); the Father's
commandment is life everlasting, and Jesus' words are spirit
and life (xii. 50; vi. 63, 68). The term, already Synoptic, takes
over here most of the connotations of the " Kingdom of God,"
the standing Synoptic expression, which appears here only in
iii- 3~S; xviii. 36. Note that the term " the Logos " is peculiar
to the Apocalypse (xix. 13), and the prologue here; but that, as
Light and Life, the Logos-conception is present throughout the
book. And thus there is everywhere a striving to contemplate
history sub specie aeternitatis and to englobe the successiveness
of man in the simultaneity of God.
Narratives Peculiar to John.— Of his seven great symbolical,
doctrinally interpreted " signs," John shares three, the cure of
the ruler's son, the multiplication of the loaves, the walking on
the waters, with the Synoptists: yet here the first is transformed
almost beyond recognition; and the two others only typify and
prepare the eucharistic discourse. Of the four purely Johannine
signs, two — the cures of the paralytic (v. 1-16), and of the man
born blind (ix. 1-34) — are, admittedly, profoundly symbolical.
In the first case, the man's physical and spiritual lethargy are
closely interconnected and strongly contrasted with the ever-
active God and His Logos. In the second case there is also the
closest parallel between physical blindness cured, and spiritual
darkness dispelled, by the Logos-Light as described in the
accompanying discourse. Both narratives are doubtless based
upon actual occurrences — the cures narrated in Mark ii., iii., viii.,
x. and scenes witnessed by the writer in later times; yet here
they do but picture our Lord's spiritual work in the human soul
achieved throughout Christian history. We cannot well claim
more than these three kinds of reality for the first and the last
signs, the miracle at Cana and the resurrection of Lazarus.
For the marriage-feast sign yields throughout an allegorical
meaning. Water stands in this Gospel for what is still but
symbol; thus the water-pots serve here the external Jewish
ablutions — old bottles which the " new wine " of the Gospel is
to burst (Mark ii. 22). Wine is the blood of the new covenant,
and He will drink the fruit of the vine new in the Kingdom of
God (Mark xiv. 23-25); the vineyard where He Himself is the
true Vine (Mark xii. i; John xv. i). And "the kingdom of
heaven is like to a marriage-feast " (Matt, xxii.z); Jesus is the
Bridegroom (Mark ii. 19); "the marriage of the Lamb has
come " (Rev. xix. 7). "They have no wine": the hopelessness
of the old conditions is announced here by the true Israel, the
Messiah's spiritual mother, the same " woman " who in Rev. xii.
2, 5 " brought forth a man-child who was to rule all nations."
Cardinal Newman admits that the latter woman "represents
the church, this is the real or direct sense"; yet as her man-child
JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
455
is certainly the Messiah, this church must be the faithful Jewish
church. Thus also the " woman " at the wedding and beneath
•the cross stands primarily for the faithful Old Testament
community, corresponding to the beloved disciple, the typical
New Testament follower of her Son, the Messiah: in each case
the devotional accommodation to His earthly mother is equally
ancient and legitimate. He answers her " My hour is not yet
come," i.e. in the symbolic story, the moment for working the
miracle; in the symbolized reality, the hour of His death, con-
dition for the spirit's advent; and " what is there between Me
and thee ? " i.e. " My motives spring no more from the old
religion," words devoid of difficulty, if spoken thus by the
Eternal Logos to the passing Jewish church. The transformation
is soon afterwards accomplished, but in symbol only; the "hour"
of the full sense is still over three years off. Already Philo says
" the Logos is the master of the spiritual drinking-feast," and
" let Melchisedeck " — the Logos — " in lieu of water offer wine to
souls and inebriate them " (De somn. ii. 37; Legg. all. iii. 26).
But in John this symbolism figures a great historic fact, the
joyous freshness of Jesus' ministerial beginnings, as indicated
in the sayings of the Bridegroom and of the new wine, a fresh-
ness typical of Jesus' ceaseless renovation of souls.
The raising of Lazarus, in appearance a massive, definitely
localized historical fact, requires a similar interpretation, unless
we would, in favour of the direct historicity of a story peculiar
to a profoundly allegorical treatise, ruin the historical trust-
worthiness of the largely historical Synoptists in precisely their
most complete and verisimilar part. For especially in Mark,
the passing through Jericho, the entry into Jerusalem, the
Temple-cleansing and its immediate effect upon the hierarchs,
their next day's interrogatory, " By what authority doest thou
these things? " i.e. the cleansing (x. 46-xi. 33), are all closely
interdependent and lead at once to His discussions with His
Jerusalem opponents (xii. xiii.), and to the anointing, last
supper, and passion (xiv. xv). John's last and greatest symbolic
sign replaces those historic motives, since here jt is the raising
of Lazarus which determines the hierarchs to kill Jesus (xi. 46-
52), and occasions the crowds which accompany and meet Him
on His entry (xii. 9-19). The intrinsic improbabilities of the
narrative, if taken as direct history, are also great: Jesus'
deliberate delay of two days to secure His friend's dying, and
His rejoicing at the death, since thus He can revivify His friend
and bring His disciples to believe in Himself as the Life; His
deliberate weeping over the death which He has thus let happen,
yet His anger at the similar tears of Lazarus's other friends; and
His praying, as He tells the Father in the prayer itself, simply
to edify the bystanders: all point to a doctrinal allegory.
Indeed the climax of the whole account is already reached in
Jesus' great saying: " I am the Resurrection and the Life; he
that believeth in Me . . . shall not die for ever," and in Martha's
answer: " I believe that Thou art the Christ, the Son of God,
who hast come into the world" (xi. 26, 27); the sign which
follows is but the pictorial representation of this abiding truth.
The materials for the allegory will have been certain Old Testa-
ment narratives, but especially the Synoptic accounts of Jesus'
raisings of Jairus's daughter and of the widow's son (Mark v.;
(Luke vii.). Mary and Martha are admittedly identical with the
sisters in Luke x. 38-42 ; and already some Greek fathers connect
the Lazarus of this allegory with the Lazarus of the parable
(Luke xvi. 19-31). In the parable Lazarus returns not to earth,
since Abraham foresees that the rich man's brethren would
disbelieve even if one rose from the dead; in the corresponding
allegory, Lazarus does actually return to life, and the Jews
believe so little as to determine upon killing the very Life
Himself.
Special Difficulties and Special Greatness. — The difficulties,
limitations and temporary means special to the book are
closely connected with its ready appeal and abiding power; let
us take both sets of things together, in three couples of inter-
related price and gift.
The book's method and form are pervadingly allegorical; its
instinct and aim are profoundly mystical. Now from Philo to
Origen we have a long Hellenistic, Jewish and Christian applica-
tion of that all-embracing allegorism, where one thing stands
for another and where no factual details resist resolution into a
symbol of religious ideas and forces. Thus Philo had, in his
life of Moses, allegorized the Pentateuchal narratives so as to
represent him as mediator, saviour, intercessor of his people,
the one great organ of revelation, and the soul's guide from the
false lower world into the upper true one. The Fourth Gospel
is the noblest instance of this kind of literature, of which the
truth depends not on the factual accuracy of the symbolizing
appearances but on the truth of the ideas and experiences thus
symbolized. And Origen is still full of spontaneous sympathy
with its pervading allegorism. But this method has lost its
attraction; the Synoptists, with their rarer and slighter pragmatic
rearrangements and their greater closeness to our Lord's actual
words, deeds, experiences, environment, now come home to us
as indefinitely richer in content and stimulative appeal. Yet
mysticism persists, as the intuitive and emotional apprehension
of the most specifically religious of all truths, viz. the already
full, operative existence of eternal beauty, truth and goodness,
of infinite Personality and Spirit independently of our action,
and not, as in ethics, the simple possibility and obligation for
ourselves to produce such-like things. And of this elemental
mode of apprehension and root-truth, the Johannine Gospel is
the greatest literary document and incentive extant: its ulti-
mate aim and deepest content retain all their potency.
The book contains an intellectualist, static, determinist,
abstractive trend. In Luke x. 25-28, eternal life depends upon
loving God and man; here it consists in knowing the one true
God and Christ whom He has sent. In the Synoptists, Jesus
" grows in favour with God and man," passes through true
human experiences and trials, prays alone on the mountain-side,
and dies with a cry of desolation ; here the Logos' watchword is
" I am," He has deliberately to stir up emotion in Himself,
never prays for Himself, and in the garden and on the cross
shows but power and self-possession. Here we find " ye cannot
hear, cannot believe, because ye are not from God, not of My
sheep" (viii. 47, x. 26); "the world cannot receive the spirit
of truth " (xiv. 17). Yet the ethical current appears here also
strongly: " he who doeth the truth, cometh to the light "
(iii. 21), " if you love Me, keep My commandments " (xiv. 15).
Libertarianism is here: " the light came, but men loved the
darkness better than the light," " ye will not come to Me "
(iii. 19, v. 40); hence the appeal " abide in Me " — the branch
can cease to be in Him the Vine (xv. 4, 2). Indeed even those
first currents stand here for the deepest religious truths, the
prevenience of God and man's affinity to Him. " Not we loved
God (first), but He (first) loved us "; " let us love Him, because
He first loved us " (i John iv. 10, 19); " no man can come to
Me, unless the Father draw him " (vi. 44), a drawing which
effects a hunger and thirst for Christ and God (iv. 14, vi. 35).
Thus man's spirit, ever largely but potential, can respond
actively to the historic Jesus, because already touched and made
hungry by the all-actual Spirit-God who made that soul akin
unto Himself.
The book has an outer protective shell of acutely polemical
and exclusive moods and insistences, whilst certain splendid
Synoptic breadths and reconciliations are nowhere reached ; but
this is primarily because it is fighting, more consciously than
they, for that inalienable ideal of all deepest religion, unity, even
external and corporate, amongst all believers. The " Pneu-
matic " Gospel comes thus specially to emphasize certain central
historical facts; and, the most explicitly institutional and
sacramental of the four, to proclaim the most universalistic and
developmental of all Biblical sayings. Here indeed Jesus will
not pray for the world (xvii. 9); " ye shall die in your sins," He
insists to His opponents (viii. 44, 24); it is the Jews generally
who appear throughout as such; nowhere is there a word as to
forgiving our enemies; and the commandment of love is desig-
nated by Jesus as His, as new, and as binding the disciples to
" love one another " within the community to which He gives
His "example" (xv. 12, xiii. 34, 15). In the Synoptists, the
JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
disciples' intolerance is rebuked (Mark ix. 38-41); Jesus'
opposition is everywhere restricted to the Pharisees and the
worldly Sadducees; He ever longs for the con version of Jerusalem;
the great double commandment of love is proclaimed as already
formulated in the Mosaic law (Mark xii. 28-34); the neighbour
to be thus loved and served is simply any and every suffering
fellow-man; and the pattern for such perfect love is found in a
schismatical Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). Yet the deepest
strain here is more serenely universalist even than St Paul, for
here Jesus says: " God so loVed the world, that He gave His
only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in Him should . . .
have everlasting life " (iii. 16). True, the great prologue
passage (i. 9) probably reads " He was the true Light coming
into the world, that enlighteneth every man," so that the
writer would everywhere concentrate his mind upon the grace
attendant upon explicit knowledge of the incarnate, historic
Christ. Yet Christian orthodoxy, which itself has, all but
uniformly, understood this passage of the spiritual radiation
throughout the world of the Word before His incarnation, has
been aided towards such breadth as to the past by the Johannine
outlook into the future. For, in contrast to the earliest Synoptic
tradition, where the full Christian truth and its first form remain
undistinguished, and where its earthly future appears restricted
to that generation, in John the Eternal Life conception largely
absorbs the attention away from all successiveness; Jesus'
earthly life does not limit the religion's assimilation of further
truth and experience: " I have many things to tell you, but you
cannot bear them now," " the Father will give you another
Helper, the spirit of truth, who will abide with you for ever "
(xvi. 12, xiv. 15). This universalism is not simply spiritual;
the external element, presupposed in the Synoptists as that of
the Jewish church within which Jesus' earthly life was spent,
is here that of the now separate Christian community: He has
other sheep not of this fold — them also He must bring, there
will be one fold, one shepherd; and His seamless tunic, and
Peter's net which, holding every kind of fish, is not rent, are
symbols of this visible unity. Ministerial gradations exist in
this church; Jesus begins the feet- washing with Peter, who
alone speaks and is spoken to; the beloved disciple outruns
Peter to Jesus' monument, yet waits to go in till Peter has done
so first; and in the appendix the treble pastoral commission is
to Peter alone: a Petrine pre-eminence which but echoes the
Synoptists. And sacramentalism informs the great discourses
concerning rebirth by water and the spirit, and feeding on the
Living Bread, Jesus' flesh and blood, and the narrative of the
issue of blood and water from the dead Jesus' side. Indeed so
severe a stress is laid upon the explicitly Christian life and its
specific means, that orthodoxy itself interprets the rebirth by
water and spirit, and the eating the flesh and drinking the
blood to which entrance into the Kingdom and possession of
interior life are here exclusively attached, as often represented
by a simple sincere desire and will for spiritual purification and
a keen hunger and thirst for God's aid, together with such cultual
acts as such souls can know or find, even without any knowledge
of the Christian rites. Thus there is many " a pedagogue to
Christ," and the Christian visible means and expressions are
the culmination and measure of what, in various degrees and
forms, accompanies every sincerely striving soul throughout all
human history.
Origin and Authorship. — The question as to the book's origin
has lost its poignancy through the ever-increasing recognition
of the book's intrinsic character. Thus the recent defenders of
the apostolic authorship, the Unitarian James Drummond (1903),
the Anglican William Sanday (1005), the Roman Catholic
Theodore Calmes (1904), can tell us, the first, that " the evangelist
did not aim at an illustrative picture of what was most charac-
teristic of Jesus"; the second, that "the author sank into his
own consciousness and at last brought to light what he found
there "; the third, that " the Gospel contains an entire theological
system," " history is seen through the intervening dogmatic
development," " the Samaritan woman is ... a personifica-
tion," " the behaviour of the Greeks is entirely natural in such
a book." We thus get at cross-purposes with this powerful,
profound work. Only some such position as Abbe Loisy's
critical summing up (1903) brings out its specific greatness.
" What the author was, his book, in spite of himself, tells us to
some extent: a Christian of Judeo- Alexandrine formation; a
believer without, apparently, any personal reminiscence of what
had actually been the life, preaching and death of Jesus; a
theologian far removed from every historical preoccupation,
though he retains certain principal facts of tradition without
which Christianity would evaporate into pure ideas; and a seer
who has lived the Gospel which he propounds." " To find his
book beautiful and true, we need but take it as it is and under-
stand it." " The church, which has never discussed the literary
problem of this Gospel, in nowise erred as to its worth."
Several traditional positions have indeed been approximately
maintained or reconquered against the critics. As to the
Gospel's date, critics have returned from 160-170 (Baur), 150
(Zeller), 130 (Keim), to 110-115 (Renan) and 80-110 (Harnack):
since Irenaeus says its author lived into the times of Trajan
(90-117), a date somewhere about 105 would satisfy tradition.
As to the place, the critics accept proconsular Asia with practical
unanimity, thus endorsing Irenaeus's declaration that the
Gospel was published in Ephesus. As to the author's ante-
cedents, critics have ceased to hold that he could not have been a
Jew-Christian (so Bretschneider, 1820), and admit (so Schmiedel,
(1901) that he must have been by birth a Jew of the Dispersion,
or the son of Christian parents who had been such Jews. And
as to the vivid accuracy of many of his topographical and social
details, the predominant critical verdict now is that he betrays
an eye-witness's knowledge of the country between Sichem and
Jordan and as to Jerusalem; he will have visited these places,
say in 90, or may have lived in Jerusalem shortly before its fall.
But the reasons against the author being John the Zebedean or
any other eyewitness of Jesus' earthly life have accumulated
to a practical demonstration.
As to the external evidence for the book's early date, we must
remember that the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Book of
Revelation, though admittedly earlier, are of the same school,
and, with the great Pauline Epistles, show many preformations
of Johannine phrases and ideas. Other slighter prolusions will
have circulated in that Philonian centre Ephesus, before the
great Gospel englobed and superseded them. Hence the pre-
cariousness of the proofs derived from more or less close parallels
to Johannine passages in the apostolic fathers. Justin Martyr
(163-167) certainly uses the Gospel; but his conception of Jesus'
life is so strictly Synoptic that he can hardly have accepted it
as from an apostolic eyewitness. Papias of Hierapolis, in his
Exposition of the Lord's Sayings (145-160) appears nowhere to
have mentioned it, and clearly distinguishes between " what
Andrew, Peter, . . . John or Matthew or any other of the
Lord's disciples spoke," and " what Aristion and the presbyter
John, the Lord's disciples, say." Thus Papias, as Eusebius
about 314 insists, knew two Johns, and the apostle was to him
a far-away figure; indeed early medieval chroniclers recount
that Papias " in the second book of the Lord's sayings" asserted
that both the sons of Zebedee were "slain by Jews," so that
the apostle John would have died before 70. Irenaeus's testi-
mony is the earliest and admittedly the strongest we possess for
the Zebedean authorship; yet, as Calmes admits, " it cannot be
considered decisive." In his work against the Heresies and in
his letter to Florinus, about 185-191, he tells how he had himself
known Bishop Polycarp of Smyrna, and how Polycarp " used to
recount his familiar intercourse with John and the others who
had seen the Lord "; and explicitly identifies this John with the
Zebedean and the evangelist. But Irenaeus was at most fifteen
when thus frequenting Polycarp; writes thirty-five to fifty years
later in Lyons, admitting that he noted down nothing at the
time; and, since his mistaken description of Papias as "a hearer
of John " the Zebedean was certainly reached by mistaking the
presbyter for the apostle, his additional words " and a companion
of Polycarp" point to this same mistaken identification having
also operated in his mind with regard to Polycarp. In any case,
JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
the very real and important presbyter is completely unknown to
Irenaeus, and his conclusion as to the book's authorship resulted
apparently from a comparison of its contents with Polycarp's
teaching. If the presbyter wrote Revelation and was Polycarp's
master, such a mistake could easily arise. Certainly Polycrates,
bishop of Ephesus, made a precisely similar mistake when about
190 he described the Philip " who rests in Hierapolis " as " one
of the twelve apostles," since Eusebius rightly identifies this
Philip with the deacon of Acts xxi. A positive testimony for
the critical conclusion is derived from the existence of a group
of Asia Minor Christians who about 165 rejected the Gospel as
not by John but by Cerinthus. The attribution is doubtless
mistaken. But could Christians sufficiently numerous to
deserve a long discussion by St Epiphanius iri 374-377, who
upheld the Synoptists, stoutly opposed the Gnostics and Mon-
tanists, and had escaped every special designation till the
bishop nicknamed them the " Alogoi " (irrational rejectors of
the Logos- Gospel), dare, in such a time and country, to hold
such views, had the apostolic origin been incontestable ? Surely
not. The Alexandrian Clement, Tertullian, Origen, Eusebius,
Jerome and Augustine only tell of the Zebedean what is trace-
able to stories told by Papias of others, to passages of Revelation
and the Gospel, or to the assured fact of the long-lived Asian
presbyter.
As to the internal evidence, if the Gospel typifies various im-
perfect or sinful attitudes in Nicodemus, the Samaritan woman
and Thomas; if even the mother appears to symbolize faithful
Israel: then, profoundly spiritual and forward-looking as it is,
a type of the perfect disciple, not all unlike Clement's perfect
" Gnostic," could hardly be omitted by it; and the precise details
of this figure may well be only ideally, mystically true. The
original work nowhere identifies this disciple with any particular
historic figure. " He who saw " the lance-thrust " hath borne
witness, and his witness is true," is asserted (xix. 35) of the
disciple. Yet " to see " is said also of intuitive faith, " whoso
hath seen Me, hath seen the Father " (xiv. 9) ; and " true "
appears also in " the true Light," " the true Bread from heaven,"
as characterizing the realities of the upper, alone fully true
world, and equals " heavenly " (iii. 1 2) ; thus a " true wit-
ness" testifies to some heavenly reality, and appeals to the
reader's " pneumatic," i.e. allegorical, understanding.
Only in the appendix do we find any deliberate identification
with a particular historic person: " this is the disciple who
witnessed to and who wrote these things " (24) refers doubtless
to the whole previous work and to " the disciple whom Jesus
loved," identified here with an unnamed historic personage
whose recent death had created a shock, evidently because
he was the last of that apostolic generation which had so keenly
expected the second coming (18-23). This man was so great that
the writer strives to win his authority for this Gospel; and
yet this man was not John the Zebedean, else why, now he is
dead and gone, not proclaim the fact? If the dead man was
John the presbyter — if this John had in youth just seen Jesus
and the Zebedean, and in extreme old age had still seen and
approved the Gospel — to attribute this Gospel to him, as is done
here, would not violate the literary ethics of those times. Thus
the heathen philosopher lamblichus (d. c. 330) declares: " this
was admirable " amongst the Neo-Pythagoreans " that they
ascribed everything to Pythagoras; but few of them acknowledge
their own works as their own " (de Pythag. vita, 198). And as to
Christians, Tertullian about 210 tells how the presbyter who,
in proconsular Asia, had " composed the A.cts of Paul and
Thecla " was convicted and deposed, for how could it be credible
that Paul should confer upon women the power to ' teach and
baptize " as these Acts averred ? The attribution as such, then,
was not condemned.
The facts of the problem would all appear covered by the
hypothesis that John the presbyter, the eleven being all dead,
wrote the book of Revelation (its more ancient Christian por-
tions) say in 69, and died at Ephesus say in 100; that the author
of the Gospel wrote the first draft, here, say in 97; that this
book, expanded by him, first circulated within a select Ephesian
457
Christian circle; and that the Ephesian church officials added
to it the appendix and published it in 110-120. But however
different or more complicated may have been the actual origins,
three points remain certain. The real situation that confronts us
is not an unbroken tradition of apostolic eye-witnesses, in-
capable of re-statement with any hope of ecclesiastical accep-
tance, except by another apostolic eye-witness. On one side
indeed there was the record, underlying the Synoptists, of at
least two eye-witnesses, and the necessity of its preservation
and transmission; but on the other side a profound double
change had come over the Christian outlook and requirements-
St Paul's heroic labours (30-64) had gradually gained full
recognition and separate organization for the universalist
strain in our Lord's teaching; and he who had never seen the
earthly Jesus, but only the heavenly Christ, could even declare
that Christ " though from the Jewish fathers according to the
flesh " had died, " so that henceforth, even if we have known
Christ according to the flesh, now we no further know Him
thus," " the Lord is the Spirit," and " where the Spirit of the
Lord is, there is liberty." And the Jewish church, within which
Christianity had first lived and moved, ceased to have a visible
centre. Thus a super-spatial and super-temporal interpretation
of that first markedly Jewish setting and apprehension of the
Christian truth became as necessary as the attachment to the
original contingencies. The Fourth Gospel, inexplicable without
St Paul and the fall of Jerusalem, is fully understandable with
them. The attribution of the book to an eye-witness nowhere
resolves, it everywhere increases, the real difficulties; and by
insisting upon having history in the same degree and way in
John as in the Synoptists, we cease to get it sufficiently anywhere
at all. And the Fourth Gospel's true greatness lies well within
the range of this its special character. In character it is pro-
foundly "pneumatic"; Paul's super-earthly Spirit-Christ here
breathes and speaks, and invites a corresponding spiritual
comprehension. And its greatness appears in its inexhaustibly
deep teachings concerning Christ's sheep and fold; the Father's
drawing of souls to Christ; the dependence of knowledge as to
Christ's doctrine upon the doing of God's will; the fulfilling of
the commandment of love, as the test of true discipleship;
eternal life, begun even here and now; and God a Spirit, to be
served in spirit and in truth.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See also the independent discussion, under
REVELATION, BOOK OF, of the authorship of that work. Among the
immense literature of the subject, the following books will be found
especially instructive by the classically trained reader: Origen's
mentary, published 1596 (critical reprint, edited by Raich, 1874), a
pathfinder on many obscure points, is still a model for tenacious
penetration of Johannine ideas. Bretschneider's short Probabilia
de Evangelii . . . Joannis Apostoli indole et origine (1820), the first
systematic assault on the traditional attribution, remains unrefuted
in its main contention. The best summing up and ripest fruit of
the critical labour since then are Professor H. J. Holtzmann's Hand-
kommentar (2nd ed., 1893) and the respective sections in his Einlei-
tung in d. N. T. (yd ed., 1892) and his Lehrbuch der N. T. Theologie
(1897), vol. 2. Professor C. E. Luthardt'sSi John, Author of the Fourth
Gospel (Eng. trans., with admirable bibliography by C. R. Gregory,
J875), still remains the best conservative statement. Among the
few critically satisfactory French books, Abb6 Loisy's Le Quatrieme
6vangile (1903) stands pre-eminent for delicate psychological analysis
and continuous sense of the book's closely knit unity ; 'whilst Pere
Th. Calmes' Evangile selon S. Jean (1904) indicates now numerous
are the admissions as to the book's character and the evidences for
its authorship, made by intelligent Roman Catholic apologists with
Rome's explicit approbation. In England a considerably less docile
conservatism has been predominant. Bp Lightfoot's Essays on ...
Supernatural Religion (1874-1877 ; collected 1889) are often masterly
conservative interpretations of the external evidence; but they leave
this evidence still inconclusive, and the formidable contrary internal
evidence remains practically untouched. Much the same applies
to Bp Westcott's Gospel according to St John (1882), devotionally so
attractive, and in textual criticism excellent. Dr James Drummond'&
Inquiry into the Character and Authorship of the Fourth Gospel (1903)
does not, by its valuable survey of the external evidence, succeed in
giving credibility to the eyewitness origin of such a book as this is
admitted to be. Professor W. Sanday's slighter Criticism of the Fourth
Gospel (1905) is in a similar position. Professor P. W. Schmiedel's
458
JOHN ALBERT- -JOHN FREDERICK
article " John s. of Zebedee " in the Ency. Bib. (1901) is the work of
a German of the advanced left. Dr E. A. Abbott's laborious From
Letter to Spirit (1903), Joannine Vocabulary (1904) and Grammar
(1906) overflow with statistical details and ever acute, often fanciful,
conjecture. Professor F. C. Burkitt's The Gospel History (1906) vigor-
ously sketches the book's dominant characteristics and true function.
E. F. Scott's The Fourth Gospel (1906) gives a lucid, critical and
religiously tempered account of the Gospel's ideas, aims, affinities,
difficulties and abiding significance. (F. v. H.)
JOHN ALBERT (1459-1501), king of Poland, third son of
Casimir IV. king of Poland and Elizabeth of Austria. As
crown prince he distinguished himself by his brilliant victory
over the Tatars at Kopersztyn in 1487. He succeeded his father
in 1492. The loss of revenue consequent upon the secession of
Lithuania placed John Albert at the mercy of the Polish Sejmiki
or local diets, where the szlachla, or country gentry, made their
subsidies dependent upon the king's subservience. Primarily a
warrior with a strong taste for heroic adventure, John Albert
desired to pose as the champion of Christendom against the
Turks. Circumstances seemed, moreover, to favour him. In
his brother Wladislaus, who as king of Hungary and Bohemia
possessed a dominant influence in Central Europe, he found a
counterpoise to the machinations of the emperor Maximilian,
who in 1492 had concluded an alliance against him with Ivan III.
of Muscovy, while, as suzerain of Moldavia, John Albert was
favourably situated for attacking the Turks. At the conference
of Leutschau in 1494 the details of the expedition were arranged
between the kings of Poland and Hungary and the elector
Frederick of Brandenburg, with the co-operation of Stephen,
hospodar of Moldavia, who had appealed to John Albert for
assistance. In the course of 1496 John Albert with great
difficulty collected an army of 80,000 men in Poland, but the
crusade was deflected from its proper course by the sudden
invasion of Galicia by the hospodar, who apparently — for the
whole subject is still very obscure — had been misled by reports
from Hungary that John Albert was bent upon placing his
younger brother Sigismund on the throne of Moldavia, Be
that as it may, the Poles entered Moldavia not as friends, but
as foes, and, after the abortive siege of Suczawa, were compelled
to retreat through the Bukowina to Sniatyn, harassed all the
way by the forces of the hospodar. The insubordination of
the sdachta seems to have been one cause of this disgraceful
collapse, for John Albert confiscated hundreds of their estates
after his return; in spite of which, to the end of his life he
retained his extraordinary popularity. When "the new grand
master of the Teutonic order, Frederic of Saxony, refused to
render homage to the Polish crown, John Albert compelled
him to do so. His intention of still further humiliating the
Teutonic order was frustrated by his sudden death in 1501. A
valiant soldier and a man of much enlightenment, John Albert
was a poor politician, recklessly sacrificing the future to the
present.
See V. Czerny, The Reigns of John Albert and Alexander Jagiello
(Pol.) (Cracow, 1882).
JOHN ANGELUS (d. 1244), emperor of Thessalonica. In
1232 he received the throne from his father Theodore, who,
after a period of exile, had re-established his authority, but
owing to his loss of eyesight resolved to make John the nominal
sovereign. His reign is chiefly marked by the aggressions of the
rival emperor of Nicaea, John Vatatzes, who laid siege to
Thessalonica in 1 243 and only withdrew upon John Angelus con-
senting to exchange the title " emperor " for the subordinate
one of "despot."
See G. Finlay, History of Greece, vol. iii. (1877).
JOHN FREDERICK I. (1503-1554), called the Magnanimous,
elector of Saxony, was the elder son of the elector, John the
Steadfast, and belonged to the Ernestine branch of the Wettin
family. Born at Torgau on the 3Oth of June 1503 and educated
as a Lutheran, he took some part in imperial politics and in the
business of the league of Schmalkalden before he became
elector by his father's death in August 1532. His lands com-
prised the western part of Saxony, and included Thuringia, but
in 1542 Coburg was surrendered to form an apanage for his
brother, John Ernest (d. 1553). John Frederick, who was an
ardent Lutheran and had a high regard for Luther, continued
the religious policy of his father. In 1534 he assisted to make
peace between the German king Ferdinand I. and Ulrich,
duke of Wiirttemberg, but his general attitude was one of
vacillation between the emperor and his own impetuous col-
league in the league of Schmalkalden, Philip, landgrave of
Hesse. He was often at variance with Philip, whose bigamy he
disliked, and his belief in the pacific intentions of Charles V.
and his loyalty to the Empire prevented him from pursuing any
definite policy for the defence of Protestantism. In 1541 his
kinsman Maurice became duke of Saxony, and cast covetous
eyes upon the electoral dignity. A cause of quarrel soon arose.
In 1541 John Frederick forced Nicholas Amsdorf into the see of
Naumburg in spite of the chapter, who had elected a Roman
Catholic, Julius von Pflug; and about the same time he seized
Wurzen, the property of the bishop of Meissen, whose see was
under the joint protection of electoral and ducal Saxony.
Maurice took up arms, and war was only averted by the efforts of
Philip of Hesse and Luther. In 1542 the elector assisted to drive
Henry, duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel, from his duchy, but in
spite of this his relations with Charles V. at the diet of Spires in
1544 were very amicable. This was, however, only a lull in the
storm, and the emperor soon began to make preparations for
attacking the league of Schmalkalden, and especially John
Frederick and Philip of Hesse. The support, or at least the
neutrality, of Maurice was won by the hope of the electoral
dignity, and in July 1546 war broke out between Charles and
the league. In September John Frederick was placed under the
imperial ban, and in November Maurice invaded the electorate.
Hastening from southern Germany the elector drove Maurice from
the land, took his ally, Albert Alcibiades, prince of Bayreuth,
prisoner at Rochlitz, and overran ducal Saxony. His progress,
however, was checked by the advance of Charles V. Notwith-
standing his valour he was wounded and taken prisoner at
Miihlberg on the 24th of April 154 7, and was condemned to death
in order to induce Wittenberg to surrender. The sentence was
not carried out, but by the capitulation of Wittenberg (May
1547) he renounced the electoral dignity and a part of his
lands in favour of Maurice, steadfastly refusing however to
make any concessions on religious matters, and remained in
captivity until May 1552, when he returned to the Thuringian
lands which his sons had been allowed to retain, his return
being hailed with wild enthusiasm. During his imprisonment
he had refused to accept the Interim, issued from Augsburg
in May 1548, and had urged his sons to make no peace with
Maurice. After his release the emperor had restored his
dignities to him, and his assumption of the electoral arms and
title prevented any arrangement with Maurice. However, after
the death of this prince in July 1553, -a treaty was made at
Naumburg in February 1554 with his successor Augustus. John
Frederick consented to the transfer of the electoral dignity, but
retained for himself the title of " born elector," and received some
lands and a sum of money. He was thus the last Ernestine
elector of Saxony. He died at Weimar on the 3rd of March
1554, having had three sons by his wife, Sibylla (d. 1554),
daughter of John III., duke of Cleves, whom he had married in
1527, and was succeeded by his eldest son, John Frederick. The
elector was a great hunter and a hard drinker, whose brave and
dignified bearing in a time of misfortune won for him his surname
of Magnanimous, and drew eulogies from Roger Ascham and
Melanchthon. He founded the university of Jena and was a
benefactor to that of Leipzig.
See Mentz, Johann Friedrich der Grossmutige (Jena, 1903) ; Rogge,
Johann Friedrich der Grossmutige (Halle, 1902) and L. von Ranke,
Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation (Leipzig, 1882).
JOHN FREDERICK (1520-1595), called der Mittlere, duke of
Saxony, was the eldest son of John Frederick, who had been
deprived of the Saxon electorate by the emperor Charles V. in
1547. Born at Torgau on the 8th of January 1529, he received
a good education, and when his father was imprisoned in 1547
JOHN GEORGE
undertook the government of the remnant of electoral Saxony
which the emperor allowed the Ernestine branch of the Wettin
family to keep. Released in 1552 John Frederick the elder
died two years later, and his three sons ruled Ernestine Saxony
together until 1557, when John Frederick was made sole ruler.
This arrangement lasted until 1565, when John Frederick shared
his lands with his surviving brother, John William (1530-1573),
retaining for himself Gotha and Weimar. The duke was a strong,
even a fanatical, Lutheran, but his religious views were gradually
subordinated to the one idea of regaining the electoral dignity
then held by Augustus I. To attain this end he lent a willing
ear to the schemes of Wilhelm von Grumbach, who came to his
court about 1557 and offered to regain the electoral dignity and
even to acquire the Empire for his patron. In spite of repeated
warnings from the emperor Ferdinand I., John Frederick con-
tinued to protect Grumbach, and in 1566 his obstinacy caused
him to be placed under the imperial ban. Its execution was
entrusted to Augustus who, aided by the duke's brother, John
William, marched against Gotha with a strong force. In conse-
quence of a mutiny the town surrendered in April 1567, and
John Frederick was delivered to the emperor Maximilian II.
He was imprisoned in Vienna, his lands were given to his
brother, and he remained in captivity until his death at Steyer
on the 6th of May 1595. These years were mainly occupied
with studying theology and in correspondence. John Frederick
married firstly Agnes (d. 1555) daughter of Philip, landgrave of
Hesse, and widow of Maurice, elector of Saxony, and secondly
Elizabeth (d. 1594) daughter of Frederick III., elector palatine
of the Rhine, by whom he left two sons, John Casimir (1564-
1633) and John Ernest (1566-1638). Elizabeth shared her
husband's imprisonment for twenty-two years.
See A. Beck, Johann Friedrich der Mittlere, Herzog zu Sachsen
(Vienna, 1858); and F. Ortloff, Geschichte der Grumbachischen
Handel (Jena, 1868-1870).
JOHN GEORGE I. (1585-1656), elector of Saxony, second son
of the elector Christian I., was born on the 5th of March 1585,
succeeding to the electorate in June 1611 on the death of his
elder brother, Christian II. The geographical position of
electoral Saxony hardly less than her high standing among the
German Protestants gave her ruler much importance during
the Thirty Years' War. At the beginning of his reign, however,
the new elector took up a somewhat detached position. His
personal allegiance to Lutheranism was sound, but he liked
neither the growing strength of Brandenburg nor the increasing
prestige of the Palatinate; the adherence of the other branches
of the Saxon ruling house to Protestantism seemed to him to
suggest that the head of electoral Saxony should throw his weight
into the other scale, and he was prepared to favour the advances
of the Habsburgs and the Roman Catholic party. Thus he was
easily induced to vote for the election of Ferdinand, archduke
of Styria, as emperor in August 1619, an action which nullified
the anticipated opposition of the Protestant electors. The new
emperor secured the help of John George for the impending
campaign in Bohemia by promising that he should be undisturbed
in his possession of certain ecclesiastical lands. Carrying out
his share of the bargain by occupying Silesia and Lusatia, where
he displayed much clemency, the Saxon elector had thus some
part in driving Frederick V., elector palatine of the Rhine, from
Bohemia and in crushing Protestantism in that country, the
crown of which he himself had previously refused. Gradually,
however, he was made uneasy by the obvious trend of the im-
perial policy towards the annihilation of Protestantism, and by
a dread lest the ecclesiastical lands should be taken from him;
and the issue of the edict of restitution in March 1629 put the
coping-stone to his fears. Still, although clamouring vainly
for the exemption of the electorate from the area covered by the
edict, John George took no decided measures to break his
alliance with the emperor. He did, indeed, in February 1631
call a meeting of Protestant princes at Leipzig, but in spite
of the appeals of the preacher Matthias Hoe von Hohenegg
(1580-1645) he contented himself with a formal protest. Mean-
while Gustavus Adolphus had landed in Germany, and the elector
459
had refused to allow him to cross the Elbe at Wittenberg, thus
hindering his attempt to relieve Magdeburg. But John George's
reluctance to join the Protestants disappeared when the imperial
troops under Tilly began to ravage Saxony, and in September
1631 he concluded an alliance with the Swedish king. The
Saxon troops were present at the battle of Breitenfeld, but were
routed by the imperialists, the elector himself seeking safety in
flight. Nevertheless he soon took the offensive. Marching into
Bohemia the Saxons occupied Prague, but John George soon
began to negotiate for peace and consequently his soldiers
offered little resistance to Wallenstein, who drove them back
into Saxony. However, for the present the efforts of Gustavus
Adolphus prevented the elector from deserting him, but the
position was changed by the death of the king at Liitzen in 1632,
and the refusal of Saxony to join the Protestant league under
Swedish leadership. Still letting his troops fight in a desultory
fashion against the imperialists, John George again negotiated
for peace, and in May 1635 he concluded the important treaty
of Prague with Ferdinand II. His reward was Lusatia and
certain other additions of territory; the retention by his son
Augustus of the archbishopric of Magdeburg; and some conces-
sions with regard to the edict of restitution. Almost at once he
declared war upon the Swedes, but in October 1636 he was beaten
at Wittstock; and Saxony, ravaged impartially by both sides,
was soon in a deplorable condition. At length in September
1645 the elector was compelled to agree to a truce with the
Swedes, who, however, retained Leipzig; and as far as Saxony
was concerned this ended the Thirty Years' War. After the
peace of Westphalia, which with regard to Saxony did little
more than confirm the treaty of Prague, John George died
on the 8th of October 1656. Although not without political
acumen, he was not a great ruler; his character appears to
have been harsh and unlovely, and he was addicted to drink.
He was twice married, and in addition to his successor John
George II. he left three sons, Augustus (1614-1680), Christian
(d. 1691) and Maurice (d. 1681) who were all endowed with
lands in Saxony, and who founded cadet branches of the Saxon
house.
JOHN GEORGE II. (1613-1680), elector' of Saxony, was born
on the 3ist of May 1613. In 1657, just after his accession, he
made an arrangement with his three brothers with the object of
preventing disputes over their separate territories, and in 1664 he
entered into friendly relations with Louis XIV. He received
money from the French king, but the existence of a strong anti-
French party in Saxony induced him occasionally to respond
to the overtures of the emperor Leopold I. The elector's
primary interests were not in politics, but in music and art.
He adorned Dresden, which under him became the musical centre
of Germany; welcoming foreign musicians and others he
gathered around him a large and splendid court, and his capital
was the constant scene of musical and other festivals. His
enormous expenditure compelled him in 1661 to grant greater
control over monetary matters to the estates, a step which
laid the foundation of the later system of finance in Saxony.
John George died at Freiberg on the 22nd of August 1680.
JOHN GEORGE III. (1647-1691), elector of Saxony, the
only son of John George II., was born on the zoth of June 1647.
He forsook the vacillating foreign policy of his father and in
June 1683 joined an alliance against France. Having raised the
first standing army in the electorate he helped to drive the Turks
from Vienna in September 1680, leading his men with great
gallantry; but disgusted with the attitude of the emperor
Leopold I. after the victory, he returned at once to Saxony.
However, he sent aid to Leopold in 1685. When Louis XIV.'s
armies invaded Germany in September 1688 John George was one
of the first to take up arms against the French, and after sharing
in the capture of Mainz he was appointed commander-in-chief
of the imperial forces. He had not, however, met with any
notable success when he died at Tubingen on the i2th of Septem-
ber 1691. Like his father, he was very fond of music, but he
appears to have been less extravagant than John George II.
His wife was Anna Sophia, daughter of Frederick III. king of
460 JOHN MAURICE— JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY
Denmark, and both his sons, John George and Frederick
Augustus, became electors of Saxony, the latter also becoming
king of Poland as Augustus II.
JOHN GEORGE IV. (1668-1694), elector of Saxony, was born on
the *8th of October 1668. At the beginning of his reign his
chief adviser was Hans Adam von Schoning (1641-1696), who
counselled a union between Saxony and Brandenburg and a more
independent attitude towards the emperor. In accordance
with this advice certain proposals were put before Leopold I.
to which he refused to agree; and consequently the Saxon troops
withdrew from the imperial army, a proceeding which, led the
chagrined emperor to seize and imprison Schoning in July 1692.
Although John George was unable to procure his minister's
release, Leopold managed to allay the elector's anger, and early
in 1693 the Saxon soldiers rejoined the imperialists. This
elector is chiefly celebrated for his passion for Magdalene Sibylle
von Neidschiitz (d. 1694), created in 1693 countess of Rochlitz,
whom on his accession he publicly established as his mistr-ess.
John George left no legitimate issue when he died on the 27th
of April 1694.
JOHN1 MAURICE OF NASSAU (1604-1679), surnamed the
Brazilian, was the son of John the Younger, count of Nassau-
Siegen-Dillenburg, and the grandson of John, the elder brother
of William the Silent and the chief author of the Union of
Utrecht. He distinguished himself in the campaigns of his
cousin, the stadtholder Frederick Henry of Orange, and was by
him recommended to the directors of the Dutch West India
company in 1636 to be governor-general of the new dominion in
Brazil recently conquered by the company. He landed at the
Recife, the port ol Pernambuco, and the chief stronghold of the
Dutch, in January 1637. By a series of successful expeditions
he gradually extended the Dutch possessions from Sergipe on
the south to S. Luis de Maranham in the north. He likewise
conquered the Portuguese possessions of St George del Mina and
St Thomas on the west coast of Africa. With the assistance of
the famous architect, Pieter Post of Haarlem, he transformed the
Recife by building a new town adorned with splendid public
edifices and gardens, which was called after his name Mauritstad.
By his statesmanlike policy he brought the colony into a most
flourishing condition and succeeded even in reconciling the
Portuguese settlers to submit quietly to Dutch rule. His large
schemes and lavish expenditure alarmed however the parsi-
monious directors of the West India company, but John Maurice
refused to retain his post unless he was given a free hand, and he
returned to Europe in July 1644. He was shortly afterwards
appointed by Frederick Henry to the command of the cavalry
in the States army, and he took part in the campaigns of 1645 and
1646. When the war was ended by the peace of MUnster in
January 1648, he accepted from the elector of Brandenburg the
post of governor of Cleves, Mark and Ravensberg, and later also
of Minden. His success in the Rhineland was as great as it had
been in Brazil, and he proved himself a most able and wise ruler.
At the end of 1652 he was appointed head of the order of St John
and made a prince of the Empire. In 1664 he came back to
Holland; when the war broke out with England supported by
an invasion from the bishop of Munster, he was appointed com-
mander-in-chief of the Dutch forces on land. Though hampered
in his command by the restrictions of the states-general, he
repelled the invasion, and the bishop, Christoph von Galen, was
forced to conclude peace. His campaigning was not yet at an
end, for in 1673 he was appointed by the stadtholder William III.
to command the forces in Friesland and Groningen, and to defend
the eastern frontier of the Provinces. In 1675 his health com-
pelled him to give up active military service, and he spent his
last years in his beloved Cleves, where he died on the 2oth
of December 1679. The house which he built at the Hague,
named after him the Maurits-huis, now contains the splendid
collections of pictures so well known to all admirers of Dutch
art.
1 This name is usually written Joan, the form used by the
man himself in his signature — see the facsimile in Netscher s Les
Hollandais en Bresil.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Caspar Bar\aeus, Rerum per octennium in Brasilia
el alibi nuper gestarum historia, sub praefeclura illustrissimi comitis
J. Mauritii Nassoviae (Amsterdam, 1647) '< L. Driessen, Leben des
Fursten Johann Moritz von Nassau (Berlin, 1849); D. Veegens,
Leven van Joan Maurits, Graaf van Nassau-Siegen (Haarlem,
1840).
JOHN 0' GROAT'S HOUSE, a spot on the north coast of Caith-
ness, Scotland, 14 m. N. of Wick and if m. W. of Duncansby
Head. It is the mythical site of an octagonal house said to have
been erected early in the i6th century by one John Groot, a
Dutchman who had migrated to the north of Scotland by per-
mission of James IV. According to the legend, other members
of the Groot family followed John, and acquired lands around
Duncansby. When there were eight Groot families, disputes
began to arise as to precedence at annual feasts. These squabbles
John Groot is said to have settled by building an octagonal house
which had eight entrances and eight tables, so that the head of
each family could enter by his own door and sit at the head of his
own table. Being but a few miles south of Dunnet Head, John
o' Groat's is a colloquial term for the most northerly point of
Scotland. The site of the traditional building is marked by an
outline traced in turf. Descendants of the Groot family, now
Groat, still live in the neighbourhood. The cowry-shell, Cypraea
europaea, is locally known as " John o' Groat's bucky."
JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, an American educational
institution at Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A. Its trustees, chosen
by Johns Hopkins (1794-1873), a successful Baltimore merchant,
were incorporated on the 24th of August 1867 under a general
act " for the promotion of education in the state of Mary-
land." But nothing was actually done until after the death of
Johns Hopkins (Dec. 24, 1873), when his fortune of $7,000,000
was equally divided between the projected university and a
hospital, also to bear his name, and intended to be an auxiliary
to the medical school of the university. The trustees of the
university consulted with many prominent educationists,
notably Charles W. Eliot of Harvard, Andrew D. White of
Cornell, and James B. Angell of the university of Michigan; on
the 3oth of December 1874 they elected Daniel Coit Gilman (q.v.)
president. The university was formally opened on the 3rd of-
October 1876, when an address was delivered by T. H. Huxley.
The first year was largely given up to consultation among the
newly chosen professors, among whom were — in Greek, B. L.
Gildersleeve; in mathematics, J. J. Sylvester; in chemistry, Ira
Remsen; in biology, Henry Newell Martin (1848-1896); in
zoology, William Keith Brooks (1848-1908); and in physics,
Henry Augustus Rowland (1848-1901). Prominent among later
teachers were Arthur Cayley in mathematics, the Semitic scholar
Paul Haupt (b. 1858), Granville Stanley Hall in psychology,
Maurice Bloomfield in Sanskrit and comparative philology, James
Rendel Harris in Biblical philology, James Wilson Bright in
English philology, Herbert B. Adams in history, and Richard
T. Ely (b. 1854) in economics. The university at once became
a pioneer in the United States in teaching by means of seminary
courses and laboratories, and it has been eminently successful
in encouraging research, in scientific production, and in preparing
its students to become instructors in other colleges and univer-
sities. It includes a college in which each of five parallel courses
leads to the degree of Bachelor of Arts, but its reputation has been
established chiefly by its other two departments, the graduate
school and the medical school. The graduate school offers
courses in philosophy and psychology, physics, chemistry and
biology, historical and economic science, language and literature,
and confers the degree of Doctor of Philosophy after at least three
years' residence. From its foundation the university had novel
features and a liberal administration. Twenty annual fellow-
ships of $500 each were opened to the graduates of any college.
Petrography and laboratory psychology were among the new
sciences fostered by the new university. Such eminent out-
siders were secured for brief residence and lecture courses as
J. R. Lowell, F. J. Child, Simon Newcomb, H. E. von Hoist,
F. A. Walker, William James, Sidney Lanier, James Bryce,
E. A. Freeman, W. W. Goodwin, and Alfred Russel Wallace.
President Gilman gave up his presidential duties on the ist of
JOHNSON, A.
461
September 1901, Ira Remsen1 succeeding him in the office.
The medical department, inaugurated in 1893, is closely affiliated
with the excellently equipped Johns Hopkins Hospital (opened
in 1889), and is actually a graduate school, as it admits only
students holding the bachelor's degree or its equivalent. The
degree of Doctor of Medicine is conferred after four years of
successful study, and advanced courses are offered. The depart-
ment's greatest teachers have been William Osier (b. 1849) and
William Henry Welch (b. 1850).
The buildings of the university were in 1901 an unpretentious
group on crowded ground near the business centre of the city.
In 1902 a new site was secured, containing about 125 acres amid
pleasant surroundings in the northern suburbs, and new build-
ings were designed in accordance with a plan formed with a view
to secure harmony and symmetry. In 1907 the library contained
more than 133,000 bound volumes. Among the numerous
publications issued by the university press are: American
Journal of Mathematics, Studies in Historical and Political
Science, Reprint of Economic Tracts, American Journal of Philo-
logy, Contributions to Assyriology and Semitic Philology, Modern
Language Notes, American Chemical Journal, American Journal
of Insanity, Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity,
Reports of the Maryland Geological Survey, and Reports of the
Maryland Weather Service. The institution is maintained
chiefly with the proceeds of the endowment fund. It also receives
aid from the state, and charges tuition fees. Its government is
entrusted to a board of trustees, while the direction of affairs of
a strictly academic nature is delegated to an academic council
and to department boards. In 1907-1908 the regular faculty
numbered 175, and there was an enrolment of 683 students, of
whom 518 were in post-graduate courses.
On'the history of the university see Daniel C. Oilman, The Launch-
ing of a University (New York, 1906), and the annual reports of the
president.
JOHNSON, ANDREW (1808-1875), seventeenth president of
the United States, was born at Raleigh, North Carolina, on the
2gth of December 1808. His parents were poor, and his father
died when Andrew was four years old. At the age of ten he was
apprenticed to a tailor, his spare hours being spent in acquiring
the rudiments of an education. He learned to read from a book
which contained selected orations of great British and American
statesmen. The young tailor went to Laurens Court House,
South Carolina, in 1824, to work at his trade, but returned to
Raleigh in 1826 and soon afterward removed to Greeneville in
the eastern part of Tennessee. He married during the same year
Eliza McCardle (1810-1876), much his superior by birth and
education, who taught him the common school branches of
learning and was of great assistance in his later career. In East
Tennessee most of the people were small farmers, while West
Tennessee was a land of great slave plantations. Johnson began
in politics to oppose the aristocratic element and became the
spokesman and champion of the poorer and labouring classes.
In 1828 he was elected an alderman of Greeneville and in 1830-
1834 was mayor. In 1834, in the Tennessee constitutional con-
vention he endeavoured to limit the influence of the slaveholders
by basing representation in the state legislature on the white
population alone. In 1835-1837 and 1839-1841 Johnson was
a Democratic member of the state House of Representatives, and
in 1841-1843 of the state Senate; in both houses he uniformly
upheld the cause of the " common people," and, in addition,
opposed legislation for " internal improvements." He soon
was recognized as the political champion of East Tennessee.
Though his favourite leaders became Whigs, Johnson remained
a Democrat, and in 1840 canvassed the state for Van Buren for
president.
1 Ira Remsen was born in New York City on the loth of February
1846, graduated at the college of the City of New York in 1865,
studied at the New York college of physicians and surgeons and at
the university of Gottingen, was professor of chemistry at Williams
College in 1872-1876, and in 1876 became professor of chemistry
at Johns Hopkins University. He published many textbooks of
chemistry, organic and inorganic, which were republished in England
and were translated abroad. In 1879 he founded the American
Chemical Journal.
In 1843 he was elected to the national House of Representatives
and there remained for ten years until his district was gerry-
mandered by the Whigs and he lost his seat. But he at once
offered himself as a candidate for governor and was elected and
re-elected, and was then sent to the United States Senate, serving
from 1857 to 1862. As governor (1853-1857) he proved to be able
and non-partisan. He championed popular education and recom-
mended the homestead policy to the national government, and
from his sympathy with the working classes and his oft-avowed
pride in his former calling he became known as the " mechanic
governor." In Congress he proved to be a tireless advocate of
the claims of the poorer whites and an opponent of the aristo-
cracy. He favoured the annexation of Texas, supported the
Polk administration on the issues of the Mexican War and the
Oregon boundary controversy, and though voting for the admis-
sion of free California demanded national protection for slavery.
He also advocated the homestead law and low tariffs, opposed
the policy of " internal improvements," and was a zealous worker
for budget economies. Though opposed to a monopoly of politi-
cal power in the South by the great slaveholders, he deprecated
anti-slavery agitation (even favouring denial of the right of
petition on that subject) as threatening abolition or the dissolu-
tion of the Union, and went with his sectional leaders so far as to
demand freedom of choice for the Territories, and protection
for slavery where it existed — this even so late as 1860. He
supported in 1860 the ultra-Democratic ticket of Breckinridge
and Lane, but he did not identify the election of Lincoln with
the ruin of the South, though he thought the North should give
renewed guarantees to slavery. But he followed Jackson
rather than Calhoun, and above everything else set his love of
the Union, though believing the South to be grievously wronged.
He was the only Southern member of Congress who opposed
secession and refused to " go with his state " when it withdrew
from the Union in 1861. In the judgment of a leading opponent
(O. P. Morton) " perhaps no man in Congress exerted the same
influence on the public sentiment of the North at the beginning
of the war " as Johnson. During the war he suffered much for
his loyalty to the Union. In March 1862 Lincoln made him
military governor of the part of Tennessee captured from the
Confederates, and after two years of autocratic rule (with much
danger to himself) he succeeded in organizing a Union govern-
ment for the state. In 1864, to secure the votes of the war
Democrats and to please the border states that had remained
in the Union, Johnson was nominated for vice-president on the
ticket with Lincoln.
A month after the inauguration the murder of Lincoln left
him president, with the great problem to solve of reconstruction
of the Union. All his past career and utterances seemed to
indicate that he would favour the harshest measures toward ex-
Confederates, hence his acceptability to the most radical republi-
cans. But, whether because he drew a distinction between the
treason of individuals and of states, or was influenced by Seward,
or simply, once in responsible position, separated Republican
party politics from the question of constitutional interpretation,
at least he speedily showed that he would be influenced by
no acrimony, and adopted the lenient reconstruction policy of
Lincoln. In this he had for some time the cordial support of
his cabinet. During the summer of 1865 he set up provisional
civil governments in all the seceded states except Texas, and
within a few months all those states were reorganized and
applying for readmission to the Union. The radical congress
(Republican by a large majority) sharply opposed this plan
of restoration, as they had opposed Lincoln's plan: first,
because the members of Congress from the Southern States
(when readmitted) would almost certainly vote with the Demo-
crats; secondly, because relatively few of the Confederates
were punished; and thirdly, because the newly organized
Southern States did not give political rights to the negroes.
The question of the status of the negro proved the crux of the
issue. Johnson was opposed to general or immediate negro
suffrage. A bitter contest began in Feb. 1866, between the presi-
dent and the Congress, which refused to admit representatives
462
JOHNSON, B.— JOHNSON, R.
from the South and during 1866 passed over his veto a
number of important measures, such as the Freedmen's Bureau
Act and the Civil Rights Act, and submitted to the States the
Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. Johnson took a
prominent and undignified part in the congressional campaign
of 1866, in which his policies were voted down by the North.
In 1867 Congress threw aside his work of restoration and pro-
ceeded with its own plan, the main features of which were the
disfranchisement of ex- Confederates and the enfranchisement of
negroes. On the 2nd of March 1867 Congress passed over the
president's veto the Tenure of Office Act, prohibiting the presi-
dent from dismissing from office without the consent of the
Senate any officer appointed by and with the advice and consent
of that body, and in addition a section was inserted in the army
appropriation bill of this session designed to subordinate the
president to the Senate and the general-in-chief of the army in
military matters. The president was thus deprived of practi-
cally all power. Stanton and other members of his cabinet and
General Grant became hostile to him, the president attempted
to remove Stanton without regard to the Tenure of Office Act,
and, finally, to get rid of the president, Congress in 1868 (Feb-
ruary-May) made an attempt to impeach and remove him, his
disregard of the Tenure of Office Act being the principal charge
against him. The charges1 were in part quite trivial, and the
evidence was ridiculously inadequate for the graver charges.
A two- thirds majority was necessary for conviction; and the
votes being 35 to 19 (7 Republicans and 1 2 Democrats voting in his
favour on the crucial clauses) he was acquitted. The misguided
animus of the impeachment as a piece of partisan politics was
soon very generally admitted; and the importance of its failure,
in securing the continued power and independence of the presi-
dential element in the constitutional system, can hardly be
over-estimated. The rest of his term as 'president was compara-
tively quiet and uneventful. In 1869 he retired into private life
in Tennessee, and after several unsuccessful efforts was elected
to the United States Senate, free of party trammels, in 1875, but
died at Carter's Station, Tenn., on the 315! of July 1875. The
only speech he made was a skilful and temperate arraignment of
President Grant's policy towards the South.
1 The charges centred in the president's removal of Secretary
Stanton, his ad interim appointment of Lorenzo Thomas, his cam-
paign speeches in 1866, and the relation of these three things to the
Tenure of Office Act. Of the eleven charges of impeachment
the first was that Stanton's removal was contrary to the Tenure
of Office Act; the second, that the appointment of Thomas was a
violation of the same law; the third, that the appointment violated
the Constitution ; the fourth, that Johnson conspired with Thomas
"to hinder and prevent Edwin M. Stanton . . . from holding . . . office
of secretary for the department of war " ; the fifth, that Johnson had
conspired with Thomas to "prevent and hinder the execution " of
the Tenure of Office Act; the sixth, that he had conspired with
Thomas " to seize, take and possess the property of the United
States in the department of war," in violation of the Tenure of Office
Act; the seventh, that this action was "a high misdemeanour";
the eighth, that the appointment of Thomas was " with intent
unlawfully to control the disbursements of the moneys appropriated
for the military service and for the department of war ' ; the ninth,
that he had instructed Major-General Emory, in command of the
department of Washington, that an act of 1867 appropriating money
for the army was unconstitutional; the tenth, that his speeches in
1866 constituted " a high misdemeanour in office " ; and the eleventh,
the " omnibus " article, that he had committed high misdemeanours
in saying that the 39th Congress was not an authorized Congress,
that its legislation was not binding upon him, and that it was
incapable of proposing amendments. The actual trial began on the
3Oth of March (from the 5th of March it was adjourned to the 23rd,
and on the 24th of March to the 3Oth). On the i6th of May, after
sessions in which the Senate repeatedly reversed the rulings of the
chief justice as to the admission of evidence, in which the president's
counsel showed that their case was excellently prepared and the
prosecuting counsel appealed in general to political passions rather
than to judicial impartiality, the eleventh article was voted on and
impeachment failed by a single vote (35 to 19; 7 republicans and 12
democrats voting " Not guilty ") of the necessary two-thirds.
After ten days' interval, during which B. F. Butler of the prosecuting
counsel attempted to prove that corruption had been practised on
some of those voting '' Not ffuilty," on the 26th of May a vote was
taken on the second and third articles with the same result as on
the eleventh article. There was no vote on the other articles.
President Johnson's leading political principles were a rever-
ence of Andrew Jackson, unlimited confidence in the people, and
an intense veneration for the constitution. Throughout his life
he remained in some respects a " backwoodsman." He lacked
the finish of systematic education. But his whole career suffi-
ciently proves him to have been a man of extraordinary qualities.
He did not rise above untoward circumstances by favour, nor —
until after his election as senator — by fortunate and fortuitous,
connexion with great events, but by strength of native talents,
persistent purpose, and an iron will. He had strong, rugged
powers, was a close reasoner and a forcible speaker. Unfor-
tunately his extemporaneous speeches were commonplace, in very
bad taste, fervently intemperate and denunciatory; and though
this was probably due largely to temperament and habits of
stump-speaking formed in early life, it was attributed by his
enemies to drink. Resorting to stimulants after illness, his
marked excess in this respect on the occasion of his inauguration
as vice-president undoubtedly did him harm with the public.
Faults of personality were his great handicap. Though approach-
able and not without kindliness of manner, he seemed hard and
inflexible; and while president, physical pain and domestic
anxieties, added to the struggles of public life, combined to accen-
tuate a naturally somewhat severe temperament. A lifelong
Southern Democrat, he was forced to lead (nominally at least) a
party of Northern Republicans, with whom he had no bond of
sympathy save a common opposition to secession; and his
ardent, aggressive convictions and character, above all his
complete lack of tact, unfitted him to deal successfully with the
passionate partisanship of Congress. The absolute integrity
and unflinching courage that marked his career were always
ungrudgingly admitted by his greatest enemies.
See L. Foster, The Life and Speeches of Andrew Johnson (1866);
D. M. De Witt, The Impeachment and Trial of A ndrew Johnson (1903) ;
C. E. Chadsey, The Struggle between President Johnson and Congress
over Reconstruction (1896); and W. A. Dunning, Essays on the Civil
War and Reconstruction (1898). Also see W. A. Dunning's paper
" More Light on Andrew Johnson" (in the A merican Historical Review,
April 1906), in which apparently conclusive evidence is presented
to prove that Johnson's first inaugural, a notable state paoer, was
written by the historian George Bancroft.
JOHNSON, BENJAMIN (c. 1665-1742), English actor, was first
a scene painter, then acted in the provinces, and appeared in
London in 1695 at Drury Lane after Betterton's defection. He
was the original Captain Driver in Oronooko (1696), Captain
Fireball in Farquhar's Sir Harry Wildair (1701), Sable in Steele's
Funeral (1702), &c.; as the First Gravedigger in Hamlet, and
in several characters in the plays of Ben Jonson he was particu-
larly good. He succeeded, also, to Thomas Doggett's roles.
JOHNSON, EASTMAN (1824-1906), American artist, was born
at Lovell, Maine, on the 29th of July 1824. He studied at
Diisseldorf, Paris, Rome and The Hague, the last city being his
home for four years. In 1860 he was elected to the National
Academy of Design, New York. A distinguished portrait and
genre painter, he made distinctively American themes his own,
depicting the negro, fisherfolk and farm life with unusual interest.
Such pictures as " Old Kentucky Home " (1867), " Husking
Bee " (1876), " Cranberry Harvest, Nantucket " (1880), and his
portrait group " The Funding Bill " (1881) achieved a national
reputation. Among his sitters were many prominent men,
including Daniel Webster; Presidents Hayes, Arthur, Cleveland
and Harrison; William M. Evarts, Charles J. Folger; Emerson,
Longfellow, Hawthorne, James McCosh, Noah Porter and Sir
Edward Archbald. He died in New York City on the 5th of
April 1906.
JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796-1876), American political leader
and jurist, was born at Annapolis, Maryland, on the 2ist of May
1796. His father, John Johnson d 770-1824), was a distinguished
lawyer, who served in both houses of the Maryland General
Assembly, as attorney-general of the state (1806-181 1), as a judge
of the court of appeals (1811-1821), and as a chancellor of his
state (1821-1824). Reverdy graduated from St John's college in
1812. He then studied law in his father's office, was admitted
to the bar in 1815 and began to practise in Upper Marlborough,
JOHNSON, R.— JOHNSON, SAMUEL
463
Prince George's county. In 1817 he removed to Baltimore,
where he became the professional associate of Luther Martin,
William Pinkney and Roger B. Taney; with Thomas Harris he
reported the decisions of the court of appeals in Harris and
Johnson's Reports (1820-1827); and in 1818 he was appointed
chief commissioner of insolvent debtors. From 1821 to 1825
he was a state senator; from 1825 to 1845 he devoted himself to
his practice; from 1845 to 1849, as a Whig, he was a member of
the United States Senate; and from March 1849 to July 1850
he was attorney-general of the United States. In 1856 he became
identified with the conservative wing of the Democratic party,
and four years later supported Stephen A. Douglas for the
presidency. In 1861 he was a delegate from Maryland to the
peace convention at Washington; in 1861-1862 he was a member
of the Maryland House of Delegates. After the capture of New
Orleans he was commissioned by Lincoln to revise the decisions
of the military commandant, General B. F. Butler, in regard
to foreign governments, and reversed all those decisions to the
entire satisfaction of the administration. In 1863 he again
took his seat in the United States Senate. In 1868 he was
appointed minister to Great Britain and soon after his arrival
in England negotiated the Johnson-Clarendon treaty for the
settlement of disputes arising out of the Civil War; this, however,
the Senate refused to ratify, and he returned home on the acces-
sion of General U. S. Grant to the presidency. Again resuming
his practice he was engaged by the government in the prosecu-
tion of Ku-Klux cases. He died on the loth of February
1876 at Annapolis. He repudiated the doctrine of secession,
and pleaded for compromise and conciliation. Opposed to the
Reconstruction measures, he voted for them on the ground that
it was better to accept than reject them, since they were probably
the best that could be obtained. As a lawyer he was engaged
during his later years in most of the especially important cases
in the Supreme Court of the United States and in the courts of
Maryland.
JOHNSON, RICHARD (1573-1659?), English romance writer,
was baptized in London on the 24th of May 1573. His most
famous romance is The Famous Historic of the Seaven Champions
of Christendom (1596 ?). The success of this book was so/ great
that the author added a second and a third part in 1608 and 1616.
His other stories include: The Nine Worthies of London (1592);
The Pleasant Walks of Moorefields (1607); The Pleasant Conceites
of Old Hobson (1607), the hero being a well-known haberdasher
in the Poultry; The Most Pleasant History of Tom a Lincolne
(1607); A Remembrance of . . . Robert Earle of Salisbury (1612);
Looke on Me, London (1613) ; The History of Tom Thumbe (1621).
The Crown Garland of Golden Roses . . . set forth in Many
Pleasant new Songs and Sonnets (1612) was reprinted for the
Percy Society (1842 and 1845).
JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR (1781-1850), ninth vice-
president of the United States, was born at Bryant's Station,
Kentucky, on the I7th of October 1781. He was admitted to
the bar in 1800, and became prominent as a lawyer and Democratic
politician, serving in the Federal House of Representatives and
in the Senate for many years. From 1837 to 1841 he was vice-
president of the United States, to which position he was elected
over Francis Granger, by the Senate, none of the four candidates
for the vice-presidency having received a majority of the elec-
toral votes. The opposition to Johnson within the party greatly
increased during his term, and the Democratic national conven-
tion of 1840 adopted the unprecedented course of refusing to
nominate anyone for the vice-presidency. In the ensuing elec-
tion Johnson received most of the Democratic electoral votes,
but was defeated by the Whig candidate, John Tyler. He died
in Frankfort, Kentucky, on the i9tfi of November 1850.
JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1709-1784), English writer and lexico-
grapher, was the son of Michael Johnson (1656-1731), bookseller
and magistrate of Lichfield, who married in 1706 Sarah Ford
(1660-1759). Michael's abilities and attainments seem to have
been considerable. He was so well acquainted with the con-
tents of the volumes which he exposed for sale that the country
rectors of Staffordshire anc? Worcestershire thought him an
oracle on points of learning. Between him and the clergy,
indeed, there was a strong religious and political sympathy. He
was a zealous churchman, and, though he had qualified himself
for municipal office by taking the oaths to the sovereigns in
possession, was to the last a Jacobite in heart. The social
position of Samuel's paternal grandfather, William Johnson,
remains obscure; his mother was the daughter of Cornelius Ford,
" a little Warwickshire Gent."
At a house (now the Johnson Museum) in the Market Square,
Lichfield, Samuel Johnson was born on the i8th of September
1 709 and baptized on the same day at St Mary's, Lichfield. In
the child the physical, intellectual and moral peculiarities which
afterwards distinguished the man were plainly discernible:
great muscular strength accompanied by much awkwardness and
many infirmities; great quickness of parts, with a morbid pro-
pensity to sloth and procrastination; a kind and generous heart,
with a gloomy and irritable temper. He had inherited from his
ancestors a scrofulous taint, and his parents were weak enough
to believe that the royal touch would cure him. In his third
year he was taken up to London, inspected by the court surgeon,
prayed over by the court chaplains and stroked and presented
with a piece of gold by Queen Anne. Her hand was applied in
vain. The boy's features, which were originally noble and not
irregular, were distorted by his malady. His cheeks were
deeply scarred. He lost for a time the sight of one eye; and he
saw but very imperfectly with the other. But the force of his
mind overcame every impediment. Indolent as he was, he
acquired knowledge with such ease and rapidity that at every
school (such as those at Lichfield and Stourbridge) to which he
was sent he was soon the best scholar. From sixteen to eighteen
he resided at home, and was left to his own devices. He learned
much at this time, though his studies were without guidance and
without plan. He ransacked his father's shelves, dipped into a
multitude of books, read what was interesting, and passed over
what was dull An ordinary lad would have acquired little or
no useful knowledge in such a way; but much that was dull to
ordinary lads was interesting to Samuel. He read little Greek;
for his proficiency in that language was not such that he could
take much pleasure in the masters of Attic poetry and eloquence.
But he had left school a good Latinist, and he soon acquired an
extensive knowledge of Latin literature. He was peculiarly
attracted by the works of the great restorers of learning. Once,
while searching for some apples, he found a huge folio volume of
Petrarch's works. The name excited his curiosity, and he eagerly
devoured hundreds of pages. Indeed, the diction and versifi-
cation of his own Latin compositions show that he had paid at
least as much attention to modern copies from the antique as to
the original models.
While he was thus irregularly educating himself, his f amjly was
sinking into hopeless poverty. Old Michael Johnson was much
better qualified to pore over books, and to talk about them, than
to trade in them. His business declined; his debts increased;
it was with difficulty that the daily expenses of his household
were defrayed. It was out of his power to support his son at
either university; but a wealthy neighbour offered assistance;
and, in reliance on promises which proved to be of very little
value, Samuel was entered at Pembroke College, Oxford. When
the young scholar presented himself to the rulers of that society,
they were amazed not more by his ungainly figure and eccentric
manners than by the quantity of extensive and curious inform-
ation which he had picked up during many months of desultory
but not unprofitable study. On the first day of his residence he
surprised his teachers by quoting Macrobius; and one of the most
learned among them declared that he had never known a fresh-
man of equal attainments.
At Oxford Johnson resided barely over two years, possibly
less. He was poor, even to raggedness; and his appearance
excited a mirth and a pity which were equally intolerable to his
haughty spirit. He was driven from the quadrangle of Christ
Church by the sneering looks which the members of that aristo-
cratical society cast at the holes in his shoes. Some charitable
person placed a new pair at his door; but he spurned them away
JOHNSON, SAMUEL
in a fury. Distress made him, not servile, but reckless and un-
governable. No opulent gentleman commoner, panting for one-
and-twenty, could have treated the academical authorities with
more gross disrespect. The needy scholar was generally to be
seen under the gate of Pembroke, a gate now adorned with his
effigy, haranguing a circle of lads, over whom, in spite of his
tattered gown and dirty linen, his wit and audacity gave him an
undisputed ascendancy. In every mutiny against the discipline
of the college he was the ringleader. Much was pardoned, how-
ever, to a youth so highly distinguished by abilities and acquire-
ments. He had early made himself known by turning Pope's
" Messiah " into Latin verse. The style and rhythm, indeed, were
not exactly Virgilian; but the translation found many admirers,
and was read with pleasure by Pope himself.
The time drew near at which Johnson would, in the ordinary
course of things, have become a Bachelor of Arts; but he was at
the end of his resources. Those promises of support on which he
had relied had not been kept. His family could do nothing
for him. His debts to Oxford tradesmen were small 'indeed, yet
larger than he could pay. In the autumn of 1731 he was under
the necessity of quitting the university without a degree. In
the following winter his father died. The old man left but a
pittance; and of that pittance almost the whole was appro-
priated to the support of his widow. The property to which
Samuel succeeded amounted to no more than twenty pounds.
His life, during the thirty years which followed, was one hard
struggle with poverty. The misery of that struggle needed no
aggravation, but was aggravated by the sufferings of an unsound
body and an unsound mind. Before the young man left the
university, his hereditary malady had broken forth in a singu-
larly cruel form. He had become an incurable hypochondriac.
He said long after that he had been mad all his life, or at least
not perfectly sane; and, in truth, eccentricities less strange than
his have often been thought ground sufficient for absolving
felons and for setting aside wills. His grimaces, his gestures,
his mutterings, sometimes di\ierted and sometimes terrified
people who did not know him. (At a dinner table he would, in- a
fit of absence, stoop down and twitch off a lady's shoeJ He would
amaze a drawing-room by suddenly ejaculating a clause of the
Lord's Prayer. He would conceive an unintelligible aversion to
a particular alley, and perform a great circuit rather than see
the hateful place. He would set his heart on touching every post
in the streets through which he walked. If by any chance he
missed a post, he would go back a hundred yards and repair the
omission. Under the influence of his disease, his senses became
morbidly torpid, and his imagination morbidly active. At one
time he would stand poring on the town clock without being able
to tell the hour. At another he would distinctly hear his mother,
who was many miles off, calling him by his name. But this was not
the worst. A deep melancholy took possession of him, and gave
a dark tinge to all his views of human nature and of human des-
tiny. Such wretchedness as he endured has driven many men to
shoot themselves or drown themselves. But he was under no
temptation to commit suicide. He was sick of life; but he was
afraid of death; and he shuddered at every sight or sound which
reminded him of the inevitable hour. In religion he found but
little comfort during his long and frequent fits of dejection; for
his religion partook of his own character. The light from heaven
shone on him indeed, but not in a direct line, or with its own pure
splendour. The rays had to struggle through a disturbing
medium; they reached him refracted, dulled and discoloured by
the thick gloom which had settled on his soul, and, though they
might be sufficiently clear to guide him, were too dim to cheer
him.
With such infirmities of body and of mind, he was left, at two-
and-twenty, to fight his way through the world. He remained
during about five years in the midland counties. At Lichfield,
his birthplace and his early home, he had inherited some friends
and acquired others. He was kindly noticed by Henry Hervey,
a gay officer of noble family, who happened to be quartered
there. Gilbert Walmesley, registrar of the ecclesiastical court
of the diocese, a man of distinguished parts, learning and know-
ledge of the world, did himself honour by patronizing the young
adventurer, whose repulsive person, unpolished manners and
squalid garb moved many of the petty aristocracy of the
neighbourhood to laughter or disgust. At Lichfield, however,
Johnson could find no way of earning a livelihood. He became
usher of a grammar school in Leicestershire; he resided as a
humble companion in the house of a country gentleman; but a
life of dependence was insupportable to his haughty spirit.
He repaired to Birmingham, and there earned a few guineas by
literary drudgery. In that town he printed a translation, little
noticed at the time, and long forgotten, of a Latin book about
Abyssinia. He then put forth proposals for publishing by sub-
scription the poems of Politian, with notes containing a history
of modern Latin verse; but subscriptions did not come in, and
the volume never appeared.
While leading this vagrant and miserable life, Johnson fell in
love. The object of his passion was Mrs Elizabeth Porter (1688-
1752), widow of Harry Porter (d. 1734), whose daughter Lucy
was born only six years after Johnson himself. To ordinary
spectators the lady appeared to be a short, fat, coarse woman,
painted half an inch thick, dressed in gaudy colours, and fond
of exhibiting provincial airs and graces which were not exactly
those of the Queensberrys and Lepels. To Johnson, however,
whose passions were strong, whose eyesight was too weak to
distinguish rouge from natural bloom, and who had seldom or
never been in the same room with a woman of real fashion, his
Tetty, as he called her, was the most beautiful, graceful and ac-
complished of her sex. That his admiration was unfeigned cannot
be doubted; she had, however, a jointure of £600 and perhaps a
little more; she came of a good family, and her son Jervis
(d. 1763) commanded H.M.S. " Hercules." The marriage, in spite
of occasional wranglings, proved happier than might have been
expected. The lover continued to be under the illusions of the
wedding-day (July 9, 1735) till the lady died in her sixty-fourth
year. On her monument at Bromley he placed an inscription
extolling the charms of her person and of her manners; and
when, long after her decease, he had occasion to mention her, he
exclaimed with a tenderness half ludicrous, half pathetic, " Pretty
creature ! "
His marriage made it necessary for him to exert himself more
strenuously than he had hitherto done. He took a house at
Edial near Lichfield and advertised for pupils. But eighteen
months passedaway, and only three pupils came to his academy.
The " faces " that Johnson habitually made (probably nervous
contortions due to his disorder) may well have alarmed parents.
Good scholar though he was, these twitchings had lost him usher-
ships in 1735 and 1736. David Garrick, who was one of the
pupils, used, many years later, to throw the best company of
London into convulsions of laughter by mimicking the master
and his lady. •
At length Johnson, in the twenty-eighth year of his age,
determined to seek his fortune in London as a literary adventurer.
He set out with a few guineas, three acts of his tragedy of Irene
in manuscript, and two or three letters of introduction from his
friend Walmesley. Never since literature became a calling in
England had it been a less gainful calling than at the time when
Johnson took up his residence in London. In the preceding
generation a writer of eminent merit was sure to be munificently
rewarded by the Government. The least that he could expect
was a pension or a sinecure place; and, if he showed any apti-
tude for politics, he might hope to be a member of parliament, a
lord of the treasury, an ambassador, a secretary of state. But
literature had ceased to flourish under the patronage of the great,
and had not yet begun to flourish under the patronage of the
public. One man of letters, indeed, Pope, had acquired by his
pen what was then considered as a handsome fortune, and lived
on a footing of equality with nobles and ministers of state. But
this was a solitary exception. Even an author whose reputation
was established, and whose works were popular — such an author
as Thomson, whose Seasons was in every library, such an author
as Fielding, whose Pasquin had had a greater run than any drama
since The Beggar's Opera— was sometimes glad to obtain, by
JOHNSON, SAMUEL
465
pawning his best coat, the means of dining on tripe at a cookshop
underground, where he could wipe his hands, after his greasy
meal, on the back of a Newfoundland dog. It is easy, therefore,
to imagine what humiliations and privations must have awaited
the novice who had still to earn a name. One of the publishers
to whom Johnson applied for employment measured with a
scornful eye that athletic though uncouth frame, and exclaimed,
" You had better get a porter's knot and carry trunks." Nor
was the advice bad, for a porter was likely to be as plentifully
fed, and as comfortably lodged, as a poet.
Some time appears to have elapsed before Johnson was able
to form any literary connexion from which he could expect more
than bread for the day which was passing over him. He never
forgot the generosity with which Hervey, who was now residing
in London, relieved his wants during this time of trial. " Harry
Hervey," said Johnson many years later, " was a vicious man;
but he was very kind to me. If you call a dog Hervey, I shall
love him." At Hervey's table Johnson sometimes enjoyed
feasts which were made more agreeable by contrast. But in
general he dined, and thought that he dined well, on sixpenny-
worth of meat and a pennyworth of bread at an alehouse near
Drury Lane.
The effect of the privations and sufferings which he endured
at this time was discernible to the last in his temper and his
deportment. His manners had never been courtly. They now
became almost savage. Being frequently under the necessity of
wearing shabby coats and dirty shirts, he became a confirmed
sloven. Being often very hungry when he sat down to his
meals, he contracted a habit of eating with ravenous greediness.
Even to the end of his life, and even at the tables of the great,
the sight of food affected him as it affects wild beasts and birds
of prey. His taste in cookery, formed in subterranean ordinaries
and d la mode beef shops, was far from delicate. Whenever he
was so fortunate as to have near him a hare that had been kept
too long, or a meat pie made with rancid butter, he gorged himself
with such violence that his veins swelled and the moisture broke
out on his forehead. The affronts which his poverty emboldened
stupid and low-minded men to offer to him would have broken a
mean spirit into sycophancy, but made him rude even to ferocity.
Unhappily the insolence which, while it was defensive, was par-
donable, and in some sense respectable, accompanied him into
societies where he was treated with courtesy and kindness. He
was repeatedly provoked into striking those who had taken
liberties with him. All the sufferers, however, were wise enough
to abstain from talking about their beatings, except Osborne,
the most rapacious and brutal of booksellers, who proclaimed
everywhere that he had been knocked down by the huge fellow
whom he had hired to puff the Harleian Library.
About a year after Johnson had begun to reside in London he
was fortunate enough to obtain regular employment from Edward
Cave (q. ».) on the Gentleman's Magazine. That periodical, just
entering on the ninth year of its long existence, was the only one
in the kingdom which then had what weuld now be called a large
circulation. Johnson was engaged to write the speeches in the
" Reports of the Debates of the Senate of Lilliput " (see REPORT-
ING), under which thin disguise the proceedings of parliament
were published. He was generally furnished with notes, meagre
indeed and inaccurate, of what had been said; but sometimes he
had to find arguments and eloquence both for the ministry and
for the opposition. He was himself a Tory, not from rational
conviction — for his serious opinion was that one form of govern-
ment was just as good or as bad as another — but from mere
passion, such as inflamed the Capulets against the Montagues, or
the Blues of the Roman circus against the Greens. In his infancy
he had heard so much talk about the villainies of the Whigs, and
the dangers of the Church, that he had become a furious partisan
when he could scarcely speak. Before he was three he had in-
sisted on being taken to hear Sacheverel preach at Lichfield
Cathedral, and had listened to the sermon with as much respect
and probably with as much intelligence, as any Staffordshire
squire in the congregat in. The work which had been begun
in the nursery had been completed by the university. Oxford,
when Johnson resided there, was the most Jacobitical place in
England; and Pembroke was one of the most Jacobitical colleges
in Oxford. The prejudices which he brought up to London
were scarcely less absurd than those of his own Tom Tempest.
Charles II. and James II. were two of the best kings that ever
reigned. Laud was a prodigy of parts and learning over
whose tomb Art and Genius still continued to weep. Hampden
deserved no more honourable name than that of the " zealot of
rebellion." Even the ship-money Johnson would not pronounce
to have been an unconstitutional impost. Under a government
which allowed to the people an unprecedented liberty of speech
and action, he fancied that he was a slave. He hated Dissenters
and stock-jobbers, the excise and the army, septennial parlia-
ments, and Continental connexions. He long had an aversion
to the Scots, an aversion of which he could not remember the
commencement, but which, he owned, had probably originated
in his abhorrence of the conduct of the nation during the Great
Rebellion. It is easy to guess in what manner debates on great
party questions were likely to be reported by a man whose
judgment was so much disordered by party spirit. A show of
fairness was indeed necessary to the prosperity of the Magazine.
But Johnson long afterwards owned that, though he had saved
appearances, he had taken care that the Whig dogs should not
have the best of it; and, in fact, every passage whi^h has lived,
every passage which bears the marks of his higher faculties, is
put into the mouth of some member of the opposition.
A few weeks after Johnson had entered on these obscure
labours, he published a work which at once placed him high
among the writers of his age. It is probable that what he had
suffered during his first year in London had often reminded him
of some parts of the satire in which Juvenal had described the
misery and degradation of a needy man of letters, lodged among
the pigeons' nests in the tottering garrets which overhung the
streets of Rome. Pope's admirable imitations of Horace's
Satires and Epistles had recently appeared, were in every hand,
and were by many readers thought superior to the originals.
What Pope had done for Horace, Johnson aspired to do for
Juvenal.
Johnson's London appeared without his name in May 1738.
He received only ten guineas for this stately and vigorous poem;
but the sale was rapid and the success complete. A second
edition was required within a week. Those small critics who
are always desirous to lower established reputations ran about
proclaiming that the anonymous satirist was superior to Pope
in Pope's own peculiar department of literature. It ought to
be remembered, to the honour of Pope, that he joined heartily
in the applause with which the appearance of a rival genius was
welcomed. He made inquiries about the author of London.
Such a man, he said, could not long be concealed. The name
was soon discovered; and Pope, with great kindness, exerted
himself to obtain an academical degree and the mastership of a
grammar school for the poor young poet. The attempt failed,
and Johnson remained a bookseller's hack.
It does not appear that these two men, the most eminent
writer of the generation which was going out, and the most
eminent writer of the generation which was coming in, ever saw
each other. They lived in very different circles, one surrounded
by dukes and earls, the other by starving pamphleteers and index-
makers. Among Johnson's associates at this time may be men-
tioned Boyse, who, when his shirts were pledged, scrawled Latin
verses sitting up in bed with his arms through two holes in his
blanket, who composed very respectable sacred poetry when he
was sober, and who was at last run over by a hackney coach when
he was drunk; Hoole, surnamed the metaphysical tailor, who,
instead of attending to his measures, used to trace geometrical
diagrams on the board where he sat cross-legged ; and the penitent
impostor, George Psalmanazar, who, after poring all day, in a
humble lodging, on the folios of Jewish rabbis and Christian
fathers, indulged himself at night with literary and theological
conversation at an alehouse in the City. But the most remark-
able, of the persons with whom at this time Johnson consorted
was Richard Savage, an earl's son, a shoemaker's apprentice,
JOHNSON, SAMUEL
who had seen life in all its forms, who had feasted among blue
ribands in St James's Square, and had lain with fifty pounds
weight of irons on his legs in the condemned ward of Newgate.
This man had, after many vicissitudes of fortune, sunk at last
into abject and hopeless poverty. His pen had failed him.
His patrons had been taken away by death, or estranged by the
riotous profusion with which he squandered their bounty, and
the ungrateful insolence with which he rejected their advice.
He now lived by begging. He dined on venison and champagne
whenever he had been so fortunate as to borrow a guinea. If
his questing had been unsuccessful, he appeased the rage of
hunger with some scraps of broken meat, and lay down to rest
under the piazza of Covent Garden in warm weather, and, in
cold weather, as near as he could get to the furnace of a glass
house. Yet in his misery he was still an agreeable companion.
He had an inexhaustible store of anecdotes about that gay and
brilliant world from which he was now an outcast. He had
observed the great men of both parties in hours of careless
relaxation, had seen the leaders of opposition without the mask
of patriotism, and had heard the prime minister roar with
laughter and tell stories not over-decent. During some months
Savage lived in the closest familiarity with Johnson; and then
the friends parted, not without tears. Johnson remained in
London to drudge for Cave. Savage went to the west of Eng-
land, lived there as he had lived everywhere, and in 1743 died,
penniless and heartbroken, in Bristol Gaol.
Soon after his death, while the public curiosity was strongly
excited about his extraordinary character and his not less extra-
ordinary adventures, a life of him appeared widely different from
the catchpenny lives of eminent men which were then a staple
article of manufacture in Grub Street. The style was indeed
deficient in ease and variety; and the writer was evidently too
partial to the Latin element of our language. But the little work,
with all its faults, was a masterpiece. No finer specimen of
literary biography existed in any language, living or dead; and a
discerning critic might have confidently predicted that the
author was destined to be the founder of a new school of English
eloquence.
The Life of Savage was anonymous; but it was well known in
literary circles that Johnson was the writer. During the three
years which followed, he produced no important work; but he
was not, and indeed could not be, idle. The fame of his abilities
and learning continued to grow. Warburton pronounced him a
man of parts and genius; and the praise of Warburton was then
no light thing. Such was Johnson's reputation that, in 1747,
several eminent booksellers combined to employ him in the
arduous work of preparing a Dictionary of the English Language,
in two folio volumes. The sum which they agreed to pay him
was only fifteen hundred guineas; and out of this sum he had to
pay several poor men of letters who assisted him in the humbler
parts of his task.
The prospectus of the Dictionary he addressed to the earl of
Chesterfield. Chesterfield had long been celebrated for the
politeness of his manners, the brilliancy of his wit, and the delicacy
of his taste. He was acknowledged to be the finest speaker in the
House of Lords. He had recently governed Ireland, at a momen-
tous conjuncture, with eminent firmness, wisdom and humanity;
and he had since become secretary of state. He received John-
son's homage with the most winning affability, and requited it
with a few guineas, bestowed doubtless in a very graceful manner,
but was by no means desirous to see all his carpets blackened with
the London mud, and his soups and wines thrown to right and
left over the gowns of fine ladies and the waistcoats of fine gentle-
men, by an absent, awkward scholar, who gave strange starts and
uttered strange growls, who dressed like a scarecrow and ate like
a cormorant. During some time Johnson continued to call on
his patron, but, after being repeatedly told by the porter that
his lordship was not at home, took the hint, and ceased to present
himself at the inhospitable door.
Johnson had flattered himself that he should have completed
his Dictionary by the end of 1750; but it was not till 1755 that he
at length gave his huge volumes to the world. During the seven
years which he passed in the drudgery of penning definitions
and marking quotations for transcription, he sought for relaxa-
tion in literary labour of a more agreeable kind. In January 1 749
he published The Vanity of Human Wishes, an excellent imitation
of the tenth satire of Juvenal, for which he received fifteen
guineas.
A few days after the publication of this poem, his tragedy of
Irene, begun many years before, was brought on the stage by his
old pupil, David Garrick, now manager of Drury Lane Theatre.
The relation between him and his old preceptor was of a very
singular kind. They repelled each other strongly, and yet attracted
each other strongly. Nature had made them of very different
clay; and circumstances had fully brought out the natural
peculiarities of both. Sudden prosperity had turned Garrick 's
head. Continued adversity had soured Johnson's temper.
Johnson saw with more envy than became so great a man the
villa, the plate, the china, the Brussels carpet, which the little
mimic had got by repeating, with grimaces and gesticulations,
what wiser men had written; and the exquisitely sensitive vanity
of Garrick was galled by the thought that, while all the rest of the
world was applauding him, he could obtain from one morose
cynic, whose opinion it was impossible to despise, scarcely any
compliment not acidulated with scorn. Yet the two Lichfield
men had so many early recollections in common, and sympathized
with each other on so many points on which they sympathized
with nobody else in the vast population of the capital, that,
though the master was often provoked by the monkey-like
impertinence of the pupil, and the pupil by the bearish rudeness
of the master, they remained friends till they were parted by
death. Garrick now brought Irene out, with alterations sufficient
to displease the author, yet not sufficient to make the piece
pleasing to the audience. After nine representations the play
was withdrawn. The poet however cleared by his benefit nights,
and by the sale of the copyright of his tragedy, about three
hundred pounds, then a great sum in his estimation.
About a year after the representation of Irene, he began to
publish a series of short essays on morals, manners and literature.
This species of composition had been brought into fashion by the
success of the Taller, and by the still more brilliant success of the
Spectator. A crowd of small writers had vainly attempted to rival
Addison. The Lay Monastery, the Censor, the Freethinker, the
Plain Dealer, the Champion, and other works of the same kind
had had their short day. At length Johnson undertook the
adventure in which so many aspirants had failed. In the thirty-
sixth year after the appearance of the last number of the Spectator
appeared the first number of the Rambler. From March 1750
to March 1752 this paper continued to come out every Tuesday
and Saturday.
From the first the Rambler was enthusiastically admired by a
few eminent men. Richardson, when only five numbers had
appeared, pronounced it equal if not superior to the Spectator.
Young and Hartley expressed their approbation not less warmly.
In consequence probably of the good offices of Bubb Dodington,
who was then the confidential adviser of Prince Frederick, two
of his royal highness's gentlemen carried a gracious message to
the printing office, and ordered seven copies for Leicester House.
But Johnson had had enough of the patronage of the great to last
him all his life, and was not disposed to haunt any other door as
he had haunted the door of Chesterfield.
By the public the Rambler was at first very coldly received.
Though the price of a number was only twopence, the sale did
not amount to five hundred. The profits were therefore very
small. But as soon as the flying leaves were collected and re-
printed they became popular. The author lived to see thirteen
thousand copies spread over England alone. Separate editions
were published for the Scotch and Irish markets. A large party
pronounced the style perfect, so absolutely perfect that in some
essays it would be impossible for the writer himself to alter a
single word for the better. Another party, not less numerous,
vehemently accused him of having corrupted the purity of the
English tongue. The best critics admi' .ed that his diction was
too monotonous, too obviously artificia., and now and then turgid
JOHNSON, SAMUEL
467
even to absurdity. But they did justice to the acuteness of his
observations on morals and manners, to the constant precision
and frequent brilliancy of his language, to the weighty and
magnificent eloquence of many serious passages, and to the solemn
yet pleasing humour of some of the lighter papers.
The last Rambler was written in a sad and gloomy hour. Mrs
Johnson had been given over by the physicians. Three days
later she died. She left her husband almost broken-hearted.
Many people had been surprised to see a man of his genius and
learning stooping to every drudgery, and denying himself almost
every comfort, for the purpose of supplying a silly, affected old
woman with superfluities, which she accepted with but little
gratitude. But all his affection had been concentrated on her.
He had neither brother nor sister, neither son nor daughter.
Her opinion of his writings was more important to him than the
voice of the pit of Drury Lane Theatre, or the judgment of the
Monthly Review. The chief support which had sustained him
through the most arduous labour of his life was the hope that she
would enjoy the fame and the profit which he anticipated from
his Dictionary. She was gone; and in that vast labyrinth of
streets, peopled by eight hundred thousand human beings, he
was alone. Yet it was necessary for him to set himself, as he
expressed it, doggedly to work. After three more laborious
years, the Dictionary was at length complete.
It had been generally supposed that this great work would be
dedicated to the eloquent and accomplished nobleman to whom
the prospectus had been addressed. Lord Chesterfield well knew
the value of such a compliment; and therefore, when the day of
publication drew near, he exerted himself to soothe, by a show
of zealous and at the same time of delicate and judicious kindness,
the pride which he had so cruelly wounded. Since the Rambler
had ceased to appear, the town had been entertained by a journal
called the World, to which many men of high rank and fashion
contributed. In two successive numbers of the World, the
Dictionary was, to use the modern phrase, purled with wonderful
skill. The writings of Johnson were warmly praised. It was pro-
posed that he should be invested with the authority of a dictator,
nay, of a pope, over our language, and that his decisions about
the meaning and the spelling of words should be received as
final. His two folios, it was said, would of course be bought by
everybody who could afford to buy them. It was soon known
that these papers were written by Chesterfield. But the just
resentment of Johnson was not to be so appeased. In a letter
written with singular energy and dignity of thought and language,
he repelled the tardy advances of his patron. The Dictionary
came forth without a dedication. In the Preface the author truly
declared that he owed nothing to the great, and described the
difficulties with which he had been left to struggle so forcibly and
pathetically that the ablest and most malevolent of all the enemies
of his fame, Home Tooke, never could read that passage without
tears.
Johnson's Dictionary was hailed with an enthusiasm such as
no similar work has ever excited. It was indeed the first
dictionary which could be read with pleasure. The definitions
show so much acuteness of thought and command of language,
and the passages quoted from poets, divines and philosophers are_
so skilfully selected, that a leisure hour may always be very agree-
ably spent in turning over the pages. The faults of the book
resolve themselves, for the most part, into one great fault. John-
son was a wretched etymologist. He knew little or nothing of
any Teutonic language except English, which indeed, as he wrote
it, was scarcely a Teutonic language; and thus he was absolutely
at the mercy of Junius and Skinner.
The Dictionary, though it raised Johnson's fame, added no-
thing to his pecuniary means. The fifteen hundred guineas which
the booksellers had agreed to pay him had been advanced and
spent before the last sheets issued from the press. It is painful
to relate that twice in the course of the year which followed the
publication of this great work he was arrested and carried to
sponging-houses, and that he was twice indebted for his liberty
to his excellent friend Richardson. It was still necessary for
the man who had been formerly saluted by the highest authority
as dictator of the English language to supply his wants by con-
stant toil. He abridged his Dictionary. He proposed to bring out
an edition of Shakespeare by subscription, and many subscribers
sent in their names and laid down their money; but he soon
found the task so little to his taste that he turned to more attrac-
tive employments. He contributed many papers to a new
monthly journal, which was called the Literary Magazine. Few
of these papers have much interest; but among them was one of
the best things that he ever wrote, a masterpiece both of reason-
ing and of satirical pleasantry, the review of Jenyns' Inquiry
into the Nature and Origin of Evil.
In the spring of 1758 Johnson put forth the first of a series of
essays, entitled the Idler. During two years these essays con-
tinued to appear weekly. They were eagerly read, widely
circulated, and indeed impudently pirated, while they were still
in the original form, and had a large sale when collected into
volumes. The Idler may be described as a second part of the
Rambler, somewhat livelier and somewhat weaker than the first
part.
While Johnson was busied with his Idlers, his mother, who
had accomplished her ninetieth year, died at Lichfield. It was
long since he had seen her, but he had not failed to contribute
largely out of his small means to her comfort. In order to defray
the charges of her funeral, and to pay some debts which she had
left, he wrote a little book in a single week, and sent off the sheets
to the press without reading them over. A hundred pounds
were paid him for the copyright, and the purchasers had great
cause to be pleased with their bargain, for the book was Rasselas,
and it had a great success.
The plan of Rasselas might, however, have seemed to invite
severe criticism. Johnson has frequently blamed Shakespeare
for neglecting the proprieties of time and place, and for ascribing
to one age or nation the manners and opinions of another. Yet
Shakespeare has not sinned in this way more grievously than
Johnson. Rasselas and Imlac, Nekayah and Pekuah, are
evidently meant to be Abyssinians of the i8th century; for the
Europe which Imlac describes is the Europe of the i8th century,
and the inmates of the Happy Valley talk familiarly of that law
of gravitation which Newton discovered and which was not fully
received even at Cambridge till the i8th century. Johnson, not
content with turning filthy savages, ignorant of their letters, and
gorged with raw steaks cut from living cows, into philosophers
as eloquent and enlightened as himself or his friend Burke, and
into ladies as highly accomplished as Mrs Lennox or Mrs Sheridan,
transferred the whole domestic system of England to Egypt.
Into a land of harems, a land of polygamy, a land where women
are married without ever being seen, he introduced the flirtations
and jealousies of our ball-rooms. In a land where there is bound-
less liberty of divorce, wedlock is described as the indissoluble
compact. " A youth and maiden meeting by chance, or brought
together by artifice, exchange glances, reciprocate civilities, go
home, and dream of each other. Such," says Rasselas, " is the
common process of marriage." A writer who was guilty of such
improprieties had little right to blame the poet who made Hector
quote Aristotle, and represented Julio Romano as flourishing in
the days of the Oracle of Delphi.
By such exertions as have been described Johnson supported
himself till the year 1762. In that year a great change in his
circumstances took place. He had from a child been an enemy
of the reigning dynasty. His Jacobite prejudices had been
exhibited with little disguise both in his works and in his con-
versation. Even in his massy and elaborate Dictionary he had,
with a strange want of taste and judgment, inserted bitter and
contumelious reflexions on the Whig party. The excise, which
was a favourite resource of Whig financiers, he had designated
as a hateful tax. He had railed against the commissioners of
excise in language so coarse that they had seriously thought of
prosecuting him. He had with difficulty been prevented from
holding up the lord privy seal by name as an example of the
meaning of the word " renegade." A pension he had defined as
pay given to a state hireling to betray his country; a pensioner
as a slave of state hired by a stipend to obey a master. It
JOHNSON, SAMUEL
seemed unlikely that the author of these definitions would him-
self be pensioned. But that was a time of wonders. George III.
had ascended the throne, and had, in the course of a few months,
disgusted many of the old friends, and conciliated many of the old
enemies of his house. The city was becoming mutinous; Oxford
was becoming loyal. Cavendishes and Bentincks were murmur-
ing; Somersets and Wyndhams were hastening to kiss hands.
The head of the treasury was now Lord Bute, who was a Tory,
and could have no objection to Johnson's Toryism. Bute wished
to be thought a patron of men of letters; and Johnson was one of
the most eminent and one of the most needy men of letters in
Europe. A pension of three hundred a year was graciously
offered, and with very little hesitation accepted.
This event produced a change in Johnson's whole way of life.
For the first time since his boyhood he no longer felt the daily
goad urging him to the daily toil. He was at liberty, after thirty
years of anxiety and drudgery, to indulge his constitutional
indolence, to lie in bed till two in the afternoon, and to sit up
talking till four in the morning, without fearing either the
printer's devil or the sheriff's officer.
One laborious task indeed he had bound himself to perform.
He had received large subscriptions for his promised edition of
Shakespeare; he had lived on those subscriptions during some
years; and he could not without disgrace omit to perform his
part of the contract. His friends repeatedly exhorted him to
make an effort, and he repeatedly resolved to do so. But, not-
withstanding their exhortations and his resolutions, month
followed month, year followed year, and nothing was done.
He prayed fervently against his idleness; he determined, as often
as he received the sacrament, that he would no longer doze away
and trifle away his time; but the spell under which he lay resisted
prayer and sacrament. Happily for his honour, the charm which
held him captive was at length broken by no gentle or friendly
hand. He had been weak enough to pay serious attention to a
story about a ghost which haunted a house in Cock Lane, and had
actually gone himself, with some of his friends, at one in the
morning, to St John's Church, Clerkenwell, in the hope of receiving
a communication from the perturbed spirit. But the spirit,
though adjured with all solemnity, remained obstinately silent;
and it soon appeared that a naughty girl of eleven had been amus-
ing herself by making fools of so many philosophers. Churchill,
who, confident in his powers, drunk with popularity, and burning
with party spirit, was looking for some man of established fame
and Tory politics to insult, celebrated the Cock Lane ghost in
three cantos, nicknamed Johnson Pomposo, asked where the book
was which had been so long promised and so liberally paid for,
and directly accused the great moralist of cheating. This terrible
word proved effectual, and in October 1765 appeared, after a
delay of nine years, the new edition of Shakespeare.
This publication saved Johnson's character for honesty, but
added nothing to the fame of his abilities and learning. The
Preface, though it contains some good passages, is not in his best
manner. The most valuable notes are those in which he had an
opportunity of showing how attentively he had during many
years observed human life and human nature. The best speci-
men is the note on the character of Polonius. Nothing so good
is to be found even in Wilhelm Meister's admirable examination
of Hamlet. But here praise must end. It would be difficult to
name a more slovenly, a more worthless edition of any great
classic.1 Johnson had, in his prospectus, told the world that he
was peculiarly fitted for the task which he had undertaken, be-
cause he had, as a lexicographer, been under the necessity of
taking a wider view of the English language than any of his pre-
decessors. But, unfortunately, he had altogether neglected that
very part of our literature with which it is especially desirable
that an editor of Shakespeare should be conversant. In the two
folio volumes of the English Dictionary there is not a single
1 This famous dictum of Macaulay, though endorsed by Lord
Rosebery, has been energetically rebutted by Professor W. Raleigh
and others, who recognize both sagacity and scholarship in Johnson's
Preface and Notes. Johnson's wide grasp of the discourse and
knowledge of human nature enable him in a hundred entangled
passages to go straight to the dramatist's meaning. — (T. SE.)
passage quoted from any dramatist of the Elizabethan age except
Shakespeare and Ben Jonson. Even from Ben the quotations
are few. Johnson might easily in a few months have made him-
self well acquainted with every old play that was extant. But
it never seems to have occurred to him that this was a necessary
preparation for the work which he had undertaken. He would
doubtless have admitted that it would be the height of absurdity
in a man who was not familiar with the works of Aeschylus and
Euripides to publish an edition of Sophocles. Yet he ventured
to publish an edition of Shakespeare, without having ever in his
life, as far as can be discovered, read a single scene of Massinger,
Ford, Dekker, Webster, Marlow, Beaumont or Fletcher. His
detractors were noisy and scurrilous. He had, however, acquitted
himself of a debt which had long lain heavy on his conscience and
he sank back into the repose from which the sting of satire had
roused him. He long continued to live upon the fame which he
had already won. He was honoured by the university of Oxford
with a doctor's degree, by the Royal Academy with a professor-
ship, and by the king with an interview, in which his majesty
most graciously expressed a hope that so excellent a writer would
not cease to write. In the interval between 1765 and 1775 John-
son published only two or three political tracts.
But, though his pen was now idle, his tongue was active. The
influence exercised by his conversation, directly upon those with
whom he lived, and indirectly on the whole literary world, was
altogether without a parallel. His colloquial talents were indeed
of the highest order. He had strong sense, quick discernment,
wit, humour, immense knowledge of literature and of life, and an
infinite store of curious anecdotes. As respected style, he spoke
far better than he wrote. Every sentence which dropped from
his lips was as correct in structure as the most nicely balanced
period of the Rambler. But in his talk there were no pompous
triads, and little more than a fair proportion of words in -osily
and -alion. All was simplicity, ease and vigour. He uttered
his short, weighty, and pointed sentences with a power of voice,
and a justness and energy of emphasis, of which the effect was
rather increased than diminished by the rollings of his huge form,
and by the asthmatic gaspings and puffings in which the peals of
his eloquence generally ended. Nor did the laziness which made
him unwilling to sit down to his desk prevent him from giving in-
struction or entertainment orally. To discuss questions of taste,
of learning, of casuistry, in language so exact and so forcible that
it might have been printed without the alteration of a word, was
to him no exertion, but a pleasure. He loved, as he said, to fold
his legs and have his talk out. He was ready to bestow the over-
flowings of his full mind on anybody who would start a subject:
on a fellow-passenger in a stage coach, or on the person who sat
at the same table with him in an eating-house. But his conversa-
tion was nowhere so brilliant and striking as when he was sur-
rounded by a few friends, whose abilities and knowledge enabled
them, as he once expressed it, to send him back every ball that
he threw. Some of these, in 1 764, formed themselves into a club,
which gradually became a formidable power in the common-
wealth of letters. The verdicts pronounced by this conclave on
new books were speedily known over all London, and were suffi-
cient to sell off a whole edition in a day, or to condemn the sheets
to the service of the trunkmaker and the pastrycook. Gold-
smith was the representative of poetry and light literature,
Reynolds of the arts, Burke of political eloquence and political
philosophy. There, too, were Gibbon the greatest historian
and Sir William Jones the greatest linguist of the age. Garrick
brought to the meetings his inexhaustible pleasantry, his incom-
parable mimicry, and his consummate knowledge of stage effect.
Among the most constant attendants were two high-born and
high-bred gentlemen, closely bound together by friendship, but
of widely different characters and habits — Bennet Langton,
distinguished by his skill in Greek literature, by the orthodoxy
of his opinions, and by the sanctity of his life, and Topham
Beauclerk, renowned for his amours, his knowledge of the gay
world, his fastidious taste and his sarcastic wit.
Among the members of this celebrated body was one to whom
it has owed the greater part of its celebrity, yet who was
JOHNSON, SAMUEL
469
regarded with little respect by his brethren, and had not without
difficulty obtained a seat among them. This was James Boswell
(q.v.), a young Scots lawyer, heir to an honourable name
and a fair estate. That he was a coxcomb and a bore, weak,
vain, pushing, curious, garrulous, was obvious to all who were
acquainted with him.
To a man of Johnson's strong understanding and irritable
temper, the silly egotism and adulation of Boswell must have
been as teasing as the constant buzz of a fly. Johnson hated to
be questioned; and Boswell was eternally catechizing him on all
kinds of subjects, and sometimes propounded such questions as,
" What would you do, sir, if you were locked up in a tower with
a baby ? " Johnson was a water-drinker and Boswell was a wine-
bibber, and indeed little better than an habitual sot. It was im-
possible that there should be perfect harmony between two such
companions. Indeed, the great man was sometimes provoked
into fits of passion, in which he said things which the small man,
during a few hours, seriously resented. Every quarrel, how-
ever, was soon made up. During twenty years the disciple con-
tinued to worship the master; the master continued to scold the
disciple, to sneer at him, and to love him. The two friends
ordinarily resided at a great distance from each other. Boswell
practised in the Parliament House of Edinburgh, and could pay
only occasional visits to London. During those visits his chief
business was to watch Johnson, to discover all Johnson's habits,
to turn the conversation to subjects about which Johnson was
likely to say something remarkable, and to fill quarto notebooks
with minutes of what Johnson had said. In this way were
gathered the materials out of which was afterwards constructed
the most interesting biographical work in the world.
Soon after the club began to exist, Johnson formed a connexion
less important indeed to his fame, but much more important
to his happiness, than his connexion with Boswell. Henry
Thrale, one of the most opulent brewers in the kingdom, a man
of sound and cultivated understanding, rigid principles, and
liberal spirit, was married to one of those clever, kind-hearted,
engaging, vain, pert young women who are perpetually doing or
saying what is not exactly right, but who, do or say what they
may, are always agreeable. In 1765 the Thrales became ac-
quainted with Johnson, and the acquaintance ripened fast into
friendship. They were astonished and delighted by the brilliancy
of his conversation. They were flattered by finding that a man
so widely celebrated preferred their house to any other in London.
Johnson soon had an apartment at the brewery in Southwark,
and a still more pleasant apartment at the villa of his friends on
Streatham Common. A large part of every year he passed in
those abodes, which must have seemed magnificent and luxurious
indeed, when compared with the dens in which he had generally
been lodged. But his chief pleasures were derived from what
the astronomer of his Abyssinian tale called " the endearing
elegance of female friendship." Mrs Thrale rallied him, soothed
him, coaxed him, and if she sometimes provoked him by her
flippancy, made ample amends by listening to his reproofs with
angelic sweetness of temper. When he was diseased in body
and in mind, she was the most tender of nurses. No comfort
that wealth could purchase, no contrivance that womanly in-
genuity, set to work by womanly compassion, could devise, was
wanting to his sick room. It would seem that a full half of
Johnson's life during about sixteen years was passed under the
roof of the Thrales. He accompanied the family sometimes to
Bath, and sometimes to Brighton, once to Wales and once to
Paris. But he had at the same time a house in one of the
narrow and gloomy courts on the north of Fleet Street. In the
garrets was his library, a large and miscellaneous collection of
books, falling to pieces and begrimed with dust. On a lower
floor he sometimes, but very rarely, regaled a friend with a plain
dinner — a veal pie, or a leg of lamb and spinach, and a rice pud-
ding. Nor was the dwelling uninhabited during his long absences.
It was the home of the most extraordinary assemblage of inmates
that ever was brought together. At the head of the establish-
ment Johnson had placed an old lady named Williams, whose
chief recommendations were her blindness and her poverty. But,
in spite of her murmurs and reproaches, he gave an asylum to
another lady who was as poor as herself, Mrs Desmoulins, whose
family he had known many years before in Staffordshire. Room
was found for the daughter of Mrs Desmoulins, and for another
destitute damsel, who was generally addressed as Miss Car-
michael, but whom her generous host called Polly. An old quack
doctor named Levett, who had a wide practice, but among the
very poorest class, poured out Johnson's tea in the morning and
completed this strange menagerie. All these poor creatures
were at constant war with each other, and with Johnson's negro
servant Frank. Sometimes, indeed, they transferred their
hostilities from the servant to the master, complained that a
better table was not kept for them, and railed or maundered
till their benefactor was glad to make his escape to Streatham
or to the Mitre Tavern. And yet he, who was generally the
haughtiest and most irritable of mankind, who was but too prompt
to resent anything which looked like a slight on the part of a
purse-proud bookseller, or of a noble and powerful patron, bore
patiently from mendicants, who, but for his bounty, must have
gone to the workhouse, insults more provoking than those for
which he had knocked down Osborne and bidden defiance to
Chesterfield. Year after year Mrs Williams and Mrs Desmoulins,
Polly and Levett, continued to torment him and to live upon him.
The course of life which has been described was interrupted
in Johnson's sixty-fourth year by an important event. He
had early read an account of the Hebrides, and had been much
interested by learning that there was so near him a land peopled
by a race which was still as rude and simple as in the Middle Ages.
A wish to become intimately acquainted with a state of society
so utterly unlike all that he had ever seen frequently crossed his
mind. But it is not probable that his curiosity would have over-
come his habitual sluggishness, and his love of the smoke, the
mud, and the cries of London, had not Boswell importuned him to
attempt the adventure, and offered to be his squire. At length,
in August 1773, Johnson crossed the Highland line, and plunged
courageously into what was then considered, by most Englishmen,
as a dreary and perilous wilderness. After wandering about two
months through the Celtic region, sometimes in rude boats which
did not protect him from the rain, and sometimes on small shaggy
ponies which could hardly bear his weight, he returned to his old
haunts with a mind full of new images and new theories. During
the following year he employed himself in recording his adven-
tures. About the beginning of 1775 his Journey to the Hebrides
was published, and was, during some weeks, the chief subject
of conversation in all circles in which any attention was paid to
literature. His prejudice against the Scots had at length
become little more than matter of jest; and whatever remained
of the old feeling had been effectually removed by the kind and
respectful hospitality with which he had been received in every
part of Scotland. It was, of course, not to be expected that an
Oxonian Tory should praise the Presbyterian polity and ritual,
or that an eye accustomed to the hedgerows and parks of England
should not be struck by the bareness of Berwickshire and East
Lothian. But even 'in censure Johnson's tone is not unfriendly.
The most enlightened Scotsmen, with Lord Mansfield at their
head, were well pleased. But some foolish and ignorant Scots-
men were moved to anger by a little unpalatable truth which was
mingled with much eulogy, and assailed him whom they chose to
consider as the enemy of their country with libels much more
dishonourable to their country than anything that he had ever
said or written. They published paragraphs in the newspapers,
articles in the magazines, sixpenny pamphlets, five-shilling books.
One scribbler abused Johnson for being blear-eyed, another for
being a pensioner; a third informed the world that one of the doc-
tor's uncles had been convicted of felony in Scotland, and had
found that there was in that country one tree capable of support-
in the weight of an Englishman. Macpherson, whose Fingal had
been treated in the Journey as an impudent forgery, threatened
to take vengeance with a cane. The only effect of this threat was
that Johnson reiterated the charge of forgery in the most con-
temptuous terms, and walked about, during some time, with a
cudgel.
470
JOHNSON, SAMUEL
Of other assailants Johnson took no notice whatever. He
had early resolved never to be drawn into controversy; and he
adhered to his resolution with a steadfastness which is the more
extraordinary because he was, both intellectually and morally,
of the stuff of which controversialists are made. In conversation
he was a singularly eager, acute and pertinacious disputant.
When at a loss for good reasons, he had recourse to sophistry;
and when heated by altercation, he made unsparing use of sar-
casm and invective. But when he took, his pen in his hand, his
whole character seemed to be changed. A hundred bad writers
misrepresented him and reviled him; but not one of the hundred
could boast of having been thought by him worthy of a refuta-
tion, or even of a retort. One Scotsman, bent on vindicating
the fame of Scots learning, defied him to the combat in a detest-
able Latin hexameter: —
" Maxima, si tu vis, cupio contendere tecum."
' But Johnson took no notice of the challenge. He always main-
tained that fame was a shuttlecock which could be kept up only
by being beaten back as well as beaten forward, and which would
soon fall if there were only one battledore. No saying was
oftener in his mouth than that fine apophthegm of Bentley, that
no man was ever written down but by himself.
Unhappily, a few months after the appearance of the Journey
to the Hebrides, Johnson did what none of his envious assailants
could have done, and to a certain extent succeeded in writing
himself down. The disputes between England and her American
colonies had reached a point at which no amicable adjustment
was possible. War was evidently impending; and the ministers
seem to have thought that the eloquence of Johnson might with
advantage be employed to inflame the nation against the opposi-
tion at home, and against the rebels beyond the Atlantic. He
had already written two or three tracts in defence of the foreign
and domestic policy of the government; and those tracts, though
hardly worthy of him, were much superior to the crowd of
pamphlets which lay on the counters of Almon and Stockdale.
But his Taxation no Tyranny was a pitiable failure. Even
Boswell was forced to own that in this unfortunate piece he could
detect no trace of his master's powers. The general opinion was
that the strong faculties which had produced the Dictionary and
the Rambler were beginning to feel the effect of time and of
disease, and that the old man would best consult his credit by
writing no more. But this was a great mistake. Johnson had
failed, not because his mind was less vigorous than when he
wrote Rasselas in the evenings of a week, but because he had
foolishly chosen, or suffered others to choose for him, a subject
such as he would at no time have been competent to treat. He
was in no sense a statesman. He never willingly read or thought
or talked about affairs of state. He loved biography, literary
history, the history of manners; but political history was posi-
tively distasteful to him. The question at issue between the
colonies and the mother country was a question about which he
had really nothing to say. Happily, Johnson soon had an
opportunity of proving most signally that his failure was not to
be ascribed to intellectual decay.
On Easter Eve 1777 some persons, deputed by a meeting which
consisted of forty of the first booksellers in London, called upon
him. Though he had some scruples about doing business at that
season, he received his visitors with much civility. They came
to inform him that a new edition of the English poets, from
Cowley downwards, was in contemplation, and to ask him to
furnish short biographical prefaces. He readily undertook the
task for which he was pre-eminently qualified. His knowledge
of the literary history of England since the Restoration was
unrivalled. That knowledge he had derived partly from books,
and partly from sources which had long been closed: from old
Grub Street traditions; from the talk of forgotten poetasters
and pamphleteers, who had long been lying in parish vaults;
from the recollections of such men as Gilbert Walmesley, who
had conversed with the wits of Button, Cibber, who had
mutilated the plays of two generations of dramatists, Orrery,
who had been admitted to the society of Swift and Savage, who
had rendered services of no very honourable kind to Pope. The
biographer therefore sat down to his task with a mind full of
matter. He had at first intended to give only a paragraph to
every minor poet, and only four or five pages to the greatest name.
But the flood of anecdote and criticism overflowed the narrow
channel. The work, which was originally meant to consist only
of a few sheets, swelled into.'ten volumes — small volumes, it is true,
and not closely printed. The first four appeared in 1779, the
remaining six in 1781.
The Lives of the Poets are, on the whole, the best of Johnson's
works. The narratives are as entertaining as any novel. The
remarks on life and on human nature are eminently shrewd and
profound. The criticisms are often excellent, and, even when
grossly and provokingly unjust, well deserve to be studied.
Savage's Life Johnson reprinted nearly as it had appeared in 1 744.
Whoever, after reading that life, will turn to the other lives will
be struck by the difference of style. 'Since Johnson had been at
ease in his circumstances he had written little and had talked
much. When therefore he, after the lapse of years, resumed his
pen, the mannerism which he had contracted while he was in the
constant habit of elaborate composition was less perceptible than
formerly, and his diction frequently had a colloquial ease which
it had formerly wanted. The improvement may be discerned
by a skilful critic in the Journey to the Hebrides, and in the Lives
of the Poets is so obvious that it cannot escape the notice of the
most careless reader. Among the Lives the best are perhaps
those of Cowley, Dryden and Pope. The very worst is, beyond all
doubt, that of Gray; the most controverted that of Milton.
This great work at once became popular. There was, indeed,
much just and much unjust censure; but even those who were
loudest in blame were attracted by the book in spite of them-
selves. Malone computed the gains of the publishers at five or
six thousand pounds. But the writer was very poorly remuner-
ated. Intending at first to write very short prefaces, he had
stipulated for only two hundred guineas. The booksellers, when
they saw how far his performance had surpassed his promise,
added only another hundred. Indeed Johnson, though he did
not despise or affect to despise money, and though his strong
sense and long experience ought to have qualified him to protect
his own interests, seems to have been singularly unskilful and
unlucky in his literary bargains. He was generally reputed the
first English writer of his time. Yet several writers of his time
sold their copyrights for sums such as he never ventured to ask.
To give a single instance, Robertson received £4500 for the
History of Charles V .
Johnson was now in his seventy-second year. The infirmities
of age were coming fast upon him. That inevitable event of
which he never thought without horror was brought near to him;
and his whole life was darkened by the shadow of death. The
strange dependants to whom he had given shelter, and to whom,
in spite of their faults, he was strongly attached by habit,
dropped off one by one; and, in the silence of his home, he re-
gretted even the noise of their scolding matches. The kind and
generous Thrale was no more; and it was soon plain that the old
Streatham intimacy could not be maintained upon the same foot-
ing. Mrs Thrale herself confessed that without her husband's
assistance she did not feel able to entertain Johnson as a constant
inmate of her house. Free from the yoke of the brewer, she fell
in love with a music master, high in his profession, from Brescia,
named Gabriel Piozzi, in whom nobody but herself could discover
anything to admire. The secret of this attachment was soon
discovered by Fanny Burney, but Johnson at most only sus-
pected it.
In September 1782 the place at Streatham was from motives
of economy let to Lord Shelburne, and Mrs Thrale took a house
at Brighton, whither Johnson accompanied her; they remained
for six weeks on the old familiar footing. In March 1 783 Boswell
was glad to discover Johnson well looked after and staying with
Mrs Thrale in Argyll Street, but in a bad state of health. Im-
patience of Johnson's criticisms and infirmities had been steadily
growing with Mrs Thrale since 1774. She now went to Bath
with her daughters, partly to escape his supervision. Johnson
JOHNSON, SIR T.
was very ill in his lodgings during the summer, but he still corre-
sponded affectionately with his " mistress " and received many
favours from her. He retained the full use of his senses during
the paralytic attack, and in July he was sufficiently recovered
to renew his old club life and to meditate further journeys. In
June 1 784 he went with Boswell to Oxford for the last time. In
September he was in Lichfield. On his return his health was
rather worse; but he would submit to no dietary regime. His
asthma tormented him day and night, and dropsical symptoms
made their appearance. His wrath was excited in no measured
terms against the re-marriage of his old friend Mrs Thrale, the
news of which he heard this summer. The whole dispute seems,
to-day, entirely uncalled-for, but the marriage aroused some of
Johnson's strongest prejudices. He wrote inconsiderately on
the subject, but we must remember that he was at the time
afflicted in body and mentally haunted by dread of impending
change. Throughout all his troubles he had clung vehemently
to life. The feeling described in that fine but gloomy paper
which closes the series of his Idlers seemed to grow stronger in
him as his last hour drew near. He fancied that he should be
able to draw his breath more easily in a southern climate, and
would probably have set out for Rome and Naples but for his
fear of the expense of the journey. That expense, indeed, he
had the means of defraying; for he had laid up about two thou-
sand pounds, the fruit of labours which had made the fortune of
several publishers. But he was unwilling to break in upon this
hoard, and he seems to have wished even to keep its existence
a secret. Some of his friends hoped that the Government might
be induced to increase his pension to six hundred pounds a year,
but this hope was disappointed, and he resolved to stand one
English winter more.
That winter was his last. His legs grew weaker; his breath
grew shorter; the fatal water gathered fast, in spite of incisions
which he, courageous against pain but timid against death, urged
his surgeons to make deeper and deeper. Though the tender
care which had mitigated his sufferings during months of sickness
at Streatham was withdrawn, and though Boswell was absent,
he was not left desolate. The ablest physicians and surgeons
attended him, and refused to accept fees from him. Burke
parted from him with deep emotion. Windham sat much in the
sick-room. Frances Burney, whom the old man had cherished
with fatherly kindness, stood weeping at the door ; while Langton,
whose piety eminently qualified him to be an adviser and com-
forter at such a time, received the last pressure of his friend's
hand within. When at length the moment, dreaded through
so many years, came close, the dark cloud passed away from
Johnson's mind. Windham's servant, who sat up with him
during his last night, declared that " no man could appear more
collected, more devout or less terrified at the thoughts of the
approaching minute." At hour intervals, often of much pain,
he was moved in bed and addressed himself vehemently to
prayer. In the morning he was still able to give his blessing,
but in the afternoon he became drowsy, and at a quarter past
seven in the evening on the i3th of December 1784, in his seventy-
sixth year, he passed away. He was laid, a week later, in West-
minster Abbey, among the eminent men of whom he had been
the historian — Cowley and Denham, Dryden and Congreve,
Gay, Prior and Addison. (M-)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Thesplendid example of hisstyle which Macaulay
contributed in the article on Johnson to the 8th edition of this ency-
clopaedia has become classic, and has therefore been retained above
with a few trifling modifications in those places in which his invincible
love of the picturesque has drawn him demonstrably aside from the
dull line of veracity. Macaulay, it must be noted, exaggerated
persistently the poverty of Johnson's pedigree, the squalor of his
early married life, the grotesqueness of his entourage in Fleet Street,
the decline and fall from complete virtue of Mrs Thrale, the novelty
and success of the Dictionary, the complete failure of the Shakespeare
and the political tracts. Yet this contribution is far more mellow
than the article contributed on Johnson twenty-five years before
to the Edinburgh Review in correction of Croker. Matthew Arnold,
who edited six selected Lives of the poets, regarded it as one of
Macaulay's happiest and ripest efforts. It was written out of friend^
ship for Adam Black, and" payment was not so much as mentioned."
The big reviews, especially the quarterlies, have always been the
natural home of Johnsonian study. Sir Walter Scott, Croker, Hay-
ward, Macaulay, Thomas Carlyle (whose famous Eraser article was
reprinted in 1853) and Whitwell El win have done as much as any-
body perhaps to sustain the zest for Johnsonian studies. Macaulay 's
prediction that the interest in the man would supersede that in his
Works " seemed and seems likely enough to justify itself; but
his theory that the man alone mattered and that a portrait painted
by the hand of an inspired idiot was a true measure of the man has
not worn better than the common run of literary propositions.
Johnson's prose is not extensively read. But the same is true of
nearly all the great prose masters of the :8th century. As in the
case of all great men, Johnson has suffered a good deal at the hands
of his imitators and! admirers. His prose, though not nearly so
uniformly monotonous or polysyllabic as the parodists would have
us believe, was at one time greatly overpraised. From the " Life
of Savage " to the " Life of Pope " it developed a great deal, and in
the main improved. To the last he sacrificed expression rather too
much to style, and he was perhaps over conscious of the balanced
epithet. But he contributed both dignity and dialectical force to
the prose movement of his period.
The best edition of his works is still the Oxford edition of 1825 in
9 vols. At the present day, however, his periodical writings are
neglected, and all that can be said to excite interest are, first the
Lives of the Poets (best edition by Birkbeck Hill and H. S. Scott, 3 vols.,
1905), and then the Letters, the Prayers and Meditations, and the
Poems, to which may doubtfully be added the once idolized Rasselas.
The Poems and Rasselas have been reprinted times without number.
The others have been re-edited with scrupulous care for the Oxford
University Press by the pious diligence of that most enthusiastic of
all Johnsonians, Dr Birkbeck Hill. But the tendency at the present
day is undoubtedly to prize Johnson's personality and sayings more
than any of his works. These are preserved to us in a body of
biographical writing, the efficiency of which is unequalled in the
whole range of literature. The chief constituents are Johnson's
own Letters and Account of his Life from his Birth to his Eleventh
Year (1805), a fragment saved from papers burned in 1784 and not
seen by Boswell ; the life by his old but not very sympathetic friend
and club-fellow, Sir John Hawkins (1787); Mrs Thrale-Piozzi's
Anecdotes (1785) and Letters; the Diary and Letters of Fanny
Burney (D'Arblay) (1841); the shorter Lives of Arthur Murphy,
T. Tyers, &c. ; far above all, of course, the unique Life by James
Boswell, first published in 1791, and subsequently encrusted with
vast masses of Johnsoniana in the successive editions of Malone,
Croker, Napier, Fitzgerald, Mowbray Morris (Globe), Birrell, Ingpen
(copiously illustrated) and Dr Birkbeck Hill (the most exhaustive).
The sayings and Johnsoniana have been reprinted in very many
and various forms. Valuable work has been done in Johnsonian
genealogy and topography by Aleyn Lyell Reade in his Johnsonian
Gleanings, &c., and in the Memorials of Old Staffordshire (ed. W.
Beresford). The most excellent short Lives are those by F. Grant
(Eng. Writers) and Sir Leslie Stephen (Eng. Men of Letters). Pro-
fessor W. Raleigh's essay (Stephen Lecture), Lord Rosebery's
estimate (1909), and Sir Leslie Stephen's article in the Dictionary of
National Biography, with bibliography and list of portraits, should
be consulted. Johnson's " Club " (The Club ") still exists, and
has contained ever since his time a large proportion of the public
celebrities of its day. A " Johnson Club," which has included many
Johnson scholars and has published papers, was founded in 1885.
Lichfield has taken an active part in the commemoration of Johnson
since 1887, when Johnson's birthplace was secured as a municipal
museum, and Lichfield was the chief scene of the Bicentenary
Celebrations of September 1909 (fully described in A. M. Broadley's
Dr Johnson and Mrs Thrale, 1909), containing, together with new
materials and portraits, an essay dealing with Macaulay's treatment
of the Johnson-Thrale episodes by T. Seccombe). Statues both of
Johnson and Boswell are in the market-place at Lichfield. A statue
was erected in St Paul's in 1825, and there are commemorative
tablets in Lichfield Cathedral, St Nicholas (Brighton), Uttoxeter,
St Clement Danes (London), Gwaynynog and elsewhere. (T. SE.)
JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS (1664-1729), English merchant, was
born in Liverpool in November 1664. He succeeded his father
in 1689 as bailiff and in 1695 as mayor. From 1701 to 1723 he
represented Liverpool in parliament, and he was knighted by
Queen Anne in 1708. He effected the separation of Liverpool
from the parish of Walton-on-the-Hill; from the Crown he ob-
tained the grant to the corporation of the site of the old castle
where he planned the town market; while the construction of the
first floating dock (1708) and the building of St Peter's and St
George's churches were due in great measure to his efforts. He
was interested in the tobacco trade; in 1715 he conveyed 130
Jacobite prisoners to the American plantations. In 1723, having
lost in speculation the fortune which he had inherited from his
father, he went himself to Virginia as collector of customs on
the Rappahannock river. He died in Jamaica in 1729. A
Liverpool street is named Sir Thomas Buildings after him.
JOHNSON, T.— JOHNSTON, A. S.
472
JOHNSON, THOMAS, English iSth-century wood-carver and
furniture designer. Of excellent repute as a craftsman and
an artist in wood, his original conceptions and his adaptations
of other men's ideas were remarkable for their extreme flam-
boyance, and for the merciless manner in which he overloaded
them with thin and meretricious ornament. Perhaps his most
inept design is that for a table in which a duck or goose is dis-
placing water that falls upon a mandarin, seated, with his head on
one side, upon the rail below. No local school of Italian rococo
ever produced more extravagant absurdities. His clocks bore
scythes and hour-glasses and flashing sunbeams, together with
whirls and convolutions and floriated adornments without end.
On the other hand, he occasionally produced a mirror frame or
a mantelpiece which was simple and dignified. The art of
artistic plagiarism has never been so well understood or so
dexterously practised as by the iSth-century designers of English
furniture, and Johnson appears to have so far exceeded his
contemporaries that he must be called a barefaced thief. The
three leading " motives " of the time— Chinese, Gothic and Louis
Quatorze — were mixed up in his work in the most amazing
manner; and he was exceedingly fond of introducing human
figures, animals, birds and fishes in highly incongruous places.
He appears to have defended his enormities on the ground that
" all men vary in opinion, and a fault in the eye of one may be
a beauty in that of another; 'tis a duty incumbent on an author
to endeavour at pleasing every taste." Johnson, who was in
business at the " Golden Boy " in Grafton Street, Westminster,
published a folio volume of Designs for Picture Frames, Candelabra,
Ceilings, &c. (1758); and One Hundred and Fifty New Designs
(1761).
JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM (1713-1774), British soldier and
American pioneer, was born in Smithtown, County Meath, Ire-
land, in 1715, the son of Christopher Johnson, a country gentle-
man. As a boy he was educated for a commercial career, but
in 1738 he removed to America for the purpose of managing a
tract of land in the Mohawk Valley, New York, belonging to his
uncle, Admiral Sir Peter Warren (1703-1752). He established
himself on the south bank of the Mohawk river, about 25 m.
W. of Schenectady. Before 1743 he removed to the north side"
of the river. The new settlement prospered from the start, and
a valuable trade was built up with the Indians, over whom
Johnson exercised an immense influence. The Mohawks
adopted him and elected him a sachem. In 1744 he was ap-
pointed by Governor George Clinton (d. 1761) superintendent
of the affairs of the Six Nations (Iroquois) . In 1 746 he was made
commissary of the province for Indian affairs, and was influential
in enlisting and equipping the Six Nations for participation in
'the warfare with French Canada, two years later (1748) being
placed in command of a line of outposts on the New York
frontier. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle put a stop to offensive
operations, which he had begun. In May 1 7 50 by royal appoint-
ment he became a member for life of the governor's council, and
in the same year he resigned the post of superintendent of
Indian affairs. In 1754 he was one of the New York delegates
to the inter-colonial convention at Albany, N. Y. In 1 7 5 5 General
Edward Braddock, the commander of the British forces in
America, commissioned him major-general, in which capacity he
directed the expedition against Crown Point, and in September
defeated the French and Indians under Baron Ludwig A.
Dieskau (1701-1767) at the battle of Lake George, where he
himself was wounded. For this success he received the thanks
of parliament, and was created a baronet (November 1755).
From July 1756 until his death he was ''sole superintendent of
the Six Nations and other Northern Indians." He took part in
General James Abercrombie's disastrous campaign against Ticon-
deroga (1758), and in 1759 he was second in command in General
John Prideaux's expedition against Fort Niagara, succeeding to
the chief command on that officer's death, and capturing the fort.
In 1760 he was with General Jeffrey Amherst (1717-1797) at the
capture of Montreal. As a reward for his services the king granted
him a tract of 100,000 acres of land north of the Mohawk river.
It was due to his influence that the Iroquois refused to join
Pontiac in his conspiracy, and he was instrumental in arranging
the treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768. After the war Sir William
retired to his estates, where, on the site of the present Johnstown,
he built his residence, Johnson Hall, and lived in all the style of
an English baron. He devoted himself to colonizing his exten-
sive lands, and is said to have been the first to introduce sheep,
and blood horses into the province. He died at Johnstown,
N.Y., on the nth of July 1774. In 1739 Johnson had married
Catherine Wisenberg, by whom he had three children. After
her death he had various mistresses, including a niece of the
Indian chief Hendrick, and Molly Brant, a sister of the famous
chief Joseph Brant.
His son, SIR JOHN JOHNSON (1742-1830), who was knighted
in 1765 and succeeded to the baronetcy on his father's death,
took part in the French and Indian War and in the border warfare
during the War of Independence, organizing a loyalist regiment
known as the " Queen's Royal Greens," which he led at the battle
of Oriskany and in the raids (1778 and 1780) on Cherry Valley
and in the Mohawk Valley. He was also one of the officers of
the force defeated by General John Sullivan in the engagement
at Newtown(Elmira),N.Y., on the 29th of August 1779. Hewas
made brigadier-general of provincial troops in 1782. His estates
had been confiscated, and after the war he lived in Canada, where
he held from 1791 until his death the office of superintendent-
general of Indian affairs for British North America. He received
£45,000 from the British government for his losses.
Sir William's nephew, GUY JOHNSON (1740-1788), succeeded
his uncle as superintendent of Indian affairs in 1774, and served
in the French and Indian War and, on the British side, in the
War of Independence.
See W. L. Stone, Life of Sir William Johnson (2 vols., 1865);
W. E. Griffis, Sir William Johnson and the Six Nations (1891)
in " Makers of America " series; Augustus C. Buell, Sir William
Johnson (1903) in " Historic Lives Series " ; and J. Watts De Peyster,
" The Life of Sir John Johnson, Bart.," in The Orderly Book of Sir
John Johnson during the Oriskany Campaign, 1776-1777, annotated
by William L. Stone (1882).
JOHNSTON, ALBERT SIDNEY (1803-1862), American Con-
federate general in the Civil War, was born at Washington,
Mason county, Kentucky, on the 3rd of February 1803. He
graduated from West Point in 1826, and served for eight years
in the U.S. infantry as a company officer, adjutant, and staff
officer. In 1834 he resigned his commission, emigrated in 1836
to Texas, then a republic, and joined its army as a private. His rise
was very rapid, and before long he was serving as commander-
in-chief in preference to General Felix Huston, with whom he
foughtaduel. From 1838 to 1840 he was Texan secretary for war,
and in 1839 he led a successful expedition against the Cherokee
Indians. From 1840 to the outbreak of the Mexican War he lived
in retirement on his farm, but in 1846 he led a regiment of Texan
volunteers in the field, and at Monterey, as a staff officer, he had
three, horses shot under him. In 1849 he returned to the United
States army as major and paymaster, and in 1855 became colonel
of the 2nd U.S. Cavalry (afterwards 5th), in which his lieut.-
colonel was Robert E. Lee, and his majors were Hardee and Thomas.
In 1857 he commanded the expedition sent against the Mormons,
and performed his difficult and dangerous mission so successfully
that the objects of the expedition were attained without blood-
shed. He was rewarded with the brevet of brigadier-general.
At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 Johnston, then in
command of the Pacific department, resigned his commission and
made his way to Richmond, where Pres. Jefferson Davis, whom
he had known at West Point, at once made him a full general in
the Confederate army and assigned him to command the depart-
ment of Kentucky. Here he had to guard a long and weak line
from the Mississippi to the Alleghany Mountains, which was
dangerously advanced on account of the political necessity of^
covering friendly country. The first serious advance of the
Federals forced him back at once, and he was freely criticized
and denounced for what, in ignorance of the facts, the Southern
press and people regarded as a weak and irresolute defence.
Johnston himself, who had entered upon the Civil War with the
reputation of being the foremost soldier on either side, bore with
JOHNSTON, A.— JOHNSTON, SIR H. H.
fortitude the reproaches of his countrymen, and Davis loyally
supported his old friend. Johnston then marched to join
Beauregard at Corinth, Miss., and with the united forces took
the offensive against Grant's army at Pittsburg Landing. The
battle of Shiloh (q.v.) took place on the 6th and 7th of April, 1862.
The Federals were completely surprised, and Johnston was in the
full tide of success when he fell mortally wounded. He died a few
minutes afterwards. President Davis said, in his message to the
Confederate Congress, " Without doing injustice to the living, it
may safely be said that our loss is irreparable," and the subse-
quent history of the war in the west went far to prove the truth
of his eulogy.
His son, WILLIAM PRESTON JOHNSTON (1831-1899), who
served on the staff of General Johnston and subsequently on that
of President Davis, was a distinguished professor and president
of Tulane University. His chief work is the Life of General
Albert Sidney Johnston (1878), a most valuable and exhaustive
biography.
JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER (1849-1889), American historian,
was born in Brooklyn, New York, on the 29th of April 1849. He
studied at the Polytechnic institute of Brooklyn, graduated at
Rutgers College in 1870, and was admitted to the bar in 1875 in
New Brunswick, New Jersey, where he taught in the Rutgers
College grammar school from 1876 to 1879. He was principal
of the Latin school of Norwalk, Connecticut, in 1870-1883, and
was professor of jurisprudence and political economy in the
College of New Jersey (Princeton University) from 1884 until
his death in Princeton, N.J., on the 2ist of July 1889. He
wrote A History of American Politics (1881); The Genesis of
a New England State — Connecticut (1883), in " Johns Hopkins
University Studies "; A History of the United Stales for Schools
(1886); Connecticut (1887) in the " American Commonwealths
Series "; the article on the history of the United States for the
9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, reprinted as The
United Stales: Its History and Constitution (1887); a chapter
on the history of American political parties in the seventh
volume of Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of America,
and many articles on the history of American politics in Lalor's
Cyclopaedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and Political
History of the United Stales (1881-1884). These last articles,
which like his other writings represent much original research
and are excellent examples of Johnston's rare talent for terse
narrative and keen analysis and interpretation of facts, were
republished in two volumes entitled American Political History
1763-1876 (1905-1906), edited by Professor J. A. Woodburn.
JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER KEITH (1804-1871), Scottish
geographer, was born at Kirkhill near Edinburgh on the 28th
of December 1804. After an education at the high school and the
university of Edinburgh he was apprenticed to an engraver;
and in 1826 joined his brother (afterwards Sir William Johnston,
lord provost of Edinburgh) in a printing and engraving business,
the well-known cartographical firm of W. and A. K. Johnston.
His interest in geography had early developed, and his first
important work was the National Atlas of general geography,
which gained for him in 1843 the appointment of Geographer-
Royal for Scotland. Johnston was the first to bring the study
of physical geography into competent notice in England. His
attention had been called to the subject by Humboldt; and after
years of labour he published his magnificent Physical Atlas in
1848, followed by a second and enlarged edition in 1856. This,
by means of maps with descriptive letterpress, illustrates the
geology, hydrography, meteorology, botany, zoology, and
ethnology of the globe. The rest of Johnston's life was devoted
to geography, his later years to its educational aspects especially.
His services were recognized by the leading scientific societies of
Europe and America. He died at Ben Rhydding, Yorkshire,
on the gth of July 1871. Johnston published a Dictionary of
Geography in 1850, with many later editions; The Royal Atlas of
Modern Geography, begun in 1855; anatlasof military geography
to accompany Alison's History of Europe in 1848 seq.; and a
variety of other atlases and maps for educational or scientific
purposes. His son of the same name (1844-1879) was also the
473
author of various geographical works and papers; in 1873-1875
he was geographer to a commission for the survey of Paraguay;
and he died in Africa while leading the Royal Geographical
Society's expedition to Lake Nyasa.
JOHNSTON, ARTHUR (1587-1641), Scottish physician and
writer of Latin verse, was the son of an Aberdeenshire laird
Johnston of Johnston and Caskieben, and on his mother's side
a grandson of the seventh Lord Forbes. It is probable that he
began his university studies at one, or both, of the colleges at
Aberdeen, but in 1608 he proceeded to Italy and graduated
M.D. at Padua in 1610. Thereafter he resided at Sedan, in
the company of the exiled Andrew Melville (q.v.), and in 1619
was in practice in Paris. He appears to have returned to
England about the time of James I.'s death and to have been
in Aberdeen about 1628. He met Laud in Edinburgh at the
time of Charles I.'s Scottish coronation (1633) and was en-
couraged by him in his literary efforts, partly, it is said, for the
undoing of Buchanan's reputation as a Latin poet. He was
appointed rector of King's College, Aberdeen, in June 1637.
Four years later he died at Oxford, on his way to London,
whither Laud had invited him.
Johnston left more than ten works, all in Latin. On two of
these, published in the same year, his reputation entirely rests:
(a) his version of the Psalms (Psalmorum Davidis paraphrasis poetica
et canticorum evangelicorum, Aberdeen, 1637), and (6) his anthology
of contemporary Latin verse by Scottish poets (Deliciae poetarum
scotorum hujusaeviillustrium, Amsterdam, 1637). He had published
in 1633 a volume entitled Cantici Salomonis paraphrasis poetica,
which, dedicated to Charles I., had brought him to the notice of Laud.
The full version of the Psalms was the result of Laud's encourage-
ment. The book was for some time a strong rival of Buchanan's
work, though its good Latintty was not superior to that of the latter.
The Deliciae, in two small thick volumes of 699 and 575 pages, was a
patriotic effort in imitation of the various volumes (under a similar
title) which had been popular on the Continent during the second
decade of the century. The volumes are dedicated by Johnston
to John Scot of Scotstarvet, at whose expense the collected works
were published after Johnston's death, at Middelburg (1642). Selec-
tions from his own poems occupy pages 439-647 of the first volume,
divided into three sections, Parerga, Epigrammata and Musae
Aulicae. He published a volume of epigrams at Aberdeen in 1632.
In these pieces he shows himself at his best. His sacred poems,
Vhich had appeared in the Opera (1642), were reprinted by Lauder
in his Poetarum Scotorum musae sacrae (1739). The earliest lives
are by Lauder (u.s.) and Benson (in Psalmi Davidici, 1741). Ruddi-
man's Vindication of Mr George Buchanan's Paraphrase (1745) began
a pamphlet controversy regarding the merits of the rival poets.
JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON (1858- ), British
administrator and explorer, was born on the i2th of June 1858 at
Kennington, London, and educated at Stockwell grammar school
and King's College, London. He was a student for four years in
the painting schools of the Royal Academy. At the age of
eighteen he began a series of travels in Europe and North Africa,
chiefly as a £tudent« of painting, architecture and languages.
In 1879-1880 he visited the then little known interior of Tunisia.
He had also a strong bent towards zoology and comparative
anatomy, and carried on work of this description at the Royal
College of Surgeons, of whose Hunterian Collection he afterwards
became one of the trustees. In 1882 he joined the earl of Mayo
in an expedition to the southern part of Angola, a district then
much, traversed by Transvaal Boers. In 1883 Johnston visited
H. M. Stanley on the Congo, and was enabled by that explorer to
visit the river above Stanley Pool at a time when it was scarcely
known to other Europeans than Stanley and De Brazza. These
journeys attracted the attention of the Royal Geographical
Society and the British Association, and the last-named in con-
cert with the Royal Society conferred on Johnston the leadership
of the scientific expedition to Mount Kilimanjaro which started
from Zanzibar in April 1884. Johnston's work in this region
was also under the direction of Sir John Kirk, British consul
at Zanzibar. While in the Kilimanjaro district Johnston con-
cluded treaties with the chiefs of Moshi and Taveta (Taveita).
These treaties or- concessions were transferred to the merchants
who founded the British East Africa Company, and in the final
agreement with Germany Taveta fell to Great Britain. In
October 1885 Johnston was appointed British vice-consul in
474
Cameroon and in the Niger delta, and he became in 1887 acting
consul for that region. A British protectorate over the Niger
delta had been notified in June 1885, and between the date of
his appointment and 1888, together with the consul E. H.
Hewett, Johnston laid the foundations of the British administra-
tion in that part of the delta not reserved for the Royal Niger
Company. His action in removing the turbulent chief Ja-ja (an
ex-slave who had risen to considerable power in the palm-oil
trade) occasioned considerable criticism but was approved by the
Foreign Office. It led to the complete pacification of a region long
disturbed by trade disputes. During these three years of resi-
dence in the Gulf of Guinea Johnston ascended the Cameroon
Mountain, and made large collections of the flora and fauna of
Cameroon for the British Museum.
In the spring of 1889 he was sent to Lisbon to negotiate an
arrangement for the delimitation of the British and Portuguese
spheres of influence in South-East Africa, but the scheme drawn
up, though very like the later arrangement of those regions,
was not given effect to at the time. On his return from Lisbon
he was despatched to Mozambique as consul for Portuguese East
Africa, and was further charged with a mission to Lake Nyasa to
pacify that region, then in a disturbed state owing to the attacks
of slave-trading Arabs on the stations of the African Lakes
Trading Company — an unofficial war, in which Captain (after-
wards Colonel Sir Frederick) Lugard and Mr (afterwards
Sir Alfred) Sharpe distinguished themselves. Owing to the
unexpected arrival on the scene of Major Serpa Pinto, Johnston
was compelled to declare a British protectorate over the
Nyasa region, being assisted in this work by John Buchanan
(vice-consul), Sir Alfred Sharpe, Alfred Swann and others.
A truCe was arranged with the Arabs on Lake Nyasa, and
within twelve months the British flag, by agreement with
the natives, had been hoisted over a very large region which
extended north of Lake Tanganyika to the vicinity of Uganda,
to Katanga in the Congo Free State, the Shir6 Highlands
and the central Zambezi. Johnston's scheme, in fact, was that
known as the " Cape-to-Cairo," a phrase which he had brought
into use in an article in The Timts in August 1888. According
to his arrangement there would have been an all-British routtf
from Alexandria to Cape Town. But by the Anglo-German
agreement of the ist of July 1890 the British sphere north of
Tanganyika was abandoned to Germany, and the Cape-to-Cairo
route broken by a wedge of German territory. Johnston
returned to British Central Africa as commissioner and consul-
general in 1891, and retained that post till 1896, in which year
he was made a K.C.B. His health having suffered much from
African fever, he was transferred to Tunis as consul-general
(1897). In the autumn of 1899 Sir Harry Johnston was
despatched to Uganda as special commissioner to reorganize
the administration of that protectorate after the suppression of
the mutiny of the Sudanese soldiers and the long war with
Unyoro. His two years' work in Uganda and a portion of what
is now British East Africa were rewarded at the close of 1901 by
a G.C.M.G. In the spring of the following year he retired from
the consular service. After 1904 he interested himself greatly
in the affairs of the Liberian republic, and negotiated various
arrangements with that negro state by which order was brought
into its finances, the frontier with France was delimited, and the
development of the interior by means of roads was commenced.
In 1903 he was defeated as Liberal candidate for parliament
at a by-election at Rochester. He met with no better success at
West Marylebone at the general election of 1906.
For his services to zoology he was awarded the gold medal
of the Zoological Society in 1902, and in the same year was
made an honorary doctor of science at Cambridge. He received
the gold medal of the Royal Geographical and the Royal Scottish
Geographical societies, and other medals for his artistic work
from South Kensington and the Society of Arts. His pictures,
chiefly dealing with African subjects, were frequently exhibited
at the Royal Academy. He was the author of numerous books on
Africa, including British Central Africa (1897) ; The Colonization
of Africa (1899) ; The Uganda Protectorate (1902) ; Liberia (1906) ;
JOHNSTON, J. E.
George Grenfell and the Congo (1908). During his travels in
the north-eastern part of the Congo Free State in 1900 he was
instrumental in discovering and naming the okapi, a mammal
nearly allied to the giraffe. His name has been connected
with many other discoveries in the African fauna and flora.
JOHNSTON, JOSEPH EGGLESTON (1807-1891), American
Confederate general in the Civil War, was born near Farmville,
Prince Edward county, Virginia, on the 3rd of February 1807.
His father, Peter Johnston (1763-1841), a Virginian of Scottish
descent, served in the War of Independence, and afterwards
became a distinguished jurist; his mother was a niece of Patrick
Henry. He graduated at West Point, in the same class with
Robert E. Lee, and was made brevet second lieutenant, 4th
Artillery, in 1829. He served in the Black Hawk and Seminole
wars, and left the army in 1837 to become a civil engineer, but
a year afterwards he was reappointed to the army as first
lieutenant, Topographical Engineers, and breveted captain for his
conduct in the Seminole war. During the Mexican war he was
twice severely wounded in a reconnaissance at Cerro Gordo, 1847,
was engaged in the siege of Vera Cruz, the battles of Contreras,
Churubusco, and Molino del Rey, the storming of Chapultepec,
and the assault on the city of Mexico, and received three brevets
for gallant and meritorious service. From 1853 to 1855 he was
employed on Western river improvements, and in 1855 he
became lieut.-colonel of the ist U.S. Cavalry. In 1860 he
was made quartermaster-general, with the rank of brigadier-
general. In April 1861 he resigned from the United States
army and entered the Confederate service. He was commis-
sioned major-general of volunteers in the Army of Virginia, and
assisted in organizing the volunteers. He was later appointed a
general officer of the Confederacy, and assigned to the command
of the Army of the Shenandoah, being opposed by the Federal
army under Patterson. When McDowell advanced upon the
Confederate forces under Beauregard at Manassas, Johnston
moved from the Shenandoah Valley with great rapidity to
Beauregard's assistance. As senior officer he took command on
the field, and at Bull Run (Manassas) (q.v.) won the first impor-
tant Confederate victory. In August 1861 he was made one of
the five full generals of the Confederacy, remaining in command
of the main army in Virginia. He commanded in the battle
of Fair Oaks (May 31, 1862), and was so severely wounded as
to be incapacitated for several months. In March 1863,
still troubled by his wound, he was assigned to the command of
the south-west, and in May was ordered to take immediate
command of all the Confederate forces in Mississippi, then
threatened by Grant's movement on Vicksburg. When Pember-
ton's army was besieged in Vicksburg by Grant, Johnston used
every effort to relieve it, but his force was inadequate. Later
in 1863, when the battle of Chattanooga brought the Federals
to the borders of Georgia, Johnston was assigned to command
the Army of Tennessee at Dalton, and in the early days of May
1864 the combined armies of the North under Sherman advanced
against his lines. For the main outlines of the famous campaign
between Sherman and Johnston see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (§29).
From the 9th of May to the i7th of July there were skirmishes,
actions and combats almost daily. The great numerical superi-
ority of the Federals enabled Sherman to press back the Con-
federates without a pitched battle, but the severity of the
skirmishing may be judged from the casualties of the two
armies (Sherman's about 26,000 men, Johnston's over 10,000),
and the obstinate steadiness of Johnston by the fact that his
opponent hardly progressed more than one mile a day. But
a Fabian policy is never acceptable to an eager people, and when
Johnston had been driven back to Atlanta he was superseded
by Hood with orders to fight a battle. The wisdom of John-
ston's plan was soon abundantly clear, and the Confederate
cause was already lost when Lee reinstated him on the 23rd of
February 1865. With a handful of men he opposed Sherman's
march through the Carolinas, and at Bentonville, N.C., fought
and almost won a most gallant and skilful battle against heavy
odds. But the Union troops steadily advanced, growing in
strength as they went, and a few days after Lee's surrender at
JOHNSTONE— JOHOR
475
Appomattox Johnston advised President Davis that it was in
his opinion wrong and useless to continue the conflict, and he was
authorized to make terms with Sherman. The terms entered
into between these generals, on the i8th of April, having been
rejected by. the United States government, another agreement
was signed on the 26th of April, the new terms being similar to
those of the surrender of Lee. After the close of the war
Johnston engaged in civil pursuits. In 1874 ne published a
Narrative of Military Operations during the Civil War. In 1877
he was elected to represent the Richmond district ot Virginia in
Congress. In 1887 he was appointed by President Cleveland
U.S. commissioner of railroads. Johnston was married in
early life to Louisa (d. 1886), daughter of Louis M'Lane. He
died at Washington, B.C., on the 2ist of March 1891, leaving no
children.
It was not the good fortune of Johnston to acquire the prestige
which so much assisted Lee and Jackson, nor indeed did he pos-
sess the power of enforcing his will on others in the same degree,
but his methods were exact, his strategy calm and balanced, and,
if he showed himself less daring than his comrades, he was un-
surpassed in steadiness. The duel of Sherman and Johnston
is almost as personal a contest between two great captains as
were the campaigns of Turenne and Montecucculi. To Monte-
cucculi, indeed, both in his military character and in the incidents
of his career, Joseph Johnston bears a striking resemblance.
See Hughes, General Johnston, in " Great Commanders Series "
(1893)-
JOHNSTONE, a police burgh of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on
the Black Cart, n m. W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-
western railway. Pop. (1901), 10,503. The leading industries
include flax-spinning, cotton manufactures (with the introduction
of which in 1781 the prosperity of the town began), paper-making,
shoe-lace making, iron and brass foundries and engineering
works. There are also coal mines and oil works in the vicinity.
Elderslie, i m. E., is the reputed birthplace of Sir William
Wallace, but it is doubtful if " Wallace's Yew," though of
great age, and " Wallace's Oak," a fine old tree that perished
in a storm in 1836, and the small castellated building (tradi-
tionally his house) which preceded the present mansion in the
west end of the village, existed in his day.
JOHNSTOWN, a city -and the county-seat of Fulton county,
New York, U.S.A., on Cayadutta Creek, about 4 m. N. of the
Mohawk river and about 48 m. N.W. of Albany. Pop. (1890),
7768; (1900), 10,130 (1653 foreign-born); (1905, state census),
9765; (1910) 10.447. It is served by the Fonda, Johnstown &
Gloversville railroad, and by an electric line to Schenectady.
The city has a Federal building, a Y.M.C.A. building, a city
hall, and a Carnegie library (1902). The most interesting building
is Johnson Hall, a fine old baronial mansion, built by Sir William
Johnson in 1762 and his home until his death; his grave is just
outside the present St John's episcopal church. Originally
the hall was flanked by two stone forts, one of which is still
standing. In 1907 the hall was bought by the state and was
placed in the custody of the Johnstown Historical Society,
which maintains a museum here. In the hall Johnson estab-
lished in 1 766 a Masonic lodge, one of the oldest in the United
States. Other buildings of historical interest are the Drumm
House and the Fulton county court house, built by Sir William
Johnson in 1 763 and 1772 respectively, and the gaol ( 1 7 7 2) , at first
used for all New York west of Schenectady county, and during
the War of Independence as a civil and a military prison. The
court house is said to be the oldest in the United States. Three
miles south of the city is the Butler House, built in 1742 by
Colonel John Butler (d. 1794) , a prominent Tory leader during the
War of Independence. A free school, said to have been the first
in New York state, was established at Johnstown by Sir William
Johnson in 1764. The city is (after Gloversville, 3 m. distant)
the principal glove-making centre in the United States, the
product being valued at $2,581,274 in 1905 and being 14-6%
of the total value of this industry in the United States. The
manufacture of gloves in commercial quantities was introduced
into the United States and Johnstown in 1809 by Talmadge
Edwards, who was buried there in the colonial cemetery. The
value of the total factory product in 1905 was $4,543,272 (a
decrease of 11-3% since 1900). Johnstown was settled about
1760 by a colony of Scots brought to America by Sir William
Johnson, within whose extensive grant it was situated, and in
whose honour, in 1771, it was named. A number of important
conferences between the colonial authorities and the Iroquois
Indians were held here, and on the 28th of October 1781, during
the War of Independence, Colonel Marinus Willett (1740-1830)
defeated here a force of British and Indians, whose leader,
Walter Butler, a son of Colonel John Butler, and, with him, a
participant in the Wyoming massacres, was mortally wounded
near West Canada creek during the pursuit. Johnstown was
incorporated as a village in 1808, and was chartered as a city
in 1895.
JOHNSTOWN, a city of Cambria county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.,
at the confluence of the Conemaugh river and Stony creek, about
75 m. E. by S. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890), 21,805; (19°°), 35,936,
of whom 7318 were foreign-born, 2017 being Hungarians,
1663 Germans, and 923 Austrians; (1910 census) 55,482.
It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore & Ohio
railways. The city lies about 1170 ft. above the sea, on level
ground extending for some distance along the river, and nearly
enclosed by high and precipitous hills. Among the public
buildings and institutions are the Cambria free library (containing
about 14,000 volumes in 1908), the city hall, a fine high school,
and the Conemaugh Valley memorial hospital. Roxbury Park,
about 3 m. from the city, is reached by electric lines. Coal,
iron ore, fire clay and limestone abound in the vicinity, and the
city has large plants for the manufacture of iron and steel.
The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $28,891,806,
an increase of 35-2% since 1900. A settlement was established
here in 1791 by Joseph Jahns, in whose honour it was named,
and the place was soon laid out as a town, but it was not incor-
porated as a city until 1889, the year of the disastrous Johnstown
flood. In 1852 a dam (700 ft. long and 100 ft. high), intended
to provide a storage reservoir for the Pennsylvania canal, had
been built across the South Fork, a branch of the Conemaugh
river, 12 m. above the city, but the Pennsylvania canal was
subsequently abandoned, and in 1888 the dam was bought and
repaired by the South Fork hunting and fishing club, and Cone-
maugh lake was formed. On the 3ist of May 1889, during a
heavy rainfall, the dam gave way and a mass of water 20 ft. or
more in height at its head swept over Johnstown at a speed of
about 20 m. an hour, almost completely destroying the city.
The Pennsylvania railroad bridge withstood the strain, and
against it the flood piled up a mass of wreckage many feet in
height and several acres in area. On or in this confused mass
many of the inhabitants were saved from drowning, only to be
burned alive when it caught fire. Seven other towns and
villages in the valley were also swept away, and the total loss
of lives was 2000 or more. A relief fund of nearly $3,000,000
was raised, and the city was quickly rebuilt.
JOHOR (Johore is the local official, but incorrect spelling),
an independent Malayan state at the southern end of the
peninsula, stretching from 2° 40' S. to Cape Romania (Ramunya),
the most southerly point on the mainland of Asia, and including
all the small islands adjacent to the coast which lie to the south
of parallel 2° 40' S. It is bounded N. by the protected native
state of Pahang, N.W. by the Negri Sembilan and the territory
of Malacca, S. by the strait which divides Singapore island from
the mainland, E. by the China Sea, and W. by the Straits of
Malacca. The province of Muar was placed under the admin-
istration of Johor by the British government as a temporary
measure in 1877, and was still a portion of the sultan's dominions
in 1910. The coast-line measures about 250 m. The greatest
length from N.W. to S.E. is 165 m., the greatest breadth from
E. to W. too m. The area is estimated at about 9000 sq. m.
The principal rivers are the Muar, the most important waterway
in the south of the peninsula; the Johor, up which river the old
capital of the state was situated; the Endau, which marks the
boundary with Pahang; and the Batu Pahat and Sedeli, of
476
JOIGNY- -JOINERY
comparative unimportance. Johor is less mountainous than
any other state in the peninsula. The highest peak is Gunong
Ledang, called Mt Ophir by Europeans, which measures some
4000 ft. in height. Like the rest of the peninsula, Johor is
covered from end to end by one vast spread of forest, only
broken here and there by clearings and settlements of insig-
nificant area. The capital is Johor Bharu (pop. about 20,000),
situated at the nearest point on the mainland to the island of
Singapore. The fine palace built by the sultan Abubakar is
the principal feature of the town. It is a kind of Oriental
Monte Carlo, and is much resorted to from Singapore. The
capital of the province of Muar is Bandar Maharani, named after
the wife of the sultan before he had assumed his final title.
The climate of Johor is healthy and equable for a country situ-
ated so near to the equator; it is cooler than that of Singapore.
The shade temperature varies from 98-5° F. to 68-2° F. The
rainfall averages 97-28 in. per annum. No exact figures can
be obtained as to the population of Johor, but the best estimates
place it at about 200,000, of whom 150,000 are Chinese, 35,000
Malays, 15,000 Javanese. We are thus presented with the
curious spectacle of a country under Malay rule in which the
Chinese outnumber the people of the land by more than four
to one. It is not possible to obtain any exact data on the subject
of the revenue and expenditure of the state. The revenue,
however, is probably about 750,000 dollars, and the expenditure
under public service is comparatively small. The revenue is
chiefly derived from the revenue farms for opium, spirits,
gambling, &c., and from duty on pepper and gambier exported
by the Chinese. The cultivation of these products forms the
principal industry. Areca-nuts and copra are also exported in
some quantities, more especially from Muar. There is little
mineral wealth of proved value.
History. — It is claimed that the Mahommedan empire of
Johor was founded by the sultan of Malacca after his expulsion
frofn his kingdom by the Portuguese in 1511. It is certain that
Johor took an active part, only second to that of Achin, in the
protracted war between the Portuguese and the Dutch for the
possession of Malacca. Later we find Johor ruled by an officer
of the sultan of Riouw (Riau), bearing the title of Tumgnggong,
and owing feudal allegiance to his master in common with the
Bgndahara of Pahang. In 1812, however, this officer seems to
have thrown off the control of Riouw, and to have assumed the
title of sultan, for one of his descendants, Sultan Husain,- ceded
the island of Singapore to the East India Company in 1819. In
1855 the then sultan, Ali, was deposed, and his principal chief,
the Tumgnggong, was given the supreme rule by the British.
His son Tumgnggong Abubakar proved to be a man of excep-
tional intelligence. He made numerous visits to Europe, took
considerable interest in the government and development of his
country, and was given by Queen Victoria the title of maharaja
in 1879. On one of his visits to England he was made the
defendant in a suit for breach of promise of marriage, but the
plaintiff was non-suited, since it was decided that no action lay
against a foreign sovereign in the English law courts. In 1885
he entered into a new agreement with the British government,
and was allowed to assume the title of sultan of the state and
territory of Johor. He was succeeded in 1895 by his son
Sultan Ibrahim. The government of Johor has been compara-
tively so free from abuses under its native rulers that it has
never been found necessary to place it under the residential
system in force in the other native states of the peninsula which
are under British control, and on several occasions Abubakar
used his influence with good effect on the side of law and order.
The close proximity of Johor to Singapore has constantly
subjected the rulers of the former state to the influence of
European public opinion. None the less, the Malay is by nature
but ill fitted for the drudgery which is necessary if proper
attention is to be paid to the dull details whereby government
is rendered good and efficient. Abubakar's principal adviser,
the Dato 'Mgntri, was a worthy servant of his able master.
Subsequently, however, the reins of government came chiefly
into the hands of a set of young men who lacked either experience
or the serious devotion to dull duties which is the distinguishing
mark of the English civil service. Muar, in imitation of the
British system, is ruled by a raja of the house of Johor, who
bears the title of resident. (H. CL.)
JOIGNY, a town of central France, capital of an.arrondisse-
ment in the department of Yonne, 18 m. N.N.W. of Auxerre
by the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway. Pop. (1906), 4888.
It is situated on the flank of the hill known as the Cote St
Jacques on the right bank of the Yonne. Its streets are steep
and narrow, and old houses with carved wooden facades are
numerous. The church of St Jean (i6th century), which once
stood within the enceinte of the old castle, contains a represen-
tation (i5th century) of the Holy Sepulchre in white marble.
Other interesting buildings are the church of St Andre (i2th,
1 6th and I7th centuries), of which the best feature is the
Renaissance portal with its fine bas-reliefs; and the church of
St Thibault (i6th century), in which the stone crown suspended
from the choir vaulting is chiefly noticeable. The Porte du
Bois, a gateway with two massive flanking towers, is a relic of
the loth century castle; there is also a castle of the i6th and
1 7th centuries, in part demolished. The hotel de ville (i8th
century) shelters the library; the law-court contains the sepul-
chral chapel of the Ferrands (i6th century). The town is the
seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, and a communal college for boys. It is industrially
unimportant, but the wine of the C6te St Jacques is much
esteemed.
Joigny (Joviniacum) was probably of Roman origin. In the
loth century it became the seat of a countship dependent on
that of Champagne, which after passing through several hands
came in the i8th century into the possession of the family of
Villeroi. A fragment of a ladder preserved in the church of St
Andre commemorates the successful resistance offered by the
town to the English in 1429.
JOINDER, in English law, a term used in several connexions.
Joinder of causes of action is the uniting in the same action
several causes of action. Save in actions for the recovery of
land and in actions by a trustee in bankruptcy a plaintiff may
without leave join in one action, not several actions, but several
" causes of action." Claims by or against husband and wife
may be joined with claims by or against either of them separately.
Claims by or against an executor or administrator as such may
be joined with claims by or against him personally, provided
such claims are alleged to arise with reference to the estate of
which the plaintiff or defendant sues or is sued as executor or
administrator. Claims by plaintiffs jointly may be joined with
claims by them or any of them separately against the same
defendant.
Joinder in pleading is the joining by the parties on the point
of matter issuing out of the allegations and pleas of the plaintiff
and the defendant in a cause and the putting the cause upon
trial.
Joinder of parlies. — Where parties may jointly, severally or
in the alternative bring separate actions in respect of or arising
out of the same transaction or series of transactions they may,
by Order XVI. of the rules of the supreme court, be joined in
one action as plaintiffs.
JOINERY, one of the useful arts which contribute to the
comfort and convenience of man. As the arts of joinery and
carpentry are often followed by the same individual, it appears
natural to conclude that the same principles are common to
both, but a closer examination leads to a different conclusion.
The art of carpentry is directed almost wholly to the support of
weight or pressure, and therefore its principles must be sought
in the mechanical sciences. In a building it includes all the
rough timber work necessary for support, division or connexion,
and its proper object is to give firmness and stability. The art
of joinery has for its object the addition in a building of all the
fixed woodwork necessary for convenience or ornament. The
t joiner's works are in many cases of a complicated nature, and often
require to be executed in an expensive material, therefore joinery
requires much skill in that part of geometrical science which
JOINERY
treats of the projection and description of lines, surfaces and
solids, as well as an intimate knowledge of the structure and
nature of wood. A man may be a good carpenter without being
a joiner at all, but he cannot be a joiner without being competent,
at least, to supervise all the operations required in carpentry.
The rough labour of the carpenter renders him in some degree
unfit to produce that accurate and neat workmanship which is
expected from a modern joiner, but it is no less true that the
habit of neatness and the great precision of the joiner make him
a much slower workman than the man practised in works of
carpentry. In carpentry framing owes its strength mainly to
the form and position of its parts, but in joinery the strength of
a frame depends to a larger extent upon the strength of the
joinings. The importance of fitting the joints together as
accurately as possible is therefore obvious. It is very desirable
that a joiner shall be a quick workman, but it is still more so
that he shall be a good one, and that he should join his materials
with firmness and accuracy. It is also of the greatest importance
that the work when thus put together shall be constructed of
such sound and dry materials, and on such principles, that the
whole shall bear the various changes of temperature and of
moisture and dryness, so that the least possible shrinkage or
swelling shall take place; but provision must be made so that,
if swelling or shrinking does occur, no damage shall be done to
the work.
In early times every part was rude, and jointed in the most
artless manner. The first dawnings of the art of modern
joinery appear in the thrones, stalls, pulpits and screens of early
Gothic cathedrals and churches, but even in these it is indebted
to the carver for everything that is worthy of regard. With the
revival of classic art, however, great changes took place in every
sort of construction. Forms began to be introduced in architec-
ture which could not be executed at a moderate expense without
the aid of new principles, and these principles were discovered
and published by practical joiners. These authors, with their
scanty geometrical knowledge, had but confused notions of
these principles, and accordingly their descriptions are often
obscure, and sometimes erroneous. The framed wainscot of
small panels gave way to the large bolection moulded panelling.
Doors which were formerly heavily framed and hung on massive
posts or in jambs of cut stone, were now framed in light panels
and hung in moulded dressings of wood. The scarcity of oak
timber, and the expense of working it, subsequently led to
the importation of fir timber from northern Europe, and
this gradually superseded all other material save for special
work.
Tools and Materials. — The joiner operates with saws, planes,
chisels, gouges, hatchet, adze, gimlets and other boring instru-
ments (aided and directed by chalked lines), gauges, squares,
hammers, wallets, floor cramps and a great many other tools.
His operations consist principally of sawing and planing in all
their varieties, and of setting out and making joints of all
kinds. There is likewise a great range of other operations —
such as paring, gluing up, wedging, pinning, fixing, fitting
and hanging — and many which depend on nailing and screwing,
such as laying floors, boarding ceilings, wainscoting walls,
bracketing, cradling, firring, and the like. In addition to the
wood on which the joiner works, he requires also glue, white
lead, nails, brads, screws and hinges, and accessorily he applies
bolts, locks, bars and other fastenings, together with pulleys,
lines, weights, holdfasts, wall hooks, &c. The joiner's work for
a house is for the most part prepared at the shop, where there
should be convenience for doing everything in the best and
readiest manner, so that little remains when the carcase is ready
and the floors laid but to fit, fix and hang. The sashes, frames,
doors, shutters, linings and soffits are all framed and put together,
i.e. wedged up and cleaned off at the shop; the flooring is planed
and prepared with rebated or grooved edges ready for laying,
and the moulded work — the picture and dado rails, architraves,
skirtings and panelling — is all got out at the shop. On a new
building the joiner fits up a temporary workshop with benches,
sawing stools and a stove for his glue pot. Here he adjusts the
477
work for fitting up and makes any small portions that may still
be required.
The preparation of joinery entirely by hand is now the excep-
tion— a fact due to the ever-increasing use of machines, which
have remarkably shortened the time required to execute the
ordinary operations. Various machines rapidly and perfectly
execute planing and surfacing, mortising and moulding, leaving
the craftsman merely to fit and glue up. Large quantities of
machine-made flooring, window-frames and doors are now
imported into England from Canada and the continent of Europe.
The timber is grown near the place of manufacture, and this,
coupled with the fact that labour at a low rate of wages is easily
obtainable on the Continent, enables the cost of production to
be kept very low.
The structure and properties of wood should be thoroughly
understood by every joiner. The man who has made the nature
of timber his study has always a decided advantage over those
who have neglected this. Timber shrinks considerably in the
width, but not appreciably in the length. Owing to this shrink-
age certain joints and details, hereinafter described and illus-
trated, are in common use for the purpose of counteracting the
bad effect this movement would otherwise have upon all joinery
work.
The kinds of wood commonly employed in joinery are the different
species of North European and North American pine, oak, teak and
mahogany (see TIMBER). The greater part of English joiners' work
is executed in the northern pine exported from the Baltic countries.
Hence the joiner obtains the planks, deals, battens and strips from
which he shapes his work. The timber reaches the workman from
the sawmills in a size convenient for the use he intends, considerable
time and labour being saved in this way.
A log of timber sawn to a square section is termed a balk. In
section it may range from I to 1 1 ft. square. Planks are formed by
sawing the balk into sections from II to 18 in. wide and 3 to 6 in.
thick, and the term deal is applied to sawn stuff 9 in. wide and 2 to
4j in. thick. Battens are boards running not more than 3 in. thick
and 4 to 7 in. wide. A strip is not thicker than ij in., the width
being about 4 in.
Joints. — Side joints (fig. i) are used for joining boards together
edge to edge, and are widely employed in flooring. In the square
joint the edges of the boards itre carefully shot, the two edges to be
joined brought together with glue applied hot, and the boards
tightly clamped and left to dry,
when the surface is cleaned off with
the smoothing plane. A joint in
general use for joining up boards
for fascias, panels, linings, window-
boards, and other work of a like
nature is formed in a similar manner
to the above, but with a cross-
grained tongue inserted, thereby
greatly strengthening the work at
an otherwise naturally weak point.
This is termed a cross-tongued and
glued joint. The dowelled joint is
a square glued joint strengthened
with hard wood or iron dowels
inserted in the edge of each
board to a depth of about f in.
and placed about 1 8 in. apart.
The matched joint is shown in
two forms, beaded and jointed.
Matched boarding is frequently
used as a less expensive substitute
for panelled framing. Although of course in appearance it cannot
compare with the latter, it has a somewhat ornamental appearance,
and the moulded joints allow shrinkage to take place without detri-
ment to the appearance of the work. The rebated joint is used in
the meeting styles of casements and folding doors, and it is useful in
excluding draughts and preventing observation through the joint.
Of the angle joints (fig. 2) in common use by the joiner the following
are the most important. The mitre is shown in the drawing, and is
so well known as to need little description. Although simple, it
needs a practised and accurate hand for its proper execution. The
common mitre is essentially weak unless reinforced with blocks glued
into the angle at the back of it, and is therefore often strengthened
with a feather of wood or iron. Other variations of the mitre are the
mitre and butt, used where the pieces connected are of unequal thick-
ness; the mitre and rebate, with a square section which facilitates
nailing or screwing; the mitre rebate and feather, similar to the latter,
with a feather giving additional strength to the joint ; and the mitre
groove and tongue, having a tongue worked on the material itself in
place of the feather of the last-named joint. The last two methods
Matched A V-Joioted
FIG. i.
JOINERY
are used in the best work, and, carefully worked and glued, with
the assistance of angle blocks glued at the back, obviate the neces-
sity of face screws or nails. The keyed mitre consists of a simple
mitre joint, which after being glued up has a number of pairs of
saw cuts made across the angle,
into which are fitted and glued
thin triangular slips of hard wood,
or as an alternative, pieces of brass
or other metal. Other forms of
angle joints are based on the
rebate with a bead worked on in
such a position as to hide any
bad effects caused by the joint
opening by shrinkage. They may
be secured either by nailing or
screwing, or by glued angle blocks.
The dovetail is a most important
joint; its most usual forms are
illustrated in fig. 3. The mitre
dovetail is used in the best work.
It will be seen that the dovetail
is a tenon, shaped as a wedge, and it
is this distinguishing feature which
gives it great strength irrespec-
tive of glue or screws. It is invalu-
able in framing together joiners'
fittings; its use in drawers espe-
cially provides a good example of
its purpose and structure.
Warping in Wide Boards. — It is
necessary to prevent the tendency
to warp, twist and split, which
boards of great width, or several
boards glued together edge to edge, naturally possess. On the other
hand, swelling and shrinking due to changes in the humidity of the
atmosphere must not be checked, or the result will be disastrous.
To effect this end various simple devices are available. The direction
Keyed raiirt
FlG. 2.
Common dovetail. Lapped dovetail.
FIG. 3. — Dovetails.
Mitre or
Secret dovetail.
of the annular rings in alternate boards may be reversed, and when
the boards have been carefully jointed with tongues or dowels and
glued up, a hard-wood tapering key, dovetail in section, may be let
into a wide dovetail at the back (fig. 4). It must be accurately fitted
and driven tightly home, but,
of course, not glued. Battens
of hard wood may be used for
the same purpose, fixed either
with hard-wood buttons or by
means of brass slots and
screws, the slots allowing for
any slight movement that
may take place. With boards
of a substantial thickness light
iron rods may be used, holes
being bored through the thick-
ness of the boards and rods
passed through; the edges are
then glued up. This method
FIG. 4-Prevention of Warping. *£&£??£ ^^dUty
suitable when a smooth surface is desired on both sides of the work.
Mouldings are used in joinery to relieve plain surfaces by the
contrasts of light and shade formed by their members, and to orna-
ment or accentuate those particular portions which the designer may
wish to bring into prominence. Great skill and discrimination are
required in designing and applying mouldings, but that matter falls
to the qualified designer and is perhaps outside the province of the
practical workman, whose work is to carry out in an accurate
and finished manner the ideas of the draughtsman. The character
of a moulding is greatly affected by the nature and appearance of the
wood in which it is worked. A section suitable for a hard regularly
grained wood, such as mahogany, would probably look insignificant
if worked in a softer wood with pronounced markings. Mouldings
worked on woods of the former type may consist of small and delicate
members; woods of the latter class require bold treatment.
The mouldings of joinery, as well as of all other moulded work
used in connexion with a building, are usually worked in accordance
Scotia
Hollow
Flutes
I with full-sized detail drawings prepared by the architect, and are
designed by him to conform with the style and class of building.
There are, however, a number of moulded forms in common use
which have particular names; sections are shown of many of these
in fig. 5. Most of them occur in the classic architecture of both
Greeks and Romans. A
striking distinction, how-
ever, existed in the mould-
ings of these two peoples;
the curves of the Greek
mouldings were either de-
rived from conic sections
or drawn in freehand,
while in typical Roman
work the curved compo-
nents were segments of a
circle. Numerous exam-
ples of the use of these
forms occur in ordinary
joinery work, and may
be recognized on refer-
ence to the illustrations,
which will be easily un-
derstood without further
description. FlG- 5-— Mouldings.
Mouldings may be either stuck or planted on. A stuck moulding
is worked directly on to the framing it is used to ornament ; a planted
moulding is separately worked and fixed in position with nails or
screws. Beads and other small mouldings should always be stuck;
larger ones are usually planted on. In the case of mouldings planted
on panelled work, the nails should be driven through the moulding
into the style or rail of the framing, and on no account into the panel.
By adopting the former method the panel is free to shrink — as it
undoubtedly will do — without altering the good appearance of the
work, but should the moulding" be fixed to the panel it will, when the
latter shrinks, be pulled out of place, leaving an unsightly gap
between it and the framing.
Flooring. — When the bricklayer, mason and carpenter have
prepared the carcase of a building for the joiner, one of the first
operations is that of laying the floor boards. They should have been
stacked under cover on the site for some considerable time, in order
to be thoroughly well seasoned when the time to use them arrives.
The work of laying should take place in warm dry weather. The
joints of flooring laid in winter time or during wet weather are
sure to open in the following summer, however tightly they may be
cramped up during the process of laying. An additional expense
will then be incurred by the necessity of filling in the opened joints
with wood slips glued and driven into place. Boards of narrow width
are better and more expensive than wide ones. They may be of
various woods, the kinds generally preferred, on account of their
low comparative cost and ease of working, being yellow deal and
white deal. White deal or spruce is an inferior wood, but is fre-
quently used with good results for the floors of less important apart-
ments. A better floor is obtained with yellow deal, which, when of
good quality and well seasoned, is lasting and wears well. For
floors where a fine appearance is desired, or which will be subjected
to heavy wear, some harder and tougher material, such as pitch
pine, oak, ash, maple or teak, should be laid. These woods are
capable of taking a fine polish and, finished in this way, form a
beautiful as well as a durable floor.
Many of the side joints illustrated in fig. I are applied to flooring
boards, which, however, are not usually glued up. The heart side
of the board should be placed downwards so that in drying the ten-
dency will be for the edges to press more tightly to the joists instead
of curling upwards. The square joint should be used only on ground
floors; if it is used for the upper rooms, dust and water will drop
through the crevices and damage the ceiling beneath. Dowelled
joints are open to the same objection. One of the best and most econo-
mical methods is the ploughed and tongued joint. The tongue may
be of hard wood or iron, preferably the latter, which is stronger and
occupies very narrow grooves. The tongue should be placed as
near the bottom of the board as is practicable, leaving as much
wearing material as possible. Two varieties of secret joints are
shown in fig. I. — the splayed, rebated, grooved and tongued, and the
rebated, grooved and tongued. Owing to the waste of material in
forming these joints and the extra labour involved in laying the boards,
they are costly and are only used when it is required that no heads
of nails or screws should appear on the surface. The heading joints
of flooring are often specified to be splayed or bevelled, but it is
far better to rebate them.
Wood block floors are much used, and are exceedingly solid. The
blocks are laid directly on a smoothed concrete bed or floor in a
damp-proof mastic having bitumen as its base; this fulfils the double
purpose of preventing the wood from rotting, and securing the blocks
in their places. To check any inclination to warp and rise, however,
the edges of the blocks in the better class of floors are connected by
dowels of wood or metal, or by a tongued joint. The blocks may be
from I to 3 in. thick, and are usually 9 or 12 in. long by 3 in. wide.
Parquet floors are made of hard woods of various kinds, laid in
patterns on a deal sub-floor, and may be of any thickness from J to
JOINERY
li in. Great care should be taken in laying the sub-floor, especially
for the thinner parquet. The boards should be in narrow widths
of well-seasoned stuff and well nailed, for any movement in'the sub-
floor due to warping or shrinking may have disastrous results on the
auet which is laid upon it. Plated parquet consists of selected
woods firmly fixed on a framed deal backing. It is made
in sections for easy transport, and these are fitted together in the
apartment for which they are intended. When secured to the joists
these form a perfect floor.
Skirtings. — In joinery, the skirting is a board fixed around the
base of internal walls to form an ornamental base for the wall
(see fig. 7). It also covers the joint between the flooring and the
wall, and protects the base of the wall from injury.
Skirtings may be placed in two classes — those
formed from a plain board with its upper edge
either left square or moulded, and those formed of
two or more separate members and termed a
built-up skirting (fig. 6). Small angle fillets or
mouldings are often used as skirtings. The skirt-
ing should be worked so as to allow it to be fixed
with the heart side of the wood outwards; any ten-
dency to warp will then only serve to press the top
edge more closely to the wall. In good work a
groove should be formed in the floor and the skirt-
FIG. 6. — Built- ing tongued into it so that an open joint is avoided
should shrinkage occur. The skirting should be
to nailed only near the top to wood grounds fixed to
wood plugs in the joints of the brickwork. These
grounds are about $ to I in. thick, i.e. the same
thickness as the plaster, and are generally splayed or grooved on
the edge to form a key for the plaster. A rough coat of plaster
should always be laid on the wall behind the skirting in order to
prevent the space becoming a harbourage for vermin.
Dados. — A dado, like a skirting, is useful both in a decorative
up Skirting
tongued
floor.
479
and a protective sense. It is filled in to ornament and protect that
portion of the wall between the chair or dado rail and the skirting.
It may be of horizontal boards battened at the back and with cross
tongued and glued joints, presenting a perfectly smooth surface, or
of matched boarding fixed vertically, or of panelled framing. The
last method is of course the most ornate and admits of great variety
of design. The work is fixed to rough framed wood grounds which
are nailed to plugs driven into the joints of the brickwork. Fig. 7
shows an example of a panelled dado with capping moulding and
skirting. A picture rail also is shown; it is a small moulding with the
top edge grooved to take the metal hooks from which pictures are
hung.
Walls are sometimes entirely sheathed with panelling, and very
fine effects are obtained in this way. The fixing is effected to rough
grounds in a manner similar to that adopted in the case of dados. In
England the architects of the Tudor period made great use of oak
framing, panelled and richly carved, as a wall covering and decora-
tion, and many beautiful examples may be seen in the remaining
buildings of that period.
Windows. — The parts of a window sash are distinguished by the
same terms as are applied to similar portions of ordinary framing,
being formed of rails and styles, with sash bars rebated for glazing.
The upright sides are styles; the horizontal ones, which are tenoned
into the styles, are rails (fig. 7).
Sashes hung by one of their vertical edges are called casements
(fig. 8). They are really a kind of glazed door and sometimes indeed
are used as such, as for example French casements (fig. 9). They may
be made to open either outwards or inwards. It is very difficult
with the latter to form perfectly water-tight joints ; with those opening
outwards the trouble does not exist to so great an extent. This
form of window, though almost superseded in England by the
case frame with hung sashes, is in almost universal use on the
Continent. Yorkshire sliding sashes move in a horizontal direction
upon grooved runners with the meeting styles vertical. They are
DDDD
Dr~i i — in
r ill
Elevation of internal door.
d& t£l §3 ' la "
Internal Elevation of cased
Section.
Outside Ou
Plan of window, toe*' ni0 Plan of door.
FIG. 7.
480
JOINERY
little used, and are apt to admit draughts and wet unless efficient
checks are worked upon the sashes and frames.
Lights in a position difficult of access are often hung on centre
pivots. An example of this method is shown in fig. 8 ; metal pivots
are fixed to the frame and the sockets in which these pivots work
are screwed to the sash. Movement is effected by means of a cord
Casement window
fitted with Shuti
Hair plan through
casement.
Half plan through
centre hung sash.
FIG. 8. — Casement window fitted with shutters.
fixed so that a slight pull opens or closes the window to the desired
extent, and the cord is .then held by being tied to, or twisted round,
a small metal button or clip, or a geared fanlight opener may be
used. For the side sashes of lantern lights and for stables and
factories this form of window is in general use.
In the British Isles and in America the most usual form of window
is the cased frame with double hung sliding sashes. This style has
many advantages. It is efficient in excluding wet and draughts,
ventilation may be easily regulated and the sashes can be lowered
and raised with ease without interference with any blinds, curtains
or other fittings, that may be applied to the windows. In the
ordinary window of this style, however, difficulty is experienced
in cleaning the external glass without assuming a dangerous position
on the sill, but there are many excellent inventions now on the market
which obviate this difficulty by allowing — usually on the removal
of a small thumb-screw — the reversal of the sash on a pivot or hinge.
Section.
Details of A. Details of B.
FIG. 9. — Details of French Casement to open inwards.
For a small extra cost these arrangements may be provided; they
will be greatly appreciated by those who clean the windows. The
cased frames are in the form of boxes to enclose the iron or lead
weights which balance the sashes (fig. 7), and consist of a pulley style
— which takes the wear of the sashes and is often of hard wood on
this account — an inside lining, and an outside lining; these three
members are continued to form the head of the frame. The sashes are
connected with the weights by flax lines working over metal pulleys
fixed in the pulley styles. For heavy sashes with plate glass, chains
are sometimes used instead of lines. Access to the weights for the
purpose of fitting new cords is obtained by removing the pocket
piece. A thin back lining is provided to the sides only and is not
required in the head. The sill is of oak weathered to throw off
the water. A parting bead separates the sashes, and the inside
bead keeps them in position. A parting slip hung from the head
inside the cased frame separates the balancing weights and ensures
their smooth working. The inside lining is usually grooved to take
the elbow and soffit linings, and the window board is fitted into a
groove formed in the sill. The example shown in fig. 7 has an extra
deep bottom rail and bead ; this enables the lower sash to be raised
so as to permit of ventilation between the meeting rails without
causing a draught at the bottom of the sash. This is a considerable
improvement upon the ordinary form, and the cost of constructing
the sashes in this manner is scarcely greater.
Bay windows with cased frames and double hung sashes often
require the exercise of considerable ingenuity in their construction
in order that the mullions shall be so small as not to intercept more
light than necessary ; at the same time the sashes must work easily
and the whole framing be stable and strong. The sills should be
mitred and tongued at the angles and secured by a hand-rail bolt.
Frequently it is not desired to hang all the sashes of a bay window,
the side lights being fixed. To enable smaller angle mullions
to be obtained, the cords of the front windows may be taken by
means of pulleys over the heads of the side lights and attached to
counter-balance weights working in casings at the junction of the
window with the wall. This enables solid angle mullions to be
employed. If all the lights are required to be hung the difficulty
may be surmounted by hanging two sashes to one weight. Lead
weights take up less space than iron, and are used for heavy sashes.
In framing and fixing skylights and lantern lights also great care
is necessary to ensure the result being capable of resisting rough
weather and standing firm in high winds. Glue should not be used in
any of the joints, as it would attract 'moisture from the atmosphere
and set up decay. Provision must be made for the escape of the
water which condenses on and runs down the under side of the glass,
by means of a lead-lined channelled moulding, provided with zinc
or copper pipe outlets. The skylight stands on a curb raised at
least 6 in. to allow of the exclusion of rain by proper flashing. The
sashes of the lantern usually take the form of fixed or hung casements
fitted to solid mullions and angle posts which are framed into and
support a solid head. The glazed framing of the roof is made up.
of moulded sash bars framed to hips and ridges of stronger section,
these rest on the head, projecting well beyond it in order to throw
off the water.
Shutters for domestic windows have practically fallen into disuse,
but a reference to the different forms they may take is perhaps neces-
sary. They may be divided into two classes — those fixed to the
outside of the window and those fixed inside. They may be battened,
panelled or formed with louvres, the latter form admitting air and a
little light. External shutters are generally hung by means of
hinges to the frame of the window: when the window is set in a
reveal these hinges are necessarily of special shape, being of large
projection to enable the shutters to fold back against the face of the
wall. Internally fixed shutters may be hinged or may slide either
vertically or horizontally. Hinged folding boxed shutters are shown
in the illustration of a casement window (fig. 8), where the method
of working is clearly indicated ; they are usually held in position by
means of a hinged iron bar secured with a special catch. Lifting
shutters are usually fitted in a casing formed in the window back,
and the window board is hinged to lift up, to allow the shutters to be
raised by means of rings fixed in their upper edges. The shutters
are balanced by weights enclosed with casings in the manner de-
scribed for double hung sashes. The panels are of course filled in
with wood and not glazed. The shutters are fixed by means of a
thumb-screw through the meeting rails, the lower sash being sup-
ported on the window board which is closed down when the sashes
have been lifted out. Shutters sliding horizontally are also used in
some cases, but they are not so convenient as the forms described
above.
Shop-fronts. — The forming of shop-fronts may almost be considered
a separate branch of joiner's work. The design and construction
are attended by many minor difficulties, and, the requirements
greatly varying with almost every trade, careful study and close
attention to detail are necessary. In the erection of shop-fronts,
in order to allow the maximum width of glass with the minimum
amount of obstruction, many special sections of sash bars and
stanchions are used, the former often being reinforced by cast iron
or steel of suitable form. For these reasons the construction of
shop-fronts and fittings has been specialized by makers having a
knowledge of the requirements of different trades and with facilities
for making the special wood and metal fittings and casings necessary.
Fig. 10 shows an example of a simple shop-front in Spanish mahogany
with rolling shutters and spring roller blind; it indicates the typical
construction of a front, and reference to it will inform the reader on
many points which need no further description. The London Build-
ing Act 1894 requires the following regulations to be complied
with in shop-fronts: — (i) In streets of a width not greater than 30 ft.
a shop-front may project 5 in. beyond the external wall of the build-
ing to which it belongs, and the cornice may project 13 in. (2) In
streets of a width greater than 30 ft., the projections of the shop-
front may be IO in. and of the cornice 18 in. beyond the building
line. No woodwork of any shop-front shall be fixed higher than 25 ft.
above the level of the public pavement. No woodwork shall be
fixed nearer than 4 in. to the centre of the party wall. The pier of
brick or stone must project at least an inch in front of the woodwork.
These by-laws will be made clear on reference to fig. 10, which is of
a shop-front designed to face on to a road more than 30 ft. wide.
Rolling shutters for shop-fronts are made by a number of firms,
and are usually the subject of a separate estimate, being fixed by the
makers themselves. The shutter consists of a number of narrow
strips of wood, connected with each other by steel bands hinged at
every joint, or it may be formed in iron or steel. This construction
allows it to be coiled upon a cylinder containing a strong spring and
usually fixed on strong brackets behind the fascia. The shutter
JOINERY
481
is guided into position by the edges working in metal grooves a little
under an inch wide. When the width of the opening to be closed
renders it necessary to divide the shutters into more than one portion,
grooved movable pilasters are used, and when the shutters have to be
lowered these are fixed in position with bolts, the shutter working
on the grooved edges of the pilasters. Spring roller canvas blinds
work on a similar principle. The wrought-iron blind arms are
capable, when the blind is extended, of being pushed up by means of
a sliding arrangement, and fixed with a pin at a level high enough to
allow foot passengers to pass along the pavement under them.
The latter would need to be worked and framed in the shop and fixed
entire. Polished hard wood architraves may be secretly fixed, i.e.
without the heads of nails or screws showing on the face, by putting
screws into the grounds with their heads slightly projecting, and hang-
ing the moulding on them by means of keyhole slots formedin the back.
Doors may be made in a variety of ways. The simplest form,
the common ledged door, consists of vertical boards with plain or
matched joints nailed to horizontal battens which correspond to the
rails in framed doors. For openings over 2 ft. 3 in. wide, the doors
should be furnished with braces. Ledged and braced doors are
Section on AA.
Inches if fe o i a 3 ^ j Feet
Detail of Shop-front.
A Elevation.
Plan above Stallboard.
FIG. 10. — Shop-front.
Doors. — External doors are usually hung to solid frames placed
in the reveals of the brick or stone wall. The frames are rebated for
the door and ornamented by mouldings either stuck or planted on.
The iambs or posts are tenoned, wedged and glued to the head, and
the feet secured to the sill by stub tenons or dowels of iron. Solid
window frames are of similar construction and are used chiefly for
casements and sashes hung on centres as already described. Internal
doors are hung to jamb linings (fig. 7). They are usually about I J in.
thick and rebated for the door. When the width of jamb allows it,
panelling may be introduced as in the example shown. The linings
are nailed or screwed to rough framed grounds I in. in thickness
plugged or nailed to the wall or partition. Architraves are the
borders or finishing mouldings fixed around a window or door
opening, and screwed or nailed to wood grounds. They are variously
moulded according to the fancy of the designer. The ordinary form
of architrave is shown in the illustration of a cased window frame
(fig. 8), and a variation appears in the combined architrave and over
door frieze and capping fitted around the six-panelled door (fig. 7).
xv. 1 6
similar, but have, in addition to the ledges at the back, oblique
braces which prevent any tendency of the door to drop. The upper
end of the brace is birdsmouthed into the under side of the rail near
the lock edge of the door and crosses the door in an oblique direction
to be birdsmouthed into the upper edge of the rail below, near the
hanging edge of the door. This is done between each pair of rails.
Framed ledged and braced doors are a further development of this form
of door. The framing consists of lock and hanging styles, top, middle
and bottom rails, with oblique braces between the rails. These mem-
bers are tenoned together and the door sheathed with boarding.
The top rail and styles are the full thickness of the door, the braces
and middle and bottom rails being less by the thickness ol the
sheathing boards, which are tongued into the top rail and styles and
carried down over the other members to the bottom of the door.
The three forms of door described above are used mainly for tem-
porary purposes, and stables, farm buildings and outhouses of all
descriptions. They are usually hung by wrought-iron cross garnet
or strap hinges fixed with screws or through bolts and nuts.
5
482
JOINERY
Aflat *
Joints of
rails & style.
Top rail
The doors in dwelling-houses and other buildings of a like character
are commonly framed and panelled in one of the many ways possible.
The framing consists of styles, rails and muntins or mountings,
and these members are grooved to receive and hold the panels, which
are inserted previously to the door being glued and wedged up.
The common forms are doors in four or six rectangular panels, and
although they may be made with any form and
number of panels, the principles of construction
remain the same. The example shown in fig. 7
is of a six-panel door, with bolection moulded
raised panels on one side, and moulded and flat
panels on the other (fig. n).
A clear idea of the method of jointing the
s various members may be obtained from fig. 12.
The tongues of raised panels should be of
parallel thickness, the bevels being stopped at
the moulding. The projecting ends or horns of
the styles are cut off after the door has been
plo jj Forms glued and wedged, as they prevent the ends
of Panelling. °f tne styles being damaged by the wedging
process.
Where there is a great deal of traffic in both directions swing doors,
either single or double, are used. To open them it is necessary simply
to push, the inconvenience of turning a handle and shutting the door
after passing through being avoided, as a spring causes the door to
return to its original position without noise. They are usually
glazed and should be of substantial con-
struction. The door is hinged at the top on
a steel pivot ; the bottom part fits into a metal
shoe connected with the spring, which is placed
in a box fixed below the floor.
For large entrances, notably for hotels and
banks, a form of door working on the turnstile
principle is frequently adopted. It is formed
of four leaves fixed in the shape of a cross
and working on top and bottom central ball-
bearing steel pivots, in a circular framing
which forms a kind of vestibule. The leaves
of the door are fitted with slips of india-rubber
at their edges which, fitting close to the circular
framing, prevent draughts.
When an elegant appearance is desired, and
it is at the same time necessary to keep the
cost of production as low as possible, doors of
pine or other soft wood are sometimes covered
with a veneer or thin layer of hard wood, such
as oak, mahogany or teak, giving the appear-
ance of a solid door of the better material.
Made in the ordinary way, however, the
shrinkage or warping of the soft wood is very
liable to cause the veneer to buckle and peel
off. Veneered doors made on an improved
method obviating this difficulty have been
placed on the market by a Canadian company.
The core is made up of strips of pine with the
grain reversed, dried at a temperature of 200°
F., and glued up under pressure. Both the
core and the hard wood veneer are grooved
over their surfaces, and a special damp-resist-
ing glue is applied; the two portions are
then welded together under hydraulic pressure.
By reason of their construction these doors
possess the advantages of freedom from
shrinking, warping and splitting, defects
which are all too common in the ordinary
veneered and solid hard wood doors.
The best glue for internal woodwork is that
made in Scotland. Ordinary animal glue
should not be used in work exposed to the
weather as it absorbs damp and thus hastens decay; in its place a
compound termed beaumonlique, composed of white lead, linseed
oil and litharge, should be employed.
Church Work. — Joinery work in connexion with the fitting up of
church interiors must be regarded as a separate branch of the joiner's
art. Pitchpine is often used, but the best work is executed in English
oak ; and when the screens, stalls and seating are well designed and
made in this material, a distinction and dignity of effect are added
to the interior of the church which cannot be obtained in any other
medium. The work is often of the richest character, and frequently
enriched with elaborate carving (fig. 13). Many beautiful specimens
of early work are to be seen in the English Gothic cathedrals and
churches; good work of a later date will be found in many churches
and public buildings erected in more recent years. Fine examples
of Old English joinery exist at Hampton Court Palace, the Temple
Church in London, the Chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey,
and Haddon Hall. Specimens of modern work are to be seen in
Beverley Minster in Yorkshire, the Church of St Etheldreda in Ely
Place, London, and the Wycliffe Hall Chapel at Oxford. Other
examples both ancient and modern abound in the country.
Carving is a trade apart from ordinary joinery, and requires a
Lock nil
iiottom nil
Joint of
munt In & rail
FIG. 12. — Joints.
special ability and some artistic feeling for its successful execution.
But even in this work machinery has found a place, and carved
ornaments of all descriptions are rapidly wrought with its aid.
Small carved mouldings especially are evolved in this manner, and,
being incomparably cheaper than those worked by manual labour,
are used freely where a rich effect is desired. Elaborately carved
panels also are made by machines and a result almost equal to work
done entirely by hand is obtained if, after machinery has done all in
its power, the hand worker with his chisels and gouges puts the
finishing touches to the work.
Ironmongery. — In regard to the finishing of a building, no detail
calls for greater consideration than the selection and accurate
fixing of suitable ironmongery, which includes the hinges, bolts,
locks, door and window fittings, and the many varieties of metal
finishings required for the completion of a building. The task of the
selection belongs to the employer or the architect ; the fixing is
performed by the joiner.
Method of constructing:
Corinthian Order
in wood.
Section of cap
looking upwards.
FIG. 13.
Of hinges, the variety termed butts are in general use for hanging
doors, and are so called from being fitted to the butt edge of the door.
They should be of wrought iron, cast-iron butts being liable to snap
should they sustain a shock. Lifting butts are made with a removable
pin to enable the door to be removed and replaced without unscrew-
ing. Rising butts have oblique joints which cause the door to rise
and clear a thick carpet ana yet make a close joint with the floor
when shut. Hinges of brass or gun-metal are used in special cir-
cumstances. Common forms of hinges used on ledgcd doors are the
cross garnet and the strap. There are many varieties of spring
hinges designed to bring the door automatically to a desired position.
With such hinges a rubber stop should be fixed on the floor or other
convenient place to prevent undue strain through the door being
forced back.
Among locks and fastenings the ordinary barrel or tower bolt needs
no description. The flush barrel is a bolt let in flush with the face
of a door. The espagnolelte is a development of the tower bolt and
extends the whole height of the door; a handle at a convenient
height, when turned, snooting bolts at the top and bottom simul-
taneously. Their chief use is for French casements. The padlock '
is used to secure doors by means of a staple and eye. The stock
lock is a large rim lock with hard wood casing and is used for stables,
church doors, &c. ; it is in the form of a dead lock opened only by a
key, and is often used in conjunction with a Norfolk latch. The
metal cased rim lock is a cheap form for domestic and general use.
The use of a rim lock obviates the necessity of forming a mortice
in the thickness of the door which is required when a mortice lock
is used. Finger plates add greatly to the good appearance of a door,
JOINT- -JOINTS
483
and protect the painted work. Sash fasteners are fixed at the meet-
ing rails of double hung sashes to prevent the window being opened
from the outside and serve also to clip the two sashes tightly to-
gether. They should be of a pattern to resist the attack of a knife
inserted between the rails. Sash lifts and pulls of brass or bronze
are fitted to large sashes. Ornamental casement stays and fasteners
in many different metals are made in numerous designs and styles.
Fanlight openers for single lights, or geared for a number of sashes,
may be designed to suit positions difficult of access.
The following are the principal books of reference on this subject :
J. Gwilt, Encyclopaedia of Architecture; Sutcliffe, Modern House Con-
struction; Rivington, Notes on Building Construction (3 vols.); H.
Adams, Building Construction; C. F. Mitchell, Building Construction;
Robinson, Carpentry and Joinery; J. P. Allen, Practical Building
Construction; J. Newlands, Carpenter and Joiner's Assistant; Bury,
Ecclesiastical Woodwork; T. Tredgold and Young, Joinery; Peter
Nicholson, Carpenter and Joiner's Assistant. (J. Ex.)
JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join), that
which joins two parts together or the place where two parts are
joined. (See JOINERY; JOINTS.) In law, the word is used
adjectivally as a term applied to obligations, estates, &c.,
implying that the rights in question relate to the aggregate of
the parties joined. Obligations to which several are parties
may be several, i.e enforceable against each independently of
the others, or joint, i.e. enforceable only against all of them
taken together, or joint and several, i.e. enforceable against each
or all at the option of the claimant (see GUARANTEE). So an
interest or estate given to two or more persons for their joint
lives continues only so long as all the lives are in existence.
Joint-tenants are co-owners who take together at the same time,
by the same title, and without any difference in the quality or
extent of their respective interests; and when one of the joint-
tenants dies his share, instead of going to his own heirs, lapses
to his co-tenants by survivorship. This estate is therefore to
be carefully distinguished from tenancy in common, when the
co-tenants have each a separate interest which on death passes
to the heirs and not to the surviving tenants. When several
take an estate together any words or facts implying severance
will prevent the tenancy from being construed as joint.
JOINTS, in anatomy. The study of joints, or articulations,
is known as Arthrology (Gr. apdpov), and naturally begins with
the definition of a joint. Anatomically the term is used for any
connexion between two or more adjacent parts of the skeleton,
whether they be bone or cartilage. Joints may be immovable,
like those of the skull, or movable, like the knee.
Immovable joints, or synarthroses, are usually adaptations to
growth rather than mobility, and are always between bones. When
growth ceases the bones often unite, and the joint is then obliterated
by a process known as synostosis, though whether the union of the
bones is the cause or the effect of the stoppage of growth is obscure.
Immovable joints never have a cavity between the two bones;
there is simply a layer of the substance in which the bone has been
laid down, and this remains unaltered. If the bone is being deposited
in cartilage a layer of cartilage intervenes, and the joint is called
synchondrosis (fig. l), but if in membrane a thin layer of fibrous
tissue persists, and the joint is then known as a suture (fig. 2). Good
TIG.'!.— Vertical
section through a
synchondrosis. 6, b,
the two bones ; Sc,
the interposed car-
tilage ; /, the fibrous
membrane which
plays the part of a
ligament.
FIG. 2. — Vertical section
through a cranial suture, b, b,
the two bones ; s, opposite the
suture; I, the fibrous mem-
brane, or periosteum, passing
between the two bones, which
plays the part of a ligament,
and which is continuous with
the interposed fibrous mem-
brane.
examples of synchondroses are the epiphysial lines which separate
the epiphyses from the shafts of developing long bones, or the occipito-
sphenoid synchondrosis in the base of the skull. Examples of
sutures are plentiful in the vault of the skull, and are given special
names, such as sutura dentata, s. serrata, s. squamosa, according to
the plan of their outline. There are two kinds of fibrous syn-
arthroses, which differ from sutures in that they do not synostose.
One of these is a schindylesis, in which a thin plate of one bone is
received into a slot in another, as in the joint between the sphenoid
and vomer. The other is a peg and socket joint, or gomphosis,
found where the fangs of the teeth fit into the alveoli or tooth sockets
in the jaws.
Movable joints, or diarlhroses, are divided into those in which
there is much and little movement. When there is little movement
the term half-joint or amphiarthrosis is used. The simplest kind of
amphiarthrosis is that in which two bones are connected by bundles
of fibrous tissue which pass at right angles from the one to the other;
such a joint only differs from a suture in the fact that the intervening
fibrous tissue is more plentiful and is organized into definite bundles,
to which the name of interosseous ligaments is given, and also that
it does not synostose when growth stops. A joint of this kind is
called a syndesmosis, though probably the distinction is a very
arbitrary one, and depends upon the amount of movement which is
brought about by the muscles on the two bones. As an instance of
this the inferior tibiofibular joint of mammals may be cited. In
man this is an excellent example of a syndesmosis, and there is only
a slight play between the two bones. In the mouse there is no move-
ment, and the two bones form a syn-
chondrosis between them which speed-
ily becomes a synostosis, while in many
Marsupials there is free mobility be-
tween the tibia and fibula, and a definite
synovial cavity is established. The
other variety of amphiarthrosis or half-
joint is the symphysis, which differs
from the syndesmosis in having both
bony surfaces lined with cartilage and
between the two cartilages a layer of
fibro-cartilage, the centre of which often
softens and forms a small synovial
cavity. Examples of this are the sym-
physis pubis, the mesosternal joint and on"the' articular'su7f'ace"of
the joints between the bodies of the each bone; Fc, the inter-
vertebrae (fig. 3)- mediate fibro-cartilage; I, I,
The true dmrthroses are joints in the external ligaments,
which there is either fairly free or
very free movement. The opposing surfaces of the bones are
lined with articular cartilage, which is the unossified remnant of the
cartilaginous model in which they are formed and is called the
cartilage of encnistment (fig. 4, c). Between the two cartilages is the
joint cavity, while surrounding the joint is the capsule (fig. 4, 1),
which is formed chiefly by the superficial layers of the original peri-
osteum or perichondrium, but it may be strengthened externally
by surrounding fibrous structures, such as the tendons of muscles,
which become modified and acquire fresh attachments for the
purpose. It may be said generally that the greater the intermittent
strain on any part of the capsule the more it responds by increasing
in thickness. Lining the interior of the capsule, and all other parts
FIG. 3. — Vertical section
through an amphiarthrodial
joint. 6, b, the two bones;
c, c, the plate of cartilage
FIG. 4. — Vertical section
through a diarthrodial
joint, b, b, the two bones;
c, c, the plate of cartilage
on the articular surface of
each bone ; I, I, the invest-
ing ligament, the dotted
line within which repre-
sents the synovial mem-
brane. The letter i is
placed in the cavity of the
joint.
FIG. 5. — Vertical sec-
tion through a diarthro-
dial joint, in which the
cavity is subdivided into
two by an interposed
fibro-cartilage or men-
iscus, Fc. The other
letters as in fig. 4.
of the joint cavity except where the articular cartilage is present, is
the synovial membrane (fig. 4, dotted line) ; this is a layer of endo-
thelial cells which secrete the synovial fluid to lubricate the interior
of the joint by means of a small percentage of mucin, albumin and
fatty matter which it contains.
A compound diarthrodial joint is one in which the joint cavity is
divided partly or wholly into two by a meniscus or inter- articular
fibro-cartilage (fig. 5, Fc).
The shape of the joint cavity varies greatly, and the different
divisions of movable joints depend upon it. It is often assumed that
the structure of a joint determines its movement, but there is some-
thing to be said for the view that the movements to which a joint is
484
JOINTS
subject determine its shape. As an example of this it has been found
that the mobility of the metacarpo-phalangeal joint of the thumb
in a large number of working men is less than it is in a large number
of women who use needles and thread, or in a large number of
medical students who use pens and scalpels, and that the slightly
movable thumb has quite a differently shaped articular surface from
the freely movable one (see J. Anat. and Phys. xxix. 446). R. Pick,
too, has demonstrated that the concavity or convexity of the joint
surface depends on the position of the chief muscles which move
the joint, and has enunciated the law that when the chief muscle
or muscles are attached close to the articular end of the skeletal
element that end becomes concave, while, when they are attached
far off or are not attached at all, as in the case of the phalanges, the
articular end is convex. His mechanical explanation is ingenious
and to the present writer convincing (see Handbuch der Gelenke,
by R. Pick, Jena, 1904). Bernays, however, pointed out that the
articular ends were moulded before the muscular tissue was differen-
tiated (Morph. Jahrb. iv. 403), but to this Pick replies by pointing
out that muscular movements begin before the muscle fibres are
formed, and may be seen in the chick as early as the second day of
incubation.
The freely movable joints (true diarthrosis) are classified as
follows : —
(1) Gliding joints (Arlhrodia), in which the articular surfaces are
flat, as in the carpal and tarsal bones.
(2) Hinge joints (Ginglymus), such as the elbow and interphalangeal
joints.
(3) Condyloid joints (Condylarthrosis), allowing flexion and exten-
sion as well as lateral movement, but no rotation. The metacarpo-
phalangeal and wrist joints are examples of this.
(4) Saddle-shaped joints (Articulus sellaris), allowing the same
movements as the last with greater strength. The carpo-metacarpal
joint of the thumb is an example.
(5) Ball and socket joints ( Enarthrosit) , allowing free movement in
any direction, as in the shoulder and hip,
(6) Pivot-joint (Trochoides), allowing only rotation round a longitu-
dinal axis, as in the radio-ulnar joints.
Embryology.
Joints are developed in the mesenchyme, or that part of the
mesoderm which is not concerned in the formation of the serous
cavities. The synarthroses may be looked upon merely as a
delay in development, because, as the embryonic tissue of the
mesenchyme passes from a fibrous to a bony state, the fibrous
tissue may remain along a certain line and so form a suture, or,
when chondrification has preceded ossification, the cartilage may
remain at a certain place and so form a synchondrosis. The
diarthroses represent an arrest of development at an earlier stage,
for a part of the original embryonic tissue remains as a plate of
round cells, while the neighbouring two rods chondrify and ossify.
This plate may become converted into fibro-cartilage, in which
case an amphiarthrodial joint results, or it may become absorbed
in the centre to form a joint cavity, or, if this absorption occurs
in two places, two joint cavities with an intervening meniscus
may result. Although, ontogenetically, there is little doubt that
menisci arise in the way just mentioned, the teaching of com-
parative anatomy suggests that, phylogenetically, they originate
as an ingrowth from the capsule pushing the synovial membrane
in front of them. The subject will be returned to when the
comparative anatomy of the individual joints is reviewed. In
the human foetus the joint cavities are all formed by the tenth
week of intra-uterine life.
ANATOMY
Joints of the Axial Skeleton.
The bodies of the vertebrae except those of the sacrum and
coccyx are separated, and at the same time connected, by the
inlervertebral disks. These are formed of alternating concentric
rings of fibrous tissue and fibro-cartilage, with an elastic mass in
the centre known as the nucleus pulposus. The bodies are also
bound together by anterior and posterior common ligaments.
The odontoid process of the axis fits into a pivot joint formed by
the anterior arch of the atlas in front and the transverse ligament
behind; it is attached to the basioccipital bone by two strong
lateral check ligaments, and, in the mid line, by a feebler middle
check ligament which is regarded morphologically as containing
the remains of the notochord. This atlanto-axial joint is the
one which allows the head to be shaken from side to side. Nod-
ding the head occurs at the occipito-atlantal joint, which consists
of the two occipital condyles received into the cup-shaped
articular facets on the atlas and surrounded by capsular liga-
ments. The neural arches of the vertebrae articulate one with
another by the articular facets, each of which has a capsular
ligament. In addition to these the laminae are connected by
the very elastic ligamenta subfla-oa. The spinous processes are
joined by inlerspinous ligaments, and their tips by a supraspinous
ligament, which in the neck is continued from the spine of the
seventh cervical vertebra to the external occipital crest and
protuberance as the ligamentum nuchae, a thin, fibrous, median
septum between the muscles of the back of the neck.
The combined effect of all these joints and ligaments is to
allow the -spinal column to be bent in any direction or to be
rotated, though only a small amount of movement occurs
between any two vertebrae.
The heads of the ribs articulate with the bodies of two con-
tiguous thoracic vertebrae and the disk between. The liga-
ments which connect them are called coslo-central, and are two
in number. The anterior of these is the stellate ligament, which
has three bands radiating from the head of the rib to the two
vertebrae and the intervening disk. The other one is the inter-
articular ligament, which connects the ridge, dividing the two
articular cavities on the head of the rib, to the disk; it is absent
in the first and three lowest ribs.
The costo-transverse ligaments bind the ribs to the transverse
processes of the thoracic vertebrae. The superior costo-trans-
verse ligament binds the neck of the rib to the transverse process
of the vertebra above; the middle or inlerosseous connects the
back of the neck to the front of its own transverse process; while
the posterior runs from the tip of the transverse process to the
outer part of the tubercle of the rib. The inner and lower part
of each tubercle forms a diarthrodial joint with the upper and
fore part of its own transverse process, except in the eleventh
and twelfth ribs. At the junction of the ribs with their cartilages
no diarthrodial joint is formed; the periosteum simply becomes
perichondrium and binds the two structures together. Where
the cartilages, however, join the sternum, or where they join one
another, diarthrodial joints with synovial cavities are estab-
lished. In the case of the second rib this is double, and in that
of the first usually wanting. The mesosternal joint, between the
pre- and mesosternum, has already been given as an example
of a symphysis.
Comparative Anatomy. — For the convexity or concavity of the
vertebral centra in different classes of vertebrates, see SKELETON:
axial. The intervertebral disks first appear in the Crocodilia, the
highest existing order of reptilia. In many Mammals the middle
fasciculus of the stellate ligament is continued right across the
ventral surface of the disk into the ligament of the opposite side,
and is probably serially homologous with the ventral arch of the
atlas. A similar ligament joins the heads of the ribs dorsal to the
disk. To these bands the names of anterior (ventral) and posterior
(dorsal) conjugal ligaments have been given, and they may be demon-
strated in a seven months' human foetus (see B. Sutton, Ligaments,
London, 1002). The ligamentum nuchae is a strong elastic band in
the Ungulata which supports the weight of the head. In the
Carnivora it only reaches as far forward as the spine of the axis.
The JAW JOINT, or temporo-mandibular articulation, occurs
between the sigmoid cavity of the temporal bone and the
condyle of the jaw. Between the two there is an interarticular
fibro-cartilage or meniscus, and the joint is surrounded by a
capsule of which the outer part is the thickest. On first opening
the mouth, the joint acts as a hinge, but very soon the condyle
begins to glide forward on to the eminentia articularis (see SKULL)
and takes the meniscus with it. This gliding movement between
the meniscus and temporal bone may be separately brought
about by protruding the lower teeth in front of the upper, or, on
one side only, by moving the jaw across to the opposite side.
Comparative A natomy. — The joint between the temporal and mandi-
bular bones is only found in Mammals; in the lower vertebrates the
jaw opens between the quadrate and articular bones. In the
Carnivora it is a perfect hinge; in many Rodents only the antero-
posterior gliding movement is present; while in the Ruminants the
lateralizing movement is the chief one. Sometimes, as in the
Ornithorhynchus, the meniscus is absent.
JOINTS
485
Joints of the Upper Extremity.
The sterna-clavicular articulation, between the presternum and
clavicle, is a gliding joint, and allows slight upward and down-
ward and forward and backward movements. The two bony
surfaces are separated by a meniscus, the vertical movements
taking place outside and the antero-posterior inside this. There
is a well-marked capsule, of which the anterior part is strongest.
The two clavicles are joined across the top of the presternum by
an inter clavicular ligament.
The acromio-clavicular articulation is also a gliding joint, but
allows a swinging or pendulum movement of the scapula on the
clavicle. The upper part of the capsule is strongest, and from
it hangs down a partial meniscus into the cavity.
Comparative Anatomy. — Bland Sutton regards the inter-clavicular
ligament as a vestige of the interclavicle of Reptiles and Monotremes.
The menisci are only found in the Primates, but it must be borne in
mind that many Mammals have no clavicle, or a very rudimentary
one. By some the meniscus of the sterno-clavicular joint is regarded
as the homologue of the lateral part of the interclavicle, but the fact
that it only occurs in the Primates where movements in different
planes are fairly free is suggestive of a physiological rather than a
morphological origin for it.
The SHOULDER JOINT is a good example of the ball and socket
or enarthrodial variety. Its most striking characteristic is
mobility at the expense of strength. The small size of the
glenoid cavity in comparison with the head of the humerus, and
the great laxity of the capsule, favour this, although the glenoid
cavity is slightly deepened by a fibrous lip, called the glenoid
ligament, round its margin. The presence of the coracoid and
acromial processes of the scapula, with the coraco-acromial liga-
ment between them, serves as an overhanging protection to the
joint, while the biceps tendon runs over the head of the humerus,
inside the capsule, though surrounded by a sheath of synovial
membrane. Were it not for these two extra safeguards the
shoulder would be even more liable to dislocation than it is.
The upper part of the capsule, which. is attached to the base of
the coracoid process, is thickened, and known as the coraco-
humeral ligament, while inside the front of the capsule are three
folds of synovial membrane, called gleno-humeral folds.
Comparative Anatomy. — In the lower Vertebrates the shoulder
is adapted to support rather than prehension and is not so freely
movable as in the Primates. The tendon of the biceps has evidently
sunk through the capsule into the joint, and even when it is intra-
capsular there is usually a double fold connecting its sheath of
synovial membrane with that lining the capsule. In Man this has
been broken through, but remains of it persist in the superior gleno-
humeral fold. The middle gleno-humeral fold is the vestige of a strong
ligament which steadies and limits the range of movement of the
joint in many lower Mammals.
The ELBOW JOINT is an excellent example of the ginglymus or
hinge, though its transverse axis of movement is not quite at
right angles to the central axis of the limb, but is lower internally
than externally. This tends to bring the forearm towards the
body when the elbow is bent. The elbow is a great contrast to
the shoulder, as the trochlea and capitellum of the humerus are
closely adapted to the sigmoid cavity of the ulna and head of the
radius (see SKELETON: appendicular); consequently movement
in one plane only is allowed, and the joint is a strong one. The
capsule is divided into anterior, posterior, and two lateral liga-
ments, though these are all really continuous. The joint cavity
communicates freely with that of the superior radio-ulnar
articulation.
The radio-ulnar joints are three: the upper one is an example
of a pivot joint, and in it the disk-shaped head of the radius
rotates in a circle formed by the lesser sigmoid cavity of the ulna
internally and the orbicular ligament in the other three quarters.
The middle radio-ulnar articulation is simply an interosseous
membrane, the fibres of which run downward and inward from
the radius to the ulna.
The inferior radio-ulnar joint is formed by the disk-shaped
lower end of the ulna fitting into the slightly concave sigmoid
cavity of the radius. Below, the cavity of this joint is shut off
from that of the wrist by a triangular fibro-cartilage. The move-
ments allowed at these three articulations are called pronation
and supination of the radius. The head of that bone twists,
n the orbicular ligament, round its central vertical axis for about
lalf a circle. Below, however, the whole lower end of the radius
circles round the lower end of the ulna, the centre of rotation
Deing close to the styloid process of the ulna. The radius, there-
'ore, in its pronation, describes half a cone, the base of which is
selow, and the hand follows the radius.
Comparative Anatomy. — In pronograde Mammals the forearm is
usually permanently pronated, and the head of the radius, instead
of being circular and at the side of the upper end of the ulna, is
:ransversely oval and in front of that bone, occupying the same place
;hat the coronoid process of the ulna does in Man. This type of
elbow, which is adapted simply to support and progression, is best
seen in the Ungulata; in them both lateral ligaments are attached
to the head of the radius, and there is no orbicular ligament, since
the shape of the head of the radius does not allow of any supination.
The olecranon process of the ulna forms merely a posterior guide or
guard to the joint, but transmits no weight. No better example
of the maximum changes which the uses of support and prehension
bring about can be found than in contrasting the elbow of the Sheep
or other Ungulate with that of Man. Towards one or other of these
types the elbows of all Mammals tend. It may be roughly stated
that, when pronation and supination to the extent of a quarter of a
circle are possible, an orbicular ligament appears.
The WRIST JOINT, or radio-carpal articulation, lies between the
radius and triangular fibro-cartilage above, and the scaphoid,
semilunar, and cuneiform bones below. It is a condyloid joint
allowing flexion and extension round one axis, and slight lateral
movement (abduction and adduction) round the other. There
is a well-marked capsule, divided into anterior, posterior, and
lateral ligaments. The joint cavity is shut off from the inferior
radio-ulnar joint above, and the intercarpal joints below.
The intercarpal joints are gliding articulations, the various
bones being connected by palmar, dorsal, and a few interosseous
ligaments, but only those connecting the first row of bones are
complete, and so isolate one joint cavity from another. That
part of the intercarpal joints which lies between the first and
second rows of carpal bones is called the transverse carpal joint,
and at this a good deal of the movement which seems to take
place at the wrist really occurs.
The carpo-metacarpal articulations are, with the exception of
that of the thumb, gliding joints, and continuous with the great
intercarpal joint cavity. The carpo-metacarpal joint of the
thumb is the best example of a saddle-shaped joint in Man. It
allows forward and backward and lateral movement, and is very
strong.
The metacarpo-phalangeal joints are condyloid joints like the
wrist, and are remarkable for the great thickness of the palmar
ligaments of their capsules. In the four inner fingers these
glenoid ligaments, as they are called, are joined together by the
transverse metacarpal ligament.
The inter phalangeal articulations are simple hinges surrounded
by a capsule, of which the dorsal part is very thin.
Comparative Anatomy. — The wrist joint of the lower Mammals
allows less lateral movement than does that of Man, while the lower
end of the ulna is better developed and is received into a cup-shaped
socket formed by the cuneiform and pisiform bones. At the same
time, unless there is pretty free pronation and supination, the triangu-
lar fibro-cartilage is only represented by an interosseous ligament,
which may be continuous above with the interosseous membrane
between the radius and ulna, and suggests the possibility that the
fibro-cartilage is largely a derivative of this membrane. In most
Mammals the wrist is divided into two lateral parts, as it is in the
human foetus, but free pronation and supination seem to cause
the disappearance of the septum.
Joints of the Lower Extremity.
The sacro-innominate articulation consists of the sacro-iliac
joint and the sacro-sciatic ligaments. The former is one of the
amphiarthroses or half -joints by which the sacrum is bound to
the ilium. The mechanism of the human sacrum is that of a
suspension bridge slung between the two pillars or ilia by the
very strong posterior sacro-iliac ligaments which represent the
chains. The axis of the joint passes through the second sacral
vertebra, but the sacrum is so nearly horizontal that the weight
of the body, which is transmitted to the first sacral vertebra,
tends to tilt that part down. This tendency is corrected by the
JOINTS
great and small sacro-sciatic ligaments, which fasten the lower
part of the sacrum to the tuberosity and spine of the ischium
respectively, so that, although the sacrum is a suspension bridge
when looked at from behind, it is a lever of the first kind when
seen from the side or in sagittal section.
The pubic symphysis is the union between the two pubic bones.
It has all the characteristics of a symphysis, already described,
and may have a small median cavity.
The HIP JOINT, like the shoulder, is a ball and socket, but does
not allow such free movement; this is due to the fact that the
socket or acetabulum is deeper than the glenoid cavity and that
the capsule is not so lax. At the same time the loss of mobility
is made up for by increased strength. The capsule has three
Anterior inferior
iliac spine
Cotyloid ligament
Head of femur
Pubo-capsular ligament
(From David Hepburn, Cunningham's Textbook of Anatomy.)
• FIG. 6. — Dissection of the Hip Joint from the front.
thickened bands, of which the most important is the Uio-femoral
or Y-shaped ligament of Bigelow. The stalk of the Y is attached
to the anterior inferior spine of the il:um, while the two limbs are
fastened to the upper and lower p'/ts of the spiral line of the
femur. The ligament is so strong that it hardly ever ruptures
in a dislocation of the hip. As a plumb-line, dropped from the
centre of gravity of the body, passes behind the centre of the hip
joint, this ligament, lying as it does in front of the joint, takes the
strain in Man's erect position. The other two thickened parts
of the capsule are known as pubo-femoral and ischio-femoral, from
their attachments. Inside the capsule, and deepening the margin
of the acetabulum, is a fibrous rim known as the cotyloid ligament,
which grips the spherical head of the femur and is continued
across the cotyloid notch as the transverse ligament. The floor
of the acetabulum has a horseshoe-shaped surface of articular
cartilage, concave downward, and, occupying the " frog " of the
horse's hoof, is a mass of fat called the Haversian pad. Attached
to the inner margin of the horseshoe, and to the transverse liga-
ment where that is deficient, is a reflexion of synovial membrane
which forms a covering for the pad and is continued as a tube
to the depression on the head of the femur called the/ossa capilis.
This reflexion carries blood-vessels and nerves to the femur, and
also contains fibrous tissue from outside the joint. It is known
as the ligamentum teres.
Comparative Anatomy. — Bland Sutton regards the Uio-femoral
ligament as an altered muscle, the scansorius, though against this
is the fact that, in_ those cases in which a scansorius is present in
Man, the ligament is as strong as usual, and indeed, if it were not
there in these cases, the erect position would be difficult to maintain.
He also looks upon the ligamentum teres as the divorced tendon of
the pectineus muscle. The subject requires much more investiga-
tion, but there is every reason to believe that it is a tendon which has
sunk into the joint, though whether that of the pectineus is doubtful,
since the intra-capsular tendon comes from the ischium in Reptiles.
In many Mammals, and among them the Orang, there is no ligamen-
tum teres. In others, such as the Armadillo, the structure has not
sunk right into the joint, but is connected with the pubo-femoral
part of the capsule.
The KNEE JOINT is a hinge formed by the condyles and trochlea
of the femur, the patella, and the head of the tibia. The capsule
is formed in front by the ligamentum patellae, and on each side
special bands form the lateral ligaments. On the outer side there
are two of these: the anterior or long external lateral ligament is a
round cord running from the external condyle to the head of the
fibula, while the posterior is slighter and passes from the same
place to the styloid process of the fibula. The internal lateral
ligament is a flat band which runs from the inner condyle of the
femur to the internal surface of the tibia some two inches below
the level of the knee joint. The posterior part of the capsule is
strengthened by an oblique bundle of fibres running upward and
outward from the semimembranosus tendon, and called the
posterior ligament of Winslow.
The intra-articular structures are numerous and interesting.
Passing from the head of the tibia, in front and behind the spine,
are the anterior and posterior crucial ligaments; the former is
attached to the outer side of the intercondylar notch above, and
the latter to the inner side. These two ligaments cross like an X.
The semilunar fibro-cartilages — external and internal — are partial
menisci, each of which has an anterior and a posterior cornu by
which they are attached to the head of the tibia in front and
behind the spine. They are also attached round the margin of
the tibial head by a coronary ligament, but the external one is
more movable than the internal, and this perhaps accounts for
its coronary ligament being less often ruptured and the cartilage
displaced than the inner one is. In addition to these the external
cartilage has a fibrous band, called the ligament of Wrisberg,
which runs up to the femur just behind the posterior crucial liga-
ment. The external cartilage is broader, and forms more of a
circle than the internal. The synovial cavity of the knee runs
up, deep to the extensor muscles of the thigh, for about two inches
above the top of the patella, forming the bursa suprapatellaris.
At the lower part of the patella it covers a pad of fat, which lies
between the ligamentum patellae and the front of the head of the
tibia, and is carried up as a narrow tube to the lower margin of
the trochlear surface of the femur. This prolongation is known
as the ligamentum mucosum, and from the sides of its base spring
two lateral folds called the ligamenla alaria. The tendon of the
popliteus muscle is an intracapsular structure, and is therefore
covered with a synovial sheath. There are a large number of
bursae near the knee joint, one of which, common to the inner
head of the gastrocnemius and the semimembranosus, often
communicates with the joint. The hinge movement of the knee
is accompanied by a small amount of external rotation at the end
of extension, and a compensatory internal rotation during flexion.
This slight twist is enough to tighten up almost all the ligaments
so that they may take a share in resisting over-extension, because,
in the erect position, a vertical line from the centre of gravity of
the body passes in front of the knee.
Comparative Anatomy. — In some Mammals, e.g. Bradypus and
Ornithorhynchus, the knee is divided into three parts, two condylo-
tibial and one trochleo-patellar, by synovial folds which in Man are
represented by the ligamentum mucosum. In a typical Mammal the
external semilunar cartilage is attached by its posterior horn to the
internal condyle of the femur only, and this explains the ligament
of Wrisberg already mentioned. In the Monkeys and anthropoid
Apes this cartilage is circular. The semilunar cartilages first appear
in the Amphibia, and, according to B. Sutton, arc derived from
muscles which are drawn into the joint. When only one kind of
movement (hinge) is allowed, as in the fruit bat, the cartilages
are not found. In most Mammals the superior tibio-fibular joint
communicates with the knee.
The tibio-fibular articulations resemble the 'radio-ulnar in position
but are much less movable. The superior in Man is usually cut off
from the knee and is a gliding joint ; the middle is the interosseous
JOINTS
487
membrane, while the lower has been already used as an example
of a syndesmosis or fibrous half joint.
The ANKLE JOINT is a hinge, the astragalus being received into
a lateral arch formed by the lower ends of the tibia and fibula.
Backward dislocation is prevented by the articular surface of the
astragalus being broader in front than behind. The anterior
and posterior parts of the capsule are feeble, but the lateral liga-
ments are very strong, the external consisting of three separate
fasciculi which bind the fibula to the astragalus and calcaneum.
To avoid confusion it is best to speak of the movements of the
ankle as dorsal and plantar flexion.
The tar sal j pints resemble the carpal in being gliding articula-
tions. There are two between the astragalus and calcaneum, and
at these inversion and eversion of the foot largely occur. The
inner arch of the foot is maintained by a very important ligament
called the calcaneo-navicular or spring ligament; it connects the
sustentaculum tali of the calcaneum with the navicular, and
upon it the head of the astragalus rests. When it becomes
stretched, flat-foot results. The tarsal bones are connected by
dorsal, plantar and
interosseous liga-
ments. The long
and short calcaneo-
cuboid are plantar
ligaments of special
importance, and
maintain the outer
arch of the foot.
The tarso-meta-
tarsal, metatarso-
phalangeal and in-
terphalangeal joints
closely resemble
those of the hand,
except that the
tarsO- metatarsal Anterior superior tibio-fibular
joint of the great u«ament
External lateral ligament
Impression of external semi -
lunar cartilage
External tibial surface of
femur
External lateral ligament.
Cut tendon of biceps flexor
cruris muscle
toe is not
shaped.
Saddle-
Opening in interosseous
membrane for anterior tibial
vessels
Comparative Ana-
tomy.— The anterior
fasciculus of the ex-
ternal lateral liga-
ment of the ankle is
only found in Man,
and is probably an
adaptation to the
erect position. In
animals with a long
foot, such as the (From D.Hepburn, Cunningham's Text-book oj Anatomy.)
Ungulates and the „ ,,..,,
Kangaroo, the lateral FlG- 7-— Dissection of the Knee-joint
ligaments of the
ankle are in the form of an X, to give greater protection against
lateral movement. In certain marsupials a fibre-cartilage is developed
between the external malleolus and the astragalus, and its origin
from the deeper fibres of the external lateral ligament of the ankle
can be traced. These animals have a rotatory movement of the
fibula on its long axis, in addition to the hinge movement of the ankle.
For further details of joints see R. Pick, Handbuch der Gelenke
(Jena, 1904); H. Morris, Anatomy of the Joints (London, 1879);
Quain's, Gray's and Cunningham's Text-books of Anatomy; J. Bland
Sutton, Ligaments, their Nature and Morphology (London, 1902) ;
F. G. Parsons, " Hunterian Lectures on the Joints of Mammals,"
Journ. Anat. & Phys., xxxiv. 41 and 301. (F. G. P.)
DISEASES AND INJURIES or JOINTS
The affection of the joints of the human body by specific
diseases is dealt with under various headings (RHEUMATISM, &c.) ;
in the present article the more direct forms of ailment are dis-
cussed. In most joint-diseases the trouble starts either in the
synovial lining or in the bone — rarely in the articular cartilage
or ligaments. As a rule, the disease begins after an injury.
There are three principal types of injury: (i) sprain or strain,
in which the ligamentous and tendinous structures are stretched
or lacerated; (2) contusion, in which the opposing bones are
driven forcibly together; (3) dislocation, in which the articular
surfaces are separated from one another.
A sprain or strain of a joint means that as the result of violence the
ligaments holding the bones together have been suddenly stretched
or even torn. On the inner aspect the ligaments are lined by a
synovial membrane, so when the ligaments are stretched the syno-
vial membrane is necessarily damaged. Small blood-vessels are
also torn, and bleeding occurs into the joint, which may become full
and distended. If, however, bleeding does not take place, the swell-
ing is not immediate, but synovitis having been set up, serous effu-
sion comes on sooner or later. There is often a good«deal of heat
of the surrounding skin and of pain accompanying the synovitis.
In the case of a healthy individual the effects of a sprain may quickly
pass off, but in a rheumatic or gouty person chronic synovitis may
obstinately remain. In a person with a tuberculous history, or of
tuberculous descent, a sprain is apt to be the beginning of serious
disease of the joint, and it should, therefore, be treated with continu-
ous rest and prolonged supervision. In a person of health and
vigour, a sprained joint should be at once bandaged. This may be
the only treatment needed. It gives support and comfort, and the
even pressure around the joint checks effusion into it. Wide pieces
of adhesive strapping, layer on layer, form a still more useful support,
and with the joint so treated the person may be able at once to use
the limb. If strap-
Patellar surface of femur P'ng is not employed,
the bandage may be
taken off from time
to time in order that
the limb and the
joint may be mas-
saged. If the sprain
is followed by much
synovitis a plaster of
Paris or leather splint
may be applied, com-
plete rest being se-
cured for the limb.
Later on, blistering
or even " firing "
may be found advis-
able.
Synovitis. — When
a joint has been in-
jured, inflammation
occurs in the damaged
tissue; that is inevit-
able. But sometimes
the attack of inflam-
mation is so slight
and transitory as to
be scarcely notice-
4>le. This is specially
likely to occur if the
joint-tissues were in
a state of perfect
nutrition at the time
of the hurt. But if the
individual or the joint
were at that time in
a state of imperfect
nutrition, the effects
are likely to be more
serious. As a rule, it is
the synovial membrane lining the fibrous capsule of the joint which
first and chiefly suffers; the condition is termed synovitis. Syno-
vitis may, however, be due to other causes than mechanical injury,
as when the interior of the joint is attacked by the micro-organisms
of pyaemia (blood-poisoning), typhoid fever, pneumonia, rheuma-
tism, gonorrhoea or syphilis. Under judicious treatment the
synovitis generally clears up, but it may linger on and cause the
formation of adhesions which may temporarily stiffen, the joint;
or it may, especially in tuberculous, septic or pysemic infections,
involve the cartilages, ligaments and bones in such serious changes
as to destroy the joint, and possibly call for resection or amputation.
The symptoms of synovitis include stiffness and tenderness in
the joint. The patient notices that movements cause pain. Effu-
sion of fluid takes place, and there is marked fullness in the neigh-
bourhood. If the inflammation is advancing, the skin over the joint
may be flushed, and if the hand is placed on the skin it feels hot.
Especially is this the case if the joint is near the surface, as at the
knee, wrist or ankle.
The treatment of an inflamed joint demands rest. This may
be conveniently obtained by the use of a light wooden splint,
padding and bandages. Slight compression of the joint by a
bandage is useful in promoting absorption of the fluid. If trie
inflamed joint is in the lower extremity, the patient had best
remain in bed, or on the sofa; if in the upper extremity, he should
wear his arm in a sling. The muscles acting on the joint must be
kept in complete control. If the inflammation is extremely acute,
'Semilunar facet for patella
Internal tibial surface of
femur
Posterior crucial ligament
Anterior crucial ligament or
'Transverse ligament
.Internal semilunar fibro-
cartilage
Internal lateral ligament
Ligamentum patelte
Inner perpendicular facet on
patella
from the front : Patella thrown down.
488
JOINTS
a few leeches, followed by a fomentation, will give relief ; or an ice-
bag or an evaporating lotion may, by causing constriction of the
blood-vessels, lessen the congestion of the part and the associated
pain. As the inflammation is passing oft, massage of the limb
and of the joint will prove useful. If the inflammation is long
continued, the limb must still be kept at rest. By this time it may
be found that some other material for the retentive apparatus is
more convenient and comfortable, as, for instance, undressed
leather which has been moulded on1 wet and allowed to dry and
harden; poro-plastic felt, which has been softened by heat and
applied limp, or house-flannel which has been dipped in a creamy
mixture of plaster-of-Paris and water, and secured by a bandage.
Chronic Disease of a Joint may be the tailing off of an acute
affection, and under the influence of alternate douchings of hot and
cold water, of counter-irritation by blistering or " firing," and of
massage, it may eventually clear up, especially if the general health
of the individual is looked after. But if chronic disease lingers in
the joint of a child or young person, the probability of its being under
the influence of tuberculous infection must be considered. In such
a case prolonged and absolute rest is the one thing necessary. If
the disease be in the hip, knee, ankle or foot, the patient may be
fitted with an appropriate Thomas's splint and allowed to walk
about, for it is highly important to have these patients out in the
fresh air. If the disease be in the shoulder, elbow, wrist or hand,
a leather or poro-plastic splint should be moulded on, and the arm
worn in a sling. There must be no hurry ; convalescence will needs
be slow. And if the child can be sent to a bracing sea-side place it
will be much in his favour.
As the disease clears up, the surface heat, the pains and the tender-
ness having disappeared, and the joint having so diminished in size
as to be scarcely larger than its fellow — though the wasting of the
muscles of the limb may cause it still to appear considerably en-
larged— the splint may be gradually left off. This remission may
be for an hour or two every other day; then every other night;
then every other day, and so on, the freedom being gained little by
little, and the surgeon watching the case carefully. On the slightest
indication of return of trouble, the former restrictive measures
must be again resorted to. Massage and gentle exercises may be
given day by day, but there must be no thought of " breaking down
the stiffness." Many a joint has in such circumstances been wrecked
by the manipulations of a " bone-setter."
Permanent Stiffness. — During the treatment of a case of chronic
disease of a joint, the question naturally arises as to whether the joint
will be jeft permanently stiff. People have the idea that if an in-
flamed joint is kept long on a splint, it may eventually be found
permanently stiff. And this is quite correct. But it should be
clearly understood that it is not the rest of the inflamed joint which
causes the stiffness. The matter should be put thus: in tuber-
culous and other forms of chronic disease stiffness may ensue in
spite of long-continued rest. It is the destructive disease, not the
enforced rest which causes it; for inflammation of a joint rest is
absolutely necessary.
The Causes of permanent Stiffness are the destructive changes
wrought by the inflammation. In one case it may be that the
synovial membrane is so far destroyed by the tuberculous or septic
invasion that its future usefulness is lost, and the joint ever after-
wards creaks at its work and easily becomes tired and painful. Thus
the joint is crippled but not destroyed. In another case the liga-
ments and the cartilages are implicated as well as the synovial
membrane, and when the disease clears up, the bones are more or
less locked, only a small range of motion being left, which forcible
flexion and other methods of vigorous treatment are unable materi-
ally to improve. In another set of cases the inflammatory germs
quickly destroy the soft tissues of the joint, and then invade the
bones, and, the disease having at last come to an end, the softened
ends of the bones solidly join together like the broken fragments in
simple fracture. As a result, osseous solidification of the joint
(synostosis) ensues without, of course, the possibility of any move-
ment. And, inasmuch as the surgeon cannot tell in any case whether
the disease may not advance in this direction, he is careful to place
the limb in that position in which it will be most useful if the bony
union should occur. Thus, the leg is kept straight, and the elbow
bent.
In the course of a tuberculous or other chronic disease of a joint,
the germs of septic disease may find access to the inflamed area,
through a wound or ulceration into the joint, or by the germs being
carried thither by the blood-stream. A joint-absr.ess results, which
has to be treated by incision and fomentations. If chronic suppura-
tion continues, it may become necessary to scrape out or to excise
the joint, or even to amputate the limb. And if tuberculous disease
of the joint is steadily progressing in spite of treatment, vigorous
measures may be needed to prevent the fluid from quietly ulcerating
its way out and thus inviting the entrance of septic germs. The
fluid may need to be drawn off by aspiration, and direct treatment of
the diseased synovial membrane may be undertaken by injections
of chloride of zinc or some other reagent. Or the joint may need
scraping out with a sharp spoon with the view of getting rid of the
tuberculous material. Later, excision may be deemed necessary,
or in extreme cases, amputation. But before these measures are
considered, A. C. G. Bier's method of treatment by passive conges-
tion, and the treatment by serum injection, will probably have been
tried. If a joint is left permanently stiff in an awkward and useless
position, the limb may be greatly improved by excision of the joint.
Thus, if the knee is left bent and the joint is excised a useful, straight
limb may be obtained, somewhat shortened, and, of course, per-
manently stiff. If after disease of the hip-joint the thigh remains
fixed in a faulty position, it may be brought down straight by divid-
ing the bone near the upper end. A stiff shoulder or elbow may be
converted into a useful, movable joint by excision of the articular
ends of the bones.
A stiff joint may remain as the result of long continued inflamma-
tion; the unused muscles are wasted and the joint in consequence
looks large. Careful measurement, however, may show that it is
not materially larger than its fellow. And though all tenderness
may have passed away, and though the neighbouring skin is no
longer hot, still the joint remains stiff and useless. No progress
being made under the influence of massage, or of gentle exercises,
the surgeon may advise that the lingering adhesion be broken down
under an anaesthetic, after which the function of the joint may
quickly return.
There are the cases over which the " bone-setter " secures his
greatest triumphs. A qualified practitioner may have been for
months judiciously treating an inflamed joint by rest, and then feels
a hesitation with regard to suddenly flexing the stiffened limb.
The " bone-setter," however, has no such qualms, and when the
case passes out of the hands of the perhaps over-careful surgeon, the
unqualified practitioner (because he, from a scientific point of view,
knows nothing) fears nothing, and, breaking down inflammatory
adhesions, sets the joint free. And his manipulations prove triumph-
antly successful. But, knowing nothing and fearing nothing, he is
apt to do grievous harm in carrying out his rough treatment in other
cases. Malignant disease at the end of a bone (sarcoma), tuber-
culosis of a joint, and a joint stiffened by old inflammation are
to him the same thing. " A small bone is out of place," or, " The
bone is out of its socket; it has never been put in, and a breaking
down of everything that resists his force is the result of the case
being taken to him. For the " bone-setter " has only one line of
treatment. Of the improvement which he often effects as if by magic
the public are told much. Of the cases over which the doctor has
been too long devoting skill and care, and which are set free by the
" bone-setter," everybody hears — and sometimes to the discomfiture
of the medical man. But of the cases in which irreparable damage
follows his vigorous manipulation nothing is said — of his rough
usage of a tuberculous hip, or of a sarcomatous shoulder-joint,
and of the inevitable disaster and disappointment, those most con-
cerned are least inclined to talk ! A practical surgeon with common-
sense has nothing to learn from the bone-setter."
Rheumatoid Arthritis, or chronic Osteo-arthrilis, is generally found
in persons beyond middle age; but it is not rare in young people,
though with them it need not be the progressive disease which it
too often is in their elders. It is an obscure affection of the cartilage
covering the joint surfaces of the bones, and it eventually involves
the bones and the ligaments. A favourite joint for it is the knee
or hip, and when one large joint is thus affected the other joints may
escape. But when the nands or feet are implicated pretty nearly
all the small joints are apt to suffer. Whether the joint is large or
small, the cartilages wear away and new bone is developed about the
ends of the bones, so that the joint is large and mis-shapen, the
fingers being knotted and the hands deformed. When the spine
is affected it becomes bowed and stiff. This is the disease which
has crippled the old people in the workhouses and almshpuses,
and with them it is steadily progressive. Its early signs are stiffness
and creaking or cracking in the joints, with discomfort and pain
after exercise, and with a little effusion into the capsule of the joint.
As regards treatment, medicines are of no great value. Wet, cold and
damp being bad for the patient, he should be, if possible, got into
a dry, bright, sunny place, and he should dress warmly. Perhaps
there is no better place for him in the winter than Assuan. Cairo
js not so suitable as it used to be before the dam was made, when
its climate was drier. For the spring and summer certain British and
Continental watering-places serve well. But if this luxury cannot
be afforded, the patient must make himself as happy as he can with
such hot douchings and massage as he can obtain, keeping himself
warm, and his joints covered by flannel bandages and rubbed with
stimulating liniments. In people advanced or advancing in years,
the disease, as a rule, gets slowly worse, sometimes very slowly,
but sometimes rapidly, especially when its makes its appearance in
the hip, shoulder or knee as the result of an injury. In young people,
however, its course may be cut short by attention being given to the
principles stated above.
Charcot's Disease resembles ostco-arthritis in that it causesdestruc-
tion of a joint and greatly deforms it. The deformity, however,
comes on rapidly and without pain or tenderness. It is usually
associated with the symptoms of locomotor ataxy, and depends upon
disease of the nerves which preside over the nutrition of the joints.
It is incurable.
A Loose Cartilage, or a Displaced Cartilage in the Knee Joint is apt to
become caught in the hinge between the thigh bone and the leg bone,
and by causing a sudden stretching of the ligaments of the joint to
give rise to intense pain. When this happens the individual is
JOINTS
489
apt to be thrown down as he walks, for it comes on with great sudden-
ness. And thus he feels himself to be in a condition of perpetual
insecurity. After the joint has thus gone wrong, bleeding and
serous effusion take place into it, and it becomes greatly swollen.
And if the cartilage still remains in the grip of the bones he is unable
to straighten or bend his knee. But the surgeon by suddenly
flexing and twisting the leg may manage to unhitch the cartilage
and restore comfort and usefulness to the limb. As a rule, the
slipping of a cartilage first occurs as the result of a serious fall or
of a sudden and violent action — often it happens when the man is
" dodging " at football, the foot being firmly fixed on the ground
and the body being violently twisted at the knee. After the slipping
has occurred many times, the amount of swelling, distress and lame-
ness may diminish with each subsequent slipping, and the individual
may become somewhat reconciled to his condition. As regards
treatment, a tightly fitting steel cage-like splint, which, gripping the
thigh and leg, limits the movements of the knee to flexion and exten-
sion, may prove useful. But for a muscular, athletic individual
the wearing of this apparatus may prove vexatious and disappointing.
The only alternative is to open the joint and remove the loose car-
tilage. The cartilage may be found on operation to be split, torn
or crumpled, and lying right across between the joint-surfaces of
the bones, from which nothing but an operation could possibly have
removed it. The operation is almost sure to give complete and
permanent relief to the condition, the individual being able to resume
his old exercises and amusements without fear of the knee playing
him false. It is, however, one that should not be undertaken
without due consideration and circumspection, and the details
of the operation should be carried out with the utmost care and
cleanliness.
An accidental wound of a joint, as from the blade of a knife, or a
spike, entering the knee is a very serious affair, because of the risk
of septic germs entering the synovial cavity either at the time of
the injury or later. If the joint becomes thus infected there is
great swelling of the part, with redness of the skin, and with the
escape of blood-stained or purulent synovia. Absorption takes place
of the poisonous substances produced by the action of the germs,
and, as a result, great constitutional disturbance arises. Blood-
poisoning may thus threaten life, and in many cases life is saved
only by amputation. The best treatment is freely to open the joint,
to wash it out with a strong antiseptic fluid, and to make arrange-
ment for thorough drainage, the limb being fixed on a splint. Help
may also be obtained by increasing the patient's power of resistance
to the effect of the poisoning by injections of a serum prepared by
cultivation of the septic germs in question. If the limb is saved,
there is a great chance of the knee being permanently stiff.
Dislocation. — The ease with which the joint-end of a bone is
dislocated varies with its form and structure, and with the position
in which it happens to be placed when the violence is applied.
The relative frequency of fracture of the bone and dislocation of
the joint depends on the strength of the bones above and below the
joint relatively to the strength of the joint itself. The strength of
the various joints in the body is dependent upon either ligament or
muscle, or upon the shape of the bones. In the hip, for instance,
all three sources of strength are present; therefore, considering the
great leverage of the long thigh bone, the hip is rarely dislocated.
The shoulder, in order to allow of extensive movement, has no
osseus or ligamentous strength ; it is, therefore, frequently dislocated.
The wrist and ankle are rarely dislocated ; as the result of violence
at the wrist the radius gives way, at the ankle the fibula, these bones
being relatively weaker than the respective joints. The wrist owes
its strength to ligaments, the elbow and the ankle to the shape of the
bones. The symptoms of a dislocation are distortion and limited
movement, with absence of the grating sensation felt in fracture when
the broken ends of the bone are rubbed together. The treatment
consists in reducing the dislocation, and the sooner this replacement
is effected the better — the longer the delay the more difficult it
becomes to put things right. After a variable period, depending on
the nature of the joint and the age of the person, it may be impossible
to replace the bones. The result will be a more or less useless
joint. The administration of an anaesthetic, by relaxing the muscles,
greatly assists the operation of reduction. The length of time that
a joint has to be kept quiet after it has been restored to its normal
shape depends on its form, but, as a rule, early movement is advis-
able. But when by the formation of the bones a joint is weak,
as at the outer end of the collar-bone, and at the elbow-end of the
radius, prolonged rest for the joint is necessary or dislocation may
recur.
Congenital Dislocation at the Hip. — Possibly as a result of faulty
position of the subject during intrauterine life, the head of the thigh-
bone leaves, or fails throughout to occupy, its normal situation on
the haunch-bone The defect, which is a very serious one, is prob-
ably not discovered until the child begins to walk, when its peculiar
rolling gait attracts attention. The want of fixation at the joint
permits of the surgeon thrusting up the thigh-bone, or drawing it
down in a painless, characteristic manner.
The first thing to be done is to find out by means of the X-rays
whether a socket exists into which, under an anaesthetic, the
surgeon may fortunately be enabled to lodge the end of the thigh-
bone. If this offers no prospect of success, there are three courses
open : First, to try under an anaesthetic to manipulate the limb
until the head of the thigh-bone rests as nearly as possible in its
normal position, and then to endeavour to fix. it there by splints,
weights and bandaging until a new joint is formed; second, to cut
down upon the site of the joint, to scoop out a new socket in the
haunch-bone, and thrust the end of the thigh-bone into it, keeping it
fixed there as just described; and third, to allow the child to run
about as it pleases, merely raising the sole of the foot of the short
leg by a thick boot, so as to keep the lower part of the trunk fairly
level, lest secondary curvature of the spine ensue. The first and
second methods demand many months of careful treatment in bed.
The ultimate result of the second is so often disappointing that the
surgeon now rarely advises its adoption. But, if under an anaes-
thetic, as the result of skilful manipulation the head of the thigh-bone
can be made to enter a more or less rudimentary socket, the case
is worth all the time, care and attention bestowed upon it. Some-
times the results of prolonged treatment are so good that the child
eventually is able to walk with scarce a limp. But a vigorous
attempt at placing the head of the bone in its proper position
should be made in every case. (E. O.*)
.JOINTS, in engineering, may be classed either (a) according to
their material, as in stone or briek, wood or metal; or (b) accord-
ing to their object, to prevent leakage of air, steam or water, or
to transmit force, which may be thrust, pull or shear; or (c) ac-
cording as they are stationary or moving (" working " in technical
language). Many joints, like those of ship-plates and boiler-
plates, have simultaneously to fulfil both objects mentioned
under (6).
All stone joints of any consequence are stationary. It being
uneconomical to dress the surfaces of the stones resting on each
other smoothly and so as to be accurately flat, a layer of mortar
or other cementing material is laid between them. This hardens
and serves to transmit the pressure from stone to stone without
its being concentrated at the " high places." If the ingredients
of the cement are chosen so that when hard the cement has about
the same coefficient of compressibility as the stone or brick, the
pressure will be nearly uniformly distributed. The cement also
adheres to the surfaces of the stone or brick, and allows a certain
amount of tension to be borne by the joint. It likewise prevents
the stones from slipping one on the other, i.e. it gives the joint
very considerable shearing strength. The composition of the
cement is chosen according as it has to " set " in air or water.
The joints are made impervious to air or water by " pointing "
their outer edges with a superior quality of cement.
Wood joints are also nearly all stationary. They are made
partially fluid-tight by " grooving and tenoning," and by " caulk-
ing " with oakum or similar material. If the wood is saturated
with water, it swells, the edges of the joints press closer together,
and the joints become tighter the greater the water-pressure is
which tends to produce leakage. Relatively to its weaker general
strength,wood is a better material than iron so far as regards the
transmission of a thrust past a joint. So soon as a heavy pressure
comes on the joint all the small irregularities of the surfaces in
contact are crushed up, and there results an approximately uni-
form distribution of the pressure over the whole area (i.e. if there
be no bending forces), so that no part of the material is unduly
stressed. To attain this result the abutting surfaces should be
well fitted together, and the bolts binding the pieces together
should be arranged so as to ensure that they will not interfere
with the timber surfaces coming into this close cpntact. Owing
to its weak shearing strength on sections parallel to the fibre,
timber is peculiarly unfitted for tension joints. If the pieces
exerting the pull are simply bolted together with wooden or iron
bolts, the joint cannot be trusted to transmit any considerable
force with safety. The stresses become intensely localized in
the immediate neighborhood of the bolts. A tolerably strong
timber tension-joint can, however, be made by making the two
pieces abut, and connecting them by means of iron plates cover-
ing the joint and bolted to the sides of the timbers by bolts pass-
ing through the wood. These plates should have their surfaces
which lie against the wood ribbed in a direction transverse to the
pull. The bolts should fit their holes slackly, and should be well
tightened up so as to make the ribs sink into the surface of the
timber. There will then be very little localized shearing stress
brought upon the interior portions of the wood.
Iron and the other commonly used metals possess in variously
49°
JOINTS
high degrees the qualities desirable in substances out of which
joints are to be made. The joint ends of metal pieces can easily
be fashioned to any advantageous form and size without waste
of material. Also these metals offer peculiar facilities for the
cutting of their surfaces at a comparatively small cost so smoothly
and evenly as to ensure the close contact over their whole areas
of surfaces placed against each other. This is of the highest
importance, especially in joints designed to transmit force.
Wrought iron and mild steel are above all other metals suitable
for tension joints where there is not continuous rapid motion.
Where such motion occurs, a layer, or, as it is technically termed,
a " bush," of brass is inserted underneath the iron. The joint
then possesses the high strength of a wrought-iron one and at the
same time the good frictional qualities of a brass surface. Leak-
age past moving metal joints can be prevented by cutting the
surfaces very accurately to fit each other. Steam-engine slide-
valves and their seats, and piston " packing-rings " and the
cylinders they work to and fro in, may be cited as examples.
A subsidiary compressible " packing " is in other situations em-
ployed, an instance of which may be seen in the " stuffing boxes"
which prevent the escape of steam from steam-engine cylinders
through the piston-rod hole in the cylinder cover. Fixed metal
joints are made fluid tight — (a) by caulking a riveted joint, i.e.
by hammering in the edge of the metal with a square-edged chisel
(the tighter the joint requires to be against leakage the closer
must be the spacing of the rivets — compare the rivet-spacing in
bridge, ship and boiler-plate joints) ;(b) by the insertion between
the surfaces of a layer of one or other of various kinds of cement,
the layer being thick or thin according to circumstances; (c) by
the insertion of a layer of soft solid substance called " packing "
or " insertion."
Apart from cemented and glued joints, most joints are formed
by cutting one or more holes in the ends of the pieces to be joined,
and inserting in these holes a corresponding number of pins.
The word " pin " is technically restricted to mean a cylindrical
pin in a movable joint. The word " bolt " is used when the
cylindrical pin is screwed up tight with a nut so as to be im-
movable. When the pin is not screwed, but is fastened by being
beaten down on either end, it is called a " rivet." The pin is
sometimes rectangular in section, and tapered or parallel length-
wise. " Gibs " and " cottars " are examples of the latter. It
is very rarely the case that fixed joints have their pins subject
to simple compression in the direction of their length, though
they are frequently subject to simple tension in that direction.
A good example is the joint between a steam cylinder and its
cover, where the bolts have to resist the whole thrust of the
steam, and at the same time to keep the joint steam-tight.
JOINTS, in geology. All rocks are traversed more or less
completely by vertical or highly inclined divisional planes termed
joints. Soft rocks, indeed, such as loose sand and uncompacted
clay, do not show these planes; but even a soft loam after stand-
ing for some time, consolidated by its own weight, will usually
be found to have acquired them. Joints vary in sharpness of
definition, in the regularity of their perpendicular or horizontal
course, in their lateral persistence, in number and in the direc-
tions of their intersections. As a rule, they are most sharply
defined in proportion to the fineness of grain of the rock. They
are often quite invisible, being merely planes of potential weak-
ness, until revealed by the slow disintegrating effects of the
weather, which induces fracture along their planes in preference
to other directions in the rock; it is along the same planes that
a rock breaks most readily under the blow of a hammer. In
coarse-textured rocks, on the other hand, joints are apt to show
themselves as irregular rents along which the rock has been
shattered, so that they present an uneven sinuous course, branch-
ing off in different directions. In many rocks they descend
vertically at not very unequal distances, so that the spaces
between them are marked off into so many wall-like masses.
But this symmetry often gives place to a more or less tortuous
course with lateral joints in various apparently random direc-
tions, more especially where in stratified rocks the beds have
diverse lithological characters. A single joint may be traced
sometimes for many yards or even for several miles, more particu-
larly when the rock is fine-grained and fairly rigid, as in lime-
stone. Where the texture is coarse and unequal, the joints,
though abundant, run into each other in such a way that no one
in particular can be identified for so great a distance. The
number of joints in a mass of rock varies within wide limits.
Among rocks which have undergone little disturbance the joints
may be separated from each other by intervals of several yards.
In other cases where the terrestrial movement appears to have
been considerable, the rocks are so jointed as to have acquired
therefrom a fissile character that has almost obliterated their
tendency to split along the lines of bedding.
The Cause of Jointing in Rocks. — The continual state of movement
in the crust of the earth is the primary cause of the majority of
joints. It is to the outermost layers of the lithosphere that joints
are confined; in what van Hise has described as the " zone of frac-
ture," which he estimates may extend to a depth of 12,000 metres
in the case of rigid rocks. Below the zone of fracture, joints cannot
be formed, for there the rocks tend to flow rather than break. The
rocky crust, as it slowly accommodates itself to the shrinking interior
of the earth, is subjected unceasingly to stresses which induce
jointing by tension, compression and torsion. Thus joints are
produced during the slow cyclical movements of elevation and de-
pression as well as by the more vigorous movements of earthquakes.
Tension-joints are the most widely spread ; they are naturally most
numerous over areas of upheaval. Compression-joints are generally
associated with the more intense movements which have involved
shearing, minor-faulting and slaty cleavage. A minor cause of
tension-jointing is shrinkage, due either to cooling or to desiccation.
The most striking type of jointing is that produced by the cooling
of igneous rocks, whereby a regularly columnar structure is developed,
often called basaltic structure, such as is found at the Giant's Cause-
way. This structure is described in connexion with modern volcanic
rocks, but it is met with in igneous rocks of all ages. It is as well
displayed among the felsitesof the Lower Old Red Sandstone, and
the basalts of Carboniferous Limestone age as among the Tertiary
lavas of Auvergne and Vivarais. This type of jointing may cause
the rock to split up into roughly hexagonal prisms no thicker than a
lead pencil; on the other hand, in many dolerites and diorites the
prisms are much coarser, having a diameter of 3 ft. or more, and they
are more irregular in form ; they may be so long as to extend up the
face of a cliff for 300 or 400 ft. A columnar jointing has often been
superinduced upon stratified rocks by contact with intrusive igneous
masses. Sandstones, shales and coal may be observed in this condi-
tion. The columns diverge perpendicularly from the surface of the
injected altering substance, so that when the latter is vertical, the
columns are horizontal; or when it undulates the columns follow its
curvatures. Beautiful examples of this character occur among the
coal-seams of Ayrshire. Occasionally a prismatic form of jointing may
be observed in unaltered strata ; in this case it is usually among those
which have been chemically formed, as in gypsum, where, as noticed
by Jukes in the Paris Basin, some beds are divided from top to '
bottom by vertical hexagonal prisms. Desiccation, as shown by the
cracks formed in mud when it dries, has probably been instrumental
in causing jointing in a limited number of cases among stratified
rocks.
Movement along Joint Planes. — In some conglomerates the joints
may be seen traversing the enclosed pebbles as well as the surround-
ing matrix ; large Mocks of hard quartz are cut through by them as
sharply as if they had been sliced by a lapidary's machine. A
similar phenomenon may be observed in flints as they lie embedded
in the chalk, and the same joints may be traced continuously through
many yards of rock. Such facts show that the agency to which
the jointing of rocks was due must have operated with consider-
able force. Further indication of movement is supplied by the
rubbed and striated surfaces of some joints. These surfaces, termed
slickensides, have evidently been ground against each other.
Influence of Joints on Water-flow and Scenery. — Joints form natural
paths for the passage downward and upward of subterranean water
and have an important bearing upon water supply. Water obtained
directly from highly jointed rock is more liable to become contami-
nated by surface impurities than that from a more compact rock
through which it has had to soak its way ; for this reason many lime-
stones are objected to as sources of potable water. On exposed
surfaces joints have great influence in determining the rate and type
of weathering. They furnish an effective lodgment for surface water,
which, frozen by lowering of temperature, expands into ice and
wedges off blocks of the rock; and the more numerous the joints the
more rapidly does the action proceed. As they serve, in conjunction
with bedding, to divide stratified rocks into large quadrangular
blocks, their effect on cliffs and other exposed places is seen in the
splintered and dislocated aspect so familiar in mountain scenery.
Not infrequently, by directing the initial activity of weathering
agents, joints have been responsible for the course taken by large
streams as well as for the type of scenery on their banks. In lime-
stones, which succumb readily to the solvent action of water, the
JOINTURE— JOINVILLE, PRINCE DE
491
joints are liable to be gradually enlarged along the course of the under-
ground waterflow until caves are formed of great size and intricacy.
Infilled Joints. — Joints which have been so enlarged by solution
are sometimes filled again completely or partially by minerals
brought thither in solution by the water traversing the rock ; calcite,
barytes and ores of lead and copper may be so deposited. In this
way many valuable mineral veins have been formed. Widened joints
may also be filled in by detritus from the surface, or, in deep-seated
portions of the crust, by heated igneous rock, forced from below along
the planes of least resistance. Occasionally even sedimentary rocks
may be forced up joints from below, as in the case of the so-called
" sandstons dykes."
Practical Utility of Joints. — An important feature in the joints of
stratified rocks is the direction in which they intersect each other.
As the result of observations we learn that they possess two dominant
trends, one coincident in a general way with the direction in which
the strata are inclined to the horizon, the other running transversely
approximately at right angles. The former set is known as dip-
joints, because they run with the dip or inclination of the rocks,
the latter is termed strike- joints, inasmuch as they conform to the
general strike or mean outcrop. It is owing to the existence of this
double series of joints that ordinary quarrying operations can be
carried on. Large quadrangular blocks can be wedged off that would
be shattered if exposed to the risk of blasting. A quarry is usually
worked on the dip of the rock, hence strike-joints form clean-cut
Joints in Limestone Quarry near Mallow, co. Cork.
(G. V. Du Noyer.)
faces in front of the workmen as they advance. These are known as
backs, and the dip-joints which traverse them as cutters. The way
in which this double set of joints occurs in a quarry may be seen in
the figure, where the parallel lines which traverse the shaded and
unshaded faces mark the successive strata. The broad white spaces
running along the length of the quarry behind the seated figure are
strike-joints or backs, traversed by some highly inclined lines
which mark the position of the dip-joints or cutters. The shaded
ends looking towards the spectator are cutters from which the rock
has been quarried away on one side. In crystalline (igneous) rocks,
bedding is absent and very often there is no horizontal jointing to
take its place; the joint planes break up the mass more irregularly
than in stratified rocks. Granite, for example, is usually traversed
by two sets of chief or master-joints cutting each other somewhat
obliquely. Their effect is to divide the rock into long quadrangular,
rhomboidal, or even polygonal columns. But a third set may
often be noticed cutting across the columns, though less continuous
and dominant than the others. When these transverse joints are
few in number, columns many feet in length can be quarried out
entire. Such monoliths have been from early times employed in the
construction cf obelisks and pillars. (J. A. H.)
JOINTURE, in law, a provision for a wife after the death of her
husband. As denned by Sir E. Coke, it is " a competent liveli-
hood of freehold for the wife, of lands or tenements, to take effect
presently in possession or profit after the death of her husband,
for the life of the wife at least, if she herself be not the cause of
determination or forfeiture of it " (Co. Litt. 36b). A jointure
is of two kinds, legal and equitable. A legal jointure was first
authorized by the Statute of Uses. Before this statute a husband
had no legal seisin in such lands as were vested in another to his
" use," but merely an equitable estate. Consequently it was
usual to make settlements on marriage, the most general form
being the settlement by deed of an estate to the use of the
husband and wife for their lives in joint tenancy (or " jointure "),
so that the whole would go to the survivor. Although, strictly
speaking, a jointure is a joint estate limited to both husband and
wife, in common acceptation the word extends also to a sole
estate limited to the wife only. The requisites of a legal jointure
are: (i) the jointure must take effect immediately after the
husband's death; (2) it must be for the wife's life or for a greater
estate, or be determinable by her own act; (3) it must be made
before marriage — if after, it i? voidable at the wife's election, on
the death of the husband; (4) it must be expressed to be in satis-
faction of dower and not of part of it. In equity, any provision
made for a wife before marriage and accepted by her (not being
an infant) in lieu of dower was a bar to such. If the provision
was made after marriage, the wife was not barred by such pro-
vision, though expressly stated to be in lieu of dower; she was
put to her election between jointure and dower (see DOWER).
JOINVILLE, the name of a French noble family of Champagne,
which traced its descent from Etienne de Vaux, who lived at
the beginning of the nth century. Geoffroi III. (d. 1184), sire
de Joinville, who accompanied Henry the Liberal, count of
Champagne, to the Holy Land in 1147, received from him the
office of seneschal, and this office became hereditary in the house
of Joinville. In 1203 Geoffroi V., sire de Joinville, died while on
a crusade, leaving no children. He was succeeded by his brother
Simon, who married Beatrice of Burgundy, daughter of the count
of Auxonne, and had as his son Jean (q.v.), the historian and
friend of St Louis. Henri (d. 1374), sire de Joinville, the grand-
son of Jean, became count of Vaudemont, through his mother,
Marguerite de Vaudemont. His daughter, Marguerite de Join-
ville, married in 1393 Ferry of Lorraine (d. 1415), to whom she
brought the lands of Joinville. In 1552, Joinville was made
into a principality for the house of Lorraine. Mile de Mont-
pensier, the heiress of Mile de Guife, bequeathed the principality
of Joinville to Philip, duke of Orleans (1693). The castle, which
overhung the Marne, was sold in 1791 to be demolished. The
title of prince de Joinville (q.v.) was given later to the third son
of King Louis Philippe. Two branches of the house of Joinville
have settled in other countries: one in England, descended from
Geoffroi de Joinville, sire de Vaucouleurs, and brother of the
historian, who served under Henry III. and Edward I.; the other,
descended from Geoffroi de Joinville, sire de Briquenay, and SOD
of Jean, settled in the kingdom of Naples.
See J. Simonnet, Essai sur I'histoire et la genealogie des seigneurs
de Joinville (1875) ; H. F. Delaborde, Jean de Joinville et les seigneurs
de Joinville (1894). (M. P.*)
JOINVILLE, FRANCOIS FERDINAND PHILIPPE LOUIS
MARIE, PRINCE DE (1818-1900), third son of Louis Philippe,
due d'Orleans, afterwards king of the French, was born at Neuilly
on the i4th of August 1818. He was educated for the navy, and
became lieutenant in 1836. His first conspicuous service was
at the bombardment of San Juan de Ulloa, in November 1838,
when he headed a landing party and took the Mexican general
Arista prisoner with his own hand at Vera Cruz. He was pro-
moted captain, and in 1840 was entrusted with the charge of
bringing the remains of Napoleon from St Helena to France. In
1844 he conducted naval operations on the coast of Morocco,
bombarding Tangier and occupying Mogador, and was recom-
pensed with the grade of vice-admiral. In the following year he
published in the Revue des deux mondes an article on the defici-
encies of the French navy which attracted considerable attention,
and by his hostility to the Guizot ministry, as well as by an
affectation of ill-will towards Great Britain, he gained consider-
able popularity. The revolution of 1848 nevertheless swept him
away with the other Orleans princes. He hastened to quit
Algeria, where he was then serving, and took refuge at Claremont,
in Surrey,- with the rest of his family. In 1861, upon the break-
ing out of the American Civil War, he proceeded to Washington,
and placed the services of his son and two of his nephews at the
disposal of the United States government. Otherwise, he was
little heard of until the overthrow of the Empire in 1870, when
he re-entered France, only to be promptly expelled by the
government of national defence. Returning incognito, he joined
the army of General d'Aurelle de Paladines, under the assumed
name of Colonel Lutherod, fought bravely before Orleans, and
afterwards, divulging his identity, formally sought permission
to serve. Gambretta, however, arrested him and sent him back
to England. In the National Assembly, elected in February 1871,
the prince was returned by two departments and elected to sit
for the Haute Marne, but, by an arrangement with Thiers, did
492
not take his seat until the latter had been chosen president of the
provincial republic. His deafness prevented him from making
any figure in the assembly, and he resigned his seat in 1876. In
1886 the provisions of the law against pretenders to the throne
deprived him of his rank as vice-admiral, but he continued to live
in France, and died in Paris on the i6th of June 1900. He had
married in 1843 the princess Francisca, sister of Pedro II.,
emperor of Brazil, and had a son, the due de Penthievre (born in
1845), also brought up to the navy, and a daughter Francoise
(1844- ) who married the due de Chartres in 1863.
The prince de Joinville was the author of several essays and
pamphlets on naval affairs and other matters of public interest,
which were originally published for the most part either unsigned
or pseudonymously, and subsequently republished under his own
name after the fall of the Empire. They include Essais sur la marine
franc,aise (1853); Etudes sur la marine (1859 and 1870); La Guerre
d'Amerique, campagne du Potomac (1862 and 1872); Encore un mot
sur Sadowa (Brussels, 1868); and Vieux souvenirs (1894).
JOINVILLE, JEAN, SIRE DE (1224-1319), was the second
great writer of history in Old French, and in a manner occupies
the interval between Villehardouin and Froissart. Numerous
minor chroniclers fill up the gaps, but no one of them has the
idiosyncrasy which distinguishes these three writers, who illus-
trate the three periods of the middle ages — adolescence, complete
manhood, and decadence. Joinville was the head of a noble
family of the province of Champagne (see JOINVILLE, above).
The provincial court of the counts of Champagne had long been
a distinguished one, and the action of Thibaut the poet, together
with the proximity of the district to Paris, made the province
less rebellious than most of the great feudal divisions of France
to the royal authority. Joinville's first appearance at the king's
court was in 1241, on the occasion of the knighting of Louis IX.'s
younger brother Alphonse. Seven years afterwards he took the
cross, thereby giving St Louis a valuable follower, and supplying
himself with the occasion of an eternal memory. The crusade,
in which he distinguished himself equally by wisdom and prowess,
taught his practical spirit several lessons. He returned with
the king in 1254. But, though his reverence for the personal
character of his prince seems to have known no bounds, he had
probably gauged the strategic faculties of the saintly king, and
he certainly had imbibed the spirit of the dictum that a man's
first duties are those to his own house. He was in the intervals
of residence on his own fief a constant attendant on the court,
but he declined to accompany the king on his last and fatal
expedition. In 1282 he was one of the witnesses whose testimony
was formally given at St Denis in me matter of the canonization
of Louis, and in 1298 he was present at the exhumation of the
saint's body. It was not till even later that he began his literary
work, the occasion being a request from Jeanne of Navarre, the
wife of Philippe le Bel and the mother of Louis le Hutin. The
'great interval between his experiences and the period of the
composition of his history is important for the due comprehen-
sion of the latter. Some years passed before the task was com-
pleted, on its own showing, in October 1309. Jeanne was by
this time dead, and Joinville presented his book to her son Louis
the Quarreller. This original manuscript is now lost, whereby
hangs a tale. Great as was his age, Joinville had not ceased to
be actively loyal, and in 1315 he complied with the royal sum-
mons to bear arms against the Flemings. He was at Joinville
again in 1317, and on the nth of July 1319 he died at the age of
ninety-five, leaving his possessions and his position as seneschal
of Champagne to his second son Anselm. He was buried in the
neighbouring church of St Laurent, where during the Revolution
his bones underwent profanation. Besides his Histoire de Saint
Louis and his Credo or " Confession of Faith " written much
earlier, a considerable number, relatively speaking, of letters and
business documents concerning the fief of Joinville and so forth
are extant. These have an importance which we shall consider
further on; but Joinville owes his place in general estimation
only to his history of his crusading experiences and of the subse-
quent fate of St Louis.
Of the famous French history books of the middle ages
Joinville's bears the most vivid impress of the personal character-
JOINVILLE, SIRE DE
| istics of its composer. It does not, like Villehardouin, give us
a picture of the temper and habits of a whole order or cast of
men during a heroic period of human history; it falls far short
of Froissart in vivid portraying of the picturesque and external
aspects of social life; but it is a more personal book than either.
The age and circumstances of the writer must not be forgotten
in reading it. He is a very old man telling of circumstances
which occurred in his youth. He evidently thinks that the times
have not changed for the better — what with the frequency with
which the devil is invoked in modern France, and the sinful
expenditure common in the matter of embroidered silk coats.
But this laudation of times past concentrates itself almost wholly
on the person of the sainted king whom, while with feudal inde-
pendence he had declined to swear fealty to him, " because I was
not his man," he evidently regarded with an unlimited reverence.
His age, too, while garrulous to a degree, seems to have been free
from the slightest taint of boasting. No one perhaps ever took
less trouble to make himself out a hero than Joinville. He is
constantly admitting that on such and such an occasion he was
terribly afraid; he confesses without the least shame that, when
one of his followers suggested defiance of the Saracens and
voluntary death, he (Joinville) paid not the least attention to
him; nor does he attempt to gloss in any way his refusal to ac-
company St Louis on his unlucky second crusade, or his invin-
cible conviction that it was better to be in mortal sin than to have
the leprosy, or his decided preference for wine as little watered
as might be, or any other weakness. Yet he was a sincerely
religious man, as the curious Credo, written at Acre and forming a
kind of anticipatory appendix to the history, sufficiently shows.
He presents himself as an altogether human person, brave enough
in the field, and, at least when young, capable of extravagant
devotion to an ideal, provided the ideal was fashionable, but
having at bottom a sufficient respect for his own skin and a full
consciousness of the side on which his bread is buttered. Nor
can he be said to be in all respects an intelligent traveller. There
were in him what may be called glimmerings of deliberate litera-
ture, but they were hardly more than glimmerings. His famous
description of Greek fire has a most provoking mixture of circum-
stantial detail with absence of verifying particulars. It is as
matter-of-fact and comparative as Dante, without a touch of
Dante's genius. " The fashion of Greek fire was such that it
came to us as great as a tun of verjuice, and the fiery tail of it was
as big as a mighty lance; it made such noise in the coming that
it seemed like the thunder from heaven, and looked like a dragon
flying through the air; so great a light did it throw that through-
out the host men saw as though it were day for the light it threw."
Certainly the excellent seneschal has not stinted himself of com-
parisons here, yet they can hardly be said to be luminous. That
the thing made a great flame, a great noise, and struck terror
into the beholder is about the sum of it all. Every now and then
indeed a striking circumstance, strikingly told, occurs in Joinville,
such as the famous incident of the woman who carried in one
hand a chafing dish of fire, in the other a phial of water, that she
might burn heaven and quench hell, lest in future any man should
serve God merely for hope of the one or fear of the other. But
in these cases the author only repeats what he has heard from
others. On his own account he is much more interested in small
personal details than in greater things. How the Saracens, when
they took him prisoner, he being half dead with a complication
of diseases, kindly left him " un mien couverture d'dcarlate "
which his mother had given him, and which he put over him,
having made a hole therein and bound it round him with a cord;
how when he came to Acre in a pitiable condition an old
servant of his house presented himself, and " brought me clean
white hoods and combed my hair most comfortably "; how he
bought a hundred tuns of wine and served it — the best first,
according to high authority — well-watered to his private soldiers,
somewhat less watered to the squires, and to the knights neat,
but with a suggestive phial of the weaker liquid to mix " si
comme ils vouloient "—these are the details in which he seems
to take greatest pleasure, and for readers six hundred years after
date perhaps they are not the least interesting details.
It would, however, be a mistake to imagine that Joinville's
book is exclusively or even mainly a chronicle of small beer. If
he is not a Villehardouin or a Carlyle, his battlepieces are vivid
and truthful, and he has occasional passages of no small episodic
importance, such as that dealing with the Old Man of the Moun-
tain. But, above all, the central figure of his book redeems it
from the possibility of the charge of being commonplace or
ignoble. To St Louis Joinville is a nobler Boswell; and hero-
worshipper, hero, and heroic ideal all have something of the
sublime about them. The very pettiness of the details in which
the good seneschal indulges as to his own weakness only serves
to enhance the sublime unworldliness of the king. Joinville is
a better warrior than Louis, but, while the former frankly prays
for his own safety, the latter only thinks of his army's when they
have escaped from the hands of the aliens. One of the king's
knights boasts that ten thousand pieces have been " forcontes "
(counted short) to the Saracens; and it is with the utmost trouble
that Joinville and the rest can persuade the king that this is a
joke, and that the Saracens are much more likely to have got
the advantage. He warns Joinville against wine-bibbing,
against bad language, against all manner of foibles small and
great; and the pupil acknowledges that this physician at any rate
had healed himself in these respects. It is true that he is severe
towards infidels; and his approval of the knight who, finding a
Jew likely to get the better of a theological argument, resorted to
the baculine variety of logic, does not meet the views of the 2oth
century. But Louis was not of the 2Oth century but of the i3th,
and after his kind he certainly deserved Joinville's admiration.
Side by side with his indignation at the idea of cheating his
Saracen enemies may be mentioned his answer to those who after
Taillebourg complained that he had let off Henry III. too easily.
" He is my man now, and he was not before," said the king, a
most unpractical person certainly, and in some ways a sore saint
for France. But it is easy to understand the half-despairing
adoration with which a shrewd and somewhat prosaic person like
Joinville must have regarded this flower of chivalry born out of
due time. He has had his reward, for assuredly the portrait of
St Louis, from the early collection of anecdotes to the last hearsay
sketch of the woeful end at Tunis, with the famous enseignement
which is still the best summary of the theoretical duties of a
Christian king in medieval times, is such as to take away all
charge of vulgarity or mere commerage from Joinville, a charge
to which otherwise he might perhaps have been exposed.
The arrangement of the book is, considering its circumstances
and the date of its composition, sufficiently methodical. Accord-
ing to its own account it is divided into three parts — the first
dealing generally with the character and conduct of the hero;
the second with his acts and deeds in Egypt, Palestine, &c., as
Joinville knew them; the third with his subsequent life and death.
Of these the last is very brief, the first not long; the middle con-
stitutes the bulk of the work. The contents of the first part are,
as might be expected, miscellaneous enough, and consist chiefly
of stories chosen to show the valour of Louis, his piety, his justice,
his personal temperance, and so forth. The second part enters
upon the history of the crusade itself, and tells how Joinville
pledged all his land save so much as would bring in a thousand
livres a year, and started with a brave retinue of nine knights
(two of whom besides himself wore bannerets), and shared a ship
with the sire d'Aspremont, leaving Joinville without raising his
eyes," pour ce que le cuer ne me attendrisist du biau chastel que
je lessoie et de mes deux enfans " ; how they could not get out of
sight of a high mountainous island (Lampedusa or Pantellaria)
till they had made a procession round the masts in honour of the
Virgin; how they reached first Cyprus and then Egypt; how they
took Damietta, and then entangled themselves in the Delta.
Bad generalship, which is sufficiently obvious, unwholesome
food — it was Lent, and they ate the Nile fish which had been
feasting on the carcases of the slain — and Greek fire did the rest,
and personal valour was of little avail, not merely against superior
numbers and better generals,but against dysentery and a certain
" mal de 1'ost " which attacked the mouth and the legs, a curious
human version of a well-known bestial malady. After ransom
JOIST 493
Acre was the chief scene of Louis's stay in the East, and here
Joinville lived in some state, and saw not a few interesting things,
hearing besides much gossip as to the inferior affairs of Asia from
ambassadors, merchants and others. At last they journeyed
back again to France, not without considerable experiences of
the perils of the deep, which Joinville tells with a good deal of
spirit. The remainder of the book is very brief. Some anecdotes
of the king's " justice," his favourite and distinguishing attribute
during the sixteen years which intervened between the two
crusades, are given; then comes the story of Joinville 's own
refusal to join the second expedition, a refusal which bluntly
alleged the harm done by the king's men who stayed at home to
the vassals of those who went abroad as the reason of Joinville's
resolution to remain behind. The death of the king at Tunis,
his enseignement to his son, and the story of his canonization
complete the work.
The book in which this interesting story is told has had a literary
history which less affects its matter than the vicissitudes to whicn
Froissart has been subjected, but which is hardly less curious in its
way. There is no reason for supposing that Joinville indulged in
various editions, such as those which have given Kervyn de Letten-
hove and Simeon Luce so much trouble, and which make so vast a
difference between the first and the last redaction of the chronicler
of the Hundred Years' War. Indeed the great age of the seneschal
of Champagne, and his intimate first-hand acquaintance with his
subject, made such variations extremely improbable. But, whereas
there is no great difficulty (though much labour) in ascertaining the
original and all subsequent texts of Froissart, the original text of
Joinville was until recently unknown, and even now may be said
to be in the state of a conjectural restoration. It has been said
that the book was presented to Louis le Hutin. Now we have a
catalogue of Louis le Hutin's library, and, strange to say, Joinville
does not figure in it. His book seems to have undergone very much
the same fate as that which befell the originals of the first two volumes
of the Paston Letters which Sir John Fenn presented to George the
Third. Several royal library catalogues of the I4th century are
known, but in none of these does the Hisloire de St Louis appear.
It does appear in that of Charles V. (1411), but apparently no
copy even of this survives. As everybody knows, however, books
could be and were multiplied by the process of copying tolerably
freely, and a copy at first or second hand which belonged to the fiddler
king Rene' of Provence in the 1 5th century was used for the first
printed edition in 1547. Other editions were printed from other
versions, all evidently posterior to the original. But in 1741 the
well-known medievalist La Curne de St Palaye found at Lucca a
manuscript of the 1 6th century, evidently representing an older
text than any yet printed. Three years later a 14th-century copy
was found at Brussels, and this is the standard manuscript authority
for the text of Joinville. Those who prefer to rest on MS. authority
will probably hold to this text, which appears in the well-known
collection of Michaud and Poujoulat as well as that of Buchon, and
in a careful and useful separate edition by Francisque Michel.
The modern science of critical editing, however, which applies to
medieval texts the principles long recognized in editing the classics,
has discovered in the 16th-century manuscript, and still more in the
original miscellaneous works of Joinville, the letters, deeds, &c.,
already alluded to, the materials for what we have already called a
conjectural restoration, which is not without its interest, though
perhaps it is possible for that interest to be exaggerated.
For merely general readers Buchon's or Michaud's editions of
Joinville will amply suffice. Both include translations into modern
French, which, however, are hardly necessary, for the language is
very easy. Natalis de Wailly's editions of 1868 and particularly
1874 are critical editions, embodying the modern research connected
with the text, the value of which is considerable, but contestable.
They are accompanied by ample annotations and appendices, with
illustrations of great merit and value. Much valuable information
appeared for the first time in the edition of F. Michel (1859). To
these may be added A. F. Didot's Etudes sur Joinville (1870) and
H. F. Delaborde's Jean de Joinville (1894). A good sketch of the
whole subject will be found in Aubertin s Histoire de la langue el
de la literature fran^aises au moyen age, ii. 196— 21 1 ; see also Gaston
Paris, Lilt. fran(aise au moyen Age (1893), and A. Debidour, Les
Chroniqueurs (1888). There are English translations by T. Johnes
(1807), J. Button (1868), Ethel Wedgwood (1906), and (more liter-
ally) Sir F. T. Marzials (" Everyman's Library," 1908). (G. SA.)
JOIST, in building, one of a row or tier of beams set edgewise
from one wall or partition to another and carrying the flooring
boards on the upper edge and the laths of the ceiling on the lower.
In double flooring there are three series of joists, binding, bridging,
and ceiling joists. The binding joists are the real support of the
floor, running from wall to wall, and carrying the bridging
joists above and the ceiling joists below (see CARPENTRY),
494
The Mid. Eng. form of the word was giste or gyste, and was
adapted from O. Fr. giste, modern gUe, a beam supporting the
platform of a gun. By origin the word meant that on which
anything lies or rests (gesir, to lie; La.t.jacere).
The English word " gist," in such phrases as " the gist of the
matter," the main or central point in an argument, is a doublet
of joist. According to Skeat, the origin of this meaning is an
O. Fr. proverbial expression, Je sfay bien ou gist le lievre, I know
well where the hare lies, i.e. I know the real point of the matter.
JOKAI, MAURUS (1825-1904), Hungarian novelist, was born
at Rev-Komarom on the ipth of February 1825. His father,
Joseph, was a member of the Asva branch of the ancient Jokay
family; his mother was a scion of the noble Pulays. The lad
was timid and delicate, and therefore educated at home till his
tenth year, when he was sent to Pressburg, subsequently com-
pleting his education at the Calvinist college at Papa, where he
first met Petofi, Alexander Kozma, and several other brilliant
young men who subsequently became famous. His family had
meant him to follow the law, his father's profession, and accord-
ingly the youth, always singularly assiduous, plodded conscien-
tiously through the usual curriculum at Kecskemet and Pest,
and as a full-blown advocate actually succeeded in winning his
first case. But the drudgery of a lawyer's office was uncon-
genial to the ardently poetical youth, and, encouraged by the
encomiums pronounced by the Hungarian Academy upon his
first play, Zsidd fiu (" The Jew Boy "), he flitted, when barely
twenty, to Pest in 1845 with a MS. romance in his pocket; he
was introduced by Petofi to the literary notabilities of the Hun-
garian capital, and the same year his first notable romance
Hetkoznapok (" Working Days "), appeared, first in the columns
of the Pesli Dievatlap, and subsequently, in 1846, in book form.
Hetkoznapok, despite its manifest crudities and extravagances,
was instantly recognized by all the leading critics as a work of
original genius, and in the following year Jokai was appointed
the editor of Elelkfpek, the leading Hungarian literary journal,
and gathered round him all the rising talent of the country. On
the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 the young editor enthusi-
astically adopted the national cause, and served it with both pen
and sword. Now, as ever, he was a moderate Liberal, setting his
face steadily against all excesses; but, carried away by the
Hungarian triumphs of April and May 1849, he supported
Kossuth's fatal blunder of deposing the Hapsburg dynasty, and
though, after the war was over, his life was saved by an ingenious
stratagem of his wife, the great tragic actress, Roza Benke
Laborfalvi, whom he had married on the 29th of August 1848,
he lived for the next fourteen years the life of a political suspect.
Yet this was perhaps the most glorious period of his existence,
for during it he devoted himself to the rehabilitation of the pro-
scribed and humiliated Magyar language, composing in it no
fewer than thirty great romances, besides innumerable volumes of
tales, essays, criticisms and facetiae. This was the period of such
masterpieces as Erdely Arany Kord (" The Golden Age of Tran-
sylvania "), with its sequel Torokvildg Magyar or szagon (" The
Turks in Hungary"), EgyMagyar Ndbob("A. Hungarian Nabob"),
Karpdthy Zolt&n, Janicsdrok vignapjai (" The Last Days of the
Janissaries"), Szomorti napok (" Sad Days "). On the re-estab-
lishment of the Hungarian constitution by the Composition of
1867, Jokai took an active part in politics. As a constant sup-
porter of the Tisza administration, not only in parliament,
where he sat continuously for more than twenty years, but also
as the editor of the government organ, Hon, founded by him in
1863, he became a power in the state, and, though he never took
office himself, frequently extricated the government from difficult
places. In 1897 the emperor appointed him a member of the
upper house. As a suave, practical and witty debater he was
particularly successful. Yet it was to literature that he con-
tinued to devote most of his time, and his productiveness after
1870 was stupendous, amounting to some hundreds of volumes.
Stranger still, none of this work is slipshod, and the best of it
deserves to endure. Amongst the finest of his later works may
be mentioned the unique and incomparable Az arany ember
(" A Man of Gold ") — translated into English under the title of
JOKAI— JOLIET
Timor's Two Worlds — and A tfngerzemu holgy (" Eyes like the
Sea"), the latter of which won the Academy's prize iri 1890.
He died at Budapest on the 5th of May 1904; his wife having
predeceased him in 1886. Jokai was an arch-romantic, with a
perfervid Oriental imagination, and humour of the purest, rarest
description. If one can imagine a combination, in almost equal
parts, of Walter Scott, William Beckford, Dumas pere, and
Charles Dickens, together with the native originality of an
ardent Magyar, one may perhaps form a fair idea of the great
Hungarian romancer's indisputable genius.
See N£vy Laszlo, Jokai M6r; Hegedusis Sandor, Jokai Morrol;
H. W. Temperley, " Maurus Jokai and the Historical Novel," Con-
temporary Review (July 1904).
JOK JAKARTA, or JOKJOKARTA (more correctly JOKYAKARTA;
Du. Djokjakarta), a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East
Indies, bounded N. by Kedu and Surakarta, E. by Surakarta,
S. by the Indian Ocean, W. by Bagelen. Pop. (1897), 858,392.
The country is mountainous with the exception of a wedge-like
strip in the middle between the rivers Progo and Upak. In the
north-west are the southern slopes of the volcano Merapi, and
in the east the Kidul hills and the plateau of Sewu. The last-
named is an arid and scantily populated chalk range,with numer-
ous small summits, whence it is also known as the Thousand
Hills. The remainder of the residency is well-watered and fer-
tile, important irrigation works having been carried out. Sugar,
rice and indigo are cultivated; salt-making is practised on the
coast. The minerals include coal-beds in the Kidul hills and near
Nangulan, marble and gold in the neighbourhood of Kalasan.
The natives are poor, owing chiefly to maladministration, the
use of opium and the usury practised by foreigners (Chinese,
Arabs, &c.). The principality is divided between the sultan
(vassal of the Dutch government) and the so-called independent
prince Paku Alam; Ngawen and Imogiri are enclaves of Sura-
karta. There are good roads, and railways connect the chief
town with Batavia, Samarang, Surakarta, &c. The town of
Jokjakarta (see JAVA) is the seat of the resident, the sultan and
the Paku Alam princes; its most remarkable section is the kraton
or citadel of the sultan. Imogiri, S.W. of the capital, the burial-
place of the princes of Surakarta and Jokjakarta, is guarded by
priests and officials. Sentolo, Nangulan, Brosot, Kalasan,
Tempel, Wonosari are considerable villages. There are numerous
remains of Hindu temples, particularly in the neighbourhood of
Kalasan near the border of Surakarta and Prambanan, which is
just across it. Remarkable sacred grottoes are found on the
coast, namely, the so-called Nyabi Kidul and Rongkob, and at
Selarong, south-east of Jokjakarta.
JOLIET, a city and the county-seat of Will county, Illinois,
U.S.A., in the township of Joliet, in the N.E. part of the state,
on the Des Plaines river, 40 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890),
23,264; (1900), 29,353, of whom 8536 were foreign-born, 1889
being German, 1579 Austrian, 1206 Irish and 951 Swedish;
(1910 census) 34,670. In addition there is a large population
in the immediate suburbs: that of the township including the
city was 27,438 in 1890, and 50,640 in 1910. Joliet is served by
the Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6, the Chicago & Alton, the
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Michigan Central, the
Illinois, Iowa & Minnesota, and the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern
railways, by interurban electric lines, and is on the Illinois &
Michigan canal and the Chicago Sanitary (ship) canal. The
city is situated in a narrow valley, on both sides of the river. It
is the seat of the northern Illinois penitentiary, and has a public
library (in front of which is a statue, by S. Asbjornsen, of Louis
Joliet), the township high school, two hospitals, two Catholic
academies and a club-house, erected by the Illinois Steel Company
for the use of its employees. There are two municipal parks,
West Park and Highland Park; Dell wood Park is an amusement
resort, owned by the Chicago & Joliet Electric Railway Company.
In the vicinity are large deposits of calcareous building stone,
cement and fireclay, and there are coal mines 20 m. distant.
Mineral resources and water-power have facilitated the develop-
ment of manufactures. The factory product in 1905 was valued
at $33, ?88, 700 (29-3% more than in 1900), a large part of which
JOLLY- -JOMINI
495
was represented by iron and steel goods. There are large
industrial establishments just outside the city limits. The first
settlement on the site of Joliet (1833) was called Juliet, in
honour of the daughter of James B. Campbell, one of the settlers.
The present name was adopted in 1845, in memory of Louis
Joliet (1645-1700), the French Canadian explorer of the Missis-
sippi, and in 1852 a city charter was secured.
JOLLY (from O. Fr. jolif; Fr. joli, the French word is obscure
in origin; it may be from late Lat. gaudivus, from gaudere,
to rejoice, the change of d to I being paralleled by cigada
and cigale, or from O. Norse jol, Eng. " yule," the northern
festival of midwinter) , and adjective meaning gay, cheerful, jovial,
high-spirited. The colloquial use of the term as an intensive
adverb, meaning extremely, very, was in early usage quite
literary; thus John Trapp (1601-1669), Commentaries on the
New Testament, Matthew (1647), writes, " All was jolly quiet
at Ephesus before St Paul came hither." In the royal navy
" jolly " used as a substantive, is the slang name for a marine.
To " jolly " is a slang synonym for " chaff." The word " jolly-
boat," the name of a ship's small broad boat, usually clinker-
built, is of doubtful etymology. It occurs in English in the
1 8th century, and is usually connected with Dan. or Swed.
jolle, Dutch jol, a small ship's boat; these words are properly
represented in English by " yawl " originally a ship's small boat,
now chiefly used of a rig of sailing vessels, with a cutter-rigged
foremast and a small mizzen stepped far aft, with a spanker
sail (see RIGGING). A connexion has been suggested with a
word of much earlier appearance in English, jolywat, or gellywatte.
This occurs at the end of the I5th century and is used of a smaller
type of ship's boat. This is supposed to be a corruption of
the French galiote or Dutch galjoot, galliot (see GALLEY). The
galliot was, however, a large vessel. •
JOLY DE LOTBINIERE, SIR HENRI GUSTAVE (1829-1908),
Canadian politician, was born at Epernay in France on the sth
of December 1829. His father, Gaspard Pierre Gustave Joly,
the owner of famous vineyards at Epernay, was of Huguenot
descent, and married Julie Christine, grand-daughter of Eustache
Gaspard Michel Chartier de Lotbiniere, marquis de Lotbiniere
(one of Montcalm's engineers at Quebec); he thus became
seigneur de Lotbiniere. Henri Gustave adopted the name of de
Lotbiniere in 1888, under a statute of the province of Quebec.
He was educated in Paris, and called to the bar of lower Canada
in 1858. On the 6th of May 1856 he married Margaretta Josepha
(d. 1904), daughter of Hammond Gowen, of Quebec. At the
general election of 1861 he was elected to the house of assembly
of the province of Canada as Liberal member for the county of
Lotbiniere, and from 1867 to 1874 he represented the same
county in the House of Commons, Ottawa, and in the legislative
assembly, Quebec. Joly was opposed to confederation and
supported Dorion in the stand which he took on this question.
In 1878 he was called by Luc Letellier de St Just, lieutenant-
governor of Quebec, to form an administration, which was de-
feated in 1879, and until 1883 he was leader of the opposition.
During his brief administration he adopted a policy of retrench-
ment, and endeavoured to abolish the legislative council. In
1885, as a protest against the attitude of his party to wards
Louis Riel, who was tried and executed for High treason, he
retired from public life. Early in the year 1895 he was induced
again to take an active part in the campaign of his party, and at
the general election of 1896 he was returned as member for the
county of Portneuf. He had already in 1895 been created
K.C.M.G. On the formation of Sir Wilfrid Laurier's adminis-
tration he accepted the office of controller of inland revenue, and
a year later he became a privy councillor, as minister of inland
revenue. From 1900 to 1906 he was lieutenant-governor of the
province of British Columbia. He twice declined a seat in the
senate, but rendered eminent service to Canada by promoting
the interest of agriculture, horticulture and of forestry. He
died on the i7th of November 1908. (A. G. D.)
JOMINI, ANTOINE HENRI, BARON (1779-1869), general in
the French and afterwards in the Russian service, and one of
the most celebrated writers on the art of war, was born on the
6th of March 1 779 at Payerne in the canton of Vaud, Switzerland,
where his father was syndic. His youthful preference for a
military life was disappointed by the dissolution of the Swiss
regiments of France at the Revolution. For some time he was a
clerk in a Paris banking-house, until the outbreak of the Swiss
revolution. At the age of nineteen he was appointed to a post
on the Swiss headquarters staff, and when scarcely twenty-one to
the command of a battalion. At the peace of Luneville in 1801
he returned to business life in Paris, but devoted himself chiefly
to preparing the celebrated Traite des grandes operations mili-
taircs, which was published in 1804-1805. Introduced to Marshal
Ney, he served in the campaign of Austerlitz as a volunteer
aide-de-camp on Ney's personal staff. In December 1805
Napoleon, being much impressed by a chapter in Jomini's treatise,
made him a colonel in the French service. Ney thereupon made
him his principal aide-de-camp. In 1806 Jomini published his
views as to the conduct of the impending war with Prussia, and
this, along with his knowledge of Frederick the Great's campaigns,
which he had described in the Traite, led Napoleon to attach him
to his own headquarters. He was present with Napoleon at
the battle of Jena, and at Eylau won the cross of the Legion of
Honour. After the peace of Tilsit he was made chief of the staff
to Ney, and created a baron. In the Spanish campaign of
1808 his advice was often of the highest value to the marshal,
but Jomini quarrelled with his chief, and was left almost at the
mercy of his numerous enemies, especially Berthier, the emperor's
chief of staff. Overtures had been made to him, as early as
1807, to enter the Russian service, but Napoleon, hearing of his
intention to leave the French army, compelled him to remain in
the service with the rank of general of brigade. For some years
thereafter Jomini held both a French and a Russian commission,
with the consent of both sovereigns. But when war between
France and Russia broke out, he was in a difficult position,
which he ended by taking a command on the line of communica-
tion. He was thus engaged when the retreat from Moscow and
the uprising of Prussia transferred the seat of war to central
Germany. He promptly rejoined Ney, took part in the battle
of Liitzen and, as chief of the staff of Ney's group of corps,
rendered distinguished services before and at the battle of Baut-
zen, and was recommended for the rank of general of division.
Berthier, however, not only erased Jomini's name from the list,
but put him under arrest and censured him in army orders for
failing to supply certain returns that had been called for. How
far Jomini was held responsible for certain misunderstandings
which prevented the attainment of all the results hoped for from
Ney's attack (see BAUTZEN) there is no means of knowing. But
the pretext for censure was trivial and baseless, and during the
armistice Jomini did as he had intended to do in 1809-10, and
went into the Russian service. As things then were, this
was tantamount to deserting to the enemy, and so it was
regarded by Napoleon and by the French army, and by
not a few of his new comrades. It must be observed, in
Jomini's defence, that he had for years held a dormant
commission in the Russian army, that he had declined to
take part in the invasion of Russia in 1812, and that he was a
Swiss and not a Frenchman. His patriotism was indeed un-
questioned, and he withdrew from the Allied Army in 1814 when
he found that he could not prevent the violation of Swiss neu-
trality. Apart from love of his own country, the desire to study,
to teach and to practise the art of war was his ruling motive.
At the critical moment of the battle of Eylau he exclaimed,
" If I were the Russian commander for two hours ! " On
joining the allies he received the rank of lieutenant-general and
the appointment of aide-de-camp from the tsar, and rendered
important assistance during the German campaign, though the
charge that he betrayed the numbers, positions and intentions
of the French to the enemy was later acknowledged by Napoleon
to be without foundation. He declined as a Swiss patriot and
as a French officer to take part in the passage of the Rhine at
Basel and the subsequent invasion of France.
In 1815 he was with the emperor Alexander in Paris, and
attempted in vain to save the life of his old commander Ney.
496
JOMMELLI— JONAH
This almost cost him his position in the Russian service, but
he succeeded in making head against his enemies, and took part
in the congress of Vienna. Resuming, after a period of several
years of retirement and literary work, his post in the Russian
army, he was about 1823 made a full general, and thenceforward
until his retirement in 1829 he was principally employed in the
military education of the tsarevich Nicholas (afterwards emperor)
and in the organization of the Russian staff college, which was
opened in 1832 and still bears its original name of the Nicholas
academy. In 1828 he was employed in the field in the Russo-
Turkish War, and at the siege of Varna he was given the grand
cordon of the Alexander order. This was his last active service.
In 1829 he settled at Brussels where he chiefly lived for the next
thirty years. In 1853, after trying without success to bring
about a political understanding between France and Russia,
Jomini was called to St Petersburg to act as a military adviser
to the tsar during the Crimean War. He returned to Brussels
on the conclusion of peace in 1856 and some years afterwards
settled at Passy near Paris. He was busily employed up to the
end of his life in writing treatises, pamphlets and open letters
on subjects of military art and history, and in 1859 he was asked
by Napoleon III. to furnish a plan of campaign in the Italian
War. One of his last essays dealt with the war of 1866 and the
influence of the breech-loading rifle, and he died at Passy on
the 24th of March 1869 only a year before the Franco-German
War. Thus one of the earliest of the great military theorists
lived to speculate on the tactics of the present day.
Amongst his numerous works the principal, besides the Traite,
are: Histoire critique et militaire des campagnes de la Revolution
(1806; new ed. 1819-1824); Vie politique et militaire de Napoleon
racontee par lui-meme (1827) and, perhaps the best known of all his
publications, the theoretical Precis de I'art de la guerre (1836).
See Ferdinand Lecomte, Le General Jomini, sa vie et ses ecrits
(1861; new ed. 1888); C. A. Saint-Beuve, Le General Jomini (1869);
A. Pascal, Observations historiques sur la vie, &c., du general Jomini
(1842).
JOMMELLI, NICCOLA (1714-1774), Italian composer, was
born at Aversa near Naples on the loth of September 1714.
He received his musical education at two of the famous music
schools of that capital, being a pupil of the Conservatorio de'
poveri di Gesu Cristo under Feo, and also of the Conservatorio
della pieta dei Turchini under Prola, Mancini and Leo. His
first opera, L' Err ore amoroso, was successfully produced at
Naples (under a pseudonym) when Jommelli was only twenty-
three. Three years afterwards he went to Rome to bring out
two new operas, and thence to Bologna, where he profited by the
advice of Padre Martini, the greatest contrapuntist of his age.
In the meantime Jommelli's fame began to spread beyond the
limits of his country, and in 1748 he went for the first time to
Vienna, where one of his finest operas, Didone, was produced.
Three years later he returned to Italy, and in 1753 he obtained
the post of chapel-master to the duke of Wurltemberg at Stutt-
gart, which city he made his home for a number of years. In
the same year he had ten commissions to write operas for princely
courts. In Stuttgart he permitted no operas but his own to be
produced, and he modified his style in accordance with German
taste, so much that, when after an absence of fifteen years he
returned to Naples, his countrymen hissed two of his operas off
the stage. He retired in consequence to his native village, and
only occasionally emerged from his solitude to take part in the
musical life of the capital. His death took place on the 25th of
August 1774, his last composition being the celebrated Miserere,
a setting for two female voices of Saverio Mallei's Ilalian para-
phrase of Psalm li. Jommelli is Ihe most representalive com-
poser of Ihe generation following Leo and Durante. He ap-
proaches very closely lo Mozart in his style, and is importanl as
one of Ihe composers who, by welding logether German and
Ilalian characlerislics, helped lo form Ihe musical language of
the greal composers of the classical period of Vienna.
JONAH, in the Bible, a prophet born at Gath-hepher in
Zebulun, perhaps under Jeroboam (2) (781-741 B.C.?), who fore-
told the deliverance of Israel from Ihe Aramaeans (2 Kings xiv.
25). Thisprophel may also be Ihe hero of the much later book of
Jonah, but how different a man is he ! Il is, however, the later
Jonah who chiefly interests us. New problems have arisen out
of the book which relates to him, bul here we can only altempt
lo consider whal, in a certain sense, may be called the surface
meaning of the lexl.
This, Ihen is what we appear to be lold. The prophet Jonah
is summoned to go to Nineveh, a great and wicked city (cf. 4
Esdras ii. 8, 9), and prophesy against it. Jonah, however, is
afraid (iv. 2) thai Ihe Nineviles may repenl, so, instead of going
lo Nineveh, he proceeds lo Joppa, and takes his passage in a
ship bound for Tarshish. But soon a storm arises, and, suppli-
cation lo Ihe gods failing, Ihe sailors cast lots to discover the
guilly man who has brought this great trouble. The lot falls
on Jonah, who has been roughly awakened by the captain, and
when questioned frankly owns that he is a Hebrew and a wor-
shipper of the divine creator Yahweh, from whom he has sought
to flee (as if He were only Ihe god of Canaan). Jonah advises
Ihe sailors lo Ihrow him into the sea. This, afler praying lo
Yahweh, Ihey aclually do; al once Ihe sea becomes calm and
ihey sacrifice lo Yahweh. Meantime God has " appointed a
great fish " which swallows up Jonah. Three days and three
nights he is in Ihe fish's belly, till, at a word from Yahweh,
it vomits Jonah on to the dry ground. Again Jonah receives
the divine call. This lime he obeys. After delivering his
message to Nineveh he makes himself a booth oulside Ihe walls
and wails in vain for the destruction of Ihe cily (probably iv.
5 is misplaced and should sland afler iii. 4). Thereupon Jonah
beseeches Yahweh lo lake away his worthless life. As an
answer Yahweh " appoinls " a small quickly-growing Iree wilh
large leaves (the castor-oil planl) lo come up over Ihe angry
prophel and sheller him from Ihe sun. But Ihe nexl day Ihe
beneficenl tree perishes by God's " appointment " from a worm-
bite. Once more God " appoinls " somelhing; il is the east
wind, which, together with the fierce heal, brings Jonah again lo
desperalion. The close is fine, and reminds us of Job. God
himself gives shorl-sighled man a lesson. Jonah has pilied
Ihe Iree, and should not God have pity on so great a city?
Two results of criticism are widely accepted. One relates to
the psalm in ch. ii., which has been transferred from some other
place; it is in fact an anlicipalory lhanksgiving for the deliverance
of Israel, mostly composed of phrases from other psalms. The
olher is that the narrative before us is not historical bul an
imaginalive story (such as was called a Midrash) based upon
Biblical data and tending lo edificalion. Il is, however, a slory
of high lype. The narralor considered thai Israel had lo be
a prophel to the " nations" at large, thai Israel had, like Jonah,
neglecled ils duty and for its punishment was " swallowed up "
in foreign lands. God had walched over His people and prepared
ils choicer members to fulfil His purpose. This company of
faithful but nol always sufficienlly charilable men represenled
Iheir people, so that it mighl be said lhal Israel ilself (Ihe second
Isaiah's " Servanl of Yahweh " — see ISAIAH) had laken up ils
duly, bul in an ungenial spiril which grieved Ihe All-merciful
One. The book, which is posl-exilic, may Iherefore be grouped
wilh another Midrash, Ihe Book of Rulh, which also appears lo
represent a current of thoughl opposed to the exclusive spirit
of Jewish legalism.
Some critics, however, think thai Ihe key of symbolism needs
to be supplemented by thai of mythology. The " great fish "
especially has a very mythological appearance. The Babylonian
dragon myth (see COSMOGONY) is oflen alluded to in Ihe Old
Testamenl, e.g. in Jer. li. 44, which, as Ihe presenl wriler long
since poinled oul, may supply Ihe missing link belween Jonah i.
17 and Ihe original myth. For Ihe " greal fish " is ullimately
Tiamal, the dragon of chaos, represenled hislorically by Nebu-
chadrezzar, by whom for a lime God permilted or " appointed "
Israel to be swallowed up.
For further details see T. K. Cheyne, Ency. Bib., "Jonah";
and his article " Jonah, a Study in Jewish Folklore and Religion,"
Theological Review (1877), pp. 211-219. Konig, Hastings's Diet.
Bible, "Jonah," is full but not lucid; C. H. H. Wright, Biblical
Studies (i886)arguesablyforthesymbolictheory. Against Cheyne,
see Marti's work on the Minor Prophets (1894); the " great fish "
JONAH— JONES, A. G.
and the three days and three nights " remain unexplained by this
writer. On these points see Zimmern, K.A.T. (3), pp. 366, 389, 508
The difficulties of the mission of a Hebrew prophet to Asshur
are diminished by Cheyne's later theory, Critica Biblica (1004)
pp. 150-152. (T.K.C.)
JONAH, RABBI (ABULWALID MERWAN IBN JANAH, also R.
MARINUS) (c. 996-4;. 1050), the greatest Hebrew grammarian anc
lexicographer of the middle ages. He was born before the year
990, in Cordova, studied in Lucena, left his native city in 1012
and, after somewhat protracted wanderings, settled in Saragossa
where he died before 1050. He was a physician, and Ibn Abi
Usaibia, in his treatise on Arabian doctors, mentions him as the
author of a medical work. But Rabbi Jonah saw the true
vocation of his life in the scientific investigation of the Hebrew
language and in a rational biblical exegesis based upon sound
linguistic knowledge. It is true, he wrote no actual commentary
on the Bible, but his philological works exercised the greatest
influence on Judaic exegesis. His first work — composed, like
all the rest, in Arabic— bears the title Almuslalha, and forms,
as is indicated by the word, a criticism and at the same time a
supplement to the two works of Yehuda 'Hayyuj on the verbs
with weak-sounding and double-sounding roots. These two trac-
tates, with which 'Hayyuj had laid the foundations of scientific
Hebrew grammar, were recognized by Abulwalid as the basis
of his own grammatical investigations, and Abraham Ibn Daud,
when enumerating the great Spanish Jews in his history, sums
up the significance of R. Jonah in the words: " He completed
what 'Hayyuj had begun." The principal work of R. Jonah is
the Kitab al Tanfcih (" Book of Exact Investigation") , which con-
sists of two parts, regarded as two distinct books — the Kitab al-
Luma (" Book of Many-coloured Flower-beds ") and the Kitab al-
usul (" Book of Roots "). The former (ed. J. Derenbourg, Paris,
1886) contains the grammar, the latter (ed. Ad. Neubauer, Oxford,
1875) the lexicon of the Hebrew language. Both works are also
published in the Hebrew translation of Yehuda Ibn Tibbon
(Sefer Ha-Rikmah, ed. B. Goldberg, Frankfurt am Main, 1855;
Sefer Ha-Schoraschim, ed. W. Bacher, Berlin, 1897). The other
writings of Rabbi Jonah, so far as extant, have appeared in an
edition of the Arabic original accompanied by a French transla-
tion (Opuscules el Irailes d'Abou'l Walid, ed. Joseph and Hartwig
Derenbourg, Paris 1880). A few fragments and numerous
quotations in his principal book form our only knowledge of the
Kitab al-Tashwir (" Book of Refutation ") a controversial work
in four parts, in which Rabbi Jonah successfully repelled the
attacks of the opponents of his first treatise. At the head of
this opposition stood the famous Samuel Ibn Nagdela (S. Ha-
Nagid) a disciple of 'rjayyuj. The grammatical work of Rabbi
Jonah extended, moreover, to the domain of rhetoric and
biblical hermeneutics, and his lexicon contains many exeget-
ical excursuses. This lexicon is of especial importance by reason
of its ample contribution to the comparative philology of
the Semitic languages — Hebrew and Arabic, in particular.
Abulwalid's works mark the culminating point of Hebrew
scholarship during the middle ages, and he attained a level
which was not surpassed till the modern development of philo-
logical science in the igth century.
See S. Munk, Notice sur Abou'l Walid (Paris, 1851); W. Bacher,
Leben und Werke des A bulwalid und die Quellen seiner Schrifterkldrung
(Leipzig, 1885); id., Aus der Schrifterkldrung des Abulwalid (Leip-
zig, 1889); id., Die hebr.-arabische Sprachvergleichung des Abulwalid
(Vienna, 1884) ; id., Die hebrdisch-neuhebrdische und hebr.-aramdische
Sprachvergleichung des Abulwalid (Vienna, 1885). (W. BA.)
JONAS, JUSTUS (1493-1555), German Protestant reformer,
was born at Nordhausen in Thuringia, on the 5th of June 1493.
His real name was Jodokus (Jobst) Koch, which he changed
according to the common custom of German scholars in the
i6th century, when at the university of Erfurt. He entered
that university in 1506, studied law and the humanities, and
became Master of Arts in 1510. In 1511 he went to Wittenberg,
where he took his bachelor's degree in law. He returned to
Erfurt in 1514 or 1515, was ordained priest, and in 1518 was
promoted doctor in both faculties and appointed to a well-
endowed canonry in the church of St Severus, to which a profes-
497
sorship of law was attached. His great admiration for Erasmus
first led him to Greek and biblical studies, and his election in
May 1519 as rector of the university was regarded as a triumph
for the partisans of the New Learning. It was not, however,
until after the Leipzig disputation with Eck that Luther won
his allegiance. He accompanied Luther to Worms in 1521, and
there was appointed by the elector of Saxony professor of canon
law at Wittenberg. During Luther's stay in the Wartburg
Jonas was one of the most active of the Wittenberg reformers.
Giving himself up to preaching and polemics, he aided the
Reformation by his gift as a translator, turning Luther's and
Melanchthon's works into German or Latin as the case might
be, thus becoming a sort of double of both. He was busied in
conferences and visitations during the next twenty years, and
in diplomatic work with the princes. In 1541 he began a
successful preaching crusade in Halle; he became superintendent
of its churches in 1542. In 1546 he was present at Luther's
deathbed at Eisleben, and preached the funeral sermon; but
in the same year was banished from the duchy by Maurice,
duke (later elector) of Saxony. From that time until his death,
Jonas was unable to secure a satisfactory living. He wandered
from place to place preaching, and finally went to Eisfeld (1353),
where he died. He had been married three times.
See Briefswechsel des Justus Jonas, gesammelt und bearbeitet von
G. Kawerau (2 vols., Halle, 1884-1885) ; Kawerau's article in Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyklopddie, ed. 3, with bibliography.
JONATHAN (Heb. "Yah [weh] gives"). Of the many
Jewish bearers of this name, three are well known: (i) the
grandson of Moses, who was priest at Dan (Judg. xviii. 30).
The reading Manasseh (see R.V. mg.; obtained by inserting
n above the consonantal text in the Hebrew) is apparently
intended to suggest that' he was the son of that idolatrous king.
(2) The eldest son of Saul, who, together with his father,
freed Israel from the crushing oppression of the Philistines
(i Sam. xiii. seq.). Both are lauded in an elegy quoted from the
Book of Jashar (2 Sam. i.) for their warm mutual love, their
heroism, and their labours on behalf of the people. Jonathan's
name is most familiar for the firm friendship which subsisted
between him and David (i Sam. xviii. 1-4; xix. 1-7; xx., xxii. 8;
xxiii. 16-18), and when he fell at the battle of Gilboa and left
behind him a young child (i Sam. xxxi.; 2 Sam. iv. 4), David
took charge of the youth and gave him a place at his court
(2 Sam. ix.). See further DAVID, SAUL. (3) The Maccabee
(see JEWS; MACCABEES).
JONCIERES, VICTORIN (1839-1903), French composer, was
born in Paris on the i2th of April 1839. He first devoted his
attention to painting, but afterwards took up the serious study
of music. He entered the Paris Conservatoire, but did not
remain there long, because he had espoused too warmly the
cause of Wagner against his professor. He composed the
following operas: Sardanapale (1867), Le Dernier jour de
Pompei (1869), Dimitri (1876), La Reine Berthe (1878), Le
Chevalier Jean (1885), Lancelot (1900). He also wrote incidental
music to Hamlet, a symphony, and other works. Joncieres'
admiration for Wagner asserted itself rather in a musical than a
dramatic sense. The influence of the German master's earlier
style can be traced in his operas. Joncieres, however, adhered
to the recognized forms of the French opera and did not
model his works according to the later developments of the
Wagnerian " music drama." He may indeed be said to have
been at least as much influenced by Gounod as by Wagner.
From 1871 he was musical critic for La Liberte. He died on
the 26th of October 1903.
JONES, ALFRED GILPIN (1824-1906), Canadian politician,
was born at Weymouth, Nova Scotia, in September 1824, the
son of Guy C. Jones of Yarmouth, and grandson of a United
Empire Loyalist. In 1865 he opposed the federation of the
Sritish American provinces, and, in his anger at the refusal of
he British government to repeal such portions of the British
^orth America Act as referred to Nova Scotia, made a speech
which won for him the name of Haul-down-the-flag Jones. He
was for many years a member of the Federal Parliament, and
JONES, SIR A. L.— JONES, INIGO
for a few months in 1878 was minister of militia under the Liberal
government. Largely owing to his influence the Liberal party
refused in 1878 to abandon its Free Trade policy, an obstinacy
which led to its defeat in that year. In 1900 he was appointed
lieutenant-governor of his native province, and held this position
till his death on the isth of March 1906.
JONES, SIR ALFRED LEWIS (1845-1909), British shipowner,
was born in Carmarthenshire, in 1845. At the age of twelve he
was apprenticed to the managers of the African Steamship
Company at Liverpool, making several voyages to the west
coast of Africa. By the time he was twenty-six he had risen
to be manager of the business. Not finding sufficient scope in
this post, he borrowed money to purchase two or three small
sailing vessels, and started in the shipping business on his own
account. The venture succeeded, and he made additions to his
fleet, but after a few years' successful trading, realizing that
sailing ships were about to be superseded by steamers, he sold
his vessels. About this time (1891) Messrs. Elder, Dempster
& Co., who purchased the business of the old African Steamship
Company, offered him a managerial post. This offer he accepted,
subject to Messrs. Elder, Dempster selling him a number of their
shares, and he thus acquired an interest in the business, and
subsequently, by further share purchases, its control. See
further STEAMSHIP LINES. In 1901 he was knighted. Sir
Alfred Jones took a keen interest in imperial affairs, and was
instrumental in founding the Liverpool school of tropical
medicine. He acquired considerable territorial interests in
West Africa, and financial interests in many of the companies
engaged in opening up and developing that part of the world.
He also took the leading part in opening up a new line of com-
munication with the West Indies, and stimulating the Jamaica
fruit trade and tourist traffic. He died on the I3th of December
1009, leaving large charitable bequests.
JONES, EBENEZER (1820-1860), British poet, was born in
Islington, London, on the 2oth of January 1820. His father,
who was of Welsh extraction, was a strict Calvinist, and Ebenezer
was educated at a dull, middle-class school. The death of his
father obliged him to become a clerk in the office of a tea
merchant. Shelley and Carlyle were his spiritual masters, and
he spent all his spare time in reading and writing; but he
developed an exaggerated style of thought and expression, due
partly to a defective education. The unkind reception of his
Studies of Sensation and Event (1843) seemed to be the last drop
in his bitter cup of life. Baffled and disheartened, he destroyed
his manuscripts. He earned his living as an accountant and by
literary hack work, and it was not until he was rapidly dying of
consumption that he wrote his three remarkable poems, " Winter
Hymn to the Snow," " When the World is Burning " and "To
Death." The fame that these and some of the pieces in the
early volume brought to their author came too late. He died
on the I4th of September 1860.
It was not till 1870 that Dante Gabriel Rossetti praised his work
in Notes and Queries. Rossetti's example was followed by W. B.
Scott, Theodore Watts-Dunton, who contributed some papers
on the subject to the Athenaeum (September and October 1878),
and R. H. Sheppard, who edited Studies of Sensation and Event
in 1879.
JONES, ERNEST CHARLES (1810-1863), English Chartist,
was born at Berlin on the 2sth of January 1819, and educated
in Germany. His father, an officer in the British army, was then
equerry to the duke of Cumberland — afterwards king of Hanover.
In 1838 Jones came to England, and in 1841 published anony-
mously The Wood Spirit, a romantic novel. This was followed
by some songs and poems. In 1844 he was called to the bar at
the Middle Temple. In 1845 he joined the Chartist agitation,
quickly becoming its most prominent figure, and vigorously
carrying on the party's campaign on the platform and in the
press. His speeches, in which he openly advocated physical
force, led to his prosecution, and he was sentenced in 1848 to
two years' imprisonment for sedition. While in prison he wrote,
it is said in his own blood on leaves torn from a prayer-book,
Tie Revolt of Hindostan, an epic poem. On his release he again
became the leader of what remained of the Chartist party and
editor of its organ. But he was almost its only public speaker;
he was out of sympathy with the other leading Chartists, and
soon joined the advanced Radical party. Thenceforward he
devoted himself to law and literature, writing novels, tales and
political songs. He made several unsuccessful attempts to
enter parliament, and was about to contest Manchester, with
the certainty of being returned, when he died there on the 26th
of January 1869. He is believed to have sacrificed a consider-
able fortune rather than abandon his Chartist principles. His
wife was Jane Atherley; and his son, Llewellyn Atherley-Jones,
K.C. (b. 1851), became a well-known barrister and Liberal
member of parliament.
JONES, HENRY (1831-1899), English author, well known as a
writer on whist under his nom de guerre " Cavendish," was born
in London on the 2nd of November 1831, being the eldest son of
Henry D. Jones, a medical practitioner. He adopted his father's
profession, established himself in 1852 and continued for sixteen
years in practice in London. The father was a keen devotee of
whist, and under his eye the son became early in life a good player.
He was a member of several whist clubs, among them the " Caven-
dish," and in 1862 appeared his Principles of Whist, staled and
explained by " Cavendish," which was destined to become the
leading authority as to the practice of the game. This work
was followed by treatises on the laws of piquet and ecarte.
" Cavendish " also wrote on billiards, lawn tennis and croquet,
and contributed articles on whist and other games to the ninth
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. " 'Cavendish ' was not
a law-maker, but he codified and commented upon the laws which
had been made during many generations of card -playing." One
of the most noteworthy points in his character was the manner
in which he kept himself abreast of improvements in his favourite
game. He died on the loth of February 1899.
JONES, HENRY ARTHUR (1851- ), English dramatist,
was born at Grandborough, Buckinghamshire, on the 28th of
September 1851 the son of Silvanus Jones, a farmer. He began
to earn his living early, his spare time being given to literary
pursuits. He was twenty-seven before his first piece, Only
Round the Corner, was produced at the Exeter Theatre, but within
four years of his debut as a dramatist he scored a great success by
The Silver King (November 1882), written with Henry Herman, a
melodrama produced by Wilson Barrett at the Princess's Theatre.
Its financial success enabled the author to write a play " to
please himself." Saints and Sinners (1884), which ran for two
hundred nights, placed on the stage a picture of middle-class life
and religion in a country town, and the introduction of the
religious element raised considerable outcry. The author de-
fended himself in an article published in the Nineteenth Century
(January 1885), taking for his starting-point a quotation from
the preface to Moliere's Tartuffe. His next serious piece was
The Middleman (1889), followed by Judah (1890), both power-
ful plays, which established his reputation. Later plays were
The Dancing Girl (1891), The Crusaders (1891), The Bauble Shop
(1893), The Tempter (1893), TheMasqueraders(i&<)4),TheCaseof
Rebellious Susan (1894), The Triumph of the Philistines (1895),
Michael and his Lost Angel (1896), The Rogue's Comedy (i&<)6),The
Physician (1897), The Liars (1897), Carnac Sahib (1899), The
Manoeuvres of Jane (1899), The Lackeys' Carnival (19°°), Mrs
Dane's Defence (1900), The Princess's Nose (1902), Chance the Idol
(1902), Whitewashing Julia (1903), Joseph Entangled (1904), The
Chevalier (1904), &c. A uniform edition of his plays began to be
issued in 1891; and his own views of dramatic art have been
expressed from time to time in lectures and essays, collected in
1895 as The Renascence of the English Drama.
JONES, INIGO (1573-1651). English architect, sometimes
called the " English Palladio," the son of a cloth-worker, was
born in London on the isth of July 1573. It is stated that he
was apprenticed to a joiner, but at any rate his talent for drawing
attracted the attention of Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel
(some say William, 3rd earl of Pembroke), through whose help he
went to study landscape-painting in Italy. His preference soon
transferred itself to architecture, and, following chiefly the style
JONES, J.— JONES, J. P.
of Palladio, he acquired at Venice such a reputation that in 1604
he was invited by Christian IV. to Denmark, where he is said to
have designed the two great royal palaces of Rosenberg and
Frederiksborg. In the following year he accompanied Anne of
Denmark to the court of James I. of England, where, besides
being appointed architect to the queen and Prince Henry, he was
employed in supplying the designs and decorations of the court
masques. After a second visit to Italy in 1612, Jones was ap-
pointed surveyor-general of royal buildings by James I., and was
engaged to prepare designs for a new palace at Whitehall. In 1620
he was employed by the king to investigate the origin of Stone-
henge, when he came to the absurd conclusion that it had been a
Roman temple. Shortly afterwards he was appointed one of
the commissioners for the repair of St Paul's, but the work was
not begun till 1633. Under Charles I. he enjoyed the same offices
as under his predecessor, and in the capacity of designer of the
masques he came into collison with Ben Jonson, who frequently
made him the butt of his satire. After the Civil War Jones was
forced to pay heavy fines as a courtier and malignant. He died
in poverty on the 5th of July 1651.
A list of the principal buildings designed by Jones is given in
Dallaway's edition of Walpole's Anecdotes of Painting, and for an
estimate of him as an architect see Fergusson's History of Modern
Architecture. The Architecture of Palladio, in 4 books, by Inigo
Jones, appeared in 1715 ; The Most Notable Antiquity of Great Britain,
called Stonehenge, restored by Inigo Jones, in 1655 fed- with memoir,
1725); the Designs of Inigo Jones, by W. Kent, in 1727; and The
Designs of Inigo Jones, by J. Ware, in 1757. See also G. H. Birch,
London Churches of the XVIIth and XVIIIth Centuries (1896);
W. J. Loftie, Inigo Jones and Wren, or the Rise and Decline of Modern
Architecture in England (1893).
JONES, JOHN (c. 1800-1882), English art collector, was born
about 1800 in or near London. He was apprenticed to a tailor,
and about 1825 opened a shop of his own in the west-end of
London. In 1850 he was able to retire from active management
with a large fortune. When quite a young man he had begun to
collect articles of vertu. The rooms over his shop in which he
at first lived were soon crowded, and even the bedrooms of his
new house in Piccadilly were filled with art treasures. His
collection was valued at approximately £250,000. Jones died
in London on the 7th of January 1882, leaving his pictures,
furniture and objects of art to the South Kensington Museum.
A Catalogue of the Jones Bequest was published by the Museum in
1882, and a Handbook, with memoir, in 1883.
JONES, JOHN PAUL (1747-1792), American naval officer,
was born on the 6th of July 1747, on the estate of Arbigland, in
the parish of Kirkbean and the stewartry of Kirkcudbright,
Scotland. His father, John Paul, was gardener to Robert Craik,
a member of parliament; and his mother, Jean Macduff, was the
daughter of a Highlander. Young John Paul, at the age of
twelve, became shipmaster's apprentice to a merchant of White-'
haven, named Younger. At seventeen he shipped as second
mate and in the next year as first mate in one of his master's
vessels; on being released from his indentures, he acquired an
interest in a ship, and as first mate made two voyages between
Jamaica and the Guinea coast, trading in slaves. Becoming dis-
satisfied with this kind of employment, he sold his share in the
ship and embarked for England. During the voyage both the
captain and the mate died of fever, and John Paul took command
and brought the ship safely to port. The owners gave him and
the crew 10% of the cargo; after 1768, as captain of one of .their
merchantmen, John Paul made several voyages to America;
but for unknown reasons he suddenly gave up his command to
live in America in poverty and obscurity until 1775. During
this period he assumed the name of Jones, apparently out of
regard for Willie Jones, a wealthy planter and prominent political
leader of North Carolina, who had befriended John Paul in his
days of poverty.
When war broke out between England and her American
colonies, John Paul Jones was commissioned as a first lieutenant
by the Continental Congress, on the 22nd of December 1775. In
1776 he participated in the unsuccessful attack on the island of
New Providence, and as commander first of the " Providence "
499
and then of the " Alfred " he cruised between Bermuda and
Nova Scotia, inflicting much damage on British shipping and
fisheries. On the loth of October 1776 he was promoted captain.
On the ist of November 1777 he sailed in the sloop-of-war
" Ranger " for France with despatches for the American com-
missioners, announcing the surrender of Burgoyne and asking
that Jones should be supplied with a swift frigate for harassing
the coasts of England. Failing to secure a frigate, Jones sailed
from Brest in the " Ranger " on the loth of April 1778. A few
days later he surprised the garrisons of the two forts commanding
the harbour of Whitehaven, a port with which he was familiar
from boyhood, spiked the guns and made an unsuccessful attempt
to fire the shipping. Four days thereafter he encountered the
British sloop-of-war " Drake," a vessel slightly superior to his in
fighting capacity, and after an hour's engagement the British
ship struck her colours and was taken to Brest. By this exploit
Jones became a great hero in the eyes of the French, just begin-
ning a war with Great Britain. With the rank of commodore he
was now put at the head of a squadron of five ships. His flagship,
the " Duras," a re-fitted East Indiaman, was re-named by him
the " Bonhomme Richard," as a compliment to Benjamin Frank-
lin, whose Poor Richard's Almanac was then popular in France.
On the i4th of August the five ships sailed from L 'Orient, accom-
panied by two French privateers. Several of the French com-
manders under Jones proved insubordinate, and the privateers
and three of the men-of-war soon deserted him. With the others,
however, he continued to take prizes, and even planned to attack
the port of Leith, but was prevented by unfavourable winds. On
the evening of the 2^rd of September the three men-of-war
sighted two British men-of-war, the " Serapis " and the " Countess
of Scarbrough," off Flamborough Head. The " Alliance,"
commanded by Captain Landais, made off, leaving the " Bon-
hQmme Richard " and the " Pallas " to engage the Englishmen.
Jones engaged the greatly superior " Serapis," and after a des-
perate battle of three and a half hours compelled the English ship
to surrender. The " Countess of Scarbrough " had meanwhile
struck to the more formidable " Pallas." Jones transferred his
men and supplies to the " Serapis," and the next day the " Bon-
homme Richard " sank.
During the following year Jones spent much of his time
in Paris. Louis XVI. gave him a gold-hiked sword and
the royal order of military merit, and made him chevalier of
France. Early in 1781 Jones returned to America to secure
a new command. Congress offered him the command of the
" America," a frigate then building, but the vessel was shortly
afterwards given to France. In November 1783 he was sent to
Paris as agent for the prizes captured in European waters under
his own command, and although he gave much attention to
social affairs and engaged in several private business enter-
prises, he was very successful in collecting the prize money.
Early in 1787 he returned to America and received a gold
medal from Congress in recognition of his services.
In 1788 Jones entered the service of the empress Catherine of
Russia, avowing his intention, however, " to preserve the con-
dition of an American citizen and officer." As a rear-admiral he
took part in the naval campaign in the Liman (an arm of the
Black Sea, into which flow the Bug and Dnieper rivers) against
the Turks, but the jealous intrigues of Russian officers caused
him to be recalled to St Petersburg for the pretended purpose of
being transferred to a command in the North Sea. Here he was
compelled to remain in idleness, while rival officers plotted
against him and even maliciously assailed his private character.
In August 1789 he left St Petersburg a bitterly disappointed
man. In May 1790 he arrived in Paris, where he remained in
retirement during the rest of his life, although he made several
efforts to re-enter the Russian service.
Undue exertion and exposure had wasted his strength before
he reached the prime of life, and after an illness, in which he
was attended by the queen's physician, he died on the i8th of
July 1792. His body was interred in the St Louis cemetery
for foreign Protestants, the funeral expenses being paid from
the private purse of Pierrot Frangois Simmoneau, the king's
500
JONES, M.— JONES, T. R.
commissary. In the confusion during the following years the
burial place of Paul Jones was forgotten; but in June 1899
General Horace Porter, American ambassador to France,
began a systematic search for the body, and after excavations on
the site of the old Protestant cemetery, now covered with houses,
a leaden coffin was discovered, which contained the body in a
remarkable state of preservation. In July 1905 a fleet of
American war-ships carried the body to Annapolis, where it
now rests in one of the buildings of the naval academy.
Jones was a seaman of great bravery and technical ability,
but over-jealous of his reputation and inclined to be querulous
and boastful. The charges by the English that he was a pirate
were particularly galling to him. Although of unprepossessing
appearance, 5 ft. 7 in. in height and slightly round-shouldered,
he was noted for his pleasant manners and was welcomed into
the most brilliant courts of Europe.
Romance has played with the memory of Paul Jones to such an
extent that few accounts of his life are correct. Of the early bio-
graphies the best are Sherburne's (London, 1825), chiefly a collection
of Jones's correspondence; the Janelte-Taylor Collection (New York,
1830), containing numerous extracts from his letters and journals;
and the life by A. S. MacKenzie (2 vols., New York, 1846). In
recent years a number of new biographies have appeared, including
A. C. Buell's (2 vols., 1900), the trustworthiness of which has been
discredited, and Hutchins Hspgood's in the Riverside Biographical
Series (1901). The life by Cyrus Townsend Brady in the " Great
Commanders Series " (1900) is perhaps the best.
JONES, MICHAEL (d. 1649), British soldier. His father was
bishop of Killaloe in Ireland. At the outbreak of the English
Civil War he was studying law, but he soon took service in
the army of the king in Ireland. He was present with Ormonde's
army in many of the expeditions and combats of the devastating
Irish War, but upon the conclusion of the " Irish Cessation "
(see ORMONDE, JAMES BUTLER, DUKE or) he resolved to leave
the king's service for that of the parliament, in which he soon
distinguished himself by his activity and skill. In the Welsh
War, and especially at the last great victory at Rowton Heath,
Jones's cavalry was always far superior to that of the Royalists,
and in reward for his services he was made governor of Chester
when that city fell into the hands of the parliament. Soon
afterwards Jones was sent again to the Irish War, in the capacity
of commander-in-chief. He began his work by reorganizing
the army in the neighbourhood of Dublin, and for some time he
carried on a desultory war of posts, necessarily more concerned
for his supplies than for a victory. But at Dungan Hill he
obtained a complete success over the army of General Preston,
and though the war was by no means ended, Jones was able to
hold a large tract of country for the parliament. But on the
execution of Charles I., the war entered upon a new phase, and
garrison after garrison fell to Ormonde's Royalists. Soon Jones
was shut up in Dublin, and then followed a siege which was
regarded both in England and Ireland with the most intense
interest. On the 2nd of August 1649 the Dublia garrison
relieved itself by the brilliant action of Rathmines, in which
the royal army was practically destroyed. A fortnight later
Cromwell landed with heavy reinforcements from England.
Jones, his lieutenant-general, took the field; but on the igth
of December 1649 he died, worn out by the fatigues of the
campaign.
JONES, OWEN (1741-1814), Welsh antiquary, was born
on the 3rd of September 1741 at Llanvihangel Glyn y Myvyr in
Denbighshire. In 1760 he entered the service of a London
firm of furriers, to whose business he ultimately succeeded.
He had from boyhood studied Welsh literature, and later
devoted time and money to its collection. Assisted by Edward
William of Glamorgan (lolo Morganwg) and Dr. Owen Pughe, he
published, at a cost of more than £1000, the well-known Myvyrian
Archaiology of Wales (1801-1807), a collection of pieces dating
from the 6th to the I4th century. The manuscripts which he
had brought together are deposited in the British Museum;
the material not utilized in the Myvyrian Archaiology amounts
to 100 volumes, containing 16,000 pages of verse and 15,300
pages of prose. Jones was the founder of the Gwyneddigion
Society (1772) in London for the encouragement of Welsh
studies and literature; and he began in 1805 a miscellany — the
Greal — of which only one volume appeared. An edition of
the poems of Davydd ab Gwilym was also issued at his expense.
He died on the 26th of December 1814 at his business premises in
Upper Thames Street, 'London.
JONES, OWEN (1800-1874), British architect and art decora-
tor, son of Owen Jones, a Welsh antiquary, was born in London.
After an apprenticeship of six years in an architect's office,
he travelled for four years in Italy, Greece, Turkey, Egypt
and Spain, making a special study of the Alhambra. On his
return to England in 1836 he busied himself in his professional
work. His forte was interior decoration, for which his formula
was: " Form without colour is like a body without a soul."
He was one of the superintendents of works for the Exhibi-
tion of 1851 and was responsible for the general decoration of
the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. Along with Digby Wyatt,
Jones collected the casts of works of art with which the palace
was filled. He died in London on the igth of April 1874.
Owen Jones was described in the Builder for 1874 as " the most
potent apostle of colour that architectural England has had in
these days." His range of activity is to be traced in his works:
Plans, Elevations and Details of the Alhambra (1835-1845), in which he
was assisted by MM. Goury and Gayangos; Designs for Mosaic and
Tesselated Pavements (1842) ; Polychromatic Ornament of Italy (1845) ;
An Attempt to Define the Principles which retulate the Employment of
Colour in Decorative Arts (1852); Handbook to the Alhambra Court
(1854); Grammar of Ornament (1856), a very important work; One
Thousand and One Initial Letters (1864); Seven Hundred and Two
Monograms (1864); and Examples of Chinese Ornament (1867).
JONES, RICHARD (1790-1855), English economist, was
born at Tunbridge Wells. The son of a solicitor, he was intended
for the legal profession, and was educated at Caius College,
Cambridge. Owing to ill-health, he abandoned the idea of the
law and took orders soon after leaving Cambridge. For several
years he held curacies in Sussex and Kent. In 1833 he was
appointed professor of political economy at King's College,
London, resigning this post in 1835 to succeed T. R. Malthus in
the chair of political economy and history at the East India
College at Haileybury. He took an active part in the commuta-
tion of tithes in 1836 and showed great ability as a tithe
commissioner, an office which he filled till 1851. He was for some
time, also, a charity commissioner. He died at Haileybury,
shortly after he had resigned his professorship, on the 26th of
January 1855. In 1831 Jones published his Essay on the Distri-
bution of Wealth and on the Sources of Taxation, his most important
work. In it he showed himself a thorough-going critic of the
Ricardian system.
Jones's method is inductive; his conclusions are founded on a wide
observation of contemporary facts, aided by the study of history.
The world he professed to study was not an imaginary world, in-
habited by abstract "economic men," but the real world with the
different forms which the ownership and cultivation of land, and, in
general, the conditions of production and distribution, assume at
different times and places. His recognition of such different
systems of life in communities occupying different stages in the
progress of civilization led to his proposal of what he called a
political economy of nations." This was a protest against the
practice 6f taking the exceptional state of facts which exists, and
is indeed only partially realized, in a small corner of our planet
as representing the uniform type of human societies, and ignoring
the effects of the early history and special development of each
community as influencing its economic phenomena. Jones is re-
markable for his freedom from exaggeration and one-sided statement ;
thus.-whilst holding Malthus in, perhaps, undue esteem, he declines
to accept the proposition that an increase of the means of subsistence
is necessarily followed by an increase of population; and he main-
tains what is undoubtedly true, that with the growth of population,
in all well-governed and prosperous states, the command over food,
instead of diminishing, increases.
A collected edition of Jones's works, with a preface by W.Whewell,
was published in 1859.
JONES, THOMAS RUPERT (1810- ), English geologist
and palaeontologist, was born in London on the ist of October
1819. While at a private school at Ilminster, his attention was
attracted to geology by the fossils that are so abundant in the
Lias quarries. In 1835 he was apprenticed to a surgeon at
Taunton, and he completed his apprenticeship in 1842 at
JONES, W.--JONKOPING
Newbury in Berkshire. He was then engaged in practice mainly
in London, till in 1849 he was appointed assistant secretary
to the Geological Society of London. In 1862 he was made
professor of geology at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst.
Having devoted his especial attention to fossil microzoa, he now
became the highest authority in England on the Foraminifera
and Entomostraca. He edited the' 2nd edition of Mantell's
Medals of Creation (1854), the 3rd edition of Mantell's Geological
Excursions round the Isle of Wight (1854), and the 7th edition
of Mantell's Wonders of Geology (1857); he also edited the 2nd
edition of Dixon's Geology of Sussex (1878). He was elected
F.R.S. in 1872 and was awarded the Lyell medal by the Geologi-
cal Society in 1890. For many years he was specially interested
in the geology of South Africa.
His publications include A Monograph of the Entomostraca of the
Cretaceous Formation of England (Palaeontograph. Soc., 1849);
A Monograph of the Tertiary Entomostraca of England (ibid. 1857);
A Monograph of the Fossil Estheriae (ibid. 1862); A Monograph of
the Foraminifera of the Crag (ibid. 1866, &c., with H. B. Brady);
and numerous articles in the Annals and Magazine of Natural
History, the Geological Magazine, the Proceedings of the Geologists'
Association, and other journals.
JONES, WILLIAM (1726-1800), English divine, was born at
Lowick, in Northamptonshire on the 3Oth of July 1726. He was
descended from an old Welsh family and one of his progenitors
was Colonel John Jones, brother-in-law of Cromwell. He was
educated' at Charterhouse School, and at University College,
Oxford. There a kindred taste for music, as well as a similarity
in regard to other points of character, led to his close intimacy
with George Home (<?.».), afterwards bishop of Norwich,
whom he induced to study Hutchinsonian doctrines. After
obtaining his bachelor's degree in 1749, Jones held various
preferments. In 1777 he obtained the perpetual curacy of
Nayland, Suffolk, and on Home's appointment to Norwich
became his chaplain, afterwards writing his life. His vicarage
became the centre of a High Church coterie, and Jones himself
was a link between the non-jurors and the Oxford movement.
He could write intelligibly on abstruse topics. He died on the
6th of January 1800.
In 1756 Jones published his tractate On the Catholic Doctrine of the
Trinity, a statement of the doctrine from the Hutchinsonian point
of view, with a succinct and able summary of biblical proofs. This
was followed in 1762 by an Essay on the First Principles of Natural
Philosophy, in which he maintained the theories of Hutchinson in
opposition to those of Sir Isaac Newton, and in 1781 he dealt with
the same subject in Physiological Disquisitions. Jones was also the
originator of the British Critic (May 1793). His collected works,
with a life by William Stevens, appeared in 1801, in 12 vols., and
were condensed into 6 vols. in 1810. A life of Jones, forming pt. 5
of the Biography of English Divines, was published in 1849.
JONES, SIR WILLIAM (1746-1794), British Orientalist and
jurist, was born in London on the 28th of September 1746.
He distinguished himself at Harrow, and during his last three
years there applied himself to the study of Oriental languages,
teaching himself the rudiments of Arabic, and reading Hebrew
with tolerable ease. In his vacations he improved his acquain-
tance with French and Italian. In 1764 Jones entered Uni-
versity College, Oxford, where he continued to study Oriental
literature, and perfected himself in Persian and Arabic by the aid
of a Syrian Mirza, whom he had discovered and brought from
London. He added to his knowledge of Hebrew and made
considerable progress in Italian, Spanish and Portuguese.
He began the study of Chinese, and made himself master of
the radical characters of that language. During five years he
partly supported himself by acting as tutor to Lord Althorpe,
afterwards the second Earl Spencer, and in 1766 he obtained a
fellowship. Though but twenty-two years of age, he was already
becoming famous as an Orientalist, and when Christian VII. of
Denmark visited England in 1768, bringing with him a life of
Nadir Shah in Persian, Jones was requested to translate the
MS. into French. The translation appeared in 1770, with an
introduction containing a description of Asia and a short
history of Persia. This was followed in the same year by a TraM
sur la poesie orientale, and by a French metrical translation of
the odes of Hafiz. In 1771 he published a Dissertation sur la
litterature orientate, defending Oxford scholars against the
criticisms made by Anquetil Du Perron in the introduction to his
translation of the Zend-Avesta. In the same year appeared his
Grammar of the Persian Language. In 1772 Jones published a
volume of Poems, Chiefly Translations from Asiatick Languages,
together with Two Essays on the Poetry of Eastern Nations and
on the Arts commonly called Imitative, and in 1774 a treatise
entitled Poeseos Asiatics commentalorium libri sex, which defi-
nitely confirmed his authority as an Oriental scholar.
Finding that some more financially profitable occupation was
necessary, Jones devoted himself with his customary energy
to the study of the law, and was called to the bar at the Middle
Temple in 1774. He studied not merely the technicalities, but
the philosophy, of law, and within two years had acquired so
considerable a reputation that he was in 1776 appointed commis-
sioner in bankruptcy. Besides writing an Essay on the Law of
Bailments, which enjoyed a high reputation both in England and
America, Jones translated, in 1778, the speeches of Isaeus on the
Athenian right of inheritance. In 1780 he was a parliamentary
candidate for the university of Oxford, but withdrew from
the contest before the day of election, as he found he had no
chance of success owing to his Liberal opinions, especially on
the questions of the American War and of the slave trade.
In 1783 was published his translation of the seven ancient
Arabic poems called Moallakdt. In the same year he was ap-
pointed judge of the supreme court of judicature at Calcutta,
then " Fort William," and was knighted. Shortly after his arrival
in India he founded, in January 1784, the Bengal Asiatic Society,
of which he remained president till his death. Convinced as he
was of the great importance of consulting the Hindu legal
authorities in the original, he at once began the study of Sanskrit,
and undertook, in 1788, the colossal task of compiling a digest
of Hindu and Mahommedan law. This he did not live to com-
plete, but he published the admirable beginnings of it in his
Institutes of Hindu Law, or the Ordinances of Manu (1794); his
Mohammedan Law of Succession to Property of Intestates; and his
Mohammedan Law of Inheritance (1792). In 178$ Jones had
completed his translation of Kalidasa's most famous drama,
Sakuntald. He also translated the collection of fables entitled
the Hitopadesa, the Gttagovinda, and considerable portions of the
Vedas, besides editing the text of Kalidasa's poem Rilusamhara.
He was a large contributor also to his society's volumes of
Asiatic Researches.
His unremitting literary labours, together with his heavy
judicial work, told on his health after a ten years' residence in
Bengal; and he died at Calcutta on the 27th of April 1794. An
extraordinary linguist, knowing thirteen languages well, and
having a moderate acquaintance with twenty-eight others, his
range of knowledge was enormous. As a pioneer in Sanskrit
learning and as founder of the Asiatic Society he rendered the
language and literature of the ancient Hindus accessible to
European scholars, and thus became the indirect cause of later
achievements in the field of Sanskrit and comparative philology.
A monument to his memory was erected by the East India
Company in St Paul's, London, and a statue in Calcutta.
See the Memoir (1804) by Lord Teignmouth, published in the
collected edition of Sir W. Jones's works.
JONKOPING, a town of Sweden, capital of the district (la'n) of
Jonkoping, 230 m. S.W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900),
23,143. It occupies a beautiful but somewhat unhealthy position
between the southern end of Lake Vetter and two small lakes,
Roksjo and Munksjo. Two quarters of the town, Svenska Mad
and Tyska Mad, recall the time when the site was a marsh (mad),
and buildings were constructed on piles. The residential
suburbs among the hills, especially Dunkehallar, are attractive
and healthier than the town. The church of St Kristine
(c. 1650), the court-houses, town-hall, government buildings, and
high school, are noteworthy. The town is one of the leading in-
dustrial centres in Sweden. The match manufacture, for which
it is principally famous, was founded by Johan Edvard Lund-
strb'm in 1844. The well-known brand of sakerhets-tttndslickor
5o2 JONSON
(safety-matches) was introduced later. There are also textile
manufactures, paper-factories (on Munksjo), and mechanical
works. There is a large fire-arms factory at Huskvarna, 5.m E.
Water-power is supplied here by a fine series of falls. The hill
Taberg, 8 m. S., is a mass of magnetic iron ore, rising 410 ft. above
the surrounding country, 2950 ft. long and 1475 ft. broad, but
the percentage of iron is low as compared with the rich ores of
other parts, and the deposit is little worked. Jonkoping is the
seat of one of the three courts of appeal in Sweden.
Jonkoping received the earliest extant Swedish charter in 1 284
from Magnus I. The castle is mentioned in 1 263, when Waldemar
Birgersson married the Danish princess Sophia. Jonkoping was
afterwards the scene of many events of moment in Scandinavian
history — of parliaments in 1357, 1439, and 1599; of the meeting
of the Danish and Swedish plenipotentiaries in 1448; and of the
death of Sten Sture, the elder, in 1503. In 1612 Gustavus
Adolphus caused the inhabitants to destroy their town lest it
should fall into the hands of the Danes; but it was rebuilt soon
after, and in 1620 received special privileges' from the king. At
this period a textile industry was started here, the first of any
importance in Sweden. It was from the Dutch and German
workmen, introduced at this time, that the quarter Tyska Mad
received its name. On the loth of December 1809 the plenipo-
tentiaries of Sweden and Denmark concluded peace in the town.
JONSON, BEN1 (1573-1637), English dramatist, was born,
probably in Westminster, in the beginning of the year 1573 (or
possibly, if he reckoned by the unadopted modern calendar,
1572; see Castelain, p. 4, note i). By the poet's account his
grandfather had been a gentleman who "came from" Carlisle,
and originally, the grandson thought, from Annandale. His
arms, " three spindles or rhombi," are the family device of the
Johnstones of Annandale, a fact which confirms his assertion of
Border descent. Ben Jonson further related that he was born
a month after the death of his father, who, after suffering in
estate and person under Queen Mary, had in the end " turned
minister." Two years after the birth of her son the widow
married again; she may be supposed to have loved him in a
passionate way peculiar to herself, since on one occasion we
find her revealing an almost ferocious determination to save his
honour at the cost of both his life and her own. Jonson's
stepfather was a master bricklayer, living in Hartshorn Lane,
near Charing Cross, who provided his stepson with the founda-
tions of a good education. After attending a private school in
St Martin's Lane, the boy was sent to Westminster School at
the expense, it is said, of William Camden. Jonson's gratitude
for an education to which in truth he owed an almost inestimable
debt concentrated itself upon the " most reverend head " of
his benefactor, then second and afterwards head master of the
famous school, and the firm friend of his pupil in later life.
After reaching the highest form at Westminster, Jonson is
stated, but on unsatisfactory evidence, to have proceeded to
Cambridge — according to Fuller, to St John's College. (For
reasons in support of the tradition that he was a member of
St John's College, see J. B. Mullinger, the Eagle, No. xxv.) He
says, however, himself that he studied at neither university, but
was put to a trade immediately on leaving school. He soon had
enough of the trade, which was no doubt his father's bricklaying,
for Henslowe in writing to Edward Alleyne of his affair with
Gabriel Spenser calls him " bergemen [sic] Jonson, bricklayer."
Either before or after his marriage — more probably before, as
Sir Francis Vere's three English regiments were not removed
from the Low Countries till 1592 — he spent some time in that
country soldiering, much to his own subsequent satisfaction
when the days of self-conscious retrospect arrived, but to no
further purpose beyond that of seeing something of the world.
Ben Jonson married not later than 1592. The registers of
St Martin's Church state that his eldest daughter Maria died in
November 1593 when she was, Jonson tells us (epigram 22),
only six months old. His eldest son Benjamin died of the plague
_*His Christian name of Benjamin was usually abbreviated by
himself and his contemporaries; and thus, in accordance with his
famous epitaph, it will always continue to be abbreviated.
ten years later (epigram 45). (A younger Benjamin died in
1635.) His wife Jonson characterized to Drummond as "a
shrew, but honest "; and for a period (undated) of five years he
preferred to live without her, enjoying the hospitality of Lord
Aubigny (afterwards duke of Lennox). Long burnings of oil
among his books, and long spells of recreation at the tavern,
such as Jonson loved, are not the most favoured accompaniments
of family life. But Jonson was no stranger to the tenderest of
affections: two at least of the several children whom his wife
bore to him he commemorated in touching little tributes of verse;
nor in speaking of his lost eldest daughter did he forget " her
mother's tears." By the middle of 1597 we come across further
documentary evidence of him at home in London in the shape
of an entry in Philip Henslowe's diary (July 28) of 35. 6d. " re-
ceived of Bengemenes Johnsones share." He was therefore by
this time — when Shakespeare, his senior by nearly nine years, was
already in prosperous circumstances and good esteem — at least
a regular member of the acting profession, with a fixed engage-
ment in the lord admiral's company, then performing under
Henslowe's management at the Rose. Perhaps he had previously
acted at the Curtain (a former house of the lord admiral's men),
and " taken mad Jeronimo's part " on a play-wagon in the high-
way. This latter appearance, if it ever took place, would, as was
pointed out by Gifford, probably have been in Thomas Kyd's
Spanish Tragedy, since in The First Part of Jeronimo Jonson would
have had, most inappropriately, to dwell on the " smaHness " of
his " bulk." He was at a subsequent date (1601) employed
by Henslowe to write up The Spanish Tragedy, and this fact
may have given rise to Wood's story of his performance as a
stroller (see, however, Fleay, The English Drama, ii. 29, 30).
Jonson's additions, which were not the first changes made in
the play, are usually supposed to be those printed with The
Spanish Tragedy in the edition of 1602; Charles Lamb's doubts
on the subject, which were shared by Coleridge, seem an instance
of that subjective kind of criticism which it is unsafe to follow
when the external evidence to the contrary is so strong.
According to Aubrey, whose statement must be taken for
what it is worth, " Jonson was never a good actor, but an ex-
cellent instructor." His physique was certainly not well adapted
to the histrionic conditions of his— perhaps of any — day; but,
in any case, it was not long before he found his place in the
organism of his company. In 1597, as we know from Henslowe,
Jonson undertook to write a play for the lord admiral's men;
and in the following year he was mentioned by Meres in his
Palladis Tamia as one of " the best for tragedy," without any
reference to a connexion on his part with the other branch of the
drama. Whether this was a criticism based on material evidence
or an unconscious slip, Ben Jonson in the same year 1598 pro-
duced one of the most famous of English comedies, Every Man in
his Humour, which was first acted — probably in the earlier part
of September — by the lord chamberlain's company at the
Curtain. Shakespeare was one of the actors in Jonson's comedy,
and it is in the character of Old Knowell in this very play that,
according to a bold but ingenious guess, he is represented in the
half-length portrait of him in the folio of 1623, beneath which
were printed Jonson's lines concerning the picture. Every Man
in his Humour was published in 1601; the critical prologue first
appears in the folio of 1616, and there are other divergences (see
Castelain, appendix A). After the Restoration the play was
revived in 1751 by Garrick (who acted Kitely) with alterations,
and long continued to be known on the stage. It was followed
in the same year by The Case is Altered, acted by the children of
the queen's revels, which contains a satirical attack upon the
pageant poet, Anthony Munday. This comedy, which was not
included in the folio editions, is one of intrigue rather than of
character; it contains obvious reminiscences of Shylock and his
daughter. The earlier of these two comedies was indisputably
successful.
Before the year 1598 was out, however, Jonson found himself
in prison and in danger of the gallows. In a duel, fought on the
22nd of September in Hogsden Fields, he had killed an actor of
Henslowe's company named Gabriel Spenser. The quarrel with
JONSON
503
Henslowe consequent on this event may account for the produc-
tion of Every Man in his Humour by the rival company. In
prison Jonson was visited by a Roman Catholic priest, and the
result (certainly strange, if Jonson's parentage is considered) was
his conversion to the Church of Rome, to which he adhered
for twelve years. Jonson was afterwards a diligent student of
divinity; but, though his mind was religious, it is not probable
that its natural bias much inclined it to dwell upon creeds and
their controversies. He pleaded guilty to the charge brought
against him, as the rolls of Middlesex sessions show; but, after
a short imprisonment, he was released by benefit of clergy,
forfeiting his " goods and chattels, "and being branded on his left
thumb. The affair does not seem to have affected his reputation ;
in 1 599 he is found back again at work for Henslowe, receiving to-
gether with Dekker, Chettle and " another gentleman," earnest-
money for a tragedy (undiscovered) called Robert II., King of
Scots. In the same year he brought out through the lord
chamberlain's company (possibly already at the Globe, then
newly built or building) the elaborate comedy of Every Man out
of his Humour (quarto 1600; fol. 1616) — a play subsequently pre-
sented before Queen Elizabeth. The sunshine of court favour,
rarely diffused during her reign in rays otherwise than figuratively
golden, was not to bring any material comfort to the most
learned of her dramatists, before there was laid upon her the
inevitable hand of which his courtly epilogue had besought death
to forget the use. Indeed, of his Cynthia's Revels, performed by
the chapel children in 1600 and printed with the first title of The
Fountain of Self-Love in 1601, though it was no doubt primarily
designed as a compliment to the queen, the most marked result
had been to offend two playwrights of note — Dekker, with
whom he had formerly worked in company, and who had a
healthy if rough grip of his own; and Marston, who was perhaps
less dangerous by his strength than by his versatility. Accord-
ing to Jonson, his quarrel with Marston had begun by the latter
attacking his morals, and in the course of it they came to blows,
and might have come to worse. In Cynthia's Revels, Dekker is
generally held to be satirized as Hedon, and Marston as Anaides
(Fleay, however, thinks Anaides is Dekker, and Hedon Daniel),
while the character of Crites most assuredly has some features
of Jonson himself. Learning the intention of the two writers
whom he had satirized, or at all events of Dekker, to wreak
literary vengeance upon him, he anticipated them in The Poetaster
(1601), again played by the children of the queen's chapel at the
Blackfriars and printed in 1602; Marston and Dekker are here
ridiculed respectively as the aristocratic Crispinus and the vulgar
Demetrius. The play was completed fifteen weeks after its plot
was first conceived. It is not certain to what the proceedings
against author and play before the lord chief justice, referred to
in the dedication of the edition of 1616, had reference, or when
they were instituted. Fleay's supposition that the " purge,"
said in the Returne from Parnassus (Pt. II. act iv. sc. iii.) to
have been administered by Shakespeare to Jonson in return for
Horace's " pill to the poets " in this piece, consisted of Troilus
and Cressida is supremely ingenious, but cannot be examined
here. As for Dekker, he retaliated on The Poetaster by the
Saliromastix, or The Untrussing of the Humorous Poet (1602).
Some more last words were indeed attempted on Jonson's part,
but in the A pologetic Dialogue added to The Poetaster in the edition
of 1616, though excluded from that of 1602, he says he intends to
turn his attention to tragedy. This intention he apparently
carried out immediately, for in 1602 he received £10 from
Henslowe for a play, entitled Richard Crookbacke, now lost —
unfortunately so, for purposes of comparison in particular, even
if it was only, as Fleay conjectures, " an alteration of Marlowe's
play." According to a statement by Overbury, early in 1603,
" Ben Johnson, the poet, now lives upon one Townesend,"
supposed to have been the poet and masque-writer Aurelian
Townshend, at one time steward to the ist earl of Salisbury,
"and scornes the world." To his other early patron, Lord
Aubigny, Jonson dedicated the first of his two extant tragedies,
Sejanus, produced by the king's servants at the Globe late in
1603, Shakespeare once more taking a part in the performance.
Either on its performance or on its appearing in print in 1605,
Jonson was called before the privy council by the Earl of North-
ampton. But it is open to question whether this was the occa-
sion on which, according to Jonson's statement to Drummond,
Northampton " accused him both of popery and treason " (see
Castelain, Appendix C). Though, for one reason or another,
unsuccessful at first, the endurance of its reputation is attested
by its performance, in a German version by an Englishman,
John Michael Girish, at the court of the grandson of James I. at
Heidelberg.
When the reign of James I. opened in England and an adula-
tory loyalty seemed intent on showing that it had not exhausted
itself at the feet of Gloriana, Jonson's well-stored brain and ready
pen had their share in devising and executing ingenious variations
on the theme " Welcome — since we cannot do without thee!"
With extraordinary promptitude his genius, which, far from being
" ponderous " in its operations, was singularly swift and flexible
in adapting itself to the demands made upon it, met the new
taste for masques and entertainments — new of course in degree
rather than in kind — introduced with the new reign and fostered
by both the king and his consort. The pageant which on the
7th of May 1603 bade the king welcome to a capital dissolved in
joy was partly of Jonson's, partly of Dekker's, devising; and he
was able to deepen and diversify the impression by the com-
position of masques presented to James I. when entertained at
houses of the nobility. The Satyr (1603) was produced on one of
these occasions, Queen Anne's sojourn at Althorpe, the seat,
of Sir Robert Spencer, afterwards Lord Althorpe, who seems
to have previously bestowed some patronage upon him. The
Penates followed on May-day 1604 at the house of Sir William
Cornwallis at Highgate, and the queen herself with her ladies
played his Masque of Blackness at Whitehall in 1605. He was
soon occasionally employed by the court itself— already in 1606 in
conjunction with Inigo Jones, as responsible for the " painting
and carpentry " — and thus speedily showed himself master in a
species of composition for which, more than any other English
poet before Milton, he secured an enduring place in the national
poetic literature. Personally, no doubt, he derived considerable
material benefit from the new fashion — more especially if his
statement to Drummond was anything like correct, that out of
his plays (which may be presumed to mean his original plays) he
had never gained a couple of hundred pounds.
Good humour seems to have come back with good fortune.
Joint employment in The King's Entertainment (1604) had recon-
ciled him with Dekker; and with Marston also, who in 1604
dedicated to him his Malcontent, he was again on pleasant terms.
When, therefore, in 1604 Marston and Chapman (who, Jonson
told Drummond, was loved of him, and whom he had probably
honoured as " Virgil " in The Poetaster, and who has, though on
doubtful grounds, been supposed to have collaborated in the
original Sejanus) produced the excellent comedy of Eastward Ho,
it appears to have contained some contributions by Jonson. At
all events, when the authors were arrested on account of one or
more passages in the play which were deemed insulting to the
Scots, he " voluntarily imprisoned himself " with them. They
were soon released, and a banquet at his expense, attended by
Camden and Selden, terminated the incident. If Jonson is to
be believed, there had been a report that the prisoners were
to have their ears and noses cut, and, with reference apparently
to this peril, " at the midst of the feast his old mother drank to
him, and showed him a paper which she had intended (if the
sentence had taken execution) to have mixed in the prison among
his drink, which was full of lusty strong poison; and that she was
no churl, she told him, she minded first to have drunk of it her-
self." Strange to say, in 1605 Jonson and Chapman, though the
former, as he averred, had so "attempered " his style as to have
" given no cause to any good man of grief," were again in prison
on account of " a play "; but they appear to have been once
more speedily set free, in consequence of a very manly and
dignified letter addressed by Jonson to the Earl of Salisbury. As
to the relations between Chapman and Jonson, illustrated by
newly discovered letters, see Bertram Dobell in the Athenaeum
504 JONSON
No. 3831 (March 30, 1901), and the comments of Castelain. He
thinks that the play in question, in which both Chapman and
Jonson took part, was Sir Gyles Goosecappe, and that the last
imprisonment of the two poets was shortly after the discovery
of the Gunpowder Plot. In the mysterious history of the Gun-
powder Plot Jonson certainly had some obscure part. On the
7th of November, very soon after the discovery of the conspiracy,
the council appears to have sent for him and to have asked him,
as a loyal Roman Catholic, to use his good offices in inducing
the priests to do something required by the council — one hardly
likes to conjecture it to have been some tampering with the
secrets of confession. In any case, the negotiations fell through,
because the priests declined to come forth out of their hiding-
places to be negotiated with — greatly to the wrath of Ben Jonson,
who declares in a letter to Lord Salisbury that " they are all so
enweaved in it that it will make 500 gentlemen less of the reli-
gion within this week, if they carry their understanding about
them." Jonson himself, however, did not declare his separation
from the Church of Rome for five years longer, however much
it might have been to his advantage to do so.
His powers as a dramatist were at their height during the
earlier half of the reign of James I.; and by the year 1616 he had
produced nearly all the plays which are worthy of his genius.
They include the tragedy of Catiline (acted and printed 1611),
which achieved only a doubtful success, and the comedies of
Volpone, or the Fox (acted 1605 and printed in 1607 with a dedi-
cation " from my house in the Blackfriars "), Epicoene, or the
Silent Woman (1609; entered in the Stationers' Register 1610),
the Alchemist(i6io; printed in 1610), Bartholomew Fair and The
Devil is an Ass (acted respectively in 1614 and 1616). During
the same period he produced several masques, usually in con-
nexion with Inigo Jones, with whom, however, he seems to have
quarrelled already in this reign, though it is very doubtful
whether the architect is really intended to be ridiculed in
Bartholomew Fair under the character of Lanthorn Leatherhead.
Littlewit, according to Fleay, is Daniel. Among the most
attractive of his masques may be mentioned the Masque of Black-
ness (1606), the Masque of Beauty (1608), and the Masque of
Queens (1609), described by Swinburne as " the most splendid
of all masques " and as " one of the typically splendid monu-
ments or trophies of English literature." In 1616 a modest
pension of 100 marks a year was conferred upon him; and possi-
bly this sign of royal favour may have encouraged him to the
publication of the first volume of the folio collected edition of
his works (1616), though there are indications that he had con-
templated its production, an exceptional task for a playwright
of his times to take in hand, as early as 1612.
He had other patrons more bountiful than the Crown, and for
a brief space of time (in 1613) had travelled to France as governor
(without apparently much moral authority) to the eldest son of
Sir Walter Raleigh, then a state prisoner in the Tower, for whose
society Jonson may have gained a liking at the Mermaid Tavern
in Cheapside, but for whose personal character he, like so many
of his contemporaries, seems to have had but small esteem. By
the year 1616 Jonson seems to have made up his mind to cease
writing for the stage, where neither his success nor his profits had
equalled his merits and expectations. He continued to produce
masques and entertainments when called upon; but he was
attracted by many other literary pursuits, and had already
accomplished enough to furnish plentiful materials for retro-
spective discourse over pipe or cup. He was already entitled to
lord it at the Mermaid, where his quick antagonist in earlier
wit-combats (if Fuller's famous description be authentic) no
longer appeared even on a visit from his comfortable retreat at
Stratford. That on the other hand Ben carried his wicked town
habits into Warwickshire, and there, together with Drayton,
made Shakespeare drink so hard with them as to bring upon him-
self the fatal fever which ended his days, is a scandal with which
we may fairly refuse to load Jonson's memory. That he had a
share in the 'preparing for the press of the first folio of Shake-
speare, or in the composition of its preface, is of course a mere
conjecture.
It was in the year 1618 that, like Dr Samuel Johnson a centurjr
and a half afterwards, Ben resolved to have a real holiday for
once, and about midsummer started for his ancestral country,
Scotland. He had (very heroically for a man of his habits)
determined to make the journey on foot; and he was speedily
followed by John Taylor, the water-poet, who still further handi-
capped himself by the condition that he would accomplish the
pilgrimage without a penny in his pocket. Jonson, who put
money in his good friend's purse when he came up with him at
Leith, spent more than a year and a half in the hospitable Low-
lands, being solemnly elected a burgess of Edinburgh, and on
another occasion entertained at a public banquet there. But
the best-remembered hospitality which he enjoyed was that of
the learned Scottish poet, William Drummond of Hawthornden,
to which we owe the so-called Conversations. In these famous
jottings, the work of no extenuating hand, Jonson lives for
us to this day, delivering his censures, terse as they are, in an
expansive mood whether of praise or of blame; nor is he at all
generously described in the postscript added by his fatigued and
at times irritated host as " a great lover and praiser of himself,
a contemner and scorner of others." A poetical account of this
journey, " with all the adventures," was burnt with Jonson's
library.
After his return to England Jonson appears to have resumed
his former course of life. Among his noble patrons and patron-
esses were the countess of Rutland (Sidney's daughter) and
her cousin Lady Wroth; and in 1619 his visits to the country
seats of the nobility were varied by a sojourn at Oxford with
Richard Corbet, the poet, at Christ Church, on which occasion he
took up the master's degree granted to him by the university;
whether he actually proceeded to the same degree granted to him
at Cambridge seems unknown. He confessed about this time
that he was or seemed growing " restive," i.e. lazy, though it
was not long before he returned to the occasional composition of
masques. The extremely spirited Gipsies Metamorphosed (1621)
was thrice presented before the king, who was so pleased with it
as to grant to the poet the reversion of the office of master of the
revels, besides proposing to confer upon him the honour of knight-
hood. This honour Jonson (hardly in deference to the memory
of Sir Petronel Flash) declined; but there was no reason why he
should not gratefully accept the increase of his pension in the
same year (1621) to £200 — a temporary increase only, inasmuch
as it still stood at ico marks when afterwards augmented by
Charles I.
The close of King James I. 's reign found the foremost of its poets
in anything but a prosperous condition. It would be unjust
to hold the Sun, the Dog, the Triple Tun, or the Old Devil with
its Apollo club-room, where Ben's supremacy must by this time
have become established, responsible for this result; taverns
were the clubs of that day, and a man of letters is not considered
lost in our own because he haunts a smoking-room in Pall Mall.
Disease had weakened the poet's strength, and the burning of his
library, as his Execration upon Vulcan sufficiently shows, must
have been no mere transitory trouble to a poor poet and scholar.
Moreover he cannot but have felt, from the time of the accession
of Charles I. early in 1625 onwards, that the royal patronage would
no longer be due in part to anything like intellectual sympathy.
He thus thought it best to recur to the surer way of writing for
the stage, and in 1625 produced, with no faint heart, but with
a very clear anticipation of the comments which would be made
upon the reappearance of the " huge, overgrown play-maker,"
The Staple of News, a comedy excellent in some respects, but little
calculated to become popular. It was not printed till 1631.
Jonson, whose habit of body was not more conducive than were
his ways of life to a healthy old age, had a paralytic stroke in
1626, and a second in 1628. In the latter year, on the death of
Middleton, the appointment of city chronologer, with a salary
of 100 nobles a year, was bestowed upon him. He appears to
have considered the duties of this office as purely ornamental;
but in 1631 his salary was suspended until he should have pre-
sented some fruits of his labours in his place, or — as he more
succinctly phrased it — "yesterday the barbarous court of
aldermen have withdrawn their chandlerly pension for verjuice
and mustard, £33, 6s. 8d." After being in 1628 arrested by mistake
on the utterly false charge of having written certain verses in
approval of the assassination of Buckingham, he was soon allowed
to return to Westminster, where it would appear from a letter of
his " son and contiguous neighbour," James Howell, he was living
in 1629, and about this time narrowly escaped another conflagra-
tion. In the same year (1629) he once more essayed the stage
with the comedy of The New Inn, which was actually, and on its
own merits not unjustly, damned on the first performance. It
was printed in 1631, " as it was never acted but most negligently
played "; and Jonson defended himself against his critics in his
spirited Ode to Himself. The epilogue to The New Inn having
dwelt not without dignity upon the neglect which the poet had
experienced at the hands of " king and queen," King Charles
immediately sent the unlucky author a gift of £100, and in
response to a further appeal increased his standing salary to
the same sum, with the addition of an annual tierce of canary
— the poet-laureate's customary royal gift, though this designa-
tion of an office, of which Jonson discharged some of what became
the ordinary functions, is not mentioned in the warrant dated
the 26th of March 1630. In 1634, by the king's desire, Jonson's
salary as chronologer to the city was again paid. To his later
years belong the comedies, The Magnetic Lady (i 63 2) and The Tale
of a Tub (1633), both printed in 1640, and some masques, none of
which met with great success. The patronage of liberal-minded
men, such as the earl, afterwards duke, of Newcastle — by whom
he must have been commissioned to write his last two masques
Love's Welcome at Welbeck (1633) and Love's Welcome at Bolsover
(1634) — and Viscount Falkland, was not wanting, and his was
hardly an instance in which the fickleness of time and taste could
have allowed a literary veteran to end his career in neglect. He
was the acknowledged chief of the English world of letters, both at
the festive meetings where he ruled the roast among the younger
authors whose pride it was to be " sealed of the tribe of Ben, " and
by the avowal of grave writers, old or young, not one of whom
would have ventured to dispute his titular pre-eminence. Nor
was he to the last unconscious of the claims upon him which his
position brought with it. When, nearly two years after he had
lost his surviving son, death came upon the sick old man on the
6th of August 1637, he left behind him an unfinished work of
great beauty, the pastoral drama of The Sad Shepherd (printed in
1641). For forty years, he said in the prologue, he had feasted
the public; at first he could scarce hit its taste, but patience had
at last enabled it to identify itself with the working of his pen.
We are so accustomed to think of Ben Jonson presiding,
attentive to his own applause, over a circle of younger followers
and admirers that we are apt to forget the hard struggle which
he had passed through before gaining the crown now universally
acknowledged to be his. Howell records, in the year before Ben's
death, that a solemn supper at the poet's own house, where the
host had almost spoiled the relish of the feast by vilifying others
and magnifying himself, " T. Ca. "(Thomas Carew) buzzed in the
writer's ear " that, though Ben had barrelled up a great deal of
knowledge, yet it seemed he had not read the Ethics, which, among
other precepts of morality, forbid self-commendation." Self-
reliance is but too frequently coupled with self-consciousness, and
for good and for evil self-confidence was no doubt the most pro-
minent feature in the character of Ben Jonson. Hence the com-
bativeness which involved him in so many quarrels in his earlier
days, and which jarred so harshly upon the less militant and in
some respects more pedantic nature of Drummond. But his
quarrels do not appear to have entered deeply into his soul, or
indeed usually to have lasted long.1 He was too exuberant in his
vituperations to be bitter, and too outspoken to be malicious.
He loved of all things to be called " honest," and there is every
reason to suppose that he deserved the epithet. The old super-
1 With Inigo Jones, however, in quarrelling with whom, as Howell
reminds Jonson, the poet was virtually quarrelling with his bread
and butter, he seems to have found it impossible to live permanently
at peace; his satirical Expostulation against the architect was pub-
lished as late as 1635. Chapman's satire against his old associate,
perhaps due to this quarrel, was left unfinished and unpublished. _
JONSON 505
stition that Jonson was filled with malignant envy of the greatest
of his fellow-dramatists, and lost no opportunity of giving ex-
pression to it, hardly needs notice. Those who consider that
Shakespeare was beyond criticism may find blasphemy in the
saying of Jonson that Shakespeare " wanted art." Occasional
jesting allusions to particular plays of Shakespeare may be found
in Jonson, among which should hardly be included the sneer at
" mouldy " Pericles in his Ode to Himself. But these amount to
nothing collectively, and to very little individually; and against
them have to be set, not only the many pleasant traditions con-
cerning the long intimacy between the pair, but also the lines,
prefixed to the first Shakespeare folio, as noble as they are
judicious, dedicated by the survivor to " the star of poets," and
the adaptation, clearly sympathetic notwithstanding all its buts,
de Shakespeare nostrat. in the Discoveries. But if Gifford had
rendered no other service to Jonson's fame he must be allowed to
have once for all vindicated it from the cruellest aspersion
which has ever been cast upon it. That in general Ben Jonson
was a man of strong likes and dislikes, and was wont to manifest
the latter as vehemently as the former, it would be idle to deny.
He was at least impartial in his censures, dealing them out freely
to Puritan poets like Wither and (supposing him not to have
exaggerated his free-spokenness) to princes of his church like
Cardinal du Perron. And, if sensitive to attack, he seems to
have been impervious to flattery — to judge from the candour
with which he condemned the foibles even of so enthusiastic an
admirer as Beaumont. The personage that he disliked the most,
and openly abused in the roundest terms, was unfortunately one
with many heads and a tongue to hiss in each — no other than
that " general public " which it was the fundamental mistake of
his life to fancy he could " rail into approbation " before he had
effectively secured its goodwill. And upon the whole it may be
said that the admiration of the few, rather than the favour of the
many, has kept green the fame of the most independent among
all the masters of an art which, in more senses than one, must
please to live.
Jonson's learning and industry, which were alike exceptional,
by no means exhausted themselves in furnishing and elaborating
the materials of his dramatic works. His enemies sneered at him
as a translator — a title which the preceding generation was
inclined to esteem the most honourable in literature. But his
classical scholarship shows itself in other directions besides his
translations from the Latin poets (the Ars poetica in particular) , in
addition to which he appears to have written a version of Barclay's
Argenis; it was likewise the basis of his English Grammar, of
which nothing but the rough draft remains (the MS. itself having
perished in the fire in his library), and in connexion with the sub-
ject of which he appears to have pursued other linguistic studies
(Howell in 1629 was trying to procure him a Welsh grammar).
And its effects are very visible in some of the most pleasing of
his non-dramatic poems, which often display that combination
of polish and simplicity hardly to be reached — or even to be
appreciated — without some measure of classical training.
Exclusively of the few lyrics in Jonson's dramas (which, with
the exception of the stately choruses in Catiline, charm, and
perhaps may surprise, by their lightness of touch), his non-
dramatic works are comprised in the following collections. The
book of Epigrams (published in the first folio of 1616) contained,
in the poet's own words, the "ripest of his studies." His notion
of an epigram was the ancient, not the restricted modern one —
still less that of the critic (R. C., the author of The Times' Whistle)
in whose language, according to Jonson, "witty " was " obscene."
On the whole, these epigrams excel more in encomiastic than in
satiric touches, while the pathos of one or two epitaphs in the
collection is of the truest kind. In the lyrics and epistles con-
tained in the Forest (also in the first folio), Jonson shows greater
variety in the poetic styles adopted by him; but the subject of
Iqve, which Dryden considered conspicuous by its absence in the
author's dramas, is similarly eschewed here. The Underwoods
(not published collectively till the second and surreptitious folio)
are a miscellaneous series, comprising, together with a few
religious and a few amatory poems, a large number of epigrams,
JONSON
epitaphs, elegies and " odes," including both the tributes to
Shakespeare and several to royal and other patrons and friends,
besides the Execration upon Vulcan, and the characteristic ode
addressed by the poet to himself. To these pieces in verse should
be added the Discoveries — Timber, or Discoveries made upon Men
and Matters, avowedly a commonplace book of aphorisms noted
by the poet in his daily readings — thoughts adopted and adapted
in more tranquil and perhaps more sober moods than those which
gave rise to the outpourings of the Conversations at Hawthornden.
As to the critical value of these Conversations it is far from being
only negative; he knew how to admire as well as how to disdain.
For these thoughts, though abounding with biographical as well
as general interest, Jonson was almost entirely indebted to
ancient writers, or (as has been shown by Professor Spingarn and
by Percy Simpson) indebted to the humanists of the Renaissance
(see Modern Language Review, ii. 3, April 1907).
The extant dramatic works of Ben Jonson fall into three or,
if his fragmentary pastoral drama be considered to stand by
itself, into four distinct divisions. The tragedies are only two in
number — Sejanus his Fall and Catiline his Conspiracy.1 Of these
the earlier, as is worth noting, was produced at Shakespeare's
theatre, in all probability before the first of Shakespeare's Roman
dramas, and still contains a considerable admixture of rhyme in
the dialogue. Though perhaps less carefully elaborated in diction
than its successor, Sejanus. is at least equally impressive as a
highly wrought dramatic treatment of a complex historic theme.
The character of Tiberius adds an element of curious psychological
interest on which speculation has never quite exhausted itself
and which, in Jonson's day at least, was wanting to the figures
of Catiline and his associates. But in both plays the action is
powerfully conducted, and the care bestowed by the dramatist
upon the great variety of characters introduced cannot, as in
some of his comedies, be said to distract the interest of the reader.
Both these tragedies are noble works, though the relative popu-
larity of the subject (for conspiracies are in the long run more
interesting than camarillas) has perhaps secured the preference
to Catiline. Yet this play and its predecessor were alike too
manifestly intended by their author to court the goodwill of
what he calls the " extraordinary " reader. It is difficult to
imagine that (with the aid of judicious shortenings) either could
altogether miss its effect on the stage; but, while Shakespeare
causes us to forget, Jonson seems to wish us to remember, his
authorities. The half is often greater than the whole ; and Jonson,
like all dramatists and, it might be added, all novelists in similar
cases, has had to pay the penalty incurred by too obvious a
desire to underline the learning of the author.
Perversity — or would-be originality — alone could declare
Jonson's tragedy preferable to his comedy. Even if the revolution
which he created in the comic branch of the drama had been mis-
taken in its principles or unsatisfactory in its results, it would be
clear that the strength of his dramatic genius lay in the power of
depicting a great variety of characters, and that in comedy alone
he succeeded in finding a wide field for the exercise of this power.
There may have been no very original or very profound discovery
in the idea which he illustrated in Every Man in his Humour, and,
as it were, technically elaborated in Every Man out of his Humour
— that in many men one quality is observable which so possesses
them as to draw the whole of their individualities one way, and
that this phenomenon "may be truly said to be a humour."
The idea of the master quality or tendency was, as has been well
observed, a very considerable one for dramatist or novelist. Nor
did Jonson (happily) attempt to work out this idea with any
excessive scientific consistency as a comic dramatist. But, by
refusing to apply the term " humour " (q.v.) to a mere peculiarity
or affectation of manners, and restricting its use to actual or
implied differences or distinctions of character, he broadened the
whole basis of English comedy after his fashion, as Moliere at a
'Of The Fall of Mortimer Jonson left only a few lines behind him ;
but, as he also left the argument of the play, factious ingenuity
contrived to furbish up the relic into a libel against Queen Caroline
and Sir Robert Walpole in 1731, and to revive the contrivance by
way of an insult to the princess dowager of Wales and Lord Bute in
1762.
later date, keeping in closer touch with the common experience
of human life, with a lighter hand broadened the basis of French
and of modern Western comedy at large. It does not of course
follow that Jonson's disciples, the Bromes and the Cartwrights,
always adequately reproduced the master's conception of
" humorous " comedy. Jonson's wide and various reading
helped him to diversify the application of his theory, while perhaps
at times it led him into too remote illustrations of it. Still,
Captain Bobadil and Captain Tucca, Macilente and Fungoso,
Vojpone and Mosca, and a goodly number of other characters im-
press themselves permanently upon the memory of those whose
attention they have as a matter of course commanded. It is a
very futile criticism to condemn Jonson's characters as a mere
series of types of general ideas; on the other hand, it is a very
sound criticism to object, with Barry Cornwall, to the "multi-
tude of characters who throw no light upon the story, and lend
no interest to it, occupying space that had better have been
bestowed upon the principal agents of the plot."
In the construction of plots, as in most oilier respects, Jonson's
at once conscientious and vigorous mind led him in the direction
of originality; he depended to a far less degree than the greater
part of his contemporaries (Shakespeare with the rest) upon
borrowed plots. But either his inventive character was
occasionally at fault in this respect, or his devotion to his
characters often diverted his attention from a brisk conduct
of his plot. Barry Cornwall has directed attention to the
essential likeness in the plot of two of Jonson's best comedies,
Volpone and The Alchemist; and another critic, W. Bodham
Donne, has dwelt on the difficulty which, in The Poetaster and
elsewhere, Ben Jonson seems to experience in sustaining the
promise of his actions. The Poetaster is, however, a play sui
generis, in which the real business can hardly be said to begin
till the last act.
Dryden, when criticizing Ben Jonson's comedies, thought fit,
while allowing the old master humour and incontestable " plea-
santness," to deny him wit and those ornaments thereof which
Quintilian reckons up under the terms urbana, salsa, faceta and
so forth. Such wit as Dryden has in view is the mere outward
fashion or style of the day, the euphuism or " sheerwit " or chic
which is the creed of Fastidious Brisks and of their astute
purveyors at any given moment. In this Ben Jonson was no
doubt defective; but it would be an error to suppose him, as a
comic dramatist, to have maintained towards the world around
him the attitude of a philosopher, careless of mere transient
externalisms. It is said that the scene of his Every Man in his
Humour was originally laid near Florence; and his Volpone, which
is perhaps the darkest social picture ever drawn by him, plays at
Venice. Neither locality was ill-chosen, but the real atmosphere
of his comedies is that of the native surroundings amidst which
they were produced; and Ben Jonson's times live for us in his
men and women, his country gulls and town gulls, his alchemists
and exorcists, his " skeldring " captains and whining Puritans,
and the whole ragamuffin rout of his Bartholomew Fair, the
comedy par excellence of Elizabethan low life. After he had
described the pastimes, fashionable and unfashionable, of his
age, its feeble superstitions and its flaunting naughtinesses,
its vapouring affectations and its lying effronteries, with an
odour as of " divine tabacco " pervading the whole, little might
seem to be left to describe for his " sons " and successors.
Enough, however, remained; only that his followers speedily
again threw manners and "humours" into an undistinguishable
medley.
The gift which both in his art and in his life Jonson lacked
was that of exercising the influence or creating the effects which
he wished to exercise or create without the appearance of
consciousness. Concealment never crept over his efforts, and
he scorned insinuation. Instead of this, influenced no doubt
by the example of the free relations between author and public
permitted by Attic comedy, he resorted again and again, from
Every Man out of his Humour to The Magnetic Lady, to inductions
and commentatory- intermezzos and appendices, which, though
occasionally effective by the excellence of their execution, are
to be regretted as introducing into his dramas an exotic and
often vexatious element. A man of letters to the very core,
he never quite understood that there is and ought to be a wide
difference of methods between the world of letters and the world
of the theatre.
The richness and versatility of Jonson's genius will never be
fully appreciated by those who fail to acquaint themselves with
what is preserved to us of his " masques " and cognate enter-
tainments. He was conscious enough of his success in this
direction—" next himself," he said, " only Fletcher and Chap-
man could write a masque." He introduced, or at least estab-
lished, the ingenious innovation of the anti-masque, which
Schlegel has described, as a species of " parody added by the
poet to his device, and usually prefixed to the serious entry,"
and which accordingly supplies a grotesque antidote to the often
extravagantly imaginative main conception. Jonson's learning,
creative power and humorous ingenuity — combined, it should
not be forgotten, with a genuine lyrical gift — all found abundant
opportunities for displaying themselves in these productions.
Though a growth of foreign origin, the masque was by him
thoroughly domesticated in the high places of English literature.
He lived long enough to see the species produce its poetic
masterpiece in Comus.
The Sad Shepherd, of which Jonson left behind him three acts
and a prologue, is distinguished among English pastoral dramas
by its freshness of tone; it breathes something of the spirit of
the greenwood, and is not unnatural even in its supernatural
element. While this piece, with its charming love-scenes
between Robin Hood and Maid Marion, remains a fragment,
another pastoral by Jonson, the May Lord (which F. G. Fleay
and J. A. Symonds sought to identify with The Sad Shepherd; see,
however, W. W. Greg in introduction to the Louvain reprint),
has been lost, and a third, of which Loch Lomond was intended
to be the scene, probably remained unwritten.
Though Ben Jonson never altogether recognized the truth of
the maxim that the dramatic art has properly speaking no
didactic purpose, his long and laborious life was not wasted
upon a barren endeavour. In tragedy he added two works of
uncommon merit to our dramatic literature. In comedy his
aim was higher, his effort more sustained, and his success more
solid than were those of any of his fellows. In the subsidiary
and hybrid species of the masque, he helped to open a new and
attractive though undoubtedly devious path in the field of
dramatic literature. His intellectual endowments surpassed
those of most of the great English dramatists in richness and
breadth; and in energy of application he probably left them all
behind. Inferior to more than one of his fellow-dramatists in
the power of imaginative sympathy, he was first among the
Elizabethans in the power of observation; and there is point in
Barrett Wendell's paradox, that as a dramatist he was not
really a poet but a painter. Yet it is less by these gifts, or even
by his unexcelled capacity for hard work, than by the true ring
of manliness that he will always remain distinguished among
his peers.
Jonson was buried on the north side of the nave in West-
minster Abbey, and the inscription, " O Rare Ben Jonson," was
cut in the slab over his grave. In the beginning of the i8th
century a portrait bust was put up to his memory in the Poets'
Corner by Harley, earl of Oxford. Of Honthorst's portrait of
Jonson at Knole Park there is a copy in the National Portrait
Gallery; another was engraved by W. Marshall for the 1640
edition of his Poems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The date of the first folio volume of Jonson's
Works (of which title his novel but characteristic use in applying
it to plays was at the time much pidiculed) has already been men-
tioned as 1616; the second, professedly published in 1640, is de-
scribed by Gifford as " a wretched continuation of the first, printed
from MSS. surreptitiously obtained during his life, or ignorantly
hurried through the press after his death, and bearing a variety of
dates from 1631 to 1641 inclusive." The works were reprinted in
a single folio volume in 1692, in which The New Inn and The Case is
Altered were included for the first time, and again in 6 vols 8vo in
1715. Peter Whalley 's edition in 7 vols., with a life, appeared in 1 756,
but was superseded in 1816 by William Gifford's, in 9 vols. (of which
JOPLIN 507
the first includes a biographical memoir, and the famous essay on
the " Proofs of Ben Jonson's Malignity, from the Commentators
on Shakespeare "). A new edition of Gifford's was published in
9 vols. in 1875 by Colonel F. Cunningham, as well as a cheap reprint
in 3 vols. in 1870. Both contain the Conversations with Drummond,
which were first printed in full by David Laing in the Shakespeare
Society's Publications (1842) and the Jonsonus Virbius, a collection
(unparalleled in number and variety of authors) of poetical tributes,
published about six months after Jonson's death by his friends and
admirers. There is also a single- volume edition, with a very readable
memoir, by Barry Cornwall (1838). An edition of Ben Jonson's
works from the original texts was recently undertaken by C. H.
Herford and Percy Simpson. A selection from his plays, edited for the
" Mermaid " series in 1893-1895 by B. Nicholson, with an introduction
by C. H. Herford, was reissued in 1904. W. W. Bang in his Mater-
ialien zur Kunde des alien englischen Dramas has reprinted from the
folio of 1616 those of Ben Jonson's plays which are contained in it
(Louvain, 1905-1906). Every Man in his Humour and Every Man out
of his Humour have been edited for the same series (16 and 17, 1905
and 1907) by W. W. Bang and W. W. Greg. Every Man in his Humour
has also been edited, with a brief biographical as well as special
introduction, to which the present sketch owes some details, by
H. B. Wheatley (1877). Some valuable editions of plays by Ben
Jonson have been recently published by American scholars in the
Yale Studies in English, edited by A. S. Cook — The Poetaster, ed.
H. S. Mallory (1905); The Alchemist, ed. C. M. Hathaway (1903);
The Devil is an Ass, ed. W. S. Johnson (1905) ; The Staple of News,
ed. De Winter (1905); The New Inn, ed. by G. Bremner (1908);
The Sad Shepherd (with Waldron's continuation) has been edited by
W. W. Greg for Bang's Materialien zur Kunde des alien englischen
Dramas (Louvain, 1905).
The criticisms of Ben Jonson are too numerous for cataloguing
here; among those by eminent Englishmen should be specially men-
tioned John Dryden's, particularly those in his Essay on Dramatic
Poesy (1667-1668; revised 1684), and in the preface to An Evening's
Love, or the Mock Astrologer (1668), and A. C. Swinburne's Study of Ben
Jonson (1889), in which, however, the significance of the Discoveries
is misapprehended. See also F. G. Fleay, Biographical Chronicle of
the English Drama (1891), i. 311-387, ii. 1-18; C. H. Herford, " Ben
Jonson " (art. in Diet. Nat. Biog., vol. xxx., 1802); A. W. Ward,
History of English Dramatic Literature, 2nd ed. (1899), ii. 296-
407 ; and for a list of early impressions, W. W. Greg, List of English
Plays written before 1643 and printed before 1700 (Bibliographical
Society, 1900), pp. 55-58 and supplement 11-15. An important
French work on Ben Jonson, both biographical and critical, and
containing, besides many translations of scenes and passages,
some valuable appendices, to more than one of which reference
has been made above, is Maurice Castelain's Ben Jonson, I'homme et
I'ceuvre^ (1907). Among treatises or essays on particular aspects
of his literary work may be mentioned Emil Koeppel's Quellenstudien
zu den Dramen Ben Jonson's, &c. (1895); the same writer's " Ben
Jonson's Wirkung auf zeitgenossische Dramatiker," &c., in Angli-
cistische Forschungen, 20 (1906) ; F. E. Schelling's Ben Jonson and
the Classical School (1898); and as to his masques, A. Soergel, Die
englischen Maskenspiele (1882) and J. Schmidt, " tlber Ben Jonson's
Maskenspiele," in Herrig's Archiv, &c., xxvii. 51-91. See also
H. Reinsch, " Ben Jonson's Poetik und seine Beziehungen zu
Horaz," in Miinchener Beitrdge, 16 (1899). (A. W. W.)
JOPLIN, a city of Jasper county, Missouri, U.S.A., on Joplin
creek, about 140 m. S. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890), 9943;
(1900), 26,023, of whom 893 were foreign-born and 773 were
negroes; (1910 census) 32,073. It is served by the Missouri
Pacific, the St Louis & San Francisco, the Missouri, Kansas
& Texas, and the Kansas City Southern railways, and by
interurban electric lines. The city has a fine court-house, a
United States government building, a Carnegie library and a
large auditorium. Joplin is the trade centre of a rich agricul-
tural and fruit-growing district, but its growth has been chiefly
due to its situation in one of the must productive zinc and lead
regions in the country, for which it is the commercial centre.
In 1906 the value of zinc-ore shipments from this Missouri-
Kansas (or Joplin) district was $12,074,105, and of shipments
of lead ore, $3,048,538. The value of joplin's factory product
in 1905 was $3,006,203, an increase of 29-3% since 1900.
Natural gas, piped from the Kansas fields, is used for light and
power, and electricity for commercial lighting and power is
derived from plants on Spring River, near Vark, Kansas, and on
Shoal creek. The municipality owns its electric-lighting plant;
the water-works are under private ownership. The first settle-
ment in the neighbourhood was made in 1838. In 1871 Joplin
was laid out and incorporated as a town; in 1872 it and a rival
town on the other side of Joplin creek were united under the
name Union City; in 1873 Union City was chartered as a city
508
JOPPA— JORDAN, D.
under the name Joplin; and in 1888 Joplin was chartered as a
city of the third class. The city derives its name from the
creek, which was named in honour of the Rev. Harris G. Joplin
(c. 1810-1847), a native of Tennessee.
JOPPA, less correctly JAFFA (Arab. Ydfa), a seaport on the
coast of Palestine. It is of great antiquity, being mentioned
in the tribute lists of Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. ; but as it never
was in the territory of the pre-exilic Israelites it was to them a
place of no importance. Its ascription to the tribe of Dan
(Josh. xix. 46) is purely theoretical. According to the authors
of Chronicles (2 Chron. ii. 16), Ezra (iii. 7) and Jonah (i. 3) it
was a seaport for importation of the Lebanon timber floated
down the coasts or for ships plying even to distant Tarshish.
About 148 B.C. it was captured from the Syrians by Jonathan
Maccabaeus (i Mace. x. 75) and later it was retaken and garri-
soned by Simon , his brother (xii. 33, xiii. 1 1). It was restored
to the Syrians by Pompey'Qos., Ant. xiv. 4, 4) but again given
back to the Jews (ib. xiv. 10, 6) with an exemption from tax.
St Peter for a while lodged at Joppa, where he restored the
benevolent widow Tabitha to life, and had the vision which
taught him the universality of the plan of Christianity.
According to Strabo (xvi. ii.), who makes the strange
mistake of saying that Jerusalem is visible from Joppa, the
place was a resort of pirates. It was destroyed by Vespasian
in the Jewish War (68). Tradition connects the story of
Andromeda and the sea-monster with the sea-coast of Joppa,
and in early times her chains were shown as well as the skeleton
of the monster itself (Jos. Wars, iii. 9, 3). The site seems to
have been shown even to some medieval pilgrims, and curious
traces of it have been detected in modern Moslem legends.
In the 5th and nth centuries we hear from time to time of
bishops of Joppa, under the metropolitan of Jerusalem. In
1126 the district was captured by the knights of St John, but
lost to Saladin in 1187. Richard Cceur de Lion retook it in
1191, but it was finally retaken by Malek el "Adil in 1196. It
languished for a time; in the i6th century it was an almost
uninhabited ruin; but towards the end of the I7th century it
began anew to develop as a seaport. In 1799 it was stormed
by Napoleon; the fortifications were repaired and strengthened
by the British.
The modern town of Joppa derives its importance, first, as a
seaport for Jerusalem and the whole of southern Palestine, and
secondly as a centre of the fruit-growing industry. During the
latter part of the igth century it greatly increased in size. The
old city walls have been entirely removed. Its population is
about 35,000 (Moslems 23,000, Christians 5000, Jews 7000; with
the Christians are included the " Templars," a semi-religious,
semi-agricultural German colony of about 3 20 souls) . The town,
which rises over a rounded hillock on the coast, about 100 ft.
high, has a very picturesque appearance from the sea. The
harbour (so-called) is one of the worst existing, being simply a
natural breakwater formed by a ledge of reefs, safe enough for
small Oriental craft, but very dangerous for large vessels, which
can only make use of the seaport in calm weather; these never
come nearer than about a mile from the shore. A railway and
a bad carriage-road connect Joppa with Jerusalem. The water
of the town is derived from wells, many of which have a
brackish taste. The export trade of the town consists of soap
of olive oil, sesame, barley, water melons, wine and especially
oranges (commonly known as Jaffa oranges), grown in the
famous and ever-increasing gardens that lie north and east of
the town. The chief imports are timber, cotton and other
textile goods, tiles, iron, rice, coffee, sugar and petroleum. The
value of the exports in 1900 was estimated at £264,950, the
imports £382,405. Over 10,000 pilgrims, chiefly Russians, and
some three or four thousand tourists land annually at Joppa.
The town is the seat of a kaimakam or lieutenant-governor,
subordinate to the governor of Jerusalem, and contains vice-
consulates of Great Britain, France, Germany, America and
other powers. There are Latin, Greek, Armenian and Coptic
monasteries; and hospitals and schools under British, French
and German auspices. (R. A. S. M.)
JORDAENS, JACOB (1593-1678), Flemish painter, was born
and died at Antwerp. He studied, like Rubens, under Adam
van Noort, and his marriage with his master's daughter in 1616,
the year after his admission to the gild of painters, prevented
him from visiting Rome. He was forced to content himself
with studying such examples of the Italian masters as he found
at home; but a far more potent influence was exerted upon his
style by Rubens, who employed him sometimes to reproduce
small sketches in large. Jordaens is second to Rubens alone
in their special department of the Flemish school. In both
there is the same warmth of colour, truth to nature, mastery of
chiaroscuro and energy of expression; but Jordaens is wanting
in dignity of conception, and is inferior in choice of forms, in
the character of his heads, and in correctness of drawing. Not
seldom he sins against good taste, and in some of his humorous
pieces the coarseness is only atoned for by the animation. Of
these last he seems in some cases to have painted several replicas.
He employed his pencil also in biblical, mythological, historical
and allegorical subjects, and is well-known as a portrait painter.
He also etched some plates.
See the elaborate work on the painter, by Max Rooses (1908).
JORDAN, CAMILLE (1771-1821), French politician, was born
in Lyons on the nth of January 1771 of a well-to-do mercantile
family. He was educated in Lyons, and from an early age was
imbued with royalist principles. He actively supported by
voice, pen and musket his native town in its resistance to the
Convention; and when Lyons fell, in October 1793, Jordan fled.
From Switzerland he passed in six months to England, where he
formed acquaintances with other French exiles and with pro-
minent British statesmen, and imbibed a lasting admiration for
the English Constitution. In 1706 he returned to France, and
next year he was sent by Lyons as a deputy to the Council of
Five Hundred. There his eloquence won him consideration.
He earnestly supported what he felt to be true freedom, especially
in matters of religious worship, though the energetic appeal on
behalf of church bells in his Rapport sur la liberte des cultes
procured him the sobriquet of Jordan-Cloche. Proscribed at
the coup d'etat of the i8th Fructidor (4th of September 1797) he
escaped to Basel. Thence he went to Germany, where he met
Goethe. Back again in France by 1800, he boldly published in
1802 his Vrai sens du vole national pour le consulat a vie, in which
he exposed the ambitious schemes of Bonaparte. He was unmo-
lested, however, and during the First Empire lived in literary
retirement at Lyons with his wife and family, producing for the
Lyons academy occasional papers on the Influence reciproque de
V eloquence sur la Revolution el de la Revolution sur I 'eloquence;
£tudes sur Klopslock, &c. At the restoration in 1814 he again
emerged into public life. By Louis XVIII. he was ennobled
and named a councillor of state; and from 1816 he sat in the
chamber of deputies as representative of Ain. At first he sup-
ported the ministry, but when they began to show signs of re-
action he separated from them, and gradually came to be at
the head of the constitutional opposition. His speeches in the
chamber were always eloquent and powerful. Though warned
by failing health to resign, Camille Jordan remained at his post
till his death at Paris, on the igth of May 1821.
To his pen we owe Lettre a M. Lamourette (1791); Histoire de la
conversion d'une dame Parisienne (1792) ; La Loi et la religion vengees
(1792); Adresse a ses commettants sur la revolution du 4 Septembre
1797 0797); Sur les troubles de Lyon (1818); La Session de 1817
(1818). His Discours were collected in 1818. The " l-'ragments
choisis," and translations from the German, were published in
L'Abeille fro.nc.aise. Besides the various histories of the time, see
further details vol. x. of the Revue encyclopedique ; a paper on
Jordan and Madame de Stael, by C. A. Samte-Beuve, in the Revue
des deux mondes for March 1868 and R. Boubee, " Camille Jordan
a Weimar," in the Correspondanl (1901), ccv. 718-738 and 948-970.
JORDAN, DOROTHEA (1762-1816), Irish actress, was born
near Waterford, Ireland, in 1762. Her mother, Grace Phillips,
at one time known as Mrs Frances, was a Dublin actress. Her
father, whose name was Bland, was according to one account an
army captain, but more probably a stage hand. Dorothy
Jordan made her first appearance on the stage in 1777 in Dublin
JORDAN, T.— JORDAN
5°9
as Phoebe in As You Like It. After acting elsewhere in Ireland
she appeared in 1782 at Leeds, and subsequently at other
Yorkshire towns, in a variety of parts, including Lady Teazle.
It was at this time that she began calling herself Mrs Jordan.
In 1785 she made her first London appearance at Drury Lane as
Peggy in A Country Girl. Before the end of her first season she
had become an established public favourite, her acting in comedy
being declared second only to that of Kitty Clive. Her engage-
ment at Drury Lane lasted till 1809, and she played a large
variety of parts. But gradually it came to be recognized that
her special talent lay in comedy, her Lady Teazle, Rosalind and
Imogen being specially liked, and such " breeches " parts as
William in Rosina. During the rebuilding of Drury Lane she
played at the Hay market; she transferred her services in 1811
to Co vent Garden. Here, in 1814, she made her last appearance
on the London stage, and the following year, at Margate, retired
altogether. Mrs Jordan's private life was one of the scandals
of the period. She had a daughter by her first manager, in Ire-
land, and four children by Sir Richard Ford, whose name she
bore for some years. In 1790 she became the mistress of the
duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.), and bore him ten
children, who were ennobled under the name of Fitz Clarence, the
eldest being created earl of Munster. In 1811 they separated
by mutual consent, Mrs Jordan being granted a liberal allowance.
In 1815 she went abroad. According to one story she was in
danger of imprisonment for debt. If so, the debt must have been
incurred on behalf of others— probably her relations, who appear
to have been continually borrowing from her — for her own per-
sonal debts were very much more than covered by her savings.
She is generally understood to have died at St Cloud, near Paris,
on the 3rd of July 1816, but the story that under an assumed
name she lived for seven years after that date in England finds
some credence.
See James Boaden, Life of Mrs Jordan (1831); The Great Illegiti-
mates (1830); John Genest, Account of the Stage; Tate Wilkinson,
The Wandering Patentee; Memoirs and Amorous Adventures by Sea
and Land of King William IV. (1830); The Georgian Era (1838).
JORDAN. THOMAS (1612 ?-i68s), English poet and pam-
phleteer, was born in London and started life as an actor at the
Red Bull theatre in Clerkenwell. He published in 1637 his first
volume of poems, entitled Poeticall Varieties, and in the same year
appeared A Pill to Purge Melancholy. In 1639 he recited one of
his poems before King Charles I., and from this time forward
Jordan's output in verse and prose was continuous and prolific.
He freely borrowed from other authors, and frequently re-issued
his own writings under new names. During the troubles between
the king and the parliament he wrote a number of Royalist
pamphlets, the first of which, A Medicine for the Times, or an
Antidote against Faction, appeared in 1641. Dedications,, occa-
sional verses, prologues and epilogues to plays poured from his
pen. Many volumes of his poems bear no date, and they were
probably written during the Commonwealth. At the Restoration
he eulogized Monk, produced a masque at the entertainment of
the general in the city of London and wrote pamphlets in his
support. He then for some years devoted his chief attention to
writing plays, in at least one of which, Money is an Ass, he himself
played a part when it was produced in 1668. In 1671 he was
appointed laureate to the city of London; from this date t
his death in 1685 he annually composed a panegyric on the lord
mayor, and arranged the pageantry of the lord mayor's shows,
which he celebrated in verse under such titles as London
Triumphant, or the City in Jollity and Splendour (1672), or
London in Luster, Projecting many Bright Beams of Triumph
(1679). Many volumes of these curious productions are pre-
served in the British Museum.
In addition to his numerous printed works, of which perhaps
A Royal Arbour of Lay all Poesie (1664) and ,4 Nursery of Novelties in
Variety of Poetry are most deserving of mention, several volumes ot
his poems exist in manuscript. W. C. Hazlitt and other 19th-century
critics found more merit in Jordan's writings than was allowed
by his contemporaries, who for the most part scornfully referred to
his voluminous productions as commonplace and dull.
See Gerard Langbaine, Account of the English Dramatic Poets
(1691); David Erskine Baker, Biographia Dramatica (4 vols., 1812);
W C. Hazlitt, Handbook to the Popular, Poetical and Dramatic Litera-
ture of Great Britain (1867); F. W. Fairholt, Lord Mayors Pageants
(Percy Society, 1843), containing a memoir of Thomas Jordan;
John Gough Nichols, London Pageants (1831).
JORDAN, WILHELM (1819-1904), German poet and novelist,
was born at Insterburg in East Prussia on the 8th of February
1819. He studied, first theology and then philosophy and
natural science, at the universities of Konigsberg and Berlin.
He settled in Leipzig as a journalist; but the democratic views
expressed in some essays and the volumes of poems Glocke und
Kanone (1481) and Irdische Phantasien (1842) led to his expulsion
from Saxony in 1846. He next engaged in literary and tutorial
work in Bremen, and on the outbreak of the revolution, in Feb-
ruary 1848, was sent to Paris, as correspondent of the Bremer
Zeitung. He almost immediately, however, returned to Ger-
many and, throwing himself into the political fray in Berlin,
was elected member for Freienwalde, in the first German parlia-
ment at Frankfort-on-Main. For a short while he sided with
the Left, but soon joined the party of von Gagern. On a vote
having been passed for the establishment of a German navy, he
was appointed secretary of the committee to deal with the whole
question, and was subsequently made ministerial councillor
(Ministerialrat) in the naval department of the government.
The naval project was abandoned, Jordan was pensioned and
afterwards resided at Frankfort-on-Main until his death on the
25th of June 1904, devoting himself to literary work, acting as
his own publisher, and producing numerous poems, novels,
dramas and translations.
Among his best known works are : Demiurgos (3 vols., 1852-1854),
a " Mysterium," in which he attempted to deal with the problems
of human existence, but the work found little favour; Nibelunge, an
epic poem in alliterative verse, in two parts, (l) Sigfnedsage (1867-
1868; I3th ed. 1889) and (2) Hildebrants Heimkehr (1874; loth ed.
I8n2)_in the first part he is regarded as having been remarkably
successful; a tragedy, Die Wittwe des Agis (1858); the comedies,
Die Liebesleugner (1855) and Durchs Ohr (1870; 6th ed. 1885);
and the novels Die Sebalds (1885) and Zwei Wiegen (1887). Jordan
also published numerous translations, notably Homers Odyssee
(1876; 2nd ed. 1889) and Homers Ilias (1881; 2nd ed. 1894); Die
Edda (1889). He was also distinguished as a reciter, and on a visit
to the United States in 1871 read extracts from his works before large
audiences.
JORDAN (the down-comer; Arab. esh-Sheri'a, the watering-
place), the only river of Palestine and one of the most remark-
able in the world. It flows from north to south in a deep
trough-like valley, the Aulon of the Greeks and Ghor of the
Arabs, which is usually believed to follow the line of a fault or
fracture of the earth's crust. Most geologists hold that the valley
is part of an old sea-bed, traces of which remain in numerous
shingle-banks and beach-levels. This, they say, once extended
to the Red Sea and even over N.E. Africa. Shrinkage caused
the pelagic limestone bottom to be upheaved in two ridges,
between which occurred a long fracture, which can now be traced
from Coelesyria down the Wadi Araba to the Gulf of Akaba.
The Jordan valley in its lower part keeps about the old level
of the sea-bottom and is therefore a remnant of the Miocene
world. This theory, however, is not universally accepted, some
authorities preferring to assume a succession of more strictly
local elevations and depressions, connected with the recent
volcanic activity of the Jaulan and Lija districts on the east
bank, which brought the contours finally to their actual form.
In any case the number of distinct sea-beaches seems to imply
a succession of convulsive changes, more recent than the great
Miocene upheaval, which are responsible for the shrinkage of
the water into the three isolated pans now found. For more
than two-thirds of its course the Jordan lies below the level of
the sea. It has never been navigable, no important town has
ever been built on its banks, and it runs into an inland sea which
has no port and is destitute of aquatic life. Throughout history
it has exerted a separatist influence, roughly dividing the settled
from the nomadic populations; and the crossing of Jordan, one
way or the other, was always an event in the history of Israel.
In Hebrew times its valley was regarded as a " wilderness " and,
except in the Roman era, seems always to have been as sparsely
inhabited as now. From its sources to the Dead Sea it rushes
JORDANES
down a continuous inclined plane, broken here and there by
rapids and small falls; between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead
Sea its sinuosity is so great that in a direct distance of 65 m.
it traverses at least 200 m. The mean fall is about 9 ft. in the
mile. The Jordan has two great sources, one in Tell el-Kadi
(Dan) whence springs the Nahr Leddan, a stream 12 ft. broad
at its birth; the other at Banias (anc. Paneas, Caesarea-Philippi),
some 4 m. N., where the Nahr Banias issues from a cave, about
30 ft. broad. But two longer streams with less water contest
their claim, the Nahr Barrighit from Coelesyria, which rises
near the springs of the Litany, and the Nahr Hasbany from
Hermon. The four streams unite below the fortress of Banias,
which once held the gate of the valley, and flow into a marshy
tract now called Huleh (Semechonitis, and perhaps Merom of
Joshua. There the Jordan begins to fall below sea-level, rushing
down 680 ft. in 9 m. to a delta, which opens into the Sea of
Galilee. Thereafter it follows a valley which is usually not above
4 m. broad, but opens out twice into the small plains of Bethshan
and Jericho. The river actually flows in a depression, the Zor,
from a quarter to 2 m. wide, which it has hollowed out for
itself in the bed of the Ghor. During the rainy season (January
and February), when the Jordan overflows its banks, the Zor
is flooded, but when the water falls it produces rich crops. The
floor of the Ghor falls gently to the Zor, and is intersected by
deep channels, which have been cut by the small streams and
winter torrents that traverse it on their way to the Jordan. As
far south as Kurn Surtabeh most of the valley is fertile, and even
between that point and the Dead Sea there are several well-
watered oases. In summer the heat in the Ghor is intense,
110° F. in the shade, but in winter the temperature falls to 40°,
and sometimes to 32° at night. During the seasons of rain and
melting snow the river is very full, and liable to freshets. After
twelve hours' rain it has been known to rise from 4 to 5 ft.,
and to fall as rapidly. In 1257 the Jordan was dammed up
for several hours by a landslip, probably due to heavy rain. On
leaving the Sea of Galilee the water is quite clear, but it soon
assumes a tawny colour from the soft marl which it washes away
from its banks and deposits in the Dead Sea. On the whole it is
an unpleasant foul stream running between poisonous banks,
and as such it seems to have been regarded by the Jews and other
Syrians. The Hebrew poets did not sing its praises, and others
compared it unfavourably with the clear rivers of Damascus.
The clay of the valley was used for brickmaking, and Solomon
established brassfoundries there. From crusading times to this
day it has grown sugar-cane. In Roman times it had extensive
palm-groves and some small towns (e.g. Livias or Julias opposite
Jericho) and villages. The Jordan is crossed by two stone
bridges — one north of Lake Huleh, the other between that lake
and the Sea of Galilee — and by a wooden bridge on the road
from Jerusalem to Gilead and Moab. During the Roman
period, and almost to the end of the Arab supremacy, there were
bridges on all the great lines of communication between eastern
and western Palestine, and ferries at other places. The depth of
water varies greatly with the season. When not in flood the
river is often fordable, and between the Sea of Galilee and the
Dead Sea there are then more than fifty fords — some of them of
historic interest. The only difficulty is occasioned by the erratic
zigzag current. The natural products of the Jordan valley
— a tropical oasis sunk in the temperate zone, and overhung by
Alpine Hermon — are unique. Papyrus grows in Lake Huleh,
and rice and cereals thrive on its snores, whilst below the Sea of
Galilee the vegetation is almost tropical. The flora and fauna
present a large infusion of Ethiopian types; and the fish, with
which the river is abundantly stocked, have a great affinity with
those of the rivers and lakes of east Africa. Ere the Jordan
enters the Dead Sea, its valley has become very barren and for-
bidding. It reaches the lake at a minus level of 1290 ft., the
depression continuing downwards to twice that depth in the
bed of the Dead Sea. It receives two affluents, with perennial
waters, on the left, the Yarmuk (Hieromax) which flows in from
the volcanic Jaulan a little south of the Sea of Galilee, and the
Zerka (Jabbok) which comes from the Belka district to a point
more than half-way down the lower course. On the right the
Jalud descends from the plain of Esdraelon to near Beisan,
and the Far'a from near Nablus. Various salt springs rise in
the lower valley. The rest of the tributaries are wadis, dr}'
except after rains.
Such human life as may be found in the valley now is mainly
migratory. The Samaritan villagers use it in winter as pasture-
ground, and, with the Circassians and Arabs of the east bank,
cultivate plots here and there. They retire on the approach of
summer. Jericho is the only considerable settlement in the
lower valley, and it lies some distance west of the stream on
the lower slopes of the Judaean heights.
See W. F. Lynch, Narrative of the U.S. Expedition, &c. (1849);
H. B. Tristram, Land of Israel (1865) ; J. Macgregor, Rob Roy on the
Jordan (1870); A. Neubauer, La Geographic du Talmud (1868);
E. Robinson, Physical Geography of the Holy Land (1865); E. Hull,
Mount Seir, &c. (1885), and Memoir on the Geology of Arabia Petraea,
&c. (1886); G. A. Smith, Hist. Geography of the Holy Land (1894);
W. Libbey and F. E. Hoskins, The Jordan Valley, &c. (1905). See
also PALESTINE. (C. W. W. ; D. G. H.)
JORDANES,1 the historian of the Gothic nation, flourished
about the middle of the 6th century. All that we certainly know
about his life is contained in three sentences of his history of the
Goths (cap. 50), from which, among other particulars as to the
history of his family, we learn that his grandfather Paria Was
notary to Candac, the chief of a confederation of Alans and other
tribes settled during the latter half of the 5th century on the south
of the Danube in the provinces which are now Bulgaria and the
Dobrudscha. Jordanes himself was the notary of Candac's
nephew, the Gothic chief Gunthigis, until he took the vows of a
monk. This, according to the manner of speaking of that day,
is the meaning of his words ante conversionem meant, though it is
quite possible that he may at the same time have renounced
the Arian creed of his forefathers, which it is clear that he no
longer held when he wrote his Gothic history. The Getica of
Jordanes shows Gothic sympathies; but these are probably due
to an imitation of the tone of Cassiodorus, from whom he draws
practically all his material. He was not himself a Goth, belong-
ing to a confederation of Germanic tribes, embracing Alans and
Scyrians, which had come under the influence of the Ostrogoths
settled on the lower Danube; and his own sympathies are those
of a member of this confederation. He is accordingly friendly to
the Goths, even apart from the influence of Cassiodorus; but he is
also prepossessed in favour of the eastern emperors in whose terri-
tories this confederation lived and whose subject he himself was.
This makes him an impartial authority on the last days of the
Ostrogoths. At the same time, living in Moesia, he is restricted
in his outlook to Danubian affairs. He has little to say of the
inner history and policy of the kingdom of Theodoric: his inter-
ests lie, as Mommsen says, within a triangle of which the three
points are Sirmium, Larissa and Constantinople. Finally, con-
nected as he was with the Alans, he shows himself friendly to
them, whenever they enter into his narrative.
We pass from the extremely shadowy personality of Jordanes
to the more interesting question of his works.
1. The Romana, or, as he himself calls it, De summa temporum
vel origine actibusque gentis Romanorum, was composed in 551.
It was begun before, but published after, the Getica. It is a
sketch of the history of the world from the creation, based on
Jerome, the epitome of Florus, Orosius and the ecclesiastical
history of Socrates. There is a curious reference to lamblichus,
apparently the neo-platonist philosopher, whose name Jordanes,
being, as he says himself, agrammalus, inserts by way of a
flourish. The work is only of any value for the century 450-
550, when Jordanes is dealing with recent history. It is merely
a hasty compilation intended to stand side by side with the
Getica?
2. The other work of Jordanes commonly called De rebus
Gclicis or Getica, was styled by himself De origine actibusque
1 The evidence of MSS. is overwhelming against the form Jor-
nandes. The MSS. exhibit Jordanis or Jordannis; but these are only
Vulgar-Latin spellings of Jordanes.
* The terms of the dedication of this book to a certain Vigilius
make it impossible that the pope (538-555) of that name is meant.
JORDANES
Getarum, and was also written in 551. He informs us that while
he was engaged upon the Romano, a friend named Castalius
invited him to compress into one small treatise the twelve books
— now lost — of the senator Cassiodorus, on TheOriginand Actions
oj the Goths. Jordanes professes to have had the work of Cassio-
dorus in his hands for but three days, and to reproduce the sense
not the words; but his book, short as it is, evidently contains
long verbatim extracts from the earlier author, and it may be
suspected that the story of the triduana lectio and the apology
quamvis verba non recolo, possibly even the friendly invitation
of Castalius, are mere blinds to cover his own entire want of
originality. This suspicion is strengthened by the fact (dis-
covered by von Sybel) that even the very preface to his book is
taken almost word for word fromRufinus's translation of Origen's
commentary on the epistle to the Romans. There is no doubt,
even on Jordanes' own statements, that his work is based upon
that of Cassiodorus, and that any historical worth which it
possesses is due to that fact. Cassiodorus was one of the very
few men who, Roman by birth and sympathies, could yet
appreciate the greatness of the barbarians by whom the empire
was overthrown. The chief adviser of Theodoric, the East
Gothic king in Italy, he accepted with ardour that monarch's
great scheme, if indeed, he did not himself originally suggest
it, of welding Roman and Goth together into one harmonious
state which should preserve the social refinement and the
intellectual culture of the Latin-speaking races without losing
the hardy virtues of their Teutonic conquerors. To this aim
everything in the political life of Cassiodorus was subservient,
and this aim he evidently kept before him in his Gothic history.
But in writing that history Cassiodorus was himself indebted
to the work of a certain Ablabius. It was Ablabius, apparently,
who had first used the Gothic sagas (prisca carmina); it was he
who had constructed the stem of the Amals. Whether he was a
Greek, a Roman or a Goth we do not know; nor can we say when
he wrote, though his work may be dated conjecturally in the
early part of the reign of Theodoric the Great. We can only
say that he wrote on the origin and history of the Goths, using
both Gothic saga and Greek sources; and that if Jordanes used
Cassiodorus, Cassiodorus used, if to a less extent, the work of
Ablabius.
Cassiodorus began his work, at the request of Theodoric, and
therefore before 526: it was finished by 533. At the root of
the work lies a theory, whencesoever derived, which identified
the Goths with the Scythians, whose country Darius Hystaspes
invaded, and with the Getae of Dacia, whom Trajan conquered.
This double identification enabled Cassiodorus to bring the
favoured race into line with the peoples of classical antiquity, to
interweave with their history stories about Hercules and the
Amazons, to make them invade Egypt, to claim for them a share
in the wisdom of the semi-mythical Scythian philosopher
Zamolxis. He was thus able with some show of plausibility
to represent the Goths as " wiser than all the other barbarians
and almost like the Greeks " (Jord., De reb. Get., cap. v.), and
to send a son of the Gothic king Telephus to fight at the siege of
Troy, with the ancestors of the Romans. All this we can now
perceive to have no relation to history, but at the time it may
have made the subjugation of the Roman less bitter to feel that
he was not after all bowing down before a race of barbarian up-
starts, but that his Amal sovereign was as firmly rooted in classi-
cal antiquity as any Julius or Claudius who ever wore the purple.
In the eighteen years which elapsed between 533 and the com-
position of the Getica of Jordanes, great events, most disastrous for
the Romano-Gothic monarchy of Theodoric, had taken place. It
was no longer possible to write as if the whole civilization of the
Western world would sit down contentedly under the shadow of
East Gothic dominion and Amal sovereignty. And, moreover,
the instincts of Jordanes, as a subject of the Eastern Empire, pre-
disposed him to flatter the sacred majesty of Justinian, by whose
victorious arms the overthrow of the barbarian kingdom in
Italy had been effected. Hence we perceive two currents of
tendency in the Getica. On the one hand, as a transcriber of
the philo-Goth Cassiodorus, he magnifies the race of Alaric and
Theodoric, and claims for them their full share, perhaps more
than their full share, of glory in the past. On the other hand he
speaks of the great anti-Teuton emperor Justinian, and of his
reversal of the German conquests of the 5th century, in language
which would certainly have grated on the ears of Totila and his
heroes. When Ravenna is taken, and Vitigis carried into cap-
tivity, Jordanes almost exults in the fact that " the nobility of
the Amals and the illustrious offspring of so many mighty men
have surrendered to a yet more illustrious prince and a yet
mightier general, whose fame shall not grow dim through all the
centuries." (Getica, Ix. § 315).
This laudation, both of the Goths and of their Byzantine
conquerors, may perhaps help us to understand the motive
with which the Getica was written. In the year 551 Germanus,
nephew of Justinian, accompanied by his bride, Matasuntha,
grand-daughter of Theodoric, set forth to reconquer Italy for
the empire. His early death prevented any schemes for a re-
vived Romano-Gothic kingdom which may have been based on
his personality. His widow, however, bore a posthumous child,
also named Germanus, of whom Jordanes speaks (cap. 60) as
" blending the blood of the Anicii and the Amals, and furnishing
a hope under the divine blessing of one day uniting their glories."
This younger Germanus did nothing in after life to realize these
anticipations; but the somewhat pointed way in which his name
and his mother's name are mentioned by Jordanes lends some
probability to the view that he hoped for the child's succession
to the Eastern Empire, and the final reconciliation of the Goths
and Romans in the person of a Gotho-Roman emperor.
The De rebus Geticis falls naturally into four parts. The first
(chs. i.-xiii.) commences with a geographical description of the three
quarters of the world, and in more detail of Britain and Scanzia
(Sweden), from which the Goths under their king Berig migrated to
the southern coast of the Baltic. Their migration across what has
since been called Lithuania to the shores of the Euxine, and their
differentiation into Visigoths and Ostrogoths, are nest described.
Chs. v.-xiii. contain an account of the intrusive Geto-Scythian ele-
ment before alluded to.
The second section (chs. xiv.-xxiv.) returns to the true history of
the Gothic nation, sets forth the genealogy of the Amal kings, and
describes the inroads of the Goths into the Roman Empire in the
3rd century, with the foundation and the overthrow of the great
but somewhat shadowy kingdom of Hermanric.
The third section (chs. xxv.-xlvii.) traces the history of the West
Goths from the Hunnish invasion to the downfall of the Gothic
kingdom in Gaul under Alaric II. (376—507). The best part of this
section, and indeed of the whole book, is the seven chapters devoted
to Attila's invasion of Gaul and the battle of the Mauriac plains.
Here we have in ail probability a verbatim extract from Cassiodorus,
who (possibly resting on Ablabius) interwove with his narrative
large portions of the Gothic sagas. The celebrated expression
certaminis gaudia assuredly came at first neither from the suave
minister Cassiodorus nor from the small-souled notary Jordanes,
but is the translation of some thought which first found utterance
through the lips of a Gothic minstrel.
The fourth section (chs. xlviii.-lx.) traces the history of the East
Goths from the same Hunnish invasion to the first overthrow of the
Gothic monarchy in Italy (376-539). In this fourth section are
inserted, somewhat out of their proper place, some valuable details
as to the Gothi Minores, " an immense people dwelling in the region
of Nicopolis, with their high priest and primate Vulfilas, who is
said also to have taught them letters." The book closes with the
allusion to Germanus and the panegyric on Justinian as the con-
queror of the Goths referred to above.
Jordanes refers in the Getica to a number of authors besides
Cassiodorus; but he owes his knowledge of them to Cassiodorus.
It is perhaps only when he is using Orosius that we can hold Jordanes
to have borrowed directly. Otherwise, as Mommsen says, the
Getica is a mera epitome, laxata ea et perversa, historiae Gothicae
Cassiodorianae.
As to the style and literary character of Jordanes, every author
who has used him speaks in terms of severe censure. When he
is left to himself and not merely transcribing, he is sometimes scarcely
grammatical. There are awkward gaps in his narrative and state-
ments inconsistent with each other. He quotes, as if he were
familiarly acquainted with their writings, a number of Greek and
Roman writers, of whom it is almost certain that he had not .read
more than one or two. At the same time he does not quote the
chronicler Marcellinus, from whom he has copied verbatim the
history of the deposition of Augustulus. All these faults make
him a peculiarly unsatisfactory authority where we cannot check
his statements by those of other authors. It may, however, be
pleaded in extenuation that he is professedly a transcriber, and, if
JORDANUS— JORIS
his story be correct, a transcriber in peculiarly unfavourable
circumstances. He has also himself suffered much from the in-
accuracy of copyists. But nothing has really been more unfortunate
for the reputation of Jordanes as a writer than the extreme precious-
ness of the information which he has preserved to us. The Teutonic
tribes whose dim origins he records have in the course of centuries
attained to world-wide dominion. The battle in the Mauriac plains
of which he is really the sole historian, is now seen to have had
important bearings on the destinies of the world. And thus the
hasty pamphlet of a half-educated Gothic monk has been forced
into prominence, almost into rivalry with the finished productions
of the great writers of classical antiquity. No wonder that it
stands the comparison badly; but with all its faults the Getica of
Jordanes will probably ever retain its place side by side with the
De moribus Germanorum of Tacitus as a chief source of information
respecting the history, institutions and modes of thought of our
Teutonic forefathers.
EDITIONS. — -The classical edition is that of Mommsen (in Man.
Germ. hist. auct. antiq., v., ii.), which supersedes the older editions,
such as that in the first volume of Muratori's Scriptt. rer. Ilal. The
best MS. is the Heidelberg MS., written in Germany, probably in
the 8th century; but this perished in the fire at Mommsen "s house.
The next of the MSS. in value are the Vaticanus Palatinus of the
loth century, and the Valenciennes MS. of the gth.
AUTHORITIES. — Von Sybel's essay, De fontibus Jordanis (1838);
Schirren's De ratione quae inter Jordanem et Cassiodorum intercedat
Commentatio (Dorpat, 1858); Kopke's Die Anf tinge des Konigthums
bei den Gothen (Berlin, 1 859) ; Dahn's Die Konige der Germanen, vol. ii.
(Munich, 1861) ; Ebert's Geschichte der Christlich-Lateinischen Litera-
twr (Leipsic, 1874); Wattenbach's Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im
Mittelalter (Berlin, 1877); and the introduction of Mommsen to his
edition. (T.H.; E. BR.)
JORDANUS (JORDAN CATALAN:) (fl. 1321-1330), French
Dominican missionary and explorer in Asia, was perhaps born
at Severac in Aveyron, north-east of Toulouse. In 1302 he
may have accompanied the famous Thomas of Tolentino, via
Negropont, to the East; but it is only in 1321 that we definitely
discover him in western India, in the company of the same
Thomas and certain other Franciscan missionaries on their
way to China. Ill-luck detained them at Tana in Salsette island,
near Bombay; and here Jordanus' companions (" the four
martyrs of Tana ") fell victims to Moslem fanaticism (April 7,
1321). Jordanus, escaping, worked some time at Baruch in
Gujarat, near the Nerbudda estuary, and at Suali (?) near Surat;
to his fellow-Dominicans in north Persia he wrote two letters
— the first from Gogo in Gujarat (October 12, 1321), the second
from Tana (January 24, 1323/4) — describing the progress of
this new mission. From these letters we learn that Roman
attention had already been directed, not only to the Bombay
region, but also to the extreme south of the Indian peninsula,
especially to "Columbum," Quilon, or Kulam in Travancore;
Jordanus' words may imply that he had already started a
mission there before October 1321. From Catholic traders he
had learnt that Ethiopia (i.e. Abyssinia and Nubia) was
accessible to Western Europeans; at this very time, as we
know from other sources, the earliest Latin missionaries pene-
trated thither. Finally, the Epistles of Jordanus, like the con-
temporary Secreta of Marino Sanuto (1306-1321), urge the
pope to establish a Christian fleet upon the Indian seas.
Jordanus, between 1324 and 1328 (if not earlier), probably
visited Kulam and selected it as the best centre for his future
work; it would also appear that he revisited Europe about 1328,
passing through Persia, and perhaps touching at the great
Crimean port of Soldaia or Sudak. He was appointed a bishop
in 1328 and nominated by Pope John XXII. to the see of
Columbum in 1330. Together with the new bishop of Samar-
kand, Thomas of Mancasola, Jordanus was commissioned to
take the pall to John de Cora, archbishop of Sultaniyah in
Persia, within whose province Kulam was reckoned; he was
also commended to the Christians of south India, both east
and west of Cape Comorin, by Pope John. Either before
going out to Malabar as bishop, or during a later visit to
the west, Jordanus probably wrote his Mirabilia, which from
internal evidence can only be fixed within the period 1320-
1338; in this work he furnished the best account of Indian
regions, products, climate, manners, customs, fauna and flora
given by any European in the Middle Ages — superior even to
Marco Polo's. In his triple division of the Indies, India Major
comprises the shorelands from Malabar to Cochin China; while
India Minor stretches from Sind (or perhaps from Baluchistan)
to Malabar; and India Tertia (evidently dominated by African
conceptions in his mind) includes a vast undefined coast-region
west of Baluchistan, reaching into the neighbourhood of, but
not including, Ethiopia and Prester John's domain. Jordanus'
Mirabilia contains the earliest clear African identification of
Prester John, and what is perhaps the first notice of the Black
Sea under that name; it refers to the author's residence in
India Major and especially at Kulam, as well as to his travels in
Armenia, north-west Persia, the Lake Van region, and Chaldaea;
and it supplies excellent descriptions of Parsee doctrines and
burial customs, of Hindu ox-worship, idol-ritual, and suttee,
and of Indian fruits, birds, animals and insects. After the 8th
of April 1330 we have no more knowledge of Bishop Jordanus.
Of Jordanus' Epistles there is only one MS., viz. Paris, National
Library, 5006 Lat., fol. .182, r. and v. ; of the Mirabilia also one MS.
only, viz. London, British Museum, Additional MSS., 19,513, fols.
3, r.-i2 r. The text of the Epistles is in Qufitif and Echard, Scrip-
tores ordinis praedicatorum, i. 549-550 (Epistle I.); and in Wadding,
Annales minorum, vi. 359-361 (Epistle II.) ; the text of the Mirabilia
in the Paris Geog. Soc.'s Recueil de voyages, iv. 1-68 (1839). The
Papal letters referring to Jordanus are in Raynaldus, Annales
ecclesiastici, 1330, §§ Iv. and Ivii (April 8; Feb. l^). See also Sir H.
Yule's Jordanus, a version of the Mirabilia with a commentary
(Hakluyt Soc., 1863) and the same editor's Cathay, giving a version
of the Epistles, with a commentary, &c. (Hak.Soc., 1866) pp. 184—185,
192-196, 225-230; F. Kunstmann, " Die Mission in Meliapor und
Tana ' and " Die Mission in Columbo " in the Historisch-politische
Blatter of Phillips and Gorres, xxxvii. 25-38, 135-152 (Munich, 1856),
&c. ; C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 215-235.
(C.R.B.)
JORIS, DAVID, the common name of JAN JORISZ or JORISZOON
(c. 1501-1556), Anabaptist heresiarch who called himself later JAN
VAN BRUGGE; was born in 1501 or 1502, probably in Flanders,
at Ghent or Bruges. His father, Georgius Joris de Koman, other-
wise Joris van Amersfoordt, probably a native of Bruges, was a
shopkeeper and amateur actor at Delft; from the circumstance
that he played the part of King David, his son received the name
of David, but probably not in baptism. His mother was Marytje,
daughter of Jan de Gorter, of a good family in Delft. As a child
he was clever and delicate. He seems then or later to have
acquired some tincture of learning. His first known occupation
was that of a glass-painter; in 1522 he painted windows for the
church at Enkhuizen, North Holland (the birthplace of Paul
Potter). In pursuit of his art he travelled, and is said to have
reached England; ill-health drove him homewards in 1524, in
which year he married Dirckgen Willems at Delft. In the
same year the Lutheran reformation took hold of him, and he
began to issue appeals in prose and verse against the Mass and
against the pope as antichrist. On Ascension Day 1528 he
committed an outrage on the sacrament carried in procession;
he was placed in the pillory, had his tongue bored, and was
banished from Delft for three years. He turned to the Ana-
baptists, was rebaptized in 1533, and for some years led a
wandering life. He came into relations with John a Lasco, and
with Menno Simons. Much influenced by Melchior Hofman,
he had no sympathy with the fanatic violence of the Miinster
faction. At the Buckholdt conference in August 1536 he played
a mediating part. His mother, in 1537, suffered martyrdom as
an Anabaptist. Soon after he took up a r&le of his own, having
visions and a gift of prophecy. He adapted in his own interest
the theory (constantly recurrent among mystics and innovators,
from the time of Abbot Joachim to the present day) of three dis-
pensations, the old, with its revelation of the Father, the newer
with its revelation of the Son, and the final or era of the Spirit.
Of this newest revelation Christus David was the mouthpiece,
supervening on Christus Jesus. From the ist of April 1544,
bringing with him some of his followers, he took up his abode in
Basel, which was to be the New Jerusalem. Here he styled
himself Jan van Brugge. His identity was unknown to the
authorities of Basel, who had no suspicion of his heresies. By
his writings he maintained his hold on his numerous followers
in Holland and Friesland. These monotonous writings, all in
Dutch, flowed in a continual stream from 1524 (though none is
JORTIN— JOSEPH
extant before 1529) and amounted to over 200 in number. His
magnum opus was 'T Wonder Boeck (n.d. 1542, divided into
two parts; 1551, handsomely reprinted, divided into four parts;
both editions anonymous). Its chief claim to recognition is its
use, in the latter part, of the phrase Restitutio Christi, which
apparently suggested to Servetus his title Christianismi Restitutio
• (!SS3)- In the i st edition is a figure of the " new man," signed
with the author's monogram, and probably drawn as a likeness of
himself; it fairly corresponds with the alleged portrait, engraved
in 1607, reproduced in the appendix to A. Ross's Pansebeia (1655) ,
and idealized by P. Burckhardt in 1900. Another work, Ver-
klaringe der Scheppenissen (1553) treats mystically the book of
Genesis, a favourite theme with Boehme, Swedenborg and others.
His remaining writings exhibit all that easy dribble of triumph-
ant muddiness which disciples take as depth. His wife died on
the 22nd of August, and his own death followed on the 25th of
August 1556. He was buried, with all religious honours, in the
church of St Leonard, Basel. Three years later, Nicolas Blesdijk,
who had married his eldest daughter Jannecke (Susanna),
but had lost confidence in Jorisz some time before his death,
denounced the dead man to the authorities of Basel. An inves-
tigation was begun in March 1559, and as the result of a convic-
tion for heresy the exhumed body of Jorisz was burned, together
with his portrait, on the i3th of May 1559. Blesdijk's Historic,
(not printed till 1642) accuses Jorisz of having plures uxores. Of
this there is no confirmation. Theoretically Jorisz regarded
polygamy as lawful; there is no proof that his theory affected
his own practice.
The first attempt at a true account of Jorisz was by Gottfried
Arnold, in his anonymous Historia (1713), pursued with much fuller
material in his Kirchen und Ketzer Historic (best ed. 1740-1742).
See also F. Nippold, in Zeitschrifl fur die historische Theologie (1863,
1864, 1868); A. van der Linde, in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic
(1881); P. Burckhardt, Basler Biographien (1900) ; Hegler, in Hauck's
Realencyklopddie (1901), and the bibliography by A. van der Linde,
1867, supplemented by E. Weller, 1869. (A. Go.*)
JORTIN, JOHN (1698-1770), English theologian, the son of a
Protestant refugee from Brittany, was born in London on the
23rd of October 1698. He went to Charterhouse School, and in
1715 became a pensioner of Jesus College, Cambridge, where his
reputation as a Greek scholar led to his being selected to translate
certain passages from Eustathius for the notes to Pope's Homer.
In 1722 he published a small volume of Latin verse entitled Lusus
poetici. Having taken orders in 1724, he was in 1726 presented
by his college to the vicarage of Swavesey in Cambridgeshire,
which he resigned in 1 730 to become preacher at a chapel-of-ease
in New Street, London. In 1731, along with some friends, he
began a publication entitled Miscellaneous Observations on Authors
Ancient and Modern, which appeared at intervals during two
years. He was Boyle lecturer in 1749. Shortly after becoming
chaplain to the bishop of London in 1762 he was appointed to
a prebendal stall of St Paul's and to the vicarage of Kensing-
ton, and in 1764 he was made archdeacon of London. He died
at Kensington on the 5th of September 1770.
The principal works of Jortin are : Discussions Concerning the Truth
of the Christian Religion (1746); Remarks on Ecclesiastical History
(3 vols. 1751-2-4); Life of Erasmus (2 vols. 1750, 1760) founded on
the Life by Jean Le Clerc; and Tracts Philological Critical and
Miscellaneous (1790). A collection of his Various Works appeared in
1805-1810. All his writings display wide learning and acuteness.
He writes on theological subjects with the detachment of a thought-
ful layrrian, and is witty without being flippant. See John Disney's
Life of Jortin (1792).
JOSEPH, in the Old Testament, the son of the patriarch Jacob
by Rachel; the name of a tribe of Israel. Two explanations
of the name are given by the Biblical narrator (Gen. xxx. 23 [E],
24 [J]) ; a third, " He (God) increases," seems preferable. Un-
like the other " sons " of Jacob, Joseph is usually reckoned as two
tribes (viz. his " sons " Ephraim and Manasseh), and closely asso-
ciated with it is the small tribe of Benjamin (q.v.), which lay
immediately to the south. These three constituted the " sons "
of Rachel (the ewe), and with the " sons " of Leah (the
antelope ?) are thus on a higher level than the " sons " of
Jacob's concubines. The " house of Joseph " and its offshoots
xv. 17
occupied the centre of Palestine from the plain of Esdraelon to
the mountain country of Benjamin, with dependencies in Bashan
and northern Gilead (see MANASSEH). Practically it comprised
the northern kingdom, and the name is used in this sense in
2 Sam. xix. 20; Amos v. 6; vi. 6 (note the prominence of
Joseph in the blessings of Jacob and Moses, Gen. xlix., Deut.
xxxiii.). Originally, however, " Joseph " was more restricted,
possibly to the immediate neighbourhood of Shechem, its
later extension being parallel to the development of the name
Jacob. The dramatic story of the tribal ancestor is recounted
in Gen. xxxvii.-l. (see GENESIS). Joseph, the younger and
envied son, is seized by his brothers at Dothan north of Shechem,
and is sold to a party of Ishmaelites or Midianites, who carry him
down to Egypt. After various vicissitudes he gains the favour
of the king of Egypt by the interpretation of a dream, and obtains
a high place in the kingdom.1 Forced by a famine his brothers
come to buy food, and in the incidents that follow Joseph shows
his preference for his young brother Benjamin (cf. the tribal
data above). His father Jacob is invited to come to Goshen,
where a settlement is provided for the family and their flocks.
This is followed many years later by the exodus, the conquest
of Palestine, and the burial of Joseph's body in the grave at
Shechem which his father had bought.
The history of Joseph in Egypt displays some familiarity with the
circumstances and usages of that country; see Driver (Hastings's
D.B.) and Cheyne (Ency. Bib., col. 2589 seq.); although Abrech
(xli. 43), possibly the Egyptian ib rk (Crum, in Hastings's D.B., i.
665), has been otherwise connected with the Assyrian abarakku
(a high officer). An interesting parallel to the story of Joseph in
Gen. xxxix. is found in the Egyptian tale of The Two Brothers (Petrie,
Eg. Tales, 2nd series, p-36seq., l895),whichdatesfromabout 1500 B.C.,
but the differences are not inconsiderable compared with the points
of resemblance, and the tale has features which are almost universal
(Frazer, Golden Bough, 2nded., vol. iii. 351 seq.). On the theory that
the historical elements of Joseph's history refer to an official (Yan-
hamu) of the time of Amenophis III. and IV., see Cheyne, op. cit.,
and Hibbert Journal, October 1903. That the present form of the
narrative has been influenced by current mythological lore is not
improbable; on this question see (with caution) Winckler, Gesch.
Israels, ii. 67-77 (1900); A. Jeremias, Alte Test., pp. 383 sqq. (1906).
It may be added that the Egyptian names in the story of Joseph
are characteristic of the XXII. and subsequent dynasties. See, also,
Meyer and Luther, Die Israeliten (1906), Index, s.v. (S. A. C.)
JOSEPH, in the New Testament, the husband of Mary, the
mother of Jesus. He is represented as a descendant of the
house of David, and his genealogy appears in two divergent
forms in Matt. i. 1-17 and Luke iii. 23-38. The latter is pro-
bably much more complete and accurate in details. The former,
obviously artificial in structure (notice 3 X 14 generations), traces
the Davidic descent through kings, and is governed by an apolo-
getic purpose. Of Joseph's personal history practically nothing
is recorded in the Bible. The facts concerning him common to
the two birth-narratives (Matt, i.-ii. ; Luke i.-ii.) are: (a) that
he was a descendant of David, (b) that 'Mary was already
betrothed to him when she was found with child of the Holy
Ghost, and (c) that he lived at Nazareth after the birth of
Christ; but these facts are handled differently in each case. It
is noticeable that, in Matthew, Joseph is prominent (e.g. he
receives an annunciation from an angel), while in Luke's narra-
tive he is completely subordinated. Bp Gore (The Incarnation,
Bampton lecture for 1891, p. 78) points out that Matthew
narrates everything from Joseph's side, Luke from Mary's,
and infers that the narrative of the former may .ultimately be
based on Joseph's account, that of the latter on Mary's. The
narratives seem to have been current (in a poetical form)
among the early Jewish-Christian community of Palestine. At
Nazareth Joseph followed the trade of a carpenter (Matt. xiii.
55). It is probable that he had died before the public ministry
of Christ; for no mention is made of him in passages relating
to this period where the mother and brethren of Jesus are
1 Joseph's marriage with the daughter of the priest of On might
show that the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh were believed to be
half-Egyptian by descent, but it is notoriously difficult to determine
how much is of ethnological value and how much belongs to romance
(viz. that of the individual Joseph).
5 14 JOSEPH OF ARIMATHAEA— JOSEPH (EMPERORS)
introduced; and from John xix. 26 it is clear that he was not
alive at the time of the Crucifixion.
Joseph was the father of several children (Matt. xiii. 55),
but according to ecclesiastical tradition by a former marriage.
The reading of Matt. i. 16, in the Sinaitic Palimpsest (Joseph
. . . . begat Jesus, who is called the Christ) also makes
him the natural father of Jesus, and this was the view of certain
early heretical sects, but it seems never to have been held in
orthodox Christian circles. According to various apocryphal
gospels (conveniently collected in B. H. Cowper's The Apocryphal
Gospels, 1881), when married to Mary he was a widower already
80 years of age, and the father of four sons and two daughters;
his first wife's name was Salome and she was a connexion of
the family of John the Baptist.
In the Roman Catholic Church the igth of March has since
1642 been a feast in Joseph's honour. Two other festivals in his
honour have also been established (the Patronage of St Joseph,
3rd Sunday after Easter, and the Betrothal of Mary and Joseph,
2$rd of January). In December 1870 St Joseph was proclaimed
Patron of the whole Church. (G. H. Bo.)
JOSEPH OF ARIMATHAEA,1 in the New Testament, a
wealthy Jew who had been converted by Jesus Christ. He is men-
tioned by the Four Evangelists, who are in substantial agreement
concerning him: after the Crucifixion he went to Pilate and
asked for the body of Jesus, subsequently prepared it for burial
and laid it in a tomb. There are, however, minor differences
in the accounts, which have given rise to controversy. Matthew
(xxvii. 60) says that the tomb was Joseph's own; Mark (xv. 43
seq.), Luke (xxiii. 50 seq.) say nothing of this, while John (xix.
41) simply says that the body was laid in a sepulchre " nigh at
hand." Both Mark and Luke say that Joseph was a " council-
lor " (tvaxTUiuv @ov\tUT-!p, Mark xv. 43), and the Gospel of
Peter describes him as a " friend of Pilate and of the Lord."
This last statement is probably a late invention, and there is
considerable difficulty as to " councillor." That Joseph was a
member of the Sanhedrin is improbable. Luke indeed, regarding
him as such, says that he " had not consented to their counsel
and deed," but Mark (xiv. 64) says that all the Sanhedrin
" condemned him to be worthy of death." Perhaps the phrase
" noble councillor " is intended to imply merely a man of wealth
and position. Again Matthew says that Joseph was a disciple,
while Mark implies that he was not yet among the definite
adherents of Christ, and John describes him as an adherent
" secretly for fear of the Jews." Most likely he was a disciple,
but belonged only to the wider circle of adherents. The account
given in the Fourth Gospel suggests that the writer, faced with
these various difficulties, assumed a double tradition: (i) that
Joseph of Arimathaea, a wealthy disciple, buried the body of
Christ; (2) that the person in question was Joseph of Arimathaea
a " councillor," and solved the problem by substituting Nicode-
mus as the councillor; hence he describes both Joseph and
Nicodemus (xix. 39) as co-operating in the burial. Some critics
(e.g. Strauss, New Life of Jesus, ch. 96) have thrown doubt upon
the story, regarding some of the details as invented to suit the
prophecy in Isa. liii. 9, " they made his grave with the wicked,
and with the rich in his death " (for various translations, see
Hastings's Diet. Bible, ii. 778). But in the absence of any
reference to this prophecy in the Gospels, this view is uncon-
vincing, though the correspondence is remarkable.
The striking character of this single appearance of Joseph of
Arimathaea led to the rise of numerous legends. *Thus William
of Malmesbury says that he was sent to Britain by St Philip,
and, having received a small island in Somersetshire, there
constructed " with twisted twigs " the first Christian church in
Britain — afterwards to become the Abbey of Glastonbury. The
legend says that his staff, planted in the ground, became a thorn
flowering twice a year (see GLASTONBURY). This tradition —
which is given only as such by Malmesbury himself — is not
confirmed, and there is no mention of it in either Gildas or Bede.
1 Generally identified with Ramathaim-Zophim, the city of
Elkanah in the hilly district of Ephraim (i Sam. i. i), near Diospolis
(Lydda). See Euseb., Onomasticon, 225. 12.
Joseph also plays a large part in the various versions of the
Legend of the Holy Grail (see GRAIL, THE HOLY).
JOSEPH I. (1678-1711), Roman emperor, was the elder son
of the emperor Leopold I. and his third wife, Eleanora, countess
palatine, daughter of Philip William of Neuburg. Born in
Vienna on the 26th of July 1678, he was educated strictly by
Prince Dietrich Otto von Salm, and became a good linguist.
In 1687 he received the crown of Hungary, and he was elected
king of the Romans in 1690. In 1699 he married Wilhelmina
Amalia, daughter of Duke Frederick of Brunswick-Liineburg,
by whom he had two daughters. In 1702, on the outbreak of
the War of the Spanish Succession, he saw his only military
service. He joined the imperial general Louis of Baden in the
siege of Landau. It is said that when he was advised not to go
into a place of danger he replied that those who were afraid
might retire. He succeeded his father as emperor in 1705, and
it was his good fortune to govern the Austrian dominions, and
to be head of the Empire during the years in which his trusted
general Prince Eugene, either acting alone in Italy or with the
duke of Marlborough in Germany and Flanders, was beating
the armies of Louis XIV. During the whole of his reign
Hungary was disturbed by the conflict with Francis Rackoczy II.,
who eventually took refuge in France. The emperor did not
himself take the field against the rebels, but he is entitled to a
large share of the credit for the restoration of his authority. He
reversed many of the pedantically authoritative measures of his
father, thus placating all opponents who could be pacified, and
he fought stoutly for what he believed to be his rights. Joseph
showed himself very independent towards the pope, and hostile
to the Jesuits, by whom his father had been much influenced.
He had the tastes for art and music which were almost hereditary
in his family, and was an active hunter. He began the attempts
to settle the question of the Austrian inheritance by a pragmatic
sanction, which were continued by his brother Charles VI.
Joseph died in Vienna on the 1 7th of April 1711, of small-pox.
See F. Krones von Marchland, Grundriss der Oesterreichischen
Geschichte (1882); F. Waener, Historia Josephi Caesaris (1746);
J. C. Herchenhahn, Geschichte der Regierung Kaiser Josephs I.
(1786-1789) ; C. van Noorden, Europdische Geschichteim iS.Jahrhun-
dert (1870-1882).
JOSEPH II. (1741-1790), Roman emperor, eldest son of the
empress Maria Theresa and her husband Francis I., was born on
the I3th of March 1741, in the first stress of the War of the
Austrian Succession. Maria Theresa gave orders that he was
only to be taught as if he were amusing himself; the result was
that he acquired a habit of crude and superficial study. His
real education was given him by the writings of Voltaire and
the encyclopaedists, and by the example of Frederick the Great.
His useful training was conferred by government officials, who
were directed to instruct him in the mechanical details of the
administration of the numerous states composing the Austrian
dominions and the Empire. In 1761 he was made a member of
the newly constituted council of state (Staatsrath) and began to
draw up minutes, to which he gave the name of " reveries," for
his mother to read. These papers contain the germs of his later
policy, and of all the disasters which finally overtook him. He
was a friend to religious toleration, anxious to reduce the power
of the church, to relieve the peasantry of feudal burdens, and
to remove restrictions on trade and on knowledge. So far he
did not differ from Frederick, Catherine of Russia or his own
brother and successor Leopold II., all enlightened rulers of the
18th-century stamp. Where Joseph differed from great con-
temporary rulers, and where he was very close akin to the
Jacobins, was in the fanatical intensity of his belief in the power
of the state when directed by reason, of his right to speak for
the state uncontrolled by laws, and of the reasonableness of
his own reasons. Also he had inherited from his mother all the
belief of the house of Austria in its " august " quality, and its
claim to acquire whatever it found desirable for its power or its
profit. He was unable to understand that his philosophical
plans for the moulding of mankind could meet with pardonable
opposition. The overweening character of the man was obvious
JOSEPH, FATHER
to Frederick, who, after their first interview in 1769, described
him as ambitious, and as capable of setting the world on fire.
The French minister Vergennes, who met Joseph when he was
travelling incognito in 1777, judged him to be " ambitious and
despotic."
Until the death of his mother in 1780 Joseph was never quite
free to follow his own instincts. After the death of his father
in 1765 he became emperor and was made co-regent by his
mother in the Austrian dominions. As emperor he had no real
power, and his mother was resolved that neither husband nor
son should ever deprive her of sovereign control in her hereditary
dominions. Joseph, by threatening to resign his place as
co-regent, could induce his mother to abate her dislike to
religious toleration. He could, and he did, place a great strain
on her patience and temper, as in the case of the first partition
of Poland and the Bavarian War of 1778, but in the last resort
the empress spoke the final word. During these wars Joseph
travelled much. He met Frederick the Great privately at
Neisse in 1769, and again at Mahrisch-Neustadt in 1770. On
the second occasion he was accompanied by Prince Kaunitz,
whose conversation with Frederick may be said to mark the
starting-point of the first partition of Poland. To this and to
every other measure which promised to extend the dominions
of his house Joseph gave hearty approval. Thus he was eager
to enforce its claim on Bavaria upon the death of the elector
Maximilian Joseph in 1777. In April of that year he paid a
visit to his sister the queen of France (see MARIE ANTOINETTE) ,
travelling under the name of Count Falkenstein. He was well
received, and much flattered by the encyclopaedists, but his
observations led him to predict the approaching downfall of
the French monarchy, and he was not impressed favourably by
the army or navy. In 1778 he commanded the troops collected
to oppose Frederick, who supported the rival claimant to
Bavaria. Real fighting was averted by the unwillingness of
Frederick to embark on a new war and by Maria Theresa's
determination to maintain peace. In April 1780 he paid a visit
to Catherine of Russia, against the wish of his mother.
The death of Maria Theresa on the 27th of November 1780
left Joseph free. He immediately directed his government on a
new course, full speed ahead. He proceeded to attempt to
realize his ideal of a wise despotism acting on a definite system
for the good of all. The measures of emancipation of the
peasantry which his mother had begun were carried on by him
with feverish activity. The spread of education, the seculariza-
tion of church lands, the reduction of the religious orders and
the clergy in general to complete submission to the lay state,
the promotion of unity by the compulsory use of the German
language, everything which from the point of view of i8th-
century philosophy appeared " reasonable " was undertaken
at once. He strove for administrative unity with characteristic
haste to reach results without preparation. His anti-clerical
innovations induced Pope Pius VI. to pay him a visit in July
1782. Joseph received the pope politely, and showed himself a
good Catholic, but refused to be influenced. So many inter-
ferences with old customs began to produce unrest in all parts
of his dominions. Meanwhile he threw himself into a succession
of foreign policies all aimed at aggrandisement, and all equally
calculated to offend his neighbours — all taken up with zeal, and
dropped in discouragement. He endeavoured to get rid of
the Barrier Treaty, which debarred his Flemish subjects from
the navigation of the Scheldt; when he was opposed by France
he turned to other schemes of alliance with Russia for the
partition of Turkey and Venice. They also had to be given up
in the face of the opposition of neighbours, and in particular of
France. Then he resumed his attempts to obtain Bavaria —
this time by exchanging it for Belgium — and only provoked the
formation of the Furstenbund organized by the king of Prussia.
Finally he joined Russia in an attempt to pillage Turkey. It
began on his part by an unsuccessful and discreditable attempt
to surprise Belgrade in time of peace, and was followed by the
ill-managed campaign of 1788. He accompanied his army, but
showed no capacity for war. In November he returned to
Vienna with ruined health, and during 1789 was a dying man.
The concentration of his troops in the east gave the malcontents
of Belgium an opportunity to revolt. In Hungary the nobles
were all but in open rebellion, and in his other states there
were peasant risings, and a revival of particularist sentiments.
Joseph was left entirely alone. His minister Kaunitz refused
to visit his sick-room, and did not see him for two years. His
brother Leopold remained at Florence. At last Joseph, worn
out and broken-hearted, recognized that his servants could not,
or would not, carry out his plans. On the 3oth of January 1 790
he formally withdrew all his reforms, and he died on the 2oth
of February.
Joseph II. was twice married, first to Isabella, daughter of
Philip, duke of Parma, to whom he was attached. After her
death on the 27th of November 1763, a political marriage was
arranged with Josepha (d. 1767), daughter of Charles Albert,
elector of Bavaria (the emperor Charles VII.). It proved
extremely unhappy. Joseph left no children, and was succeeded
by his brother Leopold II.
Many volumes of the emperor's correspondence have been pub-
lished. Among them are Maria Theresia und Joseph II. Ihre
Korrespondenz samt Briefen Josephs an seinen Bruder Leopold
(1867-1868); Joseph II. und Leopold von Toskana. Ihr Briefwechsel
1781-1790 (1872); Joseph II. und Katharina von Russland. Ihr
Briefwechsel (1869) ; and Maria Antoinette, Joseph II. und Leopold II.
Ihr Briefwechsel (1866) ; all edited by A. Ritter von Arneth.
Other collections are: Joseph II., Leopold II. und Kaunitz. Ihr
Briefwechsel, edited by A. Beer (1873); Correspondences intimes de
I'empereur Joseph II. avec son ami, le comte de Cobenzl et son premier
ministre, le prince de Kaunitz, edited by S. Brunner (1871) ; Joseph II.
und Graf Ludwig Cobenzl. Ihr Briefwechsel, edited by A. Beer and
J. von Fiedler (1901); and the Geheime Korrespondenz Josephs II.
mil seinem Minister in den Oesterreichischen Niederlanden, Ferdinand
Graf Trauttmannsdorff 1787-1789, edited by H. Schlitter (1902).
Among the lives of Joseph may be mentioned : A. J. Gross-Hoffinger,
Geschichte Josephs II. (1847); C. Paganel, Histoire de Joseph II.
(1843; German translation by F. Kohler, 1844) ; H. Meynert, Kaiser
Joseph II. (1862); A. Beer, Joseph II. (1882); A. Jager, Kaiser
Joseph II. und Leopold II. (1867); A. Fournier, Joseph II. (1885);
and J. Wendrinski, Kaiser Joseph II. (1880). There is a useful
small volume on the emperor by J. Franck Bright (1897). Other
books which may be consulted are : G. Wolf, Das Unterrichtswesen in
Oesterreich unter Joseph II. (1880), and Oesterreich und Preussen
1780-1790 (1880), A. Wolf and H. von Zwiedeneck-Siidenhorst, Oester-
reich unter Maria Theresia, Joseph II. und Leopold II. (1882—1884);
H. Schlitter, Die Regierung Josephs II. in den Oesterreichischen
Niederlanden (1900) ; and Pius VI. und Joseph II. 1782-1784. (1894) ;
O. Lorenz, Joseph II. und die Belgische Revolution (1862); and
L. Delplace, Joseph II. et la revolution braban$onne (1890).
JOSEPH, FATHER (FRA^OIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY)
(1577-1638), French Capuchin monk, the confidant of Richelieu,
was the eldest son of Jean Leclerc du Tremblay, president of
the chamber of requests of the parlement of Paris, and of Marie
Metier de Lafayette. As a boy he received a careful classical
training, and in 1595 made an extended journey through Italy,
returning to take up the career of arms. He served at the siege
of Amiens in 1597, and then accompanied a special embassy to
London. In 1599 Baron de Mafflier, by which name he was
known at court, renounced the world and entered the Capuchin
monastery of Orleans. He embraced the religious life with
great ardour, and became a notable preacher and reformer.
In 1606 he aided Antoinette d'Orleans, a nun of Fontevrault, to
found the reformed order of the Filles du Calvaire, and wrote a
manual of devotion for the nuns. His proselytizing zeal led him
to send missionaries throughout the Huguenot centres — he had
become provincial of Touraine in 1613. He entered politics at
the conferences of Loudun, when, as the confidant of the queen
and the papal envoy, he opposed the Gallican claims advanced
by the parjement, which the princes were upholding, and suc-
ceeded in convincing them of the schismatic tendency of Galli-
canism. In 1612 he began those personal relations with
Richelieu which have indissolubly joined in history and legend
the cardinal and the " Eminence grise," relations which research
has not altogether made clear. In 1627 the monk assisted at
the siege of La Rochelle. A purely religious reason also made
him Richelieu's ally against the Habsburgs. He had a drestm of
arousing Europe to another crusade against the Turks, and
Si6
JOSEPHINE— JOSEPHUS
believed that the house of Austria was the obstacle to that
universal European peace which would make this possible. As
Richelieu's agent, therefore, this modern Peter the Hermit
manceuvred at the diet of Regensburg (1630) to thwart the aggres-
sion of the emperor, and then advised the intervention of
Gustavus Adolphus, reconciling himself to the use of Protestant
armies by the theory that one poison would counteract another.
Thus the monk became a war minister, and, though maintaining
a personal austerity of life, gave himself up to diplomacy and
politics. He died in 1638, just as the cardinalate was to be
conferred upon him. The story that Richelieu visited him
when on his deathbed and roused the dying man by the words,
" Courage, Father Joseph, we have won Breisach," is apocryphal.
See Fagniez, Le Pere Joseph el Richelieu (1894), a work based
largely on original and unpublished sources. Father Joseph,
according to this biography, would seem not to have lectured
Richelieu in the fashion of the legends, whatever his moral influence
may have been in strengthening Richelieu's hands.
JOSEPHINE (MARIE ROSE JOSEPHINE TASCHER DE LA
PAGERIE) (1763-1814), empress of the French, was born in
the island of Martinique on the 23rd of June 1763, being the
eldest of three daughters of Joseph Tascher de la Pagerie,
lieutenant of artillery. Her beauty and grace, though of a
languid Creole style, won the affections of the y»ung officer the
vicomte de Beauharnais, and, after some family complications,
she was married to him. Their married life was not wholly
happy, the frivolity of Josephine occasioning her husband
anxiety and jealousy. Two children, Eugene and Hortense,
were the fruit of the union. During Josephine's second residence
in Martinique, whither she proceeded to tend her mother,
occurred the first troubles with the slaves, which resulted from
the precipitate action of the constituent assembly in emancipat-
ing them. She returned to her husband, who at that time
entered into political life at Paris. Her beauty and vivacity
won her many admirers in the salons of the capital. As the
Revolution ran its course her husband, as an ex-noble, incurred
the suspicion and hostility of the Jacobins; and his ill -success
at the head of a French army on the Rhine led to his arrest and
execution. Thereafter Josephine was in a position of much
perplexity and some hardship, but the friendship of Barras and
of Madame Tallien, to both of whom she was then much attached,
brought her into notice, and she was one of the queens of
Parisian society in the year 1795, when Napoleon Bonaparte's
services to the French convention in scattering the malcontents
of the capital (13 Vendemiaire, or October 5, 1795) brought
him to the front. There is a story that she became known to
Napoleon through a visit paid to him by her son Eugene in order
to beg his help in procuring the restoration of his father's sword,
but it rests on slender foundations. In any case, it is certain
that Bonaparte, however he came to know her, was speedily
captivated by her charms. She, on her side, felt very little
affection for the thin, impecunious and irrepressible suitor; but
by degrees she came to acquiesce in the thought of marriage,
her hesitations, it is said, being removed by the influence of
Barras and by the nomination of Bonaparte to the command
of the army of Italy. The civil marriage took place on the
gth of March 1796, two days before the bridegroom set out for
his command. He failed to induce her to go with him to Nice
and Italy.
Bonaparte's letters to Josephine during the campaign reveal
the ardour of his love, while she rarely answered them. As he
came to realize her shallowness and frivolity his passion cooled;
but at the time when he resided at Montebello (near Milan) in
1797 he still showed great regard for her. During his absence
in Egypt in 1798-1799, her relations to an officer, M. Charles,
were most compromising; and Bonaparte on his return thought
of divorcing her. Her tears and the entreaties of Eugene and
Hortense availed to bring about a reconciliation; and during
the period of the consulate (1790-1804) their relations were on
the whole happy, though Napoleon's conduct now gave his
consort grave cause for concern. His brothers and sisters more
than once begged him to divorce Josephine, and it is known that,
from the time when he became first consul for life (August 1802)
with large powers over the choice of a successor, he kept open
the alternative of a divorce. Josephine's anxieties increased
on the proclamation of the Empire (May 18, 1804); and on
the ist of December 1804, the eve of the coronation at Notre
Dame, she gained her wish that she should be married anew to
Napoleon with religious rites. Despite her care, the emperor
procured the omission of one formality, the presence of the
parish priest; but at the coronation scene Josephine appeared
radiant with triumph over her envious relatives. The august
marriages contracted by her children Eugene and Hortense
seemed to establish her position; but her ceaseless extravagance
and, above all, the impossibility that she should bear a son
strained the relations between Napoleon and Josephine. She
complained of his infidelities and growing callousness. The end
came in sight after the campaign of 1809, when Napoleon caused
the announcement to be made to her that reasons of state
compelled him to divorce her. Despite all her pleadings he
held to his resolve. The most was made of the slight technical
irregularity at the marriage ceremony of the ist of December
1804; and the marriage was declared null and void.
At her private retreat, La Malmaison, near Paris, which she
had beautified with curios and rare plants and flowers, Josephine
closed her life in dignified retirement. Napoleon more than once
came to consult her upon matters in which he valued her tact
and good sense. Her health declined early in 1814, and after
his first abdication (April n, 1814) it was clear that her end
was not far off. The emperor Alexander of Russia and Frederick
William III. of Prussia, then in Paris, requested an interview
with her. She died on the 24th of May 1814. Her friends,
Mme de Remusat and others, pointed out that Napoleon's
good fortune deserted him after the divorce; and it is certain
that the Austrian marriage clogged him in several ways.
Josephine's influence was used on behalf of peace and moderation
both in internal and in foreign affairs. Thus she begged Napoleon
not to execute the due d'Enghien and not to embroil himself in
Spanish affairs in 1808.
See M. A. Le Normand, Memoires historiques et secrets de Josephine
(2 vols., 1820) ; Lettresde Napoleon d Josephine (1833) ; J. A. Aubenas,
Hist, de I'imperalrice Josephine (2 vols., 1858-1859); J. Turquan,
L' ' Imperatrice Josephine (2 vols., 1895-1896); F. Masson, Josephine
(3 vols., 1899-1902); Napoleon's Letters to Josephine (1796-1812),
translated and edited by H. F. Hall (1903). Also the Memoirs of
Mme. de R6musat and of Bausset, and P. W. Sergeant, The Empress
Josephine (1908).
(J. HL. R.)
JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS (c. 37-c. 95 ?), Jewish historian and
military commander, was born in the first year of Caligula
(37-38). His father belonged to one of the noblest priestly
families, and through his mother he claimed descent from the
Asmonaean high priest Jonathan. A precocious student of the
Law, he made trial of the three sects of Judaism — Pharisees,
Sadducees and Essenes — before he reached the age of nineteen.
Then, having spent three. years in the desert with the hermit
Banus, who was presumably an Essene, he became a Pharisee.
In 64 he went to Rome to intercede on behalf of some priests,
his friends, whom the procurator Felix had sent to render account
to Caesar for some insignificant offence. Making friends with
Alityrus, a Jewish actor, who was a favourite of Nero, Josephus
obtained an introduction to the empress Poppaea and effected
his purpose by her help. His visit to Rome enabled him to
speak from personal experience of the power of the Empire,
when he expostulated with the revolutionary Jews on his return
to Palestine. But they refused to listen; and he, with all the
Jews who did not fly the country, was dragged into the great
rebellion of 66. In company with two other priests, Josephus
was sent to Galilee under orders (he says) to persuade the ill-
affected to lay down their arms and return to the Roman
allegiance, which the Jewish aristocracy had not yet renounced.
Having sent his two companions back to Jerusalem, he organized
the forces at his disposal, and made arrangements for the
government of his province. His obvious desire to preserve
law and orde'r excited the hostility of John of Giscala, who
endeavoured vainly to remove him as a traitor to the national
JOSHEKAN— JOSHUA
cause by inciting the Galileans to kill him and by persuading
the Sanhedrin at Jerusalem to recall him.
In the spring of 67 the Jewish troops, whom Josephus had
drilled so sedulously, fled before the Roman forces of Vespasian
and Titus. He sent to Jerusalem for reinforcements, but none
came. With the stragglers who remained, he held a stronghold
against the Romans by dint of his native cunning, and finally,
when the place was taken, persuaded forty men, who shared
his hiding-place, to kill one another in turn rather than commit
suicide. They agreed to cast lots, on the understanding that the
second should kill the first and so on. Josephus providentially
drew the last lot and prevailed upon his destined victim to live.
Their companions were all dead in accordance with the compact ;
but Josephus at any rate survived and surrendered. Being led
before Vespasian, he was inspired to prophesy that Vespasian
would become emperor. In consequence of the prophecy his
life was spared, but he was kept close prisoner for two years.
When his prophecy was fulfilled he was liberated, assumed the
name of Flavius, the family name of Vespasian, and accom-
panied his patron to Alexandria. There he took another wife,
as the Jewess allotted him by Vespasian after the fall of Caesarea
had forsaken him, and returned to attend Titus and to act as
intermediary between him and the Jews who still held Jerusalem.
His efforts in this capacity failed; but when the city was
stormed (70) Titus granted him whatever boon he might ask.
So he secured the lives of some free men who had been taken
and (by the gift of Titus) certain sacred books. After this he
repaired to Rome and received one of the pensions, which
Vespasian (according to Suetonius) was the first to bestow upon
Latin and Greek writers. He was also made a Roman citizen
and received an estate in Judaea. Thenceforward he devoted
himself to literary work under the patronage of Vespasian, Titus
and Domitian. As he mentions the death of Agrippa II. it is
probable that he lived into the 2nd century; but the date of
Agrippa's death has been challenged and, if his patron Epaphro-
ditus may be identified with Nero's freedman, it is possible that
Josephus may have been involved in his fall and perished under
Domitian in 95.
WORKS. — I. The Jewish War(neplTov'Iov$cuKovTro\t/jiov), the oldest
of Josephus' extant writings, was written towards the end of Vespa-
sian's reign (69-79) The Aramaic original has not been preserved;
but the Greek version was prepared by Josephus himself in conjunc-
tion with competent Greek scholars. Its purpose in all probability
was, in the first instance, to exhibit to the Babylonian Jews the
overwhelming power of Rome and so 'to deter them from repeating
the futile revolt of the Jews of Palestine. Of its seven books, the
first two survey the history of the Jews from the capture of Jeru-
salem by Antiochus Epiphanes to the outbreak of war in 67, and
here Josephus relies upon some such general history as that of
Nicolaus of Damascus. The rest deals with the events of the war
(67-73) which fell more or less within his own knowledge. Vespasian,
Titus and Agrippa II. testified (he tells us) to his accuracy. Repre-
sentatives of the Zealots would probably have protested against his
pro-Roman prejudices.
2. The Jewish Antiquities ('louSai/o) *Apx<uoXo7ia) covers in twenty
books the history of the Jews from the creation of the world to the
outbreak of the war with Rome. It was finished in the thirteenth
year of Domitian (93). Its purpose was to glorify the Jewish nation
m the eyes of the Roman world. In the part covered by the books
of the Bible Josephus follows them, and that mainly, if not entirely
as they are translated into Greek by the Seventy (the Septuagint
version). Being a Pharisee, he sometimes introduces traditions
of the Elders, which are either inferences from, or embroideries of,
the biblical narrative. Sometimes, also, he gives proof of some
knowledge of Hebrew and supplements his scriptural authorities,
which include I Esdras, from general Greek histories. For the later
period he uses the Greek Esther, with its additions, i Maccabees,
Polybius, Strabo and Nicolaus of Damascus. But towards the end
he confesses that he has grown weary of his task, and his history
becomes meagre. The work contains accounts of John the Baptist
and Jesus, which may account for the fact that Josephus' writings
were rescued from oblivion by the Christians. But the description
of Jesus as " a wise man, if indeed one should call him a^rnan," can
hardly be genuine, and the assertion " this was the Christ " is equally
doubtful, unless it be assumed that the Greek word Christos had be-
come technical in the sense of false-Christ or false-prophet among
non-Christian Jews.
3. Josephus wrote a narrative of his own Life in order to defend
himself against the accusation brought by his enemy Justus of
Tiberias to the effect that he had really been the cause of the Jewish
rebellion. In his defence Josephus departs from the facts as narrated
in the Jewish War and represents himself as a partisan of Rome
and, therefore, as a traitor to his own people from the beginning.
4. The two books Against Apion are'a defence or apology directed
against current misrepresentations of the Jews. Earlier titles are
Concerningthe Antiquity of the Jewsor Against the Greeks. Apion was
the leader of the Alexandrine embassy which opposed Philo and his
companions when they appeared in behalf of the Alexandrine Jews
before Caligula. The defence which Josephus puts forward has a
permanent value and shows him at his best.
The Greek text of Josephus' works has been edited with full collec-
tion of different readings by B. Niese (Berlin, 1887-1895). The
Teubner text by Naber is based on this. The translation into English
of W. Whiston has been (superficially) revised by A. R. Shilleto
(1889-1890). Schiirer (History of the Jewish People) gives a full
bibliography. 0- H. A. H.)
JOSHEKAN, a small province of Persia covering about 1000
sq. m. Pop. about 5000. It has a yearly revenue of about
£1200, and is held in fief by the family of Bahram Mirza, Muizz
ed Dowleh (d. 1882). Its chief town and the residence of the
governor used to be Joshekan-Kali, a large village with fine
gardens, formerly famous for its carpets (kali), but now the chief
place is Maimeh, a little city with a population of 2500, situated
at an elevation of 6670 ft., about 63 m. from Isfahan in a north-
westerly direction and 13 m. south-west of Joshekan-Kali.
JOSHUA, BOOK OF, the sixth book of the Old Testament,
and the first of the group known as the " Former Prophets."
It takes its name from Joshua1 the son of Nun, an Ephraimite
who, on the death of Moses, assumed the leadership to which he
had previously been designated by his chief (Deut. xxxi. 14 seq.,
23), and proceeded to the conquest of the land of Canaan. The
book differs from the Pentateuch or Torah in the absence of
legal matter, and in its intimate connexion with the narrative
in the books which follow. It is, however, the proper sequel
to the origins of the people as related in Genesis, to the exodus
of the Israelite tribes from Egypt, and their journeyings in the
wilderness. On these and also on literary grounds it is often
convenient to class the first six books of the Bible as a unit
under the term " Hexateuch." For an exhaustive detailed
study has revealed many signs of diversity of authorship which
combine to show that the book is due to the incorporation of
older material in two main redactions; one deeply imbued with
the language and thought of Deuteronomy itself (D), the other
of the post-exilic priestly circle (P) which gave the Pentateuch
its present form. That the older sources (which often prove
to be composite) are actually identical with the Yahwist or
Judaean (J) and the Elohist or Ephraimite (E) narratives (on
which see GENESIS) is not improbable, though, especially as
regards the former, still very uncertain. In general the literary
problems are exceedingly intricate, and no attempt can be made
here to deal with them as fully as they deserve.
The Invasion. — The book falls naturally into two main parts,
of which the first, the crossing of the Jordan and the conquest
of Palestine (i.-xii.) is mainly due to Deuteronomic compilers.
It opens with the preparations for the crossing of the Jordan and
the capture of the powerful city Jericho. Ai, near Bethel, is
taken after a temporary repulse, and Joshua proceeds to erect
an altar upon Mt Ebal (north of Shechem). For the fullness
with which the events are recorded the writers were probably
indebted to local stories.
The Israelites are at Abel-Shittim (already reached in Num. xxv. i).
Moses is dead, and Joshua enters upon his task with the help of
the Transjordanic tribes who have already received their territory (i). '
The narrative is of the later prophetic stamp (D; cf. Deut. iii.
18-22, xi. 24, where Moses is the speaker; xxxi. 1-8), but may be
based upon an earlier and shorter record (E; m. i seq., 10, na).
'Heb. Jehoshua; later Jeshua; Gr. 'iTjaoDs, whence "Jesus"
in the A.V. of Heb. iv. 8; another form of the name is Hoshea
(Num. xiii. 8, 16). The name may mean " Yah(weh) is wealth, or
is (our) war-cry, or saves." The only extra-biblical notice of
Joshua is the inscription of more than doubtful genuineness given
by Procopius (Vand. ii. 20), and mentioned also by Moses of Chorene
(Hist. Arm. i. 18). It is said to have stood at Tingis in Mauretania,
and to have borne that those who erected it had fled before 'Iij<roDs
A XTjffTijj. For the medieval Samaritan Book of Joshua, see T.
Juynboll, Chronicum Samaritanum (1846); J. A. Montgomery,
The Samaritans (1907), pp. 301 sqq.
Si8
JOSHUA
Of the mission of the spies to Jericho, two versions were current
(duplicates ii. 3, 12, 18; v. 15 seq. breaks the connexion between TO.
13 and 18, but is resumed in tw. 22-24) ! D's addition is to be recog-
nized in ii. 96-1 1. The incident occupies at least four days, but the
main narrative reckons three days between i. II and iii. 2. Next
follow the passage of the Jordan (commemorated by the erection of
twelve stones), the encampment at Gilgal, and the observance of the
rite of circumcision and of the passover (iii.-v.). The complicated
narrative in iii.-iv. is of composite origin (contrast iii. 17 with iv.
10 seq., 19; iv. 3, 8 with w. g, 20; and cf. iii. 12 with the superfluous
iv. 2, &c.). As in ii., D has amplified (iii. 46, 7, lob, iv. 9—100, 12,
14; more prominently in iv. 2i-v. I, v. 4-8), and subsequently P (or
a hand akin to P) has worked over the whole (iii. 4, note the number
and the prohibition, cf. Num. i. 51 ; iii. 8, I5seq.;iv. 13, 19; v. 10—12).
Circumcision, already familiar from Exod. iv. 26, Deut. x. 16, is here
regarded as a new rite (v. 2, 9, supplemented by w. l, 4-8), but
the conflicting views have been harmonized by the words " the second
time " (t». 2). Gilgal is thus named from the " rolling away " of
the "reproach of Egypt" (v. g), but iv. 20 suggests a different
origin, viz. the sacred stone-circle (cf. Judges iii. 19, R.V. marg.).
An older account of the divine commission to Joshua appears in the
archaic passage v. 13-15 (cf. Moses in Exod. iii.). Fusion of sources
is obvious in the story of the fall of Jericho (contrast vi. 5 and v.
10, w. 21 and 24, TO. 22 and 25) ; according to one (E ?) the people
march seven times round the city on one day, the ark and the priests
occupying a prominent position (vi. 4-6, 76-9, 12 seq., 160, 20 [part],
22-24); but 'I the other they march every day for seven days.
Both here and in the preceding chapters the Septuagint has several
variations and omissions, due either to an (unsuccessful) attempt
to simplify the present difficulties, or to the use of another recension.
The curse pronounced by Joshua upon the destroyed city of Jericho
(vi. 26) should be associated with an incident in the reign of Ahab
which is acquainted with the story (i Kings xvi. 34) ; the city, how-
ever, reappears in Joshua xviii. 21 ; 2 Sam. x. 5. Achan's sacrilege,
the cause of the repulse at Ai and of the naming of the valley of
Achor (vii.), is introduced by vi. 18 seq., 246, and, as its spirit shows,
is of relatively later date. It contains some probable traces of D
(in vii. 5, 7, ii seq., 15, 25) and P (in TO. i, 18, 24 seq.). The capture
of Ai has marks of the same dual origin as the preceding chapters
(cf. viii. 33 with 10, and contrast viii. 3-9 with ». 12; TO. 5-7 with
18, 26; ». 19 with 28). The general resemblance between chs.
vii.-viii. and the war with Benjamin (Judges xx.) should be noticed.
Conquests in Palestine. — The erection of the altar, not at the
scene of battle (cf. i Sam. xiv. 35) but on Mt Ebal (viii. 30-35,
D), presupposes the conquest of central Palestine and the
removal of the ark from Gilgal. These, however, are not
narrated, and, unless some account of them has been replaced by
the present passage, this portion of the conquest was ignored.
Possibly the passage is not in its original position: in the
Septuagint it appears after ix. 2, while Josephus (Ant. v. i, 19)
and the Samaritan book of Joshua read it before ch. xiii.;
Dillmann, however, would place it after xi. 23. The capture
of Jericho and Ai is followed by the successful stratagem of
the Gibeonites to make peace with Israel (ix.). This involves
them in a war with the southern Canaanites; Joshua intervenes
and obtains a crowning victory (x.). The camp is still at Gilgal.
A similar conquest of the northern Canaanites follows (xi.), and
the first part of the book concludes with a summary of the
results of the Israelite invasion (xii.).
No satisfactory explanation of viii. 30-35 has been found, yet ix. I
seq. seems to show that it was the prelude to the Canaanite wars.
In contrast to the absence of any reference to the occupation of
central Palestine, the conquest of the south was current in several
divergent traditions. Two records are blended in ix. ; one narrates
the covenant with the Gibeonites, the other that with the Hivites
(properly Hivvites) ; and in the latter Joshua has no place (w. 4 seq.,
66, 7, 11-14, &c.). The former has additions by D (ro. 96, 10, 24
seq.) and by P (». 15 last clause, 17-21); the latter, in accordance
with the legislation of its day (posterior to Ezek. xliv. 6 sqq.), does
not allow the Gibeonites to minister to the temple or altar, but merely
to the " congregation," a characteristic post-exilic term (contrast
TO. 21 and 23; and on 27 see Sept. and commentaries). The story
of the covenant conflicts with the notice that Gibeon was still an
independent Canaanite city in David's time (2 Sam. xxi. 2). The
defeat of the southern coalition is based, as the doublets show, upon
two sources; the war arises from two causes (vengeance upon the
Gibeonites, and the attempt to overthrow Israel), and concludes with
a twofold victory: in x. 16-24 the kings are pursued to Makkedah
possibly due the stanza quoted from the book of Jashar (v. 12 seq )
a poetical address to the sun and moon, of the nature of a prayer
or spell for their aid (cf. Judges v. 20, and see Ecclus. xlvi. 4) The
literal interpretation of this picturesque quotation has been influenced
by the prosaic comments at the end of v. 13 and beginning of v. 14.
Verse 15, which closes the account, anticipates v. 43; the Septuagint
omits both. The generalizing narrative (x. 28-43), which is due to
D in its present form, is partly based upon old matter (e.g. the
capture of Makkedah), but is inconsistent with what precedes
(v. 37, see v. 23 sqq.) and follows (capture of Debir, v. 38 seq., see
xv. I5;judgesi. Ii). The description of the conquest of the northern
Canaanites is very similar to that of the south. The main part is
from an older source (xi. i, 4-9; see DEBORAH), the amplifications
(v. 2 seq.) are due to D, as also are the summary (TO. 10-23, cr- style
of x. 28-43), and the enumeration of the total results of the invasion
(xii.), which includes names not previously mentioned.
Division of the Land. — The result of the events narrated in the
first part of the book is to ascribe the entire subjugation of Canaan
to Joshua, whose centre was at Gilgal (x. 15, 43). He is now
" old and advanced in years, " and although much outlying land
remained to be possessed, he is instructed to divide the con-
quered districts among the western tribes (xiii. i sqq.). This
is detailed at length in the second part of the book. With the
completion of the division his mission is accomplished. The
main body of this part (xiii. is~xiv. 5; xv.-xvii.; xviii. n-xxi.
42; xxii. 7-34) is in its present form almost entirely due to P.
In regard to details, xiii. 2-6 (now D) expresses the view that the
conquest was incomplete, and numbers districts chiefly in the
south-west and in the Lebanon. Two sources deal with the inherit-
ance of the east Jordan tribes in terms which are — (a) general (xiii.
8-12, D), and (b) precise (ro. 15-32, P). The latter stands between
the duplicate passages xiii. 14 and 32 seq. (see the Sept.). With
the interest taken in these tribes, cf. for (a) i. 12-18; Deut. iii. 12-22,
and the sequel in Joshua xxii. 1-6; and for (6) xxii. 9 seq. ; Num. xxxii.
P's account of the division opens with an introductory notice of the
manner in which Eleazar the priest and Joshua (note the order)
prepare to complete the work which Moses had begun (xiv. 1-5).
It opens with Judah, its borders (xv. 1-12) and cities (TO. 20-62),
and continues with the two Joseph tribes, Ephraim (xvi. 4-9,
contrast details in TO. 1-3) and Manasseh (xvii. i-io, cf. Num.
xxvi. 30-32, xxvii. I-II ; P). There is now a break in the narrative
(xviii. 2-10, source uncertain) ; seven tribes have not yet received
an inheritance, and Joshua (alone) encourages them to send three
men from each tribe to walk through the land — excluding the terri-
tory of Judah and Joseph — and to bring a description of it to him,
after which he divides it among them by lot. P * now resumes
with an account of the borders and cities of Benjamin (xviii. 1 1-28),
Simeon, Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali and Dan (xix. ; on v. 47,
see below); and, after the subscription (xix. 51), concludes with the
institution of the cities of refuge (xx., cf. Num. xxxv.), and of the
Levitical cities (xxi., contrast the earlier brief notice, xiii. 14, 33).
Chapter xx., belonging to the Prediction, has certain points of contact
with Deut. xix. which, it is very important to observe, are wanting
in the Septuagint; and xxi. 43--45 closes D's account of the division,
and in the Septuagint contains matter most of which is now given
by P in xix. 49 seq. Two narratives describe the dismissal of the trans-
Jordanic tribes alter their co-operation in the conquest, viz. xxii. 1-6
(D), and xxii. 9 seq. (P) ;cf. above, on xiii. 8 seq. P, with the descrip-
tion of the erection of the altar (v. 34, Gilead ? ; cf. Gen. xxxi. 47 seq.),
is apparently a late re-writing of some now obscure incident to
emphasize the unity of worship. P's account of the distribution of
land among the nine and a half tribes by Eleazar and Joshua (from
xiv. 1-5 to xix. 51) appears to have been on the lines laid down in
Num. xxxiv. (P). The scene, according to xviii. I, is Shiloh, and
this verse, which does not belong to the context, should apparently
precede P's narrative in xiv. I. But of the occupation of Shiloh,
the famous Ephraimite sanctuary and the seat of the ark, we have
no information. The older source, however, presupposes that
Judah and the two Joseph tribes have acquired their territory;
the remaining seven are blamed for their indifference (xviii. 2-10,
see above), and receive their lot conjointly at the camp at Shiloh.
But if the location is an attempt to harmonize with xviii. I, Cilgal
should probably be restored. The section xviii. 2-10 is followed
by xxi. 43 seq. (above), and may have been preceded originally by
xiii. i, 7 (where read : inheritance for the seven tribes) ; in its present
form it appears to be due to D. Another account of the exploits •
of ludah and Joseph can be traced here and there; e.g. in xiv. 6-15
(where Caleb receives Hebron as his inheritance and the " land
had rest from war"), and xvii. 14-18 (where Joseph receives an
additional lot); but where these traditions have not been worked
into later narratives, they exist only in fragmentary form and are
chiefly recognizable by their standpoint. They are characterized
by the view that the conquest was only a partial one. and one which
was neither the work of a single man nor at his instigation, but due
1 Traces of composite material may be recognized— (o) where, in
place of boundaries, P has given lists of cities which appear to be
taken from other sources (cf the instructions in xviii. 9), and (b) in
the double headings (see Addis, The Hexateuch, i. 230, note i , and the
commentaries).
entirelv to individual or tribal achievements. This view can be
traced in xiii. 13, xv. 63 (cf. the parallel Judges i. 21 in contrast to
v. 8), xvi. 10 (Judges i. 29), xvii. 11-13 (Judges i. 27 seq.), and in the
references to separate tribal or family exploits: xv. 13-19, xix. 47
(cf. Judges i. 34 seq., xviii.).
Two closing addresses are ascribed to Joshua, one an exhorta-
tion similar to the homilies in secondary portions of Deuteronomy
(xxiii.; cf. Moses in Deut. xxviii. seq., and Samuel's last address
in i Sam. xii.), which virtually excludes the other (xxiv.), where
Joshua assembles the tribes at Shechem (Shiloh, in the Septua-
gint) and passes under review the history of Israel from the
days of heathenism (before Abraham was brought into Canaan)
down through the oppression in Egypt, the exodus, the conquest
in East Jordan and the occupation of Canaan. A few otherwise
unknown details are to be found (xxiv. 2, n seq. 14). The
address (which is extremely important for its representation of
the religious conditions) is made the occasion for a solemn
covenant whereby the people agree to cleave to Yahweh alone.
This is commemorated by the erection of a stone under the oak
by the sanctuary of Yahweh (for the tree with its sacred pillar,
see Gen. xxxv. 4; Judges ix. 6). The people are then dismissed,
and the book closes in ordinary narrative style with the death of
Joshua and his burial in his inheritance at Timnath-serah in
Mt Ephraim (cf. xix. 49 seq.) ; the burial of Joseph in Shechem ;
and the death and burial of Eleazar the son of Aaron in the
" hill of Phinehas."
Chapter xxiv. presupposes the complete subjection of the Canaan-
ites and is of a late prophetic stamp. Somfe signs of amplification
(e.g. w. lib, 13, 31) suggest that it was inserted by a Deuteronomic
hand, evidently distinct from the author of xxiii. But elsewhere
there are traces of secondary Deuteronomic expansion and of internal
incongruities in Deuteronomic narratives; contrast xiv. 6-15 with
Joshua's extermination of the " Anakim " in xi. 21 seq.; the use of
this name with the " Philistines " of xiii. 2 (see PHILISTINES), or the
conquests in xi. 16—22 with the names in x. 36—43. All these
passages are now due to D; but not only is Deuteronomy itself
composite, a twofold redaction can be traced in Judges, Samuel and
Kings, thus involving the deeper literary problems of Joshua with
the historical books generally.1 Both Joshua xxiii. and xxiv. are
closely connected with the very complicated introduction to the
era of the " judges " in Judges ii. 6 sqq., and ii. 6— 9 actually resume
Joshua xxiv. 28 sqq., while the Septuagint appends to the close of
Joshua the beginning of the story ;of Ehud (Judges iii. 12 seq.). Both
Judges i.-ii-5 and chap, xvii.— xxi. areof post-Deuteronomic insertion,
and they represent conditions analogous to the older notices imbedded
in the later work of P (Judges i. 21, xix. 10-12, cf. Joshua xv. 63;
see JUDGES ad fin.). Moreover, P in its turn shows elsewhere
definite indications of different periods and standpoints, and the fluid
state of the book at a late age is shown by the presence of Deutero-
nomic elements in Joshua xx., not found in the Septuagint, and by the
numerous and often striking readings which the latter recension
presents.
Value of the Book. — The value of the book of Joshua is
primarily religious; its fervency, its conviction of the destiny of
Israel and its inculcation of the unity and greatness of the God
of Israel give expression to the philosophy of Israelite historians.
As an historical record its value must depend upon a careful
criticism of its contents in the light of biblical history and
external information. Its description of the conquest of Canaan
comes from an age when the event was a shadow of the past.
It is an ideal view of the manner in which a divinely appointed
leader guided a united people into the promised land of their
ancestors, and, after a few brief wars of extermination (x.-xii.),
died leaving the people in quiet possession of their new inherit-
ance (xi. 23; xxi. 44 seq.; xxiii. i).2 On the other hand, the
earlier inhabitants were not finally subjugated until Solomon's
reign (i Kings ix. 20); Jerusalem was taken by David from the
Jebusites (2 Sam. v.); and several sites in its neighbourhood,
together with important fortresses like Gezer, Megiddo and
Taanach, were not held by Israel at the first. There are traces
1 The close relation between what may be called the Deuteronomic
history (Joshua-Kings) and its introduction (the legal book of
Deuteronomy) independently show the difficulty of supporting the
traditional date ascribed to the latter.
*G. F. Moore (Ency. Bib., col. 2608, note 2) draws attention to
the instructive parallel furnished by the Greek legends of the Dorian
invasion of the Peloponnesus (the " return " of the Heracleidae,
the partition of the land by lot, &c.).
JOSHUA 519
of other conflicting traditions representing independent tribal
efforts which were not successful, and the Israelites are even said
to live in the midst of Canaanites, intermarrying with them and
adopting their cult (Judges i.-iii. 6). From a careful consider-
ation of all the evidence, both internal and external, biblical
scholars are now almost unanimous that the more finished picture
of the Israelite invasion and settlement cannot be accepted as
a historical record for the Ige. It accords with this that the
elaborate tribal-lists and boundaries prove to be of greater
value for the geography than for the history of Palestine, and
the attempts to use them as evidence for the early history of
Israel have involved numerous additional difficulties and
confusion.3
The book of Joshua has ascribed to one man conquests which
are not confirmed by subsequent history. The capture of
Bethel, implied rather than described in Joshua viii., is elsewhere
the work of the Joseph tribes (Judges i. 22 sqq., cf . features in the
conquest of Jericho, Joshua vi. 25). Joshua's victory in north
Palestine has its parallel in Judges iv. at another period (see
DEBORAH), and Adoni-zedek of Jerusalem (Joshua x.) can
scarcely be severed from the Adoni-bezek taken by the tribes of
Judah and Simeon (Judges i. 5-7). The prominence of Joshua as
military and religious leader, and especially his connexion with
Shechem and Shiloh, have suggested that he was a hero of the
Joseph tribes of central Palestine (viz. Ephraim and Manasseh).
Moreover, the traditions in Joshua viii. 3o-ix. 2, and Deut. xxvii.
1-8 seem to place the arrival at Mt Ebal immediately after the
crossing of the Jordan. This implies that Israel (like Jacob in
Gen. xxxii.) crossed by the Jabbok, and in fact the Wadi Fari'a
provides an ea'sy road to Shechem, to the south-east of which
lies Juleijil; and while this is the Gilgal of Deut. xi. 30,
the battles at Jericho and Ai (Joshua ii. seq.) occur naturally
after the encampment at the southern Gilgal (near Jericho) . The
alternative view (see especially Stade, Gesch. Isr. i. 133 sqq.)
connects itself partly with the ancestor of all the tribes (Jacob,
i.e. Israel), and partly with the eponym of the Joseph tribes
whose early days were spent around Shechem, the removal of
whose bones from Egypt must have found a prominent place in
the traditions of the tribes concerned (Gen. 1. 25; Exod. xiii. 19;
Joshua xxiv. 32). According to one view (Stade, Wellhausen,
Guthe, &c.) only the Joseph tribes were in Egypt, and separate
tribal movements (see JUDAH) have been incorporated in the
growth of the tradition; the probability that the specific tradi-
tions of the Joseph tribes have been excised or subordinated finds
support in the manner in which the Judaean P has abridged and
confused the tribal lists of Ephraim and Manasseh.
The serious character of the problems of early Israelite history
can be perceived from the renewed endeavours to present an
adequate outline of the course of events; for a criticism of the
most prominent hypotheses see Cheyne, Ency. Bib. art. " Tribes"
(col. 5209 seq.); a new theory has been more recently advanced
by E. Meyer (Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstiimme, 1906). But
Joshua as a tribal hero does not belong to the earliest phase in
the surviving traditions. He has no place in the oldest
surviving narratives of the exodus (Wellhausen, Steuernagel) ;
and only later sources add him to Caleb (Num. xiv. 30; the
reference in Deut. i. 38 is part of an insertion), or regard him as
the leader of all the tribes (Deut. iii. 21, 28). As an attendant of
Moses at the tent of meeting he appears in quite secondary
passages (Exod. xxxiii. 7-11; Num. xi. 28). His defeat of the
Amalekites is in a narrative (Exod. xvii. 8-16) which belongs more
3 The historical problems are noticed in all biblical histories, and
in the commentaries on Joshua and Judges. Against the ordinary
critical view, see J. Orr, Problem of the O.T. (1905) pp. 240 seq.
This writer (on whom see A. S. Peake, The Interpreter, 1908, pp. 252
seq.) takes the book as a whole, allowance being made for " the
generalizing tendency peculiar to all summaries. His argument
that " the circumstantiality, local knowledge and evidently full
recollection of the narratives (in Joshua) give confidence in the truth
of their statements " is one which historical criticism in no field
would regard as conclusive, and his contention that a redactor
would hardly incorporate conflicting traditions in his narrative
" if he believed they contradicted it " begs the question and
ignores Oriental literature.
JOSHUA THE STYLITE— JOSIKA
520
naturally to the wilderness of Shur, and it associates him with
traditions of a movement direct into south Palestine which finds
its counterpart when the clan Caleb (q.v.) is artificially treated as
possessing its seats with Joshua's permission. But points of
resemblance between Joshua the invader and Saul the founder
of the (north) Israelite monarchy gain in weight when the tradi-
tions of both recognize the inclusion or possession of Judah, and
thus stand upon quite another plane as compared with those of
David the founder of the Judaean dynasty. Instead of rejecting
the older stories of Joshua's conquests it may be preferable to
infer that there were radical divergences in the historical views
of the past. Consequently, the parallels between Joshua and
Jacob (see Steuernagel's Commentary, p. 150) are more signifi-
cant when the occupation of central Palestine, already implied
in the book of Joshua, is viewed in the light of Gen. xlviii. 22,
where Jacob as conqueror (cf. the very late form of the tradition
in Jubilees xxxiv.) agrees with features in the patriarchal
narratives which, in implying a settlement in Palestine, are
entirely distinct from those which belong to the descent into
Egypt (see especially, Meyer, op. cit. pp. 227 seq., 414 seq., 433;
Luther, ib. 108 seq.). The elaborate account of the exodus
gives the prevailing views which supersede other traditions of
the origin both of the Israelites and of the worship of Yahweh
(Gen. iv. 26). Several motives have influenced its growth,1 and
the kernel — the revelation of Yahweh to Moses — has been
developed until all the tribes of Israel are included and their
history as a people now begins. The old traditions of conquest
in central Palestine have similarly been extended, and have been
adapted to the now familiar view of Israelite origins. It is
this subordination of earlier tradition to other and more predom-
inating representations which probably explains the intricacy
of a book whose present text may not have been finally fixed
until, as Dillmann held, as late as about 200 B.C.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See the commentaries of Dillmann, Steuernagel
Holzinger (German), or the concise edition by H. W. Robinson in
the Century Bible; also articles on " Joshua " by G. A. Smith,
Hastings's D. B., and G. F. Moore, Ency. Bib.; Kittel in Hist, of the
Hebrews, i. 262 sqq^; W. H. Bennett, in Haupt's Sacred Books of the
Old Testament; Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, Comp. of
Hexateuch, ch. xvii; S. R. Driver, Lit. of the 0. T. (8th ed., 1909).
These give further bibliographical information, for which see also the
articles on the books of the Pentateuch. (S. A. C.)
JOSHUA THE STYLITE, the reputed author of a chronicle
which narrates the history of the war between the Greeks and
Persians in 502-506, and which is one of the earliest and best
historical documents preserved to us in Syriac. The work owes
(ts preservation to having been incorporated in the third part
of the history of pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre, and may
probably have had a place in the second part of the Ecclesiastical
History of John of Asia, from whom (as Nau has shown) pseudo-
Dionysius copied all or most of the matter contained in his third
part. The chronicle in question is anonymous, and Nau has
shown that the note of a copyist, which was thought to assign
it to the monk Joshua of Zuknln near Amid, more probably
refers to the compiler of the whole work in which it was incor-
porated. Anyhow the author was an eyewitness of many of
the events which he describes, and must have been living at
Edessa during the years when it suffered so severely from the
Persian War. His view of events is everywhere characterized
by his belief in overruling Providence; and as he eulogizes
Flavian II., the Chalcedonian patriarch of Antioch, in warmer
terms than those in which he praises his great Monophysite
contemporaries, Jacob of S6rugh and Philoxenus of Mabbog, he
was probably an orthodox Catholic.
The chronicle was first made known by Assemani's abridged
Latin version (B.O. i. 260^-283) and was edited in 1876 by the abbe
Martin and (with an English translation) by W. Wright in 1 882. After
an elaborate dedication to a friend — the " priest and abbot " Ser-
gius — a brief recapitulation of events from the death of Julian in
363 and a fuller account of the reigns of the Persian kings Peroz
(457~484) and Balash (484-488), the writer enters upon his main
1 E.%. the vicissitudes of Levitical families, other migrations into
Palestine, &c. The story of Joseph has probably been used as a
link (see Luther, op. cit. pp. 142 seq.).
theme — the history of the disturbed relations between the Persian
and Greek Empires from the beginning of the reign of Kawad I.
(489-531), which culminated in the great war of 502-506. From
October 494 to the conclusion of peace near the end of 506, the
author gives an annalistic account, with careful specification of dates,
of the main events in Mesopotamia, the theatre of conflict — such as
the siege and capture of Amid by the Persians (502-503), their unsuc-
cessful siege_of Edessa (503), and the abortive attempt of the Greeks
to recover Amid (504-505). The work was probably written a few
years after the conclusion of the war. The style is graphic and
straightforward, and the author was evidently a man of good
education and of a simple, honest mind. (N. M.)
JOSIAH (Heb. yd' shiyyahu, perhaps " Yah [weh] supports "),
in the Bible, the grandson of Manasseh, and king of Judah. He
came to the throne at the age of eight, after the murder of his
predecessor Amon. The circumstances of his minority are not
recorded, nor is anything related of the Scythian inroads which
occurred in the latter half of the 7th century B.C., although
some passages in the books of Jeremiah and Zephaniah are
supposed to refer to the events. The storm which shook the
external states was favourable to the peace of Judah; the
Assyrian power was practically broken, and that of the Chaldeans
had scarcely developed into an aggressive form. Samaria thus lay
within the grasp of Josiah, who may have entertained hopes
of forming an independent power of his own. Otherwise, it is
not clear why we find him opposing himself to the Egyptian king
Necho, since the assumption that he fought as an Assyrian
vassal scarcely agrees with the profound reforming policy
ascribed to him. At all events, at the battle of Megiddo2 he
lost both his kingdom and his life (608 B.C.), and for a few
years Judah was in the hands of Egypt (2 Kings xxiii. 29 seq.).
The chronicler gives a rather different account of the battle,
and his allusion to the dirge uttered by Jeremiah over his death
(2 Chron. xxxv. 20-25; r Esd. i. 32) represents the tradition
which makes this prophet the author of the book of Lamentations.
The reign of Josiah is important for the biblical account of
the great religious reforms which began in his eighteenth year,
when he manifested interest in the repair cf the Temple at
Jerusalem. In the course of this work the high priest Hilkiah
discovered a " law-book " which gave rise to the liveliest
concern. The reasons for believing that this roll was substan-
tially identical with the book of Deuteronomy were already
appreciated by Jerome, Chrysostom, Theodoret and others,3
and a careful examination shows that the character of the refor-
mation which followed agrees in all its essential features with
the prescriptions and exhortations of that book. (See DEUTERO-
NOMY.) But the detailed records in 2 Kings xxii. seq. are
evidently written under the influence of the reforms themselves,
and are not contemporary (see KINGS, BOOK or). They are
further expanded, to agree with still later ideals, in 2 Chron.
xxxiv. seq. The original roll was short enough to be read at
least twice in a day (xxii. 8, 10), and hence only some portions
of Deuteronomy (or of an allied production) may be intended.
Although the character of the reforms throws remarkable light
upon the condition of religion in Judah in the time of Josiah, it
is to be observed that the writings of the contemporary prophets
(Jeremiah, Ezekiel) make it very questionable whether the
narratives are thoroughly trustworthy for the history of the
king's measures. (See further JEWS, § 16.) (S. A. C.)
J6SIKA, MIKLOS [NICHOLAS], BARON (1794-1865), Hun-
garian novelist, was born on the 28th of April 1794 at Torda in
Transylvania, of aristocratic and wealthy parents. After finish-
ing the usual course of legal studies at Kolozsvar (Klausenburg),
he in 1811 entered the army, joining a cavalry regiment, with
which he subsequently took part in the Italian campaign. On
the battlefield of Mincio (February 8, 1814) he was promoted
to the grade of lieutenant. He served in the campaign against
Napoleon, and was present at the entry of the Allied Troops
into Paris (March 31, 1814). In 1818 J6sika resigned his
commission, returned to Hungary, and married his first wife
2 Or " Magdolos " (Herod, ii. 159), i.e. some " Migdal " (tower)
of Judaea, not the Migdol of Exod. xiv. 2; Jer. xliv. I.
'See Zeit. f. Alttest. Wissenschaft (1902), pp. 170 seq., 312 seq.;
Journ Bib. Lit. (1903), p. 50.
JOSIPPON— JOUBERT, B. C.
Elizabeth Kallai. The union proving an unhappy one, Josika
parted from his wife, settled on his estate at Szurdok in Transyl-
vania, and devoted himself to agricultural and literary pursuits.
Drawn into the sphere of politics, he took part in the memorable
Transylvanian diet of 1 834. About this time Josika first began to
attract attention as a writer of fiction. In 1836 his Abafi laid the
foundation of his literary reputation. This novel gives a vivid
picture of Transylvania in the time of Sigismund Batori. Josika
was soon afterwards elected member of the Hungarian Academy
of Sciences and of the Kisfaludy Society; of the latter he became,
in 1841, director, and in 1842 vice-president. In 1847 he appeared
at the Transylvanian diet as second deputy for the county of
Szolnok, and zealously supported the movement for the union of
Transylvania with Hungary proper. In the same year he was
converted to Protestantism, was formally divorced from his wife,
and married Baroness Julia Podmaniczky, herself a writer of
considerable merit, with whom he lived happily until his death.
So great was Josika's literary activity that by the time of the
revolution (1848) he had already produced about sixty volumes of
romances and novels, besides numerous contributions to perio-
dicals. Both as magnate of the upper house of the Hungarian
diet and by his writings Josika aided the revolutionary move-
ment, with which he was soon personally identified, being chosen
one of the members of the committee of national defence. Con-
sequently, after the capitulation at Vilagos (Aug. 13, 1849)
he found it necessary to flee the country, and settled first at
Dresden and then, in 1850, at Brussels, where he resumed his
literary pursuits anonymously. In 1864 he removed to Dresden,
in which city he died on the 27th of February 1865. The
romances of Josika, written somewhat after the style of Sir
Walter Scott, are chiefly of an historical and social-political
character, his materials being drawn almost entirely from the
annals of his own country. Among his more important works
may be specially mentioned, besides Abafi — The Poet Zrinyi
(1843); TheLastof the Bdtoris (1837); The Bohemians in Hungary
(1839); Esther (1853); Francis Rdkdczyll. (1861); and A Vegvdr-
iak, a tale of the time of the Transylvanian prince Bethlen Gabor,
1864. Many of Josika's novels have been translated into
German.
See K. Moenich and S. Vutkovich, Magyar Irak Nevtdra (1876);
M. Jokai, " Josika Miklos Emle'kezete," A Kisfaludy-Tdrsasdg Ev-
lapjai, Uj folyant, vol. iii. (1869); G. W. Steinacker, Ungarische
Lyriker (1874). Cf. also Josika's autobiography — Emlekirat, vol. iv.
(1865).
JOSIPPON, the name usually given to a popular chronicle of
Jewish history from Adam to the age of Titus, attributed to an
author Josippon or Joseph ben Gorion.1 The name, though at
one time identified with that of the historian Josephus, is perhaps
a corruption of Hegesippus, from whom (according to Trieber)
the author derived much of his material. The chronicle was
probably compiled in Hebrew early in the icth century, by a
Jewish native of south Italy. The first edition was printed in
Mantua in 1476. Josippon subsequently appeared in many
forms, one of the most popular being in Yiddish (Judaeo-
German), with quaint illustrations. Though the chronicle is
more legendary than historical, it is not unlikely that some
good and even ancient sources were used by the first com-
piler, the Josippon known to us having passed through the
hands of many interpolators. The book enjoyed much vogue
in England. Peter Morvyn in 1558 translated an abbreviated
version into English, and edition after edition was called
for. Lucien Wolf has shown that the English translations
of the Bible aroused so much interest in the Jews that there
was a widespread desire to know more about them. This led
to the circulation of many editions of Josippon, which thus
formed a link in the chain of events which culminated in
the readmission of the Jews to England by Cromwell. (I. A.)
JOSS, in the pidgin-English of the Chinese seaports, the name
given to idols and deities. It is used adjectivally in regard to
1 A prefect of Jerusalem of this name is mentioned by Josephus,
Bell. Jud. ii. 20. 3.
many things connected with religious rites, such as " joss-house,"
a temple; " joss-stick," a stick which when burned gives forth
a fragrant odour and is used as incense; " joss-paper," paper cut
to resemble money (and sometimes with prayers written upon it)
burned in funeral and other ceremonies. " Joss " is not a
Chinese word, and is probably a corruption of Port, deos, god,
applied by Portuguese navigators in the i6th century to the idols
worshipped in the East Indies. The Dutch form is joosge
(diminutive oijoos), whence the Javanese dejos, and the English
yos, later joss. The word seems to have been carried to China
by English seamen from Batavia.
JOST, ISAAK MARKUS (1793-1860), Jewish historical writer,
was born on the 22nd of February 1793 at Bernburg, and studied
at the universities of Gottingen and Berlin. In Berlin he began
to teach, and in 1835 received the appointment of upper master
in the Jewish commercial school (called the Philanthropin) at
Frankfort-on-the-Main. Here he remained until his death, on
the 22nd of November 1860. The work by which he is chiefly
known is Geschichte der Israeliten seit der Zeit der Maccabaer,
in 9 vols. (1820-1829), which was afterwards supplemented by
Neuere Geschichte der Israeliten von 1815-1845 (1846-1847), and
Geschichte des Judenlhums und seiner Sekten (1857-1859). He also
published an abridgment under the title Allgemeine Geschichte
des israelitischen Volkes (1831-1832), and an edition of the Mishna
with a German translation and notes (6 vols., 1832-1834). The
Israelitische Annalen were edited by him from 1839 to 1841, and
he contributed extensively to periodicals.
See Zirndorf, Isaak Markus Jost und seine Freunde (Cincinnati,
1886).
JOTUNHEIM, or JOTUN FJELDE, a mountainous region of
southern Norway, lying between Gudbrandsdal on the east and
Jostedalsbrae and the head of the Sogne fjord on the west.
Within an area of about 950 sq. m. it contains the highest moun-
tain in the Scandinavian Peninsula — Galdhb'piggen (8399 ft.)
— and several others but little inferior. Such are Glittertind
or Glitretind (8380), and Memurutind (7966), which face
Galdliopiggen across the northward-sloping Visdal; Knutshuls-
tind (7812) and several other peaks exceeding 7000 ft., to the
south, between lakes Gjende and Bygdin, and Skagastolstind
(7723) in the west of the region, above the Utladal, the chief
summit of the magnificent Horunger. The upper parts of the
main valleys are of characteristic form, not ending in lofty
mountain-walls but comparatively low and level, and bearing
lakes. The name Jotunheim (giants' home) is a modern
memorial of the mountain-dwelling giants of Norse fable; the
alternative name Jotun Fjelde was the first bestowed on the
region, when it was explored in 1820 by the geologist Balthasar
Matthias Keilhau (1797-1858). In modern times [the region
has attracted mountaineers and many visitors accustomed to
rough lodging and difficult travelling.
JOUBERT, BARTHELEMY CATHERINE (1769-1799), French
general, the son of an advocate, was born at Pont de Vaux (Ain)
on the i4th of April 1769. In 1784 he ran away from school to
enlist in the artillery, but was brought back and sent to study
law at Lyons and Dijon. In 1791 he joined the volunteers of
the Ain, and was elected by his comrades successively corporal
and sergeant. In January 1792 he became sub-lieutenant, and
in November lieutenant, having in the meantime made his first
campaign with the army of Italy. In 1793 he distinguished
himself by the brilliant defence of a redoubt at the Col di Tenda,
with only thirty men against a battalion of the enemy. Wounded
and made prisoner in this affair, Joubert was released on parole
by the Austrian commander-in-chief, Devins, soon afterwards.
In 1794 he was again actively engaged, and in 1795 he rendered
such conspicuous service as to be made general of brigade. In
the campaign of 1796 the young general commanded a brigade
under Augereau, and soon attracted the special attention of
Bonaparte, who caused him to be made a general of division in
December, and repeatedly selected him for the command of
important detachments. Thus he was in charge of the retaining
force at the battle of Rivoli, and in the campaign of 1799
522
(invasion of Austria) he commanded the detached left wing of
Bonaparte's army in Tirol, and fought his way through the
mountains to rejoin his chief in Styria. He subsequently held
various commands in Holland, on the Rhine and in Italy, where
up to January 1799 he commanded in chief. Resigning the post
in consequence of a dispute with the civil authorities, Joubert
returned to France and married (June) Mile de Montholon.
But he was almost immediately summoned to the field again.
He took over the command in Italy from Moreau about the
middle of July, but he persuaded his predecessor to remain at the
front and was largely guided by his advice. The odds against
the French troops in the disastrous campaign of 1 799 (see FRENCH
REVOLUTIONARY WARS) were too heavy. Joubert and Moreau
were quickly compelled to give battle by their great antagonist
Suvorov. The battle of Novi was disastrous to the French arms,
not merely because it was a defeat, but above all because Joubert
himself was amongst the first to fall (Aug. 15, 1799). Joubert
died before it could be shown whether his genius was of the first
rank, but he was at any rate marked out as a future great captain
by the greatest captain of all ages, and his countrymen intui-
tively associated him with Hoche and Marceau as a great leader
whose early death disappointed their highest hopes. After the
battle his remains were brought to Toulon and buried in Fort
La Malgue, and the revolutionary government paid tribute
to his memory by a ceremony of public mourning (Sept. 16).
A monument to Joubert at Bourg was razed by order of
Louis XVIII., but another memorial was afterwards erected
at Pont de Vaux.
See Guilbert, Notice sur la vie de B. C. Joubert; Chevrier, Le
General Joubert d'apres sa correspondance (2nd ed. 1884).
JOUBERT, JOSEPH (1754-1824), French moralist, was born
at Montignac (Correze) on the 6th of May 1 754. After completing
his studies at Toulouse he spent some years there as a teacher.
His delicate health proved unequal to the task, and after two
years spent at home in study Joubert went to Paris at the be-
ginning of -1778. He allied himself with the chiefs of the philo-
sophic party, especially with Diderot, of whom he was in some
sort a disciple, but his closest friendship was with the abbe de
Fontanes. In 1790 he was recalled to his native place to act
a.sjuge de paix, and carried out the duties of his office with great
fidelity. He had made the acquaintance of Mme de Beaumont
in a Burgundian cottage where she had taken refuge from the
Terror, and it was under her inspiration that Joubert's genius
was at its best. The atmosphere of serenity and affection with
which she surrounded him seemed necessary to the development
of what Sainte-Beuve calls his " esprit aile, ami du ciel et des
hauteurs." Her death in 1803 was a great blow to him, and his
literary activity, never great, declined from that time. In 1809,
at the solicitation of Joseph de Bonald, he was made an inspector-
general of education, and his professional duties practically
absorbed his interests during the rest of his life. He died on the
3rd of May 1824. His manuscripts were entrusted by his widow
to Chateaubriand, who published a selection of Pensees from
them in 1838 for private circulation. A more complete edition
was published by Joubert's nephew, Paul de Raynal, under the
title Pensees, essais, maximes et correspondance (2 vols. 1842).
A selection of letters addressed to Joubert was published in 1883.
Joubert constantly strove after perfection, and the small quantity
of his work was partly due to his desire to find adequate and
luminous expression for his discriminating criticism of literature
and morals.
If Joubert's readers in England are not numerous, he is well
known at second hand through the sympathetic essay devoted to
him in Matthew Arnold's Essays in Criticism (1st series). See
Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. i. ; Portraits litteraires, vol. ii. ;
ind a notice by Paul de Raynal, prefixed to the edition of 1842.
JOUBERT, PETRUS JACOBUS (1834-1900), commandant-
general of the South African Republic from 1880 to 1900, was
born at Cango, in the district of Oudtshoorn, Cape Colony, on
the 2oth of January 1834, a descendant of a French Huguenot
who fled to South Africa soon after the revocation of the Edict of
JOUBERT, J.— JOUFFROY, J.
Nantes by Louis XIV. Left an orphan at an early age, Joubert
migrated to the Transvaal, where he settled in the Wakker-
stroom district near Laing's Nek and the north-east angle of
Natal. There he not only farmed with great success, but turned
his attention to the study of the law. The esteem in which his
shrewdness in both farming and legal affairs was held led to his
election to the Volksraad as member for VVakkerstroom early in
the sixties, Marthinus Pretorius being then in his second term of
office as president. In 1870 Joubert was again elected, and the
use to which he put his slender stock of legal knowledge secured
him the appointment of attorney-general of the republic, while
in 1875 he acted as president during the absence of T. F. Burgers
in Europe. During the first British annexation of the Transvaal,
Joubert earned for himself the reputation of a consistent irrecon-
cilable by refusing to hold office under the government, as Paul
Kruger and other prominent Boers were doing. Instead of
accepting the lucrative post offered him, he took a leading part
in creating and directing the agitation which led to the war of
1880-1881, eventually becoming, as commandant-general of the
Boer forces, a member of the triumvirate that administered the
provisional Boer government set up in December 1880 at
Heidelberg. He was in command of the Boer forces at Laing's
Nek, Ingogo, and Majuba Hill, subsequently conducting the
earlier peace negotiations that led to the conclusion of the
Pretoria Convention. In 1883 he was a candidate for the pre-
sidency of the Transvaal, but received only 1171 votes as against
3431 cast for Kruger. In 1893 he again opposed Kruger in the
contest for the presidency, standing as the representative of the
comparatively progressive section of the Boers, who wished in
some measure to redress the grievances of the Uitlander popula-
tion which had grown up on the Rand. The poll (though there
is good reason for believing that the voting lists had been mani-
pulated by Kruger's agents) was declared to have resulted in
7911 votes being cast for Kruger and 7246 for Joubert. After
a protest Joubert acquiesced in Kruger's continued presidency.
He stood again in 1898, but the Jameson raid had occurred mean-
time and the voting was 12,858 for Kruger and 2001 for Joubert.
Joubert's position had then become much weakened by accusa-
tions of treachery and of sympathy with the Uitlander agitation.
He took little part in the negotiations that culminated in the
ultimatum sent to Great Britain by Kruger in 1899, and though
he immediately assumed nominal command of the operations
on the outbreak of hostilities, he gave up toothers the chief share
in the direction of the war, through his inability or neglect to
impose upon them his own will. His cautious nature, which had
in early life gained him the sobriquet of " Slim Piet," joined to
a lack of determination and assertiveness that characterized his
whole career, led him to act mainly on the defensive; and the
strategically offensive movements of the Boer forces, such as
Elandslaagte and Willow Grange, appear to have been neither
planned nor executed by him. As the war went on, physical
weakness led to Joubert's virtual retirement, and, though two
days earlier he was still reported as being in supreme command,
he died at Pretoria from peritonitis on the 28th of March 1900.
Sir George White, the defender of Ladysmith, summed up
Joubert's character when he called him " a soldier and a gentle-
man, and a brave and honourable opponent."
JOUFFROY, JEAN (c. 1412-1473), French prelate and diplo-
matist, was born at Luxeuil (Haute-Sa6ne). After entering
the Benedictine order and teaching at the university of Paris
from 1435 to 1438, he became almoner to Philip the Good, duke
of Burgundy, who entrusted him with diplomatic missions in
France, Italy, Portugal and Castile. Jouffroy was appointed
abbot of Luxeuil (1451?) bishop of Arras (1453), and papal
legate (1459)- At the French court his diplomatic duties
brought him to the notice of the dauphin (afterwards Louis XL).
Jouffroy entered Louis's service, and obtained a cardinal's hat
(1461), the bishopric of Albi (1462), and the abbacy of St Denis
(1464). On several occasions he was sent to Rome to negotiate
the abolition of the Pragmatic Sanction and to defend the
interests of the Angevins at Naples. Attached by King Louis
to the sieur de Beaujeu in the expedition against John V., count
JOUFFROY, T. S.— JOULE
of Armagnac, Jouffroy was accused of taking the town of
Lectoure by treachery, and of being a party to the murder of
the count of Armagnac (1473)- He died at Reuilly the same
year.
See C. Fierrille, Le Cardinal Jean Jou/roy et son temps (1412-1471)
(Coutances, Paris, 1874).
JOUFFROY, THEODORE SIMON (1796-1842), French philo-
sopher, was born at Pontets, near Mouthe, department of Doubs.
In his tenth year, his father, a tax-gatherer, sent him to an uncle
at Pontarlier, under whom he commenced his classical studies.
At Dijon his compositions attracted the attention of an inspector,
who had him placed (1814) in the normal school, Paris. He
there came under the influence of Victor Cousin, and in 1817 he
was apppinted assistant professor of philosophy at the normal
and Bourbon schools. Three years later, being thrown upon his
own resources, he began a course of lectures in his own house,
and formed literary connexions with Le Courrier franfais, Le
Globe, L' Encyclopedic moderne, and La Revue europeenne. The
variety of his pursuits at this time carried him over the whole
field of ancient and modern literature. But he was chiefly
attracted to the philosophical system represented by Reid and
Stewart. The application of " common sense " to the problem
of substance supplied a more satisfactory analytic for him than
the scepticism of Hume which reached him through a study of
Kant. He thus threw in his lot with the Scottish philosophy,
and his first dissertations are, in their leading position, adapta-
tions from Reid's Inquiry. In 1826 he wrote a preface to a
translation of the Moral Philosophy of Stewart, demonstrating
the possibility of a scientific statement of the laws of conscious-
ness; in 1828 he began a translation of the works of Reid, and in
his preface estimated the influence of Scottish criticism upon
philosophy, giving a biographical account of the movement from
Hutcheson onwards. Next year he was returned to parlement
by the arrondissement of Pontarlier; but the work of legislation
was ill-suited to him. Yet he attended to his duties conscien-
tiously, and ultimately broke his health in their discharge. In
1833 he was appointed professor of Greek and Roman philosophy
at the college of France and a member of the Academy of
Sciences; he then published the Melanges philosophiques (4th ed.
1866; Eng. trans. G. Ripley, Boston, 1835 and 1838), a collection
of fugitive papers in criticism and philosophy and history. In
them is foreshadowed all that he afterwards worked out in
metaphysics, psychology, ethics and aesthetics. He had already
demonstrated in his prefaces the possibility of a psychology apart
from physiology, of the science of the phenomena of conscious-
ness distinct from the perceptions of sense. He now classified
the mental faculties, premising that they must not be confounded
with capacities or properties of mind. They were, according to
his analysis, personal will, primitive instincts, voluntary move-
ment, natural and artificial signs, sensibility and the faculties
of intellect ; on this analytic he founded his scheme of the universe.
In 1835 he published a Cours de droit naturel (4th ed. 1866),
which, for precision of statement and logical coherence, is the
most important of his works. From the conception of a universal
order in the universe he reasons to a Supreme Being, who has
created it and who has conferred upon every man in harmony
with it the aim of his existence, leading to his highest good.
Good, he says, is the fulfilment of man's destiny, evil the thwart-
ing of it. Every man being organized in a particular way has,
of necessity, an aim, the fulfilment of which is good; and he has
faculties for accomplishing it, directed by reason. The aim is
good, however, only when reason guides it for the benefit of the
majority, but that is not absolute good. When reason rises to
the conception of universal order, when actions are submitted,
by the exercise of a sympathy working necessarily and intuitively
to the idea of the universal order, the good has been reached, the
true good, good in itself, absolute good. But he does not follow
his idea into the details of human duty, though he passes in
review fatalism, mysticism, pantheism, scepticism, egotism,
sentimentalism and rationalism. In 1835 Jouffroy's health
failed and he went to Italy, where he continued to translate the
523
Scottish philosophers. On his return he became librarian to the
university, and took the chair of recent philosophy at the faculty
of letters. He died in Paris on the 4th of February 1842. After
his death were published Nouveaux melanges philosophiques
(3rd ed. 1872) and Cours d'esthetique ford ed. 1875). The former
contributed nothing new to the system except a more emphatic
statement of the distinction between psychology and physiology.
The latter formulated his theory of beauty.
Jouffroy's claim to distinction rests upon his ability as an
expositor of other men's ideas. He founded no system; he con-
tributed nothing of importance to philosophical science; he
initiated nothing which has survived him. But his enthusiasm
for mental science, and his command over the language of popular
exposition, made him a great international medium for the
transfusion of ideas. He stood between Scotland and France
and Germany and France; and, though his expositions are
vitiated by loose reading of the philosophers he interpreted, he
did serviceable, even memorable work.
See L. L6vy Bruhl, History of Modern Philps. in France (1899),
PP- 349-357; C. J. Tissot, Th. Jou/roy: sa vie el ses Merits (1876);
J. P. Damiron, Essai sur Vhistoire de la philos. en France an xixf
siecle (1846).
JOUGS, JUGGS, or JOGGS (O. Fr. joug, from Lat. jugum, a
yoke), an instrument of punishment formerly in use in Scotland,
Holland and possibly other countries. It was an iron collar
fastened by a short chain to a wall, often of the parish church,
or to a tree. The collar was placed round the offender's neck
and fastened by a padlock. The jougs was practically a pillory.
It was used for ecclesiastical as well as civil offences. Examples
may still be seen in Scotland.
JOULE, JAMES PRESCOTT (1818-1889), English physicist,
was born on the 24th of December 1818, at Salford, near Man-
chester. Although he received some instruction from John
Dalton in chemistry, most of his scientific knowledge was self-
taught, and this was especially the case with regard to electricity
and electro-magnetism, the subjects in which his earliest
researches were carried out. From the first he appreciated the
importance of accurate measurement, and all through his life
the attainment of exact quantitative data was one of his chief
considerations. At the age of nineteen he invented an electro-
magnetic engine, and in the course of examining its performance
dissatisfaction with vague and arbitrary methods of specifying
electrical quantities caused him to adopt a convenient and
scientific unit, which he took to be the amount of electricity
required to decompose nine grains of water in one hour. In 1840
he was thus enabled to give a quantitative statement of the law
according to which heat is produced in a conductor by the
passage of an electric current, and in succeeding years he pub-
lished a series of valuable researches on the agency of electricity
in transformations of energy. One of these contained the first
intimation of the achievement with which his name is most
widely associated, for it was in a paper read before the British
Association at Cork in 1843, and entitled " The Calorific Effects
of Magneto-electricity and the Mechanical Value of Heat," that
he expressed the conviction that whenever mechanical force is
expended an exact equivalent of heat is always obtained. By
rotating a small electro-magnet in water, between the poles of
another magnet, and then measuring the heat developed in the
water and other parts of the machine, the current induced in
the coils, and the energy required to maintain rotation, he
calculated that the quantity of heat capable of warming one
pound of water one degree F. was equivalent to the mechanical
:orce which could raise 838 ft. through the distance of one foot.
At the same time he brought forward another determination
sased on the heating effects observable when water is forced
through capillary tubes; the number obtained in this way was
770. A third method, depending on the observation of the heat
evolved by the mechanical compression of air, was employed a
year or two later, and yielded the number 798; and a fourth — the
well-known frictional one of stirring water with a sort of paddle-
wheel — yielded the result 890 (see Brit. Assoc. Report, 1845),
though 781-5 was obtained by subsequent repetitions of the
524
experiment. In 1849 he presented to the Royal Society a
memoir which, together with a history of the subject, contained
details of a long series of determinations, the result of which was
772. A good many years later he was entrusted by the com-
mittee of the British Association on standards of electric resist-
ance with the task of deducing the mechanical equivalent of heat
from the thermal effects of electric currents. This inquiry
yielded (in 1867) the result 783, and this Joule himself was in-
clined to regard as more accurate than his old determination by
the frictional method; the latter, however, was repeated with
every precaution, and again indicated 772-55 foot-pounds as the
quantity of work that must be expended at sea-level in the
latitude of Greenwich in order to raise the temperature of one
pound of water, weighed in vacua, from 60° to 61° F. Ultimately
the discrepancy was traced to an error which, not by Joule's
fault, vitiated the determination by the electrical method, for
it was found that the standard ohm, as actually denned by the
British Association committee and as used by him, was slightly
smaller than was intended; when the necessary corrections were
made the results of the two methods were almost precisely con-
gruent, and thus the figure 772-55 was vindicated. In addition,
numerous other researches stand to Joule's credit — the work done
in compressing gases and the thermal changes they undergo when
forced under pressure through small apertures (with Lord Kelvin) ,
the change of volume on solution, the change of temperature
produced by the longitudinal extension and compression of solids,
&c. It was during the experiments involved by the first of these
inquiries that Joule was incidentally led to appreciate the value
of surface condensation in increasing the efficiency of the steam
engine. A new form of condenser was tested on the small engine
employed, and the results it yielded formed the starting-point
of a series of investigations which were aided by a special grant
from the Royal Society, and were described in an elaborate
memoir presented to it on the i3th of December 1860. His
results, according to Kelvin, led directly and speedily to the
present practical method of surface-condensation, one of the
most important improvements of the steam engine, especially
for marine use, since the days of James Watt. Joule died at
Sale on the nth of October 1889.
His scientific papers were collected and published by the Physical
Society of London: the first volume, which appeared in 1884,
contained the researches for which he was alone responsible, and the
second, dated 1887, those which he carried out in association with
other workers.
JOURDAN, JEAN BAPTISTE, COUNT (1762-1833), marshal of
France, was born at Limoges on the 29th of April 1762, and in his
boyhood was apprenticed to a silk merchant of Lyons. In 1776
he enlisted in a French regiment to serve in the American War
of Independence, and after being invalided in 1784 he married
and set up in business at Limoges. At the outbreak of the
revolutionary wars he volunteered, and as a subaltern took part
in the first campaigns in the north of France. His rise was even
more rapid than that of Hoche and Marceau. By 1793 he had
become a general of division, and was selected by Carnot to
succeed Houchard as commander-in-chief of the Army of the
North; and on the I5th-i6th of October 1793 he won the brilliant
and important victory of Wattignies (see FRENCH REVOLU-
TIONARY WARS). Soon afterwards he became a " suspect," the
moderation of his political opinions and his misgivings as to the
future conduct of the war being equally distasteful to the trucu-
lent and enthusiastic Committee of Public Safety. Warned
in time by his friend Carnot and by Barere, he avoided arrest and
resumed his business as a silk-mercer in Limoges. He was soon
reinstated, and early in 1794 was appointed commander-in-chief
of the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse. After repeated attempts to
force the passage of the Sambre had failed and several severe
general actions had been fought without result, Jourdan and his
army were discouraged, but Carnot and the civil commissioners
urged the general, even with threats, to a last effort, and this
time he was successful not only in crossing the Sambre but in
winning a brilliant victory at Fleurus (June 26, 1794), the
consequence of which was the extension of the French sphere
JOURD AN— JOURNAL
of influence to the Rhine, on which river he waged an indecisive
campaign in 1795.
In 1796 his army formed the left wing of the advance into
Bavaria. The whole of the French forces were ordered to
advance on Vienna, Jourdan on the extreme left and Moreau in
the centre by the Danube valley, .Bonaparte on the right by Italy
and Styria. The campaign began brilliantly, the Austrians
under the Archduke Charles being driven back by Moreau and
Jourdan almost to the Austrian frontier. But the archduke,
slipping away from Moreau, threw his whole weight on Jourdan,
who was defeated at Amberg and Wiirzburg, and forced over the
Rhine after a severe rearguard action, which cost the life of
Marceau. Moreau had to fall back in turn, and, apart from
Bonaparte's marvellous campaign in Italy, the operations of the
year were disastrous. The chief cause of failure was the vicious
plan of campaign imposed upon the generals by their government.
Jourdan was nevertheless made the scapegoat of the govern-
ment's mistakes and was not employed for two years. In those
years he became prominent as a politician and above all as the
framer of the famous conscription law of 1798. When the war
was renewed in 1799 Jourdan was placed at the head of the army
on the Rhine, but again underwent defeat at the hands of the
archduke Charles at Stockach (March 25), and, disappointed and
broken in health, handed over the command to Massena. He
at once resumed his political duties, and was a prominent oppo-
nent of the coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire, after which he was expelled
from the Council of the Five Hundred. Soon, however, he
became formally reconciled to the new regime, and accepted
from Napoleon fresh military and civil employment. In 1800
he became inspector-general of cavalry and infantry and repre-
sentative of French interests in the Cisalpine Republic, and in
1804 he was made a marshal of France. He remained in the
new kingdom of Italy until 1806, when Joseph Bonaparte, whom
his brother made king of Naples in that year, selected Jourdan
as his military adviser. He followed Joseph into Spain in the
same capacity in 1808. But Joseph's throne had to be main-
tained by the French army, and throughout the Peninsular War
the other marshals, who depended directly upon Napoleon, paid
little heed either to Joseph or to Jourdan. After the battle of
Vitoria he held no important command up to the fall of the
Empire. Jourdan gave in his adhesion to the restoration
government of 1814, and though he rejoined Napoleon in the
Hundred Days and commanded a minor army, he submitted
to the Bourbons again after Waterloo. He refused, however,
to be a member of the court which tried Marshal Ney. He was
made a count, a peer of France (1819), and governor of Grenoble
(1816). In politics he was a prominent opponent of the royalist
reactionaries and supported the revolution of 1830. After this
event he held the portfolio of foreign affairs for a few days, and
then became governor of the Invalides, where his last years were
spent. Marshal Jourdan died on the 23rd of November 1833,
and was buried in the Invalides.
He wrote Operations de Varmke du Danube (1799); Mtmoires pour
servir a I'histoire sur la campagne de 1796 (1819); and unpublished
personal memoirs.
JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily), a daily
record of events or business. A private journal is usually an
elaborated diary. When applied to a newspaper or other
periodical the word is strictly used of one published each day;
but any publication issued at stated intervals, such as a magazine
or the record of the transactions of a learned society, is commonly
called a journal. The word " journalist " for one whose business
is writing for the public press (see NEWSPAPERS) seems to be as
old as the end of the i7th century.
" Journal " is particularly applied to the record, day by day,
of the business and proceedings of a public body. The journals
of the British houses of parliament contain an official record of
the business transacted day by day in either house. The record
does not take note of speeches, though some of the earlier
volumes contain references to them. The journals are a length-
ened account written from the " votes and proceedings " (in the
House of Lords called " minutes of the proceedings "), made day
JOURNEY- -JOVELLANOS
525
by day by the assistant clerks, and printed on the responsi-
bility of the clerk to the house, after submission to the " sub-
committee on the journals." In the Commons the journal is
passed by the Speaker before publication. The journals of the
House of Commons begin in the first year of the reign of Edward
VI. (1547), and are complete, except for a short interval under
Elizabeth. Those of the House of Lords date fr.om the first year
of Henry VIII. (1509). Before that date the proceedings in
parliament were entered in the rolls of parliament, which extend
from 1278 to 1503. The journals of the Lords are " records "
in the judicial sense, those of the Commons are not (see Erskine
May, Parliamentary Practice, 1906, pp. 201-202).
The term " journal " is used, in business, for a book in which
an account of transactions is kept previous to a transfer to the
ledger (see BOOK-KEEPING), and also as an equivalent to a ship's
log, as a record of the daily run, observations, weather changes,
&c. In mining, a journal is a record describing the various
strata passed through in sinking a shaft. A particular use of the
word is that, in machinery, for the parts of a shaft which are in
contact with the bearings; the origin of this meaning, which is
firmly established, has not been explained.
JOURNEY (through O. Fr.jornee orjournee, mod. Fr.journee,
from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies,
day) , properly that which occupies a day in its performance, and
so a day's work, particularly a day's travel, and the distance
covered by such, usually reckoned in the middle ages as twenty
miles. The word is now used of travel covering a certain amount
of distance or lasting a certain amount of time, frequently denned
by qualifying words. " Journey " is usually applied to travel by
land, as opposed to " voyage," travel by sea. The early use of
" journey " for a day's work, or the amount produced by a day's
work, is still found in glassmaking, and also at the British Mint,
where a " journey " is taken as equivalent to the coinage of
15 lb of standard gold, 701 sovereigns, and of 60 ft of silver.
The term " journeyman " also preserves the original signi-
ficance of the word. It distinguishes a qualified workman or
mechanic from an " apprentice " on the one hand and a
" master " on the other, and is applied to one who is employed
by another person to work at his trade or occupation at a day's
wage.
JOUVENET, JEAN (1647-1717), French painter, born at
Rouen, came of a family of artists, one of whom had taught
Poussin. He early showed remarkable aptitude for his profes-
sion, and, on arriving in Paris, attracted the attention of Le Brun,
by whom he was employed at Versailles, and under whose
auspices, in 1675, he became a member of the Academic Royale,
of which he was elected professor in 1681, and one of the four
perpetual rectors in 1707. The great mass of works that he
executed, chiefly in Paris, many of which, including his celebrated
Miraculous Draught of Fishes (engraved by Audran; also Landon,
Annales, i. 42), are now in the Louvre, show his fertility in
invention and execution, and also that he possessed in a high
degree that general dignity of arrangement and style which dis-
tinguished the school of Le Brun. Jouvenet died on the sth of
April 1717, having been forced by paralysis during the last four
years of his life to work with his left hand.
See Mem. into. acad. roy. de p. el de sc., 1854, and D'Argenville,
Vies des peintres.
JOUY, VICTOR JOSEPH ETIENNE DE (1764-1846), French
dramatist, was born at Jouy, near Versailles, on the i2th of
September 1764. At the age of eighteen he received a commis-
sion in the army, and sailed for South America in the company
of the governor of Guiana. He returned almost immediately to
France to complete his studies, and re-entered the service two
years later. He was sent to India, where he met with many
romantic adventures which were afterwards turned to literary
account. On the outbreak of the Revolution he returned to
France and served with distinction in the early campaigns,
attaining the rank of adjutant-general. He drew suspicion on
himself, however, by refusing to honour the toast of Marat, and
had to fly for his life. At the fall of the Terror he resumed his
commission but again fell under suspicion, being accused of
treasonable correspondence with the English envoy, James
Harris, ist earl of Malmesbury who had been sent to France to
negotiate terms of peace. He was acquitted of this charge, but,
weary of repeated attacks, resigned his position on the pretext
of his numerous wounds. Jouy now turned his attention to
literature, and produced in 1807 with immense success his opera
La vestale (music by Spontini). The piece ran for a hundred
nights, and was characterized by the Institute of France as the
best lyric drama of the day. Other operas followed, but none
obtained so great a success. He published in the Gazelle de
France a series of satirical sketches of Parisian life, collected
under the title of L'Ermite de la Chaussee d'Antin, ou observations
sur les mceurs et les usages franqais au commencement du xix'
siecle (1812-1814, 5 vols.), which was warmly received. In 1821
his tragedy of Sylla gained a triumph due in part to the genius
of Talma, who had studied the title-role from Napoleon. Under
the Restoration Jouy consistently fought for the cause of freedom,
and if his work was overrated by his contemporaries, they were
probably influenced by their respect for the author himself. He
died in rooms set apart for his use in the palace of St Germain-en-
Laye on the 4th of September 1846.
Out of the long list of his operas, tragedies and miscellaneous
writings may be mentioned, Fernand Cortez (1809), opera, in col-
laboration with J. E. Esm6nard, music by Spontini; Tippo Saib,
tragedy (1813); Belisaire, tragedy (1818); Les Hermites en prison
(1823), written in collaboration with Antoine Jay, like himself a
political prisoner; Guillaume Tell (1829), with Hippolyte Bis, for
the music of Rossini. Jouy was also one of the founders of the
Biographic nomielle des contemporains.
JOVELLANOS (or JOVE LLANOS), CASPAR MELCHOR DE
(1744-1811), Spanish statesman and author, was born at Gijon
in Asturias, Spain, on the sth of January 1744. Selecting law
as his profession, he studied at Oviedo, Avila, and Alcala, and
in 1767 became criminal judge at Seville. His integrity and
ability were rewarded in 1778 by a judgeship in Madrid, and in
1780 by appointment to the council of military orders. In the
capital Jovellanos took a good place in the literary and scientific
societies; for the society of friends of the country he wrote in
1787 his most valuable work, Informe sobre un proyecto de ley
agraria. Involved in the disgrace of his friend, Francois
Cabarrus, Jovellanos spent the years 1790 to 1797 in a sort of
banishment at Gijon, engaged in literary work and in founding
the Asturian institution for agricultural, industrial, social and
educational reform throughout his native province. This
institution continued his darling project up to the latest hours
of his life. Summoned again to public life in 1797, Jovellanos
refused the post of ambassador to Russia, but accepted that of
minister of grace and justice, under " the prince of the peace,"
whose attention had been directed to him by Cabarrus, then a
favourite of Godoy. Displeased with Godoy's policy and conduct
Jovellanos combined with his colleague Saavedra to procure his
dismissal. Godoy returned to power in 1798; Jovellanos was
again sent to Gijon, but in 1801 was thrown into prison in
Majorca. The revolution of 1808, and the advance of the
French into Spain, set him once more at liberty. Joseph Bona-
parte, on mounting the Spanish throne, made Jovellanos the
most brilliant offers; but the latter, sternly refusing them all,
joined the patriotic party, became a member of the central junta,
and contributed to reorganize the cortes. This accomplished,
the junta at once fell under suspicion, and Jovellanos was in-
volved in its fall. To expose the conduct of the cortes, and to
defend the junta and himself were the last labours of his pen. In
181 1 he was enthusiastically welcomed to Gijon; but the approach
of the French drove him forth again. The vessel in which he
sailed was compelled by stress of weather to put in at Vega in
Asturias, and there he died on'the 27th of November 1811.
The poetical works of Jovellanos comprise a tragedy'jE/ pelayo, the
comedy El delincuente honrado, satires, and miscellaneous pieces,
including a translation of the first book of Paradise Lost. His
prose works, especially those on political and legislative economy,
constitute his real title to literary fame. In them depth of thought
and clear-sighted sagacity are couched in a certain Ciceronian
526
JOVELLAR Y SOLER— JOVIUS
elegance and classical purity of style. Besides the Ley agraria he
wrote Elogios; various political and other essays; and Memorias
politicas (1801), suppressed in Spain, and translated into French,
1825. An edition of his complete works was published at Madrid
(1831-1832) in 7 yols., and another at Barcelona (1839).
See Noticias historicas de Don G. M. de Jovellanos (1812), and
Memorias para la vida del Senor . . . Jovellanos, by J. A. C. Ber-
mudez (1814).
JOVELLAR Y SOLER, JOAQUIN (1810-1892), captain-
general of Spain, was born at Palma de Mallorca, on the 28th
of December 1819. At the close of his studies at the military
academy he was appointed sub-lieutenant, went to Cuba as
captain in 1842, returned to the War Office in 1851, was promoted
major in 1853, and went to Morocco as private secretary to
Marshal O'Donnell, who made him colonel in 1860 after Jovellar
had been wounded at the battle of Wad el Ras. In 1863 Jovellar
became a brigadier-general, in 1864 under-secretary for war; he
was severely wounded in fighting the insurgents in the streets
of Madrid, and rose to the rank of general of division in 1866.
Jovellar adhered to the revolution, and King Amadeus made
him a lieutenant-general in 1872. He absented himself from
Spain when the federal republic was proclaimed, and returned
in the autumn of 1873, when Castelar sent him to Cuba as
governor-general. In 1874 Jovellar came back to the Peninsula,
and was in command of the Army of the Centre against the
Carlists when Marshal Campos went to Sagunto to proclaim
Alfonso XII. General Jovellar became war minister in the first
cabinet of the restoration under Canovas, who sent him to Cuba
again as governor-general, where he remained until the i8th of
June 1878, when the ten years' insurrection closed with the peace
of Zaujon. Alfonso XII. made him a captain-general, presi-
dent of the council, life-senator, and governor-general of the
Philippines. Jovellar died in Madrid on the I7th of April
1892.
JOVIAN (FLAVIUS JOVIANUS) (c. 332-364), Roman emperor
from June 363 to February 364, was born at Singidunum in Moesia
about 332. As captain of the imperial bodyguard he accom-
panied Julian in his Persian expedition; and on the day after
that emperor's death, when the aged Sallust, prefect of the East,
declined the purple, the choice of the army fell upon Jovian.
His election caused considerable surprise, and it is suggested by
Ammianus Marcellinus that he was wrongly identified with
another Jovian, chief notary, whose name also had been put
forward, or that, during the acclamations, the soldiers mistook
the name Jovianus for Julianus, and imagined that the latter
had recovered from his illness. Jovian at once continued the
retreat begun by Julian, and, continually harassed by the
Persians, succeede'd in reaching the banks of the Tigris, where a
humiliating treaty was concluded with the Persian king, Shapur
II. (q.v.). Five provinces which had been conquered by Galerius
in 298 were surrendered, together with Nisibis and other cities.
The Romans also gave up all their interests in the kingdom of
Armenia, and abandoned its Christian prince Arsaces to the
Persians. During his return to Constantinople Jovian was found
dead in his bed at Dadastana, halfway between Ancyra and
Nicaea. A surfeit of mushrooms or the fumes of a charcoal fire
have been assigned as the cause of death. Under Jovian,
Christianity was established as the state religion, and the
Labarum of Constantine again became the standard of the army.
The statement that he issued an edict of toleration, to the effect
that, while the exercise of magical rites would be severely
punished, his subjects should enjoy full liberty of conscience,
rests on insufficient evidence. Jovian entertained a great regard
for Athanasius, whom he reinstated on the archiepiscopal throne,
desiring him to draw up a statement of the Catholic faith. In
Syriac literature Jovian became the hero of a Christian romance
(G. Hoffmann, Julianus der Abtrunnige, 1880).
See Ammianus Marcellinus, xxv. 5-10; J. P. de la Ble'terie, His-
toire de Jovien (1740); Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chs. xxiv , xxy. ;
J. Wordsworth in Smith and Wace's Dictionary of Christian
Biography; H. Schiller, Geschichle der romischen Kaiserzeit, vol. ii.
(1887); A. de Broglie, L' £glise el I' 'empire remain auiif siecle (4th ed.
1882). For the relations of Rome and Persia see PERSIA: Ancient
History.
JOVINIANUS, or JOVIANUS, a Roman monk of heterodox
views, who flourished during the latter half of the 4th century.
All our knowledge of him is derived from a passionately hostile
polemic of Jerome (Adv. Jovinianum, Libri II.), written at
Bethlehem in 393, and without any personal acquaintance with
the man assailed. According to this authority Jovinian in 388
was living at Rome the celibate life of an ascetic monk, possessed
a good acquaintance with the Bible, and was the author of several
minor works, but, undergoing an heretical change of view, after-
wards became a self-indulgent Epicurean and unrefined sensualist.
The views which excited this denunciation were mainly these:
(1) Jovinian held that in point of merit, so far as their domestic
state was concerned, virgins, widows and married persons who
had been baptized into Christ were on a precisely equal footing;.
(2) those who with full faith have been regenerated in baptism
cannot be overthrown (or, according to another reading, tempted)
of the devil; (3) to abstain from meats is not more praiseworthy
than thankfully to enjoy them; (4) all who have preserved their
baptismal grace shall receive the same reward in the kingdom of
heaven.1 Jovinian thus indicates a natural and vigorous reaction
against the exaggerated asceticism of the 4th century, a protest
shared by Helvidius and Vigilantius. He was condemned by
a Roman synod under Bishop Siricius in 390, and afterwards
excommunicated by another at Milan under the presidency of
Ambrose. The year of his death is unknown, but he is referred
to as no longer alive in Jerome's Contra Vigilantium (406).
JOVIUS, PAULUS, or PAOLO GIOVIO (1483-1552), Italian
historian and biographer, was born of an ancient and noble family
at Como on the igth of April 1483. His father died when he was
a child, and Giovio owed his education to his brother Benedetto.
After studying the humanities, he applied himself to medicine
and philosophy at his brother's request. He was Pomponazzi's
pupil at Padua; and afterwards he took a medical degree in the
university of Pavia. He exercised the medical profession in
Rome, but the attraction of literature proved irresistible for
Giovio, and he was bent upon becoming the historian of his age.
He presented a portion of his history to Leo X., who read the
MS., and pronounced it superior in elegance to anything since
Livy. Thus encouraged, Giovio took up his residence in Rome,
and attached himself to Cardinal Giulio de' Medici, the pope's
nephew. The next pope, Adrian VI., gave him a canonry in
Como, on the condition, it is said, that Giovio should mention
him with honour in his history. This patronage from a pontiff
who was averse from the current tone of Italian humanism
proves that Giovio at this period passed for a man of sound learn-
ing and sober manners. After Adrian's death, Giulio de' Medici
became pope as Clement VII. and assigned him chambers in the
Vatican, with maintenance for servants befitting a courtier of
rank. Inaddition to other benefices, he finally, in 1528, bestowed
on him the bishopric of Nocera. Giovio had now become in a
special sense dependent on the Medici. He was employed by
that family on several missions — as when he accompanied
Ippolito to Bologna on the occasion of Charles V.'s coronation,
and Caterina to Marseilles before her marriage to the duke of
Orleans. During the siege of Rome in 1527 he attended Clement
in his flight from the Vatican. While crossing the bridge which
connected the palace with the castle of S. Angelo, Giovio threw
his mantle over the pope's shoulders in order to disguise his
master.
In the sack he suffered a serious pecuniary and literary loss, if we
may credit his own statement. The story runs that he deposited
the MS. of his history, together with some silver, in a box at S.
Maria Sopra Minerva for safety. This box was discovered by two
Spaniards, one of whom secured the silver, while the other, named
Herrera, knowing who Giovio was, preferred to hold the MSS. for
ransom. Herrera was so careless, however, as to throw away the
sheets he found in paper, reserving only that portion of the work
which was transcribed on parchment. This he subsequently sold
to Giovo in exchange for a.benifice at Cordova, which Clement VII.
conceded to the Spaniard. Six books of the history were lost in
this transaction. Giovo contented himself with indicating their
substance in a summary. Perhaps he was not unwilling that his
work should resemble that of Livy, even in its imperfection. But
1 See, more fully, Harnack, Hist, of Dogma, v. 57.
JOWETT
doubt rests upon the whole of this story. Apostolo Zeno affirms
that in the middle of the last century three of the missing books
turned up among family papers in the possession of Count Giov.
Batt. Giovio, who wrote a panegyric on his ancestor. It is therefore
not improbable that Giovio possessed his history intact, but pre-
ferred to withhold from publication those portions which might
have involved him in difficulties with living persons of importance.
The omissions were afterwards made good by Curtio Marinello in
the Italian edition, published at Venice in 1581. But whether
Marinello was the author of these additions is not known.
After Clement's death Giovio found himself out of favour with
the next pope, Paul III. The failure of his career is usually
ascribed to the irregularity of the life he led in the literary society
of Rome. We may also remember that Paul had special causes
for animosity against the Medici, whose servant Giovio had been.
Despairing of a cardinal's hat, Giovio retired to his villa on the
lake of Como, where he spent the wealth he had acquired from
donations and benefices in adorning his villa with curiosities,
antiquities and pictures, including a very important collection
of portraits of famous soldiers and men of letters, now almost
entirely dispersed. He died upon a visit to Florence in 1552.
Giovio's principal work was the History of His Own Times, from the
invasion of Charles VIII. to the year 1547. It was divided into
two parts, containing altogether forty-five books. Of these, books
v.-xi. of part i. were said by him to have been lost in the sack of
Rome, while books xix.-xxiv. of part ii., which should have embraced
the period from the death of Leo to the sack, were never written.
Giovio supplied the want of the latter six books by his lives of Leo,
Adrian, Alphonso I. of Ferrara, and several other personages of
importance. But he alleged that the history of that period was
too painful to be written in full. His first published work, printed
in 1524 at Rome, was a treatise De pisdbus romanis. After his
retirement to Como he produced a valuable series of biographies,
entitled Elogia virorum illustrium. They commemorate men dis-
tinguished for letters and arms, selected from all periods, and are
said to have been written in illustration of portraits collected by him
for the museum of his villa at Como. Besides these books, we may
mention a biographical history of the Visconti, lords of Milan; an
essay on mottoes and badges; a dissertation on the state of Turkey;
a large collection of familiar epistles; together with descriptions of
Britain, Muscovy, the Lake of Como and Giovio's own villa. The
titles of these miscellanies will be found in the bibliographical note
appended to this article.
Giovio preferred Latin in the composition of his more im-
portant works. Though contemporary with Machiavelli, Guicci-
ardini and Varchi, he adhered to humanistic usages, and cared
more for the Latinity than for the matter of his histories. His
style is fluent and sonorous rather than pointed or grave.
Partly owing to the rhetorical defects inherent in this choice of
Latin, when Italian had gained the day, but more to his own
untrustworthy and shallow character, Giovio takes a lower rank
as historian than the bulk and prestige of his writings would
seem to warrant. He professed himself a flatterer and a lam-
pooner, writing fulsome eulogies on the princes who paid him
well, while he ignored or criticized those who proved less gener-
ous. The old story that he said he kept a golden and an iron
pen, to use according as people paid him, condenses the truth in
epigram. His private morals were of a dubious character, and
as a writer he had the faults of the elder humanists, in combina-
tion with that literary cynicism which reached its height in
Aretino; and therefore his histories and biographical essays are
not to be used as authorities, without corroboration. Yet
Giovio's works, taken in their entirety and with proper reserva-
tion, have real value. To the student of Italy they yield a lively
picture of the manners and the feeling of the times in which he
lived, and in which he played no obscure part. They abound
in vivid sketches, telling anecdotes, fugitive comments, which
unite a certain charm of autobiographical romance with the
worldly wisdom of an experienced courtier. A flavour of person-
ality makes them not unpleasant reading. While we learn to
despise and mistrust the man in Giovio, we appreciate the author.
It would not be too far-fetched tc describe him as a sort of 16th-
century Horace Walpole.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The sources of Giovio's biography are: his own
works ; Tiraboschi's History of Italian Literature ; Litta's Genealogy of
Illustrious Italian Families ; and Giov. Batt. Giovio's Uomini illustri
delta diocesi Comasca, Modena (1784). Cicogna, in his Delle inscrizi-
oni Veneziane raccolta (Venice, 1830), gives a list of Giovio s works,
527
from which the following notices are extracted: I. Works in Latin:
(1) Pauli Jovii historiarum sui temporis, ab anno 1494 ad an. 1547
(Florence 1550-1 552), the same translated into Italian by L. Domeni-
chi, and first published at Florence (1551), afterwards at Venice;
(2) Leonis X., Hadriani VI., Pompeii Columnae Card., vitae (Florence,
1548), translated by Domenichi (Florence, 1549); (3) Vitae XII.
vicecomitum Mediolani principum (Paris, 1549), translated by Dome-
nichi (Venice, 1549); (4) Vita Sforliae clariss. ducts (Rome, 1549),
translated by Domenichi (Florence, 1549); (5) Vita Fr. Ferd. Davali
(Florence, 1549), translated by Domenichi (ibid. 1551); (6) Vila
magni Consalvi (ibid. 1549), translated by Domenichi (ibid. 1550);
(7) Alfonsi Atestensi, &c. (ibid. 1550), Italian translation by Giov.
Batt. Gelli (Florence, 1 553) ; (8) Elogia virorum bellica virtute illustrium
(ibid. 1 551), translated by Domenichi (ibid. 1554); (9) Elogia clarorum
virorum, &c. (Venice, 1546) (these are biographies of men of letters),
translated by Hippplito Orio of Ferrara (Florence, 1 552) ; (10) Libellus
de legatione Basilii Magni principis Moscoviae (Rome, 1525); (n)
Descriptio Larii Lacus (Venice, 1559) ; (12) Descriptio Britanniae, &c.
(Venice, 1548); (13) De pisdbus romanis (Rome, 1524); (14) Descrip-
tiones quotquot extant regionum atque locorum (Basel, 1571). 2. Works
in Italian: (i) Dialogo deile imprese militari et amorose (Rome,
1555) ; (2) Commentart delle cose dei Turchi (Venice, 1541) ; (3) Lettere
volgari (Venice, 1560). Some minor works and numerous reprints
of those cited have been omitted from this list ; and it should also
be mentioned that some of the lives with additional matter, are
included in the Vitae illustrium mrprum (Basel, 1576). (J. A. S.)
The best and most complete edition of Giovio's works is that of
Basel (1678). For his life see Giuseppe Sanest, "Alcuniosservazioni e
notizie intorno a tre storici minori del cinquecento^-Giovio; Nerli,
Segni" (mArchivio Storico Italia.no, 5th series, vol.xxiii.) ; Eug. Muntz,
Sul museo di ritratti composto da Paolo Giovio (ibid., vol. xix.).
JOWETT, BENJAMIN (1817-1893), English scholar and
theologian, master of Balliol College, Oxford, was born in Cam-
berwell on the i$th of April 1817. His father was one of a
Yorkshire family who, for three generations, had been supporters
of the Evangelical movement in the Church of England. His
mother was a Langhorne, in some way related to the poet and
translator of Plutarch. At twelve the boy was placed on the
foundation of St Paul's School (then in St Paul's Churchyard) , and
in his nineteenth year he obtained an open scholarship at Balliol.
In 1838 he gained a fellowship, and graduated with first-class
honours in 1839. Brought up amongst pious Evangelicals, he
came to Oxford at the height of the Tractarian movement, and
through the friendship of W. G. Ward was drawn for a time in
the direction of High Anglicanism; but a stronger and more
lasting influence was that of the Arnold school, represented by
A. P. Stanley. Jowett was thus led to concentrate his attention
on theology, and in the summers of 1845 and 1846, spent in
Germany with Stanley, he became an eager student of German
criticism and speculation. Amongst the writings of that period
he was most impressed by those of F. C. Baur. But he never
ceased to exercise an independent judgment, and his work on
St Paul, which appeared in 1855, was the result of much original
reflection and inquiry. He was appointed to the Greek professor-
ship in the autumn of that year. He had been a tutor of Balliol
and a clergyman since 1842, and had devoted himself to the work
of tuition with unexampled zeal. His pupils became his friends
for life. He discerned their capabilities, studied their characters,
and sought to remedy their defects by frank and searching
criticism. Like another Socrates, he taught them to know them-
selves, repressing vanity, encouraging the despondent, and
attaching all alike by his unobtrusive sympathy. This work
gradually made a strong impression, and those who cared for
Oxford began to speak of him as " the great tutor." As early
as 1839 Stanley had joined with Tail, the future archbishop, in
advocating certain university reforms. From 1846 onwards
Jowett threw himself into this movement, which in 1848 became
general amongst the younger and more thoughtful fellows, until
it took effect in the commission of 1850 and the act of 1854.
Another educational reform, the opening of the Indian civil
service to competition, took place at the same time, and Jowett
was one of the commission. He had two brothers who served
and died in India, and he never ceased to take a deep and practical
interest in Indian affairs. A great disappointment, his repulse
for the mastership of Balliol, also in 1854, appears to have roused
him into the completion of his book on The Epistles of St Paul.
This work, described by one of his friends as "a miracle of bold-
ness," is full of originality and suggestiveness, but its publication
528
JO YE USE
awakened against him a storm of theological prejudice, which
followed him more or less through life. Instead of yielding to
this, he joined with Henry Bristowe Wilson and Rowland
Williams, who had been similarly attacked, in the production
of the volume knowii as Essays and Reviews. This appeared in
1860 and gave rise to a strange outbreak of fanaticism. Jowett's
loyalty to those who were prosecuted on this account was no less
characteristic than his persistent silence while the augmentation
of his salary as Greek professor was withheld. This petty perse-
cution was continued until 1865, when E. A. Freeman and Charles
Elton discovered by historical research that a breach of the con-
ditions of the professorship had occurred, and Christ Church
raised the endowment from £40 a year to £500. Meanwhile
Jowett's influence at Oxford had steadily increased. It culmi-
nated in 1864, when the country clergy, provoked by the final
acquittal of the essayists, had voted in convocation against the
endowment of the Greek chair. Jowett's pupils, who were now
drawn from the university at large, supported him with the
enthusiasm which young men feel for the victim of injustice.
In the midst of other labours Jowett had been quietly exerting
his influence so as to conciliate all shades of liberal opinion, and
bring them to bear upon the abolition of the theological test,
which was still required for the M.A. and other degrees, and for
university and college offices. He spoke at an important meeting
upon this question in London on the loth of June 1864, which laid
the ground for the University Tests Act of 1871. In connexion
with the Greek professorship Jowett had undertaken a work
on Plato which grew into a complete translation of the Dialogues,
with introductory essays. At this he laboured in vacation time
for at least ten years. But his interest in theology had not
abated, and his thoughts found an outlet in'occasional preaching.
The university pulpit, indeed, was closed to him, but several
congregations in London delighted in his sermons, and from 1866
until the year of his death he preached annually in Westminster
Abbey, where Stanley had become dean in 1863. Three volumes
of selected sermons have been published since his death. The
years 1865-1870 were occupied with assiduous labour. Amongst
his pupils at Balliol were men destined to high positions in the
state, whose parents had thus shown their confidence in the
supposed heretic, and gratitude on this account was added to
other motives for his unsparing efforts in tuition. In 1870, by
an arrangement which he attributed to his friend Robert Lowe,
afterwards Lord Sherbrooke (at that time a member of Glad-
stone's ministry), Scott was promoted to the deanery of Rochester
and Jowett was elected to the vacant mastership by the fellows
of Balliol. From the vantage-ground of this long-coveted
position the Plato was published in 1871. It had a great and
well-deserved success. While scholars criticized particular
renderings (and there were many small errors to be removed in
subsequent editions), it was generally agreed that he had suc-
ceeded in making Plato an English classic.
If ever there was a beneficent despotism, it was Jowett's rule
as master. Since 1866 his authority in Balliol had been really
paramount, and various reforms in college had been due to his
initiative. The opposing minority were now powerless, and the
younger fellows who had been his pupils were more inclined to
follow him than others would have been. There was no obstacle
to the continued exercise of his firm and reasonable will. He still
knew the undergraduates individually, and watched their pro-
gress with a vigilant eye. His influence in the university was
less assured. The pulpit of St Mary's was no longer closed to
him, but the success of Balliol in the schools gave rise to jealousy
in other colleges, and old prejudices did not suddenly give way;
while a new movement in favour of " the endowment of research "
ran counter to his immediate purposes. Meanwhile, the tutor-
ships in other colleges, and some of the headships also, were being
filled with Balliol men, and Jowett's former pupils were promi-
nent in both houses of parliament and at the bar. He continued
the practice, which he had commenced in 1848, of taking with
him a small party of undergraduates in vacation time, and work-
ing with them in one of his favourite haunts, at Askrigg in
Wensleydale, or Tummel Bridge, or later at WestMalvern. The
new hall (1876), the organ there, entirely his gift (1885), and the
cricket ground (1889), remain as external monuments of the
master's activity. Neither business nor the many claims of
friendship interrupted literary work. The six or seven weeks
of the long vacation, during which he had pupils with him, were
mainly employed in writing. The translation of Aristotle's
Politics, the revision of Plato, and, above all, the translation of
Thucydides many times revised, occupied several years. The
edition of the Republic, undertaken in 1856, remained unfinished,
but was continued with the help of Professor Lewis Campbell.
Other literary schemes of larger scope and deeper interest were
long in contemplation, but were not destined to take effect — an
Essay on the Religions of the World, a Commentary on the Gospels,
a Life of Christ, a volume on Moral Ideas, Such plans were
frustrated, not only by his practical avocations, but by his
determination to finish what he had begun, and the fastidious
self-criticism which it took so long to satisfy. The book on
Morals might, however, have been written but for the heavy
burden of the vice-chancellorship, which he was induced to
accept in 1882, by the hope, only partially fulfilled, of securing
many improvements for the university. The vice-chancellor
was ex officio a delegate of the press, where he hoped to effect
much; and a plan for draining the Thames Valley, which he had
now the power of initiating, was one on which his mind had dwelt
for many years. The exhausting labours of the vice-chancellor-
ship were followed by an illness (1887); and after this he relin-
quished the hope of producing any great original writing. His
literary industry was thenceforth confined to his commentary
on the Republic of Plato, and some essays on Aristotle which were
to have formed a companion volume to the translation of the
Politics. The essays which should have accompanied the trans-
lation of Thucydides were never written. Jowett, who never
married, died on the ist of October 1893. The funeral was one
of the most impressive ever seen in Oxford. The pall-bearers
were seven heads of colleges and the provost of Eton, all old
pupils.
Theologian, tutor, university reformer, a great master of a
college, Jowett's best claim to the remembrance of succeeding
generations was his greatness as a moral teacher. Many of the
most prominent Englishmen of the day were his pupils and owed
much of what they were to his precept and example, his pene-
trative sympathy, his insistent criticism, and his unwearying
friendship. Seldom have ideal aims been so steadily pursued
with so clear a recognition of practical limitations. Jowett's
theological work was transitional, and yet has an element of
permanence. As has been said of another thinker, he was " one
of those deeply religious men who, when crude theological
notions are being revised and called in question seek to put new
life into theology by wider and more humane ideas." In earlier
life he had been a zealous student of Kant and Hegel, and to the
end he never ceased to cultivate the philosophic spirit; but he
had little confidence in metaphysical systems, and sought rather
to translate philosophy into the wisdom of life. As a classical
scholar, his scorn of littlenesses sometimes led him into the
neglect of minutiae, but he had the higher merit of interpreting
ideas. His place in literature rests really on the essays in his
Plato. When their merits are fully recognized, it will be found
that his worth, as a teacher of his countrymen, extends far
beyond his own generation.
See The Life and Letters of Benjamin Jowett, by E. A. Abbott and
Lewis Campbell (1897); Benjamin Jowett, by Lionel Tollemache
(I895)- (L. C.)
JOYEUSE, a small town in the department of Ardeche, France,
situated on the Baume, a tributary of the Ardeche, is historically
important as having been the seat of a noble French family
which derived its name from it. The lordship of Joyeuse came,
in the i3th century, into the possession of the house of Chateau-
neuf-Randon, and was made into a viscountship in 1432.
Guillaume, viscount of Joyeuse, was bishop of Alet, but after-
wards left the church, and became a marshal of France; he died
in 1592- His eldest son Anne de Joyeuse (1561-1587), was one
of the favourites of Henry III. of France, who created him duke
JOYEUSE ENTREE— JUANGS
and peer (1581), admiral of France (1582), and governor of
Normandy (1586), and married him to Marguerite de Lorraine-
Vaudemont, younger sister of the queen. He gained several
successes against the Huguenots, but was recalled by court
intrigues at an inopportune moment, and when he marched a
second time against Henry of Navarre he was defeated and
killed at Coutras. Guillaume had three other sons: Francois
de Joyeuse (d. 1615), cardinal and archbishop of Narbonne,
Toulouse and Rouen, who brought about the reconciliation
of Henry IV. with the pope; Henri, count of Bouchage, and
later duke of Joyeuse, who first entered the army, then became a
Capuchin under the name of Pere Ange, left the church and
became a marshal of France, and finally re-entered the church,
dying in 1608; Antoine Scipion, grand prior of Toulouse in the
order of the knights of Malta, who was one of the leaders in the
League, and died in the retreat of Villemur (1592). Henriette
Catherine de Joyeuse, daughter of Henri, married in 1611
Charles of Lorraine, duke of Guise, to whom she brought the
duchy of Joyeuse. On the death of her great-grandson,
Francois Joseph de Lorraine, duke of Guise,, in 1675, without
issue, the duchy of Joyeuse was declared extinct, but it
was revived in 1714, in favour of Louis de Melun, prince of
Epinoy. (M. P.*)
JOYEUSE ENTREE, a famous charter of liberty granted to
Brabant by Duke John III. in 1354. John summoned the re-
presentatives of the cities of the duchy to Louvain to announce to
them the marriage of his daughter and heiress Jeanne of Brabant
to Wenceslaus duke of Luxemburg, and he offered them liberal
concessions in order to secure their assent to the change of
dynasty. John III. died in 1355, and Wenceslaus and Jeanne
on the occasion of their state entry into Brussels solemnly swore
to observe all the provisions of the charter, which had been
drawn up. From the occasion on which it was first proclaimed
this charter has since been known in history as La Joyeuse Entree.
By this document the dukes of Brabant undertook to maintain
the integrity of the duchy, and not to wage war, make treaties,
or impose taxes without the consent of their subjects, as repre-
sented by the municipalities. All members of the duke's council
were to be native-born Brabanters. This charter became the
model for other provinces and the bulwark of the liberties of the
Netherlands. Its provisions were modified from time to time,
but remained practically unchanged from the reign of Charles V.
onwards. The ill-advised attempt of the emperor Joseph II.
in his reforming zeal to abrogate the Joyeuse Entree caused a
revolt in Brabant, before which he had to yield.
See E.Poullet, La Joyeuse entree, ou constitution Brabanfonne (i 862).
JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS, a small group in the South
Pacific Ocean, between 33° and 34° S., 80° W., belonging to
Chile and included in the province of Valparaiso. The main
island is called Mas-a-Tierra (Span, "more to land") to dis-
tinguish it from a smaller island, Mas-a-Fuera (" more to sea "),
100 m. farther west. Off the S.W. of Mas-a-Tierra lies the islet
of Santa Clara. The aspect of Mas-a-Tierra is beautiful; only
13 m. in length by 4 in width, it consists of a series of precipi-
tous rocks rudely piled into irregular blocks and pinnacles, and
strongly contrasting with a rich vegetation. The highest of
these, 3225 ft., is called, from its massive form, El Yunque
(the anvil). The rocks are volcanic. Cumberland Bay on the
north side is the only fair anchorage, and even there, from the
great depth of water, there is some risk. A wide valley collecting
» streams from several of the ravines on the north side of the
island opens into Cumberland Bay, and is partially enclosed and
cultivated. The inhabitants number only some twenty.
The flora and fauna of Juan Fernandez are in most respects
Chilean. There are few trees on the island, for most of the valuable
indigenous trees have been practically exterminated, such as the
sandalwood, which the earlier navigators found one of the most
valuable products of the island. Ferns are prominent among the
flora, about one-third of which consists of endemic species. There
are no indigenous land mammals. Pigs and goats, however, with
cattle, horses, asses and dogs, have been introduced, have multiplied,
and in considerable numbers run wild. Sea-elephants and fur-seals
.529
were formerly plentiful. Of birds, a tyrant and a humming-bird
(Eustefhanus fernandensis) are peculiar to the group, while another
humming bird (E. galerites), a thrush, and some birds of prey also
occur in Chile. E. fernandensis has the peculiarity that the male is of
a bright cinnamon colour, while the female is green. Both sexes
are green in E. galerites.
Juan Fernandez was discovered by a Spanish pilot of that
name in 1563. Fernandez obtained from the Spanish govern-
ment a grant of the islands, where he resided for some time,
stocking them with goats and pigs. He soon, however, appears
to have abandoned his possessions, which were afterwards for
many years only visited occasionally by fishermen from the
coasts of Chile and Peru. In 1616 Jacob le Maire and Willem
Cornells Schouten called at Juan Fernandez for water and fresh
provisions. Pigs and goats were then abundant on the islands.
In February 1700 Dampier called at Juan Fernandez and
while there Captain Straddling of the " Cinque Porte " galley
quarrelled with his men, forty-two of whom deserted but were
afterwards taken on board by Dampier; five seamen, however,
remained on shore. Other parties had previously colonized the
islands but none had remained permanently. In October 1704
the " Cinque Porte " returned and found two of these men, the
others having been apparently captured by the French. On this
occasion Straddling quarrelled with Alexander Selkirk (q.v.),
who, at his own request, became the island's most famous
colonist, for his adventures are commonly believed to have
inspired Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe. Among later visits,
that of Commodore Anson, in the " Centurion " (June 1741)
led, on his return home, to a proposal to form an English settle-
ment on Juan Fernandez; but the Spaniards, hearing that the
matter had been mooted in England, gave orders to occupy
the island, and it was garrisoned accordingly in 1750. Philip
Carteret first observed this settlement in May 1767, and on ac-
count of the hostility of the Spaniards preferred to put in at Mas-
a-Fuera. After the establishment of the independence of Chile
at the beginning of the igth century, Juan Fernandez passed
into the possession of that country. On more than one occasion
before 1840 Mas-a-Tierra was used as a state prison by the
Chilean government.
JUANGS (Patuas, literally " leaf-wearers "), a jungle tribe of
Orissa, India. They are found in only two of the tributary
states, Dhenkanal and Keonjhar, most of them in the latter.
They are estimated to amount in all to about 10,000. Their
language belongs to the Munda family. They have no traditions
which connect them with any other race, and they repudiate all
connexion with the Hos or the Santals, declaring themselves the
aborigines. They say the headquarters of the tribe is the
Gonasika. In manners they are among the most primitive people
of the world, representing the Stone age in our own day. They
do not till the land, but live on the game they kill or on snakes
and vermin. Their huts measure about 6 ft. by 8 ft., with very
low doorways. The interior is divided into two compartments.
In the first of these the father and all the females of a family
huddle together; the second is used as a store-room. The boys
have a separate hut at the entrance to the village, which serves
as a guest-house and general assembly place where the musical
instruments of the village are kept. Physically they are small
and weak-looking, of a reddish-brown colour, with flat faces,
broad noses with wide nostrils, large mouths and thick lips,
the hair coarse and frizzly. The women until recently wore
nothing but girdles of leaves, the men, a diminutive bandage
of cloth. The Juangs declare that the river goddess, emerging for
the first time from the Gonasika rock, surprised a party of naked
Juangs dancing, and ordered them to wear leaves, with the
threat that they should die if they ever gave up the custom.
The Juangs' weapons are the bow and arrow and a primitive
sling made entirely of cord. Their religion is a vague belief in
forest spirits. They offer fowls to the sun when in trouble and
to the earth for a bountiful harvest. Polygamy is rare. They
burn their dead and throw the ashes into any running stream.
The most sacred oaths a Juang can take are those on an ant-hill
or a tiger-skin.
See E. W. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal (1872).
530
JUAN MANUEL, DON (i 282-1349), infante of Castile, son of
the infante Don Manuel and Beatrix of Savoy, and grandson of
St Ferdinand, was born at Escalona on the sth of May 1282.
His father died in 1284, and the young prince was educated
at the court of his c'ousin, Sancho IV., with whom his preco-
cious ability made him a favourite. In 1294 he was appointed
adelantado of Murcia and in his fourteenth year served against
the Moors at Granada. In 1304 he was entrusted by the queen-
mother, Dona Maria de Molina, to conduct political negotiations
with James II. of Aragon on behalf of her son, Ferdinand IV.,
then under age. His diplomacy was successful and his marriage
to James II. 's daughter, Constantina, added to his prestige.
On the death of Ferdinand IV. and of the regents who governed
in the name of Alphonso XI., Don Juan Manuel acted as guardian
of the king who was proclaimed of age in 1325. His ambitious
design of continuing to exercise the royal power was defeated by
Alphonso XI., who married the ex-regent's daughter Constanza,
and removed his father-in-law from the scene by nominating him
adelantado mayor de la frontera. Alphonso XL's repudiation
of Constanza, whom he imprisoned at Toro, drove Don Juan
Manuel into opposition, and a long period of civil war followed.
On the death of his wife Constantina in 1327, Don Juan Manuel
strengthened his position by marrying Dona Blanca de la Cerda;
he secured the support of Juan Nunez, alferez of Castile, by
arranging a marriage between him and Maria, daughter of Don
Juan el Tuerto; he won over Portugal by promising the hand
of his daughter, the ex-queen Constanza, to the infante of that
kingdom, and he entered into alliance with Mahomet III.
of Granada. This formidable coalition compelled Alphonso XI.
to sue for terms, which he accepted in 1328 without any
serious intention of complying with them; but he was com-
pelled to release Dona Constanza. War speedily broke out
anew, and lasted till 1331 when Alphonso XI. invited Juan
Manuel and Juan Nunez to a banquet at Villahumbrales with
the intention, it was believed, of assassinating them; the plot
failed, and Don Juan Manuel joined forces with Peter IV. of
Aragon. He was besieged by Alphonso XI. at Garci-Nunez,
whence he escaped on the 3oth of July 1336, fled into exile,
and kept the rebellion alive till 1338, when he made his peace
with the king. He proved his loyalty by serving in further
expeditions against the Moors of Granada and Africa, and died
a tranquil death in the first half of 1349.
Distinguished as an astute politician, Don Juan Manuel is
an author of the highest eminence, and, considering the cir-
cumstances of his stormy life, his voluminousness is remarkable.
The Libra de los sabios, a treatise called Engenos de Guerra and
the Libra de canlares, a collection of verses, were composed
between 1320 and 1327; but they have disappeared together
with the Libra de la caballeria (written during the winter of 1326,
and the Reglas coma se debe trovar, a metrical treatise assigned to
1328-1334. Of his surviving writings, Juan Manuel's Crdnica
abremada was compiled between 1319 and 1325, while the Libra
de la caza must have been written between 1320 and 1329; and
during this period of nine years the Cronicc de Espana, the
Crdnica complida, and the Tratado sabre las artnas were pro-
duced. The Libra del caballero el del escudero was finished before
the end of 1326; the first book of the Libra de los estados was
finished on the 22nd of May 1330, while the second was begun
five days later; the first book of El Conde Lucanor was written in
1328, the second in 1330, and the fourth is dated i2th of June
!335- We are unable to assign to any precise date the devout
Tractado on the Virgin, dedicated to the prior of the monastery
at Penafiel, to which Don Juan Manuel bequeathed his manu-
scripts; but it seems probable that the Libra de los frailes
predicadores is slightly later than the Libra de los estados; that
the Libra de los castigos (left unfinished, and therefore known by
the alternative title of Libra infinido) was written not later
than 1333, and that the treatise De las maneras de amor was
composed between 1334 and 1337.
The historical summaries, pious dissertations and miscel-
laneous writings are of secondary interest. The Libra del cabal-
lero el del escudero is on another plane; it is no doubt suggested by
JUAN MANUEL— JUAREZ
Lull's Libre del orde de cavalleria, but the points of resemblance
have been exaggerated; the morbid mysticism of Lull is rejected,
and the carefully finished style justifies the special pride which
the author took in this performance. The influence of Lull's
Blanquerna is likewise visible in the Libra de los estados; but
there are marked divergences of substance which go to prove
Don Juan Manuel's acquaintance with some version (not yet
identified) of the Barlaam and Josaphat legend. Nothing is
more striking than the curious and varied erudition of the turbu-
lent prince who weaves his personal experiences with historical
or legendary incidents, with reminiscences of Aesop and
Phaedrus, with the Disciplina clericalis, with Kalilah and Dim-
nah, with countless Oriental traditions, and with all the material
of anecdotic literature which he embodies in the Libra de
patronio, best known by the title of El Conde Lucanor (the name
Lucanor being taken from the prose Tristan). This work (also
entitled the Libra de enxemplos) was first printed by Gonzalo
Argote de Molina at Seville in 1575, and it revealed Don Juan
Manuel as a master in the art of prose composition, and as the
predecessor of Boccaccio in the province of romantic narrative.
The Cento novelle antiche are earlier in date, but these anonymous
tales, derived from popular stories diffused throughout the
world, lack the personal character which Don Juan lends to all
he touches. They are simple, unadorned variants of folk-lore
items; El Conde Lucanor is essentially the production of a
conscious artist, deliberative and selective hi his methods.
Don Juan Manuel has not Boccaccio's festive fancy nor his
constructive skill; he is too persistently didactic and concerned
to point a moral; but he excels in knowledge of human nature,
in the faculty of ironical presentation, in tolerant wisdom and in
luminous conciseness. He naturalizes the Eastern apologue
in Spain, and by the laconic picturesqueness of his expression
imports a new quality into Spanish prose which attains its
full development in the hands of Juan de Valdes and Cervantes.
Some of his themes are utilized for dramatic purposes by Lope
de Vega in La Pobreza estimada, by Ruiz de Alarcon in La
Prueba de las promesas, by Calderon in La Vida es sueno, and by
Canizares in Don Juan de Espina en Milan: there is an evident,
though remote, relation between the tale of the mancebo que casd
con una mujer muy fuerte y muy brava and The Taming of the
Shrew; and a more direct connexion exists between some of Don
Juan Manuel's enxemplos and some of Anderson's fairy tales.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Obras, edited by P. de Gayangos in the Biblioteca
de autores Espaiwles, vol. li. ; El Conde Lucanor (Leipzig, 1900), edited
by H. Knust and A. Hirschfeld ; Libra de la caza (Halle, 1880), edited
by G. Baist ; El Libra del caballero et del escudero, edited by S. Grafen-
berg in Romanische Forschungen, vol. vi.; La cronica complida,
edited by G. Baist in Romanische Forschungen, vol. vi.; G. Baist,
Alter una Textueberlieferung der Schriften Don Juan Manuels (Halle,
1880); F. Hanssen, Notas a la versification de D. Juan Manuel
(Santiago de Chile, 1902). The Conde Lucanor has been translated
by J. Eichendorff into German (1840), by A. Puibusque into French
(1854) and by J. York into English (1868). (J. F.-K.)
JUAREZ, BENITO PABLO (1806-1872), president of Mexico,
was born near Ixtlan, in the state of Oajaca, Mexico, on the
2ist of March 1806, of full Indian blood. Early left in poverty
by the death of his father, he received from a charitable friar
a good general education, and afterwards the means of studying
law. Beginning to practise in 1834, Juarez speedily rose to
professional distinction, and in the stormy political life of his
time took a prominent part as an exponent of liberal views.
In 1832 he sat in the state legislature; in 1846 he was one of a
legislative triumvirate for his native state and a deputy to the
republican congress, and from 1847 to 1852 he was governor
of Oajaca. Banished in 1853 by Santa Anna, he returned
to Mexico in 1855, and joined Alvarez, who, after Santa Anna's
defeat, made him minister of justice. Under Comonfort, who
then succeeded Alvarez, Juarez wasgovernorof Oajaca (1855-57),
and in 1857 chief justice and secretary of the interior; and,
when Comonfort was unconstitutionally replaced by Zuloaga
in 1858, the chief justice, in virtue of his office, claimed to be
legal president of the republic. It was not, however, till the
beginning of 1861 that he succeeded in finally defeating the
unconstitutional party and in being duly elected president by
congress. His decree of July 1861, suspending for two years all
payments on public debts of every kind, led to the landing in
Mexico of English, Spanish and French troops. The first two
powers were soon induced to withdraw their forces; but the
French remained, declared war in 1862, placed Maximilian upon
the throne as emperor, and drove Juarez and his adherents to
the northern limits of the republic. Juarez maintained an
obstinate resistance, which resulted in final success. In 1867
Maximilian was taken at Queretaro, and shot; and in August
Juarez was once more elected president. His term of office was
far from tranquil; discontented generals stirred up ceaseless
revolts and insurrections; and, though he was re-elected in 1871,
his popularity seemed to be on the wane. He died of apoplexy
in the city of Mexico on the i8th of July 1872. He was a
statesman of integrity, ability and determination, whose good
qualities are too apt to be overlooked in consequence of his
connexion with the unhappy fate of Maximilian.
JUBA, the name of two kings of Numidia.
JOBA I. (ist century B.C.), son and successor of Hiempsal,
king of Numidia. During the civil wars at Rome he sided with
Pompey, partly from gratitude because he had reinstated his
father on his throne (Appian, B.C., i. 80), and partly from enmity
to Caesar, who had insulted him at Rome by pulling his beard
(Suet., Caesar, 71). Further, C. Scribonius Curio, Caesar's general
in Africa, had openly proposed, 50 B.C., when tribune of the
plebs, that Numidia should be sold to colonists, and the king
reduced to a private station. In 49 Juba inflicted on the
Caesarean army a crushing defeat, in which Curio was slain (Veil.
Pat. ii. 54; Caesar, B.C. ii. 40). Juba's attention was distracted
by a counter invasion of his territories by Bocchus the younger
and Sittius; but, finding that his lieutenant Sabura was able to
defend his interests, he rejoined the Pompeians with a large
force, and shared the defeat at Thapsus. Fleeing from the field
with the Roman general M. Petreius, he wandered about as a fugi-
tive. At length, in despair, Juba killed Petreius, and sought
the aid of a slave in despatching himself (46). Juba was a
thorough savage; brave, treacherous, insolent and cruel. (See
NUMIDIA.)
JUBA II., son of the above. On the death of his father in
46 B.C. he was carried to Rome to grace Caesar's triumph.
He seems to have received a good education under the care of
Augustus who, in 29, after Mark Antony's death, gave him the
hand of Cleopatra Selene, daughter of Antony and Cleopatra,
and placed him on his father's throne. In 25, however, he trans-
ferred him from Numidia to Mauretania, to which was added a
part of Gaetulia (see NUMIDIA). Juba seems to have reigned in
considerable prosperity, though in A.D. 6 the Gaetulians rose in
a revolt of sufficient importance to afford the surname Gaetulicus
to Cornelius Lentulus Cossus, the Roman general who helped to
suppress it. The date of Juba's death is by no means certain;
it has been put between A.D. 19 and 24 (Strabo, xvii. 828;
Dio Cassius, Ii. 15; liii. 26; Plutarch, Ant. 87; Caesar, 55).
Juba, according to Pliny, who constantly refers to him, is mainly
memorable for his writings. He has been called the African
Varro.
He wrote many historical and geographical works, of which some
seem to have been voluminous and of considerable value on account
of the sources to which their author had access: (i)'Pu>/uauc4 ioropta:
(2) 'AaavpioKa: (3) Ai/3w«i: (4) De Arabia sive De expeditione arabica;
(5) Physiologa; (6) De Euphorbia herba; (7) Ilept imov: (8) Jlepi
7pa$«rjs (Ilepi fuTpa^wi') : (9) Gearpuci) ioropia: (10) 'OMOIOTIJTCS: (ii)
Ilept <£0opas Xejeus : (12) 'Err/pa^a.
Fragments and life in Muller, Frag. Hist. Graec., vol. iii. ; see also
Sevin, Mem. del'Acad. des Inscriptions, vol. iv. ; Hullemann, De vita et
scriptis Jubae (1846). For the denarii of Juba II. found in 1908 at
El Ksar on the coast of Morocco see Dieudonne' in Revue Numism.
(1908), pp. 350 seq. They are interesting mainly as throwing light
on the chronology of the reign.
JUBA, or JUB, a river of East Africa, exceeding 1000 m. in
length, rising on the S.E. border of the Abyssinian highlands
and flowing S. across the Galla and Somali countries to the sea.
It is formed by the junction of three streams, all having their
source in the mountain range N.E. of Lake Rudolf which is the
JUBA 531
water-parting between the Nile basin and the rivers flowing to
the Indian Ocean.
Of the three headstreams, the Web, the Ganale and the Daua, the
Ganale (or Ganana) is the central river and the true upper course of
the J uba. It has two chief branches, the Black and the Great Ganale.
The last-named, the most remote source of the river, rises in 7° 30'
N., 38° E. at an altitude of about 7500 ft., the crest of the mountains
reaching another 2500 ft. In its upper course it flows over a rocky
bed with a swift current and many rapids. The banks are clothed
with dense j ungle and the hills beyond with thorn-bush. Lower down
the river has formed a narrow valley, 1500 to 2000 ft. below the
general level of the country. Leaving the higher mountains in
about 5° 15' N., 40° E., the Ganale enters a large slightly undulating
grass plain which extends south of the valley of the Daua and occu-
pies all the country eastward to the junction of the two rivers. In
this plain the Ganale makes a semicircular sweep northward before
resuming its general S.-E. course. East of 42° E. in 4° 12' N. it is
joined by the Web on the left or eastern bank, and about 10 m.
lower down the Daua enters on the right bank.
The Web rises in the mountain chain a little S. and E. of the
sources of the Ganale, and some 40 m. from its source passes, first,
through a canon 500 ft. deep, and then through a series of remarkable
underground caves hollowed out of a quartz mountain and, with
their arches and white columns, presenting the appearance of a
pillared temple. The Daua (or Dawa) is formed by the mountain
torrents which have their rise S. and W. of the Ganale and is of
similar character to that river. It has few feeders and none of any
size. The descent to the open country is somewhat abrupt. In its
middle course the Daua has cut a deep narrow valley through the plain ;
lower down it bends N.E. to its junction with the Ganale. The river
is not deep and can be forded in many places; the banks are fringed
with thick bush and dom-palms. At the junction of the Ganale and
the Web the river is swift-flowing and 85 yards across; just below the
Daua confluence it is 200 yds. wide, the altitude here — 300 m. in a
direct line from the source of the Ganale — being only 590 ft.
Below the Daua the river, now known as the Juba, receives no
tributary of importance. It first flows in a valley bounded, espe-
cially towards the west, by the escarpments of a high plateau, and
containing the towns of Lugh (in 3°5o' N., the centre of active trade),
Bardera, 387 m. above the mouth, and Saranli — the last two on
opposite sides of the stream, in 2° 20' N., a crossing-place for caravans.
Beyond I ° 45' N. the country becomes more level and the course of
the river very tortuous. On the west a series of small lakes and
backwaters receives water from the Juba during the rains. Just
south of the equator channels from the long, branching Lake
Deshekwama or Hardinge, fed by the Lakdera river, enter from the
west, and in o° 15' S. the Juba enters the sea across a dangerous bar,,
which has only one fathom of water at high tide.
From its mouth to 20 m. above Bardera, where at 2° 35' N.
rapids occur, the Juba is navigable by shallow-draught steamers,
having a general depth of from 4 to 12 ft., though shallower in
places. Just above its mouth it is a fine stream 250 yds. wide,
with a current of i\ knots. Below the mountainous region of
the headstreams the Juba and its tributaries flow through a
country generally arid away from the banks of the streams.
The soil is sandy, covered either with thorn-scrub or rank grass,
which in the rainy season affords herbage for the herds of cattle,
sheep and camels owned by the Boran Gallas and the Somali who
inhabit the district. But by the banks of the lower river the
character of the country changes. In this district, known as
Gosha, are considerable tracts of forest, and the level of flood
water is higher than much of the surrounding land. This low-
lying fertile belt stretches along the river for about 300 m.,but
is not more than a mile or two wide. In the river valley maize,
rice, cotton and other crops are cultivated. From Gobwen, a
trading settlement about 3 m. above the mouth of the Juba, a
road runs S.W. to the seaport of Kismayu, 10 m. distant.
The lower Juba was ascended in 1865 in a steamer by Baron
Karl von der Decken, who was murdered by Somali at Bardera,
but the river system remained otherwise almost unknown
until after 1890. In 1891 a survey of its lower course was exe-
cuted by Captain F. G. Dundas of the British navy, while in
1892-1893 its headstreams were explored by the Italian officers,
Captains Vittorio, Bottego and Grixoni, the former of whom dis-
proved the supposed connexion of the Omo (see RUDOLF, LAKE)
with the Juba system. It has since been further explored by
Prince Eugenio Ruspoli, by Bottego's second expedition (1895),
by Donaldson Smith, A. E. Butter, Captain P. Maud of the
British army, and others. The river, from its mouth to the con-
fluence of the Daua and Ganale, forms the frontier between the
532
British East Africa protectorate and Italian Somaliland; and
from that point to about 4° 20' N. the Daua is the boundary
between British and Abyssinian territory.
JUBBULPORE, c/r JABALPUR, a city, district, and division of
British India in the Central Provinces. The city is 616 m. N.E.
of Bombay by rail, and 220 m. S.W. of Allahabad. Pop. (1901),
90,316. The numerous gorges in the neighbouring rocks have
been taken advantage of to surround the city with a series of
lakes, which, shaded by fine trees and bordered by fantastic
crags, add much beauty to the suburbs. The city itself is modern,
and is laid out in wide and regular streets. A streamlet separ-
ates the civil station and cantonment from the native quarter;
but, though the climate is mild, a swampy hollow beneath
renders the site unhealthy for Europeans. Formerly the capital
of the Saugor and Nerbudda territories, Jubbulpore is now the
headquarters of a brigade in the sth division of the southern
army. It is also one of the most important railway centres in
India, being the junction of the Great Indian Peninsula and the
East Indian systems. It has a steam cotton-mill. The govern-
ment college educates for the science course of the Allahabad
University, and also contains law and engineering classes; there
are three aided high schools, a law class, an engineering class and
normal schools for male and female teachers. A native associa-
tion, established in 1869, supports an orphanage, with help from
government. A zenana mission manages 13 schools for girls.
Waterworks were constructed in 1882.
The DISTRICT OF JUBBULPORE lies on the watershed between
the Nerbudda and the Son, but mostly within the valley of the
former river, which here runs through the famous gorge known
as the Marble rocks, and falls 30 ft. over a rocky ledge (the Dhuan
dhar, or " misty shoot "). Area, 3912 sq. m. It consists of a
long narrow plain running north-east and south-west, and shut
in on all sides by highlands. This plain, which forms an off-
shoot from the great valley of the Nerbudda, is covered in its
western and southern portions by a rich alluvial deposit of black
cotton-soil. At Jubbulpore city the soil is sandy, and water
plentiful near the surface. The north and east belong to the
Ganges and Jumna basins, the south and west to the Nerbudda
basin. In 1901 the population was 680,585, showing a decrease
of 9% since 1891, due to the results of famine. The principal
crops are wheat, rice, pulse and oil-seeds. A good deal of iron-
smelting with charcoal is carried on in the forests, manganese ore
is found, and limestone is extensively quarried. The district is
traversed by the main railway from Bombay to Calcutta, and
by new branches of two other lines which meet at Katni junc-
tion. Jubbulpore suffered severely in the famine of 1896-1897,
the distress being aggravated by immigration from the adjoining
native states. Fortunately the famine of 1900 was less severely
felt.
The early history of Jubbulpore isunknown ; but inscriptions record
the existence during the nth and I2th centuries of a local line of
princes of that Haihai race which is closely connected with the history
of Gondwana. In the i6th century the Gond raja of Garha Mandla
extended his power over fifty-two districts, including the present
Jubbulpore. During the minority of his grandson, Asaf Khan, the
viceroy of Kara Manikpur, conquered the Garha principality and held
it at first as an independent chief. Eventually he submitted to the
emperor Akbar. The Delhi power, however, enjoyed little more
than a nominal supremacy; and the princes of Garha Mandla main-
tained a practical independence until their subjugation by the
Mahratta governors of Saugor in 1781. In 1798 the peshwa granted
the Nerbudda valley to the Bhonsla princes of Nagpur, who continued
to hold the district until the British occupied it in 1818.
The DIVISION or JUBBULPORE lies mainly among the Vindhyan
and Satpura hill systems. It comprises the five following
districts: Jubbulpore, Saugor, Damoh, Seoni and Mandla.
Area, 18,950 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 2,081,499.
JUBE, the French architectural term (taken from the impera-
tive of Lat. jubere, to order) for the chancel or choir screen,
which in England is known as the rood-screen (see ROOD).
Above the screen was a gallery or loft, from which the words
" Jube Domine benedicere " were spoken by the deacon before
the reading of the Gospel, and hence probably the name. One of
the finest jubes in France is that of the church of the Madeleine
JUBBULPORE— JUBILEE
at Troyes, in rich flamboyant Gothic. A later example, of the
Renaissance period, c. 1600, is in the church of St Etienne du
Mont, Paris. In the Low Countries there are many fine exam-
ples in marble, of which one of the most perfect from Bois-le-
Duc is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
JUBILEE (or JUBILE), YEAR OF, in the Bible, the name applied
in the Holiness section of the Priestly Code of the Hexateuch
(Lev. xxv.) to the observance of every 5oth year, determined by
the lapse of seven seven-year periods as a year of perfect rest,
when there was to be no sowing, nor even gathering of the
natural products of the field and the vine. At the beginning of
the jubilee-year the liberation of all Israelitish slaves and the
restoration of ancestral possessions was to be proclaimed. As
regards the meaning of the name " jubilee " (Heb. yobel) modern
scholars are agreed that it signifies " ram " or " ram's horn."
"Year of jubilee " would then mean the year that is inaugurated
by the blowing of the ram's horn (Lev. xxv. 9).
According to Lev. xxv. 8-12, at the completion of seven
sabbaths of years (i.e. 7X7 = 49 years) the trumpet of the
jubilee is to be sounded " throughout the land " on the loth day
of the seventh month (Tisri 10), the great Day of Atonement.
The soth year thus announced is to be " hallowed," i.e. liberty *
is to be proclaimed everywhere to everyone, and the people are
to return " every man unto his possession and unto his family."
As in the sabbatical year, there is to be no sowing, nor reaping
that which grows of itself, nor gathering of grapes.
As regards real property (Lev. xxv. 13-34) the law is that if
any Hebrew under pressure of necessity shall alienate his pro-
perty he is to get for it a sum of money reckoned according to the
number of harvests to be reaped between the date of alienation
and the first jubilee-year: should he or any relation desire to
redeem the property before the jubilee this can always be done
be repaying the value of the harvests between the redemption
and the jubilee.
This legal enactment, though it is not found (nor anything like
it) in the earlier collections of laws, is evidently based on (or .
modified from) an ancient custom which conferred on a near
kinsman the right of pre-emption as well as of buying back
(cf. Jer. xxxii. 6 sqq.). The tendency to impose checks upon the
alienation of landed property was exceptionally strong in Israel.
The fundamental principle is that the land is a sacred possession
belonging to Yahweh. As such it is not to be alienated from
Yahweh's people, to whom it was originally assigned. In Eze-
kiel's restoration programme " crown lands presented by the
' prince ' to any of his officials revert to the crown in the year of
liberty (? jubilee year)"; only to his sons may any portion of
his inheritance be alienated in perpetuity (Ezek. xlvi. 16-18;
cf. Code of Hammurabi, § 38 seq.).
The same rule applies to dwelling-houses of un walled villages;
the case is different, however, as regards dwelling-houses in
walled cities. These may be redeemed within a year after trans-
fer, but if not redeemed within that period they continue per-
manently in possession of the purchaser, and this may well be an
echo of ancient practice. An exception to this last rule is made
for the houses of the Levites in the Levitical cities.
As regards properly in slaves (Lev. xxv. 35-55) the Hebrew
whom necessity has compelled to sell himself into the service of
lis brother Hebrew is to be treated as a hired servant and
sojourner, and to be released absolutely at the jubilee; non-
Hebrew bondmen, on the other hand, are to be bondmen for
ever. But the Hebrew who has sold himself to a stranger or
sojourner is entitled to freedom at the year of jubilee, and
further is at any time redeemable by any of his kindred — the
redemption price being regulated by the number of years, to run
between the redemption and the jubilee, according to the ordinary
wage of hired servants. Such were the enactments of the Priestly
"ode— which, of course, represents the latest legislation of the
Pentateuch (post-exilic). These enactments, in order to be
understood rightly, must be viewed in relation to the earlier
1 Heb. dMr. The same word (durdru) is used in the Code of
Hammurabi in the similar enactment that wife, son or daughter
sold into slavery for debt are to be restored to liberty in the fourth
year (§ 117).
JUBILEES, BOOK OF
533
similar provisions in connexion with the sabbatical (seventh)
year. " The foundations of Lev. xxv. are laid in the ancient
provisions of the Book of the Covenant (Exod. xxi. 2 seq.; xxiii.
10 seq.) and in Deuteronomy (xv.). The Book of the Covenant
enjoined that the land should lie fallow and Hebrew slaves be
liberated in the seventh year; Deuteronomy required in addition
the remission of debts " (Benzinger). Deuteronomy, it will be
noticed, in accordance with its humanitarian tendency, not only
liberates the slave but remits the debt. It is evident that these
enactments proved impracticable in real life (cf. Jer. xxxiv. 8
seq.), and so it became necessary in the later legislation of P,
represented in the present form of Lev. xxv., to relegate them
to the 5oth year, the year of jubilee. The latter, however, was
a purely theoretic development of the Sabbath idea, which
could never have been reduced to practice (its actual observance
would have necessitated that for two consecutive years — trie
49th and soth — absolutely nothing could be reaped, while in
the sist only summer fruits could be obtained, sowing being
prohibited in the soth y£ar). That in practice the enactments
for the jubilee-year were disregarded is evidenced by the fact
that, according to the unanimous testimony of the Talmudists
and Rabbins, although the jubilee-years were " reckoned "
they were not observed.
The conjecture of Kuenen, supported by Wellhausen, that
originally Lev. xxv. 8 seq. had reference to the seventh year is a
highly probable one. This may be the case also with Ezek. xlvi.
16-18 (cf. Jer. xxxiv. 14). A later Rabbinical device for evading
the provisions of the law was the prosbul (ascribed to Hillel)
— i.e. a condition made in the presence of the judge securing to
the creditor the right of demanding repayment at any time,
irrespective of the year of remission. Further enactments
regarding the jubilee are found in Lev. xxvii. 17-25 and
Num. xxxvi. 4. (W. R. S.;G. H. Bo.)
JUBILEES, BOOK OF, an apocryphal work of the Old Testa-
ment. The Book of Jubilees is the most advanced pre-Christian
representative of the Midrashic tendency, which had already been
at work in the Old Testament Chronicles. As the chronicler
had rewritten the history of Israel and Judah from the stand-
point of the Priests' Code, so our author re-edited from the
Pharisaic standpoint of his time the history of the world from the
creation to the publication of the Law on Sinai. His work
constitutes the oldest commentary in the world on Genesis and
part of Exodus, an enlarged Targum on these books, in which
difficulties in the biblical narration are solved, gaps supplied,
dogmatically offensive elements removed and the genuine spirit
of later Judaism infused into the primitive history of the world.
Titles of the Book. — The book is variously entitled. First, it is
known as TO. 'Ico/^Xata, ol 'Ico/SijXaToi, Heb. o-'jarn. This
name is admirably adapted to our book, as it divides into
jubilee periods of forty-nine years each the history of the world
from the creation to the legislation on Sinai. Secondly, it is
frequently designated " The Little Genesis," )j Xeirri? Treats or T;
Mncpo7ece(ns, Heb. noir ntrtca. This title may have arisen
from its dealing more fully with details and minutiae than the
biblical work. For the other names by which it is referred to,
such as The Apocalypse of Moses, The Testament of Moses, The
Book of Adam's Daughters and the Life of Adam, the reader may
consult Charles's The Book of Jubilees, pp. xvii.-xx.
Object. — The object of our author was the defence and expo-
sition of Judaism from the Pharisaic standpoint of the 2nd
century B.C. against the disintegrating effects of Hellenism. In
his elaborate defence of Judaism our author glorifies circumcision
and the sabbath, the bulwarks of Judaism, as heavenly ordi-
nances, the sphere of which was so far extended as to embrace
Israel on earth. The Law, as a whole, was to our author the
realization in time of what was in a sense timeless and eternal.
Though revealed in time it was superior to time. Before it had
been made known in sundry portions to the fathers, it had been
kept in heaven by the angels, and to its observance there was
no limit in time or in eternity. Our author next defends Judaism
by his glorification of Israel. Whereas the various nations of the
Gentiles were subject to angels, Israel was subject to God alone.
Israel was God's son, and not only did the nation stand in this
relation to God, but also its individual members. Israel received
circumcision as a sign that they were the Lord's, and this privi-
lege of circumcision they enjoyed in common with the two highest
orders of angels. Hence Israel was to unite with God and these
two orders in the observance of the sabbath. Finally the des-
tinies of the world were bound up with Israel. The world was
renewed in the creation of the true man Jacob, and its final
renewal was to synchronize with the setting-up of God's sanc-
tuary in Zion and the establishment of the Messianic kingdom.
In this kingdom the Gentiles had neither part nor lot.
Versions: Greek, Syriac, Ethiopic and Latin. — Numerous frag-
ments of the Greek Version have come down to us in Justin Martyr,
Origen, Diodorus of Antioch, Isidore of Alexandria, Epiphanius,
John of Malala, Syncellus and others. This version was the parent
of the Ethiopic and Latin. The Ethiopic Version is most accurate
and trustworthy, and indeed, as a rule, slavishly literal. It has
naturally suffered from the corruptions incident to transmission
through MSS. Thus dittographies are frequent and lacunae of
occasional occurrence, but the version is singularly free from the
glosses and corrections of unscrupulous scribes. The Latin Version,
of which about one-fourth has been preserved, is where it exists
of almost equal value with the Ethiopic. It has, however, suffered
more at the hands of correctors. Notwithstanding, it attests a long
array of passages in which it preserves the true text over against
corruptions or omissions in the Ethiopic Version. Finally, as re-
gards the Syriac Version, the evidence for its existence is not con-
clusive. It is based on the fact that a British Museum MS. contains
a Syriac fragment entitled " Names of the wives of the Patriarchs
according to the Hebrew Book of Jubilees."
The Ethiopic and Latin Versions: Translations from the Greek. — The
Ethiopic Version is translated from the Greek, for Greek words such
as SpDj, /iaXavos, Xty, &c., are transliterated in the Greek. Secondly,
many passages must be retranslated into Greek before we can dis-
cover the source of the various corruptions. And finally, proper
names are transliterated as they appear in Greek and not in Hebrew.
That the Latin is also a translation from the Greek is no less obvious.
Thus in xxxix. 12 timoris = 5fi\ias, corrupt for SovXdas; in xxxviii.
13 honor em =Tiu-T\v, but Tinty should here have been rendered by
tributum, as the Ethiopic and the context require; in xxxii. 26,
celavit = tKpv^e, corrupt for eypo^t (so Ethiopic).
The Greek a Translation from the Hebrew. — The early date of our
book — the 2nd century B.C. — and its place of composition speak for
a Semitic original, and the evidence bearing on this subject is con-
clusive. But the question at once arises, was the original Aramaic
or Hebrew? Certain proper names in the Latin Version ending
in -in seem to bespeak an Aramaic original, as Cettin, Filistin, &c.
But since in all these cases the Ethiopic transliterations end in -m
and not in -n, it is not improbable that the Aramaism in the Latin
Version is due to the translator, who, it has been concluded on other
grounds, was a Palestinian Jew.1 The grounds, on the other hand,
for a Hebrew original are weighty and numerous, (i) A work which
claims to be from the hand of Moses would naturally be in Hebrew,
for Hebrew according to our author was the sacred and national
language. (2) The revival of the national spirit of a nation is
universally, so far as we know, accompanied by a revival of the
national language. (3) The text must be retranslated into Hebrew
in order to explain unintelligible expressions and restore the true
text. One instance will sufficiently illustrate this statement. In
xliii. II a certain Ethiopic expression = iv kiioi, which is a mis-
translation of '3; for 'a in this context, as we know from the
parallel passage in Gen. xliv. 1 8, which our text reproduces almost
verbally, =6(onai. We might observe here that our text attests
the presence of dittographies already existing in the Hebrew text.
(4) Hebraisms survive in the Ethiopic and Latin Versions. In the
former nfifja in iv. 4, is a corrupt transliteration of y:. In the
Latin eligere in te in xxii. 10 iS a reproduction of 3 im and in
qua... in ipsa in xix. 8 = na . . . TON. This idiom could, of
course, be explained on the hypothesis of an Aramaic original. (5)
Many paronomasiae discover themselves on retranslation into
Hebrew.
Textual Affinities. — A minute study of the text shows that it
attests an independent form of the Hebrew text of the Pentateuch.
Thus it agrees at times with the Samaritan, or Septuagint, or Syriac,
or Vulgate, or even with Onkelos against all the rest. To be more
exact, our book represents some form of the Hebrew text of the
Pentateuch midway between the forms presupposed by the Septua-
gint and the Syriac ; for it agrees more'frequently with the Septuagint,
or with combinations into which the Septuagint enters, than with
1 In the Ethiopic Version in xxi. 12 it should be observed that in
the list of the twelve trees suitable for burning on the altar several are
transliterated Aramaic names of trees. But in a late Hebrew work
(2nd century B.C.) the popular names of such objects would naturally
be used. In certain cases the Hebrew may have been forgotten,
or, where the tree was of late introduction, been non-existent.
534
any other single authority, or with any combination excluding the
Septuagint. Next to the Septuagint it agrees most often with the
Syriac or with combinations into which the Syriac enters. On the
other hand, its independence of the Septuagint is shown in a large
number of passages,. where it has the support of the Samaritan and
Massoretic, or of these with various combinations of the Syriac
Vulgate and Onkelos. From these and other considerations we
may conclude that the textual evidence points to the composition
of our book at some period between 250 B.C. and A.D. 100, and at a
time nearer the earlier date than the later.
Date. — The book was written between 135 B.C. and the year of
Hyrcanus's breach with tbe Pharisees. This conclusion is drawn
from the following facts: — (i) The book was written during
the pontificate of the Maccabean family, and not earlier 'than
135 B.C. For in xxxii. i Levi is called a " priest of the Most
High God." Now the only high priests who bore this title were
the Maccabean, who appear to have assumed it as reviving the
order of Melchizedek when they displaced the Zadokite order of
Aaron. Jewish tradition ascribes the assumption of this title
to John Hyrcanus. It was retained by his successors down to
Hyrcanus II. (2) It was written before 96 B.C. or some years
earlier in the reign of John Hyrcanus; for since our author is of
the strictest sect a Pharisee and at the same time an upholder
of the Maccabean pontificate, Jubilees cannot have been written
after 96 when the Pharisees and Alexander Jannaeus came to
open strife. Nay more, it cannot have been written after the
open breach between Hyrcanus and the Pharisees, when the
former joined the Sadducean party.
The above conclusions are confirmed by a large mass of other
evidence postulating the same date. We may, however, observe
that our book points to the period already past — of stress and
persecution that preceded the recovery of national independence
under the Maccabees, and presupposes as its historical back-
ground the most flourishing period of the Maccabean hegemony.
Author. — Our author was a Pharisee of the straitest sect. He
maintained the everlasting validity of the law, he held the
strictest views on circumcision, the sabbath, and the duty of shun-
ning all intercourse with the Gentiles; he believed in angels and
in a blessed immortality. In the next place he was an upholder
of the Maccabean pontificate. He glorifies Levi's successors as
high-priests and civil rulers, and applies to them the title assumed
by the Maccabean princes, though he does not, like the author of
the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, expect the Messiah
to come forth from among them. He may have been a
priest.
The Views of the A uthor on the Messianic Kingdom and the Future
Life. — According to our author the Messianic kingdom was to be
brought about gradually by the progressive spiritual develop-
ment of man and a corresponding transformation of nature.
Its members were to reach the limit of 1000 years in happiness
and peace. During its continuance the powers of evil were to
be restrained, and the last judgment was apparently to take
place at its close. As regards the doctrine of a future life, our
author adopts a position novel for a Palestinian writer. He
abandons the hope of a resurrection of the body. The souls of
the righteous are to enjoy a blessed immortality after death.
This is the earliest attested instance of this expectation in the
last two centuries B.C.
LITERATURE. — Ethiopic Text and Translations : This text was first
edited by Dillmann from two MSS. in 1859, and in 1895 by R. H.
Charles from four (The Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book of
Jubilees . . . with the Hebrew, Syriac, Greek and Latin fragments).
In the latter edition, the Greek and Latin fragments are printed
together with the Ethiopic. The book was translated into German by
Dillmann from one MS. in Ewald's Jahrbiicher, vols. ii. and iii. (1850,
1851), and by Littmann (in Kautzsch's Apok. und Pseud, ii. 39-119)
from Charles's Ethiopic text; into English by Schodde (Bibl. Sacr.
1885) from Dillmann's text, and by Charles (Jewish Quarterly Review,
vols. v., vi., vii. (1893-1895) from the text afterwards published in
1895, and finaljy in his commentary, The Book of Jubilees (1902).
Critical Inquiries: Dillmann, " Das Buch der Jubilaen " (Ewald's
Jahrbiicher d. bibl.^Wissensch. (1851), iii. 72-96); " Pseudepig. des
Alten Testaments," Herzog's Realencyk? xii. 364-365 ; " Beitrage aus
dem Buche der Jubilaen zur Kritik des Pentateuch Textes " (Silzungs-
berichte der Kgl. Preussischen A kad., 1883) ; Beer, Das Buch der Jubi-
laen (1856) ; Ronsch, Das Buch der Jubilaen (1874) I Singer, Das Buch
der Jubilaen (1898) ; Bohn, " Die Bedeutungdes Buches der Jubilaen"
(Theol. Stud, und Kritiken (1900), pp. 167-184). A full bibliography
JUBILEE YEAR— JUD
will be found in Schiirer or in R. H. Charles's commentary, The
Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis (1902), which deals exhaustively
with all the questions treated in this article. (R. H. C.)
JUBILEE YEAR, an institution in the Roman Catholic
Church, observed every twenty-fifth year, from Christmas to
Christmas. During its continuance plenary indulgence is
obtainable by all the faithful, on condition of their penitently
confessing their sins and visiting certain churches a stated
number of times, or doing an equivalent amount of meritorious
work. The institution dates from the time of Boniface VIII.,
whose bull Antiquorum habetfidem is dated the 22nd of February
1300. The circumstances in which it was promulgated are related
by a contemporary authority, Jacobus Cajetanus, according to
whose account (" Relatio de centesimo s. jubilaeo anno " in the
Bibliotheca Patrum) a rumour spread through Rome at the close
pf 1299 that every one visiting St Peter's on the ist of January
1300 would receive full absolution. The result was an enormous
influx of pilgrims to Rome, which stirred the pope's attention.
Nothing was found in the archives, but an old peasant 107 years
of age avowed that his father had been similarly benefited a
century previously. The bull was then issued, and the pilgrims
became even more numerous, to the profit of both clergy and citi-
zens. Originally the churches of St Peter and St Paul in Rome
were the only jubilee churches, but the privilege was afterwards
extended to the Lateran Church and that of Sta Maria Maggiore,
and it is now shared also for the year immediately following that
of the Roman jubilee by a number of specified provincial churches.
At the request of the Roman people, which was supported by
St Bridget of Sweden and by Petrarch, Clement VI. in 1343
appointed, by the bull Unigenitus Dei filius, that the jubilee
should recur every fifty years instead of every hundred years as
had been originally contemplated in the constitution of Boniface;
Urban VI., who was badly in need of money, by the bull Salvator
nosier in 1389 reduced the interval still further to thirty-three
years (the supposed duration of the earthly life of Christ) ; and
Paul II. by the bull Inefabilis (April 19, 1470) finally fixed it at
twenty-five years. Paul II. also permitted foreigners to substi-
tute for the pilgrimage to Rome a visit to some specified church
in their own country and a contribution towards the expenses
of the Holy Wars. According to the special ritual prepared by
Alexander VI. in 1500, the pope on the Christmas Eve with
which the jubilee begins goes in solemn procession to a particular
walled-up door (" Porta aurea ") of St Peter's and knocks three
times, using at the same time the words of Ps. cxviii. 19 (Aperile
mihi portas justitiae). The doors are then opened and sprinkled
with holy water, and the pope passes through. A similar cere-
mony is conducted by cardinals at the other jubilee churches
of the city. At the close of the jubilee, the special doorway is
again built up with appropriate solemnities.
The last ordinary jubilee was observed in 1900. " Extraordinary"
jubilees are sometimes appointed on special occasions, e.g. the acces-
sion of a new pope, or that proclaimed by Pope Leo XIII. for the
I2th of March 1881, " in order to obtain from the mercy of Almighty
God help and succour in the weighty necessities of the Church, and
comfort and strength in the battle against her numerous and mighty
foes." These are not so much jubilees in the ordinary sense as
special grants of plenary indulgences for particular purposes (Indul-
gentiae plenariae in forma jubilaei).
JUCAR, a river of eastern Spain. It rises in the north of the
province of Cuenca, at the foot of the Cerro de San Felipe
(5906 ft.), and flows south past Cuenca to the borders of Albacete;
here it bends towards the east, and maintains this direction for
the greater part of its remaining course. On the right it is
connected with the city of Albacete by the Maria Cristina canal.
After entering Valencia, it receives on the left its chief tributary
the Gabriel, which also rises near the Cerro de San Felipe, in the
Monies Universales. Near Alcira the Jucar turns south-east-
ward, and then sharply north, curving again to the south-east
before it enters the Mediterranean Sea at Cullera, after a total
course of 314 m. Its estuary forms the harbour of Cullera, and
its lower waters are freely utilized for purposes of irrigation.
JUD, LEO (1482-1542), known to his contemporaries as
Meister Leu, Swiss reformer, was born in Alsace and educated
JUDAEA— JUDAS ISCARIOT
at Basel, where after a course in medicine he turned to the study
of theology. This change was due to the influence of Zwingli
whose colleague at Zurich Jud became after serving for four years
(1518-1522) as pastor of Einsiedeln. His chief activity was as
a translator; he was the leading spirit in the translation of the
Zurich Bible and also made a Latin version of the Old Testament.
He died at Zurich on the igth of June 1542.
See Life by C. Pestalozzi (1860); art. in Herzog-Hauck's Real-
encyklophdit, vol. ix. (1901).
JUDAEA, the name given to the southern part of Palestine as
occupied by the Jewish community in post-exilic days under
Persian, Greek and Roman overlordship. In Luke and Acts the
term is sometimes used loosely to denote the whole of western
Palestine. The limits of Judaea were never very precisely
defined and — especially on the northern frontier — varied from
time to time. After the death of Herod, Archelaus became
ethnarch of Samaria, Idumea and Judaea, and when he was
deposed Judaea was merged in Syria, being governed by a pro-
curator whose headquarters were in Caesarea.
For a description of the natural features of the country see
PALESTINE; for its history see JEWS and JUDAH. Cf. T. Mommsen,
The Provinces of the Roman Empire, ch. xi.
JUDAH, a district of ancient Palestine, to the south of the
kingdom of Israel, between the Dead Sea and the Philistine
plain. It falls physically into three parts: the hill-country
from Hebron northwards through Jerusalem; the lowland (Heb.
Shiphelah) on the west; and the steppes or " dry land " (Heb.
Negeb) on the south. The district is one of striking contrasts,
with a lofty and stony table-land in the centre (which reaches
a height of 3300 ft. just north of Hebron), with a strategically
important valley dividing the central mountains from the low-
land, and with the most desolate of tracts to the east (by the
Dead Sea) and south.- Some parts, especially around Hebron,
are extremely fertile, but the land as a whole has the character-
istics of the southern wilderness — the so-called " desert " is
not a sterile Sahara — and was more fitted for pastoral occupa-
tions; see further G. A. Smith, Hist. Geog. Holy Land, chs. x.-xv.
Life in ancient Judah is frequently depicted in the Bible, but
much of the Judaean history is obscure. In the days of the
old Hebrew monarchy there were periods of conflict and rivalry
between Judah and Israel — even times when the latter incor-
porated, or at least claimed supremacy over, the former. Later,
from the 5th century B.C. there was a breach between the Jews
(the name is derived from Judah) and the Samaritans (q.v.).
The intervening years after the fall of Samaria (722 B.C.), and
after the destruction of Jerusalem (586 B.C.), were probably
marked by closer intercourse, similar to the period of union in
the popular traditions relating to the pre-monarchical age.
The course of Judaean history was conditioned, also, by the
proximity of the Philistines in the west, Moab in the east, and
by Edom and other southern peoples extending from North
Arabia to the delta of the Nile. Judah's stormy history, con-
tinued under Greek and Roman domination, reached its climax
in the birth of Christianity, and ended with the fall of Jerusalem
in A.D. 70 (see JEWS, PALESTINE).
In conformity with ancient methods of genealogy (q.v.), Judah
is traced back to a son of Jacob or Israel by Leah and along with
other " tribes " (Dan, Levi, Simeon, &c.) is included under the
collective term Israel. Thus it shares the general traditions of the
Israelites, although Judah appears as an individual in the story of
his "brother" Joseph (on ch. xxxvii. seq., see GENESIS). Its
boundaries in Joshua xv. are manifestly artificial or imaginary;
they include the Philistines and number places which are elsewhere
ascribed to Simeon or Dan. The origin of the name (Yehiidah) is
quite uncertain; the interpretation " praised " is suggested in Gen.
xxix. 35 (cf. xlix. 8 seq.), but some_connexion with allied names,
as Yehud (Yahudiya, E. of Jaffa), or Ehud (a Benjamite clan) seems
more probable. That Judah, whatever its original connotation,
underwent development through the incorporation of other clans
appears from l Chron. ii., iv., where it is found to contain a
large element of non-Israelite population whose names find analogies
or parallels in Simeonite, Edomite and other southern lists.1 Indeed,
1 See especially Wellhausen, De gentibus et familiis Judaeorum
(Gottingen, 1869), the articles on the relative proper names in the
Ency. Bib., and E. Meyer, Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstdmme,
pp. 299-471 (much valuable matter).
535
underlying the account of the Israelite exodus (q.v.) there are traces of
a separate movement of certain clans — apart from the Israelite inva-
sion of Palestine — who are ultimately found in the south of Judah;
and the traditions in Chronicles themselves allow the view that
the incorporation of these elements began under David, when Judah
first occupies a prominent position in biblical history (cf. Cheyne,
Ency. Bib., col. 2618 seq., and see CALEB, JERAHMEEL, KENITES).
But such movements were not necessarily limited to one single period,
and the evidence connecting (a) the non-Israelite clans of Judah with
Levites, and (b) both with the south, is found in narratives referring
to several different ages and might point to an unceasing relationship
with the south. On the other hand, clans, which in the traditions of
David's time were in the south of Judah, about five hundred years
later (in the exile) are found near Jerusalem (e.g. Caleb), so that either
these survived the strenuous vicissitudes of half a millennium or
all perspective of their early history has been lost. In Gen. xxxviii.
a curious narrative points to the separation of Judah " from his
brethren " and his marriage with Shua the Canaanite; two sons
Er and Onan perish and the third Shelah survives. From Judah and
Er's widow Tamar are derived Perez and Zerah, and these with
Shelah appear in post-exilic times as the three representative families
of Judah (Neh. xi. 4-6 ; I Chron. ix. 4-6). This story, amid a number
of other motives, appears to reflect the growth of the tribe of Judah
and its fluctuations, but that the reference is to any very early
period is unlikely, partly because the interest of the story is in post-
exilic families, and partly because the scenes (Adullam, Chezib and
Timnah) overlap with David's own fights between Hebron and
Jerusalem (2 Sam. xxi. xxiii. ; see DAVID, ad fin.).1 Even David's
conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sam. v.) conflicts both with the statement
of its capture by Judah many years previously (Judges i. 8), and
with the traditions of the Israelite heroes Joshua and Saul. Conse-
quently, the few surviving data are too uncertain for any decisive
conclusions regarding the origin of the tribe of Judah. Judah as a
kingdom may have taken its name from a limited district, in which
case its growth finds a parallel in the extension of the name Samaria
from the city to the province. The location of Yehud and Ehud in
the light of I Kings iv. 8-19 (perhaps the subdivisions of the Israelite
kingdom, see SOLOMON), would necessitate the assumption of a
violent separation from the north; this, however, is quite conceivable
(see JEWS, §§ 11-13). On the bearing of South Judah upon the
historical criticism of the Old Testament, see especially N. Schmidt,
Hibbert Journal (1908), pp. 322-342, "The Jerahmeel Theory and
the Historic Importance of the Negeb, with some account of personal
exploration of the country "; also JEWS, § 20. (S. A. C.)
JUDAS ISCARIOT ('loMas 'IcrKapidirTjs or 'I<r/capub0), in the
Bible, the son of Simon Iscariot (John vi. 71, xiii. 26), and one of
the twelve apostles. He is always enumerated last with the
special mention of the fact that he was the betrayer of Jesus.
If the generally accepted explanation of his surname (" man of
Kerioth "; see Josh. xv. 25) be correct, he was the only original
member of the apostolic band who was not a Galilean. The
circumstances which led to his admission into the apostolic
circle are not stated; while the motives by which he was actuated
in enabling the Jewish authorities to arrest Jesus without tumult
have been variously analysed by scholars. According to some
(as De Quincey in his famous Essay) the sole object of Judas was
to place Jesus in a position in which He should be compelled to
make what had seemed to His followers the too tardy display of
His Messianic power: according to others (and this view seems
more in harmony with the Gospel narratives) Judas was an
avaricious and dishonest man, who had already abused the con-
fidence placed in him (John xii. 6), and who was now concerned
only with furthering his own ends.
As regards the effects of his subsequent remorse and the use
to which his ill-gotten gains were put, the strikingly apparent
discrepancies between the narratives of Matt, xxvii. 3, 10 and
Acts i. 18, 19 have attracted the attention of biblical scholars,
ever since Papias, in his fourth book, of which a fragment has
been preserved, discussed the subject. The simplest explanation
is that they represent different traditions, the Gospel narrative
being composed with more special reference to prophetic fulfil-
ments, and being probably nearer the truth than the short
explanatory note inserted by the author of the Acts (see Bernard,
Expositor, June 1904, p. 422 seq.). In ecclesiastical legend and
2 For the principle of the Levirate illustrated in Gen. xxxviii.,
see RUTH. Lagarde (Orientalia, ii.) ingeniously conjectured that
the chapter typified the suppression of Phoenician (viz. Tamar, the
date-palm) and the old Canaanite elements (Zerah = indigena) by
the younger Israelite invaders (Perez = " branch "). For other
discussions, apart from commentaries on Genesis, see B. Luther
in Meyer, op. cit., pp. 200 sqq.
536
JUDAS-TREE— JUDE, EPISTLE OF
in sacred art Judas Iscariot is generally treated as the very in-
carnation of treachery, ingratitude and impiety. The Middle
Ages, after their fashion, supplied the lacunae in what they
deemed his too men-gre biography. According to the common
form of their story, he belonged to the tribe of Reuben.1 Before
he was born his mother Cyborea had a dream that he was destined
to murder his father, commit incest with his mother, and sell his
God. The attempts made by her and her husband to avert this
curse simply led to its accomplishment. At his birth Judas was
enclosed in a chest and flung into the sea; picked up on a foreign
shore, he was educated at the court until a murder committed in
a moment of passion compelled his flight. Coming to Judaea, he
entered the service of Pontius Pilate as page, and during this
period committed the first two of the crimes which had been
expressly foretold. Learning the secret of his birth, he, full of
remorse, sought the prophet who, he had heard, had power on
earth to forgive sins. He was accepted as a disciple and pro-
moted to a position of trust, where avarice, the only vice in which
he had hitherto been unpractised, gradually took possession of
his soul, and led to the complete fulfilment of his evil destiny.
This Judas legend, as given by Jacobus de Voragine, obtained no
small popularity; and it is to be found in various shapes in
every important literature of Europe.
For the history of its genesis and its diffusion the reader may
consult D'Ancona, La leggenda di Vergogna e la leggenda di Giuda
(1869), and papers by W. Creizenach in Paul and Braune's Beitr.
zur Gesch. der deutschen Sprache und Litteratur, vol. ii. (1875), and
Victor Diederich in Russiche Revue (1880). Cholevius, in his
Gischichte der deutschen Poesie nach ihren antiken Elementen (1854),
pointed out the connexion of the legend with the Oedipus story.
According to Daub (Judas Ischariot, oder Betrachtungen iiber das
Base im Verhaltniss zum Guten, 1816, 1818) Judas was " an incarna-
tion of the devil," to whom " mercy and blessedness are alike
impossible."
The popular hatred of Judas has found strange symbolical
expression in various parts of Christendom. In Corfu, for instance,
the people at a given signal on Easter Eve throw vast quantities
of crockery from their windows and roofs into the streets, and thus
execute an imaginary stoning of Judas (see Kirkwall, Ionian Islands,
ii. 47). At one time (according to Mustoxidi, Dette cose corciresi)
the tradition prevailed that the traitor's house and country villa
existed in the island, and that his descendants were to be found
among the local Jews.
Details in regard to some Judas legends and superstitions are given
in Notes and Queries, 2nd series, v., vi. and vii. ; 3rd series, vii. ;
4th series, i.; 5th series, vi. See also a paper by Professor Rendel
Harris entitled " Did Judas really commit suicide?" in the American
Journal of Philology (July 1900). Matthew Arnold's poem " St
Brandan " gives fine expression to the old story that, on account of
an act of charity done to a leper at Joppa, Judas was allowed an
hour's respite from hell once a year. (G.Ml.)
JUDAS-TREE, the Cercis siliquastrum of botanists, belonging
to the section Caesalpineae of the natural order Leguminosae. It
is a native of the south of France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece
and Asia Minor, and forms a handsome low tree with a flat spread-
ing head. In Spring it is covered with a profusion of purplish-
pink flowers, which appear before the leaves. The flowers have
an agreeable acid taste, and are eaten mixed with salad or made
into fritters. The tree was frequently figured by the older
herbalists. One woodcut by Castor Durante has the figure of
Judas Iscariot suspended from one of the branches, illustrating
the popular tradition regarding this tree. A second species,
C. canadensis, is common in North America from Canada to
Alabama and eastern Texas, and differs from the European
species in its smaller size and pointed leaves. The flowers are
also used in salads and for making pickles, while the branches
are used to dye wool a nankeen colour.
JUDD, SYLVESTER (1813-1853) American Unitarian clergy-
man and author, was born in Westhampton, Massachusetts,
on the 23rd of July 1813. He bore the same name as his father
and grandfather; the former (1789-1860) made an especial
study of local history of the towns of the Connecticut valley,
and wrote a History of Hadley (1863). The son lived in North-
ampton after his tenth year, was converted in a revival there
in 1826, graduated from Yale in 1836, and taught in 1836 at
'Other forms make him a Danite, and consider the passage in
Genesis (xlix. 17) a prophecy of the traitor.
Templeton, Mass., where he first met Unitarians and soon found
the solution of his theological difficulties in their views. He
entered the Harvard divinity school, from which he graduated
in 1840. In the same year he was ordained pastor of the
Unitarian church of Augusta, Maine, where he died on the 26th
of January 1853. His widest reputation was as the author of
Margaret, a Tale of the Real and the Ideal, including Sketches of a
place not before described, called Mons Christi (1845; revised 1851),
written to exhibit the errors of Calvinistic and all trinitarian
theology, and the evils of war, intemperance, capital punish-
ment, the prison system of the time, and the national
treatment of the Indians. This story, published anonymously,
attracted much attention by its true descriptions of New England
life and scenery as well as by its author's earnest purpose.
Richard Edney and the Governor's Family (1850) is in much the
same vein as Margaret. A poem entitled Philo, an Evangeliad
(1850) is a versified defence of Unitarianism. He published,
besides, TheChurch, in a Series of Discourses (1854). Asapreacher
and pastor he urged the desirability of infant baptism. He
lectured frequently on international peace and opposed slavery.
See Arethusa Hall, Life and Character of the Rev. Sylvester Judd
(Boston, 1857) published anonymously.
JUDE, THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF, a book of the New
Testament. As with the epistle of James, the problems of the
writing centre upon the superscription, which addresses in
Pauline phraseology (i Thess. i. 4; 2 Thess. ii. 13; Rom. i. 7;
i Cor. i. 2) the Christian w'orld in general in the name of "Jude,
the brother of James" (Matt. xiii. 55; Mark vi. 3 ). The
historical situation depicted must then fall within the lifetime
of this Judas, whose two grandchildren Zoker and James
(Hegesippus ap. Phil. Sidetes) by their testimony before the
authorities brought to an end the (Palestinian) persecution of
Domitian (Hegesippus ap. Eus. H. E. iii. 20, 7). These two
grandsons of Judas thereafter " lived until the time of Trajan,"
ruling the churches " because they had (thus) been witnesses
(martyrs) and were also relatives of the Lord." But in that
case we must either reject the testimony of the same Hegesippus
that up to their death, and that of Symeon son of Clopas,
successor in the Jerusalem see of James the Lord's brother,
" who suffered martyrdom at the age of one hundred and twenty
years while Trajan was emperor and Atticus governor," " the
church (universal) had remained a pure and uncorrupted
virgin " free from " the folly of heretical teachers "; or else we
must reject the superscription, which presents the grandfather
in vehement conflict with the very heresies in question. For
the testimony of Hegesippus is explicit that at the time of the
arrest of Zoker and James they were all who survived of the
kindred of the Lord. True, there is confusion in the narrative
of Hegesippus, and even a probability that the martyrdom of
Symeon dated under Trajan really took place in the persecution
of Domitian, before the arrest of the grandsons of Jude, for apart
from the alleged age of Symeon (the traditional Jewish limit of
human life, Gen. vi. 3, Deut. xxxiv. 7), the cause of his appre-
hension " on the ground that he was a descendant of David and
a Christian " (Hegesippus ap. Eus. H. E. iii. 32, 3) is inconsistent
with both the previous statements regarding the " martyrdom "
of Zoker and James, that they were cited as the only surviving
Christian Davididae, and that the persecution on this ground
collapsed through the manifest absurdity of the accusation.
But even if we date the rise of heresies in the reign of Domitian
instead of Trajan,2 the attributing of this epistle against
2 On this point (date of the outbreak of heresy) there is some
inconsistency in the reported fragments of Hegesippus. In that
quoted below from Eus. H.E. iii. 32. 7 seq., it is expressly dated after
the martyrdom of Symeon and death of the grandsons of Jude under
Trajan. In iii. 19 the " ancient tradition attributing the denun-
ciation of these to " some of the heretics " is perhaps not from
Hegesippus; but in iv. 22 the beginning of heresy is traced to a cer-
tain Thcbuthis, a candidate for the bishopric after the death of
James, as rival to Symeon. The same figure of the church as a pure
virgin is also used as in iii. 32. But as it is only the envious feeling
of Thebuthis which is traced to this early date, Hegesippus doubtless
means to place the outbreak later.
JUDE, EPISTLE OF
corrupting heresy to " Jude the brother of James " will still be
incompatible with the statements of Hegesippus, our only
informant regarding his later history.
The Greek of Jude is also such as to exclude the idea of
authorship in Palestine by an unschooled Galilean, at an early
date in church history. As F. H. Chase has pointed out: (i) the
terms K\7)roi, aamjpia, 7ri<ms, have attained their later technical
sense; (2) " the writer is steeped in the language of the LXX.,"
employing its phraseology independently of other N.T. writers,
and not that of the canonical books alone, but of the broader
non-Palestinian canon; (3) " he has at his command a large
stock of stately, sonorous, sometimes poetical words," proving
him a " man of some culture, and, as it would seem, not without
acquaintance with Greek writers."
If the superscription be not from the hand of the actual
brother of Jesus, the question may well be asked why some
apostolic name was not chosen which might convey greater
authority ? The answer is to be found in the direction toward
which the principal defenders of orthodoxy in 100-150 turned
for " the deposit of the faith " (Jude 3) in its purity. The
Pastoral Epistles point to " the pattern of sound words, even
the sayings of our Lord Jesus Christ." (i Tim. vi. 3, &c.), as the
arsenal of orthodoxy against the same foe (with i Tim. vi. 3-10;
cf. Jude 4, ii, 16, 18 seq.). Ignatius's motto is to " be inseparable
from Jesus Christ and from your bishop " (ad Trail, vii.),
Polycarp's, to " turn unto the word delivered unto us from the
beginning " (cf. Jude 3; i John ii. 7, iii. 23, iv. 21), " the oracles
of the Lord," which the false teachers " pervert to their own
lusts." Papias, his ercupos (Irenaeus), turns in fact from " the
vain talk of the many, and from the " alien commandments "
to such as were " delivered by the Lord to the faith," offering
to the Christian world his Interpretation of the Lord's Oracles
based upon personal inquiry from those who " came his way,"
who could testify as to apostolic tradition. Hegesippus, after
a journey to all the principal seats of Christian tradition, testifies
that all are holding to the true doctrine as transmitted at the
original seat, where it was witnessed first by the apostles and
afterwards by the kindred of the Lord and " witnesses " of the
first generation. All these writers in one form or other revert
to the historic tradition against the licence of innovators.
Hegesippus indicates plainly the seat of its authority. For the
period before the adoption of a written standard the resort was
not so much to " apostles " as to " disciples " and " witnesses."
The appeal was to " those who from the beginning had been eye-
witnesses and ministers of the word " (Luke i. 2) ; and these were
to be found primarily (until the complete destruction of that
church during the revolt of Barcochebas and its suppression by
Hadrian) in the mother community in Jerusalem (cf. Acts xv.2).
Its life is the measure of the period of oral tradition, whose
requiem is sung by Papias. Hegesippus (ap. Eus. H.E. iii. 32,
7 seq.) looks back to it as the safe guardian of the deposit " of the
faith " against all the depredations of heresy which " when the
sacred college of apostles had suffered death in various forms,
and the generation of those that had been deemed worthy to hear
the inspired wisdom with their own ears had passed away . . .
attempted thenceforth with a bold face, to proclaim, in opposition
to the preaching of the truth, ' the knowledge which is falsely
so-called (ttvdwvvfj.os yvuiais).' " For an appeal like that of our
epistle to the authority of the past against the moral laxity
and antinomian teaching of degenerate Pauline churches in the
Greek world, the natural resort after Paul himself (Pastoral
Epp.) would be the " kindred of the Lord " who were the
" leaders and witnesses in every church " in Palestine. Doubtless
the framer of Jude i would have preferred the aegis of " James
the Lord's brother," if this, like that of Paul, had not been
already appropriated. Failing this, the next most imposing
was " Judas, the brother of James."
The superscription in the case of Jude, unlike that of James,
takes hold of the substance of the book. Verse 3 and the farewell
(». 24 seq.) show that Jude was composed from the start as an
" epistle." If this appearance be not fallacious, the obvious
relation between the two superscriptions will be best explained
537
by the supposition that the author of Jude gave currency
to the existing homily (James) before composing under the
pseudonym of Jude. On the interconnexion of the two see
Sieffert, s.v. " Judasbrief " in Hauck, Realencykl. vol. ix.
Judas is conceived as cherishing the intention of discussing
for the benefit of the Christian world (for no mere local church
is addressed) the subject of " our common salvation " (the much
desiderated authoritative definition of the orthodox faith), but
diverted from this purpose by the growth of heresy.
Few writings of this compass afford more copious evidence
of date in their literary affinities. The references to Enoch
(principally ver. 14 seq. = Eth. En. i. 9, but cf . F. H. Chase, s.v.
" Jude " in Hastings's Diet. Bible) and the Assumption of Moses
(i>. g) have more a geographical than a chronological bearing,
the stricter canon of Palestine excluding these apocryphal
books of 90 B.C. to A.D. 40; but the Pauline writings are freely
employed, especially i Cor. x. 1-13, Rom. xvi. 25 seq., and
probably Eph. and Col. Moreover, the author explicitly refers to
the apostolic age as already past, and to the fulfilment of the
Pauline prediction (i Tim. iv. i sqq.) of the advent of heresy
(v. 17 seq.). The Pauline doctrine of " grace " has been perverted
to lasciviousness, as by the heretics whom Polycarp opposes
(Ep. Polyc. vii.), and this doctrine is taught for " hire " (tui.n,
12, 16; cf. i Tim. vi. 5). The unworthy "shepherds" (v. 12;
cf. Ezek.'xxxiv. 8; John x. 12 seq.) live at the expense of their
flocks, polluting the " love-feasts," corrupting the true disciples.
According to Clement of Alexandria this was written propheti-
cally to apply to the Carpocratians, an antinomian Gnostic sect
of c. 150; but hyper-Paulinists had given occasion to similar
complaints already in Rev. ii. 14, 20 (95). Thus Paulinism and
its perversion alike are in the past. As regards the undeniable
contact of Didache ii. 7 with Jude 22 seq. (cf. Didache, iv. i,
Jude 8) priority cannot be determined; and the use of i John
iii. 12 in Jude ii is doubtful.
On the other hand, practically the whole of Jude is taken up
into 2 Pet., the author merely avoiding, so far as he discovers
them, the quotations from apocryphal writings, and prefixing
and affixing sections of his own to refute the heretical eschatology.
On the priority of Jude see especially against Spitta Zur Cesch.u.
Lilt. d. Urchristenthums, ii. 409-411, F. H. Chase, loc. cit. p. 803.
(On 2 Pet. see PETER EPISTLES or.) Unfortunately, the date of
2 Pet. cannot be determined as earlier than late in the second
century, so that we are thrown back upon internal evidence for
the inferior limit.
The treatment of the heresy as the anti-Christ who precedes
" the last hour" (v. 18), reminds us of i John ii. 18, but it
is indicative of conditions somewhat less advanced that the
heretics have not yet " gone out from " the church. The treat-
ment of the apostolic age as past, and the deposit of the faith
as a regula fidei (cf. Ign. ad Trail, ix.), the presence of anti-
nomian Gnosticism, denying the doctrine of lordship and
" glories " (v. 8), with " discriminations " between " psychic "
and " pneumatic" (a. 19), strongly oppose a date earlier than
i oo.
Sieffert, on account of the superscription, would date as early
as 70-80, but acknowledges the hyper-Pauline affinity of the
heresy, its propagation as a doctrine, and close relation to the
Nicolaitan of Rev. ii. 14. To these phenomena he gives accord-
ingly a correspondingly early date. The nature of the heresy,
opposed, however, and the resort to the authority of Jude " the
brother of James " against it, favour rather the period of
Polycarp and Papias (117-150).
The history of the reception of the epistle into church canons
is similar to that of James, beginning with a quotation of it as
the work of Jude by Clement of Alexandria (Paed. iii. 8), a
reference by Tertullian (De cull. fern. i. 3), and a more or less
hesitant endorsement by Origen (" if one might adduce the
epistle of Jude/'/wAfaW. torn. xvii. 30) and by the Muratorianum
(c. 200), which excepts Jude and 2 and 3 John from its condem-
nation of apocryphal literature, placing it on a par with the
Wisdom of Solomon " which was written by friends of his in
his honour." The use of apocryphal literature in Jude itself
538
JUDGE— JUDGES, BOOK OF
may account for much of the critical disposition toward it of
many subsequent writers. Eusebius classed it among the
" disputed " books, declaring that as with James " not many of
the ancients have mentioned it " (H. E. ii. 23, 25).
The Inlrpd. to the New Test, by Holtzmann, Julicher, Weiss,
Zahn, Davidson, Salmon, Bacon and the standard Commentaries
of Meyer and Holtzmann, the International (Bigg) and other series,
contain discussions of authorship and date. The articles s.v. in
Hastings's Diet. Bible (Chase) and the Ency. Bib. (Cone) are full and
scholarly. In addition the Histories of the Apostolic Age, by Haus-
rath, Weizsacker, McGiffert, Bartlet, Ropes and others, and the
kindred works of Baur, Schwegler and Pfleiderer should be consulted.
Moffat's Historical New Testament, 2nd ed., p. 589, contains a con-
venient summary of the evidence with copious bibliography. One
of the most thorough of conservative treatments is the Commentary
on Jude and Second Peter by J. B. Mayor (1907). (B. W. B.)
JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge), in the widest legal sense an
officer appointed by the sovereign power in a state to administer
the law; in English practice, however, justices of the peace and
magistrates are not usually regarded as " judges " in the titular
sense. The duties of the judge, whether in a civil or a criminal
matter, are to hear the statements on both sides in open court,
to arrive at a conclusion as to the truth of the facts submitted
to him or, when a jury is engaged, to direct the jury to find such
a conclusion, to apply to the facts so found the appropriate rules
of law, and to certify by his judgment the relief to which the
parties are entitled or the obligations or penalties which they
have incurred. With the judgment the office of the judge is
at an end, but the judgment sets in motion the executive forces
of the state, whose duty it is to carry it into execution.
Such is the type of a judicial officer recognized by mature
systems of law, but it is not to be accepted as the universal
type, and the following qualifying circumstances should be
noticed: (i) in primitive systems of law the judicial is not
separated from the legislative and other governing functions;
(2) although the judge is assumed to take the law from the
legislative authority, yet, as the existing law never at any time
contains provision for all cases, the judge may be obliged to
invent or create principles applicable to the case — this is called
by Bentham and the English jurists judge-made and judiciary
law; (3) the separation of the function of judge and jury, and
the exclusive charge of questions of law given to the judge, are
more particularly characteristic of the English judicial system.
During a considerable period in the history of Roman law an
entirely different distribution of parts was observed. The
adjudication of a case was divided between the magistratus and
the judex, neither of whom corresponds to the English judge.
The former was a public officer charged with the execution of
the law; the latter was an arbitrator whom the magistrates
commissioned to hear and report upon a particular case.
The following are points more specially characteristic of the
English system and its kindred judicial systems: (i) Judges are
absolutely protected from action for anything that they may do
in the discharge of their judicial duties. This is true in the
fullest sense of judges of the supreme courts. " It is a principle
of English law that no action will lie against a judge of one of
the superior courts for a judicial act, though it be alleged to have
been done maliciously and corruptly." Other judicial officers
are also protected, though not to the same extent, against
actions. (2) The highest class of judges are irremovable except
by what is in effect a special act of parliament, viz. a resolution
passed by both houses and assented to by the sovereign. The
inferior judges and magistrates are removable for misconduct
by the lord chancellor. (3) The judiciary in England is not a
separate profession. The judges are chosen from the class of
advocates, and almost entirely according to their eminence at
the bar. (4) Judges are in England appointed for the most part
by the crown. In a few cases municipal corporations may
appoint their own judicial officer.
See also LORD HIGHCHANCELLOR; LORDCHIEF JUSTICE; MASTER
OF THE ROLLS, &c., &c., and the accounts of judicial systems under
country headings.
JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL, an officer appointed in
England to assist the Crown with advice in matters relating
to military law, and more particularly as to courts-martial. In
the army the administration of justice as pertaining to discipline
is carried out in accordance with the provisions of military law,
and it is the function of the judge-advocate-general to ensure
that these disciplinary powers are exercised in strict conformity
with that law. Down to 1793 the judge-advocate-general acted
as secretary and legal adviser to the board of general officers,
but on the reconstitution of the office of commander-in-chief
in that year he ceased to perform secretarial duties, but remained
chief legal adviser. He retained his seat in parliament and in
1806 he was made a member of the government and a privy
councillor. The office ceased to be political in 1892. on the
recommendation of the select committee of 1888 on army
estimates, and was conferred on Sir F. Jeune (afterwards Lord
St Helier). There was no salary attached to the office when
held by Lord St Helier, and the duties were for the most part
performed by deputy. On his death in 1905, Thomas Milvain,
K.C., was appointed, and the terms and conditions of the post
were rearranged as follows: (i) A salary of £2000 a year;
(2) the holder to devote his whole time to the duties of the post;
(3) the retention of the post until the age of seventy, subject to
continued efficiency — but with claim to gratuity or pension on
retirement. The holder was to be subordinate to the secretary
of state for war, without direct access to the sovereign. The
appointment is conferred by letters-patent, which define the
exact functions attaching to the office, which practically are the
reviewing of the proceedings of all field-general, general and
district courts-martial held in the United Kingdom, and advising
the sovereign as to the confirmation of the finding and sentence.
The deputy judge-advocate is a salaried official in the department
of the judge-advocate-general and acts under his letters-patent.
A separate judge-advocate-general's department is maintained
in India, where at one time deputy judge-advocates were
attached to every important command. All general courts-
martial held in the United Kingdom are sent to the judge-
advocate-general, to be by him submitted to the sovereign for
confirmation; and all district courts-martial, after having been
confirmed and promulgated, are sent to his office for examination
and custody. The judge-advocate-general and his deputy,
being judges in the last resort of the validity of the proceedings
of courts-martial, take no part in their conduct; but the deputy
judge-advocates frame and revise charges and attend at courts-
martial, swear the court, advise both sides on law, look after the
interests of the prisoner and record the proceedings. In the
English navy there is an official whose functions are somewhat
similar to those of the judge-advocate-general. He is called
counsel and judge-advocate of the fleet.
In the United States there is also a judge-advocate-general's
department. In addition to being a bureau of military justice,
and keeping the records of courts-martial, courts of inquiry and
military commissions, it has the custody of all papers relating
to the title of lands under the control of the war department.
The officers of the department, in addition to acting as prose-
cutors in all military trials, sometimes represent the government
when cases affecting the army come up in civil courts.
See further MILITARY LAW, and consult C. M. Clode, Administra-
tion of Justice under Military and Martial Law (1872); Military Forces
of the Crown (2 vols., 1869).
JUDGES, THE BOOK OF, in the Bible. This book of the
Old Testament, which, as we now read it, constitutes a sequel
to the book of Joshua, covering the period of history between
the death of this conqueror and the birth of Samuel, is so called
because it contains the history of the Israelites before the
establishment of the monarchy, when the government was in
the hands of certain leaders who appear to have formed a con-
tinuous succession, although the office was not hereditary.
The only other biblical source ascribed to this period is Ruth,
whose present position as an appendix to Judges is not original
(see BIBLE and RUTH).
Structure.— It is now generally agreed that the present adjust-
ment of the older historical books of the Old Testament to form a
continuous record of events from the creation to the Babylonian
JUDGES, BOOK OF
exile is due to an editor, or rather to successive redactors, who
pieced together and reduced to a certain unity older memoirs
of very different dates; and closer examination shows that the
continuity of many parts of the narrative is more apparent than
real. This is very clearly the case in the book of Judges. It
consists of three main portions: (i) an introduction, presenting
one view of the occupation of Palestine by the Israelites (i. i-
ii. 5) ; (2) the history of the several judges (ii. 6-xvi.) ; and (3) an
appendix containing two narratives of the period.
1. The first section relates events which are said to have taken
place after the death of Joshua, but in reality it covers the same
ground with the book of Joshua, giving a brief account of the
occupation of Canaan, which in some particulars repeats the
statements of the previous book, while in others it is quite
independent (see JOSHUA). It is impossible to regard the war-
like expeditions described in this section as supplementary
campaigns undertaken after Joshua's death; they are plainly
represented as the first efforts of the Israelites to gain a firm
footing in the land (at Hebron, Debir, Bethel), in the very cities
which Joshua is related to have subdued (Josh. x. 39). : Here
then we have an account of the settlement of Israel west of the
Jordan which is parallel to the book of Joshua, but makes no
mention of Joshua himself, and places the tribe of Judah in the
front. The author of the chapter cannot have had Joshua or
his history in his eye at all, and the words " and it came to pass
after the death of Joshua " in Judg. i. i are from the hand of
the last editor, who desired to make the whole book of Judges,
including ch. i., read continuously with that which now pre-
cedes it in the canon of the earlier prophets.2
2. The second and main section (ii. 6-xvi.) stands on quite
another footing. According to Josh. xxiv. 31 the people
" served Yahweh " during the lifetime of the great conqueror and
his contemporaries. In Judg. ii. 7 this statement is repeated,
and the writer proceeds to explain that subsequent generations
fell away from the faith, and served the gods of the nations
among which they dwelt (ii. 6-iii. 6). The worship of other
gods is represented, not as something which went on side by
side with Yahweh-worship (cf. x. 6), but as a revolt against
Yahweh, periodically repeated and regularly chastised by
foreign invasion. The history, therefore, falls into recurring
cycles, each of which begins with religious corruption, followed
by chastisement, which continues until Yahweh, in answer to
the groans of his oppressed people, raises up a " judge " to deliver
Israel, and recall them to the true faith. On the death of
the " judge," if not sooner, the corruption spreads anew and
the same vicissitudes follow. This religious explanation of the
course of the history, formally expounded at the outset and
repeated in more or less detail from chapter to chapter (espe-
cially vi. i-io, x. 6-18), determines the form of the whole
narrative. It is in general agreement with the spirit as also
with the language of Deuteronomy, and on this account this
section may be conveniently called " the Deuteronomic Book of
Judges." But the main religious ideas are not so late and are
rather akin to those of Josh, xxiv; in particular the worship
of the high places is not condemned, nor is it excused as in
i Kings iii. 2. The sources of the narrative are obviously older
than the theological exposition of its lessons, and herein lies
the value and interest of Judges. The importance of such docu-
ments for the scientific historian lies not so much in the events
they record as in the unconscious witness they bear to the state of
society in which the narrator or poet lived. From this point of
view the parts of the book are by no means all of equal value;
critical analysis shows that often parallel or distinct narratives
have been fused together, and that, whilst the older stories gave
more prominence to ordinary human motives and combinations,
1 This is confirmed by the circumstance that in Judg. ii. i the
"angel of Yahweh," who, according to Exod. xiv. 24, xxiii. 20,
xxxii. 34, xxxiii. 2, 7 seq., must be viewed as having his local mani-
festation at the headquarters of the host of Israel, is still found at
Gilgal and not at Shiloh.
* The chapter was written after Israel had become strong enough
to make the Canaanite cities tributary (». 28), that is, after the
establishment of the monarchy (see I Kings ix. 20-21).
539
the later are coloured by religious reflection and show the
characteristic tendency of the Old Testament to re-tell the
fortunes of Israel in a form that lays ever-increasing weight
on the work of Yahweh for his people. That the pre-Deutero-
nomic sources are to be identified with the Judaean (J, or
Yahwist) and Ephraimite (E, or Elohist) strands of the Hexa-
teuch is, however, not certain.
To the unity of religious pragmatism in the main stock
of the book of Judges corresponds a unity of chronological
scheme. The " judges," in spite of the fact that most of them
had clearly no more than a local influence, are all represented
as successive rulers in Israel, and the history is dated by the
years of each judgeship and those of the intervening periods of
oppression. But it is impossible to reconcile the numbers with
the statement elsewhere that the fourth year of Solomon was the
48oth from the exodus (i Kings vi. i). See BIBLE: Chronology.
The general introduction (ii. 6-iii. 6) is a blend of Deuteronomic
and other sources. The intimate relation between it and the separate
narratives (Josh. xxiv. 1—27, a late [Ephraimite] record inserted by
a second Deuteronomic hand, and xxiii., D) appears both from their
contents and from the fact that Judg. ii. 6-10 is almost identical
with the narrative appended to Joshua's address (Joshua xxiv. 28-3 1 ).
Judg. i.-ii. 5, however, is not touched by D, and hence was probably
inserted in its present position at a later date. According to the
highly intricate introduction the Hebrews were oppressed: (a) to
familiarize them with warfare — it is assumed that they had inter-
married with the Canaanites and worshipped their gods (iii. 2, 6);
(6) to test their loyalty to Yahweh (ii. 22 ; iii. i) ; or (c) to punish them
for their marriage with the heathen and their apostasy (D in ii. 12;
cf. Josh, xxiii., and ibid. v. 12).
To this succeeds a noteworthy example of the Deuteronomic
treatment of tradition in the achievement of Othniel (q.v.) the only
Judaean " judge," The bareness of detail, not to speak of the
improbability of the situation, renders its genuineness doubtful, and
the passage is one of the indications of a secondary Deuteronomic
redaction. The case, however, is exceptional ; the stories of the other
great " judges " were not rewritten or to afiy great extent revised
by the Deuteronomic redactor, and his hand appears chiefly in the
framework.3 Thus, in the story of Ehud and the defeat of Moab
only iii. 12-15, 29~3° are Deuteronomic. But the rest is not homo-
feneous, mi. 19 and 20 appear to be variants, and the mention of
srael (v. 276) is characteristic of the tendency to treat local troubles
as national oppressions, whereas other records represent little national
unity at this period (i., v.). See further EHUD. •
According to the Septuagint addition to Josh. xxiv. 33, Moab was
the first of Israel's oppressors. The brief notice of Shamgar, who
delivered Israel from the Philistines (iii. 31), is one of the later inser-
tions, and in some MSS. of the LXX.it stands after xvi. 31. The story
of the defeat of Sisera appears in two distinct forms, an earlier, in
poetical form (v.), and a later, in prose (iv.). D's framework is to
be recognized in iv. 1—4, 23 seq., v. I (probably), 31 (last clause) ; see
further DEBORAH. The Midianite oppression (vi.— viii.) is contained
in the usual frame (vi. 1-6; viii. 27 seq.), but is not homogeneous, since
viii. 4, the pursuit of the kings, cannot be the sequel of viii. 3 (where
they have been slain), and viii. 33-35 ignores ix. The structure of
vi. l-viii. 3 is particularly intricate: vi. 25-32 does not continue
vi. 1 1-24 (there are two accounts of Gideon's introduction and diver-
gent representations of Yahweh-worship) ; vi. 34 forms the sequel of
the latter, and vi. 36—40 (with "God ") is strange after the description
of the miracle in va. 21 seq. (with " Yahweh "). Further, there are
difficulties in vi. 34, vii. 23 seq., viii. I, when compared with vii. 2-8,
and in vii. 16-22 two stratagems are combined. There are two
sequels: vii. 23 seq. and viii. 4; with the former contrast vi. 35;
with viii. 1-3 cf. xii. 1-6, and see below. Chapter viii. 22 seq. comes
unexpectedly, and the refusal of the offer of the kingship reflects
later ideas (cf. I Sam. viii. 7; x. 19; xii. 12, 17). The conclusion,
however, shows that Jerubbaal had only a local reputation. Finally,
the condemnation of the ephod as part of the worship of Yahweh
(viii. 27) agrees with the thought in vi. 25-32 as against that in vi.
11-24. (See EPHOD; GIDEON.) Chapter ix. (see ABIMELECH) appears
to have been wanting in the Deuteronomic book of Judges, but
inserted later perhaps by means of the introduction, viii. 30-32
(post-exilic). It has two accounts of the attack upon Shechem
(Ix. 26-41 and 42-49).
After a brief notice of two " minor judges " (see below), follows the
story of Jephthah. It concludes with the usual Deuteronomic
8 Hence, it is to be inferred that the reviser had older written
records before him. Had these been in the oral stage he would
scarcely incorporate traditions which did not agree with his views;
at all events they would hardly have been written down by him in
the form in which they have survived. The narratives of the
monarchy which are preserved only in Chronicles, on the other
hand, illustrate the manner in which tradition was reshaped and
rewritten under the influence of a later religious standpoint.
540
formula (xii. 7), but is prefaced by a detailed introduction to the
oppression of Israel (x._6 sqq.). By the inclusion of the Philistines
among the oppressors, and of Judah, Benjamin and Ephraim
among the oppressed (x. 7, 9), it appears to have in view not merely
the story of Samson, a hero of local interest, but the early chapters
in I Samuel. This introduction is of composite origin (as also ii.6y2l ;
Josh, xxiii.-xxiv. 25), but a satisfactory analysis seems impossible.
As it stands, it has literary connexions with the late narrative in
I Sam. (vii. seq., xii.), and appears to form the preface to that
period of history which ended with Samuel's great victory and the
institution of the monarchy. But this belongs to a later scheme (see
SAMUEL), and the introduction in its earlier form must have been the
prelude to earlier narratives.1 The story of Jephthah's fight with
Ammon is linked to the preceding introduction by x. 17 seq. ; for the
framework see x. 6 (above), xii. 7. Chapter xi. 12-28 (cf. Num. xx. seq.)
is applicable only to Moab, w. 29 and 32 are variants, and Jeph-
thah's home is placed variously In Tob. (xi. 3) and Mizpeh (v. 34).
In xi. l-io the outlaw stipulates that he shall be chief of Gilead
if successful, 'but in TO. 12-28 a ruler speaks on behalf of Israel.
Both Moab and Ammon had good reason to be hostile to Gilead
(Num. xxi.), but the scene of the victory points rather to the former
(v. 33, possibly conflate). There is a general resemblance between
the victories of Gideon and Jephthah, which is emphasized by the
close relation between viii. 1—3 and xii. 1-6, the explanation of which
in its present context is difficult. See further JEPHTHAH.
The old stories of Samson the Danite have been scarcely touched
by the redaction (xiii. I ; xv. 20; xvi. 316, where he is a " judge ");
only xiii. appears to be rather later (v. 5 represents him as a fore-
runner of Samuel and Saul), and gives a rather different impression
of the hero of the folk-tales. The cycle illustrates some interesting
customs and is in every way valuable as a specimen of popular
narrative. See SAMSON.
Grouped among these narratives are the five so-called "minor
judges" (x. 1-5; xii. 8-15). By the addition of Shamgar (iii. 31)
the number is made to agree with the six more important names.
They are not represented as having any immediate religious impor-
tance; they really lie outside of the chronological scheme, and their
history is plainly not related from such lively and detailed remi-
niscence as gives charm to the longer episodes of the book. The
notices are drawn up in set phraseology, and some of the names,
in harmony with a characteristic feature of early Hebrew history,
are those of personified families of communities rather than of
families.2
3. The third and last section of the book embraces chapters
xvii.-xxi., and consists of two narratives independent of one
another and of the main stock of the book, with which they
are not brought into any chronological connexion. They appear
to owe their position to the latest redactor (akin to the latest
stratum in the Hexateuch) who has heavily worked over xix.-
xxi., and put the book into its present form by the addition
of i.-ii. 5, ix. and possibly of v.3
The first narrative, that of Micah and the Danites, is of the highest
jnterest both as a record of the state of religion and for the picture
it gives of the way in which one clan passed from the condition of an
invading band into settled possession of land and city. Its interest
(xvii. seq.) lies in the foundation of the Ephraimite sanctuary by
Micah as also in that of Dan. There are some repetitions in the
account, but there is not enough evidence to restore two complete
stories. The history of the Levite and the Benjamites is of quite
another character, and presupposes a degree of unity of feeling and
action among the tribes of Israel which it is not easy to reconcile with
the rest of the book. In its present form this episode appears to be
not very ancient; it resembles Ruth in giving a good deal of curious
archaeological detail (the feast at Shiloh) in a form which suggests
that the usages referred to were already obsolete when the narrative
was composed. It appears to consist of an old story which has been
heavily revised to form an edifying piece of exposition. The older
parts are preserved in xix. : the account of the Levite of Mt Ephraim
whose concubine from Bethlehem in Judah was outraged, not by the
non-Israelite Jebusites of Jerusalem, but by the Benjamites of
Gibeah; there are traces of another source in w. 6-8, 10, 13, 15.
The older portions of xx. seq. include: the vengeance taken by Israel
(e.g. xx. 3-8, 14, 19, 29, 36-41, 47), and the reconstruction of the
tribe by intermarriage with the women of Shiloh (xxi. I, 15, 17-19,
21—23). The post-exilic expansions (found chiefly in xx., xxi. 2—14,
1 It may be conjectured that the introduction originally formed
the prelude to the rise of Saul: the intervening narratives, though
not necessarily of late origin themselves, having been subsequently
inserted. See S. A. Cook, Crit. Notes O. T. Hist., p. 127 seq.
2 Tola and Puah (x. l) are clans of Issachar (Gen. xlvi. 13), for
Jair (v. 3), see Num. xxxii. 41, and for Elon (xii. ll), see Gen. xlvi. 14.
See GENEALOGY : Biblical. ,
' To the same post-exilic hand may also be ascribed the introduc-
tion of the " minor judges " (so several critics), and smaller additions
here and there (ch. i. I opening words, w. 4, 8 seq. [contrast 21] 18;
viii. 30-32; xi. 2, &c.).
JUDGMENT
16, 24 seq.) describe the punishment of Benjamin by the religious
assembly and the massacre of Jabesh-Gilead for its refusal to join
Israel, four hundred virgins of the Gileadites being saved for Ben-
jamin. How much old tradition underlies these stories is question-
able. It is very doubtful whether Hosea's allusion to the depravity
of Gibeah (ix. 9 ; x. 9) is to be referred hither, but it is noteworthy
that whilst Gibeah and Jabesh-Gilead, which appear here in a
bad light, are known to be associated with Saul, the sufferer is a
Levite of Bethlehem, the traditional home of David. The account
of the great fight in xx. is reminiscent of Joshua's battle at Ai
(Josh, vii.-viii.).
Historical Value. — The book of Judges consists of a number of
narratives collected by Deuteronomic editors; to the same circles
are due accounts of the invasions of Palestine and settlement in
Joshua, and of the foundation of the monarchy in i Samuel.
The connexion has been broken by the later insertion of matter
(not necessarily of late date itself), and the whole was finally
formed into a distinct book by a post-exilic hand. The dates
of the older stories preserved in ii. 6-xvi. 6 are quite unknown.
If they are trustworthy for the period to which they are rele-
gated (approximately I4th-i 2th cent. B.C.) they are presumably
of very great antiquity, but if they belong to the sources J and
E of the Hexateuch (at least some four or five centuries later)
their value is seriously weakened. On the other hand, the belief
that the monarchy had been preceded by national " judges "
may have led to the formation of the collection. It is evident that
there was more than one period in Israelite history in which one
or other of these stories of local heroes would be equally suitable.
They reflect tribal rivalry and jealousy (cf. Isa. ix. 21, and the
successors of Jeroboam 2), attacks by nomads and wars with
Ammon and Moab; conflicts between newly settled Israelites and
indigenous Canaanites have been suspected in the story of Abime-
lech, and it is not impossible that the post-Deuteronomic writer
who inserted ch. ix. so understood the record. A striking
exception to the lack of unity among the tribes is afforded by the
account of the defeat of Sisera, and here the old poem represents
a combined effort to throw off the yoke of a foreign oppressor,
while the later prose version approximates the standpoint of
Josh. xi. 1-15, with its defeat of the Canaanites. The general
stand-point of the stories (esp. Judg. v.) is that of central Pales-
tine; the exceptions are Othniel and Samson — the latter inter-
rupting the introduction in x., and its sequel, the former now
entirely due to the Deuteronomic editor. Of the narratives
which precede and follow, ch. i. represents central Palestine
separated by Canaanite cities from tribes to the south and north;
it is the situation recognized in Judg. xix. 10-12, as well as in
passages imbedded in the latest portions of the book of Joshua,
though it is in contradiction to the older traditions of Joshua
himself. Chapters xvii. seq. (like the preceding story of Samson)
deal with Danites, but the migration can hardly be earlier
than David's time; and xix.-xxi., by describing the extermina-
tion of Benjamin, form a link between the presence of the tribe
in the late narratives of the exodus and its new prominence in the
traditions of Saul (q.v.). As an historical source, therefore, the
value of Judges will depend largely upon the question whether
the Deuteronomic editor (about 600 B.C. at the earliest) would
have access to trustworthy documents relating to a period
some six or seven centuries previously. See further JEWS,
§§ 6, 8; and SAMUEL, BOOKS OF.
LITERATURE. — Biblical scholars are in agreement regarding the
preliminary literary questions of the book, but there is divergence
of opinion on points of detail, and on the precise growth of the
book (e.g. the twofold Deuteronomic redaction). See further W. R.
Smith, Ency. Brit, gth ed. (upon which the present article is based) ;
G. F. Moore, International Critical Comm. (1895); Ency. Bib., art.
"Judges"; K. Budde, Kurzer Handcommentar (1897); Lagrange,
Limes des juges (1903); G. W. Thatcher (Century Bible); also S. R.
Driver, Lit. of Old Testament (1909); Moore, in the Sacred Books
of Old Testament (1898); C. F. Kent, The Student's Old Testament,
vol. i. (1904). (S. A. C.)
JUDGMENT, in law, a term used to describe (i) the adjudica-
tion by a court of justice upon a controversy submitted to it
inter paries (post litem contestatam) and determining the rights
of the parties and the relief to be awarded by the court as
between them; (2) the formal document issuing from the court
JUDGMENT DEBTOR— JUDICATURE ACTS
in which that adjudication is expressed; (3) the opinions of the
judges expressed in a review of the facts and law applicable to
the controversy leading up to the adjudication expressed in
the formal document. When the judgment has been passed and
entered and recorded it binds the parties: the controversy comes
to an end (transit in rem judicatam), and the person in whose
favour the judgment is entered is entitled to enforce it by the
appropriate method of " execution." There has been much
controversy among lawyers as to the meaning of the expressions
" final " and " interlocutory " as applied to judgments, and as to
the distinction between a " judgment," a " decree," and an
" order." These disputes arise upon the wording of statutes
or rules of court and with reference to the appropriate times or
modes of appealfor of execution.
The judgments of one country are not as a rule directly
enforceable in another country. In Europe, by treaty or
arrangement, foreign judgments are in certain cases and on
compliance with certain formalities made executory in various
states. A similar provision is made as between England,
Scotland and Ireland, for the registry and execution in each
country of certain classes of judgments given in the others.
But as regards the rest of the king's dominions and foreign states,
a " foreign " judgment is in England recognized only as consti-
tuting a cause of action which may be sued upon in England. If
given by a court of competent jurisdiction it is treated as creating
a legal obligation to pay the sum adjudged to be due. Summary
judgment may be entered in an English action based on a foreign
judgment unless the defendant can show that the foreign court
had not jurisdiction over the parties or the subject matter of the
action, or that there was fraud on the part of the foreign court
or the successful party, or that the foreign proceedings were
contrary to natural justice, e.g. concluded without due notice to
the parties affected. English courts will not enforce foreign
judgments as to foreign criminal or penal or revenue laws.
JUDGMENT DEBTOR, in English law, a person against
whom a judgment ordering him to pay a sum of money has been
obtained and remains unsatisfied. Such a person may be
examined as to whether any and what debts are owing to him,
and if the judgment debt is of the necessary amount he may
be made bankrupt if he fails to comply with a bankruptcy
notice served on him by the judgment creditors, or he may be
committed to prison or have a receiving order made against him
in a judgment summons under the Debtors Act 1869.
JUDGMENT SUMMONS, in English law, a summons issued
under the Debtors Act 1869, on the application of a creditor
who has obtained a judgment for the payment of a sum of money
by instalments or otherwise, where the order for payment has
not been complied with. The judgment summons cites the
defendant to appear personally in court, and be examined
on oath as to the means he has, or has had, since the date of the
order or judgment made against him, to pay the same, and to
show cause why he should not be committed to prison for his
default. An order of commitment obtained in a judgment
summons remains in force for a year only, and the extreme term
of imprisonment is six weeks, dating from the time of lodging in
prison. When a debtor has once been imprisoned, although for
a period of less than six weeks, no second order of commitment
can be made against him in respect of the same debt. But if the
judgment be for payment by instalments a power of committal
arises on default of payment for each instalment. If an order of
commitment has never been executed, or becomes inoperative
through lapse of time, a fresh commitment may be made. Im-
prisonment does not operate as a satisfaction or extinguishment
of a debt, or deprive a person of a right of execution against the
land or goods of the person imprisoned in the same manner as if
there had been no imprisonment.
JUDICATURE ACTS, an important series of English statutes
having for their object the simplification of the system of
judicature in its higher branches. They are the Supreme Court
of Judicature Act 1873 (36 & 37 Viet. c. 66) and the Supreme
Court of Judicature Act 1875 (38 & 39 Viet. c. 77), with various
amending acts, the twelfth of these being in 1899. By the act of
1873 the court of chancery, the court of queen's (king's) bench,
the court of common pleas, the court of exchequer, the high court
of admiralty, the court of probate and the court of divorce and
matrimonial causes were consolidated into one Supreme1 Court
of Judicature (sec. 3), divided into two permanent divisions,
called " the high court," with (speaking broadly) original juris-
diction, and " the court of appeal " (sec. 4). The objects of the
act were threefold — first, to reduce the historically indepen-
dent courts of common law and equity into one supreme
court; secondly, to establish for all divisions of the court a uni-
form system of pleading and procedure; and thirdly, to provide
for the enforcement of the same rule of law in those cases where
chancery and common law recognized different rules. It can
be seen at once how bold and revolutionary was this new enact-
ment. By one section the august king's bench, the common
pleas, in which Serjeants only had formerly the right of audience,
and the exchequer, which had its origin in the reign of Henry I.,
and all their jurisdiction, criminal, legal and equitable, were
vested in the new court. It must be understood, however, that
law and equity were not fused in the sense in which that phrase
has generally been employed. The chancery division still
remains distinct from the common law division, having a certain
range of legal questions under its exclusive control, and possess-
ing to a certain extent a peculiar machinery of its own for
carrying its decrees into execution. But all actions may now be
brought in the high court of justice, and, subject to such special
assignments of business as that alluded to, may be tried in any
division thereof.
There were originally three common law divisions of the High
Court corresponding with the three former courts of common
law. But after the death of Lord Chief Baron Kelly on the lyth
of September 1880, and of Lord Chief Justice Cockburn on the
2oth of November 1880, the common pleas and exchequer divi-
sions were (by order in council, loth December 1880) consolidated
with the king's bench division into one division under the
presidency of the lord chief justice of England, to whom, by
the 2£th section of the Judicature Act 1881, all the statutory
jurisdiction of the chief baron and the chief justice of the common
pleas was transferred. The high court, therefore, now consists of
the chancery division, the common law division, under the name
of the king's bench division; and the probate, divorce and
admiralty division. To the king's bench division is also attached,
by order of the lord chancellor (Jan. i, 1884), the business of
the London court of bankruptcy.
For a more detailed account of the composition of the various
courts, see CHANCERY ; KING'S BENCH ; and PROBATE, DIVORCE AND
ADMIRALTY COURT.
The keystone of the structure created by the Judicature Acts
was a strong court of appeal. The House of Lords remained the
last court of appeal, as before the acts, but its judicial functions
were virtually transferred to an appeal committee, consisting of
the lord chancellor and other peers who have held high judicial
office, and certain lords of appeal in ordinary created by the act
of 1873 (see APPEAL).
The practice and procedure of the Supreme Court are regulated
by rules made by a committee of judges, to which have been added
the president of the incorporated law society and a practising barris-
ter and one other person nominated by the lord chancellor. The
rules now in force are those of 1883, with some subsequent amend-
ments. With the appendices they fill 'a moderate-sized volume.
Complaints are made that they go into too much detail, and place
a burden on the time and temper of the busy practitioner which he
can ill afford to bear. It is possible that the authors of the rules
attempted too much, and it might have been better to provide a
simpler and more elastic code of procedure. Rules have sometimes
been made to meet individual cases of hardship, and rules of pro-
cedure have been piled up from time to time, sometimes embodying
a new experiment, and not always consistent with former rules.
1 The comte de Franqueville in his interesting work, Le Systeme
judiciaire de la Grande Bretagne, criticizes the use of the word
" supreme " as a designation of this court, inasmuch as its judgments
are subject to appeal to the House of Lords, but in the act of 1873
the appeal to the House of Lords was abolished. He is also severe
on the illogical use of the words " division " and " court " in many
different senses (i. 180-181).
542
The most important matter dealt with by the rules is the mode
cf pleading. The authors of the Judicature Act had before them two
systems of pleading, both of which were open to criticism. The
common law pleadings (it was said) did not state the facts on which
the pleader relied, but only the legal aspect of the facts or the infer-
ences from them, while the chancery pleadings were lengthy, tedious
and to a large extent irrelevant and useless. There was some
exaggeration in both statements. In pursuing the fusion of law and
equity which was the dominant legal idea of law reformers of that
period, the framers of the first set of rules devised a system which
they thought would meet the defects of both systems, and be appro-
priate for both the common-law and the chancery divisions. In a
normal case, the plaintiff delivered his statement of claim, in which
he was to set forth concisely the facts on which he relied, and the
relief which he asked. The defendant then delivered his statement
of defence, in which he was to say whether he admitted or denied
the plaintiff's facts (every averment not traversed being taken to be
admitted), and any additional facts and legal defences on which he
relied. The plaintiff might then reply, and the defendant rejoin, and
so on until the pleaders had exhausted themselves. This system
of pleading was not a bad one if accompanied by the right of either
party to demur to his opponent's pleading, i.e. to say, " admitting
all your averments of fact to be true, you still have no cause of
action," or " defence " (as the case may be). It may be, however,
that the authors of the new system were too intent on uniformity
when they abolished the common-law pleading, which, shorn of its
abuses (as it had been by the Common Law Procedure Acts), was
an admirable instrument for defining the issue between the parties
though unsuited for the more complicated cases which are tried
in chancery, and it might possibly have been better to try the new
system in the first instance in the chancery division only. It should
be added that the rules contain provisions for actions being tried
without pleadings if the defendant does not require a statement of
claim, and for the plaintiff in an action of debt obtaining immediate
judgment unless the defendant gets leave to defend. In the
chancery division there are of course no pleadings in those matters
which by the rules can be disposed of by summons in chambers
instead of by ordinary suit as formerly.
The judges seem to have been dissatisfied with the effect of their
former rules, for in 1883 they issued a fresh set of consolidated rules,
which, with subsequent amendments, are those now in force.
By these rules a further attempt was made to prune the exuberance
of pleading. Concise forms of statement of claim and defence
were given in the appendix for adoption by the pleader. It is true
that these forms dp not display a high standard of excellence in
draftsmanship, and it was said that many of them were undoubtedly
demurrable, but that was not of much importance. Demurrers
were abolished, and instead thereof it was provided that any point
of law raised by the pleadings should be disposed of at or after the
trial, provided that by consent or order of the court the same
might be set down and disposed of before the trial (Order xxv.
rules I, 2). This, in the opinion of Lord Davey in 1902 (Ency. Brit.,
loth ed., xxx. 146), was a disastrous change. The right of either
party to challenge his opponent in limine, either where the ques-
tion between them was purely one of law, or where even the view
of the facts taken and alleged by his opponent did not constitute
a cause of action or defence, was a most valuable one, and tended
to the curtailment of both the delay and the expense of litigation.
Any possibility of abuse by frivolous or technical demurrers (as
undoubtedly was formerly the case) had been met by powers of
amendment and the infliction of costs. Many of the most im-
portant questions of law had been decided on demurrer both in
common law and chancery. Lord Davey considered that demurrer
was a useful and satisfactory mode of trying questions in chan-
cery (on bill and demurrer), and it was frequently adopted in
preference to a special case, which requires the statement of facts
to be agreed to by both parties and was consequently more difficult
and expensive. It is obvious that a rule which makes the normal
time for decision of questions at law the trial or subsequently, and
a preliminary decision the exception, and such exception dependent
on the consent of both parties or an order of the court, is a poor
substitute for a demurrer as of right, and it has proved so in practice.
The editors of the Yearly Practice for 1901 (Muir Mackenzie, Lushing-
ton and Fox) said (p. 272) : " Points of law raised by the pleadings
are usually disposed of at the trial or on further considerationafterthe
trial of the issues of fact," that is to say, after the delay, worry and
expense of a trial of disputed questions of fact which after all may
turn out to be unnecessary. The abolition of demurrers has also
(it is believed) had a prejudicial effect on the standard of legal
accuracy and knowledge required in practitioners. Formerly the
pleader had the fear of a demurrer before him. Nowadays he need
not stop to think whether his cause of action or defence will hold
water or not, and anything which is not obviously frivolous or
vexatious will do by way of pleading for the purpose of the trial
and for getting the opposite party into the box.
Another change was made by the rules of 1 883, which was regarded
by some common law lawyers as revolutionary. Formerly every
issue of fact in a common law action, including the amount of
damage, had to be decided by the verdict of a jury. " The effect
of the rules of 1883," said Lord Lindley, who was a member of the
JUDITH, BOOK OF
rule committee, " was to make trial without a jury the normal
mode of trial, except where trial with a jury is ordered under rules 6
or 73, or may be had without an order under rule 2" (Timson v.
Wilson, 38 Ch. D. 72, at p. 76). The effect of the rules may be
thus summarized: (i) In the chancery division no trial by jury
unless ordered by the judge. (2) Generally the judge may order
trial without a jury of any cause or issue, which before the Judicature
Act might have been so tried without consent of parties, or which
involves prolonged investigation of documents or accounts, or
scientific or local investigation. (3) Either party has a right to a
jury in actions of slander, libel, false imprisonment, malicious
prosecution, seduction or breach of promise of marriage, upon
notice without order; (4) or in any other action, by order. (5)
Subject as above, actions are to be tried without a jury unless the
judge, of his own motion, otherwise orders.
Further steps have been taken with a view to simplification of
procedure. By Order xxx. rule I (as amended in 1897), a summons,
called a summons for directions, has to be taken out by a plaintiff
immediately after the appearance of the defendant, and upon such
summons an order is to be made respecting pleadings, and a number
of interlocutory proceedings. To make such an order at that early
stage would seem to demand a prescience and intelligent anticipa-
tion of future events which can hardly be expected of a master, or
even a judge in chambers, except in simple cases, involving a single
issue of law or fact which the parties are agreed in presenting to the
court. The effect of the rule is that the plaintiff cannot deliver his
statement of claim, or take any step in the action without the leave
of the judge. In chancery cases the order usually made is that the
plaintiff deliver his statement of claim, and the rest of the summons
stand over, and the practical effect is merely to add a few pounds to
the costs. It may be doubted whether, as applied to the majority
of actions, the rule does not proceed on wrong lines, and whether it
would not be better to leave the parties, who know the exigencies
of their case better even than a j udge in chambers, to proceed in their
own way, subject to stringent provisions for immediate payment of
the costs occasioned by unnecessary, vexatious, or dilatory proceed-
ings. The order does not apply to admiralty cases or to proceedings
under the order next mentioned.
The Supreme Court of Judicature Act (Ireland) 1877 follows
the same lines as the English acts. The pre-existing courts were
consolidated into a supreme court of judicature, consisting of a
high court of justice and a court of appeal. The judicature acts
did not affect Scottish judicature, but the Appellate Jurisdiction
Act included the court of session among the courts from which an
appeal lies to the House of Lords.
JUDITH, THE BOOK OF, one of the apocryphal books of the
Old Testament. It takes its name from the heroine Judith
('lovSid, 'lovdrfl, i.e. fH";, Jewess), to whom the last nine of
its sixteen chapters relate. In the Septuagint and Vulgate
it immediately precedes Esther, and along with Tobit comes
after Nehemiah; in the English Apocrypha it is placed between
Tobit and the apocryphal additions to Esther.
Argument. — In the twelfth year of his reign Nebuchadrezzar,
who is described as king of Assyria, having his capital in Nineveh,
makes war against Arphaxad, king of Media, and overcomes
him in his seventeenth year. He then despatches his chief
general Holofernes to take vengeance on the nations of the
west who had withheld their assistance. This expedition has
already succeeded in its main objects when Holofernes proceeds
to attack Judaea. The children of Israel, who are described
as having newly returned from captivity, are apprehensive of a
desecration of their sanctuary, and resolve on resistance to the
uttermost. The inhabitants of Bethulia (Betylua) and Betomes-
tham in particular (neither place can be identified), directed by
Joachim the high priest, guard the mountain passes near
Dothaim, and place themselves under God's protection. Holo-
fernes now inquires of the chiefs who are with him about the
Israelites,and isanswered by Achior the leader of the Ammonites,
who enters upon a long historical narrative showing the Israelites
to be invincible except when they have offended God. For this
Achior is punished by being handed over to the Israelites, who
lead him to the governor of Bethulia. Next day the siege
begins, and after forty days the famished inhabitants urge the
governor Ozias to surrender, which he consents to do unless
relieved in five days. Judith, a beautiful and pious widow
of the tribe of Simeon, now appears on the scene with a plan
of deliverance. Wearing her rich attire, and accompanied by
her maid, who carries a bag of provisions, she goes over to the
hostile camp, where she is at once conducted to the general,
whose suspicions are disarmed by the tales she invents. After
four days Holofernes, smitten with her charms, at the close of a
JUDSON— JUEL, J.
sumptuous entertainment invites her to remain within his
tent over night. No sooner is he overcome with sleep than
Judith, seizing his sword, strikes off his head and gives it to
her maid; both now leave the camp (as they had previously been
accustomed to do, ostensibly for prayer) and return to Bethulia,
where the trophy is displayed amid great rejoicings and thanks-
givings. Achior now publicly professes Judaism, and at the
instance of Judith the Israelites make a sudden victorious
onslaught on the enemy. Judith now sings a song of praise,
and all go up to Jerusalem to worship with sacrifice and rejoicing.
The book concludes with a brief notice of the closing years
of the heroine.
Versions. — Judith was written originally in Hebrew. This is
shown not only by the numerous Hebraisms, but also by mistransla-
tions of the Greek translation, as in ii. 2, iii. 9, and other passages
(see Fritzsche and Ball in loc.), despite the statement of Origen
(Ep. ad Afrir.. 13) that the book was not received by the Jews among
their apocryphal writings. In his preface to Judith, Jerome says
that he based his Latin version on the Chaldee, which the Jews
reckoned among their Hagiographa. Ball (Speaker's Apocrypha,
i. 243) holds that the Chaldee text used by Jerome was a free transla-
tion or adaptation of the Hebrew. The book exists in two forms:
the shorter, which is preserved only in Hebrew (see under Hebrew
Midrashim below), is, according to Scholz, Lipsius, Ball and Gaster,
the older; the longer form is that contained in the versions.
Greek Version. — This is found in three recensions: (i) in A B, tt;
(2) in codices 19, 108 (Lucian's text); (3) in codex 58, the source of
the old Latin and Syriac.
Syriac and Latin Versions. — Two Syriac versions were made
from the Greek — the first, that of the Peshito; and the second, that
of Paul of Telia, the so-called Hexaplaric. The Old Latin was de-
rived from the Greek, as we have remarked above, and Jerome's
from the Old Latin, under the control of a Chaldee version.
Later Hebrew Midrashim. — These are printed in Jellinek's Bet
ha-Midrasch, i. 130^131; ii. 12-22; and by Gaster in Proceedings
of the Society of Biblical Archaology (1894), pp. 156-163.
Date. — The book in its fuller form was most probably written
in the 2nd century B.C. The writer places his romance two
centuries earlier, in the time of Ochus, as we may reasonably
infer from the attack made by Holofernes and Bagoas on
Judaea; for Artaxerxes Ochus made an expedition against
Phoenicia and Egypt in 350 B.C., in which his chief generals
were Holofernes and Bagoas.
RECENT LITERATURE. — Ball, Speaker's Apocrypha (1888), an ex-
cellent piece of work; Scholz, Das Buck Judith (1896); Lohr, Apok.
una Pseud. (1900), ii. 147-164; Porter in Hastings's Diet. Bible, ii.
822-824; Gaster, Ency. Bib., ii. 2642-2646. See Ball, pp. 260-261,
and Schurer in loc., for a full bibliography. (R. H. C.)
JUDSON, ADONIRAM (1788-1850), American missionary, was
born at Maiden, Massachusetts, on the gth of August 1788,
the son of a Congregational minister. He graduated at Brown
University in 1807, was successively a school teacher and an actor,
completed a course at the Andover Theological Seminary in
September 1810, and was at once licensed to preach as a Congre-
gational clergyman. In the summer of 1810 he with several of
his fellows students at Andover had petitioned the general associa-
tion of ministers to be sent to Asiatic missionary fields. This
application resulted in the establishment of the American board
of commissioners for foreign missions, which sent Judson to
England to secure, if possible, the co-operation of the London
Missionary Society. His ship fell into the hands of a French
privateer and he was for some time a prisoner in France, but
finally proceeded to London, where his proposal was considered
without anything being decided. He then returned to America,
where he found the board ready to act independently. His
appointment to Burma followed, and in 1812, accompanied by
his wife, Ann Hasseltine Judson (1789-1826), he went to
Calcutta. On the voyage both became advocates of baptism
by immersion, and being thus cut off from Congregationalism,
they began independent work. In 1814 they began to receive
support from the American Baptist missionary union, which had
been founded with the primary object of keeping them in the
field. After a few months at Madras, they settled at Rangoon.
There Judson mastered Burmese, into which he translated part
of the Gospels with his wife's help. In 1824 he removed to
Ava, where during the war between the East India Company and
Burma he was imprisoned for almost two years. After peace had
543
been brought about (largely, it is said, through his exertions)
Mrs Judson died. In 1827 Judson removed his headquarters to
Maulmain, where school buildings and a church were erected,
and where in 1834 he married Sarah Hall Boardman (1803-1845).
In 1833 he completed his translation of the Bible; in succeeding
years he compiled a Burmese grammar, a Burmese dictionary,
and a Pali dictionary. In 1843 his wife's failing health decided
Judson to return to America, but she died during the voyage,
and was buried at St Helena. In the United States Judson
married Emily Chubbuck (1817-1854), well-known as a poet
and novelist under the name of " Fanny Forrester," who was
one of the earliest advocates in America of the higher education
of women. She returned with him in 1846 to Burma, where
the rest of his life was devoted largely to the rewriting of his
Burmese dictionary. He died at sea on the i2th of April 1850,
while on his way to Martinique, in search of health. Judson
was perhaps the greatest, as he was practically the first, of the
many missionaries sent from the United States into foreign
fields; his fervour, his devotion to duty, and his fortitude in
the face of danger mark him as the prototype of the American
missionary.
The Judson Memorial, an institutional church, was erected on
Washington Square South, New York City, largely through the
exertions of his son, Rev. Edward Judson (b. 1844), who became its
pastor and director, and who prepared a life of Dr Judson (1883;
new ed. 1898). Another biography is by Francis Wayland (2 vols.,
1854). See also Robert T. Middleditch's Life of Adoniram Judson,
Burmah's Great Missionary (New York, 1859). For the three Mrs.
Judsons, see Knowles, Life of Ann Hasseltine Judson (1829); Emily
C. Judson, Life of Sarah Hall Boardman Judson (1849); Asahel C.
Kendrick, Life and Letters of Emily Chubbuck Judson (1861).
JUEL, JENS (1631-1700), Danish statesman, born on the i5th
of July 1631, began his diplomatic career in the suite of Count
Christian Rantzau, whom he accompanied to Vienna and Regens-
burg in 1652. In August 1657 Juel was accredited to the court
of Poland, and though he failed to prevent King John Casimir
from negotiating separately with Sweden he was made a privy
councillor on his return home. But it was the reconciliation
of Juel's uncle Hannibal Sehested with King Frederick III. which
secured Juel's future. As Sehested's representative, he con-
cluded the peace of Copenhagen with Charles X., and after the
Danish revolution of 1660 was appointed Danish minister at
Stockholm, where he remained for eight years. Subsequently the
chancellor Griffenfeldt, who had become warmly attached to him,
sent him in 1672, and again in 1674, as ambassador extraordinary
to Sweden, ostensibly to bring about a closer union between the
two northern kingdoms, but really to give time to consolidate
Griffenfeldt's far-reaching system of alliances. Juel completely
sympathized with Griffenfeldt's Scandinavian policy, which
aimed at weakening Sweden sufficiently to re-establish some-
thing like an equilibrium between the two states. Like Griffen-
feldt, Juel also feared, above all things, a Swedo-Danish war.
After the unlucky Scanian War of 1675-79, Juel was one of the
Danish plenipotentiaries who negotiated the peace of Lund.
Even then he was for an alliance with Sweden " till we can do
better." This policy he consistently followed, and was largely
instrumental in bringing about the marriage of Charles XI. with
Christian V.'s daughter Ulrica Leonora. But for the death of
the like-minded Swedish statesman Johan Gyllenstjerna in June
1680, Juel's " Scandinavian " policy might have succeeded, to
the infinite advantage of both kingdoms. He represented
Denmark at the coronation of Charles XII. (December 1697),
when he concluded a new treaty of alliance with Sweden. He
died in 1700.
Juel, a man of very few words and a sworn enemy of phrase-
making, was perhaps the shrewdest and most cynical diplomatist
of his day. His motto was: " We should wish for what we can
get." Throughout life he regarded the political situation of
Denmark with absolute pessimism. She was, he often said, the
cat's-paw of the Great Powers. While Griffenfeldt would have
obviated this danger by an elastic political system, adaptable
to all circumstances, Juel preferred seizing whatever he could
get in favourable conjunctures. In domestic affairs Juel was an
544
adherent of the mercantile system, and laboured vigorously for
the industrial development of Denmark and Norway. For an
aristocrat of the old school he was liberally inclined, but only
favoured petty reforms, especially in agriculture, while he re-
garded emancipation of the serfs as quite impracticable. Juel
made no secret of his preference for absolutism, and was one of
the few patricians who accepted the title of baron. He saw some
military service during the Scanian War, distinguishing himself
at the siege of Venersborg, and by his swift decision at the
critical moment materially contributing to his brother Niels's
naval victory in the Bay of Kjoge. To his great honour he re-
mained faithful to Griffenfeldt after his fall, enabled his daughter
to marry handsomely, and did his utmost, though in vain, to
obtain the ex-chancellor's release from his dungeon.
See Carl Frederik Bricka, Dansk Uografisk lex., art. " Juel " (1887,
&c.); Adolf Ditlev Jorgensen, P. Schumacher Griffenfeldt (1893-
1894). (R.N.B.)
JUEL, NIELS (1620-1697), Danish admiral, brother of the
preceding, was born on the 8th of May 1629, at Christiania. He
served his naval apprenticeship under Van Tromp and De Ruy ter,
taking part in all the chief engagements of the war of 1652-54
between England and Holland. During a long indisposition
at Amsterdam in 1655-1656 he acquired a thorough knowledge
of ship-building, and returned to' Denmark in 1656 a thoroughly
equipped seaman. He served with distinction during the Swedo-
Danish wars of 1658-60 and took a prominent part in the defence
of Copenhagen against Charles X. During fifteen years of peace,
Juel, as admiral of the fleet, laboured assiduously to develop
and improve the Danish navy, though he bitterly resented the
setting over his head in 1663 of Cort Adelaar on his return from
the Turkish wars. In 1661 Juel married Margrethe Ulfeldt. On
the outbreak of the Scanian War he served at first under Adelaar,
but on the death of the latter in November 1675 he was appointed
to the supreme command. He then won a European reputation,
and raised Danish sea-power to unprecedented eminence, by the
system of naval tactics, afterwards perfected by Nelson, which
consists in cutting off a part of the enemy's force and concen-
trating the'whole attack on it. He first employed this manoeuvre
at the battle of Jasmund off Riigen (May 25, 1676) when he
broke through the enemy's line in close column and cut off five
of their ships, which, however, nightfall prevented him from
pursuing. Juel's operations were considerably hampered at this
period by the overbearing conduct of his Dutch auxiliary, Philip
Almonde, who falsely accused the Danish admiral of cowardice.
A few days after the battle of Jasmund, Cornelius Van Tromp the
younger, with 17 fresh Danish and Dutch ships of the line, super-
seded Juel in the supreme command. Juel took a leading part
in Van Tromp's great victory off Gland (June i, 1676), which
enabled the Danes to invade Scania unopposed. On the ist of
June 1677 Juel defeated the Swedish admiral Sjoblad off Moen;
on the 3oth of June 1677 he won his greatest victory, in the Bay
of Kjoge, where, with 25 ships of the line and 1267 guns, he
routed the Swedish admiral Evert Horn with 36 ships of the line
and 1800 guns. For this great triumph, the just reward of
superior seamanship and strategy — at an early stage of the
engagement Juel's experienced eye told him that the wind in
the course of the day would shift from S.W. to W. and he
took extraordinary risks accordingly — he was made lieutenant
admiral general and a privy councillor. This victory, besides
permanently crippling the Swedish navy, gave the Danes a self-
confidence which enabled them to keep their Dutch allies in their
proper place. In the following year Van Tromp, whose high-
handedness had become unbearable, was discharged by Chris-
tian V., who gave the supreme command to Juel. In the spring
of 1678 Juel put to sea with 84 ships carrying 2400 cannon, but
as the Swedes were no longer strong enough to encounter such
a formidable armament on the open sea, his operations were
limited to blockading the Swedish ports and transporting troops
to Riigen. After the peace of Lund Juel showed himself an
administrator and reformer of the first order, and under his
energetic supervision the Danish navy ultimately reached impos-
ing dimensions, especially after Juel became chief of the admiralty
JUEL, N.— JUGE
in 1683. Personally Juel was the noblest and most amiable of
men, equally beloved and respected by his sailprs, simple, straight-
forward and unpretentious in all his ways. During his latter
years he was popularly known in Copenhagen as " the good old
knight." He died on the 8th of April 1697.
See Garde, Niels Juel (1842), and Den dansk. norske Somagts His-
toric, 1535-1700 (1861). (R. N. B.)
JUG, a vessel for holding liquid, usually with one handle and
a lip, made of earthenware, glass or metal. The origin of the
word in this sense is uncertain, but it is probably identical with
a shortened form of the feminine name Joan or Joanna; cf. the
similar use of Jack and Jill or Gill for a drinking-vessel or a
liquor measure. It has also been used as a common expression
for a homely woman, a servant-girl, a sweetheart, sometimes in a
sense of disparagement. In slang, " jug " or " stone-jug " is
used to denote a prison; this may possibly be an adaptation of
Fr. joug, yoke, La.t.jugum. The word "jug " is probably onomato-
poeic when used to represent a particular note of the nightin-
gale's song, or applied locally to various small birds, as the
hedge-jug, &c.
The British Museum contains a remarkable bronze jug which
was found at Kumasi during the Ashanti Expedition of 1896. It
dates from the reign of Richard II., and is decorated in relief with
the arms of England and the badge of the king. It has a lid,
spout and handle, which ends in a quatrefoil. An inscription, on
three raised bands round the body of the vessel, modernized runs:
— " He that will not spare when he may shall not spend when he
would. Deem the best in every doubt till the truth be tried
out." The British Museum Guide to the Medieval Room contains
an illustration of this vessel.
A particular form of jug is the " ewer," the precursor of the
ordinary bedroom jug (an adaptation of O. Fr. ewaire, med. Lat.
aquaria, water-pitcher, from aqua, water). The ewer was a jug
with a wide spout, and was principally used at table for pouring
water over the hands after eating, a matter of some necessity
before the introduction of forks. Early ewers are sometimes
mounted on three feet, and bear inscriptions such as Venez laver.
A basin of similar material and design accompanied the ewer.
In the I3th and I4th centuries a special type of metal ewer takes
the form of animals, men on horseback, &c.; these are generally
known as aquamaniles, from med. Lat. aqua manile or aqua
manale (aqua, water, and manare, to trickle, pour, drip). The
British Museum contains several examples.
In the i8th and early igth centuries were made the drinking-
vessels of pottery known as " Toby jugs," properly Toby Fillpots
or Philpots. These take the form of a stout old man, sometimes
seated, with a three-cornered hat, the corners of which act as
spouts. Similar drinking-vessels were also made representing
characters popular at the time, such as " Nelson jugs," &c.
JUGE, BOFFILLE DE (d. 1502), French-Italian adventurer
and statesman, belonged to the family of del Giudice, which
came from Amain, and followed the fortunes of the Angevin
dynasty. When John of Anjou, duke of Calabria, was conquered
in Italy (1461) and fled to Provence, Boflille followed him. He
was given by Duke John and his father, King Rene, the charge of
upholding by force of arms their claims on Catalonia. Louis XL,
who had joined his troops to those of the princes of Anjou,
attached Boffille to his own person, made him his chamberlain
and conferred on him the vice-royalty of Roussillon and Cerdagne
(1471), together with certain important lordships, among others
the countship of Castres, confiscated from James of Armagnac,
duke of Nemours (1476), and the temporalities of the bishopric
of Castres, confiscated from John of Armagnac. He also entrusted
him with diplomatic negotiations 'with Flanders and England.
In 1480 Boffille married Marie d' Albret, sister of Alain the Great,
thus confirming the feudal position which the king had given
him in the south. He was appointed as one of the judges in the
trial of Rene of Alencon, and showed such zeal in the discharge
of his functions that Louis XI. rewarded him by fresh gifts.
However, the bishop of Castres recovered his diocese (1483),
and the heirs of the duke of Nemours took legal proceedings for
JUGGERNAUT- -JUGURTHA
the recovery of the countship of Castres. Boffille, with the
object of escaping from his enemies, applied for the command of
the armies of the republic of Venice. His application was re-
fused, and he further lost the viceroyalty of Roussillon (1491).
His daughter Louise married against his will a gentleman of no
rank, and this led to terrible family dissensions. In order to
disinherit his own family, Boffille de Juge gave up the countship
of Castres to his brother-in-law, Alain d'Albret (1494). He died
in 1502.
See P. M. Perret, Boffille de Juge, comte de Castres, et la rtpublique
de Venise (1891); F. Pasquier, Inventaire des documents concernant
Boffille de Juge (1905). (M. P.*)
JUGGERNAUT, a corruption of Sans. JAGANNATHA, " Lord
of the World," the name under which the Hindu god Vishnu is
worshipped at Puri in Orissa. The legend runs that the sacred
blue-stone image of Jagannatha was worshipped in the solitude
of the jungle by an outcast, a Savara mountaineer, called Basu.
The king of Malwa, Indradyumna, had despatched Brahmans to
all quarters of the peninsula, and at last discovered Basu.
Thereafter the image was taken to Puri, and a temple, begun in
1174, was completed fourteen years later at a cost of upwards
of half a million sterling. The site had been associated for
centuries before and after the Christian era with Buddhism,
and the famous Car festival is probably based on the Tooth
festival of the Buddhists, of which the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien
gives an account. The present temple is a pyramidal build-
ing, 192 ft. high, crowned with the mystic wheel and flag of
Vishnu. Its inner enclosure, nearly 400 ft. by 300 ft., contains
a number of small temples and shrines. The main temple
has four main rooms — the hall of offerings, the dancing hall,
the audience chamber, and the shrine itself — the two latter being
each 80 ft. square. The three principal images are those of
Vishnu, his brother and his sister, grotesque wooden figures
roughly hewn. Elaborate services are daily celebrated all the
year round, the images are dressed and redressed, and four
meals a day are served to them. The attendants on the god
are divided into 36 orders and 97 classes. Special servants are
assigned the tasks of putting the god to bed, of dressing and
bathing him. The annual rent-roll of the temple was put
at £68,000 by Sir W. W. Hunter; but the pilgrims' offerings,
which form the bulk of the income, are quite unknown and have
been said to reach as much as £100,000 in one year. Ranjit
Singh bequeathed the Koh-i-nor to Jagannath. There are four
chief festivals, of which the famous Car festival is the most
important.
The terrible stories of pilgrims crushed to death in the god's honour
have made the phrase " Car of Juggernaut " synonymous with the
merciless sacrifice of human lives, but these have been shown to be
baseless calumnies. The worship of Vishnu is innocent of all
bloody rites, and a drop of blood even accidentally spilt in the
god's presence is held to pollute the officiating priests, the people,
and the consecrated food. The Car festival takes place in June
or July, and the feature of its celebration is the drawing of the
god from the temple to his " country-house," a distance of less
than a mile. The car is 45 ft. in height and 35 ft. square, and is
supported on 16 wheels of 7 ft. in diameter. Vishnu's brother
and sister have separate cars, slightly smaller. To these cars ropes
are attached, and thousands of eager pilgrims vie with each other
to have the honour of dragging the god. Though the distance
is so short the journey lasts several days, owing to the deep sand
in which the wheels sink. During the festival serious accidents
have often happened. Sir W. W. Hunter in the Gazetteer of India
writes: " In a closely packed, eager throng of a hundred thousand
men and women under the blazing tropical sun, deaths must occa-
sionally occur. There have doubtless been instances of pilgrims
throwing themselves under the wheels in a frenzy of religious
excitement, but such instances have always been rare, and are now
unknown. The few suicides that did occur were, for the most part,
cases of diseased and miserable objects who took this means to put
themselves out of pain. The official returns now place this beyond
doubt. Nothing could be more opposed to the spirit of Vishnu-
worship than self-immolation. Accidental death within the temple
renders the whole place unclean. According to Chaitanya, the
apostle of Jagannath, the destruction of the least of God's creatures
is a sin against the Creator."
See also Sir W. W. Hunter's Orissa (1872); and District Gazetteer
of Puri (1908).
xv. 18
545
JUGGLER (Lat. joculator, jester), in the modern sense a per-
former of sleight-of-hand tricks and dexterous feats of skill in
tossing balls, plates, knives, &c. The term is practically synony-
mous with conjurer (see CONJURING). The joculatores were
the mimes of the middle ages (see DRAMA) ; the French use of the
word jongleurs (an erroneous form of jougleur) included the
singers known as trouveres; and the humbler English minstrels
of the same type gradually passed into the strolling jugglers,
from whose exhibitions the term came to cover loosely any
acrobatic, pantomimic and sleight-of-hand performances. In
ancient Rome various names were given to what we call jugglers,
e.g. ventilatores (knife-throwers), and pilarii (ball-players).
JUGURTHA (Gr. 'loyopdas), king of Numidia, an illegitimate
son of Mastanabal, and grandson of Massinissa. After his
father's death he was brought up by his uncle Micipsa together
with his cousins Adherbal and Hiempsal. Jugurtha grew up
strong, handsome and intelligent, a skilful rider, and an adept in
warlike exercises. He inherited much of Massinissa's political
ability. Micipsa, naturally afraid of him, sent him to Spain
(134 B.C.) in command of a Numidian force, to serve under
P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus Minor. He became a favourite
with Scipio and the Roman nobles, some of whom put into his
head the idea of making himself sole king of Numidia, with
the help of Roman money.
In 118 B.C. Micipsa died. By his will, Jugurtha was associated
with Adherbal and Hiempsal in the government of Numidia.
Scipio had written to Micipsa a strong letter of recommendation
in favour of Jugurtha; and to Scipio, accordingly, Micipsa en-
trusted the execution of his will. None the less, his testamentary
arrangements utterly failed. The princes soon quarrelled, and
Jugurtha claimed the entire kingdom. Hiempsal he contrived
to have assassinated; Adherbal he quickly drove out of Numidia.
He then sent envoys to Rome to defend his usurpation on the
ground that he was the injured party. The senate decided that
Numidia was to be divided, and gave the western, the richer and
more populous half, to Jugurtha, while the sands and deserts of
the eastern half were left to Adherbal. Jugurtha's envoys
appear to have found several of the Roman nobles and senators
accessible to bribery. Having secured the best of the bargain,
Jugurtha at once began to provoke Adherbal to a war of self-
defence. He completely defeated him near the modern Philippe-
ville, and Adherbal sought safety in the fortress of Cirta (Con-
stantine). Here he was besieged by Jugurtha, who, notwith-
standing the interposition of a Roman embassy, forced the place
to capitulate, and treacherously massacred all the inhabitants,
among them his cousin Adherbal and a number of Italian
merchants resident in the town. There was great wrath at Rome
and throughout Italy; and the senate, a majority of which still
clung to Jugurtha, were persuaded in the same year (in) to
declare war. An army was despatched to Africa under the consul
L. Calpurnius Bestia, several of the Numidian towns voluntarily
surrendered, and Bocchus, the king of Mauretania, and Jugurtha's
father-in-law, offered the Romans his alliance. Jugurtha was
alarmed, but having at his command the accumulated treasures
of Massinissa, he was successful in arranging with the Roman
general a peace which left him in possession of the whole of
Numidia. When the facts were known at Rome, the tribune
Memmius insisted that Jugurtha should appear in person and be
questioned as to the negotiations. Jugurtha appeared under a
safe conduct, but he had partisans, such as the tribune C.
Baebius, who took care that his mouth should be closed. Soon
afterwards he caused his cousin Massiva, then resident at Rome
and a claimant to the throne of Numidia, to be assassinated.
The treaty was thereupon set aside, and Jugurtha was ordered to
quit Rome. On this occasion he uttered the well-known words,
" A city for sale, and doomed to perish as soon as it finds a
purchaser!" (Livy, Epit. 64). The war was renewed, and the
consul Spurius Albinus entrusted with the command. The
Roman army in Africa was thoroughly demoralized. An un-
successful attempt was made on a fortified town, Suthul, in which
the royal treasures were deposited. The army was surprised
by the enemy in a night attack, and the camp was taken and
5
JUJU— JU-JUTSU
plundered. Every Roman was driven out of Numidia, and a
disgraceful peace was concluded (109).
By this time the feeling at Rome and in Italy against the
corruption and incapacity of the nobles had become so strong
that a number of senators were prosecuted and Bestia and
Albinus sentenced to exile. The war was now entrusted to
Quintus Metellus, an able soldier and stern disciplinarian, and
from the year 109 to its close in 106 the contest was carried on
with credit to the Roman arms. Jugurtha was defeated on the
river Muthul, after an obstinate and skilful resistance. Once
again, however, he succeeded in surprising the Roman camp and
forcing Metellus into winter quarters. There were fresh nego-
tiations, but Metellus insisted on the surrender of the king's
person, and this Jugurtha refused. Numidia on the whole
seemed disposed to assert its independence, and Rome had before
her the prospect of a troublesome guerrilla war. Negotiations,
reflecting little credit on the Romans, were set on foot with
Bocchus (q.v.) who for a time played fast and loose with both
parties. In 106, Marius was called on by the vote of the Roman
people to supersede Metellus, but it was through the perfidy
of Bocchus and the diplomacy of L. Cornelius Sulla, Marius's
quaestor, that the war was ended. Jugurtha fell into an ambush,
and was conveyed a prisoner to Rome. Two years afterwards, in
104, he figured with his two sons in Marius's triumph, and in the
subterranean prison beneath the Capitol — " the bath of ice," as
he called it — he was either strangled or starved to death.
Though doubtless for a time regarded by his countrymen as
their deliverer from the yoke of Rome, Jugurtha mainly owes his
historical importance to the full and minute account of him
which we have from the hand of Sallust, himself afterwards
governor of Numidia.
See A. H. J. Greenidge, Hist, of Rome (1904); T. Mommsen, Hist,
of Rome, book iv. ch. v. ; the chief ancient authorities (besides
Sallust) are Livy, Epit., [xii.— Ixvii. ; Plutarch, Marius and Sulla;
Velleius Paterculus, ii. ; Diod. Sic., Excerpta, xxxiv. ; Florus, iii. I.
See also MARIUS, SULLA, NUMIDIA.
JUJU, a West African word held by some authorities to be a
corruption of Mandingo gru-gru, a charm. It is more generally
believed to have been adapted by the Mandingos directly from
Fr.joujou, a toy or plaything. The word, as used by Europeans
on the Guinea coast, was originally applied to the objects which
it was supposed the negroes worshipped, and was transferred
from the objects themselves to the spirits or gods who dwelt in
them, and finally to the whole religious beliefs of the West
Africans. It is currently used in each of these senses, and more
loosely to indicate all the manners and customs of the negroes of
the Guinea coast, particularly the power of interdiction exercised
in the name of spirits (see FETISHISM and TABOO).
JUJUBE. Under this name the fruits of at least two species
of Zizyphus are usually described, namely, Z. vulgaris and
Z. Jujuba.1 The genus is a member of the natural order Ana-
cardiaceae. The species are small trees or shrubs, armed with
sharp, straight, or hooked spines, having alternate leaves, and
fruits which are in most of the species edible, and have an
agreeable acid taste; this is especially the case with those of the
two species mentioned above.
Z. vulgaris is a tree about 20 feet high, extensively cultivated
in many parts of Southern Europe, also in Western Asia, China
and Japan. In India it extends from the Punjab to the north-
western frontier, ascending in the Punjab Himalaya to a height
of 6500 feet, and is found both in the wild and cultivated -state.
The plant is grown almost exclusively for the sake of its fruit,
which both in size and shape resembles a moderate-sized plum;
at first the fruits are green, but as they ripen they become of a
reddish-brown colour on the outside and yellow within. They
ripen in September, when they are gathered and preserved by
storing in a dry place; after a time the pulp becomes much
softer and sweeter than when fresh. Jujube fruits when carefully
dried will keep for a long time, and retain their refreshing acid
flavour, on account of which they are much valued in the countries
of the Mediterranean region as a winter dessert fruit; and,
1 The med. Lut.jujuba is a much altered form of the Gr.
besides, they are nutritive and demulcent. At one time a
decoction was prepared from them and recommended in pectoral
complaints. A kind of thick paste, known as jujube paste,
was also made of a composition of gum arabic and sugar dis-
solved ira a decoction of jujube fruit evaporated to the proper
consistency.
Z. Jujuba is a tree averaging from 30 to 50 ft. high, found
both wild and cultivated in China, the Malay Archipelago,
Ceylon, India, tropical Africa and Australia. Many varieties
are cultivated by the Chinese, who distinguish them by the shape
and size of their fruits, which are not only much valued as dessert
fruit in China, but are also occasionally exported to England.
As seen in commerce jujube fruits are about the size of a small
filbert, having a reddish-brown, shining, somewhat wrinkled
exterior, and a yellow or gingerbread coloured pulp enclosing a
hard elongated stone.
The fruits of Zizyphus do not enter into the composition of
the lozenges now known as jujubes which are usually made of
gum-arabic, gelatin, &c., and variously flavoured.
JU-JUTSU or JIU-JITSU (a Chino- Japanese term, meaning
muscle-science), the Japanese method of offence and defence
without weapons in personal encounter, upon which is founded
the system of physical culture universal in Japan. Some
historians assert that it was founded by a Japanese physician
who learned its rudiments while studying in China, but most
writers maintain that ju-jutsu was in common use in Japan
centuries earlier, and that it was known in the 7th century B.C.
Originally it was an art practised solely by the nobility, and
particularly by the samurai who, possessing the right, denied to
commoners, of carrying swords, were thus enabled to show their
superiority over common people even when without weapons.
It was a secret art, jealously guarded from those not privileged
to use it, until the feudal system was abandoned in Japan, and
now ju-jutsu is taught in the schools, as well as in public and
private gymnasia. In the army, navy and police it receives
particular attention. About the beginning of the 2oth century,
masters of the art began to attract attention in Europe and
America, and schools were established in Great Britain and the
United States, as well as on the continent of Europe.
Ju-jutsu may be briefly denned as " an application of anatomi-
cal knowledge to the purpose of offence and defence. It differs
from wrestling in that it does not depend upon muscular strength.
It differs from the other forms of attack in that it uses no
weapon. Its feat consists in clutching or striking such part
of an enemy's body as will make him numb and incapable of
resistance. Its object is not to kill, but to incapacitate one for
action for the time being " (Inazo Nitobe, Bushido: the Soul of
Japan).
Many writers translate the term ju-jutsu " to conquer by
yielding " (Jap. ju, pliant), and this phrase well expresses a
salient characteristic of the art, since the weight and strength of
the opponent are employed to his own undoing. When, for
example, a big man rushes at a smaller opponent, the smaller
man, instead of seeking to oppose strength to strength, falls
backwards or sidewise, pulling his heavy adversary after him and
taking advantage of his loss of balance to gain some lock or hold
known to the science. This element of yielding in order to
conquer is thus referred to in Lafcadio Hearn's Out of the East:
" In jiu-jitsu there is a sort of counter for every twist, wrench,
pull, push or bend: only the jiu-jitsu expert does not oppose
such movements. No; he yields to them. But he does much
more than that. He aids them with a wicked sleight that
causes the assailant to put out his own shoulder, to fracture his
own arm, or, in a desperate case, even to break his own neck or
back."
The knowledge of anatomy mentioned by Nitobe is acquired
in order that the combatant may know the weak parts of his
adversary's body and attack them. Several of these sensitive
places, for instance the partially exposed nerve in the elbow
popularly known as the " funny-bone " and the complex of
nerves over the stomach called the solar plexus, are familiar to
the European, but the ju-jutsu expert is acquainted with many
JUJUY— JULIAN
others which, when compressed, struck, or pinched, cause tem-
porary paralysis of a more or less complete nature. Such places
are the arm-pit, the ankle and wrist bones, the tendon running
downward from the ear, the " Adam's apple," and the nerves of
the upper arm. In serious fighting almost any hold or attack is
resorted to, and a broken or badly sprained limb is the least that
can befall the victim; but in the practice of the art as a means of
physical culture the knowledge of the different grips is assumed
on both sides, as well as the danger of resisting too long. For
this reason the combatant, when he feels himself on the point of
being disabled, is instructed to signal his acknowledgment of
defeat by striking the floor with hand or foot. The bout then
ends and both combatants rise and begin afresh. It will be
seen that a victory in ju-jutsu does not mean that the opponent
shall be placed in some particular position, as in wrestling, but in
any position in which his judgment or knowledge tells him that,
unless he yields, he will suffer a disabling injury. This difference
existed between the wrestling and the pancratium of the Olympic
games. In the pancratium the fight went on until one combatant
acknowledged defeat, but, although many a man allowed himself
to be beaten into insensibility rather than suffer this humiliation,
it was nevertheless held to be a disgrace to kill an opponent.
A modern bout at ju-jutsu usually begins by the combatants
taking hold with both hands upon the collars of each other's
jackets or kimonos, after which, upon the word to start being
given, the manoeuvring for an advantageous grip begins by
pushes, pulls, jerks, falls, grips or other movements. Once the
wrist, ankle, neck, arm or leg of an assailant is firmly grasped so
that added force will dislocate it, there is nothing for the seized
man to do, in case he is still on his feet, but go to the floor, often
being thrown clean over his opponent's head. A fall of this kind
does not necessarily mean defeat, for the struggle proceeds upon
the floor, where indeed most of the combat takes place, and the
ju-jutsu expert receives a long training in the art of falling with-
out injury. Blows are delivered, not with the fist, but with the
open hand, the exterior edge of which is hardened by exercises.
The physical training necessary to produce expertness is the
most valuable feature of ju-jutsu. The system includes a light
and nourishing diet, plenty of sleep, deep-breathing exercises, an
abundance of fresh air and general moderation in habits, in
addition to the actual gymnastic exercises for the purpose of
muscle-building and the cultivation of agility of eye and mind as
well as of body. It is practised by both sexes in Japan.
Many attempts have been made in England and America to
match ju-jutsu experts against wrestlers, mostly of the " catch-
as-catch can " school, but these trials have, almost without
exception, proved unsatisfactory, since many of the most effi-
cacious tricks of ju-jutsu, such as the strangle holds and twists
of wrists and ankles, are accounted foul in wrestling. Never-
theless the Japanese athletes, even when obliged to forgo these,
have usually proved more than a match for European wrestlers of
their own weight.
See H. Irving Hancock's Japanese Physical Training (1904);
Physical Training for Women by Japanese Methods (1904); The Com-
plete Kano Jiu-jitsu (Jiudo) (1905); M. Ohashi, Japanese Physical
Culture (1904) ; K. Saito, Jiu-jitsu Tricks (1905).
JUJUY, a northern province of the Argentine Republic,
bounded N. and N.W. by Bolivia, N.E., E., S. and S.W. by
Salta, and W. by the Los Andes territory. Pop. (1895),
49>7!3; (I9°S> estimate), 55,450, including many . mestizos.
Area, 18,977 sq. m., the greater part being mountainous. The
province is traversed from N. to S. by three distinct ranges be-
longing to the great central Andean plateau: the Sierra de
Santa Catalina, the Sierra de Humahuaca, and the Sierras de
Zenta and Santa Victoria. In the S.E. angle of the province are
the low, isolated ranges of Alumbre and Santa Barbara. Between
the more eastern of these ranges are valleys of surpassing fertility,
watered by the Rio Grande de Jujuy, a large tributary of the
Bermejo. The western part, however, is a high plateau (parts
of which are 11,500 ft. above sea-level), whose general character-
istics are those of the puna regions farther west. The surface
of this high plateau is broken, semi-arid and desolate, having a
547
very scanty population and no important industry beyond the
breeding of a few goats and the fur-bearing chinchilla. There are
two large saline lagoons: Toro, or Pozuelos, in the N., and Casa-
bindo, or Guayatayoc, in the S. The climate is cool, dry and
healthy, with violent tempests in the summer season. (For a
vivid description of this interesting region, see F. O'Driscoll,
" A Journey to the North of the Argentine Republic," Geogr.
Jour. xxiv. 1904.) The agricultural productions of Jujuy in-
clude sugar cane, wheat, Indian corn, alfalfa and grapes. The
breeding of cattle and mules for the Bolivian and Chilean markets
is an old industry. Coffee has been grown in the department of
Ledesma, but only to a limited extent. There are also valuable
forest areas and undeveloped mineral deposits. Large borax
deposits are worked in the northern part of the province, the out-
put in 1901 having been 8000 tons. The province is traversed
from S. to N. by the Central Northern railway, a national govern-
ment line, which has been extended to the Bolivian frontier. It
passes through the capital and up the picturesque Humahuaca
valley, and promises, under capable management, to be an im-
portant international line, affording an outlet for southern
Bolivia. The climate of the lower agricultural districts is tropical,
and irrigation is employed in some places in the long dry season.
The capital, Jujuy (estimated pop. 1905, 5000), is situated on
the Rio Grande at the lower end of the Humahuaca valley, 942 m.
from Buenos Aires by rail. It was founded in 1 593 and is 4035 ft.
above sea-level. It has a mild, temperate climate and pictur-
esque natural surroundings, and is situated on the old route
between Bolivia and Tucuman, but its growth has been slow.
JUKES, JOSEPH BEETE (1811-1869), English geologist, was
born at Summer Hill, near Birmingham, on the loth of October
1811. He took his degree at Cambridge in 1836. He began
the study of geology under Sedgwick, and in 1839 was appointed
geological surveyor of Newfoundland. He returned to England
at the end of 1840, and in 1842 sailed as naturalist on board
H.M.S. " Fly," despatched to survey Torres Strait, New Guinea,
and the east coast of Australia. Jukes landed in England again
in June 1846, and in August received an appointment on the
geological survey of Great Britain. The district to which he was
first sent was North Wales. In 1847 he commenced the survey
of the South Staffordshire coal-field and continued this work
during successive years after the close of field-work in Wales. The
results were published in his Geology of the South Staffordshire
Coal-field (1853; and ed. 1859), a work remarkable for its accu-
racy and philosophic treatment. In 1850 he accepted the post
of local director of the geological survey of Ireland. The ex-
hausting nature of this work slowly but surely wore out even
his robust constitution and on the 2pth of July 1869 he died.
For many years he lectured as professor of geology, first at the
Royal Dublin Society's Museum of Irish Industry, and afterwards
at the Royal College of Science in Dublin. He was an admirable
teacher, and his Student's Manual was the favoured textbook
of British students for many years. During his residence in
Ireland he wrote an article " On the Mode of Formation of some
of the River-valleys in the South of Ireland " (Quarterly Journ.
Geol. Soc. 1862), and in this now classic essay he first clearly
sketched the origin and development of rivers. In later years
he devoted much attention to the relations between the Devonian
system and the Carboniferous rocks and Old Red Sandstone.
Jukes wrote many papers that were printed in the London and
Dublin geological journals and other periodicals. He edited, and in
great measure wrote, forty-two memoirs explanatory of the maps of
the south, east and west of Ireland, and prepared a geological map of
Ireland on a scale of 8 m. to an inch. He was also the author of
Excursions in and about Newfoundland (2 vols., 1842); Narrative of
the Surveying Voyage ofH. M. S. " Fly " (2 vols., 1847) ; A Skctchoftho
Physical Structure of Australia (1850); Popular Physical Geology
(1853); Student's Manual of Geology (1857; 2nd ed. 1862; a later
edition was revised by A. Geikie, 1872); the article " Geology " in
the Ency. Brit. 8th ed. (1858) and School Manual of Geology (1863).
See Letters, &c., of J. Beete Jukes, edited, with Connecting Memorial
Notes, by his Sister (C. A, Browne) (1871), to which is added a
chronological list of Jukes's writings.
JULIAN (FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS) (331-363), commonly
called JULIAN THE APOSTATE, Roman emperor, was born in
JULIAN
Constantinople in 331,' the son of Julius Constantius and his
wife Basilina, and nephew of Constantine the Great. He was
thus a member of the dynasty under whose auspices Christianity
became the established religion of Rome. The name Flavius
he inherited from his paternal grandfather Constantius Chlorus;
Julianus came from his maternal grandfather; Claudius had
been assumed by Constantine's family in order to assert a
connexion with Claudius Gothicus.
Julian lost his mother not many months after he was born.
He was only six when his imperial uncle died; and one of his
earliest memories must have been the fearful massacre of his
father and kinsfolk, in the interest and more or less at the insti-
gation of the sons of Constantine. Only Julian and his elder
half-brother Callus were spared, Callus being too ill and Julian too
young to excite the fear or justify the cruelty of the murderers.
Gallus was banished, but Julian was allowed to remain in Con-
stantinople, where he was carefully educated under the super-
vision of the family eunuch Mardonius, and of Eusebius, bishop
of Nicomedia. About 344 Gallus was recalled, and the two
brothers were removed to Macellum, a remote and lonely castle
in Cappadocia. Julian was trained to the profession of the
Christian religion; but he became early attracted to the old
faith, or rather to the idealized amalgam of paganism and philo-
sophy which was current among his teachers, the rhetoricians.
Cut off from all sympathy with the reigning belief by the terrible
fate of his family, and with no prospect of a public career, he
turned with all the eagerness of an enthusiastic temperament to
the literary and philosophic studies of the time. The old
Hellenic world had an irresistible attraction for him. Love for
its culture was in Julian's mind intimately associated with
loyalty to its religion.
In the meantime the course of events had left as sole autocrat
of the Roman Empire his cousin Constantius, who, feeling himself
unequal to the enormous task, called Julian's brother Gallus to
a share of power, and in March 351 appointed him Caesar. At
the same time Julian was permitted to return to Constantinople,
where he studied grammar under Nicocles and rhetoric under
the Christian sophist Hecebolius. After a short stay in the capi-
tal Julian was ordered to remove to Nicomedia, where he made
the acquaintance of some of the most eminent rhetoricians of the
time, and became confirmed in his secret devotion to the pagan
faith. He promised not to attend the lectures of Libanius, but
bought and read them. But his definite conversion to paganism
was attributed to the neoplatonist Maximus of Ephesus, who may
have visited him at Nicomedia. The downfall of Gallus (354),
who had been appointed governor of the East, again exposed
Julian to the greatest danger. By his rash and headstrong
conduct Gallus had incurred the enmity of Constantius and the
eunuchs, his confidential ministers, and was put to death.
Julian fell under a like suspicion, and narrowly escaped the same
fate. For some months he was confined at Milan (Mediolanum)
till at the intercession of the empress Eusebia, who always felt
kindly towards him, permission was given him to retire to a small
property in Bithynia. While he was on his way, Constantius
recalled him, but allowed — or rather ordered — him to take up
his residence at Athens. The few months he spent there (July-
October 355) were probably the happiest of his life.
The emperor Constantius and Julian were now the sole sur-
viving male members of the family of Constantine; and, as the
emperor again felt himself oppressed by the cares of government,
there was no alternative but to call Julian to his assistance.
At the instance of the empress he was summoned to Milan,
where Constantius bestowed upon him the hand of his sister
Helena, together with the title of Caesar and the government of
Gaul.
A task of extreme difficulty awaited him beyond the Alps.
During recent troubles the Alamanni and other German tribes
had crossed the Rhine; they had burned many flourishing cities,
1 For the date of Julian's birth see Gibbon's Decline and Fall (ed.
Bury), ii. 247, note II. The choice seems to lie between May 331
and May 332. If the former be adopted, Julian must have died
in the thirty-third, not the thirty-second, year of his age (as stated in
Ammianus Marcellinus, xxv. 3, 23).
and extended their ravages far into the interior of Gaul. The
internal government of the province had also fallen into great
confusion. In spite of his inexperience, Julian quickly brought
affairs into order. He completely overthrew the Alamanni in
the great battle of Strassburg (August 357). The Frankish
tribes which had settled on the western bank of the lower Rhine
were reduced to submission. In Gaul he rebuilt the cities which
had been laid waste, re-established the administration on a just
and secure footing, and as far as possible lightened the taxes,
which weighed so heavily on the poor provincials. Paris was
the usual residence of Julian during his government of Gaul,
and his name has become inseparably associated with the early
history of the city.
Julian's reputation was now established. He was general of a
victorious army enthusiastically attached to him and governor
of a province which he had saved from ruin; but he had also
become an object of fear and jealousy at the imperial court.
Constantius accordingly resolved to weaken his power. A
threatened invasion of the Persians was made an excuse for with-
drawing some of the best legions from the Gallic army. Julian
recognized the covert purpose of this, yet proceeded to fulfil the
commands of the emperor. A sudden movement of the legions
themselves decided otherwise. At Paris, on the night of the
parting banquet, they forced their way into Julian's tent, and,
proclaiming him emperor, offered him the alternative either of
accepting the lofty title or of an instant death. Julian accepted
the empire, and sent an embassy with a deferential message to
Constantius. The message being contemptuously disregarded,
both sides prepared for a decisive struggle. After a march of
unexampled rapidity through the Black Forest and down the
Danube, Julian reached Sirmium, and was on the way to Con-
stantinople, when he received news of the death of Constantius,
who had set out from Syria to meet him, at Mopsucrene
in Cilicia (Nov. 3, 361). Without further trouble Julian found
himself everywhere acknowledged the sole ruler of the Roman
Empire; it is even asserted that Constantius himself on his
death-bed had designated him his successor. Julian entered
Constantinople on the nth of December 361.
Julian had already made a public avowal of paganism, of
which he had been a secret adherent from the age of twenty. It
was no ordinary profession, but the expression of a strong and
even enthusiastic conviction; the restoration of the pagan wor-
ship was to be the great aim and controlling principle of his
government. His reign was too short to show what precise
form the pagan revival might ultimately have taken, how far
his feelings might have become embittered by his conflict with the
Christian faith, whether persecution, violence and civil war might
not have taken the place of the moral suasion which was the
method he originally affected. He issued an edict of universal
toleration; but in many respects he used his imperial influence
unfairly to advance the work of restoration. In order to deprive
the Christians of the advantages of culture, and discredit them
as an ignorant sect, he forbade them to teach rhetoric. The
symbols of paganism and of the imperial dignity were so artfully
interwoven on the standards of the legions that they could not
pay the usual homage to the emperor without seeming to offer
worship to the gods; and, when the soldiers came forward to
receive the customary donative, they were required to throw a
handful of incense on the altar. Without directly excluding
Christians from the high offices of state, he held that the wor-
shippers of the gods ought to have the preference. In short,
though there was no direct persecution, he exerted much more
than a moral pressure to restore the power and prestige of the
old faith.
Having spent the winter of 361-362 at Constantinople, Julian
proceeded to Antioch to prepare for his great expedition against
Persia. His stay there was a curious episode in his life. It is
doubtful whether his pagan convictions or his ascetic life, after
the fashion of an antique philosopher, gave most offence to the
so-called Christians of the dissolute city. They soon grew
heartily tired of each other, and Julian took up his winter quar-
ters at Tarsus, from which in early spring he marched against
Persia. At the head of a powerful and well-appointed army he
advanced through Mesopotamia and Assyria as far as Ctesiphon,
near which he crossed the Tigris, in face of a Persian army
which he defeated. Misled by the treacherous advice of a
Persian nobleman, he desisted from the siege, and set out to seek
the main army of the enemy under Shapur II. (q.v.). After a
long, useless march he was forced to retreat, and found himself
enveloped by the whole Persian army, in a waterless and desolate
country, at the hottest season of the year. The Romans repulsed
the enemy in many an obstinate battle, but on the 26th of June
363 Julian, who was ever in the front, was mortally wounded.
The same night he died in his tent. In the most authentic
historian of his reign, Ammianus Marcellinus, we find a noble
speech, which he is said to have addressed to his afflicted officers.
Soon after his death the rumour spread that the fatal wound
had been inflicted by a Christian in the Roman army. The
well-known statement, first found in Theodoret (fl. sth century),
that Julian threw his blood towards heaven, exclaiming, " Thou
hast conquered, O Galilean!" is probably a development of the
• account of his death in the poems of Ephraem Syrus.
From Julian's unique position as the last champion of a
dying polytheism, his character has always excited interest.
Authors such as Gregoryof Nazianzus have heaped the fiercest
anathemas upon him; but a just and sympathetic criticism finds
many noble qualities in his character. In childhood and youth
he had learned to regard Christianity as a persecuting force.
The only sympathetic friends he met were among the pagan
rhetoricians and philosophers; and he found a suitable outlet
for his restless and inquiring mind only in the studies of ancient
Greece. In this way he was attracted to the old paganism; but
it was a paganism idealized by the philosophy of the time.
In 'other respects Julian was no unworthy successor of the
Antonines. Though brought up in a studious and pedantic
solitude, he was no sooner called to the government of Gaul than
he displayed all the energy, the hardihood and the practical
sagacity of an old Roman. In temperance, self-control and zeal
for the public good, as he understood it, he was unsurpassed.
To these Roman qualities he added the culture, literary instincts
and speculative curiosity of a Greek. One of the most remark-
able features of his public life was the perfect ease and mastery
with which he associated the cares of war and statesman-
ship with the assiduous cultivation of literature and philo-
sophy. Yet even his devotion to culture was not free from
pedantry and dilettantism. His contemporaries observed in
him a want of naturalness. He had not the moral health or
the composed and reticent manhood of a Roman, or the spon-
taneity of a Greek. He was never at rest; in the rapid torrent
of his conversation he was apt to run himself out of breath; his
manner was jerky and spasmodic. He showed quite a deferen-
tial regard for the sophists and rhetoricians of the time, and
advanced them to high offices of state; there was real cause for
fear that he would introduce the government of pedants in the
Roman empire. Last of all, his love for the old philosophy was
sadly disfigured by his devotion to the old superstitions. He was
greatly given to divination; he was noted for the number of his
sacrificial victims. Wits applied to him the joke that had been
passed on Marcus Aurelius: " The white cattle to Marcus Caesar,
greeting. If you conquer, there is an end of us."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The works of Julian, of which there are complete
editions by E. Spanheim (Leipzig, 1696) and F. C. Hertlein (Teubner
series, 1875-1876), consist of the following: (l) Letters, of which more
than eighty have been preserved under his name, although the
genuineness of several has been disputed. For his views on religious
toleration and his attitude towards Christians and Jews the most
important are 25-27, 51, 52, and the fragment in Hertlein, i. 371.
The letter of Gallus to Julian, warning him against reverting to
heathenism, is probably a Christian forgery. Six new letters were
discovered in 1884 by A. Papadopulos Kerameus in a monastery
on the island of Chalcis near Constantinople (see Rheinisches Museum,
xlii., 1887). Separate edition of the letters by L. H. Heyler (1828) ;
see also J. Bidez and F. Cumont, " Recherches sur la tradition MS.
des lettres de 1'empereur Julien " in Memoires couronnes . . . publies
par I'Acad. royale de Belgique, Ivii. (1898) and F. £umont, Sur
V authenticity de quelques lettres de Julien (1889). (2) Orations, eight
in number — two panegyrics on Constantius, one on the empress Euse-
JULICH 549
bia, two theosophioal declamations on King Helios and the Mother
of the Gods, two essays on true and false cynicism, and a consolatory
address to himself on the departure of his friend Salustius to the East.
(3) Caesares or Symposium, a satirical composition after the manner
of Seneca's Apocolocyntosis, in which the deified Caesars appear in
succession at a banquet given in Olympus, to be censured for their
vices and crimes by old Silenus. (4) Misopogon (the beard-hater),
written at Antioch, a satire on the licentiousness of its inhabitants;
while at the same time his own person and manner of life are treated
in a whimsical spirit. It also contains a charming description of
Lutetia (Paris). It owes its name to the ridicule heaped upon his
beard by the Antiocheans, who were in the habit of shaving. (5) Five
epigrams, two of which (Anth. Pal., ix. 365, 368) are of some interest.
(6) Kara. Xpurriavoic (Adversus Christianas) in three books, an attack
on Christianity written during the Persian campaign, is lost.
Theodosius II. ordered all copies of it to be destroyed, and our
knowledge of its contents is derived almost entirely from the Contra
Julianum of Cyril, bishop of Alexandria, written sixty years later
(see Juliani librorum contra Christianas quae supersunt, ed. C.J.
Neumann 1880). English Translations: Select works by J. Dun-
combe (1784) containing all except the first seven orations (viii.
and the fable from vii. are included) : the theosophical addresses
to King Helios and the Mother of the Gods by Thomas Taylor
(1793) and C. W. King in Bohn's Classical Library (1888) ; the public
letters, by E. J. Chinnock (1901).
AUTHORITIES. — I. Ancient: (a) Pagan writers. Of these the
most trustworthy and impartial is the historian Ammianus Mar-
cellinus (xv. 8-xxv.), a contemporary and in part an eye-witness of
the events he describes (other historians are Zosimus and Eutropius) ;
the sophist Libanius, who in speaking of his imperial friend
shows himself creditably free from exaggeration and servility;
Eunapius (in his lives of Maximus, Oribasius, the physician and
friend of Julian, and Prohaeresius) and Claudius Mamertinus, the
panegyrist, are less trustworthy. (6) Christian writers. Gregory
of Nazianzus, the author of two violent invectives against Julian;
Rufinus; Socrates; Sozomen; Theodoret; Philostorgius ; the poems
of Ephraem Syrus written in 363; Zonaras; Cedrenus; and later
Byzantine chronographers. The impression which Julian produced
on the Christians of the East is reflected in two Syriac romances
published by J. G. E. Hoffmann, Julianas der Abtriinnige (1880;
see also Th. Noldeke in Zeitschnft der deutschen morgenldndischen
Gesellschaft [1874], xxviii. 263).
2. Modern. For works before 1878 see R. Engelmann, Scriptores
Graeci (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1880). Of later works the most
important are G. H. Rendall, The Emperor Julian, Paganism and
Christianity (1879) ; Alice Gardner, Julian, Philosopher and Emperor
(1895) ; G. Negri, Julian the Apostate (Eng. trans., 1905) ; E. Muller,
Kaiser Flavins Claudius Julianus (1901); P. Allard, Julien I'apostat
(1900-1903); G. Mau, Die ReligionsphUosophie Kaiser Julians in
seinen Reden auf Konig Helios und die Gdttermutter (1907); J. E.
Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship (1906), p. 356; W. Christ,
Geschichteder griechischenLitteralur(i8<)8),§6o3; I. Geffcken, "Kaiser
Julianus und die Streitschriften seiner Gegner, in Neue Jahrb. f.
das klassische Altertum (1908), pp. 161-195. The sketch by Gibbon
(Decline and Fall, chs. xix., xxii.-xxiv.) and the articles by J. Words-
worth in Smith's Dictionary of Christian Biography and A. Harnack
in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie
ix. (1901) are valuable, the last especially for the bibliography.
(T. K.;J. H.F.)
JULICH (Fr. Juliers), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
Rhine province, on the right bank of the Roer, 16 m. N. E. of
Aix-Ia-Chapelle. Pop. (1900), 5459. It contains an Evangelical
and two Roman Catholic churches, a gymnasium, a school for
non-commissioned officers, which occupies the former ducal
palace, and a museum of local antiquities. Its manufactures
include sugar, leather and paper. Julich (formerly also Gulch,
Guliche) the capital of the former duchy of that name, is the
Juliacum of the Antonini Ilinerarium; some have attributed its
origin to Julius Caesar. It became a fortress in the i7th cen-
tury, and was captured by the archduke Leopold in 1609, by
the Dutch under Maurice of Orange in i6io,andby the Spaniards
in 1622. In 1794 it was taken by the French, who held it until
the peace of Paris in 1814. Till 1860, when its works were
demolished, Julich ranked as a fortress of the second class.
JULICH, or JULIERS, DUCHY OF. In the 9th century a certain
Matfried was count of Julich (pagus Juliacensis), and towards
the end of the nth century one Gerhard held this dignity.
This Gerhard founded a family of hereditary counts, who held
Julich as immediate vassals of the emperor, and in 1356 the
county was raised to the rank of a duchy. The older and
reigning branch of the family died in 1423, when Julich passed
to Adolph, duke of Berg (d. 1437), who belonged to a younger
branch, and who had obtained Berg by virtue of the marriage
550 JULIEN
of one of his ancestors. Nearly a century later Mary (d. 1543)
the heiress of these two duchies, married John, the heir of the
duchy of Cleves, and in 1521 the three duchies, Jiilich, Berg and
Cleves, together with the counties of Ravensberg and La Marck,
were united under John's sway. John died in 1539 and was
succeeded by his son William who reigned until 1592.
At the beginning of the 1 7th century the duchies became very
prominent in European politics. The reigning duke, John
William, was childless and insane, and several princes were only
waiting for his demise in order to seize his lands. The most
prominent of these princes were two Protestant princes, Philip
Louis, count palatine of Neuburg, who was married to the duke's
sister Anna, and John Sigismund, elector of Brandenburg,
whose wife was the daughter of another sister. Two other
sisters were married to princes of minor importance. Moreover,
by virtue of an imperial promise made in 1485 and renewed in
1495, the elector of Saxony claimed the duchies of Jiilich and
Berg, while the proximity of the coveted lands to the Netherlands
made their fate a matter of great moment to the Dutch. When
it is remembered that at this time there was a great deal of
tension between the Roman Catholics and the Protestants, who
were fairly evenly matched in the duchies, and that the rivalry
between France and the Empire was very keen, it will be seen
that the situation lacked no element of discord. In March 1609
Duke John William died. Having assured themselves of the
support of Henry IV. of France and of the Evangelical Union,
Brandenburg and Neuburg at once occupied the duchies. To
counter this stroke and to support the Saxon claim, the emperor
Rudolph II. ordered some imperialist and Spanish troops to
seize the disputed lands, and it was probably only the murder
of Henry IV. in May 1610 and the death of the head of the
Evangelical Union, the elector palatine, Frederick IV., in the
following September, which prevented, or rather delayed, a
great European war. About this time the emperor adjudged
the duchies to Saxony, while the Dutch captured the fortress of
Jiilich; but for all practical purposes victory remained with
the " possessing princes," as Brandenburg and Neuburg were
called, who continued to occupy and to administer the lands.
These two princes had made a compact at Dortmund in 1609
to act together in defence of their rights, but proposals for a mar-
riage alliance between the two houses broke down and differences
soon arose between them. The next important step was the
timely conversion of the count palatine's heir, Wolfgang William
of Neuburg, to Roman Catholicism, and his marriage with a
daughter of the powerful Roman Catholic prince, Duke Maxi-
milian of Bavaria. The rupture between the possessing princes
was now complete. Each invited foreign aid. Dutch troops
marched to assist the elector of Brandenburg and Spanish ones
came to aid the count palatine, but through the intervention
of England and France peace was made and the treaty of Xanten
was signed in November 1614. By this arrangement Branden-
burg obtained Jiilich and Berg, the rest of the lands falling
to the count palatine. In 1666 the great elector, Frederick
William of Brandenburg, made with William, count palatine of
Neuburg, a treaty of mutual succession to the duchies, providing
that in case the male line of either house became extinct the
other should inherit its lands.
The succession to the duchy of Jiilich was again a matter of
interest in the earlier part of the i8th century. The family of
the counts palatine of Neuburg was threatened with extinction
and the emperor Charles VI. promised the succession to Jiilich
to the Prussian king, Frederick William I., in return for a
guarantee of the pragmatic sanction. A little later, however,
he promised the same duchy to the count palatine of Sulzbach,
a kinsman of the count palatine of Neuburg. Then Frederick
the Great, having secured Silesia, abandoned his claim to Jiilich,
which thus passed to Sulzbach when, in 1742, the family of
Neuburg became extinct. From Sulzbach the duchy came to the
electors palatine of the Rhine, and, when this family died out in
1799, to the elector of Bavaria, the head of the other branch of
the house of Wittelsbach. In 1801 Jiilich was seized by France,
and by the settlement of 1815 it came into the hands of Prussia.
Its area was just over 1600 sq. m. and its population about
400,000.
See Kuhl, Geschichte der Stadl Jiilich; M. Ritter, Sachsen und der
Jiilicher Erbfolgestreit (1873), and Der Jiilicher Erbfolgekrieg, 1610 und
1611 (1877); A. Miiller, Der Julich-Klevesche Erbfolgestreit im Jahrt
1614 (1900) and H. H. Koch, Die Reformation im Herzogtum Jiilich
1883-1888).
JULIEN, STANISLAS (i797?-i873), French orientalist, was
born at Orleans, probably on the i3th of April 1797. Stanislas
Julien, a mechanic of Orleans, had two sons, Noel, born on the
i3th of April 1797, and Stanislas, born on the 2oth of September
1799. It appears that the younger son died in America, and
that Noel then adopted his brother's name. He studied classics
at the college de France, and in 1821 was appointed assistant
professor of Greek. In the same year he published an edition of
the 'EXetTjs apirafri of Coluthus, with versions in French, Latin,
English, German, Italian and Spanish. He attended the lectures
of Abel Remusat on Chinese, and his progress was as rapid as it
had been in other languages. From the first, as if by intuition,
he mastered the genius of the language; and in 1824 he published
a Latin translation of a part of the works of Mencius (Mang-tse),
one of the nine classical books of the Chinese. Soon afterwards
he translated the modern Greek odes of Kalvos under the title
of La Lyre patriotique de la Grece. But such works were not
profitable in a commercial sense, and, being without any patri-
mony, Julien was glad to accept the assistance of Sir William
Drummond and others, until in 1827 he was appointed sub-
librarian to the French institute. In 1 83 2 he succeeded Remusat
as professor of Chinese at the college de France. In 1833 he was
elected a member of the Academic des Inscriptions in the place
of the orientalist, Antoine Jean Saint-Martin. For some years
his studies had been directed towards the dramatic and lighter
literature of the Chinese, and in rapid succession he now brought
out translations of the Hoei-lan-ki(L'Histoire du cercle de craie),
a drama in which occurs a scene curiously analogous to the judg-
ment of Solomon; the Pih shay tsing ki; and the Tchao-chi kou
eul, upon which Voltaire had founded his Orphelin de la Chine
(I7SS)- With the versatility which belonged to his genius, he
next turned, apparently without difficulty, to the very different
style common to Taoist writings, and translated in 1835 Le Livre
des recompenses et des peines of Lao-tsze. About this time the
cultivation of silkworms was beginning to attract attention in
France, and by order of the minister of agriculture Julien com-
piled, in 1837, a Resume des principaux traitfs chinois sur la
culture des muriers, et I'fducation des vers-a-soie, which was
speedily translated into English, German, Italian and Russian.
Nothing was more characteristic of his method of studying
Chinese than his habit of collecting every peculiarity of idiom
and expression which he met with in his reading; and, in order
that others might reap the benefit of his experiences, he published
in 1841 Discussions grammaticales sur cerlaines regies de position
qui, en chinois, jouent le meme role que les inflexions dans les auires
langues, which he followed in 1842 by Exercices pratiques
d'analyse, de syntaxe, et de lexigraphie chinoise. Meanwhile in
1839, he had been appointed joint keeper of the Bibliotheque
royale, with the especial superintendence of the Chinese books,
and shortly afterwards he was made administrator of the college
de France.
The facility with which he had learned Chinese, and the success
which his proficiency commanded, naturally inclined less gifted
scholars to resent the impatience with which he regarded their
mistakes, and at different times bitter controversies arose bet ween
Julien and his fellow sinologues on the one subject which they
had in common. In 1842 appeared from his busy pen a trans-
lation of the Too te King, the celebrated work in which Lao-tsze
attempted to explain his idea of the relation existing between
the universe and something which he called Tao, and on which
the religion of Taoism is based. From Taoism to Buddhism
was a natural transition, and about this time Julien turned his
attention to the Buddhist literature of China, and more especially
to the travels of Buddhist pilgrims to India. In order that he
might better understand the references to Indian institutions,
JULIUS (POPES)
and the transcriptions in Chinese of Sanskrit words and proper
names, he began the study of Sanskrit, and in 1853 brought out
his Voyages du pelerin Hiouen-tsang, which is regarded by some
critics as his most valuable work. Six years later he published
Les Avaddnas, contes et apologues Indiens inconnus jusqu'a ce
jour, suivis de poesies et de nouveiles chinoises. For the benefit of
future students he disclosed his system of deciphering Sanskrit
words occurring in Chinese books in his Methode pour dechifrer et
transcrireles noms sanserifs qui se rencontrenl dans les limes chinois
(1861). This work, which contains much of interest and impor-
tance, falls short of the value which its author was accustomed
to attach to it. It had escaped his observation that, since the
translations of Sanskrit works into Chinese were undertaken in
different parts of the empire, the same Sanskrit words were of
necessity differently represented in Chinese characters in accor-
dance with the dialectical variations. No hard and fast rule can
therefore possibly be laid down for the decipherment of Chinese
transcriptions of Sanskrit words, and the effect of this impossi-
bility was felt though not recognized by Julien, who in order to
make good his rule was occasionally obliged to suppose that
wrong characters had by mistake been introduced into the texts.
His Indian studies led to a controversy with Joseph Toussaint
Reinaud, which was certainly not free from the gall of bitterness.
Among the many subjects to which he turned his attention were
the native industries of China, and his work on the Hisloire et
fabrication de la porcelaine chinoise is likely to remain a standard
work on the subject. In another volume he also published
an account of the Industries anciennes et modernes de I'empire
chinois (1869), translated from native authorities. In the inter-
vals of more serious undertakings he translated the San tseu
King (Le Lime des trois mots) ; Thsien tseu wen (Le Lime de mille
mots); Les Deux cousines; Nouveiles chinoises; the Ping chan ling
yen (Les Deux jeunes Jilles lettrees); and the Dialoghi Cinesi, Ji-
tch'ang k' eou-t' eou-koa. His last work of importance was Syntaxe
nouvclle de la langue chinoise (1869), in which he gave the result
of his study of the language, and collected a vast array of facts
and of idiomatic expressions. A more scientific arrangement
and treatment of his subject would have added much to the value
of this work, which, however, contains a mine of material which
amply repays exploration. One great secret by which Julien
acquired his grasp of Chinese, was, as we have said, his methodical
collection of phrases and idiomatic expressions. Whenever in
the course of his reading he met with a new phrase or expression,
he entered it on a card which took its place in regular order in
a long series of boxes. At his death, which took place on the
I4th of February 1873, he left, it is said, 250,000 of such cards,
about the fate of which, however, little seems to be known. In
politics Julien was imperialist, and in 1863 he was made a com-
mander of the legion of honour in recognition of the services he
had rendered to literature during the second empire.
See notice and bibliography by Wallon, Mem. de I'Acad. des
Inscr. (1884), xxxi. 409-458. (R. K. D.)
JULIUS, the name of three popes.
JULIUS I., pope from 337 to 352, was chosen as successor of
Marcus after the Roman see had been vacant four months. He
is chiefly known by the part which he took in the Arian con-
troversy. After the Eusebians had, at a synod held in Antioch,
renewed their deposition of Athanasius they resolved to send
delegates to Constans, emperor of the West, and also to Julius,
setting forth the grounds on which they had proceeded. The
latter, after expressing an opinion favourable to Athanasius,
adroitly invited both parties to lay the case before a synod to be
presided over by himself. This proposal, however, the Eastern
bishops declined to accept. On his second banishment from
Alexandria, Athanasius came to Rome, and was recognized as a
regular bishop by the synod held in 340. It was through the
influence of Julius that, at a later date, the council of Sardica in
Illyria was held, which was attended only by seventy-six Eastern
bishops, who speedily withdrew to Philippopolis and deposed
Julius, along with Athanasius and others. The Western bishops
who remained confirmed the previous decisions of the Roman
synod; and by its 3rd, 4th and sth decrees relating to the rights
of revision, the council of Sardica endeavoured to settle the
procedure of ecclesiastical appeals. Julius on his death in April
352 was succeeded by Liberius. (L. D.*)
JULIUS II. (Giuliano della Rovere), pope from the ist of
November 1503 to the 2ist of February 1513, was born at Savona
in 1443. He was at first intended for a commercial career, but
later was sent by his uncle, subsequently Sixtus IV., to be edu-
cated among the Franciscans, although he does not appear to
have joined that order. He was loaded with favours during
his uncle's pontificate, being made bishop of Carpentras, bishop
'of Bologna, bishop of Vercelli, archbishop of Avignon, cardinal-
priest of S. Pietro in Vincoli and of Sti Dodici Apostoli, and car-
dinal-bishop of Sabina, of Frascati, and finally of Ostia and
Velletri. In 1480 he was made legate to France, mainly to settle
the question of the Burgundian inheritance, and acquitted him-
self with such ability during his two years' stay that he acquired
an influence in the college of cardinals which became paramount
during the pontificate of Innocent VIII. A rivalry, however,
growing up between him and Roderigo Borgia, he took refugj
at Ostia after the latter's election as Alexander VI., and in 1494
went to France, where he incited Charles VIII. to undertake the
conquest of Naples. He accompanied the young king on his
campaign, and sought to convoke a council to inquire into the
conduct of the pope with a view to his deposition, but was
defeated in this through Alexander's machinations. During the
remainder of that pontificate Della Rovere remained in France,
nominally in support of the pope, for whom he negotiated the
treaty of 1498 with Louis XII., but in reality bitterly hostile
to him. On the death of Alexander (1503) he returned to Italy
and supported the election of Pius III., who was then suffering
from an incurable malady, of which he died shortly afterwards.
Della Rovere then won the support of Cesare Borgia and was
unanimously elected pope. Julius II. from the beginning
repudiated the system of nepotism which had flourished under
Sixtus IV., Innocent VIII. and Alexander VI., and set himself
with courage and determination to restore, consolidate and
extend the temporal possessions of the Church. By dexterous
diplomacy he first succeeded (1504) in rendering it impossible
for Cesare Borgia to remain in Italy. He then pacified Rome
and the surrounding country by reconciling the powerful houses
of Orsini and Colonna and by winning the other nobles to his own
cause. In 1504 he arbitrated on the differences between France
and Germany, and concluded an alliance with them in order to
oust the Venetians from Faenza, Rimini and other towns which
they occupied. The alliance at first resulted only in compelling
the surrender of a few unimportant fortresses in the Romagna;
but Julius freed Perugia and Bologna in the brilliant campaign
of 1506. In 1508 he concluded against Venice the famous
league of Cambray with the emperor Maximilian, Louis XII.
of France and Ferdinand of Aragon, and in the following year
placed the city of Venice under an interdict. By the single
battle of Agnadello the Italian dominion of Venice was practi-
cally lost; but as the allies were not satisfied with merely effect-
ing his purposes, the pope entered into a combination with the
Venetians against those who immediately' before had been
engaged in his behalf. He absolved the Venetians in the beginning
of 1510, and shortly afterwards placed the ban on France. At
a synod convened by Louis XII. at Tours in September, the
French bishops announced their withdrawal from the papal
obedience and resolved, with Maximilian's co-operation, to seek
the deposition of Julius. In November 1511 a council actually
met at Pisa for this object, but its efforts were fruitless. Julius
forthwith formed the Holy league with Ferdinand of Aragon and
with Venice against France, in which both Henry VIII. and the
emperor ultimately joined. The French were driven out of Italy
in 1 5 1 2 and papal authority was once more securely established in
the states immediately around Rome. Julius had already issued,
on the i8th of July 1511, the summons for a general council to
deal with France, with the reform of the Church, and with a war
against the Turks. This council, which is known as the Fifth
Lateran, assembled on the 3rd of May 1512, condemned the
celebrated pragmatic sanction of the French church, and was
552
still in session when Julius died. In the midst of his combats,
Julius never neglected his ecclesiastical duties. His bull of the
i4th of January 1505 against simony in papal elections was
re-enacted by the Lateran council (February 16, 1513). He
condemned duelling by bull of the 24th of February 1 509. He
effected some reforms in the monastic orders; urged the conver-
sion of the sectaries in Bohemia ; and sent missionaries to America,
India, Abyssinia and the Congo. His government of the Papal
States was excellent. Julius is deserving of particular honour
for his patronage of art and literature. He did much to improve
and beautify Rome; he laid the foundation-stone of St Peter's
(April 1 8, 1506); he founded the Vatican museum; and he was
a friend and patron of Bramante, Raphael and Michelangelo.
While moderate in personal expenditure, Julius resorted to
objectionable means of replenishing the papal treasury, which
had been exhausted by Alexander VI., and of providing funds
for his numerous enterprises; simony and traffic in indulgences
were increasingly prevalent. Julius was undoubtedly in energy
and genius one of the greatest popes since Innocent III., and
it is a misfortune of the Church that his temporal policy
eclipsed his spiritual office. Though not despising the Machia-
vellian arts of statecraft so universally practised in his day, he
was nevertheless by nature plain-spoken and sincere, and in
his last years grew violent and crabbed. He died of a fever on
the zist of February 1513, and was succeeded by Leo X.
See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. vi., trans, by F. I. Antrobus
( 1 898) ; M . Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. v. ( 1 90 1 ) ; F. Gregoro-
vius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. viii., trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton
(1900-1902); Hefele-Hergenrother, Concilieneeschichte, vol. viii., 2nd
ed.; J. Klaczko, Rome etlarenaissance . . . JulesII. (1898), trans, into
English by J. Dennie (New York, 1903) ; M. Brosch, Papst Julius II.
u. die Griindung des Kirchenstaates (1878); A. J. Dumesnil, Histoire
de Jules II. (1873) ; J. J. I. von Dollinger, Beitrage zur polit., kirchl.,
u. Cultur-Gcschichte der seeks letzten Jahrhunderte, vol. iii. (1882);
A. Schulte, Die Fugger in Rom 1495—1523, mil Studien zur Gesch,
des kirchlichen Finanzwesens jener Zeit (1904). (C. H. HA.)
JULIUS III. (Giovanni Maria del Monte), pope from 1550 to
IS5S. was born on the loth of September 1487. He was created
cardinal by Paul III. in 1536, filled several important legations,
and was elected pope on the yth of February 1550, despite the
opposition of Charles V., whose enmity he had incurred as presi-
dent of the council of Trent. Love of ease and desire for peace
moved him, however, to adopt a conciliatory attitude, and to
yield to the emperor's desire for the reassembling of the council
(September 1551), suspended since 1549. But deeming Charles's
further demands inconvenient, he soon found occasion in the
renewal of hostilities to suspend the council once more (April
1552). As an adherent of the emperor he suffered in consequence
of imperial reverses, and was forced to confirm Parma to Ottavio
Farnese, the ally of France (1552). Weary of politics, and
obeying a natural inclination to pleasure, Julius then virtually
abdicated the management of affairs, and gave himself up to
enjoyment, amusing himself with the adornment of his villa, near
the Porta del Popolo, and often so far forgetting the proprieties
of his office as to participate in entertainments of a questionable
character. His nepotism was of a less ambitious order than that
of Paul III.; but he provided for his family out of the offices and
revenues of the Church, and advanced unworthy favourites to
the cardinalate. What progress reform made during his pontifi-
cate was due to its acquired momentum, rather than to the zeal
of the pope. Yet under. Julius steps were taken to abolish
plurality of benefices and to restore monastic discipline; the
Collegium Germanicum, for the conversion of Germans, was
established in Rome, 1552; and England was absolved by the
cardinal-legate Pole, and received again into the Roman com-
munion (1554). Julius died on the 23rd of March 1555, and was
succeeded by Marcellus II.
See Panvinio, continuator of Platina, De Vitis Pontiff. Rom.;
Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom. (Rome, 1601-
1602) (both contemporaries of Julius III.); Ranke, Popes (Eng.
trans., Austin), i. 276 seq. ; v. Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom.,
iii. 2, 503 seq.; Brosch, Gesch. des Kirchenstaates (1880), i. 189 seq.;
and extended bibliography in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie . s.v.
" Julius III." (f . F. C.)
JULLIEN— JUMALA
JULLIEN, LOUIS ANTOINE (1812-1860), musical conductor,
was born at Sisteron, Basses Alpes, France, on the 23rd of April
1812, and studied at the Paris conservatoire. His fondness
for the lightest forms of music cost him his position in the school,
and after conducting the band of the Jardin Turc he was com-
pelled to leave Paris to escape his creditors, and came to London,
where he formed a good orchestra and established promenade
concerts. Subsequently he travelled to Scotland, Ireland and
America with his orchestra. For many years he was a familiar
figure in the world of popular music in England, and his portly
form with its gorgeous waistcoats occurs very often in the early
volumes of Punch. He brought out an opera, Pielro U Grande,
at Covent Garden (1852) on a scale of magnificence that ruined
him, for the piece was a complete failure. He was in America
until 1854, when he returned to London for a short time; ulti-
mately he went back to Paris, where, in 1859, he was arrested
for debt and put into prison. He lost his reason soon afterwards,
and died on the I4th of March 1860.
JULLUNDUR, or JALANDHAR, a city of British India, giving
its name to a district and a division in the Punjab. The city
is 260 m. by rail N.W. of Delhi. Pop. (1901), 67,735. It is
the headquarters of a brigade in the 3rd division of the northern
army. There are an American Presbyterian mission, a govern-
ment normal school, and high schools supported by Hindu bodies.
The DISTRICT OF JULLUNDUR occupies the lower part of the
tract known as the Jullundur Doab, between the rivers Sutlej
and Beas, except that it is separated from the Beas by the state
of Kapurthala. Area, 1431 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 917,587,
showing an increase of i% in the decade; the average density
is 641 persons per square mile, being the highest in the province.
Cotton-weaving and sugar manufacture are the principal
industries for export trade, and silk goods and wheat are also
exported. The district is crossed by the main line of the
North-Western railway from Phillaur towards Amritsar.
The Jullundur Doab in early times formed the Hindu kingdom
of Katoch, ruled by a family of Rajputs whose descendants still
exist in the petty princes of the Kangra hills. Under Mahom-
medan rule the Doab was generally attached to the province
of Lahore, in which it is included as a drear or governorship in
the great revenue survey of Akbar. Its governors seem to have
held an autonomous position, subject to the payment of a fixed
tribute into the imperial treasury. The Sikh revival extended
to Jullundur at an early period, and a number of petty chieftains
made themselves independent throughout the Doab. In 1766
the town of Jullundur fell into the hands of the Sikh confederacy
of Faiz-ulla-puria, then presided over by Khushal Singh. His
son and successor built a masonry fort in the town, while several
other leaders similarly fortified themselves in the suburbs.
Meanwhile, Ranjit Singh was consolidating his power in the
south, and in 1811 he annexed the Faiz-ulla-puria dominions.
Thenceforth Jullundur became the capital of the Lahore posses-
sions in the Doab until the British annexation at the close of
the first Sikh war (1846).
The DIVISION OF JULLUNDUR comprises the five districts of
Kangra, Hoshiarpur, Jullundur, Ludhiana and Ferozepore, all
lying along the river Sutlej. Area, 19,410 sq. m. Pop. (1901),
4,306,662.
See Jullundur District Gazetteer (Lahore, 1908).
JULY, the seventh month in the Christian calendar, consisting
of thirty-one days. It was originally the fifth month of the year,
and as such was called by the Romans Quintilis. The later
name of Julius was given in honour of Julius Caesar (who was
born in the month); it came into use in the year of his death.
The Anglo-Saxons called July Hegmdnalh, " hay-month," or
Maed-mdnath, " mead-month," the meadows being then in
bloom. Another name was aftera llfia, " the latter mild month,"
in contradistinction to June, which was named " the former
mild month." Chief dates of the month: 3rd July, Dog Days
begin; isth July, St Swithin; 25th July, St James.
JUMALA, the supreme god of the ancient Finns and Lapps.
Among some tribes he is called Num or Jilibeambaertje, as
protector of the flocks. Jumala indicates rather godhead than
JUMIEGES— JUMPING
553
a divine being. In the runes Ukko, the grandfather, the sender
of the thunder, takes the place of Jumala.
JUMI&GES, a village of north-western France, in the depart-
ment of Seine-Inferieure, 17 m. W. of Rouen by road, on a
peninsula formed by a bend of the Seine. Pop. (1906), 244.
Jumieges is famous for the imposing ruins of its abbey, one of
the great establishments of the Benedictine order. The principal
remains are those of the abbey-church, built from 1040 to 1067;
these comprise the facade with two towers, the walls of the nave,
a wall and sustaining arch of the great central tower and debris
of the choir (restored in the i3th century). Among the minor
relics, preserved in a small museum in a building of the i4th
century, are the stone which once covered the grave of Agnes
Sorel, and two recumbent figures of the i3th century, commonly
known as the £nervfs, and representing, according to one legend,
two sons of Clovis II., who, as a punishment for revolt against
their father, had the tendons of their arms and legs cut, and were
set adrift in a boat on the Seine. Another tradition states that
the statues represent Thassilo, duke of Bavaria, and Theodo
his son, relegated to Jumieges by Charlemagne. The church
of St Pierre, which adjoins the south side of the abbey-church,
was built in the i4th century as a continuation of a previous
church of the time of Charlemagne, of which a fragment still
survives. Among the other ruins, those of the chapter-house
(i3th century) and refectory (i2th and isth centuries) also
survive.
The abbey of Jumieges was founded about the middle of the
7th century by St Philibert, whose name is still to be read on
gold and silver coins obtained from the site. The abbey was
destroyed by the Normans, but was rebuilt in 928 by William
Longsword, duke of Normandy, and continued to exist till 1790.
Charles VII. often resided there with Agnes Sorel, who had a
manor at Mesnil-sous-Jumieges in the neighbourhood, and died
in the monastery in 1450.
JUMILLA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia,
40 m. N. by W. of Murcia by road, on the right bank of the
Arroyo del Jua, a left-bank tributary of the Segura. Pop.
(1900), 16,446. Jumilla occupies part of a narrow valley,
enclosed by mountains. An ancient citadel, several churches,
a Franciscan convent, and a hospital are the principal buildings.
The church of Santiago is noteworthy for its fine paintings and
frescoes, some of which have been attributed, though on doubtful
authority, to Peter Paul Rubens and other illustrious artists.
The local trade is chiefly in coarse cloth, esparto fabrics, wine
and farm produce.
JUMNA, or JAMUNA, a river of northern India. Rising in
the Himalayas in Tehri state, about 5 m- N. of the Jamnotri
hot springs, in 31° 3' N. and 78° 30' E., the stream first flows
S. for 7 m., then S.W. for 32 m., and afterwards due S. for 26 m.,
receiving several small tributaries in its course. It afterwards
turns sharply to the W. for 14 m., when it is joined by the large
river Tons from the north. The Jumna here emerges from the
Himalayas into the valley of the Dun, and flows in a S.W.
direction for 22m., dividing the Kiarda Dun on the W. from the
Dehra Dun on the E. It then, at the 9Sth mile of its course,
forces its way through the Siwalik hills, and debouches upon the
plains of India at Fyzabad in Saharanpur district. By this
time a large river, it gives off, near Fyzabad, the eastern and
western Jumna canals. From Fyzabad the river flows for
65 m. in a S.S.W. direction, receiving the Maskarra stream from
the east. Near Bidhauli, in Muzaffarnagar district, it turns
due S. for 80 m. to Delhi city, thence S.E. for 27 m. to near
Dankaur, receiving the waters of the Hindan river on the east.
From Dankaur it resumes its southerly course for 100 m. to
Mahaban near Muttra, where it turns E. for nearly 200 m.,
passing the towns of Agra, Ferozabad and Etawah, receiving
on its left bank the Karwan-nadi, and on its right the Banganga
(Utanghan). From Etawah it flows 140 m. S.E. to Hamirpur,
being joined by the Sengar on its north bank, and on the south
by the great river Chambal from the west, and by the Sind.
From Hamirpur, the Jumna flows nearly due E., until it enters
Allahabad district and passes Allahabad city, below which it
falls into the Ganges in 25° 25' N. and 81° 55' E. In this last
part of its course it receives the waters of the Betwa and the Ken.
Where the Jumna and the Ganges unite is the prayag, or place
of pilgrimage, where devout Hindus resort in thousands to wash
and be sanctified.
The Jumna, after issuing from the hills, has a longer course
through the United Provinces than the Ganges, but is not so
large nor so important a river; and above Agra in the hot season
it dwindles to a small stream. This is no doubt partly caused
by the eastern and western Jumna canals, of which the former,
constructed in 1823-1830, irrigates 300,000 acres in the districts
of Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar and Meerut, in the United
Provinces; while the latter, consisting of the reopened channels
of two canals dating from about 1350 and 1628 respectively,
extends through the districts of Umballa, Karnal, Hissar,
Rohtak and Delhi, and the native states of Patiala and Jind
in the Punjab, irrigating 600,000 acres. The head works of the
two canals are situated near the point where the river issues
from the Siwaliks.
The traffic on the Jumna is not very considerable; in its upper
portion timber, and in the lower stone, grain and cotton are
the chief articles of commerce, carried in the clumsy barges
which navigate its stream. Its waters are clear and blue, while
those of the Ganges are yellow and muddy; the difference
between the streams can be discerned for some distance below
the point at which they unite. Its banks are high and rugged,
often attaining the proportions of cliffs, and the ravines which
run into it are deeper and larger than those of the Ganges. It
traverses the extreme edge of the alluvial plain of Hindustan,
and in the latter part of its course it almost touches the Bundel-
khand offshoots of the Vindhya range of mountains. Its passage
is therefore more tortuous, and the scenery along its banks more
varied and pleasing, than is the case with the Ganges.
The Jumna at its source near Jamnotri is 10,849 ft- above the
sea-level; at Kotnur, 16 m. lower, it is only 5036 ft.; so that,
between these two places, it falls at the rate of 314 ft. in a
mile. At its junction with the Tons it is 1686 ft. above the
sea; at its junction with the Asan, 1470 ft.; and at the point
where it issues from the Siwalik hills into the plains, 1276 ft.
The catchment area of the river is 118,000 sq. m.; its flood
discharge at Allahabad is estimated at 1,333,000 cub. ft. per
second. The Jumna is crossed by railway bridges at Delhi,
Muttra, Agra and Allahabad, while bridges of boats are stationed
at many places. .
JUMPING,1 a branch of athletics which has been cultivated
from the earliest times (see ATHLETIC SPORTS). Leaping
competitions formed a part of the pentathlon, or quintuple games,
of the Olympian festivals, and Greek chronicles record that the
athlete Phayllus jumped a distance of 55 Olympian, or more
than 30 English, feet. Such a leap could not have been made
without weights carried in the hands and thrown backwards at
the moment of springing. These were in fact employed by Greek
jumpers and were called halteres. They were masses of stone
or metal, nearly semicircular, according to Pausanias, and the
fingers grasped them like the handles of a shield. Halteres
were also used for general exercise, like modern dumb-bells. The
Olympian jumping took place to the music of lutes.
Jumping has always been popular with British athletes, and
tradition has handed down the record of certain leaps that border
on the incredible. Two forms of jumping are included in modern
athletic contests, the running long jump and the running high
jump; but the same jumps, made from a standing position, are
also common forms of competition, as well as the hop step and
jump, two hops and jump, two jumps, three jumps, five jumps
and ten jumps, either with a run or from a standing position.
These events are again divided into two categories by the use
of weights, which are not allowed in championship contests.
1 The verb " to jump " only dates from the beginning of the i6th
century. The New English Dictionary takes it to be of onomatopoeic
origin and does not consider a connexion with Dan. gumpe, Icel.
goppa, &c., possible. The earlier English word is " leap " (O.K.
USapan, to run, jump, cf. Ger. laufen).
554
In the running long jump anything over 18 ft. was once
considered good, while Peter O'Connor's world's record (1901)
is 24 ft. i if in. The jump is made, after a short fast run on a
cinder path, from a joist sunk into the ground flush with the
path, the jumper landing in a pit filled with loose earth, its
level a few inches below that of the path. The joist, called the
" take-off," is painted white, and all jumps are measured from
its edge to the nearest mark made by any part of the jumper's
person in landing.
In the standing long jump, well spiked shoes should be worn,
for it is in reality nothing but a push against the ground, and a
perfect purchase is of the greatest importance. Weights held
in the hands of course greatly aid the jumper. Without weights
J. Darby (professional) jumped 12 ft. ij in. and R. C. Ewry
(American amateur) 1 1 ft. 4! in. With weights J. Darby covered
14 ft. 9 in. at Liverpool in 1890, while the amateur record is
12 ft. 9^ in., made by J. Chandler and G. L. Hellwig (U.S.A.).
The standing two, three, five and ten jumps are merely repetitions
of the single jump, care being taken to land with the proper
balance to begin the next leap. The record for two jumps
without weights is 22ft. 2§ in., made by H. M. Johnson (U.S.A.);
for three jumps without weights, R. C. Ewry, 35 ft. 7i in.; with
weights J. Darby, 41 ft. 7 in.
The hop step and jump is popular in Ireland and often included
in the programmes of minor meetings, and so is the two hops
and a jump. The record for the first, made by W. McManus,
is 49 ft. 25 in. with a run and without weights; for the latter,
also with a run and without weights, 49 ft. J in., made by J. B.
Conolly.
In the running high jump also the standard has improved.
In 1864 a jump of 5 ft. 6 in. was considered excellent. The
Scotch professional Donald Dinnie, on hearing that M. J. Brooks
of Oxford had jumped 6 ft. 25 in. in 1876, wrote to the news-
papers to show that upon a priori grounds such an achievement
was impossible. Since then many jumpers who can clear over
6 ft. have appeared. In 1895 M. F. Sweeney of New York accom-
plished a jump of 6 ft. 5$ in. Ireland has produced many first-
class high jumpers, nearly all tall men, P. Leahy winning the
British amateur record in Dublin in 1898 with a jump of 6 ft.
4! in. The American A. Bird Page, however, although only
S ft. 6$ in. in height, jumped 6 ft. 4 in. High jumping is done
over a light staff or lath resting upon pins fixed in two uprights
upon which a scale is marked. The " take-off," or ground
immediately in front of the uprights from which the spring is
made, is usually grass in Great Britain and cinders in America.
Some jumpers run straight at the bar and clear it with body
facing forward, the knees being drawn up almost to the chin as
the body clears the bar; others run and spring sideways, the feet
being thrown upwards and over the bar first, to act as a kind
of lever in getting the body over. There should be a shallow
pit of loose earth or a mattress to break the fall.
The standing high jump is rarely seen in regular athletic
meetings. The jumper stands sideways to the bar with his arms
extended upwards. He then swings his arms down slowly,
bending his knees at the same time, and, giving his arms a
violent upward swing, springs from the ground. As the body
rises the arms are brought down, one leg is thrown over the bar,
and the other pulled, almost jerked, after it. The record for
the standing high jump without weights is 6 ft., by J. Darby in
1892.
By the use of a spring-board many extraordinary jumps have
been made, but this kind of leaping is done only by circus
gymnasts and is not recognized by athletic authorities.
For pole-jumping see POLE-VAULTING.
See Encyclopaedia of Sport-.U.'W. Ford, "Running High Jump,"
Outing, vol. xviii. ; Running Broad Tump," Outing, vol. xix. ;
" Standing Jumping," Outing, vol. xix.; Miscellaneous Jumping,"
Outing,vol. xx. Also Sporting and Athletic Register (annual).
JUMPING-HARE, the English equivalent of springhaas, the
Boer name of a large leaping south and east African rodent
mammal, Pedetes coffer, typifying a family by itself, the
Pedelidae. Originally classed with the jerboas, to which
JUMPING-HARE— JUNAGARH
it has no affinity, this remarkable rodent approximates in the
structure of its skull to the porcupine-group, near which it is
placed by some naturalists, although others consider that its
true position is with the African scaly-tailed flying squirrels
(Anomaluridae) . The colour of the creature is bright rufous
fawn; the eyes are large; and the bristles round the muzzle very
long, the former having a fringe of long hairs. The front limbs
are short, and the hind ones very long; and although the fore-feet
have five toes, those of the hind-feet are reduced to four. The
bones of the lower part of the hind leg (tibia and fibula) are
united for a great part of their length. There are four pairs of
cheek-teeth in each jaw, which do not develop roots. The jump-
ing-hare is found in open or mountainous districts, and has habits
very like a jerboa. It is nocturnal, and dwells in composite
burrows excavated and tenanted by several families. When
feeding it progresses on all four legs, but if frightened takes
gigantic leaps on the hind-pair alone; the length of such leaps
frequently reaches twenty feet, or even more. The young are
generally three or four in number, and are born in the summer.
A second smaller species has been named. (See RODENTIA.)
JUMPING-MOUSE, the name of a North American mouse-
like rodent, Zapus hudsonius, belonging to the family Jacu-
lidae (Dipodidae), and the other members of the same genus.
Although mouse-like in general appearance, these rodents are
distinguished by their elongated hind limbs, and, typically,
by the presence of four pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw. There
are five toes to all the feet, but the first in the fore-feet is
rudimentary, and furnished with a flat nail. The cheeks are
provided with pouches. Jumping-mice were long supposed to
be confined to North America, but a species is now known from
N.W. China. It is noteworthy that whereas E. Coues in 1877
recognized but a single representative of this genus, ranging over
a large area in North America, A. Preble distinguishes no fewer
than twenty North American species and sub-species, in addition
to the one from Szechuen. Among these, it may be noted that
Z. insignis differs from the typical Z. hudsonius by the loss of
the premolar, and has accordingly been referred to a sub-genus
apart. Moreover, the Szechuen jumping-mouse differs from
the typical Zapus by the closer enamel-folds of the molars, the
shorter ears, and the white tail-tip, and is therefore made the
type of another sub-genus. In America these rodents inhabit
forest, pasture, cultivated fields or swamps, but are nowhere
numerous. When disturbed, they start off with enormous
bounds of eight or ten feet in length, which soon diminish to
three or four; and in leaping the feet scarcely seem to touch the
ground. The nest is placed in clefts of rocks, among timber or
in hollow trees, and there are generally three litters in a season.
(See RODENTIA.)
JUMPING-SHREW, a popular name for any of the terrestrial
insectivora of the African family Macroscelididae, of which there
are a number of species ranging over the African continent,
representing the tree-shrews of Asia. They are small long-
snouted gerbil-like animals, mainly nocturnal, feeding on insects,
and characterized by the great length of the metatarsal bones,
which have been modified in accordance with their leaping mode
of progression. In some (constituting the genus Rhyncocyon)
the muzzle is so much prolonged as to resemble a proboscis,
whence the name elephant-shrews is sometimes applied to the
members of the family.
JUNAGARH, or JUNAGADH, a native state of India, within the
Gujarat division of Bombay, extending inland from the southern
coast of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Area, 3284 sq. m.; pop.
(1901), 395,428, showing a decrease of 19% in the decade,
owing to famine; estimated gross revenue, £174,000; tribute to
the British government and the gaekwar of Baroda, £4200;
a considerable sum is also received as tribute from minor states
in Kathiawar. The state is traversed by a railway from Rajkot,
to the seaport of Verawal. It includes the sacred mountain
of Girnar and the ruined temple of Somnath, and also the forest
of Gir, the only place in India where the lion survives. Junagarh
ranks as a first-class state among the many chiefships of Kathia-
war, and its ruler first entered into engagements with the British
JUNCACEAE— JUNG
555
in 1807. Nawab Sir Rasul Khanji, K.C.S.I., was born in 1858
and succeeded his brother in 1892.
The modern town of JUNAGARH (34,251), 60 m. by rail S. of
Rajkot, is handsomely built and laid out. In November 1897
the foundation-stones of a hospital, library and museum were
laid, and an arts college has recently been opened.
JUNCACEAE (rush family), in botany, a natural order of
flowering plants belonging to the series Liliiflorae of the class
Monocotyledons, containing, about two hundred species in
seven genera, widely distributed in temperate and cold regions.
It is well represented in Britain by the two genera which com-
prise nearly the whole order — Juncus, rush, and Luzula, wood-
rush. They are generally perennial herbs with a creeping under-
ground stem and erect, unbranched, aerial stems, bearing slender
Juncus effusus, common rush.
1. Plant J nat. size. 4. Flower, enlarged.
2. Inflorescence, nat. size. 5. Fruit, enlarged.
3. End of branch of inflorescence 6. Seed, nat. size.
slightly enlarged. 7. Seed, much enlarged.
leaves which are grass-like or cylindrical or reduced to mem-
branous sheaths. The small inconspicuous flowers are generally
more or less crowded in terminal or lateral clusters, the form of
the inflorescence varying widely according to the manner of
branching and the length of the pedicels. The flowers are
hermaphrodite and regular, with the same number and arrange-
ment of parts as in the order Liliaceae, from which they differ in
the inconspicuous membranous character of the perianth, the
absence of honey or smell, and the brushlike stigmas with long
papillae-adaptations to wind-pollination as contrasted with the
methods of pollination by insect agency, which characterize
the Liliaceae. Juncaceae are, in fact, a less elaborated group
of the same series as Liliaceae, but adapted to a simpler and
more uniform environment than that larger and much more
highly developed family.
JUNCTION CITY, a city and the county-seat of Geary county,
Kansas, U.S.A., between Smoky Hill and Republican rivers,
about 3 m. above their confluence to form the Kansas, and 72m.
by rail W. of Topeka. Pop. (1900), 4695, of whom 545 were
foreign-born and 292 were negroes; (1905), 5494', (1910), 5598.
Junction City is served by the Union Pacific and the Missouri,
Kansas & Texas railways. It is the commercial centre of a
region in whose fertile valleys great quantities of wheat, Indian
corn, oats and hay are grown and live stock is raised, and
whose uplands contain extensive beds of limestone, which is
quarried for building purposes. Excellent water-power is
available and is partly utilized by flour mills. The munici-
pality owns and operates the waterworks. At the confluence of
Smoky Hill and Republican rivers and connected with the city
by an electric railway is Fort Riley, a U.S. military post, which
was established in 1853 as Camp Centre but was renamed in the
same year in honour of General Bennett Riley (1787-1853); in
1887 the mounted service school of the U.S. army was established
here. Northward from the post is a rugged country over which
extends a military reservation of about 19,000 acres. Adjoining
the reservation and about 5 m. N.E. of Junction City is the site
of the short-lived settlement of Pawnee, where from the 2nd
to the 6th of July 1855 the first Kansas legislature met, in a build-
ing the ruins of which still remain; the establishment of Pawnee
(in December 1854) was a speculative pro-slavery enterprise
conducted by the commandant of Fort Riley, other army officers
and certain territorial officials, and when a government survey
showed that the site lay within the Fort Riley reservation, the
settlers were ordered (August 1855) to leave, and the com-
mandant of Fort Riley was dismissed from the army; one of the
charges brought against Governor A. H. Reeder was that he had
favoured the enterprise. Junction City was founded in 1857
and was chartered as a city in 1859.
JUNE, the sixth month in the Christian calendar, consisting
of thirty days. Ovid (Fasti, vi. 25) makes Juno assert that the
name was expressly given in her honour. Elsewhere (Fasti,
vi. 87) he gives the derivation a junioribus, as May had been
derived from majores, which may be explained as in allusion
either to the two months being dedicated respectively to youth
and age in general, or to the seniors and juniors of the government
of Rome, the senate and the comilia curiata in particular. Others
connect the term with the gentile name Junius, or with the
consulate of Junius Brutus. Probably, .however, it originally
denoted the month in which crops grow to ripeness. In the old
Latin calendar June was the fourth month, and in the so-called
year of Romulus it is said to have had thirty days; but at the
time of the Julian reform of the calendar its days were only
twenty-nine. To these Caesar added the thirtieth. The
Anglo-Saxons called June " the dry month," " midsummer
month," and, in contradistinction to July, " the earlier mild
month." The summer solstice occurs in June. Principal
festival days in this month: nth June, St Barnabas; 24th
June, Midsummer Day (Nativity of St John the Baptist) ; 29th
June, St Peter.
JUNEAU, formerly HARRISBURG, a mining and trading
town picturesquely situated at the mouth of Gold Creek on the
continental shore of Gastineau channel, south-east Alaska, and
the capital of Alaska. Pop. (1900), 1864 (450 Indians); (1910),
1644. It has a United States custom-house and court-house.
The city has fishing, manufacturing and trading interests,
but its prosperity is chiefly due to the gold mines in the adjacent
Silver Bow basin, the source of Gold Creek, and the site of the
great Perseverance mine, and to those on the Treadwell lode on
Douglas Island, 2 m. from Juneau. Placer gold was found at
the mouth of the creek in 1879, and the city was settled in 1880
by two prospectors named Joseph Juneau and Richard Harris.
The district was called Juneau and the camp Harrisburg by the
first settlers; exploring naval officers named the camp Rockwell,
in honour of Commander Charles Henry Rockwell, U.S.N.
(b. 1840). A town meeting then adopted the name of
Juneau. The town was incorporated in 1900. In October
1906 the seat of government of Alaska was removed from Sitka
to Juneau.
JUNG, JOHANN HEINRICH (1740-1817), best known by his
assumed name of HEINRICH STILLING, German author, was
born in the village of Grund near Hilchenbach in Westphalia on
556
JUNG BAHADUR— JUNIPER
the 1 2th of September 1740. His father, Wilhelm Jung, school-
master and tailor, was the son of Eberhard Jung, charcoal-
burner, and his mother was Dortchen Moritz, daughter of a poor
clergyman. Jung became, by his father's desire, schoolmaster
and tailor, but found both pursuits equally wearisome. After
various teaching appointments he went in 1768 with " half a
French dollar " to study medicine at the university of Strassburg.
There he met Goethe, who introduced him to Herder. The
acquaintance with Goethe ripened into friendship; and it was
by his influence that Jung's first and best work, Heinrich
Stillings Jugend was written. In 1772 he settled at Elberfeld
as physician and oculist, and soon became celebrated for
operations in cases of cataract. Surgery, however, was not
much more to his taste than tailoring or teaching; and in 1778
he was glad to accept the appointment of lecturer on " agriculture,
technology, commerce and the veterinary art" in the newly
established Kameralschule at Kaiserslautern, a post which he
continued to hold when the school was absorbed in the university
of Heidelberg. In 1787 he was appointed professor of economi-
cal, financial and statistical science in the university of Marburg.
In 1803 he resigned his professorship and returned to Heidelberg,
where he remained until 1806, when he received a pension
from the grand-duke Charles Frederick of Baden, and
removed to Karlsruhe, where he remained until his death
on the 2nd of April 1817. He was married three times, and
left a numerous family. Of his works his autobiography
Heinrich Stillings Leben, from which he came to be known as
Stilling, is the only one now of any interest, and is the chief
authority for his life. His early novels reflect the piety of his
early surroundings.
A complete edition of his numerous works, in 14 vols. 8vo, was
published at Stuttgart in 1835-1838. There are English translations
by Sam. Jackson of the Leben (1835) and of the Theorie der Geister-
kunde (London, 1834, and New York, 1851); and of Theobald, or the
Fanatic, a religious romance, by the Rev. Sam. Schaeffer (1846).
See biographies by F. W. Bodemann (1868), J. v. Ewald (1817),
Peterson (1890).
JUNG BAHADUR, SIR, MAHARAJA (1816-1877), P"me
minister of Nepal, was a grand-nephew of Bhim sena Thapa
(Bhim sen Thappa), the famous military minister of Nepal,
who from 1804 to 1839 was de facto ruler of the state under the
rani Tripuri and her successor. Bhimsena's supremacy was
threatened by the Kala Pandry, and many of his relations,
including Jung Bahadur, went into exile in 1838, thus escaping
the cruel fate which overtook Bhimsena in the following year.
The Pandry leaders, who then reverted to power, were in turn
assassinated in 1843, and Malabar Singh, uncle of Jung Bahadur,
was created prime minister. He appointed his nephew general
and chief judge, but shortly afterwards he was himself put to
death. Fateh Jung thereon formed a ministry, of which Jung
Bahadur was made military member. In the following year,
1846, a quarrel was fomented, in which Fateh Jung and thirty-
two other chiefs were assassinated, and the rani appointed Jung
Bahadur sole minister. The rani quickly changed her mind,
and planned the death of her new minister, who at once appealed
to the maharaja. But the plot failed. The raja and the rani
wisely sought safety in India, and Jung Bahadur firmly estab-
lished his own position by the removal of all dangerous rivals.
He succeeded so well that in January 1850 he was able to leave
for a visit to England, from which he did not return to Nepal
until the 6th of February 1851. On his return, and frequently
on subsequent dates, he frustrated conspiracies for his assassina-
tion. The reform of the penal code, and a desultory war with
Tibet, occupied his attention until news of the Indian Mutiny
reached Nepal. Jung Bahadur resisted all overtures from the
rebels, and sent a column to Gorakpur in July 1857. In Decem-
ber he furnished a force of 8000 Gurkhas, which reached Lucknow
on the nth of March 1858, and took part in the siege. The
moral support of the Nepalese was more valuable even than the
military services rendered by them. Jung Bahadur was made
a G.C.B., and a tract of country annexed in 1815 was restored
to Nepal. Various frontier disputes were settled, and in 1875
Sir Jung Bahadur was on his way to England when he had a
fall from his horse in Bombay and returned home. He received
a visit from the Prince of Wales in 1876. On the 25th of
February 1877 he died, having reached the age of sixty-one.
Three of his widows immolated themselves on his funeral
pyre. (W. L.-W.)
JUNG-BUNZLAU (Czech, Mladd Boleslav), a town of Bohemia,
44 m. N.N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,479, mostly
Czech. The town contains several old buildings of historical
interest, notably the castle, built towards the end of the loth
century, and now used, as barracks. There are several old
churches. In that of St Maria the celebrated bishop of the
Bohemian brethren, Johann August, was buried in 1595; but
his tomb was destroyed in 1621. The church of St Bonaventura
with the convent, originally belonging to the friars minor and
later to the Bohemian brethren, is now a Piaristic college. The
church of St Wenceslaus, once a convent of the brotherhood, is
now used for military stores. Jung-Bunzlau was built in 995,
under Boleslaus II., as the seat of a gaugraf or royal count.
Early in the i3th century it was given the privileges of a town
and pledged to the lords of Michalovic. In the Hussite wars
Jung-Bunzlau adhered to the Taborites and became later the
metropolis of the Bohemian Brethren. In 1595 Bohuslav of
Lobkovic sold his rights as over-lord to the town, which was
made a royal city by Rudolf II. During the Thirty Years' War
it was twice burned, in 1631 by the imperialists, and in 1640
by the Swedes.
JUNGFRAU, a well-known Swiss mountain (13,669 ft.),
admirably seen from Interlaken. It rises on the frontier
between the cantons of Bern and of the Valais, and is reckoned
among the peaks of the Bernese Oberland, two of which (the
Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 ft., and the Aletschhorn, 13,721 ft.)
surpass it in height. It was first ascended in 1811 by the
brothers Meyer, and again in 1812 by Gottlieb Meyer (son of
J. R. Meyer), in both cases by the eastern or Valais side, the
foot of which (the final ascent being made by the 1811-1812
route) was reached in 1828 over the Monchjoch by six peasants
from Grindelwald. In 1841 Principal J. D. Forbes, with
Agassiz, Desor and Du Chatelier, made the fourth ascent by
the 1812 route. It was not till 1865 that Sir George Young
and the Rev. H. B. George succeeded in making the first ascent
from the west or Interlaken side. This is a far more difficult
route than that from the east, the latter being now frequently
taken in the course of the summer. (W. A. B. C.)
JUNGLE (Sans, jangala), an Anglo-Indian term for a forest,
a thicket, a tangled wilderness. The Hindustani word means
strictly waste, uncultivated ground; then such ground covered
with trees or long grass; and thence again the Anglo-Indian
application is to forest or other wild growth, rather than to the
fact that it is not cultivated.
JUNIN, an interior department of central Peru, bounded N.
by Huanuco, E. by Loreto and Cuzco, S. by Huancavelica, and
W. by Lima and Ancachs. Pop. (1906 estimate), 305, 700. It
lies wholly within the Andean zone and has an area of 23,353
sq. m. It is rich in minerals, including silver, copper, mercury,
bismuth, molybdenum, lead and coal. The Huallaga and Man-
taro rivers have their sources in this department, the latter in
Lake Junin, or Chanchaycocha, 13,230 ft. above sea-level. The
capital of Junin is Cerro de Pasco, and its two principal towns
are Jauja and Tarma (pop., 1906, about 12,000 and 5000
respectively).
JUNIPER. The junipers, of which there are twenty-five or
more species, are evergreen bushy shrubs or low columnar trees,
with a more or less aromatic odour, inhabiting the whole of the
cold and temperate northern hemisphere, but attaining their
maximum development in the Mediterranean region, the North
Atlantic islands, and the eastern United States. The leaves are
usually articulated at the base, spreading, sharp-pointed and
needle-like in form, destitute of oil-glands, and arranged in
alternating whorls of three; but in some the leaves are minute
and scale-like, closely adhering to the branches, the apex only
being free, and furnished with an oil-gland on the back.
JUNIUS
557
Sometimes the same plant produces both kinds of leaves on differ-
ent branches, or the young plants produce acicular leaves, while
those of the older plants are squamiform. The male and female
flowers are usually produced on separate plants. The male
flowers are developed at the ends of short lateral branches, are
rounded or oblong in form, and consist of several antheriferous
scales in two or three rows, each scale bearing three or six almost
spherical pollen-sacs on its under side. The female flower is a
small bud-like cone situated at the apex of a small branch, and
consists of two or three whorls of two or three scales. The scales
of the upper or middle series each bear one or two erect ovules.
The mature cone is fleshy, with the succulent scales fused
together and forming the fruit-like structure known to the
older botanists as the galbulus, or berry of the juniper. The
berries are red or purple in colour, varying in size from that of
a pea to a nut. They thus differ considerably from the cones
of other members of the order Coniferae, of Gymnosperms
(q.v.), to which the junipers belong. The seeds are usually
three in number, sometimes fewer (i), rarely more (8), and
have the surface near the middle or base marked with
large glands containing oil. The genus occurs in a fossil
state, four species having been described from rocks of
Tertiary age.
The genus is divided into three sections, Sabina, Oxycedrus
and Caryocedrus. Juniperus Sabina is the savin, abundant on
the mountains of central Europe, an irregularly spreading much-
branched shrub with scale-like glandular leaves, and emitting
a disagreeable odour when bruised. The plant is poisonous,
acting as a powerful local and general stimulant, diaphoretic,
emmenagogue and anthelmintic; it was formerly employed both
internally and externally. The oil of savin is now occasionally
used criminally as an abortifacient. /. bermudiana, a tree about
40 or 50 ft. in height, yields a fragrant red wood, which was
used for the manufacture of " cedar " pencils. The tree is now
very scarce in Bermuda, and the " red cedar," /. virginiana, of
North America is employed instead for pencils and cigar-boxes.
The red cedar is abundant in some parts of the United States
and in Virginia is a tree 50 ft. in height. It is very widely
distributed from the Great Lakes to Florida and round the Gulf
of Mexico, and extends as far west as the Rocky Mountains and
beyond to Vancouver Island. The wood is applied to many
uses in the United States. The fine red fragrant heart-wood
takes a high polish, and is much used in cabinet-work and
inlaying, but the small size of the planks prevents its more
extended use. The galls produced at the ends of the branches
have been used in medicine, and the wood yields cedar-camphor
and oil of cedar-wood. /. Ihurifera is the incense juniper of
Spain and Portugal, and /. phoenicea (J. lycia) from the
Mediterranean district is stated by Loudon to be burned as
incense.
/. communis, the common juniper (see fig.), and several other
species, belong to the section Oxycedrus. The common juniper
is a very widely distributed plant, occurring in the whole of
northern Europe, central and northern Asia to Kamchatka, and
east and west North America. It grows at considerable eleva-
tions in southern Europe, in the Alps, Apennines, Pyrenees and
Sierra Nevada (4000 to 8000 ft.). It also grows in Asia Minor,
Persia, and at great elevations on the Himalayas. In Great
Britain it is usually a shrub with spreading branches, less
frequently a low tree. In former times the juniper seems to
have been a very well-known plant, the name occurring almost
unaltered in many languages. The Lat. juniperns, probably
formed fmmjuni — crude form of juvenis, fresh, young, and parere,
to produce, is represented by Fr. genievre, Sp. enebro, Ital. gine-
pito, &c. The dialectical names, chiefly in European languages,
were collected by Prince L. L. Bonaparte, and published
in the Academy (July 17, 1880, No. 428, p. 45). The common
juniper is official in the British pharmacopoeia and in that of
the United States, yielding the oil of juniper, a powerful diuretic,
distilled from the unripe fruits. This oil is closely allied in
composition to oil of turpentine and is given in doses of a half
to three minims. The Spiritusjuniperi of the British pharma-
copoeia is given in 'doses up to one drachm. Much safer and
more powerful diuretics are now in use. The wood is very
aromatic and is used for ornamental purposes. In Lapland
the bark is made into ropes. The fruits are used for flavouring
gin (a name derived from juniper, through Fr. genievre) ; and in
some parts of France a kind of beer called genevrette was made
from them by the peasants. /. Oxycedrus, from the Mediter-
ranean district and Madeira, yields cedar-oil which is official
in most of the European pharmacopoeias, but not in that of
Britain. This oil is largely used by microscopists in what is
known as the " oil-immersion lens."
The third section, Caryocedrus, consists of a single species,
/. drupacea of Asia Minor. The fruits are large and edible: they
are known in the East by the name habhel.
(From Bentlcy and Trimen's Medicinal Plants, by permission of J. & A. Churchill.)
Juniper (Juniperus communis) half nat. size.
1. Vertical section of fruit.
2. Male catkin.
JUNIUS, the pseudonym of a writer who contributed a series of
letters to the London Public Advertiser, from the 2ist of January
1769 to the aist of January 1772. The signature had been already
used by him in a letter of the 2ist of November 1768, which he
did not include in his collection of the Letters of Junius published
in 1772. The name was chosen in all probability because he
had already signed " Lucius " and " Brutus," and wished to
exhaust the name of Lucius Junius Brutus the Roman patriot.
Whoever the writer was, he wrote under other pseudonyms
before, during and after the period between January 1769 and
January 1772. He acknowledged that he had written as
" Philo- Junius," and there is evidence that he was identical
with " Veteran," " Nemesis " and other anonymous correspon-
dents of the Public Advertiser. There is a marked distinction
between the " letters of Junius " and his so-called miscellaneous
letters. The second deal with a variety of subjects, some of a
purely personal character, as for instance the alleged injustice
of Viscount Barrington the secretary at war to the officials of
his department. But the " letters of Junius " had a definite
object — to discredit the ministry of the duke of Grafton. This
administration had been formed in October 1768, when the earl
of Chatham was compelled by ill health to retire from office,
and was a reconstruction of his cabinet of July 1766. Junius
558
JUNIUS
fought for the return to power of Chatham', who had recovered
and was not on good terms with his successors. He communi-
cated with Chatham, with George Grenville, with Wilkes, all
enemies of the duke of Grafton, and also with Henry Sampson
Woodfall, printer and part owner of the Public Advertiser. This
private correspondence has been preserved. It is written in
the disguised hand used by Junius.
The letters are of interest on three grounds — their political
significance, their style, and the mystery which long surrounded
their authorship. As political writings they possess no intrinsic
value. Junius was wholly destitute of insight, and of the power
to disentangle, define and advocate principles. The matter of
his letters is always invective. He began by a general attack
on the ministry for their personal immorality or meanness. An
ill-judged defence of one of the body — the marquess of Granby,
commander-in-chief — volunteered by Sir William Draper, gave
him an easy victory over a vulnerable opponent. He then went
on to pour acrimonious abuse on Grafton, on the duke of Bedford,
on King George III. himself in the letter of the igth of December
1769, and ended with a most malignant and ignorant assault
on Lord Chief Justice Mansfield. Several of his accusations
were shown to be unfounded. The practical effect of the letters
was insignificant. They were noticed and talked about. They
provoked anger and retorts. But the letter to the king aroused
indignation, and though Grafton 's administration fell in January
1770, it was succeeded by the long-lived cabinet of Lord North.
Junius confessed himself beaten, in his private letter to Woodfall
of the i gth of January 1773. He had materially contributed
to his own defeat by his brutal violence. He sinned indeed in
a large company. The employment of personal abuse had been
habitual in English political controversy for generations, and
in the i8th century there was a strong taste for satire. Latin
literature, which was not only studied but imitated, supplied
the inspiration and the models, in the satires of Juvenal, and
the speeches of Cicero against Verres and Catiline.
If, however, Junius was doing what others did, he did it
better than anybody else — a fact which sufficiently explains his
rapid popularity. His superiority lay in his style. Here also
he was by no means original, and he was unequal. There are
passages in his writings which can be best described in the
words which Burke applied to another writer: " A mere
mixture of vinegar and water, at once vapid and sour." But
at his best Junius attains to a high degree of artificial elegance
and vigour. He shows the influence of Bolingbreke, of Swift,
and above all of Tacitus, who appears to have been his favourite
author. The imitation is never slavish. Junius adapts, and
does not only repeat. The white heat of his malignity animates
the whole. No single sentence will show the quality of a style
which produces its effect by persistence and repetition, but such
a typical passage as follows displays at once the method and the
spirit. It is taken from Letter XLIX. to the duke of Grafton,
June 22, 1771: —
" The profound respect I bear to the gracious prince who governs
this country with no less honour to himself than satisfaction to his
subjects, and who restores you to your rank under his standard, will
save you from a multitude of reproaches. The attention I should
have paid to your failings is involuntarily attracted to the hand
which rewards them ; and though I am not so partial to the royal
judgment as to affirm that the favour of a king can remove moun-
tains of infamy, it serves to lessen at least, for undoubtedly it
divides, the burden. While I remember how much is due to his
sacred character, I cannot, with any decent appearance of propriety,
call you the meanest and the basest fellow in the kingdom. I
protest, my Lord, I do not think you so. You will have a dangerous
rival in that kind of fame to which you have hitherto so happily
directed your ambition, as long as there is one man living who
thinks you worthy of his confidence, and fit to be trusted with any
share in his government. . . . With any other prince, the shameful
desertion of him in the midst of that distress, which you alone had
created, in the very crisis of danger, when he fancied he saw the
throne already surrounded by men of virtue and abilities, would
have outweighed the memory of your former services. But his
majesty is full of justice, and understands the doctrine of compen-
sations; he remembers with gratitude how soon you had accommo-
dated your morals to the necessities of his service, how cheerfully you
had abandoned the engagements of private friendship, and renounced
the most solemn professions to the public. The sacrifice of Lord
Chatham was not lost on him. Even the cowardice and perfidy of
deserting him may have done you no disservice in his esteem. The
instance was painful, but the principle might please."
What is artificial and stilted in this style did not offend the
would-be classic taste of the i8th century, and does not now
conceal the fact that the laboriously arranged words, and art-
fully counterbalanced clauses, convey a venomous hate and scorn.
The pre-established harmony between Junius and his readers
accounts for the rapidity of his success, and for the importance
attributed to him by Burke and Johnson, far better writers than
himself. Before 1772 there appeared at least twelve un-
authorized republications of his letters, made by speculative
printers. In that year he revised the collection named " Junius:
Slat nominis umbra," with a dedication to the English people
and a preface. Other independent editions followed in quick
succession. In 1801 one was published with annotations by
Robert Heron. In 1806 another appeared with notes by John
Almon. The first new edition of real importance was issued by
the Woodfall family in 1812. It contained the correspondence
of Junius with H. S. Woodfall, a selection of the miscellaneous
letters attributed to Junius, facsimiles of his handwriting, and
notes by Dr Mason Good. Curiosity as to the mystery of the
authorship began to replace political and literary interest in the
writings. Junius himself had been early aware of the advantage
he secured by concealment. " The mystery of Junius increases
his importance " is his confession in a letter to Wilkes dated
the i8th of September 1771. The calculation was a sound one.
For two generations after the appearance of the letter of the
2ist of January 1769, speculations as to the authorship of
Junius were rife, and discussion had hardly ceased in 1910.
Joseph Parkes, author with Herman Merivale of the Memoirs
of Sir Philip Francis (1867), gives a list of more than forty
persons who had been supposed to be Junius. They are:
Edmund Burke, Lord George Sackville, Lord Chatham, Colonel
Barre, Hugh Macaulay Boyd, Dr Butler, John Wilkes, Lord
Chesterfield, Henry Flood, William Burke, Gibbon, W. E.
Hamilton, Charles Lloyd, Charles Lee (general in the American
War of Independence), John Roberts, George Grenville,
James Grenville, Lord Temple, Duke of Portland, William
Greatrakes, Richard Glover, Sir William Jones, James Hollis,
Laughlin Maclean, Philip Rosenhagen, Home Tooke, John Kent,
Henry Grattan, Daniel Wray, Horace Walpole, Alexander
Wedderburn (Lord Loughborough), Dunning (Lord Ashburton),
Lieut.-General Sir R. Rich, Dr Philip Francis, a " junto " or
committee of writers who used a common name, De Lolme, Mrs
Catherine Macaulay (1733-91), Sir Philip Francis, Lord Littleton,
Wolfram Cornwall and Gov. Thomas Pownall. In the great
majority of cases the attribution is based on nothing more than
a vague guess. Edmund Burke denied that he could have
written the letters of Junius if he would, or would have written
them if he could. Grattan pointed out that he was young
when they appeared. More plausible claims, such as those
made for Lord Temple and Lord George Sackville, could not
stand the test of examination. Indeed after 1816 the question
was not so much " Who wrote Junius? " as " Was Junius Sir
Philip Francis, or some undiscoverable man? " In that year
John Taylor was led by a careful study of Woodfall's edition of
1812 to publish The identity of Junius with a distinguished living
character established, in which he claimed the letters for Sir
Philip Francis. He had at first been inclined to attribute them
to Sir Philip's father, Dr Francis, the author of translations of
Horace and Demosthenes. Taylor applied to Sir Philip, who
did not die till 1818, for leave to publish, and received from him
answers which to an unwary person might appear to constitute
denials of the authorship, but were in fact evasions.
The reasons for believing that Sir Philip Francis (q.v.) was
Junius are very strong. His evasions were only to be expected.
Several of the men he attacked lived nearly as long as himself,
the sons of others were conspicuous in society, and King George
III. survived him. Sir Philip, who had held office, who had been
decorated, and who in his later years was ambitious to obtain,
JUNIUS, F.— JUNKER
the governor-generalship of India, dared not confess that he
was Junius. The similarity of his handwriting to the disguised
hand used by the writer of the letters is very close. If Sir
Philip Francis did, as his family maintain, address a copy of
verses to a Miss Giles in the handwriting of Junius (and the
evidence that he did is weighty) there can be no further question
as to the identity of the two. The similarity of Junius and
Francis in regard to their opinions, their likes and dislikes, their
knowledge and their known movements, amount, apart from
the handwriting, almost to proof. It is certain that many
felons have been condemned on circumstantial evidence less
complete. The opposition to his claim is based on such asser-
tions as that his known handwriting was inferior to the feigned
hand of Junius, and that no man can make a disguised hand
better than his own. But the first assertion is unfounded, and
the second is a mere expression of opinion. It is also said that
Francis must have been guilty of baseness if he wrote Junius,
but if that explains why he did not avow the authorship it can
be shown to constitute a moral impossibility only by an examina-
tion of his life.
AUTHORITIES. — The best edition of the Letters of Junius, properly
so called, with the Miscellaneous Letters, is that of J. Ward (1854).
The most valuable contributions to the controversy as to the
authorship are: The Handwriting of Junius investigated by Charles
Chabot, expert, with preface and collateral evidence by the Hon. E.
Twisleton (1871); Memoirs of Sir Philip Francis, K.C.B., by Parkes
and Merivale (1867) ; Junius Revealed by his Surviving Grandson, by
H. R. Francis (1894); The Francis Letters, edited by Beata Francis
and Eliza Keary, with a note on the Junius controversy by C. F.
Keary (1901); arid " Francis, Sir Philip," by Sir Leslie Stephen, in
Diet, of Nat. Biog. The case for those who decline to accept the
claim of Sir Philip Francis is stated by C. W. Dilke, Papers of a Critic
(1875), and Abraham Hayward, More about Junius, Franciscan
Theory Unsound (1868). (D. H.)
JUNIUS, FRANZ (in French, Francois du Jon), the name of
two Huguenot scholars.
(i) FRANZ JUNIUS (1545-1602) was born at Bourges in France
on the ist of May 1545. He had studied law for two years
under Hugo Donellus (1527-1591) when he was given a place
in the retinue of the French ambassador to Constantinople, but
before he reached Lyons the ambassador had departed. Junius
found ample consolation in the opportunities for study at the
gymnasium at Lyons. A religious tumult warned him back to
Bourges, where he was cured of certain rationalistic principles
that he had imbibed at Lyons, and he determined to enter the
reformed church. He went in 1562 to study at Geneva, where
he was reduced to the direst poverty by the failure of remit-
tances from home, owing to civil war in France. He would
accept only the barest sustenance from a humble friend who had
himself been a protege of Junius's family at Bourges, and his
health was permanently injured. The long-expected remittance
from home was closely followed by the news of the brutal
murder of his father by a Catholic fanatic at Issoudun; and
Junius resolved to remain at Geneva, where his reputation
enabled him to live by teaching. In 1565, however, he was
appointed minister of the Walloon church at Antwerp. His
foreign birth excluded him from the privileges of the native
reformed pastors, and exposed him to persecution. Several
times he barely escaped arrest, and finally, after spending six
months in preaching at Limburg, he was forced to retire to
Heidelberg in 1567. There he was welcomed by the elector
Frederick II., and temporarily settled in charge of the Walloon
church at Schonau; but in 1568 his patron sent him as chaplain
with Prince William of Orange in his unfortunate expedition to
the Netherlands. Junius escaped as soon as he could from that
post, and returning to his church remained there till 1573. From
1573 till 1578 he was at Heidelberg, assisting Emmanuel Tremel-
lius (1510-1580), whose daughter he married, in his Latin version
of the Old Testament (Frankfort, 1579); in 1581 he was appointed
to the chair of divinity at Heidelberg. Thence he was taken
to France by the duke of Bouillon, and after an interview with
Henry IV. was sent again to Germany on a mission. As he was
returning to France he was named professor of theology at
Leiden, where he died on the I3th of October 1602.
559
He was a voluminous writer on theological subjects, and translated
and composed many exegetical works. He is best known from his
own edition of the Latin Old Testament, slightly altered from the
former joint edition, and with a version of the New Testament
added (Geneva, 1590; Hanover, 1624). The Opera Theologica
Francisci Junii Biturigis were published at Geneva (2 vols., 1613),
to which is prefixed his autobiography, written about 1592 (new ed.,
edited by Abraham Kuypers,i882 seq.). The autobiography had
been published at Leiden (1595), and is reprinted in the Miscellanea
Groningana, vol. i., along with a list of the author's other writings.
(2) FRANZ JUNIUS (1589-1677), son of the above, was born
at Heidelberg, and brought up at Leiden. His attention was
diverted from military to theological studies by the peace of
1609 between Spain and the Netherlands. In 1617 he became
pastor at Hillegondsberg, but in 1620 went to England, where
he became librarian to Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel, and
tutor to his son. He remained in England thirty years, devoting
himself to the study of Anglo-Saxon, and afterwards of the
cognate old Teutonic languages. His work, intrinsically valu-
able, is important as having aroused interest in a frequently
neglected subject. In 1651 he returned to Holland; and for
two years lived in Friesland in order to study the old dialect.
In 1675 he returned to England, and during the next year
resided in Oxford; in 1677 he went to live at Windsor with his
nephew, Isaac Vossius, in whose house he died on the igth of
November 1677. He was buried at Windsor in St George's
Chapel.
He was pre-eminentjy a student. He published De pictura
veterum (1637) (in English by the author, 1638; enlarged and im-
proved edition, edited by J. G. Graevius, who prefixed a life of
Junius, with a catalogue of architects, painters, &c., and their
works, Rotterdam, 1694); Observations in Willerami Abbatis
francicam paraphrasin cantici canticorum (Amsterdam, 1655);
Annotationes in harmoniam latino-francicam quatuor evangelis-
tarum, laline a Tatiano confectam (Amsterdam, 1655) ; Caedmonis
monachi paraphrases poetica geneseos (Amsterdam, 1655) (see
criticism under CAEDMON); Quatuor D.N.I.C. evangeliorum versiones
perantiquae duae, gothica scilicet et anglo-saxonica (Dort, 2 vols.,
1665) (the Gothic version in this book Junius transcribed from the
Silver Codex of Ulfilas; the Anglo-Saxon version is from an edition
by Thomas Marshall, whose notes to both versions are given, and a
Gothic glossary by Junius); Etymologicum anglicanum, edited by
Edward Lye, and preceded by a life of Junius and George Hickes's
Anglo-Saxon grammar (Oxford, 1743) (its results require careful
verification in the light of modern research). His rich collection
of ancient MSS., edited and annotated by him, Junius bequeathed
to the university of Oxford. Graevius gives a .list of them, the most
important are a version of the Ormulum, the version of Caedrnon,
and 9 volumes containing Glossarium v. linguarum septentrionalium.
JUNK, (i) (Through Port, junco, adapted from Javanese
djong, or Malayan adjong, ship), the name of the native sailing
vessel, common to the far eastern seas, and especially used by
the Chinese and Javanese. It is a flat-bottomed, high-sterned
vessel with square bows and masts carrying lug-sails, often made
of matting. (2) A nautical term for small pieces of disused
rope or cable, cut up to make fenders, oakum, &c., hence applied
colloquially by sailors to the salt beef and pork used on board
ship. The word is of doubtful origin, but may be connected
with " junk " (Lat. juncus), a reed, or rush. This word is now
obsolete except as applied to a form of surgical appliance, used
as a support in cases of fracture where immediate setting is
impossible, and consisting of a shaped pillow or cushion stuffed
with straw or horsehair, formerly with rushes or reeds.
JUNKER, WILHELM (1840-1892), German explorer of Africa,
was born at Moscow on the 6th of April 1840. He studied medi-
cine at Dorpat, Gottingen, Berlin and Prague, but did not
practise for long. After a series of short journeys to Iceland,
Tunis and Lower Egypt, he remained almost continuously in
eastern Equatorial Africa from 1875 to 1886, making first
Khartum and afterwards Lado the base of his expeditions,
Junker was a leisurely traveller and a careful observer; his main
object was to study the peoples with whom he came into contact,
and to collect specimens of plants and animals, and the result
of his investigations in these particulars is given in his Reisen in
Afrika (3 vols., Vienna, 1889-1891), a work of high merit. An
English translation by A. H. Keane was published in 1890-1892.
Perhaps the greatest service he rendered to geographical science
560
JUNKET— JUNOT, A,
was his investigation of the Nile-Congo watershed, when he suc-
cessfully combated Georg Schweinfurth's hydrographical theories
and established the identity of the Welle and Ubangi. The Mah-
dist rising prevented his return to Europe through the Sudan, as
he had planned to do, in 1884, and an expedition, fitted out in
1885 by his brother in St Petersburg, failed to reach him. Junker
then determined to go south. Leaving Wadelai on the and of
January 1886 he travelled by way of Uganda and Tabora and
reached Zanzibar in December 1886. In 1887 he received the
gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society. As an explorer
Junker is entitled to high rank, his ethnographical observations
in the Niam-Niam (Azandeh) country being especially valuable.
He died at St Petersburg on the i3th of February 1892.
See the biographical notice by E. G. Ravenstein in Proceedings of
the Royal Geographical Society (1892), pp. 185-187.
JUNKET, a dish of milk curdled by rennet, served with
clotted cream and flavoured with nutmeg, which is particularly
associated in England with Devonshire and Cornwall. The
word is of somewhat obscure history. It appears to come
through O. Fr. jonquette, a rush-basket, from Lat. juncus, rush.
In Norman dialect this word is used of a cream cheese. The
commonly accepted origin is that it refers to the rush-basket on
which such cream cheeses or curds were served. Juncade
appears in Rabelais, and is explained by Cotgrave as " spoon-
meat, rose-water and sugar." Nicholas Udall (in his translation
of Erasmus's Apophthegms, 1542) speaks of " marchepaines or
wafers with other like junkerie." The word " junket " is also
used for a festivity or picnic.
JUNO, the chief Roman and Latin goddess, and the special
object of worship by women at all the critical moments of life.
The etymology of the name is not certain, but it is usually taken
as a shortened form of Jovino, answering to Jams, from a root
div, shining. Under Greek influence Juno was early identified
with the Greek Hera, with whose cult and characteristics she has
much in common; thus the Juno with whom we are familiar
in Latin literature is not the true Roman deity. In the Aeneid,
for example, her policy is antagonistic to the plans of Jupiter
for the conquest of Latium and the future greatness of Rome;
though in the fourth Eclogue, as Lucina, she appears in her proper
r61e as assisting at childbirth. It was under Greek influence
again that she became the wife of Jupiter, the mother of Mars;
the true Roman had no such personal interest in his deities as to
invent family relations for them.
That Juno was especially a deity of women, and represents in
a sense the female principle of life, is seen in the fact that as every
man had his genius, so every woman had her Juno; and the
goddess herself may have been a development of this conception.
The various forms of her cult all show her in close connexion
with women. As Juno Lucina she was invoked in childbirth,
and on the ist of March, the old Roman New Year's day, the
matrons met and made offerings at her temple in a grove on
the Esquiline; hence the day was known as the Malronalia. As
Caprolina she was especially worshipped by female slaves on
the 7th of July (Nonae Caprolinae) ; as Sospita she was invoked
all over Latium as the saviour of women in their perils, and
later as the saviour of the state; and under a number of other
titles, Cinxia, Unxia, Pronuba, &c., we find her taking a leading
part in the ritual of marriage. Her real or supposed connexion
with the moon is explained by the alleged influence of the moon
on the lives of women; thus she became the deity of the Kalends,
or day of the new moon, when the regina sacrorum offered a lamb
to her in the regia, and her husband the rex made known to the
people the day on which the Nones would fall. Thus she is
brought into close relation with Janus, who also was worshipped
on the Kalends by the rex sacrorum, and it may be that in the
oldest Roman religion these two were more closely connected
than Juno and Jupiter. But in historical times she was asso-
ciated with Jupiter in the great temple on the Capitoline hill as
Juno Regina, the queen of all Junones or queen of heaven, as
Jupiter there was Optimus Maximus (see JUPITER), and under
the same title she was enticed from Veil after its capture in
392 B.C., and settled in a temple on the Aventine. Thus exalted
above all other female deities, she was prepared for that identi-
fication with Hera which was alluded to above. That she was in
some sense a deity of light seems certain; as Lucina, e.g., she
introduced new-born infants " in luminis oras."
See Roscher's article " Juno " in his Lexicon of Mythology, and
his earlier treatise on Juno and Hera; Wissowa, Religion und Kultus
der Romer, 113 foil.; also a fresh discussion by Walter Otto in
Philologus for 1905 (p. 161 foil.). (W. W. F.*)
JUNOT, ANDOCHE, DUKE OF ABRANTES (1771-1813), French
general, was born at Bussy-le-Grand (C6te d'Or), on the 23rd
of October 1771. He went to school at Chatillon, and was known
among his comrades as a blustering but lovable creature, with a
pugnacious disposition. He was studying law in Paris at the
outbreak of the Revolution and joined a volunteer battalion.
He distinguished himself by his valour in the first year of the
Revolutionary wars, and came under the special notice of
Napoleon Bonaparte during the siege of Toulon, while serving
as his secretary. It is related that as he was taking down a
despatch, a shell burst hard by and covered the paper with sand,
whereupon he exclaimed, " Bien! nous n'avions pas de sable
pour secher 1'encre ! en voici ! " He remained the faithful
companion of his chief during the latter's temporary disgrace,
and went with him to Italy as aide-de-camp. He distinguished
himself so much at the battle of Millesimo that he was selected
to carry back the captured colours to Paris; returning to Italy
he went through the campaign with honour, but was badly
wounded in the head at Lonato. Many rash incidents in his
career may be traced to this wound, from which he never com-
pletely recovered. During the expedition to Egypt he became
a general of brigade. His devotion to Bonaparte involved him
in a duel with General Lanusse, in which he was again wounded.
He had to be left in Egypt to recover, and in crossing to France
was captured by English cruisers. On his return to France he
was made commandant of Paris, and afterwards promoted
general of division. It was at this time that he married Laure
Permon (see JUNOT, LAURE). He next served at Arras in com-
mand of the grenadiers of the army destined for the invasion of
England, and made some alterations in the equipment of the
troops which received the praise of the emperor. It was,
however, a bitter mortification that he was not appointed a
marshal of France when he received the grand cross of the
legion of honour. He was made colonel-general of hussars
instead and sent as ambassador to Lisbon, his entry into which
city resembled a royal progress. But he was so restless and dis-
satisfied in the Portuguese capital that he set out, without leave,
for the army of Napoleon, with which he took part in the battle
of Austerlitz, behaving with his usual courage and zeal. But
he soon gave fresh offence. Although his early devotion was
never forgotten by the emperor, his uncertain temper and want of
self-control made it dangerous to employ him at court or head-
quarters, and he was sent to Parma to put down an insurrection
and to be out of the way. In 1806 he was recalled and became
governor of Paris. His extravagance and prodigality shocked
the government, and some rumours of an intrigue with a lady
of the imperial family — it is said Pauline Bonaparte — made it
desirable again to send him away. He was therefore appointed
to lead an invading force into Portugal. For the first time
Junot had a great task to perform, and only his own resources to
fall back upon for its achievement. Early in November 1807
he set out from Salamanca, crossed the mountains of Beira,
rallied his wearied forces at Abrantes, and, with 1500 men,
dashed upon Lisbon, in order, if possible, to seize the Portuguese
fleet, which had, however, just sailed away with the regent and
court to Brazil. The whole movement only took a month;
it was undoubtedly bold and well-conducted, and Junot was
made duke of Abrantes and invested with the governorship
of Portugal. But administration was his weak point. He was
not a civil governor, but a sabreur, brave, truculent, and also
dissipated and rapacious, though in the last respect he was far
from being the worst offender amongst the French generals in
Spain. His hold on Portugal was never supported by a really
adequate force, and his own conduct, which resembled that of
JUNOT, L.— JUPITER
561
an eastern monarch, did nothing to consolidate his conquest.
After Wellesley encountered him at Vimiera (see PENINSULAR
WAR) he was obliged to conclude the so-called convention of
Cintra, and to withdraw from Portugal with all his forces.
Napoleon was furious, but, as he said, was spared the necessity
of sending his old friend before a court martial by the fact that
the English put their own generals on their trial. Junot was
sent back to Spain, where, in 1810-1811, acting under Massena,
he was once more seriously wounded. His last campaign was
made in Russia, and he received more than a just share of
discredit for it. Napoleon next appointed him to govern
Illyria. But Junot's mind had become deranged under the
weight of his misfortunes, and on the 2gth of July 1813, at
Montbard, he threw himself from a window in a fit of insanity.
JUNOT, LAURE, DUCHESS OF ABRANTES (1783-1834), wife of
the preceding, was born at Montpellier. She was the daughter
of Mme. Permon, to whom during her widowhood the young
Bonaparte made an offer of marriage — such at least is the version
presented by the daughter in her celebrated Memoirs. The
Permon family, after various vicissitudes, settled at Paris, and
Bonaparte certainly frequented their house a good deal after
the downfall of the Jacobin party in Thermidor 1794. Mile.
Permon was married to Junot early in the consulate, and at
once entered eagerly into all the gaieties of Paris, and became
noted for her beauty, her caustic wit, and her extravagance.
The first consul nicknamed her petite peste, but treated her and
Junot with the utmost generosity, a fact which did not restrain
her sarcasms and slanders in her portrayal of him in her Memoirs.
During Junot's diplomatic mission to Lisbon, his wife displayed
her prodigality so that on his return to Paris in 1806 he was
burdened with debts, which his own intrigues did not lessen.
She joined him again at Lisbon after he had entered that city
as conqueror at the close of 1807 ; but even the presents and spoils
won at Lisbon did not satisfy her demands; she accompanied
Junot through part of the Peninsular War. On her return
to France she displeased the emperor by her vivacious remarks
and by receiving guests whom he disliked. The mental malady
of Junot thereafter threatened her with ruin; this perhaps
explains why she took some part in the intrigues for bringing
back the Bourbons in 1814. She did not side with Napoleon
during the Hundred Days. After 1815 she spent most of her
time at Rome amidst artistic society, which she enlivened with
her sprightly converse. She also compiled her spirited but
somewhat spiteful Memoirs, which were published at Paris in
1831-1834 in 18 volumes. Many editions have since appeared.
Of her other books the most noteworthy are Histoires conlempo-
raines (2 vols., 1835); Scenes de la vie espagnole (2 vols., 1836);
Histoire des salons de Paris (6 vols., 1837-1838); Souvenirs d'une
ambassade el d'un sejotir en Espagne et en Portugal, de 1808 a 1811
(2 vols., 1837). (J- HL. R.)
JUNTA (from junior, to join), a Spanish word meaning
(i) any meeting for a common purpose; (2) a committee; (3) an
administrative council or board. The original meaning is
now rather lost in the two derivative significations. The
Spaniards have even begun to make use of the barbarism
metin, corrupted from the English " meeting." The Vfordjunla
has always been and still is used in the other senses. Some
of the boards by which the Spanish administration was conducted
under the Habsburg and the earlier Bourbon kings were styled
juntas. The superior governing body of the Inquisition was the
junta supremo,. The provincial committees formed to organize
resistance to Napoleon's invasion in 1808 were so called, and so
was the general committee chosen from among them to represent
the nation. In the War of Independence (1808-1814), and in all
subsequent civil wars or revolutionary disturbances in Spain or
Spanish America, the local executive bodies, elected, or in some
cases self-chosen, to appoint officers, raise money and soldiers,
look after the wounded, and discharge the functions of an
administration, have been known as juntas.
The form " Junto," a corruption due to other Spanish words
ending in -o, came into use in English in the i7th century, often
in a disparaging sense, of a party united for a political purpose,
a faction or cabal; it was particularly applied to the advisers of
Charles I., to the Rump under Cromwell, and to the leading
members of the great Whig houses who controlled the govern-
ment in the reigns of William III. and Anne.
JUPITER, the chief deity of the Roman state. The great and
constantly growing influence exerted from a very early period
on Rome by the superior civilization of Greece not only caused
a modification of the Roman god on the analogy of Zeus, the
supreme deity of the Greeks, but led the Latin writers to identify
the one with the other, and to attribute to Jupiter myths and
family relations which were purely Greek and never belonged to
the real Roman religion. The Jupiter of actual worship was a
Roman god; the Jupiter of Latin literature was more than half
Greek. This identification was facilitated by the community of
character which really belonged to Jupiter and Zeus as the Roman
and Greek developments of a common original conception of
the god of the light and the heaven.
That this was the original idea of Jupiter, not only in Rome,
but among all Italian peoples, admits of no doubt. The earliest
form of his name was Diovis paler, or Diespiter, and his special
priest was the flamen dialis; all these words point to arootrfif,
shining, and the connexion with dies, day, is obvious (cf. JUNO).
One of his most ancient epithets is Lucelius, the light-bringer;
and later literature has preserved the same idea in such phrases as
sub Jove, under the open sky. All days of the full moon (idiis)
were sacred to him; all emanations from the sky were due to him
and in the oldest form of religious thought were probably
believed to be manifestations of the god himself. As Jupiter
Elicius he was propitiated, with a peculiar ritual, to send rain in
time of drought; as Jupiter Fulgur he had an altar in the Campus
Martius, and all places struck by lightning were made his pro-
perty and guarded from the profane by a circular wall. The
vintage, which needs especially the light and heat of the sun,
was under his particular care, and in the festivals connected
with it (Vinalia urbana) and Meditrinalia, he was the deity
invoked, and his flamen the priest employed. Throughout Italy
we find him worshipped on the summits of hills, where nothing
intervened between earth and heaven, and where all the pheno-
mena of the sky could be conveniently observed. Thus on the
Alban hill south of Rome was an ancient seat of his worship as
Jupiter Latiaris, which was the centre of the league of thirty
Latin cities of which Rome was originally an ordinary member.
At Rome itself it is on the Capitoline hill that we find his oldest
temple, described by Livy (i. 10); here we have a tradition of
his sacred tree, the oak, common to the worship both of Zeus
and Jupiter, and here too was kept the lapis silex, perhaps a
celt, believed to have been a thunderbolt, which was used
symbolically by the fetiales when officially declaring war and
making treaties on behalf of the Roman state. Hence the
curious form of oath, Jcniem lapidem jurare, used both in public
and private life at Rome.
In this oldest Jupiter of the Latins and Romans, the god of
the light and the heaven, and the god invoked in taking the most
solemn oaths, we may undoubtedly see not only the great
protecting deity of the race, but one, and perhaps the only one,
whose worship embodies a distinct moral conception. He is
specially concerned with oaths, treaties and leagues, and it was in
the presence of his priest that the most ancient and sacred form
of marriage, confarreatio, took place. The lesser deities, Dius
Fidius and Fides, were probably originally identical with him,
and only gained a separate existence in course of time by a process
familiar to students of ancient religion. This connexion with
the conscience, with the sense of obligation and right dealing,
was never quite lost throughout Roman history. In Virgil's
great poem, though Jupiter is in many ways as much Greek as
Roman, he is still the great protecting deity who keeps the hero in
the path of duty (pietas) towards gods, state and family.
But this aspect of Jupiter gained a new force and meaning at
the close of the monarchy with the building of the famous temple
on the Capitol, of which the foundations are still to be seen.
It was dedicated to Jupiter Optimus Maximus, i.e. the best
and greatest of all the Jupiters, and with him were associated
562
JUPITER
Juno and Minerva, in a fashion which clearly indicates a
Graeco-Etruscan origin; for the combination of three deities
in one temple was foreign to the ancient Roman religion, while
it is found both in Greece and Etruria. This temple was built
on a scale of magnificence quite unknown to primitive Rome,
and was beyond doubt the work of Etruscan architects employed,
we may presume, by the Tarquinii. Its three cettae contained
the statues of the three deities, with Jupiter in the middle
holding his thunderbolt. Henceforward it was the centre of
the religious life of the state, and symbolized its unity and
strength. Its dedication festival fell on the I3th of September,
on which day the consuls originally succeeded to office; accom-
panied by the senate and other magistrates and priests, and in
fulfilment of a vow made by their predecessors, they offered
to the great god a white heifer, his favourite sacrifice, and
after rendering thanks for the preservation of the state during
the past year, made the same vow as that by which they them-
selves had been bound. Then followed the epulum Joins or
feast of Jupiter, in which the three deities seem to have been
visibly present in the form of their statues, Jupiter having a
couch and each goddess a sella, and shared the meal with senate
and magistrates. In later times this day became the central
point of the great Roman games (ludi Romani), originally
games vowed in honour of the god if he brought a war to a
successful issue. When a victorious army returned home,
it was to this temple that the triumphal procession passed,
and the triumph of which we hear so often in Roman history may
be taken as a religious ceremonial in honour of Jupiter. The
general was dressed and painted to resemble the statue of Jupiter
himself, and was drawn on a gilded chariot by four white horses
through the Porta Triumphalis to the Capitol, where he offered
a solemn sacrifice to the god, and laid on his knees the victor's
laurels (see TRIUMPH).
Throughout the period of the Republic the great god of the
Capitol in his temple looking down on the Forum continued
to overshadow all other worships as the one in which the whole
state was concerned, in all its length and breadth, rather than
any one gens or family. Under Augustus and the new monarchy
it is sometimes said that the Capitoline worship suffered to some
extent an eclipse (J. B. Carter, The Religion ofNuma, p. 160 seq.) ;
and it is true that as it was the policy of Augustus to identify
the state with the interests of his own family, he did what was
feasible to direct the attention of the people to the worships
in which he and his family were specially concerned; thus his
temple of Apollo on the Palatine, and that of Mars Ultor in the
Forum Augusti, took over a few of the prerogatives of the cult
on the Capitol. But Augustus was far too shrewd to attempt
to oust Jupiter Optimus Maximus from his paramount position;
and he became the protecting deity of the reigning emperor as
representing the state, as he had been the protecting deity of
the free republic. His worship spread over the whole empire;
it is probable that every city had its temple to the three deities
of the Roman Capitol, and the fact that the Romans chose the
name of Jupiter in almost every case, by which to indicate the
chief deity of the subject peoples, proves that they continued
to regard him, so long as his worship existed at all, as the god
whom they themselves looked upon as greatest.
See ZEUS, ROMAN RELIGION. Excellent accounts of Jupiter may
be found in Roscher's Mythological Lexicon, and in Wissowa s
Religion und Kultus der Romer (p. 100 seq.).
(W. M. RA.; W. W. F.*)
JUPITER, in astronomy, the largest planet of the solar system;
his size is so great that it exceeds the collective mass of all the
others in the proportion of 5 to 2. He travels in his orbit at a
mean distance from the sun exceeding that of the earth 5-2 times,
or 483,000,000 miles. The eccentricity of this orbit is consider-
able, amounting to 0-048, so that his maximum and minimum
distances are 504,000,000 and 462,000,000 miles respectively.
When in opposition and at his mean distance, he is situated
300,000,000 miles from the earth. His orbit is inclined about
i° 18' 40* to the ecliptic. His sidereal revolution is completed
i° 4332'58s days or n years 314-9 days, and his synodical
period, or the mean interval separating his returns to opposition,
amounts to 398-87 days. His real polar and equatorial diameters
measure 84,570 and 90,190 miles respectively, so that the mean is
87,380 miles. His apparent diameter (equatorial) as seen from
the earth varies from about 32", when in conjunction with the
sun, to 50" in opposition to that luminary. The oblateness, or
compression, of his globe amounts to about -jVi his volume
exceeds that of the earth 1390 times, while his mass is about 300
times greater. These values are believed to be as accurate as
the best modern determinations allow, but there are some differ-
ences amongst various observers and absolute exactness cannot
be obtained.
The discovery of telescopic construction early in the I7th
century and the practical use of the telescope by Galileo and others
greatly enriched our knowledge of Jupiter and his system. Four
of the satellites were detected in 1610, but the dark bands or
belts on the globe of the planet do not appear to have been
noticed until twenty years later. Though Galileo first sighted
the satellites and perseveringly studied the Jovian orb, he failed
to distinguish the belts, and we have to conclude either that these
features were unusually faint at the period of his observations,
or that his telescopes were insufficiently powerful to render them
visible. The belts were first recognized by Nicolas Zucchi and
Daniel Bartoli on the i yth of May 1630. They were seen also by
Francesco Fontana in the same and immediately succeeding years,
and by other observers of about the same period, including Zuppi,
Giovanni Battista Riccioli and Francesco Maria Grimaldi.
Improvements in telescopes were quickly introduced, and be-
tween 1655 and 1666 C. Huygens, R. Hooke and J. D. Cassini
made more effective observations. Hooke discovered a large
dark spot in the planet's southern hemisphere on the igth of
May 1664, and from this object Cassini determined the rotation
period, in 1665 and later years, as 9 hours 56 minutes.
The belts, spots and irregular markings on Jupiter have now
been assiduously studied during nearly three centuries. These
markings are extremely variable in their tones, tints and relative
velocities, and there is little reason to doubt that they are atmo-
spheric formations floating above the surface of the planet in a
series of different currents. Certain of the markings appear to
be fairly durable, though their rates of motion exhibit consider-
able anomalies and prove that they must be quite detached from
the actual sphere of Jupiter. At various times determinations
of the rotation period were made as follows: —
Dale. Observer. Period. Place of Spot.
1672 J. D. Cassini 9 h. 55 m. 50 s. Lat. 16° S.
1692 „ 9 h. 50 m. Equator.
1708 J. P. Maraldi 9 h. 55 m. 48 s. S. tropical zone
'773 J- Sylvabelle 9 h. 56 m. „
1788 J. H. Schroter 9 h. 55 m. 33-6 s. Lat. 12° N.
1788 ,, 9 h. 55 m. 17-6 s. Lat. 20° S.
1835 J. H. Madler 9 h. 55 m. 26-5 s. Lat. 5° N.
1835 G. B. Airy 9 h. 55 m. 21-3 s. N. tropical zone.
A great number of Jovian features have been traced in more
recent years and their rotation periods ascertained. According
to the researches of Stanley Williams the rates of motion for
different latitudes of the planet are approximately as under: —
Latitude. Rotation Period.
+85° to +28" 9 h. 55 m. 37-5 s.
+28° to +24° 9 h. 54} m. to 9 h. 56$ m.
+24° to +20° 9 h. 48 m. to 9 h. 49^ m.
+20° to +10° 9 h. 55 m. 33-9 s.
-j-io" to— 12° 9 h. 50 m. 20 s.
-I2°to-i8° 9 h. 55 m. 40 s.
-i8°to-37° 9 h. 55 m. 18-1 s.
-37° to -55° 9 h. 55 m. 5 s.
W. F. Denning gives the following relative periods for the years
1898 to 1905: —
Latitude. Rotation Period.
N.N. temperate 9 h. 55 m. 41-5 s.
N. temperate 9 h. 55 m. 53-8 8.
N. tropical 9 h. 55 m. 30 s.
Equatorial 9 h. 50 m. 27 s.
S. temperate 9 h. 55 m. 19-5 ».
S.S. temperate 9 h. 55 m. 7 s.
JUPITER
563
/ s.s.
9
•^
7
Temp.
S,
/
S.
9
55
'9
Temp.
\
/
S.
9
55
37
Trop.
V
Eq
ua-
9
50
3»
•torial
\
N.
9
SS-
t°
Trop.
/
\
N.
9
55
M
Temp.
t
V
N
N.
9
55
4°
Temp.
7
\^ N.Pol«r -/
The above are the mean periods derived from a large number
of markings. The bay or hollow in
the great southern equatorial belt
north of the red spot has perhaps been
observed for a longer period than any
other feature on Jupiter except the red
spot itself. H. Schwabe saw the
hollow in the belt on the 5th of
September 1831 and on many subse-
quent dates. The rotation period of
this object during the seventy years
FIG. i.— Inverted disk to the sth of September 1901 was
differUenter currents* and 9 h. 55 m. 36 s. from 61,813 rotations.
their rates of rotation. Since 1901 the mean period has been
9 h. 55 m. 40 s., but it has fluctuated
between 9 h. 55 m. 38 s. and 9 h. 55 m. 42 s. The motion of
the various features is not therefore dependent upon their latitude,
though at the equator the rate seems swifter as a rule than in
other zones. But exceptions occur, for in 1880 some spots
appeared in about 23° N. which rotated in 9 h. 48 m. though in
the region immediately N. of this the spot motion is ordinarily
the slowest of all and averages 9 h. 55 m. 53-8 s. (from twenty
determinations). These differences of speed remind us of the
sun-spots and their proper motions. The solar envelope, how-
ever, appears to show a pretty regular retardation towards the
poles, for according to Gustav Sporer's formula, while the equa-
torial period is 25 d. 2 h. 15 m. the latitudes 46° N. and S. give
a period of 28 d. 1 5 h. o m.
The Jovian currents flow in a due east and west direction as
though mainly influenced by the swift rotatory movement of
the globe, and exhibit little sign of deviation either to N. or S.
These currents do not blend and pass gradually into each other,
but seem to be definitely bounded and controlled by separate
phenomena well capable of preserving their individuality.
Occasionally, it is true, there have been slanting belts on Jupiter
(a prominent example occurred in the spring of 1 86 1), as though
the materials were evolved with some force in a polar direction,
but these oblique formations have usually spread out in longitude
and ultimately formed bands parallel with the equator. The longi-
tudinal currents do not individually present us with an equable
rate of motion. In fact they display some curious irregularities,
the spots carried along in them apparently oscillating to and fro
without any reference to fixed periods or cyclical variations.
Thus the equatorial current in 1880 moved at the rate of 9 h. 50 m.
6 s. whereas in 1905 it was 9 h. 50 m. 33 s. The red spot in the
S. tropical zone gave 9 h. 55 m. 34 s. in 1879-1880, whereas during
1900-1908 it has varieda little on either side of 9 h. 55 m. 40-6 s.
Clearly therefore no fixed period of rotation can be applied for any
spot since it is subject to drifts E. or W. and these drifts
sometimes come into operation suddenly, and may be either
temporary or durable. Between 1878 and 1900 the red spot in
the planet's S. hemisphere showed a continuous retardation of
speed.
It must be remembered that in speaking of the rotation of
these markings, we are simply alluding to the irregularities in
the vaporous envelope of Jupiter. The rotation of the planet
itself is another matter and its value is not yet exactly known,
though it is probably little different from that of the markings,
and especially from those of the most durable character, which
indicate a period of about 9 h. 56 m. We never discern the
actual landscape of Jupiter or any of the individual forms really
diversifying it.
Possibly the red spot which became so striking an object in
1878, and which still remains faintly visible on the planet, is the
same feature as that discovered by R. Hooke in 1664 and watched
by Cassini in following years. It was situated in approximately
(he same latitude of the planet and appears to have been hidden
temporarily during several periods up to 1713. But the lack of
fairly continuous observations of this particular marking makes
its identity with the present spot extremely doubtful. The
latter was seen by W. R. Dawes in 1857, by Sir W. Huggins in
1858, by J. Baxendell in 1859, by Lord Rosse and R. Copeland
in 1873, by H. C. Russell in 1876-1877, and in later years it has
formed an object of general observation. In fact it may safely
be said that no planetary marking has ever aroused such wide-
spread interest and attracted such frequent observation as the
great red spot on Jupiter.
The slight inclination of the equator of this planet to the plane
of his orbit suggests that he experiences few seasonal changes.
From the conditions we are, in fact, led to expect a prevailing
calm in his atmosphere, the more so from the circumstance that
the amount of the sun's heat poured upon each square mile of
it is (on the average) less than the 27th part of that received by
each square mile of the earth's surface. Moreover, the seasons
of Jupiter have nearly twelve times the duration of ours, so
that it would be naturally expected that changes in his atmo-
sphere produced by solar action take place with extreme slowness.
But this is very far from being the case. Telescopes reveal the
indications of rapid changes and extensive disturbances in the
aspect and material forming the belts. New spots covering large
areas frequently appear and as frequently decay and vanish,
implying an agitated condition of the Jovian atmosphere, and
leading us to admit the operation of causes much more active
than the heating influence of the sun.
When we institute a comparison between Jupiter and the earth
on the basis that the atmosphere of the former planet bears the
FIG. 2. — Jupiter, 1903, July 10,
2-50 a.m.
N
FIG. 3. — Jupiter, 1906, April 15,
5-50 p.m.
same relation to his mass as the atmosphere of the earth bears
to her mass, we find that a state of things must prevail on Jupiter
very dissimilar to that affecting our own globe. The density of
the Jovian atmosphere we should expect to be fully six times as1
great as the density of our air at sea-level, while it would be
comparatively shallow. But the telescopic aspect of Jupiter
apparently negatives the latter supposition. The belts and spots
grow faint as they approach the limb, and disappear as they near
the edge of the disk, thus indicating a dense and deep atmosphere.
R. A. Proctor considered that the observed features suggested
inherent heat, and adopted this conclusion as best explaining
the surface phenomena of the planet. He regarded Jupiter as
belonging, on account of his immense size, to a different class of
bodies from the earth, and was led to believe that there existed
greater analogy between Jupiter and the sun than between
Jupiter and the earth. Thus the density of the sun, like that of
Jupiter, is small compared with the earth's; in fact, the mean
density of the sun is almost identical with that of Jupiter, and
the belts of the latter planet may be much more aptly compared
with the spot zones of the sun than with the trade zones of the
earth.
In support of the theory of inherent heat on Jupiter it has been
said that his albedo (or light reflected from his surface) is much
greater than the amount would be were his surface similar to
that of the moon, Mercury or Mars, and the reasoning has been
applied to the large outer planets, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune,
as well as to Jupiter. The average reflecting capacity of the
moon and five outer planets would seem to be (on the assumption
that they possess no inherent light) as follows: —
Moon .
Mars .
0-1736
0-2672
Jupiter
Saturn
0-6238 Uranus . 0-6400
0-4981 Neptune . 0-4848
564
JUPITER
These values were considered to support the view that the four
larger and more distant orbs shine partly by inherent lustre,
and the more so as spectroscopic analysis indicates that they
are each involved in a deep vapour-laden atmosphere. But
certain observations furnish a contradiction to Proctor's views.
The absolute extinction of the satellites, even in the most power-
ful telescopes, while in the shadow of Jupiter, shows that they
cannot receive sufficient light from their primary to render them
visible, and the darkness of the shadows of the satellites when
projected on the planet's disk proves that the latter cannot be
self-luminous except in an insensible degree. It is also to be
remarked that, were it only moderately self-luminous, the colour
of the light which it sends to us would be red, such light being
at first emitted from a heated body when its temperature is
raised. Possibly, however, the great red spot, when the colouring
was intense in 1878 and several following years, may have repre-
sented an opening in the Jovian atmosphere, and the ruddy
belts may be extensive rifts in the same envelope. If Jupiter's
actual globe emitted a good deal of heat and light we should
probably distinguish little of it, owing to the obscuring vapours
floating above the surface. Venus reflects relatively more light
than Jupiter, and there is little doubt that the albedo of a planet
is dependent upon atmospheric characteristics, and is in no case
a direct indication of inherent light and heat.
The colouring of the belts appears to be due to seasonal
variations, for Stanley Williams has shown that their changes
have a cycle of twelve years, and correspond as nearly as possible
with a sidereal revolution of Jupiter. The variations are of
such character that the two great equatorial belts are alter-
nately affected; when the S. equatorial belt displays maximum
redness the N. equatorial is at a minimum and vice versa.
The most plausible hypothesis with regard to the red spot is
that it is of the nature of an island floating upon a liquid surface,
though its great duration does not favour this idea. But it is
an open question whether the belts of Jupiter indicate a liquid
or gaseous condition of the visible surface. The difficulty in
the way of the liquid hypothesis is the great difference in the
times of rotation between the equatorial portions of the planet
and the spots in temperate latitudes. The latter usually rotate
in periods between 9 h. 55 m. and 9 h. 56 m., while the equatorial
markings make a revolution in about five minutes less, 9 h. 50 m.
to 9 h. 51 m. The difference amounts to 7-5° in a terrestrial
day and proves that an equatorial spot will circulate right round
the enormous sphere of Jupiter (circumference 283,000 m.) in
48 days. The motion is equivalent to about 6000 m. per day
and 250 m. per hour. (W. F. D.)
Satellites of Jupiter.
Jupiter is attended by eight known satellites, resolvable as re-
gards their visibility into two widely different classes. Four satel-
lites were discovered by Galileo and were the only ones known
until 1892. In September of that year E. E. Barnard, at the
Lick Observatory, discovered a fifth extremely faint satellite, per-
forming a revolution in somewhat less than twleve hours. In 1 904
two yet fainter satellites, far outside the other five, were photo-
graphically discovered by C. D. Perrine at the Lick Observatory.
The eighth satellite was discovered by P. J. Melotte of Greenwich
on the 28th of February 1908. It is of the I7th magnitude and
appears to be very distant from Jupiter; a re-observation on
the i6th of January 1909 proved it to be retrograde, and to have
a very eccentric orbit. These bodies are usually numbered in
the order of their discovery, the nearest to the sun being V. In
apparent brightness each of the four Galilean satellites may
be roughly classed as of the sixth magnitude;
they would therefore be visible to a keen eye
if the brilliancy of the planet did not obscure
them. Some observers profess to have seen
one or more of these bodies with the naked
eye notwithstanding this drawback, but the
evidence can scarcely be regarded as con-
clusive. It does not however seem unlikely
that the third, which is the brightest, might be visible when in
conjunction with one of the others.
Under good conditions and sufficient telescopic power the
satellites are visible as disks, and not mere points of light.
Measures of the apparent diameter of objects so faint are, how-
ever, difficult and uncertain. The results for the Galilean
satellites range between o'-g and i"'S, corresponding to dia-
meters of between 3000 and 5000 kilometres. The smallest is
therefore about 'the size of our moon. Satellite I. has been found
to exhibit marked variations in its brightness and aspect, but
the law governing them has not been satisfactorily worked out.
It seems probable that one hemisphere of this satellite is brighter
than the other, or that there is a large dark region upon it. A
revolution on its axis corresponding with that of the orbital
revolution around the planet has also been suspected, but is not
yet established. Variations of light somewhat similar, but less
in amount, have been noticed in the second and third satellites.
The most interesting and easily observed phenomena of these
bodies are their eclipses and their transits across the disk of
Jupiter. The four inner satellites pass through the shadow of
Jupiter at every superior conjunction, and across his disk at
every inferior conjunction. The outer Galilean satellite does
the same when the conjunctions are not too near the line of
nodes of the satellites' orbit. When most distant from the
nodes, the satellites pass above or below the shadow and below
or above the disk. These phenomena for the four Galilean
satellites are predicted in the nautical almanacs.
When one of the four Galilean satellites is in transit across
the disk of Jupiter it can generally be seen projected on the
face of the planet. It is commonly brighter than Jupiter when
it first enters upon the limb but sometimes darker near the
centre of the disk. This is owing to the fact that the planet is
much darker at the limb. During these transits the shadow of
the satellites can also be seen projected on the planet as a dark
point.
The theories of the motion of these bodies form one of the more
interesting problems of celestial mechanics. Owing to the great
ellipticity of Jupiter, growing out of his rapid rotation, the influence
of this ellipticity upon the motions of the five inner satellites is much
greater than that of the sun, or of the satellites on each other.
The inclination of the orbits to the equator of Jupiter is quite small
and almost constant, and the motion of each node is nearly uniform
around the plane of the planet's equator.
The most marked feature of these bodies is a relation between
the mean longitudes of Satellites I., II. and III. The mean longitude
of I. plus twice that of III. minus three times that of II. is constantly
near to 180°. It follows that the same relations subsist among the
mean motions. The cause of this was pointed out by Laplace.
If we put LI Lj and L, for the mean longitudes, and define an angle
U as follows: —
U = L,— 3L.+2L,.
it was shown mathematically by Laplace that if the longitudes
and mean motions were such that the angle U differed a little
from 1 80°, there was a minute residual force arising from the
mutual actions of the several bodies tending to bring this angle
towards the value 180°. Consequently, if the mean motions were
such that this angle increased only with great slowness, it would
after a certain period tend back toward the value 180°, and then
beyond it, exactly as a pendulum drawn out of the perpendicular
oscillates towards and beyond it. Thus an oscillation would be
engendered in virtue of which the angle would oscillate very
slowly on each side of the central value. Computation of the
mean longitude from observations has indicated that the angle
does differ from 1 80°, but it is not certain whether this deviation
is greater than the possible result of the errors of observation. How-
ever this may be, the existence of the libration, and its period
if it does exist, are still unknown.
The following are the principal elements of the orbits of the five
inner satellites, arranged in the order of distance from Jupiter.
The mean longitudes are for 1891, 2Oth of October, G.M.T., and are
referred to the equinox of the epoch, 1891, 2nd of October: —
Satellite
V.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Mean Long.
Synodic Period
Mean Distance
Mass -f- Mass of Jup.
Stellar Mag.
264°-29
II h. 58 m.
106,400 m.
(?)
13
3I3°-7I93
i d. 18 h. -48
260,000 m.
•00002831
6-0
39° -1187
3d. 13!]. -30
414,000 m.
•00002324
6-1
i7i°-2448
7d. 3h. -99
661,000 m.
•00008125
5-6
62°-2OOO
l6d. i8m. -09
1,162,000 m.
•00002149
6-6
The following numbers relating to the planet itself have been
supplied mostly by Professor Hermann Struve.
JUR— JURA
565
Filar Mic. Heliom.
Equatorial diameter of Jupiter (Dist. 5-2028) . 38*-5O 37*'5O
Polar diameter of Jupiter 36"-O2 35'-23
Ellipticity IBIS'S .1*16-5
Theoretical ellipticity from motion of 900* in the pericentre
of Sat. V. 1*15-3
Centrifugal force* gravity at equator . . ... 0-0900
Mass of Jupiter -5- Mass of Sun, now used in tables . I * 1047-34
Inclination of planet's equator to ecliptic . . 2° 9'-O7+o-oo6/
,, „ „ orbit ... 3° 4'-8o
Long, of Node of equator on ecliptic . . 336° 2l'-47+o'-762i
orbit . . . i35°25'-8i -f-o-729*
The longitudes are referred to the mean terrestrial equinox, and
/ is the time in years from 1900.0.
For the elements of Jupiter's orbit, see SOLAR SYSTEM; and for
physical constants, see PLANET. (S. N.)
JUR (DiUR), the Dinka name for a tribe of negroes of the
upper Nile valley, whose real name is Luoh, or Lwo. They
appear to be immigrants, and tradition places their home in
the south; they now occupy a district of the Bahr-el-Ghazal
between the Bongo and Dinka tribes. Of a reddish black
colour, fairer than the Dinka, they are well proportioned, with
the hair short. Tattooing is not common, but when found is
similar to that of the Dinka; they pierce the ears and nose, and
in addition to the ornaments found among the Dinka (q.ii.)
wear a series of iron rings on the forearm covering it from
wrist to elbow. They are mainly agricultural, but hunt and fish
to a considerable extent; they are also skilful smiths, smelting
their own iron, of which they supply quantities to the Dinka.
They are a prosperous tribe and in consequence spinsters
are unknown among them. Their chief currency is spears and
hoe-blades, and cowrie shells are used in the purchase of wives.
Their chief weapons are spears and bows.
See G. Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa: Travels 1868-1871,
trans. G. E. E. Frewer (2nd ed., 1874) ; W. Junker, Travels in Africa
(Eng. ed., 1890-1892).
JURA, a department of France, on the eastern frontier,
formed from the southern portion of the old province of Franche-
Comte. It is bounded N by the department of Haute-Saone,
N.E. by Doubs, E. by Switzerland, S. by Ain, and W. by Sa6ne-
et-Loire and Cote d'Or. Pop. (1906), 257,725. Area, 1951 sq.m.
Jura comprises four distinct zones with a general direction from
north to south. In the S.E. lie high eastern chains of the central
Jura, containing the Cret Pela (4915 ft.), the highest point in
the department. More to the west there is a chain of forest-
clad plateaus bordered on the E. by the river Ain. Westward
of these runs a range of hills, the slopes of which are covered
with vineyards. The north-west region of the department is
occupied by a plain which includes the fertile Finage, the north-
ern portion of the Bresse, and is traversed by the Doubs and
its left affluent the Loue, between!1 which lies the fine forest of
Chaux, 76 sq. m. in area. Jura falls almost wholly within the
basin of the Rhone. Besides those mentioned, the chief rivers
are the Valouze and the Bienne, which water the south of the
department. There are several lakes, the largest of which is
that of Chalin, about 1 2 m. E. of Lons-le-Saunier. The climate
is, on the whole, cold; the temperature is subject to sudden and
violent changes, and among the mountains winter sometimes
lingers for eight months. The rainfall is much above the average
of France.
Jura is an agricultural department: wheat, oats, maize and
barley are the chief cereals, the culture of potatoes and rape being
also of importance. Vines are grown mainly in the cantons of
Arbois, Poligny, Salins and Voiteur. Woodlands occupy about
a fifth of the area: the oak, hornbeam and beech, and, in the
mountains, the spruce and fir, are the principal varieties. Natural
pasture is abundant on the mountains. Forests, gorges, torrents
and cascades are characteristic features of the scenery. Its
minerals include iron and salt and there are stone-quarries.
Peat is also worked. Lons-le-Saunier and Salins have mineral
springs. Industries include the manufacture of Gruyere, Sept-
moncel and other cheeses (made in co-operative cheese factories
or fruitieres) , metal founding and forging, saw-milling, flour-
milling, the cutting of precious stones (at Septmoncel and else-
where), the manufacture of nails, tools and other iron goods,
paper, leather, brier-pipes, toys and fancy wooden-ware and
basket-work. The making of clocks, watches, spectacles and
measures, which are largely exported, employs much labour in
and around Morez. Imports consist of grain, cattle, wine, leaf-
copper, horn, ivory, fancy-wood; exports of manufactured
articles, wine, cheese, stone, timber and salt. The department
is served chiefly by the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway, the
main line from Paris to Neuchatel traversing its northern region.
The canal from the Rhone to the Rhine, which utilizes the channel
of the Doubs over portions of its course, traverses it for 25 m.
Lons-le-Saunier is the chief town of Jura, which embraces four
arrondissements named after the towns of Lons-le-Saunier, Dole,
Poligny and St Claude, with 32 cantons and 584 communes.
The department forms the diocese of St Claude and part of the
ecclesiastical province of Besancon; it comes within the region
of the Vllth army corps and the educational circumscription
(academic) of Besancon, where is its court of appeal. Lons-le-
Saunier, Dole, Arbois, Poligny, St Claude and Salins, the more
noteworthy towns, receive separate notices. At Baume-les-
Messieurs, 8 m. N.E. of Lons-le-Saunier, there is an ancient
abbey with a fine church of the i2th century.
JURA (" deer island "), an island of the inner Hebrides, the
fourth largest of the group, on the west coast of Argyllshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1901), 560. On the N. it is separated from
the island of Scarba by the whirlpool of Corrievreckan, caused
by the rush of the tides, often running over 13 m. an hour,
and sometimes accelerated by gales, on the E. from the main-
land by the sound of Jura, and on the S. and S.W. from Islay
by the sound of Islay. At Kinuachdrach there is a ferry to
Aird in Lome, in Argyllshire, and at Faolin there is a ferry to
Port Askaig in Islay. Its area is about 160 sq. m., the greatest
length is about 27 m., and the breadth varies from 2 m. to 8 m.
The surface is mountainous and the island is the most rugged
of the Hebrides. A chain of hills culminating in the Paps of
Jura — Beinn-an-Oir (2571 ft.) and Beinn Chaolais (2407 ft.) —
runs the whole length of the island, interrupted only by Tarbert
loch, an arm of the sea, which forms an indentation nearly 6 m.
deep and almost cuts the island in two. Jura derived its name
from the red deer which once abounded on it. Cattle and sheep
are raised; oats, barley and potatoes are cultivated along the
eastern shore, and there is some fishing. Granite is quarried
and silicious sand, employed in glass-making is found. The
parish of Jura comprises the islands of Balnahua, Fladda,
Garvelloch, Jura, Lunga, Scarba and Skervuile.
JURA, a range which may be roughly described as the block
of mountains rising between the Rhine and the Rhone, and form-
ing the frontier between France and Switzerland. The gorges
by which these two rivers force their way to the plains cut off
the Jura from the Swabian and Franconian ranges to the north
and those of Dauphine to the south. But in very early days,
before these gorges had been carved out, there were no openings
in the Jura at all, and even now its three chief rivers — the Doubs,
the Loue and the Ain — flow down the western slope, which is
both much longer and but half as steep as the eastern. Some
geographers extend the name Jura to the Swabian and Fr'an-
conian ranges between the Danube and the Neckar and the Main;
but, though these are similar in point of composition and direc-
tion to the range to the south, it is most convenient to limit the
name to the mountain ridges lying between France and Switzer-
land, and this narrower sense will be adopted here.
The Jura has been aptly described as a huge«plateau about
156 m. long and 38 m. broad, hewn into an oblong shape, and
raised by internal forces to an average height of from 1950 to
2600 ft. above the surrounding plains. The shock by which it
was raised and the vibration caused by the elevation of the great
chain of the Alps, produced many transverse gorges or " cluses,"
while on the plateaus between these subaerial agencies have
exercised their ordinary influence.
Geologically the Jura Mountains belong to the Alpine system;
and the same forces which crumpled and tore the strata of the
one produced the folds and faults in the other. Both chains
566
JURA
owe their origin to the mass of crystalline and unyielding rock
which forms the central plateau of France, the Vosges and the
Black Forest, and which, between the Vosges and the central
plateau, lies at no great depth beneath the surface. Against
this mass the more yielding strata which lay to the south and
west were crushed and folded, and the Alps and the Jura were
carved from the ridges which were raised. But the folding
decreases in intensity towards the north; the folding in the Alps
is much more violent than the folding in the Jura, and in the
Jura itself the folding is most marked along its southern flanks.
The Jura is composed chiefly of Jurassic rocks — it is from this
chain that the Jurassic system derives its name — but Triassic,
Cretaceous and Tertiary beds take part in its formation. It may
be divided into three zones which run parallel to the length of
the chain and differ from one another in their structure. The
innermost zone, which rises directly from the plain of Switzer-
land, is the folded Jura (Jura plissc, Kettenjura) , formed of narrow
parallel undulations which diminish in intensity towards the
French border. This is followed by the Jura plateau (Jura tabu-
lair e, Tafdjura), in which the beds are approximately horizontal
but are broken up into blocks by fractures or faults. Finally,
along its western face there is a zone of numerous dislocations,
and the range descends abruptly to the plain of the Sa6ne.
This is the Region du vignoble and is well shown at Arbois.
Owing to the convergence of the faults which bound it, the
plateau zone decreases in width towards the south, while towards
the north it forms a large proportion of the chain. The folded
zone is more constant. Along its inner margin the folds are
frequently overthrown, leaning towards France, but elsewhere
they are simple anticlinals and synclinals, parallel to the length
of the chain, and as a rule there is a remarkable freedom from
dislocations of any importance, except towards Neuchatel and
Bienne.
The countless blocks of gneiss, granite and other crystalline
formations which are found in such numbers on the slopes of the
Jura, and go by the name of " erratic blocks " (of which the best
known instance — the Pierre a Bot — is 40 ft. in diameter, and
rests on the side of a hill 800 ft. above the Lake of Neuchatel),
have been transported thither from the Alps by ancient glaciers,
which have left their mark on the Jura range itself in the shape
of striations and moraines.
The general direction of the chain is from north-east to south-
west, but a careful study reveals the fact that there were in
reality two main lines of upheaval, viz. north to south and east
to west, the former best seen in the southern part of the range
and the latter in the northern; and it was by the union of these
two forces that the lines north-east to south-west (seen in the
greater part of the chain), and north-west to south-east (seen in
the Villebois range at the south-west extremity of the chain),
were produced. This is best realized if we take Besancon as a
'centre; to the north the ridges run east and west, to the south,
north and south, while to the east the direction is north-east to
south-west.
Before considering the topography of the interior of the Jura, it
may be convenient to take a brief survey of its outer slopes.
1. The northern face dominates on one side the famous " Troupe "
(or Trench) of Belfort, one of the great geographical centres of
Europe, whence routes run north down the Rhine to the North Sea,
south-east to the Danube basin and Black Sea, and south-west into
France, and so to the Mediterranean basin. It is now so strongly
fortified that it becomes a question of great strategical importance
to prevent its being turned by means of the great central plateau of
the Jura, which, as we shall see, is a network of roads and railways.
On the other sfde it overhangs the " Troude " of the Black Forest
towns on the Rhine (Rheinfelden, Sackingen, Laufenburg and
Waldshut), through which the central plain of Switzerland is easily
gained. On this north slope two openings offer routes into the
interior of the chain — the valley of the Doubs belonging to France,
and the valley of the Birse belonging to Switzerland. Belfort is
the military, Mulhausen the industrial, and Basel the commercial
centre of this slope.
2. The eastern and western faces offer many striking parallels.
The plains through which flow the Aar and the Safine have each been
the bed of an ancient lake, traces of which remain in the lakes of
Neuchatel, Bienne and Morat. The west face runs mainly north
and south like its great river, and for a similar reason the east face
runs north-east to south-west. Again, both slopes are pierced by
many transverse gorges or " cluses " (due to fracture and not to-
erosion), by which access is gained to the great central plateau of
Pontarlier. though these are seen more plainly on the east face than,
on the west ; thus the gorges at the exit from which Lons-le-Saunier,
Poligny, Arbois and Salins are built balance those of the Suze, of
the Val de Ruz, of the Val de Travcrs, and of the Val d'Orbe, though
on the east face there is but one city which commands all these
important routes — Neuch&tel. This town is thus marked out by
nature as a great military and industrial centre, just as is Besancon
on the west, which has besides to defend the route from Belfort
down the Doubs. These easy means of communicating with the
Free County of Burgundy or Franche-Comtd account for the fact
that the dialect of Neuchatel is Burgundian, and that it was held
generally by Burgundian nobles, though most of the country near
it was in the hands of the house of Savoy until gradually annexed
by Bern. The Chasseron (5286 ft.) is the central point of the eastern
face, commanding the two great railways which join Neuchatel and
Pontarlier. This ridge is in a certain sense parallel to the valley
of the Loue on the west face, which flows into the Doubs a little tx>
the south of D61e, the only important town of the central portion
of the Sa6ne basin. The Chasseron is wholly Swiss, as are the lower
summits of the Chasseral (5279 ft.), the Mont Suchet (5220 ft.),
the Aiguille de Baulmes (5128 ft.), the Dent de Vaulion (4879 ft.),
the Weissenstein (4223 ft.), and the Chaumont (3845 ft.), the two
last-named points being probably the best-known points in the
Jura, as they are accessible by carriage road from Soleure and
Neuchatel respectively. South of the Orbe valley the east face
becomes a rocky wall which is crowned by all the highest summits,
(the first and second Swiss, the rest French) of the chain — the Mont
Tendre (5512 ft.), the Dole (5505 ft.), the Reculet (5643 ft.), the
Crgt de la Neige (5653 ft.) and the Grand Credo (5328 ft.), the uni-
formity of level being as striking as on the west edge of the
Jura, though there the absolute height is far less. The position of
the D61e is similar to that of the Chasseron, as along the sides of it
run the great roads of the Col de St Cergues (3973 ft.) and the Col
de la Faucille (4341 ft.), the latter leading through the Vallde des.
Dappes, which was divided in 1862 between France and Switzer-
land, after many negotiations. The height of these roads shows that
they are passages across the chain, rather than through natural
depressions.
3. The southern face is supported by two great pillars — on the
east by the Grand Crddo and on the west by the ridge of Revermont
(2529 ft.) above Bourg en Bresse; between these a huge bastion
(the district of Bugey) stretches away to the south, forcing the
Rhone to make a long ddtour. On the two sides of this bastion the
plains in which Amberieu and Culoz stand balance one another, and
are the meeting points of the routes which cut through the bastion
by means of deep gorges. On the eastern side this great wedge ia
steep and rugged, ending in the Grand Colombicr (5033 ft.) above
Culoz, and it sinks on the western side to the valley of the Ain, the
district of Bresse, and the plateau of Dombes. The junction of the
Ain and the Surand at Pont d'Ain on the west balances that of the
Valserine and the Rhone at Bellegarde on the east.
The Jura thus dominates on the north one of the great highways
of Europe, on the east and west divides the valleys of the Sa6ne and
the Aar, and stretches out to the south so as nearly to join hands
with the great mass of the Dauphind Alps. It therefore commands
the routes from France into Germany, Switzerland and Italy, and
hence its enormous historical importance.
Let us now examine the topography of the interior of the range.
This naturally falls into three divisions, each traversed by one
of the three great rivers of the Jura — the Doubs, the Loue and the
Ain.
i. In the northern division it is the east and west line which
prevails — the Lomont, the Mont Terrible, the defile of the Doubs
from St Ursanne to St Hippolyte, and the " Troude " of the Black
Forest towns. It thus bars access to the central plateau from the
north, and this natural wall does away with the necessity of artificial
fortifications. This division falls again into two distinct portions.
(a) The first is the part east of the deep gorge of the Doubs after it
turns south at St Hippolyte; it is thus quite cut off on this side, and
is naturally Swiss territory. It includes the basin of the river
Birse, and the great plateau between the Doubs and the Aar, on
which, at an average height of 2600 ft., are situated a number of
towns, one of the most striking features of the Jura. These include
Le Locle (?.».) and La Chaux de Fonds (£.».), and are mainly occupied
with watch-making, an industry which does not require bulky
machinery, and is therefore well fitted for a mountain district.
(b) The part west of the "cluse" of the Doubs: of this, the
district east of the river Dessoubre, isolated in the interior of the
range (unlike the Le Locle plateau), is called the Haute Montagne,
and is given up to cheese-making, curing of hams, saw-mills, &c.
But little watch-making is carried on there, Besangon being the
chief French centre of this industry, and being connected with
Geneva by a chain of places similarly occupied, which fringe the
west plateau of the Jura. The part west of the Dessoubre, or the
Moyenne Montagne, a huge plateau north of the Loue, is more
especially devoted to agriculture, while along its north edge metal-
working and manufacture of hardware are carried on, particularly
at Besancon and Audincourt.
JURASSIC
567
2. The central division is remarkable for being without the deep
gorges which are found so frequently in other parts of the range.
It consists of the basin of which Pontarlier is the centre, through
notches in the rim of which routes converge from every direction ;
this is the great characteristic of the middle region of the Jura.
Hence its immense strategical and commercial importance. On the
north-east roads run to Morteau and Le Locle, on the north-west to
Besancon, on the west to Salins, on the south-west to Dole and
Lons-le-Saunier, on the east to the Swiss plain. The Pontarlier
plateau is nearly horizontal, the slight indentations in it being due
to erosion, e.g. by the river Drugeon. The keys to this important
plateau are to the east the Fort de Joux, under the walls of which
meet the two lines of railway from Neuchatel, and to. the west
Salins, the meeting place of the routes from the Col de la Faucille,
from Besancon, and from the French plain.
The Ain rises on the south edge of this plateau, and on a lower
shelf or step, which it waters, are situated two points of great
military importance — Nozeroy and Champagnole. The latter is
specially important, since the road leading thence to Geneva
traverses one after another, not far from their head, the chief valleys
which run down into the South Jura, and thus commands the
southern routes as well as those by St Cergues and the Col de la
Faucille from the Geneva region, and a branch route along the Orbe
river from Jougne. The fort of Les Rousses, near the foot of the
Dole, serves as an advanced post to Champagnole, just as the Fort
de Joux does to Pontarlier.
The above sketch will serve to show the character of the central
Jura as the meeting place of routes from all sides, and the importance
to France of its being strongly fortified, lest an enemy approaching
from the north-east should try to turn the fortresses of the " Trouee
de Belfort." It is in the western part of the central Jura that the
north and south lines first appear strongly marked. There are said
to be in this district no less than fifteen ridges running parallel to
each other, and it is these which force the Loue to the north, and
thereby occasion its very eccentric course. The ^cultivation of
wormwood wherewith to make the tonic " absinthe " has its head-
quarters at Pontarlier.
3. The southern division is by far the most complicated and
entangled part of the Jura. The lofty ridge which bounds it to the
east forces all its drainage to the west, and the result is a number of
valleys of erosion (of which that of the Ain is the chief instance),
quite distinct from the natural " cluses " or fissures of those of the
Doubs and of the Loue. Another point of interest is the number
of roads which intersect it, despite its extreme irregularity. This
is due to the great " cluses " of Nantua and Virieu, which traverse
it from east to west. The north and south line is very clearly seen
in the eastern part of this division; the north-east and south-west
is entirely wanting, but in the Villebois range south of AmbeVieu
we have the principal example of the north-west to south-east line.
The plateaus west of the Ain are cut through by the valleys of the
Valouse and of the Surand, and like all the lowest terraces on the
west slope do not possess any considerable towns. The Ain receives
three tributaries from the east : —
(a) The Bienne, which flows from the fort of Les Rousses by
St Claude, the industrial centre of the south Jura, famous for the
manufacture of wooden toys, owing to the large quantity of box-
wood in the neighbourhood. Septmoncel is busied with cutting of
gems, and Morez with watch and spectacle making. Cut off to the
east by the great chain, the industrial prosperity of this valley is of
recent origin.
(6) The Oignin, which flows from south to north. It receives the
drainage of the lake of Nantua, a town noted for combs and silk
weaving, and which communicates by the " cluse " of the Lac de
Silan with the Valserine valley, and so with the Rhone at Bellegarde,
and again with the various routes which meet under the walls of the
fort of Les Rousses, while by the Val Romey and the Seran Culoz is
easily gained.
(c) The Albarine, connected with Culoz by the " cluse of Virieu,
and by the Furan flowing south with Belley, the capital of the
district of Bugey (the old name for the South Jura).
The " cluses " of Nantua and Virieu are now both traversed by
important railways; and it is even truer than of old that the keys
of the south Jura are Lyons and Geneva. But of course the
strategic importance of these gorges is less than appears at first
sight, because they can be turned by following the Rhone Jn its
great bend to the south.
The range is mentioned by Caesar (Bell. Gall. 1.2-3,6(1), and
8(i)),Strabo(iv. 3, 4, and 6, n), Pliny (iii. 3 1 ; iv. 105; xvi. 197)
and Ptolemy (ii. ix. 5), its name being a word which appears
under many forms (e.g. Joux, Jorat, Jorasse, Juriens), and is a
synonym for a wood or forest. The German name is Leberberg,
Leber being a provincial word for a hill.
Politically the Jura is French (departments of the Doubs, Jura
and Ain) and Swiss (parts of the cantons of Geneva, Vaud,
Neuchatel, Bern, Soleure and Basel) ; but at its north extremity
it takes in a small bit of Alsace (Pfirt or Ferrette) . In the middle
ages the southern, western and northern sides were parcelled out
into a number of districts, all of which were gradually absorbed
by the French crown, viz., Gex, Val Romey, Bresse and Bugey
(exchanged in 1601 by Savoy for the marquisate of Saluzzo),
Franche-Comte, or the Free County of Burgundy, an imperial
fief till annexed in 1674, the county of Montbeliard (Mompelgard)
acquired in 1793, and the county of Ferrette (French 1648-1871).
The northern part of the eastern side was held till 1792 (part till
1797) by the bishop of Basel as a fief of the empire, and then
belonged to France till 1814, but was given to Bern in 1815 (as
a recompense for its loss of Vaud), and now forms the Bernese
Jura, a French-speaking district. The centre of the eastern
slope formed the principality of Neuchatel (q.v.) and the county
of Valangin, which were generally held by Burgundian nobles,
came by succession to the kings of Prussia in 1707, and were
formed into a Swiss canton in 1815, though they did not become
free from formal Prussian claims until 1857. The southern part
of the eastern slope originally belonged to the house of Savoy,
but was conquered bit by bit by Bern, which was forced in 1815
to accept its subject district Vaud as a colleague and equal in
the Swiss Confederation. It was Charles the Bold's defeats at
Grandson and Morat which led to the annexation by the con-
federates of these portions of Savoyard territory.
AUTHORITIES. — E.F.Berlioux, LeJura (Paris, 1880) ; F. Machacek,
Der Schweizer Jura (Gotha, 1905) ; A. Magnin, Les lacs du Jura
(Paris, 1895); J. Zimmerli, " Die Sprachgrenze im Jura " (vol. i. of
his Die Deutsch-franzosische Sprachgrenze in der Schweiz (Basel,
1891). For the French slope see Joanne's large Itineraire to
the Jura, and the smaller volumes relating to the departments of
the Ain, Doubs and Jura, in his Geographies departementales. For
the Swiss slope see 3 vols. in the series of the Guides Monod
(Geneva) ; A. Monnier, La Chaux de Fonds et le Haul-Jura Neuchdte-
lois; J. Monod, Le Jura Bernois; and E. J. P. de la Harpe, Le Jura
Vaudois. (W. A. B. C.)
JURASSIC, in geology, the middle period of the Mesozoic era,
that is to say, succeeding the Triassic and preceding the Creta-
ceous periods. The name Jurassic (French jurassique; German
Juraformation or Jura) was first employed by A. Brongniart and
A. von Humboldt for the rocks of this age in the western Jura
mountains of Switzerland, where they are well developed. It
was in England, however, that they were first studied by William
Smith, in whose hands they were made to lay the foundations
of stratigraphical geology. The names adopted by him for the
subdivisions he traced across the country have passed into
universal use, and though some of them are uncouth English
provincial names, they are as familiar to the geologists of France,
Switzerland and Germany as to those of England. During the
following three decades Smith's work was elaborated by W. D.
Conybeare and W. Phillips. The Jurassic rocks of fossils of the
European continent were described by d'Orbigny, 1840-1846;
by L. von Buch, 1839; by F. A. Quenstedt, 1843-1888; by
A. Oppel, 1856-1858; and since then by many other workers:
E. Benecke, E. Hebert, W. Waagen, and others. The study of
Jurassic rocks has continued to attract the attention of geolo-
gists, partly because the bedding is so well defined and regular —
the strata are little disturbed anywhere outside the Swiss Jura
and the Alps — and partly because the fossils are numerous and
usually well-preserved. The result has been that no other
system of rocks has been so carefully examined throughout its
entire thickness; many "zones" have been established by means
of the fossils — principally by ammonites — and these zones are
not restricted to limited districts, but many of them hold good
over wide areas. Oppel distinguished no fewer than thirty-three
zonal horizons, and since then many more sub-zonal divisions
have been noted locally.
The existence of faunal regions in Jurassic times was first
pointed out by J. Marcou; later M. Neumayr greatly extended
observations in this direction. According to Neumayr, three
distinct geographical regions of deposit can be made out among
the Jurassic rocks of Europe: (i) The Mediterranean province,
embracing the Pyrenees, Alps and Carpathians, with all the
tracts lying to the south. One of the biological characters of
this area was the great abundance of ammonites belonging to
568
JURASSIC
the groups of Heterophylli (Phylloceras) and Fimbriati (Lytoceras).
(2) The central European province, comprising the tracts lying
to the north of the Alpine ridge, and marked by the comparative
rarity of the ammonites just mentioned, which are replaced by
others of the groups Inflati (Aspidoceras) and Oppelia, and by
abundant reefs and masses of coral. (3) The boreal or Russian
province, comprising the middle and north of Russia, Spitzbergen
and Greenland. The life in this area was much less varied than
in the others, showing that in Jurassic times there was a per-
ceptible diminution of temperature towards the north. The
ammonites of the more southern tracts here disappear, together
with the corals.
The cause of these faunal regions Neumayr attributed to
climatic belts — such as exist to-day — and in part, at least, he
Map of the
probable distribution ol
. Land & Sea in the
Jurassic Period
was probably correct. It should be borne in mind, however,
that although Neumayr was able to trace a broad, warm belt,
some 60° in width, right round the earth, with a narrower mild
belt to the north and an arctic or boreal belt beyond, and certain
indications of a repetition of the climatic zones on the southern
side of the thermal equator, more recent discoveries of fossils
seem to show that other influences must have been at work in
determining their distribution; in short, the identity of the
Neumayrian climatic boundaries becomes increasingly obscured
by the advance of our knowledge.
The Jurassic period was marked by a great extension of the
sea, which commenced after the close of the Trias and reached
its maximum during the Callovian and Oxfordian stages; conse-
quently, the Middle Jurassic rocks are much more widely spread
than the Lias. In Europe and elsewhere Triassic beds pass
gradually up into the Jurassic, so that there is difficulty some-
times in agreement as to the best line for the base of the latter;
similarly at the top of the sytsem there is a passage from the
Jurassic to the Cretaceous rocks (Alps).
Towards the close of the period elevation began in certain
regions; thus, in America, the Sierras, Cascade Mountains,
Klamath Mountains, and Humboldt Range probably began to
emerge. In England the estuarine Portlandian resulted partly
from elevation, but in the Alps marine conditions steadily per-
sisted (in the Tithonian stage). There appears to have been
very little crustal disturbance or volcanic activity; tuffs are
known in Argentina and California; volcanic rocks of this age
occur also in Skye and Mull.
The rocks of the Jurassic system present great petrological
diversity. In England the name " Oolites " was given to the
middle and higher members of the system on account of the
prevalence of oolitic structure in the limestones and ironstones;
the same character is a common feature in the rocks of northern
Europe and elsewhere, but it must not be overlooked that clays
and sandstones together bulk more largely in the aggregate than
the oolites. The thickness of Jurassic rocks in England is
4000 to 5000 ft., and in Germany 2000 to 3000 ft. Most of the
rocks represent the deposits of shallow seas, but estuarine con-
ditions and land deposits occur as in the Purbeck beds of Dorset
and the coals of Yorkshire. Coal is a very important feature
among Jurassic rocks, particularly in the Liassic division; it is
found in Hungary, where there are twenty- five workable beds;
in Persia, Turkestan, Caucasus, south Siberia, China, Japan,
Further India, New Zealand and in many of the Pacific Islands.
Being shallow water formations, petrological changes come in
rapidly as many of the beds are traced out; sandstones pass
laterally into clays, and the latter into limestones, and so on,
but a reliable guide to the classification and correlation is found
in the fossil contents of the rocks. In the accompanying table
a list is given of some of the zonal fossils which regularly occur
in the order indicated; other forms are known that are equally
useful. It will be noticed that while there is general agreement
as to the order in which the zonal forms occur, the line of division
between one formation and another is liable to vary according
to factors in the personal equation of the authors.
The Jurassic formations stretch across England in a varying
band from the mouth of the Tees to the coast of Dorsetshire.
They consist of harder sandstones and limestones interstratified
with softer clays and shales. Hence they give rise to a character-
istic type of scenery — the more durable beds standing out as
long ridges, sometimes even with low cliffs, while the clays under-
lie the level spaces between.
Jurassic rocks cover a vast area in Central Europe. They rise
from under the Cretaceous formations in the north-east of France,
whence they range southwards down the valleys of the Saone and
Rhone to the Mediterranean. They appear as a broken border
round the old crystalline nucleus of Auvergne. Eastwards they
range through the Jura Mountains up to the high grounds of Bo-
hemia. They appear in the outer chains of the Alps on both sides,
and on the south they rise along the centre of the Apennines, and
here and there over the Spanish Peninsula. Covered by more
recent formations they underlie the great plain of northern Germany,
whence they range eastwards and occupy large tracts in central
and eastern Russia.
Lower Jurassic rocks are absent from much of northern Russia,
the stages represented being the Callovian, Oxfordian and Volgian
(of Professor S. Nikitin) ; the fauna differs considerably from that of
western Europe, and the marine equivalents of the Purbeck beds
are found in this region. In south Russia, the Crimea and Caucasus,
Lias and Lower Jurassic rocks are present. In the Alps, the Lower
Jurassic rocks are intimately associated with the underlying Triassic
formations, and resemble them in consisting largely of reddish
limestones and marbles; the ammonites in this region differ in
certain respects from those if western and central Europe. The
Oxfordian, Callovian, Corrilian and Astartian stages are also
present. The Upper Jurassic is mainly represented by a uniform
series of limestones, witli a peculiar and characteristic fauna, to
which Oppel gave the name Tithonian." This includes most of
the horizons from Kimcridgian to Cretaceous; it is developed on the
southern flanks of the Alps, Carpathians, Apennines, as well as in
south France and other parts of the Mediterranean basin. A
characteristic formation on this horizon is the " Diphya limestone,"
so-called from the fossil Terebratula diphya (Pygope janitor) seen
in the well-known escarpments (Hochgebirge Kalk). Above the
Diphya limestone comes the Stramberg limestone (Stramberg in
Moravia), with " Aptychus " beds and coral reefs. The rocks of
the Mediterranean basin are on the whole more calcareous than
those of corresponding age in north-west Europe; thus the Lias is
represented by 1500 ft. of white crystalline limestone in Calabria
and a similar rock occurs in Sicily, Bosnia, Epirus, Corfu ; in Spain
the Liassic strata are frequently dolomitic; in the Apennines they
are variegated limestones and marls. The Higher Jurassic beds of
Portugal show traces of the proximity of land in the abundant plant
remains that are found in them. In Scania the Lias succeeds the
Rhaetic beds in a regular manner, and Jurassic rocks have been
traced northward well within the polar circle; they are known in
the Lofoten Isles, Spitzbergen, east Greenland, King Charles's
Island, Cape Stewart in Scoresby Sound, Grinnell Land, Prince
Patrick Land, Bathurst and Exmouth Island; in many cases the
fossils denote a climate considerably milder than now obtains in
these latitudes.
In the American continent Jurassic rocks are not well developed.
Marine Lower and Middle Jurassic beds occur on the Pacific coast
(California and Oregon) , and in Wyoming, the Dakotas, Colorado, east
Mexico and Texas. Above the marine beds in the interior are brack-
ish and fresh-water deposits, the Morrison and Como beds (Atlanto-
saurus and Baptanodpn beds of Marsh). Later Jurassic rocks are
found in northern British Columbia and perhaps in Alaska, Wyoming,
Utah, Montana, Colorado, the Dakotas, &c. In California some of the
JURASSIC
569
gold-bearing metamorphic slates are of this age. Marine Jurassic
rocks have not been clearly identified on the Atlantic side of
America. The Patuxent and Arundel formations (non-marine) are
doubtfully referred to this period. Lower and Middle Jurassic
formations occur in Argentina and Bolivia. Jurassic rocks have
been recognized in Asia, including India, Afghanistan, Persia,
Kurdistan, Asia Minor, the Caspian region, Japan and Borneo.
The best marine development is in Cutch, where the following groups
series = Bathonian. In the western half of the Salt Range and the
Himalayas, Spiti shales are the equivalents of the European Callovian
and Kimeridgian. The upper part of the Gondwana series is not
improbably Jurassic. On the African continent, Liassic strata are
found in Algeria, and Bathonian formations occur in Abyssinia,
Somaliland, Cape Colony and western Madagascar. In Australia
the Permo-Carboniferous formations are succeeded in Queensland
and Western Australia by what may be termed the Jura-Trias,
Stages1
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Upper Lias
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Middle Lias
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are distinguished from above downwards: the Umia series = Port-
landian and Tithonian of south Europe, passing upwards into the
Neocomian; the Katrol series = Oxfordian (part) and Kimeridgian;
the Chari series = Callovian and part of the Oxfordian ; the Patcham
1 Purbeckian from the " Isle " of Purbeck. Aquilonien from
Aquilo (Nord). Bononien from Bononia (Boulogne). Virgulien
from Exogyra virgula. Pteroceran from Pteroceras oceani. Astartien
from Astarte supracorallina. Rauracien from Rauracia (Jura).
Argovien from Argovie (Switzerland). Neuvizien from Neuvizy
(Ardennes). Divesien from Dives (Calvados). Bathonien from
Bath (England). Bajocien from Bayeux (Calvados). Toarcien
from Toarcium (Tours). Charmouthien from Charmouth (England).
Sinemourien from Sinemurum, Semur (C6te d'Or). Hettangien from
Hettange (Lorraine).
which include the coal-bearing " Ipswich " and " Burrum " forma-
tions of Queensland. In New Zealand there is a thick series of
marine beds with terrestrial plants, the Mataura scries in the upper
part of Hutton's Hokanui system. Sir J. Hector included also the
Putakaka series (as Middle Jurassic) and the Flag series with the
Catlin's River and Bastion series below. Jurassic rocks have been
recorded from New Guinea and New Caledonia.
Life in the Jurassic Period. — The expansion of the sea during this
period, with the formation of broad sheets of shallow and probably
warmish water, appears to have been favourable to many forms of
marine life. Under these conditions several groups of organisms
developed rapidly along new directions, so that the Jurassic period
as a whole came to have a fauna differing clearly and distinctly from
the preceding Palaeozoic or succeeding Tertiary faunas. In the
seas, all the main groups were represented as they are to-day
JURAT— JURIEN DE LA GRAVIERE
570
Corals were abundant, and in later portions of the period covered
large areas in Europe; the modern type of coral became dominant;
besides reef-building forms such as Thamnastrea, Isastrea, Thecos-
milia, there were numerous single forms like Montivaltia. Crinoids
existed in great numbers in some of the shallow seas; compared with
Palaeozoic forms there is a marked reduction in the size of the
calyx with a great extension in the number of arms and pinnules;
Pentacrinus, Eugeniacrinus, Apiocrinus are all well known; Anledon
was a stalkless genus. Echinoids (urchins) were gradually develop-
ing the so-called " irregular " type, Echinobrissus, Holectypus,
Collyrites, Clypeus, but the " regular " forms prevailed, Cidaris,
Hemicidaris, Acrosalenia. Sponges were important rock-builders
in Upper Jurassic times (Spongiten Kalk) ; they include lithistids
such as Cnemediastrum, Hyalotragus, Peronidella; hexactinellids,
Tremadictyon, Craticularia; and horny sponges have been found in
the Lias and Middle Jurassic.
Polyzpa are found abundantly in some of the beds, Stomatopora,
Berenicia, &c. Brachiopods were represented principally by
terebratulids (Terebratula, Waldheimia, Megerlea), and by rhyn-
chonellids; Thecae, Lingula and Crania were also present. The
Palaeozoic spirifirids and athyrids still lingered into the Lias.
More important than the brachiopods were the pelecypods; Ostrea,
Exogyra, Gryphaea were very abundant (Gryphite limestone, Gryphite
grit) ; the genus Trigonia, now restricted to Australian waters, was
present in great variety; Aucetta, Lima, Pecten, Pseudomonotis
Gervillia, Aslarle, Dicer as, Isocardia, Pleuromya may be mentioned
out of many others. Amongst the gasteropoda the Pleurotomariidae
and Turbinidae reached their maximum development ; the Palaeo-
zoic Conularia lived to see the beginning of this period (Pleurotomaria,
Nerinea, Pteroceras, Cerithium, Turritella).
Cephalopods flourished everywhere; first in importance were the
ammonites; the Triassic genera Phylloceras and Lytoceras were still
found in the Jurassic waters, but all the other numerous genera
were new, and their shells are found with every variation of size
and ornamentation. Some are characteristic of the older Jurassic
rocks, Arietites, Aegoceras, Amaltheus, Harpoceras, Oxynoticeras,
Stepheoceras, and the two genera mentioned above; in the middle
stages are found Cesmoceras, Perisphinctes, Cardioceras, Kepplerites
Aspidoceras; in the upper stages Olcostephanus, Perisphinctes,
Reineckia, Oppelia. So regularly do certain forms characterize
definite horizons in the rocks that some thirty zones have been
distinguished in Europe, and many of them can be traced even as
far as India. Another cephalopod group, the belemnites, that had
been dirnly outlined in the preceding Trias, now advanced rapidly
in numbers and in variety of form, and they, like the ammonites,
have proved of great value as zone-indicators. The Sepioids or
cuttlefish made their first appearance in this period (Beloteuthis,
Ceoteuthis,) and their ink-bags can still be traced in examples from
the Lias and lithographic limestone. Nautiloids existed but they
were somewhat rare.
A great change had come over the crustaceans; in place of the
Palaeozoic trilobites we find long-tailed lobster-like forms, Penaeus,
Eryon, Magila, and the broad crab-like type first appeared in Pro-
sopon. Isopods were represented by Archaeoniscus and others.
Insects have left fairly abundant remains in the Lias of England,
Schambelen (Switzerland) and Dobbertin (Mecklenburg), and also
in the English Purbeck. Neuropterous forms predominate, but
hemiptera occur from the Lias upwards; the earliest known flies
(Diptera) and ants (Hymenoptera) appeared; orthoptera, cock-
roaches, crickets, beetles, &c., are found in the Lias, Stonesfield
slate and Purbeck beds.
Fishes were approaching the modern forms during this period,
heterocercal ganoids becoming scarce (the Coelacanthidae reached
their maximum development), while the homoccrcal forms were
abundant (Gyrodus, Microdon, Lepidosteus, Lepidotus, Dapedius).
The Chimaeridae, sea-cats, made their appearance (Squaloraja) .
The ancestors of the modern sturgeons, garpikes and selachians,
Hybodus, Acrodus were numerous. Bony-fish were represented by
the small Leptolepis.
So important a place was occupied by reptiles during this period
that it has been well described as the " age of reptiles." In the
seas the fish-shaped Ichthyosaurs and long-necked Plesiosaurs
dwelt in great numbers and reached their maximum development;
the latter ranged in size from 6 to 40 ft. in length. The Pterosaurs,
with bat-like wings and pneumatic bones and keeled breast-bone,
flew over the land ; Pterodactyl with short tail and Rhamphorhyncus
with long tail are the best known. Curiously modified crocodilians
appeared late in the period (Mystriosaurus,(jeosaurus,Steneosaurus,
Teleosaurus). But even more striking than any of the above were
the Dinosaurs; these ranged in size from a creature no larger
than a rabbit up to the gigantic Atlantosaurus, 100 ft. long, in the
Jurassic of Wyoming. Both herbivorous and carnivorous forms
were present; Brontosaurus, Megalosaurus, Stegosaurus, Cetiosaurus,
Diplodocus, Ceratosaurus and Campsognathus are a few of the
genera. By_ comparison with the Dinosaurs the mammals took a
very subordinate position in Jurassic times; only a few jaws have
been found, belonging to quite small creatures; they appear to have
been marsupials and were probably insectivorous (Plagiaulax
Bolodon, Triconodon, Phascolotherium, Stylacodon). Of great interest
are the remains of the earliest known bird (Archaeopteryx) from the
Solenhofen slates of Bavaria. Although this was a great advance
beyond the Pterodactyls in avian characters, yet many reptilian
features were retained.
Comparatively little change took place in the vegetation in the
time that elapsed between the close of the Triassic and the middle
of the Jurassic periods. Cycads, Zamites, Podozamites, &c., ap-
peared to reach their maximum; Equisetumswere still found growing
to a great size and Ginkgos occupied a prominent place; ferns were
common ; so too were pines, yews, cypresses and other conifers, which
while they outwardly resembled their modern representatives, were
quite distinct in species. No flowering plants had yet appeared,
although a primitive form of angiospcrm has been reported from the
Upper Jurassic of Portugal.
The economic products of the Jurassic system are of considerable
importance; the valuable coals have already been noticed; the well-
known iron ores of the Cleveland district in Yorkshire and those of
the Northampton sands occur respectively in the Lias and Inferior
Oolites. Oil shales are found in Germany, and several of the Jurassic
formations in England contain some petroleum. Building stones
of great value are obtained from the Great Oolite, the Portlandian
and the Inferior Oolite; large quantities of hydraulic cement and
lime have been made from the Lias. The celebrated lithographic
stone of Solenhofen in Bavaria belongs to the upper portion of this
system.
See D'Orbigny, PaUontologie franfaise, Terrain Jurassique (1840,
1846); L. von Buch, " Uber den Jura in Deutschland " (Abhand. d.
Berlin Akad., 1839); F. A. Quenstedt, Flolzgebirge Wiirttembergs
(1843) and other papers, also Der Jura (1883-1888); A. Oppel, Die
Juraformation Englands, Frankreichs und s.w. Deutschlands (1856-
1858). For a good general account of the formations with many
references to original papers, see A. de Lapparent, Traite de geologie,
vol. ii. sth ed. (1906). The standard work for Great Britain is the
series of Memoirs of the Geological Survey entitled The Jurassic Rocks
of Britain, i and ii. " Yorkshire " (1892); iii. " The Lias of England
and Wales " (1893) ; iv. " The Lower Oolite Rocks of England (York-
shire excepted)" (1894) ; v. " The Middle and Upper Oolitic Rocks
of England (Yorkshire excepted)" (1895). The map is after that of
M. Neumayr, " Die geographische Verbreitung der Juraformation,"
Denkschr. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss., Wien, Math. u. Naturwiss., cl. L.,
Abth. i., Karte I. (1885). (J. A. H.)
JURAT (through Fr. from med. Lat. juralus, one sworn, Lat.
jurare, to swear), a name given to the sworn holders of certain
offices. Under the ancien regime in France, in several towns, of
the south-west, such as Rochelle and Bordeaux, the jurats were
members of the municipal body. The title was also borne by
officials, corresponding to aldermen, in the Cinque Ports, but is
now chiefly used as a title of office in the Channel Islands. There
are two bodies, consisting each of twelve jurats, for Jersey and
the bailiwick of Guernsey respectively. They are elected for
life, in Jersey by the ratepayers, in Guernsey by the elective
states. They form, with the bailiff as presiding judge, the royal
court of justice, and are a constituent part of the legislative
bodies. In English law, the word jurat (juratum) is applied to
that part of an affidavit which contains the names of the parties
swearing the affidavit and the person before whom it was sworn,
the date, place and other necessary particulars.
JURIEN DE LA GRAVIERE, JEAN BAPTISTS EDMOND
(1812-1892), French admiral, son of Admiral Jurien, who served
through the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars and was a peer
of France under Louis Philippe, was born on the igth of Novem-
ber 1812. He entered the navy in 1828, was made a commander
in 1841, and captain in 1850. During the Russian War he com-
manded a ship in the Black Sea. He was promoted to be rear-
admiral on the ist of December 1855, and appointed to the
command of a squadron in the Adriatic in 1859, when he abso-
lutely sealed the Austrian ports with a close blockade. In
October 1861 he was appointed to command the squadron in
the Gulf of Mexico, and two months later the expedition against
Mexico. On the isth of January 1862 he was promoted to be
vice-admiral. During the Franco-German War of 1870 he had
command of the French Mediterranean fleet, and in 1871 he was
appointed " director of charts." As having commanded in chief
before the enemy, the age-limit was waived in his favour, and he
was continued on the active list. Jurien died on the 4th of
March 1892. He was a voluminous author of works on naval
history and biography, most of which first appeared in the Revue
des deux mondes. Among the most noteworthy of these are
Guerres maritime! sous la rlpublique et I'empire, which was trans-
lated by Lord Dunsany under the title of Sketches of the Last Naval
War (1848); Souvenirs d'un amiral (1860), that is, of his father,
JURIEU— JURISPRUDENCE
571
Admiral Jurien; La Marine d'aulrefois (1865), largely autobio-
graphical; and La Marine d'aujourd'hui (1872). In 1866 he was
elected a member of the Academy.
JURIEU, PIERRE (1637-1713), French Protestant divine, was
born at Mer, in Orleanais, where his father was a Protestant
pastor. He studied at Saumur and Sedan under his grandfather,
Pierre Dumoulin, and under Leblanc de Beaulieu. After com-
pleting his studies in Holland and England, Jurieu received
Anglican ordination; returning to France he was ordained again
and succeeded his father as pastor of the church at Mer. Soon
after this he published his first work, Examen de livre de la
reunion du Christianisme (1671). In 1674 his Traite de la devo-
tion led to his appointment as professor of theology and Hebrew
at Sedan, where he soon became also pastor. A year later he
published his A pologie pour la morale des Reformes. He obtained
a high reputation, but his work was impaired by his controver-
sial temper, which frequently developed into an irritated fanati-
cism, though he was always entirely sincere. He was called
by his adversaries " the Goliath of the Protestants." On the
suppression of the academy of Sedan in 1681, Jurieu received an
invitation to a church at Rouen, but, afraid to remain in France
on account of his forthcoming work, La Politique du clerge de
France, he went to Holland and was pastor of the Walloon
church of Rotterdam till his death on the nth of January 1713.
He was also professor at the ecole iilustre. Jurieu did much to
help those who suffered by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes
(1685). He himself turned for consolation to the Apocalypse,
and succeeded in persuading himself (Accomplissement des pro-
pheties, 1686) that the overthrow of Antichrist (i.e. the papal
church) would take place in 1689. H. M. Baird says that " this
persuasion, however fanciful the grounds on which it was based,
exercised no small influence in forwarding the success of the
designs of William of Orange in the invasion of England."
Jurieu defended the doctrines of Protestantism with great ability
against the attacks of Antoine Arnauld, Pierre Nicole and
Bossuet, but was equally ready to enter into dispute with his
fellow Protestant divines (with Louis Du Moulin and Claude
Payon, for instance) when their opinions differed from his own
even on minor matters. The bitterness and persistency of his
attacks on his colleague Pierre Bayle led to the latter being
deprived of his chair in 1693.
One of Jurieu's chief works is Lettres pastorales adressees aux
fideles de France (3 vols., Rotterdam, 1686-1687; Eng. trans., 1689),
which, notwithstanding the vigilance of the police, found its way
into France and produced a deep impression on the Protestant
population. His last important work was the Histoire critique des
dogmes et des culles (1704; Eng. trans., 1715). He wrote a great
number of controversial works.
See the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie ; also H. M.
Baird, The Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1895).
JURIS, a tribe of South American Indians, formerly occupying
the country between the rivers lea (lower Putumayo) and Japura,
north-western Brazil. In ancient days they were the most
powerful tribe of the district, but in 1820 their numbers did not
exceed 2000. Owing to inter-marrying, the Juris are believed
to have been extinct for half a century. They were closely
related to the Passes, and were like them a fair-skinned, finely
built people with quite European features.
JURISDICTION, in general, the exercise of lawful authority,
especially by a court or a judge; and so the extent or limits
within which such authority is exercisable. Thus each court
has its appropriate jurisdiction; in the High Court of Justice in
England administration actions are brought in the chancery
division, salvage actions in the admiralty, &c. The jurisdiction of
a particular court is often limited by statute, as that of a county
court, which is local and is also limited in amount. In inter-
national law jurisdiction has a wider meaning, namely, the rights
exercisable by a state within the bounds of a given space. This
is frequently referred to as the territorial theory of jurisdiction.
(See INTERNATIONAL LAW; INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIVATE.)
JURISPRUDENCE (Lat. jurisprudentia, knowledge of law,
from jus, right, and prudentia, from providere, to foresee), the
general term for " the formal science of positive law " (T. E.
Holland); see LAW. The essential principles involved are dis-
cussed below and in JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE; the details
of particular laws or sorts of law (CONTRACT, &c.) and of in-
dividual national systems of law (ENGLISH LAW, &c.) being dealt
with in separate articles.
The human race may be conceived as parcelled out into a
number of distinct groups or societies, differing greatly in size
and circumstances, in physical and moral characteristics of all
kinds. But they all resemble each other in that they reveal on
examination certain rules of conduct in accordance with which
the relations of the members inter se are governed. Each society
has its own system of laws, and all the systems, so far (as they
are known, constitute the appropriate subject matter of juris-
prudence. The jurist may deal with it in the following ways.
He may first of all examine the leading conceptions common
to all the systems, or in other words define the leading terms
common to them all. Such are the terms law itself, right, duty,
property, crime, and so forth, which, or their equivalents, may,
notwithstanding delicate differences of connotation, be regarded
as common terms in all systems. That kind of inquiry is known
in England as analytical jurisprudence. It regards the concep-
tions with which it deals as fixed or stationary, and aims at
expressing them distinctly and exhibiting their logical relations
with each other. What is really meant by a right and by a duty,
and what is the true connexion between a right and a duty, are
types of the questions proper to this inquiry. Shifting our point
of view, but still regarding systems of law in the mass, we may
consider them, not as stationary, but as changeable and chang-
ing, we may ask what general features are exhibited by the
record of the change. This, somewhat crudely put, may serve
to indicate the field of historical or comparative jurisprudence.
In its ideal condition it would require an accurate record of the
history of all legal systems as its material. But whether the
material be abundant or scanty the method is the same. It
seeks the explanation of institutions and legal principles in the
facts of history. Its aim is to show how a given rule came to be
what it is. The legislative source — the emanation of the rule
from a sovereign authority — is of no importance here; what is
important is the moral source — the connexion of the rule with
the ideas prevalent during contemporary periods. This method,
it is evident, involves not only a comparison of successive stages
in the history of the same system, but a comparison of different
systems, of the Roman with the English, of the Hindu with the
Irish, and so on. The historical method as applied to law may
be regarded as a special example of the method of comparispn.
The comparative method is really employed in all generalizations
about law; for, although the analysis of legal terms might be
conducted with exclusive reference to one system, the advantage
of testing the result by reference to other systems is obvious.
But, besides the use of comparison for purposes of analysis and
in tracing the phenomena of the growth of laws, it is evident that
for the purposes of practical legislation the comparison of differ-
ent systems may yield important results. Laws are contrivances
for bringing about certain definite ends, the larger of which are
identical in all systems. The comparison of these contrivances
not only serves to bring their real object, often obscured as it is
in details, into clearer view, but enables legislators to see
where the contrivances are deficient, and how they may be
improved.
The " science of law," as the expression is generally used,
means the examination of laws in general in one or other of the
ways just indicated. It means an investigation of laws which
exist or have existed in some given society in fact — in other
words, positive laws; and it means an examination not limited to
the exposition of particular systems. Analytical jurisprudence is
in England associated chiefly with the name of John Austin (?.».),
whose Province of Jurisprudence Determined systematized and
completed the work begun in England by Hobbes, and continued
at a later date and from a different point of view by Bentham.
Austin's first position is to distinguish between laws properly
so called and laws improperly so called. In any of the older
writers on law, we find the various senses in which the word is
572
used grouped together as variations of one common meaning.
Thus Blackstone advances to his proper subject, municipal
laws, through (i) the laws of inanimate matter, (2) the laws
of animal nutrition, digestion, &c., (3) the laws of nature,
which are rules imposed by God on men and discoverable
by reason alone, and (4) the revealed or divine law which
is part of the law of nature directly expounded by God. All
of these are connected by this common element that they are
" rules of action dictated by some superior being." And some
such generalization as this is to be found at the basis of most
treatises on jurisprudence which have not been composed under
the influence of the analytical school. Austin disposes of it by
the distinction that some of those laws are commands, while
others are not commands. The so-called laws of nature are not
commands; they are uniformities which resemble commands
only in so far as they may be supposed to have been ordered by
some intelligent being. But they are not commands in the only
proper sense of that word — they are not addressed to reasonable
beings, who may or may not will obedience to them. Laws of
nature are not addressed to anybody, and there is no possible
question of obedience or disobedience to them. Austin accord-
ingly pronounces them laws improperly so called, and confines
his attention to laws properly so called, which are commands
addressed by a human superior to a human inferior.
This distinction seems so simple and obvious that the energy
and even bitterness with which Austin insists upon it now seem
superfluous. But the indiscriminate identification of everything
to which common speech gives the name of a law was, and still
is, a fruitful source of confusion. Blackstone's statement that
when God " put matter into motion He established certain laws
of motion, to which all movable matter must conform," and that
in those creatures that have neither the power to think nor to
will such laws must be invariably obeyed, so long as the creature
itself subsists, for its existence depends on that obedience, im-
putes to the law of gravitation in respect of both its origin and
its execution the qualities of an act of parliament. On the other
hand the qualities of the law of gravitation are imputed to certain
legal principles which, under the name of the law of nature, are
asserted to be binding all over the globe, so that " no human laws
are of any validity if contrary to this." Austin never fails to
stigmatize the use of " natural laws " in the sense of scientific
facts as improper, or as metaphorical.
Having eliminated metaphorical or figurative laws, we restrict
ourselves to those laws which are commands. This word is the
key to the analysis of law, and accordingly a large portion of
Austin's work is occupied with the determination of its meaning.
A command is an order issued by a superior to an inferior. It
is a signification of desire distinguished by this peculiarity that
" the party to whom it is directed is liable to evil from the other,
in case he comply not with the desire." " If you are able and
willing to harm me in case I comply not with your wish, the
expression of your wish amounts to a command." Being liable
to evil in case I comply not with the wish which you signify, I
am bound or obliged by it, or I lie under a duty to obey it. The
evil is called a sanction, and the command or duty is said to be
sanctioned by the chance of incurring the evil. The three terms
command, duty and sanction are thus inseparably connected. As
Austin expresses it in the language of formal logic, " each of the
three terms signifies the same notion, but each denotes a different
part of that notion and connotes the residue."
All commands, however, are not laws. That term is reserved
for those commands which oblige generally to the performance
of acts of a class. A command to your servant to rise at such an
hour on such a morning is a particular command, but not a law
or rule; a command to rise always at that hour is a law or rule.
Of this distinction it is sufficient to say in the meantime that it
involves, when we come to deal with positive laws, the rejection
of particular enactments to which by inveterate usage the term
law would certainly be applied. On the other hand it is not,
according to Austin, necessary that a true law should bind
persons as a class. Obligations imposed on the grantee of an
office specially created by parliament would imply a law; a
JURISPRUDENCE
general order to go into mourning addressed to the whole nation
for a particular occasion would not be a law.
So far we have arrived at a definition of laws properly so called.
Austin holds superiority and inferiority to be necessarily implied
in command, and such statements as that " laws emanate from
superiors " to be the merest tautology and trifling. Elsewhere
he sums up the characteristics of true laws as ascertained by the
analysis thus: (i) laws, being commands, emanate from a
determinate source; (2) every sanction is an evil annexed to a
command; and (3) every duty implies a command, and chiefly
means obnoxiousness to the evils annexed to commands.
Of true laws, those only are the subject of jurisprudence which
are laws strictly so called, or positive laws. Austin accordingly
proceeds to distinguish positive from other true laws, which are
either laws set by God to men or laws set by men to men, not,
however, as political superiors nor in pursuance of a legal right.
The discussion of the first of these true but not positive laws leads
Austin to his celebrated discussion of the utilitarian theory. The
laws set by God are either revealed or unrevealed, i.e. either ex-
pressed in direct command, or made known to men in one or other
of the ways denoted by such phrases as the " light of nature,"
" natural reason," " dictates of nature," and so forth. Austin
maintains that the principle of general utility, based ultimately
on the assumed benevolence of God, is the true index to such of
His commands as He has not chosen to reveal. Austin's exposi-
tion of the meaning of the principle is a most valuable contribu-
tion to moral science, though he rests its claims ultimately on
a basis which many of its supporters would disavow. And the
whole discussion is now generally condemned as lying outside
the proper scope of the treatise, although the reason for so con-
demning it is not always correctly stated. It is found in such
assumptions of fact as that there is a God, that He has issued
commands to men in what Austin calls the " truths of revela-
tion," that He designs the happiness of all His creatures, that
there is a predominance of good in the order of the world — which
do not now command universal assent. It is impossible to place
these propositions on the same scientific footing as the assump-
tions of fact with reference to human society on which juris-
prudence rests. If the " divine laws " were facts like acts of
parliament, it is conceived that the discussion of their character-
istics would not be out of place in a scheme of jurisprudence.
The second set of laws properly so called, which are not positive
laws, consists of three classes: (i) those which are set by men
living in a state of nature; (2) those which are set by sovereigns
but not as political superiors, e.g. when one sovereign commands
another to act according to a principle of international law; and
(3) those set by subjects but not in pursuance of legal rights.
This group, to which Austin gives the name of positive morality,
helps to explain his conception of positive law. Men are living
in a state of nature, or a state of anarchy, when they are not living
in a state of government or as members of a political society.
" Political society " thus becomes the central fact of the theory,
and some of the objections that have been urged against it arise
from its being applied to conditions of life in which Austin would
not have admitted the existence of a political society. Again,
the third set in the group is intimately connected with positive
laws on ^he one hand and rules of positive morality which are not
even laws properly so called on the other. Thus laws set by
subjects in consequence of a legal right are clothed with legal
sanctions, and are laws positive. A law set by guardian to ward,
in pursuance of a right which the guardian is bound to exercise,
is a positive law pure and simple; a law set by master to slave, in
pursuance of a legal right, which he is not bound to exercise, is,
in Austin's phraseology, to be regarded both as a positive moral
rule and as a positive law.1 On the other hand the rules set by
a club or society, and enforced upon its members by exclusion
from the society, but not in pursuance of any legal right, are laws,
but not positive laws. They are imperative and proceed from
1 This appears to be an unnecessary complication. The sovereign
has authorized the master to set the law, although not compelling
him to do so, and enforces the law when set. There seems no good
reason why the law should be called a rule of positive morality at all.
JURISPRUDENCE
573
a determinate source, but they have no legal or political sanction.
Closely connected with this positive morality, consisting of true
but not positive laws, is the positive morality whose rules are
not laws properly so called at all, though they are generally
denominated laws. Such are the laws of honour, the laws of
fashion, and, most important of all, international law.
Nowhere does Austin's phraseology come more bluntly into
conflict with common usage than in pronouncing the law of
nations (which in substance is a compact body of well-defined rules
resembling nothing so much as the ordinary rules of law) to be
not laws at all, even in the wider sense of the term. That the
rules of a private club should be law properly so called, while the
whole mass of international jurisprudence is mere opinion, shocks
our sense of the proprieties of expression. Yet no man was more
careful than Austin to observe these properties. He recognizes
fully the futility of definitions which involve a painful struggle
with the current of ordinary speech. But in the present instance
the apparent paralogism cannot be avoided if we accept the
limitation of laws properly so called to commands proceeding
from a determinate source. And that limitation is so generally
present in our conception of law that to ignore it would be a worse
anomaly than this. No one finds fault with the statement that
the so-called code of honour or the dictates of fashion are not,
properly speaking, laws. We repel the same statement applied
to the law of nature, because it resembles in so many of its most
striking features — in the certainty of a large portion of it, in its
terminology, in its substantial principles — the most universal
elements of actual systems of law, and because, moreover, the
assumption that brought it into existence was nothing else than
this, that it consisted of those abiding portions of legal systems
which prevail everywhere by their own authority. But, though
" positive morality " may not be the best phrase to describe
such a code of rules, the distinction insisted on by Austin is
unimpeachable.
The elimination of those laws properly and improperly so called
which are not positive laws brings us to the definition of positive
law, which is the keystone of the system. Every positive law
is " set by a sovereign person, or sovereign body of persons, to a
member or members of the independent political society wherein
that person or body is sovereign or superior." Though pos-
sibly sprung directly from another source, it is a positive law, by
the institution of that present sovereign in the character of a
political superior. The question is not as to the historical origin
of the principle, but as to its present authority. " The legislator
is he, not by whose authority the law was first made, but by
whose authority it continues to be law." This definition in-
volves the analysis of the connected expressions sovereignty,
subjection and independent political society, and of determinate
body — which last analysis Austin performs in connexion with
that of commands. These are all excellent examples of the
logical method of which he was so great a master. The broad
results alone need be noticed here. In order that a given society
may form a society political and independent, the generality or
bulk of its members must be in a habit of obedience to a certain
and common superior; whilst that certain person or body of
persons must not be habitually obedient to a certain person or
body. All the italicized words point to circumstances in
which it might be difficult to say whether a given society is
political and independent or not. Several of these Austin has
discussed — e.g. the state of things in which -a political society
yields obedience which may or may not be called habitual to
some external power, and the state of things in which a political
society is divided between contending claimants for sovereign
power, and it is uncertain which shall prevail, and over how
much of the society. So long as that uncertainty remains we
have a state of anarchy. Further, an independent society to be
political must not fall below a number which can only be called
considerable. Neither then in a state of anarchy, nor in incon-
siderable communities, nor among men living in a state of nature,
have we the proper phenomena of a political society. The last
limitation goes some way to meet the most serious criticism to
which Austin's system has been exposed, and it ought to be
stated in his own words. He supposes a society which may be
styled independent, which is considerable in numbers, and which
is in a savage or extremely barbarous condition. In such a
society, " the bulk of its members is not in the habit of obedience
to one and the same superior. For the purpose of attacking an
external enemy, or for the purpose of repelling an attack, the
bulk of its members who are capable of bearing arms submits to
one leader or one body of leaders. But as soon as that emergency
passes the transient submission ceases, and the society reverts
to the state which may be deemed its ordinary state. The bulk
of each of the families which compose the given society renders
habitual obedience to its own peculiar chief, but those domestic
societies are themselves independent societies, or are not United
and compacted into one political society by habitual and general
obedience to one common superior, and there is no law (simply
or strictly so styled) which can be called the law of that society.
The so-called laws which are common to the bulk of the com-
munity are purely and properly customary laws — that is to say,
laws which are set or imposed by the general opinion of the com-
munity, but are not enforced by legal or political sanctions."
Such, he says, are the savage societies of hunters and fishers in
North America, and such were the Germans as described by
Tacitus. He takes no account of societies in an intermediate
stage between this and the condition which constitutes political
society.
We need not follow the analysis in detail. Much ingenuity
is displayed in grouping the various kinds of government, in
detecting the sovereign authority under the disguises which it
wears in the complicated state system of the United States or
under the fictions of English law, in elucidating the precise mean-
ing of abstract political terms. Incidentally the source of many
celebrated fallacies in political thought is laid bare. That the
questiori who is sovereign in a given state is a question of fact and
not of law or morals or religion, that the sovereign is incapable
of legal limitation, that law is such by the sovereign's command,
that no real or assumed compact can limit his action — are posi-
tions which Austin has been accused of enforcing with needless
iteration. He cleared them, however, from the air of paradox
with which they had been previously encumbered, and his influ-
ence was in no direction more widely felt than in making them
the commonplaces of educated opinion in this generation.
Passing from these, we may now consider what has been said
against the theory, which may be summed up in the following
terms. Laws, no matter in what form they be expressed, are in
the last resort reducible to commands set by the person or body
of persons who are in fact sovereigns in any independent political
society. The sovereign is the person or persons whose commands
are habitually obeyed by the great bulk of the community; and
by an independent society we mean that such sovereign head is
not himself habitually obedient to any other determinate body
of persons. The society must be sufficiently numerous to be
considerable before we can speak of it as a political society.
From command, with its inseparable incident of sanction, come
the duties and rights in terms of which laws are for the most part
expressed. Duty means that the person of whom it is predicated
is liable to the sanction in case he fails to obey the command.
Right means that the person of whom it is predicated may set
the sanction in operation in case the command be disobeyed.
We may here interpolate a doubt whether the condition of inde-
pendence on the part of the head of a community is essential to the
legal analysis. It seems to us that we have all the elements of a
true law present when we point to a community habitually obedient
to the authority of a person or determinate body of persons, no matter
what the relations of that superior may be to any external or superior
power. Provided that in fact the commands of the lawgiver are
those beyond which the community never looks, it seems immaterial
to inquire whether, this lawgiver in turn takes his orders from some-
body else or is habitually obedient to such orders when given. One
may imagine a community governed by a dependent legislatorial
body or person, while the supreme sovereign whose representative
and nominee such body or person may be never directly addresses
the community at all. We do not see that in such a case anything
is gained in clearness by representing the law of the community as
set by the suzerain, rather than the dependent legislator. Nor is
the ascertainment of the ultimate seat of power necessary to define
574
political societies. That we get when we suppose a community to
be in the habit of obedience to a single person or to a determinate
combination of persons.
The use of the word " command " is not unlikely to lead to a
misconception of Austin's meaning. When we say that a law is
a command of the sovereign, we are apt to think of the sovereign as
enunciating the rule in question for the first time. Many laws are
not traceable to the sovereign at all in this sense. Some are based
upon immemorial practices, some can be traced to the influence of
private citizens, whether practising lawyers or writers on law, and
in most countries a vast body of law owes its existence as such to
the fact that it has been observed as law in some other society. The
great bulk of modern law owes its existence and its shape ultimately
to the labours of the Roman lawyers of the empire. Austin's
definition has nothing to do with this, the historical origin of laws.
Most books dealing with law in the abstract generalize ^the modes
in which laws may be originated under the name of the " sources
of law, and one of these is legislation, or the direct command of the
sovereign body. The connexion of laws with each other as principles
is properly the subject matter of historical jurisprudence, the ideal
perfection of which would be the establishment of the general laws
governing the evolution of law in the technical sense. Austin's
definition looks, not to the authorship of the law as a principle, not
to its inventor or originator, but to the person or persons who in
the last resort cause it to be obeyed. If a given rule is enforced
by the sovereign it is a law.
It may be convenient to notice here what is usually said about
the sources of law, as the expression sometimes proves a stumbling-
block to the appreciation of Austin's system. In the corpus juris
of any given country only a portion of the laws is traceable to the
direct expression of his commands by the sovereign. Legislation
is one, but only one, of the sources of law. Other portions of the
law may be traceable to other sources, which may vary in effect in
different systems. The list given in the Institutes of Justinian of
the ways in which law may be made— /eoc, plebiscitum, principis
placita, edicta magistratuum, and so on — is a list of sources. Among
the sources of law other than legislation which are most commonly
exemplified are the laws made by judges in the course of judicial
decisions, and law originating as custom. The source of the law
in the one case is the judicial decision, in the other the custom. In
consequence of the decisions and in consequence of the custom the
rule has prevailed. English law is largely made up of principles
derived in each of those ways, while it is deficient in principles
derived from the writings of independent teachers, such as have in
othei systems exercised a powerful influence on the development
of law. The responsa prudentum, the opinions of learned men,
published as such, did undoubtedly originate an immense portion of
Roman law. No such influence has affected English law to any
appreciable extent — a result owing to the activity of the courts of
the legislature. This difference has profoundly affected the form
of English law as compared with that of systems which have been
developed by the play of free discussion. These are the most
definite of the influences to which the beginning of laws may be
traced. The law once established, no matter how, is nevertheless law
in the sense of Austin's definition. It is enforced by the sovereign
authority. It was originated by something very different. But
when we speak of it as a command we think only of the way in
which it is to-day presented to the subject. The newest order of
an act of parliament is not more positively presented to the people
as a command to be obeyed than are the elementary rules of the
common law for which no legislative origin can be traced. It is
not even necessary to resort to the figure of speech by which alone,
according to Sir Henry Maine (Early History of Institutions, p. 314),
the common law can be regarded as the commands of the govern-
ment. " The common law," he says, " consists of their commands
because they can repeal or alter or restate it at pleasure." " They
command because, being by the assumption possessed of uncontrol-
lable force, they could innovate without limit at any moment."
On the contrary, it may be said that they command because they
do as a matter of fact enforce the rules laid down in the common
law. It is not because they could innovate if they pleased in the
common law that they are said to command it, but because it is
known that they will enforce it as it stands.
The criticism of Austin's analysis resolved itself into two
different sets of objections. One relates to the theory of sove-
reignty which underlies it; the other to its alleged failure to
include rules which in common parlance are laws, and which it
is felt ought to be included in any satisfactory definition of law.
As the latter is to some extent anticipated and admitted by
Austin himself, we may deal with it first.
Frederic Harrison (Fortnightly Review, vols. xxx., xxxi.) was
at great pains to collect a number of laws or rules of law which do
not square with the Austinian definition of law as a command
creating rights and duties. Take the rule that " every will must
be in writing." It is a very circuitous way of looking at things,
according to Harrison, to say that such a rule creates a specific
JURISPRUDENCE
right in any determinate person of a definite description. So,
again, the rule that " a legacy to the witness of a will is void."
Such a rule is not " designed to give any one any rights, but
simply to protect the public against wills made under undue
influence." Again, the technical rule in Shelley's case that a gift
to A for life, followed by a gift to the heirs of A, is a gift to A in
fee simple, is pronounced to be inconsistent with the definition.
It is an idle waste of ingenuity to force any of these rules into a
form in which they might be said to create rights.
This would be a perfectly correct description of any attempt
to take any of these rules separately and analyse it into a com-
plete command creating specific rights and duties. But there
is no occasion for doing anything of the kind. It is not contended
that every grammatically complete sentence in a textbook or
a statute is per se a command creating rights and duties. A law,
like any other command, must be expressed in words, and will
require the use of the usual aids to expression. The gist of it
may be expressed in a sentence which, standing by itself, is not
intelligible; other sentences locally separate from the principal
one may contain the exceptions and the modifications and the
interpretations to which that is subject. In no one of these taken
by itself, but in the substance of them all taken together, is the
true law, in Austin's sense, to be found. Thus the rule that every
will must be in writing is a mere fragment — only the limb of a
law. It belongs to the rule which fixes the rights of devisees or
legatees under a will. That rule in whatever form it may be
expressed is, without any straining of language, a command of
the legislator. That " every person named by a testator in his
last will and testament shall be entitled to the property thereby
given him " is surely a command creating rights and duties.
After testament add " expressed in writing "; it is still a com-
mand. Add further, " provided he be not one of the witnesses
to the will," and the command, with its product of rights and
duties, is still there. Each of the additions limits the operation
of the command stated imperatively in the first sentence. So
with the rule in Shelley's case. It is resolvable into the rule that
every person to whom an estate is given by a conveyance ex-
pressed in such and such a way shall take such and such rights.
To take another example from later legislation. An English
statute passed in 1881 enacts nothing more than this, that an act
of a previous session shall be construed as if " that " meant " this."
It would be futile indeed to force this into conformity with
Austin's definition by treating it as a command addressed to the
judges, and as indirectly creating rights to have such a construc-
tion respected. As it happens, the section of the previous act
referred to (the Burials Act 1880) was an undeniable command
addressed to the clergy, and imposed upon them a specific duty.
The true command — the law — is to be found in the two sections
taken together.
All this confusion arises from the fact that laws are not habitu-
ally expressed in imperative terms. Even in a mature system
like that of England the great bulk of legal rules is hidden under
forms which disguise their imperative quality. They appear
as principles, maxims, propositions of fact, generalizations, points
of pleading and procedure, and so forth. Even in the statutes
the imperative form is not uniformly observed. It might be said
that the more mature a legal system is the less do its individual
rules take the form of commands. The greater portion of
Roman law is expressed in terms which would not misbecome
scientific or speculative treatises. The institutional works
abound in propositions which have no legal significance at all,
but which are not distinguished from the true law in which they
are embedded by any difference in the forms of expression.
Assertions about matters of history, dubious speculations in
philology, and reflections on human conduct are mixed up in the
same narrative with genuine rules of law. Words of description
are used, not words of command, and rules of law assimilate
themselves in form to the extraneous matter with which they are
mixed up.
It has been said that Austin himself admitted to some extent
the force of these objections. He includes among laws which
are not imperative " declaratory laws, or laws explaining the
JURISPRUDENCE
import of existing positive law, and laws abrogating or repealing
existing positive law." He thus associates them with rules of
positive morality and with laws which are only metaphorically
so called. This collocation is unfortunate and out of keeping
with Austin's method. Declaratory and repealing laws are as
completely unlike positive morality and metaphorical laws as
are the laws which he describes as properly so called. And if we
avoid the error of treating each separate proposition enunciated
by the lawgiver as a law, the cases in question need give us no
trouble. Read the declaratory and the repealing statutes along
with the principal laws which they affect, and the result is per-
fectly consistent with the proposition that all law is to be resolved
into a species of command. In the one case we have in the
principal taken together with the interpretative statute a law,
and whether it differs or not from the law as it existed before the
interpretative statute was passed makes no difference to the true
character of the latter. It contributes along with the former
to the expression of a command which is a true law. In the same
way repealing statutes are to be taken together with the laws
which they repeal — the result being that there is no law, no
command, at all. It is wholly unnecessary to class them as laws
which are not truly imperative, or as exceptions to the rule that
laws are a species of commands. The combination of the two
sentences in which the lawgiver has expressed himself, yields the
result of silence — absence of law — which is in no way incompat-
ible with the assertion that a law, when it exists, is a kind of
command. Austin's theory does not logically require us to treat
every act of parliament as being a complete law in itself, and
therefore to set aside a certain number of acts of parliament as
being exceptions to the great generalization which is the basis
of the whole system.
Rules of procedure again have been alleged to constitute
another exception. They cannot, it is said, be regarded as
commands involving punishment if they be disobeyed. Nor is
anything gained by considering them as commands addressed to
the judge and other ministers of the Jaw. There may be no
doubt in the law of procedure a great deal that is resolvable into
law in this sense, but the great bulk of it is to be regarded like
the rules of interpretation as entering into the substantive com-
mands which are laws. They are descriptions of the sanction
and its mode of working. The bare prohibition of murder with-
out any penalty to enforce it would not be a law. To prohibit
it under penalty of death implies a reference to the whole
machinery of criminal justice by which the penalty is enforced.
Taken by themselves the rules of procedure are not, any more
than canons of interpretation, complete laws in Austin's sense
of the term. But they form part of the complete expression of
true laws. They imply a command, and they describe the
sanction and the mode in which it operates.
A more formidable criticism of Austin's position is that which
attacks the definition of sovereignty. There are countries, it is
said, where the sovereign authority cannot by any stretch of
language be said to command the laws, and yet where law mani-
festly exists. The ablest and the most moderate statement of
this view is given by Sir Henry Maine in Early History of
Institutions, p. 380: —
" It is from no special love of Indian examples that I take one
from India, but because it happens to be the most modern precedent
in point. My instance is the Indian province called the Punjaub,
the country of the Five Rivers, in the state in which it was for about
a quarter of a century before its annexation to the British Indian
Empire. After passing through every conceivable phase of anarchy
and dormant anarchy, it fell under the tolerably consolidated
dominion of a half-military half-religious oligarchy known as the
Sikhs. The Sikhs themselves were afterwards reduced to subjection
by a single chieftain belonging to their order, Runjeet Singh. At
first sight there could be no more perfect embodiment than Runjeet
Singh of sovereignty as conceived by Austin. He was absolutely
despotic. Except occasionally on his wild frontier he kept the most
perfect order. He could have commanded anything; the smallest
disobedience to his commands would have been followed by death
or mutilation ; and this was perfectly well known to the enormous
majority of his subjects. Yet I doubt whether once in all his life
he issued a command which Austin would call a law. He took as
his revenue a prodigious share of the produce of the soil. He harried
575
villages which recalcitrated at his exactions, and he executed great
numbers of men. He levied great armies; he had all material of
power, and he exercised it in various ways. But he never made a
law. The rules which regulated the lives of his subjects were
derived from their immemorial usages, and those rules were admin-
istered by domestic tribunals in families or village communities —
that is, in groups no larger or little larger than those to which the
application of Austin's principles cannot be effected on his own
admission without absurdity."
So far as the mere size of the ccmmunity is concerned, there is
no difficulty in applying the Austinian theory. In postulating
a considerably numerous community Austin was thinking
evidently of small isolated groups which could not without pro-
voking a sense of the ridiculous be termed nations. Two or
three families, let us suppose, occupying a small island, totally
disconnected with any great power, would not claim to be and
would not be treated as an independent political community.
But it does not follow that Austin would have regarded the
village communities spoken of by Maine in the same light. Here
we have a great community, consisting of a vast number of small
communities, each independent of the other, and disconnected
with all the others, so far as the administration of anything like
law is concerned. Suppose in each case that the headman or
council takes his orders from Runjeet Singh, and enforces them,
each in his own sphere, relying as the last resort on the force at
the disposal of the suzerain. The mere size of the separate
communities would make no sort of difference to Austin's theory.
He would probably regard the empire of Runjeet Singh as divided
into small districts — an assumption which inverts no doubt the
true historical order, the smaller group being generally more
ancient than the larger. But provided that the other conditions
prevail, the mere fact that the law is administered by local
tribunals for minute areas should make no difference to the
theory. The case described by Maine is that of the undoubted
possession of supreme power by a sovereign, coupled with the
total absence of any attempt on his part to originate a law. That
no doubt is, as we are told by the same authority, " the type of
all Oriental communities in their native state during their rare
intervals of peace and order." The empire was in the main in
each case a tax-gathering empire. The unalterable law of the
Medes and Persians was not a law at all but an occasional com-
mand. So again Maine puts his position clearly in the following
sentences: " The Athenian assembly made true laws for resi-
dents on Attic territory, but the dominion of Athens over her
subject cities and islands was clearly a tax-taking as distinguished
from a legislating empire." Maine, it will be observed, does not
say that the sovereign assembly did not command the laws in
the subject islands — only that it did not legislate.
In the same category may be placed without much substantial
difference all the societies that have ever existed on the face of
the earth previous to the point at which legislation becomes
active. Maine is undoubtedly right in connecting the theories
of Bentham and Austin with the overwhelming activity of
legislatures in modern times. And formal legislation, as he else-
where shows, comes late in the history of most legal systems.
Law is generated in other ways, which seem irreconcilable with
anything like legislation. Not only the tax-gathering emperors
of the East, indifferent to the condition of their subjects, but
even actively benevolent governments have up to a certain point
left the law to grow by other means than formal enactments.
What is ex facie more opposed to the idea of a sovereign's com-
mands than the conception of schools of law ? Does it not
" sting us with a sense of the ridiculous " to hear principles which
are the outcome of long debates between Proculians and Sabi-
nians described as commands of the emperor ? How is sectarian-
ism in law possible if the sovereign's command is really all that
is meant by a law ? No mental attitude is more common than
that which regards law as a natural product — discoverable by a
diligent investigator, much in the same way as the facts of science
or the principles of mathematics. The introductory portions
of Justinian's Institutes are certainly written from this point of
view, which may also be described without much unfairness as
the point of view of German jurisprudence. And yet the English
JURISPRUDENCE
jurist who accepts Austin's postulate as true for the English
system of our own day would have no difficulty in applying it to
German or Roman law generated under the influence of such
ideas as these.
Again, referring to the instance of Runjeet Singh, Sir H. Maine
says no doubt rightly that " he never did or could have dreamed
of changing the civil rules under which his subjects lived. Pro-
bably he was as strong a believer in the independent obligatory
force of such rules as the elders themselves who applied them."
That too might be said with truth of states to which the applica-
tion of Austin's system would be far from difficult. The sovereign
body or person enforcing the rules by all the ordinary methods
of justice might conceivably believe that the rules which he
enforced had an obligatory authority of their own, just as most
lawyers at one time, and possibly some lawyers now, believe in
the natural obligatoriness, independently of courts or parlia-
ments, of portions of the law of England. But nevertheless,
whatever ideas the sovereign or his delegates might entertain as
to " the independent obligatory force " of the rules which they
enforce, the fact that they do enforce them distinguishes them
from all other rules. Austin seizes upon this peculiarity and
fixes it as the determining characteristic of positive law. When
the rule is enforced by a sovereign authority as he defines it, it is
his command, even if he should never so regard it himself, or
should suppose himself to be unable to alter it in a single
particular.
It may be instructive to add to these examples of dubious cases
one taken from what is called ecclesiastical law. In so far as this
has not been adopted and enforced by the state, it would, on
Austin's theory, be, not positive law, but either positive morality
or possibly a portion of the Divine law. No jurist would deny that
there is an essential difference between so much of ecclesiastical law
as is adopted by the state and all the rest of it, and that for scientific
purposes this distinction ought to be recognized. How near this
kind of law approaches to the positive or political law may be seen
from the sanctions on which it depended. " The theory of peniten-
tial discipline was this: that the church was an organized body
with an outward and visible form of government; that all who were
outside her boundaries were outside the means of divine grace; that
she had a command laid upon her, and authority given to her, to
gather men into her fellowship by the ceremony of baptism, but, as
some of those who were admitted proved unworthy of their calling,
she also had the right by the power of the keys to deprive them
temporarily or absolutely of the privilege of communion with her,
and on their amendment to restore them once more to church
membership. On this power of exclusion and restoration was
founded the system of ecclesiastical discipline. It was a purely
spiritual jurisdiction. It obtained its hold over the minds of men
from the belief, universal in the Catholic church of the early ages,
that he who was expelled from her pale was expelled also from the
way of salvation, and that the sentence which was pronounced by
God's church on earth was ratified by Him in heaven." (Smith s
Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, art. " Penitence," p. 1587.)
These laws are not the laws of the jurists, though they resemble
them closely in many points — indeed in all points except that of the
sanction by which they are enforced. It is a spiritual not a political
sanction. The force which lies behind them is not that of the
sovereign or the state. When physical force is used to compel
obedience to the laws of the church they become positive laws.
But so long as the belief in future punishments or the fear of the
purely spiritual punishments of the church is sufficient to procure
obedience to them, they are to be regarded as commands, not by
the state, but by the church. That difference Austin makes essen-
tial. In rejecting spiritual laws from the field of positive law
his example would be followed by jurists who would nevertheless
include other laws, not ecclesiastical in purpose, but enforced by
very similar methods.
Austin's theory in the end comes to this, that true laws are in
all cases obeyed in consequence of the application of regulated
physical force by some portion of the community. That is a
fair paraphrase of the position that laws are the commands
of the sovereign, and is perhaps less objectionable inasmuch as it
does not imply or suggest anything about the forms in which laws
are enunciated. All rules, customs, practices and laws — or by
whatever name these uniformities of human conduct may be
called — have either this kind of force at their back or they have
not. Is it worth while to make this difference the basis of a
scientific system or not? Apparently it is. If it were a question
of distinguishing between the law of the law courts and the laws
of fashion no one would hesitate. Why should laws or rules
having no support from any political authority be termed laws
positive merely because there are no other rules in the society
having such support?
The question may perhaps be summed up as follows. Austin's
definitions are in strict accordance with the facts of government
in civilized states; and, as it is put by Maine, certain assumptions
or postulates having been made, the great majority of Austin's
positions follow as of course or by ordinary logical process. But
at the other extreme end of the scale of civilization are societies
to which Austin himself refuses to apply his system, and where, it
would be conceded on all sides, there is neither political commu-
nity nor sovereign nor law — none of the facts which jurisprudence
assumes to exist. There is an intermediate stage of society in
which, while the rules of conduct might and generally would be
spoken of as laws, it is difficult to trace the connexion between
them and the sovereign authority whose existence is necessary
to Austin's system. Are such societies to be thrown out of
account in analytical jurisprudence, or is Austin's system to be
regarded as only a partial explanation of the field of true law, and
his definitions good only for the laws of a portion of the world ?
The true answer to this question appears to be that when the rules
in any given case are habitually enforced by physical penalties,
administered by a -determinate person or portion of the com-
munity, they should be regarded as positive laws and the ap-
propriate subject matter of jurisprudence. Rules which are not
so enforced, but are enforced in any other way, whether by what
is called public opinion, or spiritual apprehensions, or natural
instinct, are rightly excluded from that subject matter. In all
stages of society, savage or civilized, a large body of rules of
conduct, habitually obeyed, are nevertheless not enforced by
any state sanction of any kind. Austin's method assimilates
such rules in primitive society, where they subserve the same
purpose as positive laws in an advanced society, not to the
positive laws which they resemble in purpose but to the
moral or other rules which they resemble in operation. If
we refuse to accept this position we must abandon the attempt
to frame a general definition of law and its dependent terms, or
we must content ourselves with saying that law is one thing in
one state of society and another thing in another. On the
ground of clearness and convenience Austin's method is, we be-
lieve, substantially right, but none the less should the student of
jurisprudence be on his guard against such assumptions as that
legislation is a universal phenomenon, or that the relation of
sovereign and subject is discernible in all states of human society.
And a careful examination of Maine's criticism will show that it
is devoted not so much to a rectification of Austin's position as to
correction of the misconceptions into which some of his disciples
may have fallen. It is a misconception of the analysis to suppose
that it involves a difference in juridical character between custom
not yet recognized by any judicial decision and custom after such
recognition. There is no such difference except in the case of
what is properly called "judicial legislation " — wherein an abso-
lutely new rule is added for the first time to the law. The
recognition of a custom or law is not necessarily the beginning
of the custom or law. Where a custom possesses the marks by
which its legality is determined according to well understood
principles, the courts pronounce it to have been law at the time
of the happening of the facts as to which their jurisdiction is
invoked. The fact that no previous instance of its recognition
by a court of justice can be produced is not material. A lawyer
before any such decision was given would nevertheless pronounce
the custom to be law — with more or less hesitation according
as the marks of a legal custom were obvious or not. The char-
acter of the custom is not changed when it is for the first time
enforced by a court of justice, and hence the language used by
Maine must be understood in a very limited sense. " Until
customs are enforced by courts of justice " — so he puts the posi-
tion of Austin — they are merely " positive morality," rules en-
forced by opinion; but as soon as courts of justice enforce them
they become commands of the sovereign, conveyed through the
judges who are his delegates or deputies. This proposition, on
JURISPRUDENCE
577
Austin's theory, would only be true of customs as to which these
marks were absent. It is of course true that when a rule enforced
only by opinion becomes for the first time enforceable by a court
of justice — which is the same thing as the first time of its being
actually enforced — its juridical character is changed. It was
positive morality; it is now law. So it is when that which was
before the opinion of the judge only becomes by his decision a
rule enforceable by courts of justice. It was not even positive
morality but the opinion of an individual; it is now law.
The most difficult of the common terms of law to define is
right; and, as right rather than duty is the basis of classification,
it is a point of some importance. Assuming the truth of the
analysis above discussed, we may go on to say that in the notion
of law is involved an obligation on the part of some one, or on the
part of every one, to do or forbear from doing. That obligation
is duty; what is right? Dropping the negative of forbearance,
and taking duty to mean an obligation to do something, with the
alternative of punishment in default, we find that duties are of
two kinds. The thing to be done may have exclusive reference
to a determinate person or class of persons, on whose motion or
complaint the sovereign power will execute the punishment or
sanction on delinquents; or it may have no such reference, the
thing being commanded, and the punishment following on dis-
obedience, without reference to the wish or complaint of indi-
viduals. The last are absolute duties, and the omission to do,
or forbear from doing, the thing specified in the command is in
general what is meant by a crime. The others are relative
duties, each of them implying and relating to a right in some one
else. A person has a right who may in this way set in operation
the sanction provided by the state. In common thought and
speech, however, right appears as something a good deal more
positive and definite than this — as a power or faculty residing
in individuals, and suggesting not so much the relative obligation
as the advantage or enjoyment secured thereby to the person
having the right. J. S. Mill, in a valuable criticism of Austin,
suggests that the definition should be so modified as to introduce
the element of " advantage to the person exercising the right."
But it is exceedingly difficult to frame a positive definition of
right which shall not introduce some term at least as ambiguous
as the word to be defined. T. E. Holland defines right in general
as a man's " capacity of influencing the acts of another by means,
not of his own strength, but of the opinion or the force of society."
Direct influence exercised by virtue of one's own strength, physical
or otherwise, over another's acts, is " might " as distinguished
from right. When the indirect influence is the opinion of
society, we have a " moral right." When it is the force
exercised by the sovereign, we have a legal right. It would
be more easy, no doubt, to pick holes in this definition than to
frame a better one.1
The distinction between rights available against determinate
persons and rights available against all the world, jura in per-
sonam and jura in rent, is of fundamental importance. The
phrases are borrowed from the classical jurists, who used them
originally to distinguish actions according as they were brought
to enforce a personal obligation or to vindicate rights of property.
The owner of property has a right to the exclusive enjoyment
thereof, which avails against all and sundry, but not against one
person more than another. The parties to a contract have rights
available against each other, and against no other persons. The
jus in rem is the badge of property; the jus in personam is a mere
personal claim.
1 In English speech another ambiguity is happily wanting which
in many languages besets the phrase expressing " a right." The
Latin " jus." the German " Recht," the Italian " diritto," and the
French " droit " express, not only a right, but also law in the
abstract. To indicate the distinction between " law " and " a
right " the Germans are therefore obliged to resort to such phrases
as " objectives " and " subjectives Recht," meaning by the former
law in the abstract, and by the latter a concrete right. And
Blackstone, paraphrasing the distinction drawn by Roman law
between the " jus quod ad res " and the " jus quod ad personas
attinet," devotes the first two volumes of his Commentaries to the
" Rights of Persons and the Rights of Things." See Holland's
Elements of Jurisprudence, loth ed., 78 seq.
xv. 19
That distinction in rights which appears in the division of law
into the law of persons and the law of things is thus stated by
Austin. There are certain rights and duties, with certain capa-
cities and incapacities, by which persons are determined to various
classes. The rights, duties, &c., are the condition or status of
the person; and one person may be invested with many status or
conditions. The law of persons consists of the rights, duties, &c.,
constituting conditions or status; the rest of the law is the law of
things. The separation is a mere matter of convenience, but of
convenience so great that the distinction is universal. Thus any
given right may be exercised by persons belonging to innumerable
classes. The person who has the right may be under twenty-one
years of age, may have been born in a foreign state, may have been
convicted of crime, may be a native of a particular county, or a
member of a particular profession or trade, &c.; and it might very
well happen, with reference to any given right, that, while persons
in general, under the circumstances of the case, would enjoy it in
the same way, a person belonging to any one of these classes
would not. If belonging to any one of those classes makes a
difference not to one right merely but to many, the class may
conveniently be abstracted, and the variations in rights and
duties dependent thereon may be separately treated under the
law of persons. The personality recognized in the law of persons
is such as modifies indefinitely the legal relations into which the
individual clothed with the personality may enter.
T. E. Holland disapproves of the prominence given by Austin
to this distinction, instead of that between public and private law.
This, according to Holland, is based on the public or private
character of the persons with whom the right is connected,
public persons being the state or its delegates. Austin, holding
that the state cannot be said to have legal rights or duties, recog-
nizes no such distinction. The term " public law " he confines
strictly to that portion of the law which is concerned with political
conditions, and which ought not to be opposed to the rest of the
law, but " ought to be inserted in the law of persons as one of the
limbs or members of that supplemental department."
Lastly, following Austin, the main division of the law of things
is into (i) primary rights with primary relative duties, (2) sanc-
tioning rights with sanctioning duties (relative or absolute).
The former exist, as it has been put, for their own sake, the latter
for the sake of the former. Rights and duties arise from facts
and events; and facts or events which are violations of rights and
duties are delicts or injuries. Rights and duties which arise from
delicts are remedial or sanctioning, their object being to prevent
the violation of rights which do not arise from delicts.
There is much to be said for Frederic Harrison's view (first
expressed in the Fortnightly Review, vol. xxxi.), that the re-
arrangement of English law on the basis of a scientific classifi-
cation, whether Austin's or any other, would not result in
advantages at all compensating for its difficulties. If anything
like a real code were to be attempted, the scientific classification
would be the best; but in the absence of that, and indeed
in the absence of any habit on the part of English lawyers
of studying the system as a whole, the arrangement of facts
does not very much matter. It is essential, however, to the
abstract study of the principles of law. Scientific arrangement
might also be observed with advantage in treatises affecting
to give a view of the whole law, especially those which are
meant for educational rather than professional uses. As an
example of the practical application of a scientific system of
classification to a complete body of law, we may point to W. A.
Hunter's elaborate Exposition of Roman Law (1876).
It is impossible to present the conclusions of historical juris-
prudence in anything like the same shape as those which we have
been discussing. Under the heading JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARA-
TIVE, an account will be found of the method and results of what
is practically a new science. The inquiry is in that stage which
is indicated in one way by describing it as a philosophy. It
resembles, and is indeed only part of, the study which is described
as the philosophy of history. Its chief interest has been in the
light which it has thrown upon rules of law and legal institutions
which had been and are generally contemplated as positive facts
578
JURISPRUDENCE
merely, without reference to their history, or have been associated
historically with principles and institutions not really connected
with them.
The historical treatment of law displaces some very remarkable
misconceptions. Peculiarities and anomalies abound in every
legal system; and, as soon as laws become the special study of a
professional class, some mode of explaining or reconciling them
will be resorted to. One of the prehistorical ways of philoso-
phizing about law was to account for what wanted explanation
by some theory about the origin of technical words. This implied
some previous study of words and their history, and is an instance
of the deep-seated and persistent tendency of the human mind
to identify names with the things they represent. The Institutes
of Justinian abound ^n explanations, founded on a supposed
derivation of some leading term. Tesiamentum, we are told, ex
eo appellatur quod testatio mentis est. A testament was no doubt,
in effect, a declaration of intention on the part of the testator
when this was written. But the -mentum is a mere termination,
and has nothing to do with metis at all. The history of testaments,
which, it may be noted incidentally, has been developed with
conspicuous success, gives a totally different meaning to the
institution from that which was expressed by this fanciful deriva-
tion. So the perplexing subject of possessio was supposed in
some way to be explained by the derivation from pono and sedeo
— quasi sedibus positio. Posthumi was supposed to be a com-
pound of post and humus. These examples belong to the class
of rationalizing derivations with which students of philosophy are
familiar. Their characteristic is that they are suggested by
some prominent feature of the thing as it then appeared to
observers — which feature thereupon becomes identified with the
essence of the thing at all times and places.
Another prehistorical mode of explaining law may be described
as metaphysical. It conceives of a rule or principle of law as
existing by virtue of some more general rule or principle in the
nature of things. Thus, in the English law of inheritance, until
the passing of the Inheritance Act 1833, an estate belonging to a
deceased intestate would pass to his uncle or aunt, to the ex-
clusion of his father or other lineal ancestor. This anomaly
from an early time excited the curiosity of lawyers, and the
explanation accepted in the time of Bracton was that it was an
example of the general law of nature: " Descendit itaque jus
quasi ponderosum quid cadens deorsum recta linea vel trans-
versal!, et nunquam reascendit ea via qua descendit." It has
been suggested that the " rule really results from the associations
involved in the word descent." It seems more likely, however,
that these associations explained rather than that they suggested
the rule — that the omission of the lineal ancestor existed in
custom before it was discovered to be in harmony with the law
of nature. It would imply more influence than the reasoning
of lawyers is likely to have exercised over the development of
law at that time to believe that a purely artificial inference of
this kind should have established so very remarkable a rule.
However that may be, the explanation is typical of a way of
looking at law which was common enough before the dawn of
the historical method. Minds capable of reasoning in this way
were, if possible, farther removed from the conceptions implied
in the reasoning of the analytical jurists than they were from
the historical method itself. In this connexion it may be noticed
that the great work of Blackstone marks an era in the develop-
ment of legal ideas in England. It was not merely the first, as
it still remains the only, adequate attempt to expound the leading
principles of the whole body of law, but it was distinctly inspired
by a rationalizing method. Backstone tried not merely to
express but to illustrate legal rules, and he had a keen sense of
the value of historical illustrations. He worked of course with
the materials at his command. His manner and his work are
obnoxious alike to the modern jurist and to the modern historian.
He is accused by the one of perverting history, and by the other
of confusing the law. But his scheme is a great advance on
anything that had been attempted before; and, if his work has
been prolific in popular fallacies, at all events it enriched English
literature by a conspectus of the law, in which the logical
connexion of its principles inter se, and its relations to historical
facts, were distinctly if erroneously recognized.
While the historical method has superseded the verbal and
metaphysical explanation of legal principles, it had apparently,
in some cases, come into conflict with the conclusions of the
analytical school. The difference between the two systems comes
out most conspicuously in relation to customs. There is an
unavoidable break in the analytical method between societies
in which rules are backed by regulated physical force and those
in which no such force exists. At what point in its develop-
ment a given society passes into the condition of " an independent
political society " it may not be easy to determine, for the
evidence is obscure and conflicting. To the historical jurist
there is no such breach. The rule which in one stage of society
is a law, in another merely a rule of " positive morality," is the
same thing to him throughout. By the Irish Land Act 1881 the
Ulster custom of tenant-right and other analogous customs were
legalized. For the purposes of analytical jurisprudence there is
no need to go beyond the act of parliament. The laws known as
the Ulster custom are laws solely in virtue of the sovereign
government. Between the law as it now is and the custom as it
existed before the act there is all the difference in the world.
To the historical jurist no such separation is possible. His
account of the law would not only be imcomplete without embrac-
ing the precedent custom, but the act which made the custom
law is only one of the facts, and by no means the most significant
or important, in the history of its development. An exactly
parallel case is the legalization in England of that customary
tenant-right known as copyhold. It is to the historical jurist
exactly the same thing as the legalization of the Ulster tenant
right. In the one case a practice was made law by formal legis-
lation, and in the other without formal legislation. And there
can be very little doubt that in an earlier stage of society, when
formal legislation had not become the rule, the custom would
have been legalized relatively much sooner than it actually was.
Customs then are the same thing as laws to the historical
jurist, and his business is to trace the influences under which they
have grown up, flourished and decayed, their dependence on
the intellectual and moral conditions of society at different
times, and their reaction upon them. The recognized science
—and such it may now be considered to be — with which historical,
or more properly comparative, jurisprudence has most analogy is
the science of language. Laws and customs are to the one what
words are to the other, and each separate municipal system has
its analogue in a language. Legal systems are related together
like languages and dialects, and the investigation in both cases
brings us back at last to the meagre and obscure records of
savage custom and speech. A great master of the science of
language (Max Muller) has indeed distinguished it from juris-
prudence, as belonging to a totally different class of sciences.
" It is perfectly true," he says, " that if language be the work of
man in the same sense in which a statue, or a temple, or a poem,
or a law are properly called the works of man, the science of
language would have to be classed as an historical science. We
should have a history of language as we have a history of art, of
poetry and of jurisprudence; but we could not claim for it a
place side by side with the various branches of natural history."
Whatever be the proper position of either philology or juris-
prudence in relation to the natural sciences, it would not be
difficult to show that laws and customs on the whole are equally
independent of the efforts of individual human wills — which
appears to be what is meant by language not being the work of
man. The most complete acceptance of Austin's theory that
law everywhere and always is the command of the sovereign does
not involve any withdrawal of laws from the domain of natural
science, does not in the least interfere with the scientific study
of their affinities and relationships. Max Muller elsewhere
illustrates his conception of the different relations of words and
laws to the individual will by the story of the emperor Tiberius,
who was reproved for a grammatical mistake by Marcellus,
whereupon Capito, another grammarian, observed that, if what
the emperor said was not good Latin, it would soon be so.
JURISPRUDENCE
579
" Capito," said Marcellus, " is a liar; for, Caesar, thou canst give
the Roman citizenship to men, but not to words." The mere
impulse of a single mind, even that of a Roman emperor, how-
ever, probably counts for little more in law than it does in lan-
guage. Even in language one powerful intellect or one influ-
ential academy may, by its own decree, give a bent to modes of
speech which they would not otherwise have taken. But whether
law or language be conventional or natural is really an obsolete
question, and the difference between historical and natural
sciences in the last result is one of names.
The application of the historical method to law has not resulted
in anything like the discoveries which have made comparative
philology a science. There is no Grimm's law for jurisprudence;
but something has been done in that direction by the discovery
of the analogous processes and principles which underlie legal
systems having no external resemblance to each other. But
the historical method has been applied with special success to a
single system — the Roman law. The Roman law presents itself
to the historical student in two different aspects. It is, regarded
as the law of the Roman Republic and Empire, a system whose
history can be traced throughout a great part of its duration
with certainty, and in parts with great detail. It is, moreover,
a body of rationalized legal principles which may be considered
apart from the state system in which they were developed, and
which have, in fact, entered into the jurisprudence of the whole of
modern Europe on the strength of their own abstract authority
— so much so that the continued existence of the civil law, after
the fall of the Empire, is entitled to be considered one of the first
discoveries of the historical method. Alike, therefore, in its
original history, as the law of the Roman state, and as the source
from which the fundamental principles of modern laws have
been taken, the Roman law presented the most obvious and
attractive subject of historical study. An immense impulse
was given to the history of Roman law by the discovery of the
Institutes of Gaius in 1816. A complete view of Roman law,
as it existed three centuries and a half before Justinian, was
then obtained, and as the later Institutes were, in point of form,
a recension of those of Gaius, the comparison of the two stages
in legal history was at once easy and fruitful. Moreover, Gaius
dealt with antiquities of the law which had become obsolete in the
time of Justinian, and were passed over by him without notice.
Nowhere did Roman law in its modern aspect give a stronger
impulse to the study of legal history than in Germany. The
historical school of German jurists led the reaction of national
sentiment against the proposals for a general code made by
Thibaut. They were accused by their opponents of setting up
the law of past times as intrinsically entitled to be observed, and
they were no doubt strongly inspired by reverence for customs
and traditions. Through the examination of their own custom-
ary laws, and through the elimination and separate study of the
Roman element therein, they were led to form general views of
the history of legal principles. In the hands of Savigny, the
greatest master of the school, the historical theory was developed
into a universal philosophy of law, covering the ground which
we should assign separately to jurisprudence, analytical and his-
torical, and to theories of legislation. There is not in Savigny's
system the faintest approach to the Austinian analysis. The
range of it is not the analysis of law as a command, but that of a
Rechtsverhiiltniss or legal relation. Far from regarding law as
the creation of the will of individuals, he maintains it to be the
natural outcome of the consciousness of the people, like their
social habits or their language. And he assimilates changes in
law to changes in language. "As in the life of individual men
no moment of complete stillness is experienced, but a constant
organic development, such also is the case in the life of nations,
and in every individual element in which this collective life
consists; so we find in language a constant formation and develop-
ment, and in the same way in law." German jurisprudence is
darkened by metaphysical thought, and weakened, as we believe,
by defective analysis of positive law. But its conception of
laws is exceedingly favourable to the growth of a historical
philosophy, the results of which have a value of their own, apart
altogether from the character of the first principles. Such,
for instance, is Savigny's famous examination of the law of
possession.
There is only one other system of law which is worthy of being
placed by the side of Roman law, and that is the law of England.
No other European system can be compared with that which is
the origin and substratum of them all ; but England, as it happens,
is isolated in jurisprudence. She has solved her legal problems
for herself. Whatever element of Roman law may exist in the
English system has come in, whether by conscious adaptation or
otherwise, ab extra; it is not of the essence of the system, nor
does it form a large portion of the system. And, while English
law is thus historically independent of Roman law, it is in all
respects worthy of being associated with it on its own merits.
Its originality, or, if the phrase be preferred, its peculiarity, is
not more remarkable than the intellectual qualities which have
gone to its formation — the ingenuity, the rigid logic, the reason-
ableness, of the generations of lawyers and judges who have
built it up. This may seem extravagant praise for a legal system,
the faults of which are and always have been matter of daily
complaint, but it would be endorsed by all unprejudiced students.
What men complain of is the practical hardship and inconve-
nience of some rule or process of law. They know, for example,
that the law of real property is exceedingly complicated, and
that, among other things, it makes the conveyance of land ex-
pensive. But the technical law of real property, which rests to
this day on ideas that have been buried for centuries, has never-
theless the qualities we have named. So too with the law of
procedure as it existed under the " science " of special pleading.
The greatest practical law reformer, and the severest critic of
existing systems that has ever appeared in any age or country,
Jeremy Bentham, has admitted this: " Confused, indetermi-
nate, inadequate, ill-adapted, and inconsistent as to a vast
extent the provision or no provision would be found to be that
has been made by it for the various cases that have happened
to present themselves for decision, yet in the character of a
repository of such cases it affords, for the manufactory of real
law, a stock of materials which is beyond all price. Traverse
the whole continent of Europe, ransack all the libraries belonging
to all the jurisprudential systems of the several political states,
add the contents together, you would not be able to compose a
collection of cases equal in variety, in amplitude, in clearness of
statement — in a word, all points taken together, in constructive-
ness — to that which may be seen to be afforded by the collection
of English reports of adjudged cases " (Bentham's Works, iv. 460).
On the other hand, the fortunes of English jurisprudence are
not unworthy of comparison even with the catholic position of
Roman law. In the United States of America, in India, and in
the vast Colonial Empire, the common law of England constitutes
most of the legal system in actual use, or is gradually being super-
imposed upon it. It would hardly be too much to say that
English law of indigenous growth, and Roman law, between
them govern the legal relations of the whole civilized world.
Nor has the influence of the former on the intellectual habits
and the ideas of men been much if at all inferior. Those who
set any store by the analytical jurisprudence of the school of
Austin will be glad to acknowledge that it is pure outcome of
English law. Sir Henry Maine associated its rise with the
activity of modern legislatures, which is of course a characteristic
of the societies in which English laws prevail. And it would
not be difficult to show that the germs of Austin's principles are
to be found in legal writers who never dreamed of analysing a
law. It is certainly remarkable, at all events, that the accep-
tance of Austin's system is as yet confined strictly to the domain
of English law. Maine found no trace of its being even known
to the jurists of the Continent, and it would appear that it has
been equally without influence in Scotland, which, like the con-
tinent of Europe, is essentially Roman in the fundamental
elements of its jurisprudence.
The substance of the above article is repeated from Professor E.
Robertson's (Lord Lochee's) article " Law," in the gth ed. of this
work.
58°
JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE
Among numerous English textbooks, those specially worth men-
tion are: T. E. Holland, The Elements of Jurisprudence (1880;
loth ed., 1906); J. Austin, Lectures on Jurisprudence (4th ed., 1873);
W.'Jethro Brown, The A ustinian Theory of Law (1906) ; Sir F. Pollock,
A First Book on Jurisprudence (1896; 2nd ed., 1904).
JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE. The object of this
article is to give a general survey of the study of the evolution
of law. It is not concerned with analytical jurisprudence as a
theory of legal thought, or an encyclopaedic introduction to
legal teaching. Jurisprudence in such a philosophic or peda-
gogical sense has certainly to reckon with the methods and
results of a comparative study of law, but its aims are distinct
from those of the latter: it deals with more general problems.
On the other hand, the comparative study of law may itself be
treated in two different ways: it may be directed to a comparison
of existing systems of legislation and law, with a view to tracing
analogies and contrasts in the treatment of practical problems
and taking note of expedients and of possible solutions. Or else
it may aim at discovering the principles regulating the develop-
ment of legal systems, with a view to explain the origin of insti-
tutions and to study the conditions of their life. In the first
sense, comparative jurisprudence resolves itself into a study of
home and foreign law (cf. Hofmann in the Zeitschrift fiir das
private und ofentliche Recht der Gegenwart, 1878). In the second
sense, comparative jurisprudence is one of the aspects of so-
called sociology, being the study of social evolution in the
special domain of law. From this point of view it is, in substance,
immaterial whether the legal phenomena subjected to investi-
gation are ancient or modern, are drawn from civilized or from
primitive communities. The fact that they are being observed
and explained as features of social evolution characterizes the
inquiry and forms the distinctive attribute separating these
studies from kindred subjects. It is only natural, however,
that early periods and primitive conditions have attracted
investigators in this field more than recent developments. The
interest of students seems to have stood in inverse ratio to
the chronological vicinity of the facts under consideration — the
farther from the observer, the more suggestive and worthy of
attention the facts were found to be. This peculiarity is easily
explained if we take into account the tendency of all evolution-
ary investigations to obtain a view of origins in order to follow
up the threads of development from their initial starting-point.
Besides, it has been urged over and over again that the simpler
phenomena of ancient and primitive society afford more con-
venient material for generalizations as to legal evolution than
the extremely complex legal institutions of civilized nations.
But there is no determined line of division between ancient and
modern comparative jurisprudence in so far as both are aiming
at the study of legal development. The law of Islam or, for
that matter, the German civil code, may be taken up as a subject
of study quite as much as the code of Hammurabi or the marriage
customs of Australian tribes.
The fact that the comparative study of legal evolution is
chiefly represented by investigations of early institutions is
therefore a characteristic, but not a necessary feature in the
treatment of the subject. But it is essential to this treatment
that it should be historical and comparative. Historical, because
it is only as history, i.e. a sequence of stages and events, that
development can be thought of. Comparative, because it is
not the casual notices about one or the other chain of historical
facts that can supply the basis for any scientific induction.
Comparisons of kindred processes have to be made in order to
arrive at any conception of their general meaning and scientific
regularity. As linguistic science differs from philology in so
far as it treats of the general evolution of language and not of
particular languages, even so comparative jurisprudence differs
from the history of law as a study of general legal evolution
distinct from the development of one or the other national
branch of legal enactment. Needless to say that there are in-
termediate shades between these groups, but it is not to these
shades we have to attend, but to the main distinctions and
divisions.
i. The idea that the legal enactments and customs of different
countries should be compared for the purpose of deducing
general principles from them is as old as political science itself.
It was realized with especial vividness in epochs when a con-
siderable material of observations was gathered from different
sources and in various forms. The wealth of varieties and the
recurrence of certain leading views in them led to comparison
and to generalizations based on comparison. Aristotle, who
lived at the close of a period marked by the growth of free
Greek cities, summarized, as it were, their political experience
in his Constitutions and Politics; students of these know that
the Greek philosopher had to deal with not only public law and
political institutions, but also to some extent private, criminal
law, equity, the relations between law and morals, &c.
Another great attempt at comparative observation was made
at the close of the pre-revolutionary period of modern Europe.
Montesquieu took stock of the analogies and contrasts of law in
the commonwealths of his time and tried to show to what
extent particular enactments and rules were dependent on certain
general currents in the life of societies — on forms of government,
on moral conditions corresponding to these, and ultimately on
the geographical facts with which various nationalities and states
have to reckon in their development.
These were, however, only slight beginnings, general forecasts
of a coming line of thought, and Montesquieu's remarks on laws
and legal customs read now almost as if they were meant to
serve as materials for social Utopias, although they were by no
means conceived in this sense. At this distance of time we
cannot help perceiving how fragmentary, incomplete and un-
critical his notions of the facts of legal history were, and how
strongly his thought was biased by didactic considerations, by
the wish to teach his contemporaries what politics and law
should be.
It was reserved for the igth century to come forward with
connected and far-reaching investigations in this field as in
many others. We are not deceived by proximity and self-
consciousness when we affirm that comparative jurisprudence,
as understood in these introductory remarks, dates from the
1 9th century and especially from its second half.
There were many reasons for such a new departure: two of
these reasons have been especially manifest and decisive. The
1 9th century was an eminently historical and an eminently
scientific age. In the domain of history it may be said that it
opened an entirely new vista. While, speaking roughly, before
that time history was conceived as a narrative of memorable
events, more or less skilful, more or less sensational, but appealing
primarily to the literary sense of the reader, it became in the
course of the igth century an encyclopaedia of reasoned know-
ledge, a means of understanding social life by observing its
phenomena in the past. The immense growth of historical
scholarship in that sense, and the transformation of its aims,
can hardly be denied.
Apart from the personal efforts of eminent writers, a great
and general movement has to be taken into account in order
to explain this remarkable stage of human thought. The
historic bent of mind of 19th-century thinkers was to a great
extent the result of heightened political and cultural self-con-
sciousness. It was the reflection in the world of letters of the
tremendous upheaval in the states of Europe and America
which took place from the close of the i8th century onwards.
As one of the greatest leaders of the movement, Niebuhr,
pointed out, the fact of being a witness of such struggles and
catastrophes as the American Revolution, the French Revolu-
tion, the Napoleonic Empire and the national reaction against it,
taught every one to think historically, to appreciate the impor-
tance of historical factors, to measure the force not only of
logical argument and moral impulse, but also of instinctive
habits and traditional customs. It is not a matter of chance
that the historical school of jurisprudence, Savigny's doctrine
of the organic growth of law, was formed and matured while
Europe collected its forces after the most violent revolutionary
crisis it had ever experienced, and in most intimate con-
nexion with the romantic movement, a movement animated by
JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE
581
enthusiastic belief in the historical, traditional life of social
groups as opposed to the intellectual conceptions of indi-
vidualistic radicalism.
On the other hand, the ipth century was a scientific age and
especially an age of biological science. Former periods — the
i6th and i7th centuries especially — had bequeathed to it high
standards of scientific investigation, an ever-increasing weight
of authority in the direction of an exact study of natural phe-
nomena and a conception of the world as ruled by laws and not
by capricious interference. But these scientific views had been
chiefly applied in the domain of mathematics, astronomy and
physics; although great discoveries had already been made in
physiology and other branches of biology, yet the achievements
of 19th-century students in this respect far surpassed those of
the preceding period. And the doctrine of transformation
which came to occupy the central place in scientific thought was
eminently fitted to co-ordinate and suggest investigations of
social facts. As F. York Powell put it, Darwin is the greatest
historian of modern times, and certainly an historian not in the
sense of a reader of annals, but in that of a guide in the under-
standing of organic evolution. Though much is expressed in
the one name of Darwin, it is perhaps even more momentous as a
symbol of the tendency of a great age than as a mark of personal
work. To this tendency we are indebted for the rise of anthro-
pology and of sociology, of the scientific study of man and of the
scientific study of society. Of course it ought not to be disre-
garded that the application of scientific principles and methods
to human and social facts was made possible by the growth of
knowledge in regard to savage and half-civilized nations called
forth by the increased activity of European and American
business men, administrators and explorers. Ethnography and
ethnology have brought some order into the wealth of materials
accumulated by generations of workers in this direction, and it
is with their help that the far-reaching generalizations of modern
inquirers as to man and society have been achieved.
2. It is not difficult to see that the comparative study of
legal evolution finds its definite place in a scientific scheme
elaborated from such points of view. Let us see how, as a
matter of fact, the study in question arose and what its progress
has been. The immediate incitement for the formation of com-
parative jurisprudence was given by the great discoveries of
comparative philology. When the labours of Franz Bopp,
August Schleicher, Max Miiller, W. D. Whitney and others
revealed the profound connexion between the different branches
of the Indo-European race in regard to their languages, and
showed that the development of these languages proceeded on
lines which might be studied in a strictly scientific manner, on
the basis of comparative observation and with the object of
tracing the uniformities of the process, it was natural that
students of religion, of folk-lore and of legal institutions took
up the same method and tried to win similar results (Sir H.
Maine, Rede lecture in Village Communities, 3rd ed.).
It is interesting to note that one of the leading scholars of the
Germanistic revival in the beginning of the ipth century, Jacob
Grimm, a compeer of Savigny in his own line, took up with
fervent zeal and remarkable results not only the scientific study
of the German language, but also that of Germanic mythology
and popular law. His Rechtsalterthiimer are still unrivalled as a
collection of data as to the legal lore of Teutonic tribes. Their
basis is undoubtedly a narrow one: they treat of the varieties of
legal custom among the, continental Germans, the Scandinavians
and the Germanic tribes of Great Britain, but the method of
treatment is already a comparative one. Grimm takes up the
different subjects — property, contract, procedure, succession,
crime, &c. — and examines them in the light of national, provin-
cial and local customs, sometimes noticing expressly affinities
with Roman and Greek law (e.g. the subject of imprisonment for
debt, Rechtsdlerthumer, 4th ed., vol. ii., p. 165).
A broader basis was taken up by a linguist who tried to trace
the primitive institutions and customs of the early Aryans before
their separation into divers branches. Adolphe Pictet (Les
Origines indo-europeennes, i. 1859; ii. 1863) had to touch con-
stantly on questions of family law, marriage, property, public
authority, in his attempt to reconstruct the common civilization
of the Aryan race, and he did so on the strength of a comparative
study of terms used in the different Indo-European languages.
He showed, for instance, how the idea of protection was the
predominant element in the position of the father in the Aryan
household. The names pUar, pater, irarrip, father, which
recur in most branches of the Aryan race, go back to a root pa-,
pointing to guardianship or protection. Thus we are led to
consider the patria potestas, so stringently formulated in Roman
law, as an expression of a common Aryan notion, which was
already in existence before the Aryan tribes parted company and
went their different ways. Descriptions of Aryan early culture
have been given several times since in connexion with linguistic
observations. An example is W. E. Hearn's Aryan Household
(1879). Fustel de Coulanges' famous volume on the ancient
city and Rudolf von Jhering's studies of primitive Indo-European
institutions (Vorgeschichte der Indoeurop&er) start from similar
observations, although the first of these scholars is chiefly
interested in tracing the influence of religion on the material
arrangements of life, while the latter draws largely on principles
of public and private law, studied more especially in Roman
antiquity.
3. The chief work in that direction has been achieved in one
sense by a German scholar, B. W. Leist. His Graeco-Roman legal
history, his Jus Gentium of Primitive Aryans, and his Jus Civile
of Primitive Aryans, form the most complete and learned attempt
not only to reconstitute the fundamental rules of common
Aryan law before the separation of tongues and nations, but also
to trace the influence of this original stock of juridical ideas in
the later development of different branches of the Aryan race.
These three books present three stages of comparison, marked
by a successive widening of the horizon. He began his legal
history by putting together the data as to Roman and Greek
legal origins; in the Alt-arisches Jus Gentium the material of
Hindu law is not only drawn into the range of observation, but
becomes its very centre; in the Alt-arisches Jus Civile the legal
customs of the Zend branch, of Celts, Germans and Slavs, are
taken into account, although the most important part of the
inquiry is still directed to the combination of Hindu, Greek and
Roman law. In this way Leist builds up his theories' by the
comparative method, but he restricts its use consciously and con-
sistently to a definite range. He does not want to plunge into
haphazard analogies, but seeks common ground before all things
in order to be able to watch for the appearance of ramifications
and to explain them. According to his view comparison is of
use only between " coherent " lines of facts. Common origin,
not similarity of features, appears to him as the fundamental
basis for fruitful comparison. It may be said that Leist 's work
is characterized by the attempt to draw up a continuous history
of a supposed archaic common law of the Aryan race rather
than to put different solutions of kindred legal problems by the
side of each other. For him Aryan tribal organization with its
double-sided relationship — cognatic and agnatic — through men
and through women — is one, and although he does not draw its
picture as Fustel de Coulanges does by the help of traits taken in-
discriminately from Hindu, Roman and Greek material, although
he notices divisions, degrees and variations, at bottom he writes
the history of one set of principles exemplified and modulated,
as it were, in the six or seven main varieties of the race. Even
so the nine rules of conduct prescribed by Hindu sacral law
are, according to his view, the directing rules of Roman, Greek,
Germanic, Celtic, Slavonic legal custom — the duties in regard to
gods, parents and fatherland, guests, personal purity, the pro-
hibitions against homicide, adultery and theft — are variations
of one and the same religious, moral and legal system, and their
original unity is reflected and proved by the unity of legal
terminology itself.
The same leading idea is embodied in the books of Otto
Schrader — Urgeschichte und Sprachvergleichung (ist ed., 1883;
2nd ed., 1890) and Reallexikon der indogermanischen Alter-
tumskunde (1901). In this case we have to do not with a jurist
JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE
but with a linguist and a student of cultural history. His
training made him especially fit to trace the national affinities
in the data of language, and the sense of the intimate connexion
between the growth of institutions on one side, of words and
linguistic forms on the other, underlies all his investigations.
But Schrader testifies also to another powerful influence — to that
of Victor Hehn, the author of a remarkable book on early civili-
zation, KulturpflanzenundHausthiere in ihrem Ubergang ausAsien
in Europa (ist ed., 1870; 7th ed., 1902), dealing with the migra-
tions of tribes and their modes of acquiring material civilization.
Although the linguistic and archaeological sides naturally pre-
dominate in Schrader's works, he has constantly to consider
legal subjects, and he strives conscientiously to obtain a clear and
common-sense view of the early legal notions of the Aryans.
Speaking of the " ordeals," the " waging of God's law," for
example, he traces the customs of purification by fire, water,
iron, &c., to the practice of oaths (Sans, am; Gr. ofivvfu; O. Ital.
omr = first group; O. Ger. ail's, IT. 6eth = second group; O.
Norse rota, Arm. erdnum = I swear = third group). The central
idea of the ordeal is thus shown to be the imprecation — " Let
him be cursed whose assertion is false."
The comparative study of the Aryan group assumed another
aspect in the works of Sir Henry Maine. He did not rely on
linguistic affinities, but made great use of another element of
investigation which plays hardly any part in the books of the
writers mentioned hitherto. His best personal preparation for
the task was that he had not only taught law in England, but
had come into contact with living legal customs in India. For
him the comparison between the legal lore of Rome and that of
India did not depend on linguistic roots or on the philological
study of the laws of Manu, but was the result of recognizing
again and again, in actual modern custom, the views, rules and
institutions of which he had read in Gaius or in the fragments
of the Twelve Tables. The sense of historical analogy and evolu-
tion which had shown itself already in the lectures on Ancient
Law, which, after all, were mainly a presentment of Roman legal
history mapped out by a man of the world, averse from pedantic
disquisitions. But what appears as the expression of Maine's
personal aptitude and intelligent reading in Ancient Law gets
to be the interpretation of popular legal principles by modern as
well as by ancient instances of their application in Village Com-
munities, The Early History of Institutions, Early Law and Custom.
The evolution of property in land out of archaic collectivism,
ancient forms of contract and compulsion, rudimentary forms of
feudalism and the like, were treated in a new light in conse-
quence of systematic comparisons with the conditions not only
of India but of southern Slavonic nations, medieval celts and
Teutons. This breadth of view seemed startling when the
lectures appeared, and the original treatment of the subject
was hailed on all sides as a most welcome new departure in the
study of legal customs and institutions. And yet Maine set
very definite boundaries to his comparative surveys. He re-
nounced the chronological limitation confining such inquiries
to the domain of antiquaries, but he upheld the ethnographical
limitation confining them to laws of the same race. In his case
it was the Aryan race, and in his Law and Custom he opposed in
a determined manner the attempts of more daring students to
extend to the Aryans generalizations drawn from the life of
savage tribes unconnected with the Aryans by blood.
Thus, notwithstanding all diversities in the treatment of
particular problems, one leading methodical principle runs
through the works of all the above-mentioned exponents of
comparative study. It was to proceed on the basis of common
origin and on the assumption of a certain common stock of
language, religion, material culture, and law to start with.
What Pictet, Leist, Schrader, and Maine were doing for the
Aryans, F. Hommel, Robertson Smith and others did in a lesser
degree for the Semitic race.
4. The literary group which started from the discoveries of
comparative philology and history was met on the way by what
may be called the ethnological school of inquirers. The original
impetus was given, in this case, by jurists and historians who
took up the study in the field of ancient history, but treated it
from the beginning in such a way as to break up the subdivisions
of historic races and to direct the inquiry to a state of culture best
illustrated by savage customs. The first impulse may be said
to have come from J. J. Bachofen (Multerrecht, 1861; Anti-
quarische Briefe, 1880; Die Sage von Tanaquil). All the repre-
sentatives of Aryan antiquities are at one in laying stress on the
patriarchal and agnatic system of the kindreds in the different
Aryan nations; even Leist, although dwelling on the importance
of cognatic ties, looks to agnatic relationship for the explana-
tion of military organization and political authority. And un-
doubtedly, if we argue from the predominant facts and from the
linguistic evidence of parallel terms, we are led to assume that
already before their separation the Aryans lived in a patriarchal
state of society. Now, Bachofen discovered in the very tradition
of classical antiquity traces of a fundamentally different state
of things, the central conception of which was not patriarchal
power, but maternity, relationship being traced through mothers,
the wife presenting the constant and directing element of the
household, while the husband (and perhaps several husbands)
joined her from time to time in more or less inconstant unions.
Such a state of society is definitely described by Herodotus in
the case of the Lycians, it is clearly noticeable even in later his-
torical times in Sparta; the passage from this matriarchal
conception to the recognition of the claims of the father is
reflected in poetical fiction in the famous Orestes myth, based
on the struggle between the moral incitement which prompted
the son to avenge his father and the absolute reverence for the
mother required by ancient law. Although chiefly drawing his
materials from classical literature, Bachofen included in his
Antiquarian Letters an interesting study of the marriage custom
and systems of relationship of the Malabar Coast in India; they
attracted his attention by the contrasts between different layers
of legal tradition — the Brahmans living in patriarchal order,
while the class next to them, the Nayirs (Nairs), follow rules of
matriarchy.
Similar ideas were put forward in a more comprehensive form
by J. F. McLennan. His early volume (Studies in Ancient
History, 1876) contains several essays published some time before
that date. He starts from the wide occurrence of marriage by
capture in primitive societies, and groups the tribes of which
we have definite knowledge into endogamous and exogamous
societies according as they take their wives from among the
kindred or outside it. Marriage by capture and by purchase
are signs of exogamy, connected with the custom in many tribes
of killing female offspring. The development of marriage by
capture and purchase is a powerful agent in bringing about
patriarchal rule, agnatic relationship, and the formation of clans
or gentes, but the more primitive forms of relationship appear
as variations of systems based on mother-right. These views
are supported by ethnological observations and used as a clue
to the history of relationship and family law in ancient Greece.
In further contributions published after McLennan's death
these researches are supplemented and developed in many ways.
The peculiarities of exogamous societies, for instance, are traced
back to the even more primitive practice of Totemism, the
grouping of men according to their conceptions of animal worship
and to their symbols. McLennan's line of inquiry was taken up
in a very effective manner not only by anthropologists like
E. B. Tylor or A. Lang, but also in a more special manner by
students of primitive family law. One of the most brilliant
monographs in this direction is Robertson Smith's study of
Kinship and Marriage in Arabia.
But perhaps the most decisive influence was exercised on
the development of the ethnological study of law by the dis-
coveries of an American, Lewis H. Morgan. In his epoch-
making works on Systems of Consanguinity (1869) and on Ancient
Society (1877) he drew attention to the remarkable fact that in
the case of a number of tribes — the Red Indians of America, the
Australian black tribes, some of the polar races, and several
Asiatic tribes, mostly of Turanian race — degrees of relationship
are reckoned and distinguished by names, not as ties between
JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE
individuals, but as ties between entire groups, classes or genera-
tions. Instead of a mother and a father a man speaks of fathers
and mothers; all the individuals of a certain group are deemed
husbands or wives of corresponding individuals of another group;
sisters and brothers have to be sought in entire generations, and
not among the descendants of a definite and common parent, and
so forth. There are variations and types in these forms of
organization, and intermediate links may be traced between
unions of consanguine people — brothers and sisters of the same
blood — on the one hand, and the monogamic marriage prevailing
nowadays, on the other; but the central and most striking fact
seems to be that in early civilizations, in conditions which we
should attribute to savage and barbarian life, marriage appears
as a tie, not between single pairs, but between classes, all the
men of a class being regarded as potential or actual husbands
of the women of a corresponding class. Facts of this kind
produce very peculiar and elaborate systems of relationship,
which have been copiously illustrated by Morgan in his tables.
In his Ancient Society he attempted to reduce all the known
forms and facts of marriage and kinship arrangements to a
comprehensive view of evolution leading up to the Aryan,
Semitic and Uralian family, as exhibiting the most modern
type of relationship.
These observations, in conjunction with Bachofen's and
McLennan's teaching on mother-right, brought about a complete
change of perspective in the comparative study of man and
society. The rights of ethnologists to have their say in regard
to legal, political and social development was forcibly illustrated
from both ends, as it were. On the one hand, classical antiquity
itself proved to be a rather thin layer of human civilization
hardly sufficient to conceal the long periods of barbarism and
primitive evolution which had gone to its making. On the
other hand, unexpected combinations in regard to family,
property, social order, were discovered in every corner of the
inhabited world, and our trite notions as to the character of
laws and institutions were reduced to the rank of variations on
themes which recur over and over again, but may be and have
been treated in very different ways.
There is no need to speak of the use made of ethnological
material in the wider range of anthropological and sociological
studies — the works of Tylor, Lubbock, Lippert, Spencer are in
everybody's hands — but attention must be called to the further
influence of the ethnological point of view in comparative
jurisprudence. An interesting example of the passage from one
line of investigation to another, from the historical to the anthro-
pological line, if the expression may be used for the sake of
brevity, is presented in the works of one of the founders of the
Zeitschrift fur vgl. Rechtswissenschaft — Franz Bernhoft. He
appears in his earlier books as an exponent of the comparative
study of Greek and Roman antiquities, more or less in the style
of Leist. Like the latter he was gradually incited to draw India
into the range of his observations, but unlike Leist, he ended by
fully recognizing the importance of ethnological evidence, and
although he did not do much original research in that direction
himself, the influence of Bachofen and of the ethnologists made
itself felt in Bernhoft's treatment of classical antiquity itself:
in his State and Law in Rome at the Time of the Kings he starts
from the view that patricians and plebeians represent two
ethnological layers of society — a patriarchal Aryan and a
matriarchal pre-Aryan one.
But, of course, the utmost use was made of ethnological
evidence by writers who cut themselves entirely free from the
special study of classical or European antiquities. The enthu-
siasm of the explorers of new territory led them naturally to
disregard the peculiar claims of European development in the
history of higher civilization. They wanted material for a study
of the genus homo in all its varieties, and they had no time to
look after the minute questions of philological and antiquarian
research which had so long constituted the daily bread of
inquirers into the history of laws. The most characteristic
representative of the new methods of extensive comparison was
undoubtedly A. H. Post (1839-1895) — the author of many works,
in which he ranges over the whole domain of mankind — Hovas,
Zulus, Maoris, Tunguses, alternating in a kaleidoscopic fashion
with Hindus, Teutons, Jews, Egyptians. The order of his com-
positions is systematic, not chronological or even ethnographical
in the sense of grouping kindred races together. He takes up
the different subdivisions of law and traces them through all
the various tribes which present any data in regard to them.
His method is not only not bound by history, it is opposed to it.
He writes: —
" The method of comparative ethnology is different from the
historical method, inasmuch as it collects the given material from
an entirely distinct point of view. Historical investigation tries to
get at the causes of the facts of rational life by observing the develop-
ment of these facts from such as preceded them within the range of
separate kindreds, tribes and peoples. The investigation of com-
parative ethnology inquires after the causes of facts in national
fife by collecting identical or similar ethnological data wherever they
may be found in the world, and by drawing inferences from these
materials to identical or similar causes. This method is therefore
quite unhistorical. It severs things that have been hitherto regarded
as closely joined and arranges these shreds into new combinations "
(Grundriss, i. 14).
This is not a mere paradox, but the necessary outcome of the
situation in respect of the material used. What is being sought
is not common origin or a common stock of ideas, but recourse
to similar expedients in similar situations, and it is one of the
most striking results of ethnology that it can show how peoples
entirely cut off from each other and even placed in very different
planes of development can resort to analogous solutions in
analogous emergencies. Is not the custom of the so-called
Couvade — the pretended confinement of the husband when a
child is born to his wife — a most quaint and seemingly recondite
ceremony? Yet we find it practised in the same way by Basques,
Californian Indians, and some Siberian tribes. They have surely
not borrowed from each other, nor have they kept the ceremony
as a remnant of the time when they formed one race: in each
case, evidently the passage from a matriarchal state to a patri-
archal has suggested it, and a very appropriate method it seems to
establish the fact of fatherhood in a solemn and graphic though
artificial manner. Again, an inscription from the Cretan town
of Gortyn, published in the American Journal of Archaeology
(2nd series, vol. i., 1897) by Halbherr, tells us that the weapons of
a warrior, the wool of a woman, the plough of a peasant, could
not be taken from them as pledges. We find a similar idea in
the prohibition to take from a knight his weapons, from a villein
his plough, in payment of fines, which obtained in medieval
England and was actually inserted in Magna Carta. Here also
the similarity extends to details, and is certainly not derived
from direct borrowing or common origin but from analogies of
situations translating themselves into analogies of legal thought.
It may be said in a sense that for the ethnological school the less
relationship there is between the compared groups the more
instructive the comparison turns out to be.
The collection of ethnological parallels for the use of sociology
and comparative jurisprudence has proceeded in a most fruitful
manner. By the side of special monographs about single tribes
or geographical groups of tribes, such as Kamilaroi and Kurnai,
by L. Fison & A. W. Howitt (1880), and The Native Tribes of
Australia, by Baldwin Spencer & F. G. Gillen (1899), the whole
range of ethnological jurisprudence was gone through by Wilken
in regard to the inhabitants of the Dutch possessions in Asia, by
M. M. Kovalevsky in regard to Caucasians, &c. As a rule the
special monographs turned out to be more successful than the
general surveys, but the interest of the special monographs
themselves depended partly on the fact that people's eyes had
been opened to the recurrence of certain widespread phenomena
and types of development.
5. Ethnologists of Post's school have not had it entirely
their own way, however. Not only did their natural opponents,
the philologists, historians and jurists, reproach them with lack
of critical discrimination, with a tendency to disregard funda-
mental distinctions, to wipe out characteristic features, to throw
the most disparate elements into the same pot. In their own
ranks a number of conscientious and scientifically trained
JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE
investigators protested against the haphazard manner in which the
most intricate problems were treated, and sought to evolve more
definite methodical rules. P. and F. Sarrasin in their description
of the Ceylon Veddahs showed a most primitive race scattered
in small clusters, monogamous and patriarchal in their marriage
customs and systems of relationship. E. A. Westermarck
challenged the sweeping generalizations indulged in by many
ethnologists about primitive promiscuity in sexual relations
and the necessary passage of all human tribes through the stages
of matriarchy and group marriage.
A very interesting departure was attempted by Dargun in his
studies on the origin and development of property and his treatise
on mother-right and marriage by capture. His lead was followed
by R. Hildebrand in the monograph on law and custom. The
principal idea of these inquirers may be stated as follows. We
must utilize ethnological as well as historical materials from the
whole world, but it is no use doing this indiscriminately. Fruit-
ful comparisons may be instituted mainly in the case of tribes
on the same level in their general culture and especially their
economic pursuits. Hunting tribes must be primarily compared
with other hunters, fishers with fishers, pastoral nations with
pastoral nations, agriculturists with agriculturists; nations in
transitional stages from one type of culture to the other have to
be grouped and examined by themselves. The result would be
to establish certain parallel lines in the development of institu-
tions and customs. From this point of view both Dargun and
Hildebrand attacked the prevailing theory of primitive commun-
ism and insisted on the atomistic individualism of the rudimen-
tary civilization of hunting tribes. Collectivism in the treatment
of ownership, common field husbandry, practices of joint
holdings, co-aration, common stores, &c., make their appearance
according to Dargun in consequence of the drawing together of
scattered groups and smaller independent settlements. An
evolution of the same kind leading from loose unions around
mothers through marriage by capture to patriarchal kindreds
was traced in the history of relationship. Grosse (Die Formen
der Familie und der Wirtschaft, 1896) followed in a similar strain.
Another line of criticism was opened up from the side of exact
sociological study. Its best exponent is Steinmetz, who represents
with Wilken the Dutch group of investigators of social pheno-
mena. He takes up a standpoint which severs him entirely from
the linguistic and historic school. In a discourse on the Meaning
of Sociology (p. 10) he expresses himself in the following words:
" One who judges of the social state of the Hindus by the book
of Manu takes the ideal notions of one portion of the people for
the actual conditions of all its parts." In regard to jurisprudence
he distinguishes carefully between art and science. " Juris-
prudence in the wider sense is an art, the art of framing rules
for social intercourse in so far as these rules can be put into exe-
cution by the state and its organs, as well as the art of inter-
preting and applying these rules. In another sense it is pure
science, the investigation of all consciously formulated and
actually practised rules, and of their conditions and founda-
tions, in fact of the entire social life of existing and bygone
nations, without a knowledge and understanding of which a
knowledge and understanding of law as its outcome is, of course,
impossible." In this sense jurisprudence is a part of ethnology
and of the comparative history of culture. But in order to
grapple with such a tremendous task comparative jurisprudence
has not only to call to help the study of scattered ethnological
facts. This is not sufficient to widen the frame of observation
and to realize the relative character of the principles with which
practical lawyers operate, without ever putting in question their
general acceptance or logical derivations. Ethnological studies
themselves have to look for guidance to psychology, especially
to the psychology of emotional life and of character. Although
these branches of psychological science have been much less
investigated than the study of intellectual processes, they still
afford material help to the ethnologist and the comparative
jurist; and Steinmetz himself made a remarkable attempt to
utilize a psychological analysis of the feelings of revenge in his
Origins of Punishment.
6. The necessity of employing more stringent standards of
criticisms and more exact methods is now recognized, and it
is characteristic that the foremost contemporary representative
of comparative jurisprudence, Joseph Kohler of Berlin, principal
editor of the Zeitschrift fiir vgl. Rechtswissenschaft, often
gives expression to this view. Beginning with studies of
procedure and private law in the provinces of Germany where
the French" law of the Code Napoleon was still applied, he has
thrown his whole energy into monographic surveys and investi-
gations in all the departments of historical and ethnological
jurisprudence. The code of Khammurabi and the Babylonian
contracts, the ancient Hindu codes and juridical commentaries
on them, the legal customs of the different tribes and provinces
of India, the collection and sifting of the legal customs of abori-
gines in the German colonies in Africa, the materials supplied
by investigators of Australian and American tribes, the history
of legal customs of the Mahommedans, and numberless other
points of ethnological research, have been treated by him in
articles in his Zeitschrift and in other publications. Comprehen-
sive attempts have also been made by him at a synthetic treat-
ment of certain sides of the law — like the law of debt in his Shake-
speare vor dem Forum der Jurisprudent (1883) or his Primitive
History of Marriage. Undoubtedly we have not to deal in this case
with mere accumulation of material or with remarks on casual
analogies. And yet the importance of these works consists
mainly in their extensive range of observation. The critical
side is still on the second plane, although not conspicuously
absent as in the case of Post and some of his followers. We may
sympathize cordially with Kohler's exhortation to work for a
universal history of law without yet perceiving clearly what the
stages of this universal history are going to be. We may acknow-
ledge the enormous importance of Morgan's and Bachofen's
discoveries without feeling bound to recognize that all tribes
and nations of the earth have gone substantially through the
same forms of development in respect of marriage custom, and
without admitting that the evidence for a universal spread of
group-marriage has been produced. Altogether the reproach
seems not entirely unfounded that investigations of this kind
are carried on too much under the sway of a preconceived notion
that some highly peculiar arrangement entirely different from
what we are practising nowadays — say sexual promiscuity or
communism in the treatment of property — must be made out
as a universal clue to earlier stages of development. Kohler's
occasional remarks on matters of method (e.g. Zeitschift fiir
vgl. Rechtswissenschaft, -an. 193 seq.) seem hardly adequate to
dispel this impression. But in his own work and in that of some
of his compeers and followers, J. E. Hitzig, Hellwig, Max Huber,
R. Dareste, more exact forms and means of inquiry are gradually
put into practice, and the results testify to a distinct heightening
of the scientific standard in this group of studies on comparative
jurisprudence. Especially conspicuous in this respect are
three tendencies: (a) the growing disinclination to accept super-
ficial analysis between phenomena belonging to widely different
spheres of culture as necessarily produced by identical causes
(e.g. Darinsky's review of Kovalevsky's assumptions as to group
marriage among the Caucasian tribes, Z. fiir vgl. Rw., xiv. 151
seq.); (b) the selection of definite historical or ethnological terri-
tories for monographic inquiries, in the course of which arrange-
ments observed elsewhere are treated as suggestive material
for supplying gaps and starting possible explanations: Kohler's
own contributions have been mainly of this kind; (c) the treat-
ment of selected subjects by an intensive legal analysis, bringing
out the principles underlying one or the other rule, its possible
differentiation, the means of its application in practice, &c. :
Hellwig's monograph on the right of sanctuary in savage com-
munities (Das Asylrechl der Naturviilker) may be named in illus-
tration of this analytical tendency. Altogether, there can be no
doubt that the stage has been reached by comparative juris-
prudence when, after a hasty, one might almost say a voracious
consumption of materials, investigators begin to strive towards
careful sifting of evidence and a conscious examination of
methods and critical rules which have to be followed in order
JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE
to make the investigations undertaken in this line worthy of their
scientific aims. Until the latter has been done many students,
whose trend of thought would seem to lead them naturally into
this domain, may be repelled by the uncritical indistinctness
with which mere analogies are treated as elusive proofs by some
of the representatives of the comparative school. F. W. Mait-
land, for instance, was always kept back by such considerations.
7. It is desirable, in conclusion, to review the entire domain
of comparative jurisprudence, and to formulate the chief prin-
ciples of method which have to be taken into consideration in
the course of this study. It is evident, to begin with, that a
scientific comparison of facts must be directed towards two aims
— towards establishing and explaining similarity, and towards
enumerating and explaining differences. As a matter of fact
the same material may be studied from both points of view,
though logically these are two distinct processes.
(a) Now at this initial stage we have already to meet a diffi-
culty and to guard against a misconception: we have namely
to reckon with the plurality of causes, and are therefore debarred
from assuming that wherever similar phenomena are forth-
coming they are always produced by identical causes. Death
may be produced by various agents — by sickness, by poison, by
a blow. The habit of wearing mourning upon the death of a
relation is a widespread habit, and yet it is not always to be
ascribed to real or supposed grief and the wish to express it in
one's outward get-up. Savage people are known to go into
mourning in order to conceal themselves from the terrible spirit
of the dead which would recognize them in their everyday cos-
tume (Jhering, Der Zweck im Recht, 2nd ed., 1884-1886). This is
certainly a momentous difficulty at the start, but it can be greatly
reduced and guarded against in actual investigation. In the
example taken we are led to suppose different origin because
we are informed as to the motives of the external ceremony, and
thus we are taught to look not only to bare facts, but to the
psychological environment in which they appear. And it is
evident that the greater the complexity of observed phenomena,
the more they are made up of different elements welded into one
sum, the less probability there is that we have to do with conse-
quences derived from different causes. The recurrence of group-
marriage in Australia and among the Red Indians of North
America can in no way be explained by the working of entirely
different agencies. And it may be added that in most cases of
an analysis of social institutions the limits of human probability
and reasonable assumption do not coincide with mathematical
possibility in any sense. When we register our facts and causes
in algebraic forms, marking the first with a, b, c, and the latter
with x, y, z, we are apt to demand a degree of precision which is
hardly ever to be met with in dealing with social facts and
causes. Let us rest content with reasonable inferences and
probable explanations.
(b) The easiest way of explaining a given similarity is by
attributing it to a direct loan. The process of reception, of the
borrowing of one people from the other, plays a most notable
part in the history of institutions and ideas. The Japanese
have in our days engrafted many European institutions on their
perfectly distinct civilization; the Germans have used for cen-
turies what was termed euphemistically the Roman law of the
present time (heutiges romisches Recht}; the Romans absorbed
an enormous amount of Greek and Oriental law in their famous
jurisprudence. A check upon explanation by direct loan will,
of course, lie in the fact that two societies are entirely discon-
nected, so that it comes to be very improbable that one drew its
laws from the other. Although migrations of words, legends,
beliefs, charms, have been shown by Theodor Benfey and his
school to range over much wider areas than might be supposed
on the face of it, still, in the case of law, in so far as it has to
regulate material conditions, the limits have perhaps to be drawn
rather narrowly. In any case we shall not look to India in order
to explain the burning of widows among the negroes of Africa;
the suttee may be the example of this custom which happens
to be most familiar to us, but it is certainly not the only root of
it on the surface of the earth.
It is much more difficult to make out the share of direct
borrowing in the case of peoples who might conceivably have in-
fluenced one another. A hard and fast rule cannot be laid down
in such cases, and everything depends on the weighing of evidence
and sometimes on almost instinctive estimates. The use of a
wager for the benefit of the tribunal in the early procedure of the
Romans and Greeks, the sacramentum and the irpwavtia, with
a similar growth of the sum laid down by the parties in proportion
to the interests at stake, has been explained by a direct borrow-
ing by the Romans from the Greeks at the time of the Twelve
Tables legislation (Hofmann, Beitriige zur Geschichle des
griechischen und romischen Rechts). No direct proof is available
for this hypothesis, and the question in dispute ttiight have
lain for ever between this explanation and that based on the
analogous development in the two closely related branches
of law. The further study of the legal antiquities of other
branches of the Aryan race leads one to suppose, however, that
we have actually to do with the latter and not with the former
eventuality. Why should the popular custom of the Vzddnl in
Bohemia (Kapras, " Das Pfandrecht in altbohmischen Land-
recht," Z. fiir vgl. R.-wissenschaft, xvii. 424 seq.), regulating the
wager of litigation in the case of two parties submitting their
dispute to the decision of a public tribunal, turn out to be so
similar to the Greek and the Roman process? And the Teutonic
Wedde would further countenance the view that we have to
do in this case with analogous expediency or, possibly, common
origin, not loans. But while dwelling on considerations which
may disprove the assumption of direct loans, we must not omit to
mention circumstances that may render such an assumption the
best available explanation for certain points of similarity. We
mean especially the recurrence of special secondary traits not
deducible from the nature of the relations compared. Termino-
logical parallels are especially convincing in such cases. An
example of most careful linguistic investigation attended by
important results is presented by W. Thomsen's treatment of
the affinities between the languages and cultures of the peoples
of northern and eastern Europe. Taking the indications in
regard to the influence of Germanic tribes on Finns and Lapps,
we find, for instance, that the Finnish race has stood for some
1500 or 2000 years under " the influence of several Germanic
languages — partly of a more ancient form of Gothic than that
represented by Ulfilas, partly of a northern (Scandinavian)
tongue and even possibly of a common Gothic-northern ohej"
The importance of these linguistic investigations for our subject
becomes apparent when we find that a series of most important
legal and political terms has been imported from Teutonic into
Finnish. For example, the Finnish Kuningas, " king," comes
from a Germanic root illustrated by O. Norse konung, O. H. Ger.
chuning,A.-S.cyning,Goth.thiudans. The Finnish valla," power,"
" authority," is of Germanic origin, as shown by O. N. void,
Goth, valdan. The Finnish kihla, a compact secured by solemn
promise, is akin with O. N. gisl, A.-S. glsel, O. H. Ger. glsal,
" hostage." The explanation for Finnish vuokra, "interest,"
"usury," is to be found in Gothic vokrs, O. N. okr,Gei. Wucher, &c.
(W. Thomsen, Uber den Einfluss der germanischen Sprachen auf
die Finnisch-lappischen, trans. E. Sievers, 1870, p. 166 seq.:
cf. W. Thomsen, The Relations between Ancient Russia and Scan-
dinavia and the Origin of the Russian State, p. 127 seq.; Miklosich,
" Die Fremdworter in den slavischen Sprachen," Denkschriften
der Wiener Akademie, Ph, hist. Klasse, XV.).
(c) The next group of analogies is formed by cases which
may be reduced to common origin. In addition to what has
already been said on the subject in connexion with the literature
of the historical school, we must point out that in the case of
kindred peoples this form of derivation has, of course, to be
primarily considered. This is especially the case when we have
to deal with the original stock of cultural notions of a race,
and when analogies in the framing and working of institutions
and legal rules are supported by linguistic affinities. The testi-
mony of the Aryan languages in regard to terms denoting
family organization and relationship can in no way be dis-
regarded, whatever our view may be about the most primitive
586
JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE
stages of development in this respect. The fact that the common
stock of Aryan languages and of Aryan legal customs points to
a patriarchal organization of the family may be regarded
as established, and it is certainly an important fact drawn
from a very ancient stage of human history, although there
are indications that still more primitive formations may be
discovered.
Inferences in the direction of common origin become more
doubtful when we argue, not that certain facts proceed from
a common stock of notions embodied in the early culture of a
race before it was broken up into several branches, but that
they have to be accounted for as instances of a similar treatment
of legal problems by different peoples of the same ethnic family.
The only thing that can be said in such a case is that, methodi-
cally, the customs of kindred nations have the first claim to
comparison. It is evident that in dealing with blood feud,
composition for homicide, and the like, among the Germans or
Slavs, the evidence of other Aryan tribes has to be primarily
studied. But it is by no means useless for the investigator of these
problems to inform himself about the aspect of such customs
in the life of nations of other descent, and especially of savage
tribes. The motives underlying legal rules in this respect are
to a large extent suggested by feelings and considerations which
are not in any way peculiarly Aryan, and may be fully illustrated
from other sources, as has been done e.g. in Steinmetz's Origins
of Punishment.
(d) This leads to the consideration of what maybe called discon-
nected analogies. They are instructive in so far as they go back,
not to any continuous development, but to the fundamental,
psychological and logical unity of human nature. In similar
circumstances human beings are likely to solve the same problems
in the same way. Take a rather late and special case. In the
Anglo-Saxon laws of Ine, a king who lived in the yth century,
it is enacted that no landowner should be allowed to claim per-
sonal labour service from his tenants unless he provides them
not merely with land, but with their homesteads. Now an
exactly similar rule is found in the statement of rural by-laws
to be enforced on great domains in Africa, which had been taken
over by the imperial fiscus — the Lex Manciana (cf. Schulten,
Lex manciana). There is absolutely no reason for assuming
a- direct transference of the rule from one place to the other:
it reflects considerations of natural equity which in both cases
were directed against similar encroachments of powerful land-
owners on a dependent peasant population. In both instances
government interfered to draw the line between the payment
of rent and the performance of labour, and fastened on the
same feature to fix the limit, namely, on the difference between
peasants living in their own homes and those who had been
settled by the landowner on his farms. Of such analogies,
the study of savage life presents a great number, e.g. the widely
spread practices of purification by ordeal (H. C. Lea, Superstition
and Force).
(e) Organizing thought always seeks to substitute order for
chaotic variety. Observations as to disconnected analogies lead
to attempts to systematize them from some comprehensive point
of view. These attempts may take the shape of a theory
of consecutive stages of development. Similar facts appear over
and over again in ethnological and antiquarian evidence,
because all peoples and tribes, no matter what their race and
geographical position, go through the same series of social
arrangements. This is the fundamental idea which directed
the researches of Maine, McLennan, Morgan, Post, Kohler,
although each of these scholars formulated his sequence of
stages in a peculiar way. McLennan, for instance, puts the idea
referred to in the following words: —
" In short, it is suggested to us) that the history of human society
is that of a development following very slowly one general law, and
that the variety of forms of life — of domestic and civil institution
— is ascribable mainly to the unequal development of the different
sections of mankind. . . . The first thing to be done is to inform
ourselves of the facts relating to the least developed races. To begin
with them is to begin with history at the farthest-back point of
time to which, except by argument and inference, we can reach.
Their condition, as it may to-day be observed, is truly the most
ancient condition of man (Studies in Ancient History, and series,
9, 15)-
On this basis we might draw up tables of consecutive stages,
of which the simplest may be taken from Post :—
"Four types of organization: the tribal, the territorial, the
seignorial, and the social. The first has as its basis marriage and
relationship by blood; the second, neighbouring occupation of a
district; the third, patronage relations between lord and dependants;
the fourth, social intercourse and contractual relations between
individual personalities " (Post, Grundriss, i. 14).
This may be supplemented from Friedrichs in regard to
initial stages of family organization. He reckons four stages of
this kind: promiscuity, loose relations, matriarchal family,
patriarchal family, modern, bilateral family (Z. /. vgl. R.
wissenschaft) . This mode of grouping similar phenomena as a
sequence of stages leads to a conception of universal history of a
peculiar kind. And as such it has been realized and advocated
by Kohler (see e.g. his article in Helmolt's World's History,
Eng. trans, i.). Prompted by this conception several represen-
tatives of comparative jurisprudence have found no difficulty
to insert such a peculiar institution as group-marriage into the
general and obligatory course of legal evolution. It is to be
noticed, however, that Kohler himself has entered a distinct
protest against McLennan's and Post's view that the more
rudimentary a people's culture is, the more archaic it is,
and the earlier it has to be placed in the natural sequence
of evolution. This would create difficulties in the case of tribes
of exceedingly low culture, like the Ceylon Veddahs, who live in
monogamous and patriarchal groups. According to Kohler's
view, neither the mere fact of a low standard of culture, nor the
fact that a certain legal custom precedes another in some cases
in point of time, settles the natural sequence of development.
The process of development must be studied in cases when it is
sufficiently clear, gaps in other cases have to be supplied
accordingly, and the working together of distinct institutions,
especially in cases when there is no ethnic connexion, has to
be especially noticed. These are counsels of perfection, but
Kohler's own example shows sufficiently that it is not easy to
follow them to the letter. One thing is, however, clearly
indicated by these and similar criticisms; it is, at the least,
premature to sketch anything like a course of universal develop-
ment for legal history. We have grave doubts whether the
time will ever come for laying down any single course of that
kind. The attempts made hitherto have generally led to over-
stating the value of certain parts of the evidence and to squeezing
special traits into a supposed general course of evolution.
(/) Another group of thinkers is therefore content to systema-
tize and explain the material from the point of view, not of
universal history, but of correspondence to economic stages and
types. This is, as we have seen, the leading idea in Dargun's or
Hildebrand's investigations. It is needless to go into the ques-
tion of the right or wrong of particular suggestions made by these
writers. The place assigned to individualism and collectivism
may be adequate or not; how far can be settled only by special
inquiries. But the general trend of study initiated in this direc-
tion is certainly a promising one, if only one consideration of
method is well kept in view. Investigators ought to be very
chary of laying down certain combinations as the necessary
outcome of certain economic situations. Such combinations or
consequences certainly exist; pastoral husbandry, the life of
scattered hunting groups, the conditions of agriculturists under
feudal rule, certainly contain elements which will recur in divers
ethnical surroundings. But we must not forget a feature which is
constantly before our eyes in real life: namely, that different
minds and characters will draw different and perhaps opposite
conclusions in exactly similar outward conditions. This may
happen in identical or similar geographical environment; let us
only think of ancient Greeks and Turks on the Balkan peninsula,
or of ancient Greeks and modern Greeks for that matter. But
even the same historical medium leaves, as a rule, scope for
treatment of legal problems on divers lines. Take systems of
succession. They exercise the most potent influence on the
JURJANI— JURY
587
structure and life of society. Undivided succession, whether
in the form of primogeniture or in that of junior right, sacrifices
equity and natural affection to the economic efficiency of estates.
Equal-partition rules, like gavelkind or parage, lead in an exactly
opposite direction. And yet both sets of rules co-existed among
the agriculturists of feudal England; communities placed in
nearly identical historical positions followed one or the other
of these rules. The same may be said of type's of dwelling and
forms of settlement. In other words, it is not enough to start
from a given economic condition as if it were bound to regulate
with fatalistic precision all the incidents of legal custom and
social intercourse. We have to start from actual facts as
complex results of many causes, and to try to reduce as much as
we can of this material to the action of economic forces in a
particular stage or type of development.
(g) The psychological diversities of mankind in dealing
with the same or similar problems of food and property, of
procreation and marriage, of common defence and relationship,
of intercourse and contrast, &c., open another possibility for
the grouping of facts and the explanation of their evolution.
It may be difficult or impossible to trace the reasons and causes
of synthetic combinations in the history of society. That is, we
can hardly go beyond noting that certain disconnected features of
social life appear together and react on each other. But it is
easier and more promising to approach the mass of our material
from the analytical side, taking hold of certain principles,
or rules, or institutions, and tracing them to their natural
consequences either through a direct systematization of re-
corded facts or, when these fail, through logical inferences.
Some of the most brilliant and useful work in the historical
study of law has been effected on these lines. Mommsen's
theory of Roman magistracy, Jhering's theory of the struggle
for right, Kohler's view of the evolution of contract, &c., have
been evolved by such a process of legal analysis; and, even when
such generalizations have to be curtailed or complicated later
on, they serve their turn as a powerful means of organizing
evidence and suggesting reasonable explanations. The attribute
of " reasonableness " has to be reckoned with largely in such
cases. Analytical explanations are attractive to students
because they substitute logical clearness for irrational accumula-
tion of traits and facts. They do so to a large extent through
appeals to the logic and to the reason common to us and to
the people we are studying. This deductive element has to
be closely watched and tested from the side of a concrete study
of the evidence, but it seems destined to play a very prominent
part in the comparative history of law, because legal analysis
and construction have at all times striven to embody logic
and equity in the domain of actual interests and forces. And,
as we have seen in our survey of the literature of the subject,
recent comparative studies tend to make the share of juridical
analysis in given relative surroundings larger and larger. What
is so difficult of attainment to single workers— a harmonious
appreciation of the combined influences of common origin, re-
ception of foreign custom, recurring psychological combinations,
the driving forces of economic culture and of the dialectical
process of legal thought, will be achieved, it may be hoped, by
the enthusiastic and brotherly exertions of all the workers in
the field.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Of the principal works of reference may be
mentioned: Zeitschrift fur vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft, edited by
Bernhoft, Cohn and Kohler (1878- ) ; Nouvelle revue historique de
droit franfais et etranger, edited by Dareste.Esmein, Appert, Fournier,
Tardiff and Prou (1877- ); A. Pictet, Les Origines indo-euro-
peennes (i. 1859, ii. 1863) ; Fustel de Coulanges.La Citeantique (1890) ;
W. E. Hearn, The Aryan Household (1879); R. v. Jhering, Vor-
geschichte der Indoeuropaer (1894) ; B.W.Leist,GraekoitalischeRechts-
geschichte ( 1 884) , A ll-arisches Jus Gentium ( 1 889) ,A It-arischesJusCivile
(1892-1896) ; Hruza, Geschichte des griechischen und romischen Fami-
lienrechtes (1893); O. Schrader, Urgeschichte und Sprachvergleichung
(1890), Reallexikon des indo-germanischen Altertumskunde (1901);
B. Delbruck, Die indo-germanischen Verwandtschaftsnamen (1889),
Das Mutterrecht bei den Indogermanen; Sir H. S. Maine, Ancient Law,
with notes by Sir F. Pollock (1906), Village Communities (1871),
Early History of Institutions (1875), Early Law and Custom (1883) ;
M. H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, Etudes de droit cellique (1895), La
Famille celtique (1905); J. J. Bachofen, Das Mutterrecht (1861),
Antiquarische Brief e (1880); J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient
History (1876), Patriarchal Theory (1885), Studies in Ancient History
(2nd series, 1896) ; Giraud Teulon, Origines de la famille et du manage
(1884) ; L. H. Morgan, " Systems of Consanguinity " in the publica-
tions of the Smithsonian Institution, vol. xvii. (1869) ; Ancient Society
(1877); E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (1871); Lord Avebury (Sir J.
Lubbock), Origin of Civilization (1870); J. Lippert, Kulturgeschichte
der Menschheit (1887); W. Robertson Smith, Kinship and Marriage
in Arabia (1885) ; F. Bernhoft, Staat und Recht der romischen Konigszeit
im Verhdllniss zu verwandlen Rechten (1882); A. H. Post, Aufgaben
finer allgemeinen Rechtswissenschaft (1891), Die Anfange des Staats-
und Rechtslebens (1878), Bausleine einer allgemeinen Rechtsgeschichte
auf vergleichend-ethnologischer Basis ( 1 88 1 ) , Einleitung in das Studium
der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz (1886), Grundlagen des Rechls und
Grundzuge seiner Entwickelungsgeschichle (1882), Studien zur Ent-
wickelungsgeschichte des Familienrechts (1889), Afrikanische Juris-
prudenz (1887), Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz (1894);
Wilken, Das Matriarchal im alien Arabien (1884) ; M. M. Kovalevsky,
Coutume contemporaine et loi ancienne (1893), Geselz und Gewohnheit
im Kaukasus (1890), Tableau du developpement de la famille et de la
propriete (1889); Dargun, "Mutterrecht und Raubehe," in Otto
Gierke's Untersuchungen zur deulschen Stoats- und Rechtsgeschichte
( 1 883) ; R. Hildebrand, Das Problem einer allgemeinen Entwickelungs-
geschichte des Rechls und der Sitte (1894), Recht und Sitte auf den
verschiedenen wirlschaftlichen Kulturstufen (1896); E. Grosse, Die
Formen der Familie und der Wirlschaft (1896); E. A. Westermarck,
History of Human Marriage (1894), The Origin and Development of the
Moral Ideas (1906); C. N. Starcke, Die primitive Familie (1888);
G. Tarde, Les Transformations du droit (2nd ed., 1894); Steinmetz,
Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwickelung der Strafe (1894) ;
J. Kohler, Das Recht als Kulturerscheinung: Einleitung in die ver-
gleichende Rechtswissenschaft (1885), Shakespeare vor dem Forum der
Jurisprudenz (1884), " Das chinesische Strafrecht," Beitrag zur Uni-
versalgeschichte des Slrafrechls (1886), Rechtsvergleichende Studien iiber
islamitisches Recht, Recht der Berbern, chinesisches Recht und Recht auf
Ceylon (1889), Altindisches Prozessrecht (1892), Zur Urgeschichte der
Ehe (1897), Kulturrechte des Alien Amerikas, das Recht der Azteken
(1892), Das Negerrecht (1895) ; Kohler and Peisker, Aus dem babylon-
ischen Rechtsleben (1890), Hammurubi's Geselz (1904); A. Lang, 'The
Secret of the Totem (1905) ; P. J. H. Grierson, The Silent Trade (1903) ;
J. G. Frazer, Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship (1905);
R. Dareste, Etudes d'histoire de droit (1889), Nouvelles etudes d'hisloire
de droit (1896); Lambert, La Fonction du droit civil compare (1903);
Fritz Hommel, Semitische Alterlhumskunde (Eng. trans., The
Ancient Hebrew Tradition as illustrated by the Monuments, 1897);
H. C. Lea, Superstition and Force (1866) ; A. Hellwig, Das Asylrecht
der Naturvolker (Berliner juristische Beitrage, 1893); F. Seebohm,
Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law (1902). (P. Vi.)
JURJANI, the name of two Arabic scholars.
1. ABU BAKR "ABDU-L-QAHIR IBN 'ABDUR-RAHMAN UL-
JURJAN! (d. 1078,) Arabian grammarian, belonged 'to the
Persian school and wrote a famous grammar, the Kitab ul-
'Awamil ul-Mi'a or Kitab Mi' at 'Amil, which was edited by
Erpenius (Leiden, 1617), by Baillie (Calcutta, 1803), and by
A. Lockett (Calcutta, 1814). Ten Arabic commentaries on this
work exist in MS., also two Turkish. It has been versified five
times and translated into Persian. Another of his grammatical
works on which several commentaries have been written is the
Kitab Jumal fin-Nahw.
For other works see C. Brockelmann's Gesch. der Arabischen
Litteratur (1898), i. 288.
2. 'ALI IBN MAHOMMED UL-JURJANI (1330-1414), Arabian
encyclopaedic writer, was born near Astarabad and became
professor in Shlraz. When this city was plundered by Tlmur
(1387) he removed to Samarkand, but returned to Shlraz in 1405,
and remained there until his death. Of his thirty-one extant
works, many being commentaries on other works, one of the best
known is the Ta'rif at (Definitions), which was edited by G. Fliigel
(Leipzig, 1845), published also in Constantinople (1837), Cairo
(1866, &c.), and St Petersburg (1897). (G. W. T.)
JURY, in English law, a body of laymen summoned and
sworn (jurati) to ascertain, under the guidance of a judge, the
truth as to questions of fact raised in legal proceedings whether
civil or criminal. The development of the system of trial by
jury has been regarded as one of the greatest achievements of
English jurisprudence; it has even been said that the ultimate
aim of the English constitution is " to get twelve good men into
a box." l In modern times the English system of trial by jury
1 I.e. the jury-box, or enclosed space in which the jurors sit in
court.
588
JURY
has been adopted in many countries in which jury trial was not
native or had been strangled or imperfectly developed under
local conditions.
The origin of the system in England has been much investi-
gated by lawyers and historians. The result of these investiga-
tions is a fairly general agreement that the germ of jury trial
is to be found in the Prankish inquest (recognitio or inquisitio)
transplanted into England by the Norman kings. The essence
of this inquest was the summoning of a body of neighbours by a
public officer to give answer upon oath (recognoscere veritalem)
on some question of fact or law (jus), or of mixed fact and law.
At the outset the object of the inquiry was usually to obtain
information for the king, e.g. to ascertain facts needed for
assessing taxation. Indeed Domesday Book appears to be made
up by recording the answers of inquests.
The origin of juries is very fully discussed in W. Forsyth's
History of Trial by Jury (1852), and the various theories advanced
are rnOre concisely stated in W. Stubbs's Constitutional History
(vol. i.) and in E. A. Freeman's Norman Conquest (vol. v.).
Until the modern examination of historical documents proved
the contrary, the jury system, like all other institutions, was
popularly regarded as the work of a single legislator, and in
England it has been usually assigned to Alfred the Great. This
supposition is without historical foundation, nor is it correct to
regard the jury as " copied from this or that kindred institution
to be found in this or that German of Scandinavian land," or
brought over ready made by Hengist or by William.1 " Many
writers of authority," says Stubbs, " have maintained that the
entire jury system is indigenous in England, some deriving it
from Celtic tradition based on the principles of Roman law, and
adopted by the Anglo-Saxons and Normans from the people
they had conquered. Others have regarded it as a product of
that legal genius of the Anglo-Saxons of which Alfred is the
mythical impersonation, or, as derived by that nation from the
customs of primitive Germany or from their intercourse with
the Danes. Nor even when it is admitted that the system
of ' recognition ' was introduced from Normandy have legal
writers agreed as to the source from which the Normans them-
selves derive'd it. One scholar maintains that it was brought
by the Norsemen from Scandinavia; another that it was derived
from the processes of the canon law ; another that it was developed
on Gallic soil from Roman principles; another that it came
from Asia through the crusades," or was borrowed by the
Angles and Saxons from their Slavonic neighbours in northern
Europe. The true answer is that forms of trial resembling the
jury system in various particulars are to be found in the primitive
institutions of all nations. That which comes nearest in time
and character to trial by jury is the system of recognition by
sworn inquest, introduced into England by the Normans.
" That inquest," says Stubbs, " is directly derived from the
Frank capitularies, into which it may have been adopted from
the fiscal regulations of the Theodosian code, and thus own some
distant relationship with the Roman jurisprudence." However
that may be, the system of " recognition " consisted in questions
of fact, relating to fiscal or judicial business, being submitted
by the officers of the crown to sworn witnesses in the local
courts.«r Freeman points out that the Norman rulers of England
were obliged, more than native rulers would have been, to rely
on this system for accurate information. They needed to have
a clear and truthful account of disputed points set before them,
and such an account was sought for in the oaths of the recog-
nitors.2 The Norman conquest, therefore, fostered the growth
of those native germs common to England with other countries
out of which the institution of juries grew. Recognition, as
introduced by the Normans, is only, in this point of view,
another form of the same principle which shows itself in the
compurgators, in the frith-borh (frank-pledge), in every detail of
the action of the popular courts before the conquest. Admitting
i ' Freeman, Norman Conquest, v, 451.
1 This fact would account for the remarkable development of the
system on English ground, as contrasted with its decay and extinction
in France.
with Stubbs that the Norman recognition was the instrument
which the lawyers in England ultimately shaped into trial by
jury, Freeman maintains none the less that the latter is dis-
tinctively English. Forsyth comes to substantially the same
conclusion. Noting the jury germs of the Anglo-Saxon period,
he shows how out of those elements, which continued in full
force under the Anglo-Normans, was produced at last the
institution of the jury. " As yet it was only implied in the
requirement that disputed questions should be determined by
the voice of sworn witnesses taken from the neighbourhood, and
deposing to the truth of what they had seen or heard." The
conclusions of Sir F. Pollock and F.W. Maitland, expressed in
their History of English Law, and based on a closer study, are to
the same effect.
This inquest then was a royal institution and not a survival
from Anglo-Saxon law or popular custom, under which corn-
purgation and the ordeal were the accepted modes of trying
issues of fact.
The inquest by recognition, formerly an inquest of office, i.e. to
ascertain facts in the interests of the crown or the exchequer,
was gradually allowed between subjects as a mode of settling
disputes of fact. This extension began with the assize of novel
disseisin, whereby the king protected by royal writ and inquest
of neighbours every seisin of a freehold. This was followed by
the grand assize, applicable to questions affecting freehold or
status. A defendant in such an action was enabled by an
enactment of Henry II. to decline trial by combat and choose
trial by assize, which was conducted as follows. The sheriff
summoned four knights of the neighbourhood, who being sworn
chose the twelve lawful knights most cognisant of the facts, to
determine on their oaths which had the better right to the land.
If they all knew the facts and were agreed as to their verdict,
well and good; if some or all were ignorant, the fact was certified
in court, and new knights were named, urtil twelve were found
to be agreed. The same course was followed when the twelve
were not unanimous. New knights were added until the twelve
were agreed. This was called afforcing the assize. At this
time the knowledge on which the jurors acted was their own
personal knowledge, acquired independently of the trial. " So
entirely," says Forsyth, " did they proceed upon their own
previously formed view of the facts in dispute that they seem
to have considered themselves at liberty to pay no attention to
evidence offered in court, however clearly it might disprove the
case which they were prepared to support." The use of recogni-
tion is prescribed by the constitutions of Clarendon (1166) for
cases of dispute as to lay or clerical tenure. See Forsyth, p. 131;
Stubbs, i. 617.
This procedure by the assize was confined to real actions, and
while it preceded, it is not identical with the modern jury trial
in civil cases, which was gradually introduced by consent of the
parties and on pressure from the judges. Jury trial proper
differs from the grand and petty assizes in that the assizes were
summoned at the same time as the defendant to answer a
question formulated in the writ; whereas in the ordinary jury
trial no order for a jury could be made till the parties by their
pleadings had come to an issue of fact and had put themselves
on the country, posuerunt se super patriam (Pollock and Mait-
land, i. 110-128; ii. 601, 615, 621).
The Grand Jury. — In Anglo-Saxon times there was an institu-
tion analogous to the grand jury in criminal cases, viz. the twelve
senior thegns, who, according to an ordinance of jEthelred II.,
were sworn in the county court that they would accuse no
innocent man and acquit no guilty one. The twelve thegns
were a jury of presentment or accusation, like the grand jury of
later times, and the absolute guilt or innocence of those accused
by them had to be determined by subsequent proceedings — by
compurgation or ordeal. Whether this is the actual origin of
the grand jury or not, the assizes of Clarendon (1166) and
Northampton (1176) establish the criminal jury on a definite
basis.
In the laws of Edward the Confessor and the earlier Anglo-
Saxon kings are found many traces of a public duty to bring
JURY
589
offenders to justice, by hue and cry, or by action of the frith-
borh, township, tithing or hundred. By the assize of Clarendon
it is directed that inquiry be made in each county and in each
hundred by twelve lawful (legaliores) men of the hundred, and
by four lawful men from each of the four vills nearest to the
scene of the alleged crime, on oath to tell the truth if in the
hundred or vill there is any man accused (rettatus aut publicatus)
as a robber or murderer or thief, or receiver of such. The assize
of Northampton added forgery of coin or charters (Jalsonaria)
and arson. The inquiry is to be held by the justices in eyre,
and by the sheriffs in their county courts. On a finding on the
oath aforesaid, the accused was to be taken and to go to the
ordeal. By the articles of visitation of 1194, four knights are
to be chosen from the county who by their oath shall choose
two lawful knights of each hundred or wapentake, or, if knights
be wanting, free and legal men, so that the twelve may answer
for all matters within the hundred, including, says Stubbs, " all
the pleas of the crown, the trial of malefactors and their receivers,
as well as a vast amount of civil business." The process thus
described is now regarded as an employment of the Prankish
inquest for the collection of fama publica. It was alternative to
the rights of a private accuser by appeal, and the inquest were
not exactly either accusers or witnesses, but gave voice to public
repute as to the criminality of the persons whom they presented.
From this form of inquest has developed the grand jury of pre-
sentment or accusation, and the coroner's inquest, which works
partly as a grand jury as to homicide cases, and partly as an
inquest of office as to treasure trove, &c.
The number of the grand jury is fixed by usage at not less than
twelve nor more than twenty-three jurors. Unanimity is not
required, but twelve must concur in the presentment or indict-
ment. l This jury retains so much of its ancient character that
it may present of its own knowledge or information, and is not
tied down by rules of evidence. After a general charge by the
judge as to the bills of indictment on the file of the court, the
grand jury considers the bills in private and hears upon oath in
the grand jury chamber some or all the witnesses called in support
of an indictment whose names are endorsed upon the bill. It
does not as a rule hear counsel or solicitors for the prosecution,
nor does it see or hear the accused or his witnesses, and it is not
concerned with the nature of the defence, its functions being to
ascertain whether there is a prima facie case against the accused
justifying his trial. If it thinks that there is such a case, the
indictment is returned into court as a true bill; if it thinks that
there is not, the bill is ignored and returned into court torn up or
marked " no bill," or " ignoramus." Inasmuch as no man can
be put on trial for treason or felony, and few are tried for mis-
demeanour, without the intervention of the grand jury, the latter
has a kind of veto with respect to criminal prosecutions. The
grand jurors are described in the indictment as " the jurors for
our lord the king." As such prosecutions in respect of indictable
offences are now in almost all cases begun by a full preliminary
inquiry before justices, and inasmuch as cases rarely come before
a grand jury until after committal of the accused for trial, the
present utility of the grand jury depends very much on the
character of the justices' courts. As a review of the discretion
of stipendiary magistrates in committing cases for trial, the
intervention of the grand jury is in most cases superfluous; and
even when the committing justices are not lawyers, it is now a
common opinion that their views as to the existence of a case
to be submitted to a jury for trial should not be over-ridden by
a lay tribunal sitting in private, and in this opinion many grand
jurors concur. But the abolition of the grand jury would involve
great changes in criminal procedure for which parliament seems
to have no appetite. Forsyth thinks that the grand jury will
often baffle " the attempts of malevolence " by ignoring a
malicious and unfounded prosecution; but it may also defeat
the ends of justice by shielding a criminal with whom it has
1 Blackstone puts the principle as being that no man shall be
convicted except by the unanimous voice of twenty-four of his
equals or neighbours — twelve on the grand, and twelve on the petty
jury.
strong political or social sympathies. The qualification of the
grand jurymen is that they should be freeholders of the county —
to what amount appears to be uncertain — and they are sum-
moned by the sheriff, or failing him by the coroner.
The coroner's jury must by statute (1887) consist of not more
than twenty-three nor less than twelve jurors. It is summoned
by the coroner to hold an inquest super visum corporis in cases
of sudden or violent death, and of death in prisons or lunatic
asylums, and to deal with treasure trove. The qualification of
the coroner's jurors does not depend on the Juries Acts 1825 and
1870, and in practice they are drawn from householders in the
immediate vicinity of the place where the inquest is held.
Unanimity is not required of a coroner's jury; but twelve must
concur in the verdict. If it charges anyone with murder or
manslaughter, it is duly recorded and transmitted to a court of
assize, and has the same effect as an indictment by a grand
jury, i.e. it is accusatory only and is not conclusive, and is
traversable, and the issue of guilt or innocence is tried by a
petty jury.
The Petty Jury. — The ordeal by water or fire was used as the
final test of guilt or innocence until its abolition by decree of the
Lateran council (1219). On its abolition it became necessary
to devise a new mode of determining guilt as distinguished from
ill fame as charged by the grand jury. So early as 1221 accused
persons had begun to put themselves on the country, or to pay
to have a verdict for " good or ill "; and the trial seems to have
been by calling for the opinions of the twelve men and the four
townships, who may have been regarded as a second body of
witnesses who could traverse the opinion of the hundred jury.
(See Pollock and Maitland, ii. 646.) The reference tojudicium
parium in Magna Carta is usually taken to refer to the jury, but
it is clear that what is now known as the petty jury was not
then developed in its present form. " The history of that
institution is still in manuscript," says Maitland.
It is not at all clear that at the outset the trial by the country
(in pais; in patria) was before another and different jury. The
earliest instances look as if the twelve men and the four vills
were the patria and had to agree. But by the time of Edward I.
the accused seems to have been allowed to call in a second jury.
A person accused by the inquest of the hundred was allowed to
have the truth of the charge tried by another and different
jury.2 " There is," says Forsyth, " no possibility of assigning
a date to this alteration." " In the time of Bracton (middle of
the i3th century) the usual mode of determining innocence or
guilt was by combat or appeal. But in most cases the appellant
had the option of either fighting with his adversary or putting
himself on his country for trial " — the exceptions being murder
by secret poisoning, and certain circumstances presumed by the
law to be conclusive of guilt.1 But the separation must have
been complete by 1352, in which year it was enacted " that no
indictor shall be put in inquests upon deliverance of the indictees
of felonies or trespass if he be challenged for that same cause
by the indictee."
The jurors, whatever their origin, differed from the Saxon
doomsmen and the jurats of the Channel Islands in that they
adjudged nothing; and from compurgators or oath-helpers in
2 The distinction between the functions of the grand jury, which
presents or accuses criminals, and the petty jury, which tries them,
has suggested the theory that the system of compurgation is the
origin of the jury system — the first jury representing the compur-
gators of the accuser, the second the compurgators ofthe accused.
' Forsyth, 206. The number of the jury (twelve) is responsible
for some unfounded theories of the origin of the system. This use
of twelve is not confined to England, nor in England or elsewhere to
judicial institutions. " Its general prevalence," says Hallam (Middle
Ages, ch. viii.), " shows that in searching for the origin of trial by
jury we cannot rely for a moment upon any analogy which the mere
number affords." In a Guide to English Juries (1682), by a person
of quality (attributed to Lord Somers), the following passage
occurs: " In analogy of late the jury is reduced to the number of
twelve, like as the prophets were twelve to foretell the truth; the
apostles twelve to preach the truth; the discoverers twelve, sent
into Canaan to seek and report the truth; and the stones twelve
that the heavenly Hierusalem is built on." Lord Coke indulged
in similar speculations.
590 JURY
that they were not witnesses called by a litigant to support his
case (Pollock and Maitland, i. 118). Once established, the jury
of trial whether of actions or indictments developed on the same
lines. But at the outset this jury differed in one material
respect from the modern trial jury. The ancient trial jury
certify to the truth from their knowledge of the facts, however
acquired. In other words, they resemble witnesses or collectors
of local evidence or gossip rather than jurors. The complete
withdrawal of the witness character from the jury is connected
by Forsyth with the ancient rules of law as to proof of written
instruments, and a peculiar mode of trial per sectam. When a
deed is attested by witnesses, you have a difference between the
testimony of the witness, who deposes to the execution of the
deed, and the verdict of the jury as to the fact of execution. It
has been contended with much plausibility that in such cases
the attesting witnesses formed part of the jury. Forsyth doubts
that conclusion, although he admits that, as the jurors themselves
were originally mere witnesses, there was no distinction in
principle between them and the attesting witnesses, and that
the attesting witnesses might be associated with the jury in the
discharge of the function of giving a verdict. However that
may be, in the reign of Edward III., although the witnesses are
spoken of " as joined to the assize," they are distinguished from
the jurors. The trial per sectam was used as an alternative to
the assize or jury, and resembled in principle the system of
compurgation. The claimant proved his case by vouching a
certain number of witnesses (secta) , who had seen the transaction
in question, and the defendant rebutted the presumption thus
created by vouching a larger number of witnesses on his own
side. In cases in which this was allowed, the jury did not
interpose at all, but in course of time the practice arose of the
witnesses of the secta telling their story to the jury. In these
two instances we have the jury as judges of the facts sharply
contrasted with the witnesses who testify to the facts; and, with
the increasing use of juries and the development of rules of
evidence, this was gradually established as the true principle
of the system. In the reign of Henry IV. we find the judges
declaring that the jury after they have been sworn should not see
or take with them any other evidence than that which has been
offered in open court. But the personal knowledge of the
jurors was not as yet regarded as outside the evidence on which
they might found a verdict, and the stress laid upon the selection
of jurymen from the neighbourhood of the cause of the action
shows that this element was counted on, and, in fact, deemed
essential to a just consideration of the case. Other examples
of the same theory of the duties of the jury may be found in the
language used by legal writers. Thus it has been said that the
jury may return a verdict although no evidence at all be offered,
and again, that the evidence given in court is not binding on
the jury, because they are assumed from their local connexion
to be sufficiently informed of the facts to give a verdict without
or in opposition to the oral evidence. A recorder of London,
temp. Edward VI., says that, " if the witnesses at a trial do not
agree with the jurors, the verdict of the twelve shall be taken
and the witnesses shall be rejected." Forsyth suggests as a
reason for the continuance of this theory that it allowed the jury
an escape from the attaint, by which penalties might be imposed
on them for delivering a false verdict in a civil case. They
could suggest that the verdict was according to the fact, though
not according to the evidence.
In England the trial jury (also called petty jury or traverse
jury) consists of twelve jurors, except in the county court, where
the number is eight. In civil but not in criminal cases the trial
may by consent be by fewer than twelve jurors, and the verdict
may by consent be that of the majority. The rule requiring
a unanimous verdict has been .variously explained. Forsyth
regards the rule as intimately connected with the original
character of the jury as a body of witnesses, and with the
conception common in primitive society that safety is to be
found in the number of witnesses, rather than the character of
their testimony. The old notion seems to have been that to
justify an accusation, or to find a fact, twelve sworn men must
be agreed. The afforcing of the jury, already described, marks
an intermediate stage in the development. Where the juries
were not unanimous new jurors were added until twelve were
found to be of the same opinion. From the unanimous twelve
selected out of a large number to the unanimous twelve consti-
tuting the whole jury was a natural step, which, however, was
not taken without hesitation. In some old cases the verdict
of eleven jurors out of twelve was accepted, but it was decided
in the reign of Edward III. that the verdict must be the unani-
mous opinion of the whole jury. Diversity of opinion was taken
to imply perversity of judgment, and the law sanctioned the
application of the harshest methods to produce unanimity.
The jurors while considering their verdict were not allowed a
fire nor any refreshment, and it is said in some of the old books
that, if they failed to agree, they could be put in a cart and
drawn after the justices to the border of the county, and then
upset into a ditch. These rude modes of enforcing unanimity
has been softened in later practice, but in criminal cases the
rule of unanimity is still absolutely fixed.
In civil cases and in trials for misdemeanour, the jurors are
allowed to separate during adjournments and to return to their
homes; 'in .trials for treason, treason-felony and murder, the
jurors, once sworn, must not separate until discharged. But
by an act of 1897 jurors on trials for other felonies may be
allowed by the court to separate in the same way as on trials
for misdemeanour.
These rules do not apply to a jury which has retired to
consider its verdict. During the period of retirement it is under
the keeping of an officer of the court.
At common law aliens were entitled to be tried by a jury
de medietate linguae — half Englishmen, half foreigners, not neces-
sarily compatriots of the accused. This privilege was abolished
by the Naturalization Act 1870; but by the Juries Act 1870
aliens who have been domiciled in England or Wales for ten
years or upwards, if in other respects duly qualified, are liable
to jury service as if they were natural-born subjects (s. 8).
A jury of matrons is occasionally summoned, viz. on a writ
de venire inspiciendo, or where a female condemned to death
pleads pregnancy in stay of execution.
The jurors are selected from the inhabitants of the county,
borough or other area for which the court to which they are
summoned is commissioned to act. In criminal cases, owing to
the rules as to venue and that crime is to be tried in the neigh-
bourhood where it is committed, the mode of selection involves
a certain amount of independent local knowledge on the part
of the jurors. Where local prejudice has been aroused for or
against the accused, which is likely to affect the chance of a fair
trial, the proceedings may be removed to another jurisdiction,
and there are a good many offences in which by legislation the
accused may be tried where he is caught, irrespective of the
place where he is alleged to have broken the law. As regards
civil cases, a distinction was at an early date drawn between
local actions which must be tried in the district in which they
originated, and transitory actions which could be tried in any
county. These distinctions are now of no importance, as the
place of trial of a civil action is decided as a matter of procedure
and convenience, and regard is not necessarily paid to the place
at which a wrong was done or a contract broken.
The qualifications for, and exemptions from, service as a petty
juror are in the main contained in the Juries Acts 1825 and 1870,
though a number of further exemptions are added by scattered
enactments. The exemptions include members of the legislature
and judges, ministers of various denominations, and practising
barristers and solicitors, registered medical practitioners and
dentists, and officers and soldiers of the regular army. Persons,
over sixty are exempt but not disqualified. Lists of the jurors
are prepared by the overseers in rural parishes and by the town
clerks in boroughs, and are submitted to justices for revision.
When jurors are required for a civil or criminal trial they are
summoned by the sheriff or, if he cannot act, by the coroner.
Special and Common Juries. — For the purpose of civil trials in
the superior courts there are two lists of jurors, special and
JURY
591
common. The practice of selecting special jurors to try impor-
tant civil cases appears to have sprung up, without legislative
enactment, in the procedure of the courts. Forsyth says that
the first statutory recognition of it is so late as 3 Geo. II. c. 25,
and that in the oldest book of practice in existence (Powell's
Attourney's Academy, 1623) there is no allusion to two classes of
jurymen. The acts, however, which regulate the practice allude
to it as well established. The Juries Act 1870 (33 & 34 Viet.
c. 77) defines the class of persons entitled and liable to serve on
special juries thus: Every man whose name shall be on the
jurors' book for any county, &c., and who shall be legally
entitled to be called an esquire, or shall be a person of higher
degree, or a banker or merchant, or who shall occupy a house of
a certain rateable value (e.g. £100 in a town of 20,000 inhabitants,
£50 elsewhere), or a farm of £300 or other premises at £100.
A special juryman receives a fee of a guinea for each cause.
Either party may obtain an order for a special jury, but must
pay the additional expenses created thereby unless the judge
certifies that it was a proper case to be so tried. For the
common jury any man is qualified and liable to serve who has
£10 by the year in land or tenements of freehold, copyhold or
customary tenure; or £20 on lands or tenement held by lease
for twenty-one years or longer, or who being a householder is
rated at £30 in the counties of London and Middlesex, or £20
in any other county. A special jury cannot be ordered in cases
of treason or felony, and may be ordered in cases of misdemeanour
only when the trial is in the king's bench division of the High
Court, or the civil side at assizes.
Challenge. — It has always been permissible for the parties to
challenge the jurors summoned to consider indictments or to
try cases. Both in civil and criminal cases a challenge " for
cause " is allowed ; in criminal cases a peremptory challenge is
also allowed. Challenge " for cause " may be either to the
array, i.e. to the whole number of jurors returned, or to the polls,
i. e. to the jurors individually. A challenge to the array is either
a principal challenge (on the ground that the sheriff is a party
to the cause, or related to one of the parties), or a challenge for
favour (on the ground of circumstances implying " at least a
probability of bias or favour in the sheriff "). A challenge to
the polls is an exception to one or more jurymen on either of
the following grounds: (i) propter honoris respectum, as when
a lord of parliament is summoned; (2) propter defeclum, for want
of qualification; (3) propter affectum, on suspicion of bias or
partiality; and (4) propter delictum, when the juror has been
convicted of an infamous offence. The challenge propter
affectum is, like the challenge to the array, either principal
challenge or " to the favour. " In England as a general rule the
juror may be interrogated to show want of qualification; but in
other cases the person making the challenge must prove it
without questioning the juror, and the courts do not allow the
protracted examination on the yoir dire which precedes every
cause celebre in the United States. On indictments for treason
the accused has a right peremptorily to challenge thirty-five of
the jurors on the panel; in cases of felony the number is limited
to twenty, and in cases of misdemeanour there is no right
of peremptory challenge. The Crown has not now the right of
peremptory challenge and may challenge only for cause certain
(Juries Act 1825, s. 29). In the case of felony, on the first call
of the list jurors objected to by the Crown are asked to stand by,
and the cause of challenge need not be assigned by the Crown
until the whole list has-been perused or gone through, or unless
there remain no longer twelve jurors left to try the case, exclusive
of those challenged. This arrangement practically amounts to
giving the Crown the benefit of a peremptory challenge.
Function of Jury. — The jurors were originally the mouthpiece
of local opinion on the questions submitted to them, or witnesses
to fact as to such questions. They have now become the
judges of fact upon the evidence laid before them. Their
province is strictly limited to questions of fact, and within that
province they are still further restricted to matters proved by
evidence in the course of the trial and in theory must not act
upon their own personal knowledge and observation except so
far as it proceeds from what is called a " view " of the subject
matter of the litigation. Indeed it is now well established that
if a juror is acquainted with facts material to the case, he
should inform the court so that he may be dismissed from the
jury and called as a witness; and Lord Ellenborough ruled that
a judge would misdirect the jury if he told them that they might
reject the evidence and go by their own knowledge. The old
decantatum assigns to judge and jury their own independent
functions: Ad quaestionem legis respondent judices: ad quaes-
tionem facti juratores (Plowden, 114). But the independence
of the jurors as to matters of fact was from an early time
not absolute. In certain civil cases a litigant dissatisfied by
the verdict could adopt the procedure by attaint, and if the
attaint jury of twenty-four found that the first jury had given a
false verdict, they were fined and suffered the villainous judg-
ment. Attaints fell into disuse on the introduction about 1665
of the practice of granting new trials when the jury found against
the weight of the evidence, or upon a wrong direction as to the
law of the case.
In criminal cases the courts attempted to control the verdicts
by fining the jurors for returning a verdict contra plenum et
manifestam emdentiam. But this practice was declared illegal
in Bushell's case (1670) ; and so far as criminal cases are concerned
the independence of the jury as sole judges of fact is almost
absolute. If they acquit, their action cannot be reviewed nor
punished, except on proof of wilful and corrupt consent to
" embracery " (Juries Act 1825, s. 61). If they convict no new
trial can be ordered except in the rare instances of misdemeanours
tried as civil cases in the High Court. In trials for various forms
of libel during the i8th century, the judges restricted the powers
of juries by ruling that their function was limited to finding
whether the libel had in fact been published, and that it was for
the court to decide whether the words published constituted an
offence.1 By Fox's Libel Act 1792 the jurors in such cases
were expressly empowered to bring in a general verdict of libel
or no libel, i.e. to deal with the whole question of the meaning
and extent of the incriminated publication. In other words,
they were given the same independence in cases of libel as in
other criminal cases. This independence has in times of public
excitement operated as a kind of local option against the existing
law and as an aid to procuring its amendment. Juries in
Ireland in agrarian cases often acquit in the teeth of the evidence.
In England the independence of the jury in criminal trials is
to some. extent menaced by the provisions of the Criminal
Appeal Act 1907.
While the jury is in legal theory absolute as to matters of fact,
it is in practice largely controlled by the judges. Not only does
the judge at the trial decide as to the relevancy of the evidence
tendered to the issues to be proved, and as to the admissibility
of questions put to a witness, but he also advises the jury as to
the logical bearing of the evidence admitted upon the matters
to be found by the jury. The rules as to admissibility of evidence,
largely based upon scholastic logic, sometimes difficult to apply,
and almost unknown in continental jurisprudence, coupled with
the right of an English judge to sum up the evidence (denied to
French judges) and to express his own opinion as to its value
(denied to American judges), fetter to some extent the indepen-
dence or limit the chances of error of the jury.
" The whole theory of the jurisdiction of the courts to interfere
with the verdict of the constitutional tribunal is that the court
is satisfied that the jury have not acted reasonably upon the
evidence but have been misled by prejudice or passion " (Watt v.
Watt (1905), App. Cas. 118, per Lord Halsbury). In civil cases
the verdict may be challenged on the ground that it is against the
evidence or against the weight of the evidence, or unsupported by
any evidence. It is said to be against the evidence when the
jury have completely misapprehended the facts proved and have
drawn an inference so wrong as to be in substance perverse. The
dissatisfaction of the trial judge with the verdict is a potent but
not conclusive element in determining as to the perversity of a
verdict, because of his special opportunity of appreciating the
1 See R. v. Dean of St. Asaph (1789), 3 T.R. 418.
JURY
evidence and the demeanour of the witnesses. But his opinion
is less regarded now that new trials are granted by the court of
appeal than under the old system when the new trial was sought
in the court of which he was a member.
The appellate court will not upset a verdict when there is
substantial and conflicting evidence before the jury. In such
cases it is for the jury to say which side is to be believed, and the
court will not interfere with the verdict. To upset a verdict
on the ground that there is no evidence to go to the jury implies
that the judge at the trial ought to have withdrawn the case
from the jury. Under modern procedure, in order to avoid the
risk of a new trial, it is not uncommon to take the verdict of a
jury on the hypothesis that there was evidence for their considera-
tion, and to leave the unsuccessful party to apply for judgment
notwithstanding the verdict. The question whether there was
any evidence proper to be submitted to the jury arises oftenest
in cases involving an imputation of negligence — e.g. in an action
of damages against a railway company for injuries sustained in a
collision. Juries are somewhat ready to infer negligence, and
the court has to say whether, on the facts proved, there was any
evidence of negligence by the defendant. This is by no means
the same thing as saying whether, in the opinion of the court,
there was negligence. The court may be of opinion that on the
facts there was none, yet the facts themselves may be of such a
nature as to be evidence of negligence to go before a jury. When
the facts proved are such that a reasonable man might have come
to the conclusion that there was negligence, then, although the
court would not have come to the same conclusion, it must admit
that there is evidence to go before the jury. This statement
indicates existing practice but scarcely determines what relation
between the facts proved and the conclusion to be established is
necessary to make the facts evidence from which a jury may infer
the conclusion. The true explanation is to be found in the prin-
ciple of relevancy. Any fact which is relevant to the issue con-
stitutes evidence to go before the jury, and any fact, roughly
speaking, is relevant between which and the fact to be proved
there may be a connexion as cause and effect (see EVIDENCE).
As regards damages the court has always had wide powers, as
damages are often a question of law. But when the amount of
the damages awarded by a jury is challenged as excessive or
inadequate, the appellate court, if it considers the amount un-
reasonably large or unreasonably small, must order a new trial
unless both parties consent to a reduction or increase of the
damages to a figure fixed by the court; see Watt v. Watt (1905),
App. Cas. 115.
Value of Jury System. — The value of the jury in past history
as a bulwark against aggression by the Crown or executive cannot
be over-rated, but the working of the institution has not escaped
criticism. Its use protracts civil trials. The jurors are usually
unwilling and are insufficiently remunerated; and jury trials in
civil cases often drag out much longer and at greater expense
than trials by a judge alone, and the proceedings are occasionally
rendered ineffective by the failure of the jurors to agree.
There is much force in the arguments of Bentham and others
against the need of unanimity — the application of pressure to
force conviction on the minds of jurors, the indifference to veracity
which the concurrence of unconvinced minds must produce in
the public mind, the probability that jurors will disagree and
trials be rendered abortive, and the absence of any reasonable
security in the unanimous verdict that would not exist in the
verdict of a majority. All this is undeniably true, but disagree-
ments are happily not frequent, and whatever may happen in the
jury room no compulsion is now used by the court to induce
agreement.
But, apart from any incidental defects, it may be doubted
whether, as an instrument for the investigation of truth, the
jury system deserves all the encomiums which have been passed
upon it. In criminal cases, especially of the graver kind, it is
perhaps the best tribunal that could be devised. There the
element of moral doubt enters largely into the consideration of
the case, and that can best be measured by a popular tribunal.
Opinion in England has hitherto been against subjecting a man
to serious punishment as a result of conviction before a judge
sitting without a jury, and the judges themselves would be the
first to deprecate so great a responsibility, and the Criminal
Appeal Act 1907, which constituted the court of criminal appeal,
recognized the responsibility by requiring a quorum of three
judges in order to constitute a court. The same act, by permit-
ting an appeal to persons convicted on indictment both on
questions of fact and of law, removed to a great extent any
possibility of error by a jury. But in civil causes, where the
issue must be determined one way or the other on the balance
of probabilities, a single judge would probably be a better
tribunal than the present combination of judge and jury. Even
if it be assumed that he would on the whole come to the same
conclusion as a jury deliberating under his directions, he would
come to it more quickly. Time would be saved in taking
evidence, summing up would be unnecessary, and the addresses
of counsel would inevitably be shortened and concentrated on
the real points at issue. Modern legislation and practice in
England have very much reduced the use of the jury both in
civil and criminal cases.
In the county courts trial by jury is the exception and not the
rule. In the court of chancery and the admiralty court it was
never used. Under the Judicature Acts many cases which in
the courts of common law would have been tried with a jury are
now tried before a judge alone, or (rarely) with assessors, or
before an official referee. Indeed cynics say that a jury is in-
sisted on chiefly in cases when a jury, from prejudice or other
causes, is likely to be more favourable than a judge alone.
In criminal cases, by reason of the enormous number of
offences punishable on summary conviction and of the provi-
sions made for trying certain indictable offences summarily if
the offender is young or elects for summary trial, juries are less
called on in proportion to the number of offences committed
than was the practice in former years.
Scotland. — According to the Regiam Majestatem, which is
identical with the treatise of GlanvilT on the law of England (but
whether the original or only a copy of that work is disputed), trial
by jury existed in Scotland for civil and criminal cases from as early
a date as in England, and there is reason to believe that at all events
the system became established at a very early date. Its history
was very different from that of the English jury system. There was
no grand jury under Scots law, but it was introduced in 1708 for the
purpose of high treason (7 Anne c. 21). For the trial of criminal
cases the petty jury is represented by the criminal " assize." This
jury has always consisted of fifteen persons and the jurors are chosen
by ballot by the clerk of the court from the list containing the names
01 the special and common jurors, five from the special, ten from the
common. Prosecutor and accused each have five peremptory
challenges, of which two only may be directed against the special
jurors; but there is no limit to challenges for cause. The jury is
not secluded during the trial except in capital cases or on special
order of the court made proprio motu or on the application of
prosecutor or accused. The verdict need not be unanimous, nor is
enclosure a necessary preliminary to a majority verdict. It is
returned viva voce by the chancellor or foreman, and entered on the
record by the clerk of the court, and the entry read to the jury.
Besides the verdicts of " guilty " and " not guilty," a Scots jury
may return a verdict of " not proven," which has legally the same
effect as not guilty in releasing the accused from further proceedings
on the particular charge, but inflicts on him the stigma of moral
guilt.
Jury trial in civil cases was at one time in general if not prevailing
use, but was gradually superseded for most purposes on the institu-
tion of the Court of Session (l Mackay, Ct. Sess. Pr. 33). In this, as
in many other matters, Scots law and procedure tend to follow
continental rather than insular models. The civil jury was reintro-
duced in 1815 (55 Geo. III.c. 42), mainly on account of the difficulties
experienced by the House of Lords in dealing with questions of fact
raised on Scottish appeals. At the outset a special court was insti-
tuted in the nature of a judicial commission to ascertain by means of
a jury facts deemed relevant to the issues in a cause and sent for
such determination at the discretion of the court in which the cause
was pending. The process was analogous to the sending of an issue
out of chancery for trial in a superior court of common law, or in a
court of assize. In 1830 the jury court ceased to exist as a separate
tribunal and was merged in the Court of Session. By legislation of
1819 and 1825 certain classes of cases were indicated as appropriate
to be tried by a jury; but in 1850 the cases so to be tried were
limited to actions for defamation and nuisance, or properly and in
substance actions for damages, and under an act of 1866 even in
these cases the jury may be dispensed with by consent of parties.
JUS PRIMAE NOCTIS— JUSSIEU
593
The civil jury consists as in England of twelve jurors chosen by
ballot from the names on the list of those summoned. There is a
right of peremptory challenge limited to four, and also a right
to challenge for cause. Unanimity was at first but is not now
required. The jury if unanimous may return a verdict immediately
on the close of the case. If they are not unanimous they are
enclosed and may at any time not less than three hours after being
inclosed return a verdict by a bare majority. If after six hours
they do not agree by the requisite majority, i.e. are equally divided,
they must be discharged. It was stated by Commissioner Adam,
under whom the Scots civil jury was originated, that in twenty years
he knew of only one case in which the jury disagreed. Jury trial
in civil cases in Scotland has not flourished or given general satisfac-
tion, and is resorted to only in a small proportion of cases. This is
partly due to its being transplanted from England.
Ireland. — The jury laws of Ireland do not differ in substance from
those of England. The qualifications of jurors are regulated by
O'Hagan's Acts 1871 and 1872, and the Juries Acts 1878 and 1894.
In criminal cases much freer use is made than in England of the
rights of the accused to challenge, and of the Crown to order jurors
to stand by, and what is called " jury-packing " seems to be the
object of both sides when some political or agrarian issue is involved
in the trial. Until the passing of the Irish Local Government Act
1898, the grand jury, besides its functions as a jury of accusation,
had large duties with respect to local government which are now
transferred to the county councils and other elective bodies.
British Empire. — In most parts of the British Empire the jury
system is in force as part of the original law of the colonists or under
the colonial charters of justice or by local legislation. The grand
jury is not in use in India; was introduced but later abolished in the
Cape Colony ; and in Australia has been for most purposes superseded
by the public prosecutor. The ordinary trial jury for criminal cases
is twelve, but in India may be nine, seven, five or three, according
to certain provisions of the Criminal Procedure Code 1898. In
countries where the British Crown has foreign jurisdiction the jury
for criminal trials has in some cases been fixed at a less number than
twelve and the right of the Crown to fix the number is established ;
see ex p. Carew, 1897, A.C. 719. In civil cases the number of the jury
is reduced in some colonies, e.g. to seven in Tasmania and Trinidad.
European Countries. — In France there is no civil jury. In
criminal cases the place of the grand jury is taken by the chambre
des mises en accusation, and the more serious crimes are tried before
a jury of twelve which finds its verdict by a majority, the exact
number of which may not be disclosed. In Belgium, Spain, Italy
and Germany, certain classes of crime are tried with the aid of a jury.
United States. — The English jury system was part of the law of
the American colonies before the declaration of independence; and
grand jury, coroner's jury and petty jury continue in full use in the
United States. Under the Federal Constitution (Article iii.)
there is a right to trial by jury in all criminal cases (except on
impeachment) and in all civil actions at common law in which
the subject matter exceeds $20 in value (amendments vi. and vii.).
The trial jury must be of twelve and its verdict must be unanimous;
see Cooley, Constitutional Limitations (6th ed.), 389. The respective
provinces of judge and jury have been much discussed and there has
been a disposition to declare the jury supreme as to law as well as
fact. The whole subject is fully treated by reference to English
and American authorities, and the conflicting views are stated
in Sparf v. United States, 1895, 156 U.S. 61. The view of the
majority of the court in that case was that it is the duty of the jury
in a criminal case to receive the law from the court and to apply it
as laid down by the court, subject to the condition that in giving a
general verdict the jury may incidentally determine both law and
fact as compounded in the issues submitted to them in the particular
case. The power to give a general verdict renders the duty one of
imperfect obligation and enables the jury to take its own view of
the terms and merits of the law involved.
The extent to which the jury system is in force in the states of
the union depends on the constitution and legislation of each state.
In some the use of juries in civil and even in criminal cases is reduced
or made subject to the election of the accused. In others unanimous
verdicts are not required, while the constitutions of others require
the unanimous verdict of the common law dozen. (W. F. C.)
JUS PRIMAE NOCTIS, or DROIT DU SEIGNEUR, a custom
alleged to have existed in medieval Europe, giving the overlord
a right to the virginity of his vassals' daughters on their wedding-
night. For the existence of the custom in a legalized form there
is no trustworthy evidence. That some such abuse of power may
have been occasionally exercised by brutal nobles in the lawless
days of the early middle ages is only too likely, but the jus, it
seems, is a myth, invented no earlier than the i6th or i7th
century. There appears to have been an entirely religious
custom established by the council of Carthage in 398, whereby
the Church required from the faithful continence on the wedding-
night, and this may have been, and there is evidence that it was,
known as Droit du Seigneur, or " God's right." Later the
clerical admonition was extended to the first three days of
marriage. This religious abstention, added to the undoubted
fact that the feudal lord extorted fines on the marriages of his
vassals and their children, doubtless gave rise to the belief that
the jus was once an established custom.
The whole subject has been exhaustively treated by Louis Veuillot
in Le Droit du seigneur au moyen age (1854).
JUS RELICTAE, in Scots law, the widow's right in the movable
property of her deceased husband. The deceased must have
been domiciled in Scotland, but the right accrues from movable
property, wherever situated. The widow's provision amounts
to one-third where there are children surviving, and to one-half
where there are no surviving children. The widow's right vests
by survivance, and is independent of the husband's testamentary
provisions; it may however be renounced by contract, or be dis-
charged by satisfaction. It is subject to alienation of the
husband's movable estate during his lifetime or by its conversion
into heritage. See also WILL.
JUSSERAND, JEAN ADRIEN ANTOINE JULES (1855- ),
French author and diplomatist, was born at Lyons on the i8th
of February 1855. Entering the diplomatic service in 1876, he
became in 1878 consul in London. After an interval spent in
Tunis he returned to London in 1887 as a member of the French
Embassy. In 1890 he became French minister at Copenhagen,
and in 1902 was transferred to Washington. A close student
of English literature, he produced some very lucid and vivacious
monographs on comparatively little-known subjects: Le Theatre
en Angleterredepuislaconquetejusqu' aux predecesseurs immediats
de Shakespeare (1878); Le Roman au temps de Shakespeare (1887;
Eng. trans, by Miss E. Lee, 1890); Les Anglais au moyen dge: la
vie nomade el les routes d'Anglelerre au XIV siecle (1884; Eng.
trans., English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages, by L. T. Smith,
1889) ; and L' Epopee de Langland (1893 ; Eng. trans., Piers Plow-
man, by M. C. R., 1894). His Histoire litterairedupeuple anglais,
the first volume of which was published in 1895, was completed
in three volumes in 1909. In English he wrote A French
Ambassador at the Court of Charles II. (1892), from the un-
published papers of the count de Cominges.
JUSSIEU, DE, the name of a French family which came into
prominent notice towards the close of the i6th century, and for a
century and a half was distinguished for the botanists it pro-
duced. The following are its more eminent members: —
1. ANTOINE DE JUSSIEU (1686-1758), born at Lyons on the
6th of July 1686, was the son of Christophe de Jussieu (or
Dejussieu), an apothecary of some repute, who published a
Nouveau traite de la theriaque (1708). Antoine studied at the
university of Montpellier, and travelled with his brother Bernard
through Spain, Portugal and southern France. He went to
Paris in 1708, J. P. de Tournefort, whom he succeeded at the
Jardin des Plantes, dying in that year. His own original publica-
tions are not of marked importance, but he edited an edition of
Tournefort 's Institutiones rei herbariae (3 vols., 1719), and also a
posthumous work of Jacques Barrelier, Plantae per Gattiam,
Hispaniam, et Italiam observatae, &c. (1714). He practised
medicine, chiefly devoting himself to the very poor. He died at
Paris on the 22nd of April 1758.
2. BERNARD DE JUSSIEU (1699-1777), a younger brother of
the above, was born at Lyons on the i7th of August 1699. He
took a medical degree at Montpellier and began practice in 1720,
but finding the work uncongenial he gladly accepted his brother's
invitation to Paris in 1722, when he succeeded Sebastien Vaillant
as sub-demonstrator of plants in the Jardin du Roi. In 1725 he
brought out a new edition of Tournefort's Histoire des plantes
qui naissent aux environs de Paris, 2 vols., which was afterwards
translated into English by John Martyn, the original work being
incomplete. In the same year he was admitted into the acade-
mie des sciences, and communicated several papers to that body.
Long before Abraham Trembley (1700-1784) published his
Histoire des polypes- d'eau douce, Jussieu maintained the doctrine
that these organisms were animals, and not the flowers of marine
plants, then the current notion; and to confirm his views he made
JUSTICE— JUSTICE OF THE PEACE
594
three journeys to the coast of Normandy. Singularly modest
and retiring, he published very little, but in 1759 he arranged the
plants in the royal garden of the Trianon at Versailles, according
to his own scheme of classification. This arrangement is printed
in his nephew's Genera, pp. Ixiii.-lxx., and formed the basis of
that work. He cared little for the credit of enunciating new
discoveries, so long as the facts were made public. On the
death of his brother Antoine, he could not be induced to succeed
him in his office, but prevailed upon L. G. Lemonnier to assume
the higher position. He died at Paris on the 6th of November
1777.
3. JOSEPH DE JUSSIEU (1704-1779), brother of Antoine and
Bernard, was born at Lyons on the 3rd of September 1704.
Educated like the rest of the family for the medical profession,
he accompanied C. M. de la Condamine to Peru, in the expedition
for measuring an arc of meridian, and remained in South America
for thirty-six years, returning to France in 1771. Amongst the
seeds he sent to his brother Bernard were those of Heliotropium
peruvianum, Linn., then first introduced into Europe. He died
at Paris on the nth of April 1779.
4. ANTOINE LAURENT DE JUSSIEU (1748-1836), nephew of the
three preceding, was born at Lyons on the i2th of April 1748.
Called to Paris by his uncle Bernard, and carefully trained by him
for the pursuits of medicine and botany, he largely profited by the
opportunities afforded him. Gifted with a tenacious memory,
and the power of quickly grasping the salient points of subjects
under observation, he steadily worked at the improvement of
that system of plant arrangement which had been sketched out
by his uncle: In 1 789 was issued his Genera plantarum secundum
ordines naturales disposita, juxta methodum in horto regio Parisi-
ensi exaratam, anno MDCCLXXIV. This volume formed the basis
of modern classification; more than this, it is certain that Cuvier
derived much help in his zoological classification from its perusal.
Hardly had the last sheet passed through the press, when the
French Revolution broke out, and the author was installed in
charge of the hospitals of Paris. The museum d'histoire naturelle
was organized on its present footing mainly by him in 1793, and
he selected for its library everything relating to natural history
from the vast materials obtained from the convents then broken
up. He continued as professor of botany there from 1770 to
1826, when his son Adrien succeeded him. Besides the Genera,
he produced nearly sixty memoirs on botanical topics. He died
at Paris on the i7th of September 1836.
5. ADRIEN LAURENT HENRI DE JUSSIEU (1797-1853), son
of Antoine Laurent, was born at Paris on the 23rd of Decem-
ber 1797. He displayed the qualities of his family in his thesis
for the degree of M.D., De Euphorbiacearum generibus medicisque
earundem viribus tenlamen, Paris, 1824. He was also the author
of valuable contributions to botanical literature on the Rulaceae,
Meliaceae and Malpighiaceae respectively, of " Taxonomie " in
the Diclionnaire universelle d'histoire naturelle, and of an intro-
ductory work styled simply Botanique, which reached nine
editions, and was translated into the principal languages of
Europe. He also edited his father's Inlroductio in hisloriam
plantarum, issued at Paris, without imprint or date, it being a
fragment of the intended second edition of the Genera, which
Antoine Laurent did not live to complete. He died at Paris on
the 29th of June 1853, leaving two daughters, but no son, so
that with him closed the brilliant botanical dynasty.
6. LAURENT PIERRE DE JUSSIEU (1792-1866), miscellaneous
writer, nephew of Antoine Laurent, was born at Villeurbanne
on the 7th of February 1792. His Simon de Nantua, ou le mar-
cltand forain (1818), reached fifteen editions, and was translated
into seven languages. He also wrote Simples notions de physique
el d'histoire naturelle (1857), and a few geological papers. He died
at Passy on the 23rd of February 1866.
JUSTICE (Lat.justitia), a term used both in the abstract, for
the quality of being or doing what is just, i.e. right in law and
equity, and in the concrete for an officer deputed by the sove-
reign to administer justice, and do right by way of judgment.
It has long been the official title of the judges of two of the
English superior courts of common law, and it is now extended to
all the judges in the supreme court of judicature — a judge in the
High Court of Justice being styled Mr Justice, and in the court
of appeal Lord Justice. The president of the king's bench
division of the High Court is styled Lord Chief Justice (q.v.).
The word is also applied, and perhaps more usually, to certain
subordinate magistrates who administer justice in minor matters,
and who are usually called justices of the peace (q.v.).
JUSTICE OF THE PEACE, an inferior magistrate appointed in
England by special commission under the great seal to keep the
peace within the jurisdiction for which he is appointed. The
title is commonly abbreviated to J.P. and is used after the name.
" The whole Christian world," said Coke, " hath not the like
office as justice of the peace if duly executed." Lord Cowper, on
the other hand, described them as " men sometimes illiterate
and frequently bigoted and prejudiced." The truth is that the
justices of the peace perform without any other reward than
the consequence they acquire from their office a large amount
of work indispensable to the administration of the law, and
(though usually not professional lawyers, and therefore apt to be
ill-informed in some of their decisions) for the most part they
discharge their duties with becoming good sense and impartiality.
For centuries they have necessarily been chosen mainly from
the landed class of country gentlemen, usually Conservative in
politics; and in recent years the attempt has been made by the
Liberal party to reduce the balance by appointing others than
those belonging to the landed gentry, such as tradesmen,
Nonconformist ministers, and working-men. But it has been
recognized that the appointment of justices according to their
political views is undesirable, and in 1909 a royal commission
was appointed to consider and report whether any and what
steps should be taken to facilitate the selection of the most
suitable persons to be justices of the peace irrespective of creed
and political opinion. In great centres of population, when
the judicial business of justices is heavy, it has been found
necessary to appoint paid justices or stipendiary magistrates1
to do the work, and an extension of the system to the country
districts has been often advocated.
The commission of the peace assigns to justices the duty of
keeping and causing to be kept all ordinances and statutes for
the good of the peace and for preservation of the same, and for
the quiet rule and government of the people, and further assigns
" to you and every two or more of you (of whom any one of the
aforesaid A, B, C, D, &c., we will, shall be one) to inquire the
truth more fully by the oath of good and lawful men of the county
of all and all manner of felonies, poisonings, enchantments,
sorceries, arts, magic, trespasses, forestallings, regratings, en-
grossings, and extortions whatever." This part of the commission
is the authority for the jurisdiction of the justices in sessions.
Justices named specially in the parenthetical clause are said to
be on the quorum. Justices for counties are appointed by the
Crown on the advice of the lord chancellor, and usually with the
recommendation of the lord lieutenant of the county. Justices
for boroughs having municipal corporations and separate com-
missions of the peace are appointed by the crown, the lord
chancellor either adopting the recommendation of the town coun-
cil or acting independently. Justices cannot act as such until
they have taken the oath of allegiance and the judicial oath. A
justice for a borough while acting as such must reside in or within
seven miles of the borough or occupy a house, warehouse or
other property in the borough, but he need not be a burgess.
The mayor of a borough is ex qfficio a justice during his year of
office and the succeeding year. He takes precedence over all
borough justices, but not over justices acting in and for the
county in which the borough or any part thereof is situated,
unless when acting in relation to the business of the borough.
1 Where a borough council desire the appointment of a stipendiary
magistrate they may present a petition for the same to the secretary
of state and it is thereupon lawful for the king to appoint to that
office a barrister of seven years' standing. He is by virtue of his
office a justice for the borough, and receives a yearly salary, payable
in four equal quarterly instalments. On a vacancy, application
must again be made as for a first appointment. There may be more
than one stipendiary magistrate for a borough.
JUSTICIAR— JUSTIFICATION
595
The chairman of a county council is ex officio a justice of the
peace for the county, and the chairman of an urban or rural
district council for the county in which the district is situ-
ated. Justices cannot act beyond the limits of the jurisdic-
tion for which they are appointed, and the warrant of a justice
cannot be executed out of his jurisdiction unless it be backed,
that is, endorsed by a justice of the jurisdiction in which it is to
be carried into execution. A justice improperly refusing to act
on his office, or acting partially and corruptly, may be proceeded
against by a criminal information, and a justice refusing to act
may be compelled to do so by the High Court of Justice. An
action will lie against a justice for any act done by him in excess
of his jurisdiction, and for any act within his jurisdiction which
has been done wrongfully and with malice, and without reason-
able or probable cause. But no action can be brought against a
justice for a wrongful conviction until it has been quashed. By
the Justices' Qualification Act 1744, every justice for a county
was required to have an estate of freehold, copyhold, or custo-
mary tenure in fee, for life or a given term, of the yearly value of
£100. By an act of 1875 the occupation of a house rated at £100
was made a qualification. No such qualifications were ever
required for a borough justice, and it was not until 1906 that
county justices were put on the same footing in this respect.
The Justices of the Peace Act 1906 did away with all qualifica-
tion by estate. It also removed the necessity for residence
within the county, permitting the same residential qualification
as for borough justices, " within seven miles thereof." The same
act removed the disqualification of solicitors to be county justices
and assimilated to the existing power to remove other justices
from the commission of the peace the power to exclude ex officio
justices.
The justices for every petty sessional division of a county or
for a borough having a separate commission of the peace must
appoint a fit person to be their salaried clerk. He must be either
a barrister of not less than fourteen years' standing, or a solicitor
of the supreme court, or have served for not less than seven
years as a clerk to a police or stipendiary magistrate or to a
metropolitan police court. An alderman or councillor of a
borough must not be appointed as clerk, nor can a clerk of the
peace for the borough or for the county in which the borough is
situated be appointed. A borough clerk is not allowed to
prosecute. The salary of a justice's clerk comes, in London,
out of the police fund; in counties out of the county fund; in
county boroughs out of the borough fund, and in other boroughs
out of the county fund.
The vast and multifarious duties of the justices cover some
portion of every important head of the criminal law, and extend
to a considerable number of matters relating to the civil law.
In the United States these officers are sometimes appointed by
the executive, sometimes elected. In some states, justices of the
peace have jurisdiction in civil cases given to them by local
regulations.
JUSTICIAR (med. Lat. justiciarius or justiliariu s, a judge), in
English history, the title of the chief minister of the Norman and
.earlier Angevin kings. The history of the title in this connota-
tion is somewhat obscure. Justiciarius meant simply " judge,"
and was originally applied, as Stubbs points out (Const. Hist.
i. 389, note), to any officer of the king's court, to the chief justice,
or in a very general way to all and sundry who possessed courts
of their own or were qualified to act asjitdices in the shire-courts,
even the style capitalis justiciarius being used of judges of the
royal court other than the chief. It was not till the reign of
Henry II. that the title summus or capitalis justiciarius, or
justiciarius totius Angliae was exclusively applied to the king's
chief minister. The office, however, existed before the style of
its holder was fixed; and, whatever their contemporary title (e.g.
Gustos Angliae), later writers refer to them as jusliciarii, with
or without the prefix summus or capitalis (ibid. p. 346). Thus
Ranulf Flambard, the minister of William II., who was probably
the first to exercise the powers of a justiciar, is called justiciarius
by Ordericus Vitalis.
The origin of the justiciarship is thus given by Stubbs (ibid.
p. 276). The sheriff " was the king's representative in all matters
judicial, military and financial in the shire. From him, or from
the courts of which he was the presiding officer, appeal lay to the
king alone; but the king was often absent from England and did
not understand the language of his subjects. In his absence the
administration was entrusted to a justiciar, a regent or lieutenant
of the kingdom; and the convenience being once ascertained of
having a minister who could in the whole kingdom represent
the king, as the sheriff did in the shire, the justiciar became a
permanent functionary."
The fact that the kings were often absent from England, and
that the justiciarship was held by great nobles or churchmen,
made this office of an importance which at times threatened to
overshadow that of the Crown. It was this latter circumstance
which ultimately led to its abolition. Hubert de Burgh (q.v.)
was the last of the great justiciars; after his fall (1231) the jus-
ticiarship was not again committed to a great baron, and the
chancellor soon took the position formerly occupied by the
justiciar as second to the king in dignity, as well as in power and
influence. Finally, under Edward I. and his successor, in place
of the justiciar — who had presided over all causes vice regis —
separate heads were established in the three branches into which
the curia regis as a judicial body had been divided: justices of
common pleas, justices of the king's bench and barons of the
exchequer.
Outside England the title justiciar was given under Henry II.
to the seneschal of Normandy. In Scotland the title of justiciar
was borne, under the earlier kings, by two high officials, one
having his jurisdiction to the north, the other to the south of the
Forth. They were the king's lieutenants for judicial and ad-
ministrative purposes and were established in the i2th century,
either by Alexander I. or by his successor David I. In the
1 2th century a magister juslitiarius also appears in the Norman
kingdom of Sicily, title and office being probably borrowed
from England; he presided over the royal court (Magna curia)
and was, with his assistants, empowered to decide, inter alia,
all cases reserved to the Crown (see Du Cange, s.v. Magister
Juslitiarius).
See W. Stubbs, Const. Hist, of England; Du Cange, Glossarium
(Niort, 1885) s.v. " Justitiarius."
JUSTICIARY, HIGH COURT OF, in Scotland, the supreme
criminal court, consisting of five of the lords of session together
with the lord justice-general and the lord justice-clerk as president
and vice-president respectively. The constitution of the court
is settled by the Act 1672 c. 16. The lords of justiciary hold
circuits regularly twice a year according to the ancient practice,
which, however, had been allowed to fall into disuse until revived
in 1748. For circuit purposes Scotland is divided into northern,
southern and western districts (see CIRCUIT). Two judges
generally go on a circuit, and in Glasgow they are by special
statute authorized to sit in separate courts. By the Criminal
Procedure (Scotland) Act 1887 all the senators of the college of
justice are lords commissioners of justiciary. The high court,
sitting in Edinburgh, has, in addition to its general juris-
diction, an exclusive jurisdiction for districts not within the
jurisdiction of the circuits — the three Lothians, and Orkney and
Shetland. The high court also takes up points of difficulty
arising before the special courts, like the court for crown cases
reserved in England. The court of justiciary has authority to
try all crimes, unless when its jurisdiction has been excluded by
special enactment of the legislature. It is also stated to hare an
inherent jurisdiction to punish all criminal acts, even if they
have never before been treated as crimes. Its judgments are
believed to be not subject to any appeal or review, but it may be
doubted whether an appeal on a point of law would not lie to the
house of lords. The following crimes must be prosecuted in the
court of justiciary: treason, murder, robbery, rape, fire-raising,
deforcement of messengers, breach of duty by magistrates, and
all offences for which a statutory punishment higher than
imprisonment is imposed.
JUSTIFICATION, in law, the showing by a defendant in a suit
of sufficient reason why he did what he was called upon to answer,
596
JUSTIN— JUSTINIAN I.
For example, in an action for assault and battery, the defendant
may prove in justification that the prosecutor assaulted or beat
him first, and that he acted merely in self-defence. The word
is employed particularly in actions for defamation, and has in
this connexion a somewhat .special meaning. When a libel
consists of a specific charge a plea of justification is a plea that the
words are true in substance and in fact (see LIBEL AND SLANDER).
JUSTIN I. (45o-527),East Roman emperor (518-527), was born
in 450 as a peasant in Asia, but enlisting under Leo I. he rose to be
commander of the imperial guards of Anastasius. On the latter's
death in 518 Justin used for his own election to the throne
money that he had received for the support of another candidate.
Being ignorant even of the rudiments of letters, Justin entrusted
the administration of state to his wise and faithful quaestor
Proclus and to his nephew Justinian, though his own experience
dictated several improvements in military affairs. An orthodox
churchman himself, he effected in 519 a reconciliation of the
Eastern and Western Churches, after a schism of thirty-five
years (see HORMISDAS). In 522 he entered upon a desultory war
with Persia, in which he co-operated with the Arabs. In 522 also
Justin ceded to Theodoric, the Gothic king of Italy, the right of
naming the consuls. On the ist of April 527 Justin, enfeebled
by an incurable wound, yielded to the request of the senate and
assumed Justinian at his colleague; on the ist of August he died.
Justin bestowed much care on the repairing of public buildings
throughout his empire, and contributed large sums to repair the
damage caused by a destructive earthquake at Antioch.
See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury,
1896), iv. 206-209.
JUSTIN II. (d. 578), East Roman emperor (565-578), was the
nephew and successor of Justinian I. He availed himself of his
influence as master of the palace, and as husband of Sophia, the
niece of the late empress Theodora, to secure a peaceful election.
The first few days of his reign — when he paid his uncle's debts,
administered justice in person, and proclaimed universal religious
toleration — gave bright promise, but in the face of the lawless
aristocracy and defiant governors of provinces he effected few
subsequent reforms. The most important event of his reign
was the invasion of Italy by the Lombards (q.ii.), who, entering
in 568, under Alboin, in a few years made themselves masters of
nearly the entire country. Justin's attention was distracted
from Italy towards the N. and E. frontiers. After refusing to
pay the Avars tribute, he fought several unsuccessful campaigns
against them. In 572 his overtures to the Turks led to a war
with Persia. After two disastrous campaigns, in which his
enemies overran Syria, Justin bought a precarious peace by pay-
ment of a yearly tribute. The temporary fits of insanity into
which he fell warned him to name a colleague. Passing over his
own relatives, he raised, on the advice of Sophia, the general
Tiberius (q.v.) to be Caesar in December 574 and withdrew for his
remaining years into retirement.
See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury,
°~ v. 2-17; G. Finlay, History of Greece (ed. 1877), i. 291-297;
J. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (1889), ii. 67-79. (M. O. B. C.)
JUSTIN QUNIANUS JUSTINUS), Roman historian, probably
lived during the age of the Antonines. Of his personal history
nothing is known. He is the author of Historiarum Philippi-
carum libri XLI V., a work described by himself in his preface
as a collection of the most important and interesting passages
from the voluminous Historiae philippicae et tolius mundi
origines et terrae situs, written in the time of Augustus by Pompeius
Trogus (q.v.). The work of Trogus is lost; but the prologi or
arguments of the text are preserved by Pliny and other writers.
Although the main theme of Trogus was the rise and history of
the Macedonian monarchy, Justin yet permitted himself con-
siderable freedom of digression, and thus produced a capricious
anthology instead of a regular epitome of the work. As it stands,
however, the history contains much valuable information. The
style, though far from perfect, is clear and occasionally elegant.
The book was much used in the middle ages, when the author
was sometimes confounded with Justin Martyr.
Ed. princeps (1470) ; J. G. Graevius (1668) ; J. F. Gronovius (1719) ;
C. H. Frotscher(i827-i83o) ; J. Jeep (1859) ; F. Riihl (1886, with pro-
logues) ; see also J. F. Fischer, De elocutione Justini (1868) ; F. Riihl,
Die Verbreitung des J. im Mittelalter (1871) ; O. Eichert, Worterbuch
zu J. (1881); Kohler and Rtihl in Neue Jahrbucher fur Philologie,
xci., ci., cxxxiii. There are translations in the chief European
languages; in English by A. Goldyng (1564); R. Codrington (1682)-
Brown-Dykes (1712); G. Turnbull (1746); J. Clarke (1790);
J. S. Watson (1853).
JUSTINIAN I. (483-565). Flavius Anicius Justinianus, sur-
named the Great, the most famous of all the emperors of the
Eastern Roman Empire, was by birth a barbarian, native of a
place called Tauresium in the district of Dardania, a region of
Illyricum,1 and was born, most probably, on the i ith of May 483.
His family has been variously conjectured, on the strength of
the proper names which its members are stated to have borne,
to have been Teutonic or Slavonic. The latter seems the more
probable view. His own name was originally Uprauda.2 Justini-
anus was a Roman name which he took from his uncle Justin I.,
who adopted him, and to whom his advancement in life was due.
Of his early life we know nothing except that he went to Con-
stantinople while still a young man, and received there an excellent
education. Doubtless he knew Latin before Greek; it is alleged
that he always spoke Greek with a barbarian accent. When
Justin ascended the throne in 518, Justinian became at once a
person of the first consequence, guiding, especially in church
matters, the policy of his aged, childless and ignorant uncle,
receiving high rank and office at his hands, and soon coming to
be regarded as his destined successor. On Justin's death in 527,
having been a few months earlier associated with him as co-
emperor, Justinian succeeded, without opposition to the throne.
About 523 he had married the famous Theodora (q.v.), who, as
empress regnant, was closely associated in all his actions till her
death in 547.
Justinian's reign was filled with great events, both at home and
abroad, both in peace and in war. They may be classed under
four heads: (i) his legal reforms; (2) his administration of the
empire; (3) his ecclesiastical policy; and (4) his wars and foreign
policy generally.
i. It is as a legislator and codifier of the law that Justinian's
name is most familiar to the modern world; and it is therefore
this department of his action that requires to be most fully dealt
with here. He found the law of the Roman empire in a state of
great confusion. It consisted of two masses, which were usually
distinguished as old law (jus vetus) and new law (jus novum).
The first of these comprised: (i.) all such of the statutes (leges)
passed under the republic and early empire as had not become
obsolete; (ii.) the decrees of the senate (scnatus consulta) passed
at the end of the republic and during the first two centuries of the
empire; (iii.) the writings of the jurists of the later republic and
of the empire, and more particularly of those jurists to whom the
right of declaring the law with authority (jus respondendi) had
been committed by the emperors. As these jurists had in their
commentaries upon the leges, senalus consulla and edicts of the
magistrates practically incorporated all that was of importance
in those documents, the books of the jurists may substantially
be taken as including (i.) and (ii.). These writings were of course
very numerous, and formed a vast mass of literature. Many of
them had become exceedingly scarce — many had been altogether
lost. Some were of doubtful authenticity. They were so costly
that no person of moderate means could hope to possess any large
number; even the public libraries had nothing approaching to a
complete collection. Moreover, as they proceeded from a large
number of independent authors, who wrote expressing their own
opinions, they contained many discrepancies and contradictions,
the dicta of one writer being controverted by another, while yet
both writers might enjoy the same formal authority. A remedy
had been attempted to be applied to this evil by a law of the
1 It is commonly identified with the modern Kustendil, but
Uskub (the ancient Skupi) has also been suggested. See Tozer,
Highlands of European Turkey, ii. 370.
1 The name Uprauda is said to be derived from the word prauda,
which in Old Slavic means jus, justitia, the prefix being simply a
breathing frequently attached to Slavonic names.
JUSTINIAN I.
597
emperors Theodosius II. and Valentinian III., which gave special
weight to the writings of five eminent jurists (Papinian, Paulus,
Ulpian, Modestinus, Gaius); but it was very far from removing
it. As regards the jus vetus, therefore, the judges and practi-
tioners of Justinian's time had two terrible difficulties to contend
with— first, the bulk of the law, which made it impossible for any
one to be sure that he possessed anything like the whole of the
authorities bearing on the point in question, so that he was always
liable to find his opponent quoting against him some authority
for which he could not be prepared; and, secondly, the uncer-
tainty of the law, there being a great many important points on
which differing opinions of equal legal validity might be cited,
so that the practising counsel could not advise, nor the judge
decide, with any confidence that he was right, or that a superior
court would uphold his view.
The new law (jus novum), which consisted of the ordinances of
the emperors promulgated during the middle and later empires
(edicta, rescripta, mandata, decreta, usually called by the general
name of constitut iones) , was in a condition not much better.
These ordinances or constitutions were extremely numerous.
No complete collection of them existed, for although two collec-
tions (Codex gregorianus and Codex hermogenianus) had been
made by two jurists in the 4th century, and a large supple-
mentary collection published by the emperor Theodosius II. in
438 (Codex theodosianus) , these collections did not include all
the constitutions; there were others which it was necessary to ob-
tain separately, but many whereof it must have been impossible
for a private person to procure. In this branch too of the law
there existed some, though a less formidable, uncertainty; for
there were constitutions which practically, if not formally,
repealed or superseded others without expressly mentioning
them, so that a man who relied on one constitution might find
that it had been varied or abrogated by another he had never heard
of or on whose sense he had not put such a construction. It was
therefore clearly necessary with regard to both the older and the
newer law to take some steps to collect into one or more bodies or
masses so much of the law as was to be regarded as binding,
reducing it within a reasonable compass, and purging away the
contradictions or inconsistencies which it contained. The evil
had been long felt, and reforms apparently often proposed, but
nothing (except by the compilation of the Codex theodosianus)
had been done till Justinian's time. Immediately after his
accession, in 528, he appointed a commission to deal with the
imperial constitutions (jus novum), this being the easier part of
the problem. The commissioners, ten in number, were directed
to go through all the constitutions of which copies existed, to
select such as were of practical value, to cut these down by
retrenching all unnecessary matter, and gather them, arranged
in order of date, into one volume, getting rid of any contradictions
by omitting one or other of the conflicting passages.1 These
statute law commissioners, as one may call them, set to work
forthwith, and completed their task in fourteen months, dis-
tributing the constitutions which they placed in the new collec-
tion into ten books, in general conformity with the order of the
Perpetual Edict as settled by Salvius Julianus and enacted by
Hadrian. By this means the bulk of the statute law was
immensely reduced, its obscurities and internal discrepancies in
great measure removed, its provisions adapted, by the abrogation
of what was obsolete, to the circumstances of Justinian's own
time. This Codex constitutionum was formally promulgated and
enacted as one great consolidating statute in 529, all imperial
ordinances not included in it being repealed at one stroke.
The success of this first experiment encouraged the emperor
to attempt the more difficult enterprise of simplifying and
digesting the older law contained in the treatises of the jurists.
Before entering on this, however, he wisely took the preliminary
step of settling the more important of the legal questions as to
which the older jurists had been divided in opinion, and which
had therefore remained sources of difficulty, a difficulty aggra-
1 See, for an account of the instructions given to the commission,
the constitution Haec quae, prefixed to the revised Codex in the
Corpus juris civilis.
vated by the general decline, during the last two centuries, of the
level of forensic and judicial learning. This was accomplished
by a series of constitutions known as the "Fifty Decisions"
(Quinquaginla decisiones) , along with which there were published
other ordinances amending the law in a variety of points, in
which old and now inconvenient rules had been suffered to subsist.
Then in December 530 a new commission was appointed, con-
sisting of sixteen eminent lawyers, of whom the president, the
famous Tribonian (who had already served on the previous com-
mission), was an exalted official (quaestor), four were professors
of law, and the remaining eleven practising advocates. The
instructions given to them by the emperor were as follows: —
they were to procure and peruse all the writings of all the author-
ized jurists (those who had enjoyed the jus respondendi) ; were to
extract from these writings whatever was of most permanent
and substantial value, with power to change the expressions of
the author wherever conciseness or clearness would be thereby
promoted, or wherever such a change was needed in order to
adapt his language to the condition of the law as it stood in
Justinian's time; were to avoid repetitions and contradictions by
giving only one statement of the law upon each point; were to
insert nothing at variance with any provision contained in the
Codex constitutionum; and were to distribute the results of their
labours into fifty books, subdividing each book into titles, and
following generally the order of the Perpetual Edict.2
These directions were carried out with a speed which is surpris-
ing when we remember not only that the work was interrupted
by the terrible insurrection which broke out in Constantinople in
January 532, and which led to the temporary retirement from
office of Tribonian, but also that the mass of literature which had
to be read through consisted of no less than two thousand treat-
ises, comprising three millions of sentences. The commissioners,
who had for greater despatch divided themselves into several com-
mittees, presented their selection of extracts to the emperor in
533, and he published it as an imperial statute on December i6th
of that year, with two prefatory constitutions (those known as
Omnem reipublicae and Dedit nobis). It is the Latin volume
which we now call the Digest (Digesta) or Pandects (UavStKrai.)
and which is by far the most precious monument of the legal
genius of the Romans, and indeed, whether one regards the intrin-
sic merits of its substance or the prodigious influence it has exerted
and still exerts, the most remarkable law-book that the world has
seen. The extracts comprised in it are 9123 in number, taken
from thirty-nine authors, and are of greatly varying length,
mostly only a few lines long. About one-third (in quantity)
come from Ulpian, a very copious writer; Paulus stands next. To
each extract there is prefixed the name of the author, and of the
treatise whence it is taken.3 The worst thing about the Digest
is its highly unscientific arrangement. The order of the Perpetual
Edict, which appears to have been taken as a sort of model for the
general scheme of books and titles, was doubtless convenient to
the Roman lawyers from their familiarity with it, but was in
itself rather accidental and historical than logical. The dis-
position of the extracts inside each title was still less rational;
it has been shown by a modern jurist to have been the result of
the way in which the committees of the commissioners worked
through the books they had to peruse.4 In enacting the Digest
as a law book, Justinian repealed all the other law contained
in the treatises of the jurists (that jus vetus which has been already
mentioned), and directed that those treatises should never be
cited in future even by way of illustration; and he of course at
the same time abrogated all the older statutes, from the Twelve
Tables downwards, which had formed a part of the jus vetus. This
was a necessary incident of his scheme of reform. But he went
2 See the constitution Deo auctore (Cod. i. 17, l).
3 In the middle ages people used to cite passages by the initial
words; and the Germans do so still, giving, however, the number of
the paragraph in the extract (if there are more paragraphs than one),
and appending the number of the book and title. We in Britain
and America usually cite by the numbers of the book, the title and
the paragraph, without referring to the initial words.
4 See Bluhme, " Die Ordnung der Fragmente in den Pandekten-
titeln," in Savigny's Zeitschr. f. gesch. Rechtswissenschaft, vol. iv.
JUSTINIAN I.
too far, and indeed attempted what was impossible, when he
forbade all commentaries upon the Digest. He was obliged to
allow a Greek translation to be made of it, but directed this
translation to be exactly literal.
These two great enterprises had substantially despatched
Justinian's work; however, he, or rather Tribonian, who seems
to have acted both as his adviser and as his chief executive
officer in all legal affairs, conceived that a third book was needed,
viz. an elementary manual for beginners which should present
an outline of the law in a clear and simple form. The little work
of Gaius, most of which we now possess under the title of Com-
mentarii institutionum, had served this purpose for nearly four
centuries; but much of it had, owing to changes in the law, be-
come inapplicable, so that a new manual seemed to be required.
Justinian accordingly directed Tribonian, with two coadjutors,
Theophilus, professor of law in the university of Constantinople,
and Dorotheus, professor in the great law school at Beyrout, to
prepare an elementary textbook on the lines of Gaius. This
they did while the Digest was in progress, and produced the useful
little treatise which has ever since been the book with which
students commonly begin their studies of Roman law, the Insti-
tutes of Justinian. It was published as a statute with full legal
validity shortly before the Digest. Such merits as it possesses —
simplicity of arrangement, clearness and conciseness of expres-
sion— belong less to Tribonian than to Gaius, who was closely
followed wherever the alterations in the law had not made him
obsolete. However, the spirit of that great legal classic seems to
have in a measure dwelt with and inspired the inferior men who
were recasting his work; the Institutes is better both in Latinity
and in substance than we should have expected from the con-
dition of Latin letters at that epoch, better than the other laws
which emanate from Justinian.
In the four years and a half which elapsed between the publica-
tion of the Codex and that of the Digest, many important changes
had been made in the law, notably by the publication of the
" Fifty Decisions," which settled many questions that had exer-
cised the legal mind and given occasion to intricate statutory
provisions. It was therefore natural that the idea should present
itself of revising the Codex, so as to introduce these changes
into it, for by so doing, not only would it be simplified, but the
one volume would again be made to contain the whole statute
law, whereas now it was necessary to read along with it the
ordinances issued since its publication. Accordingly another
commission was appointed, consisting of Tribonian with four
other coadjutors, full power being given them not only to
incorporate the new constitutions with the Codex and make in
it the requisite changes, but also to revise the Codex generally,
cutting down or filling in wherever they thought it necessary
to do so. This work was completed in a few months; and in
November 534 the revised Codex (Codex repetilae praelectionis)
was promulgated with the force of law, prefaced by a con-
stitution (Cordi nobis) which sets forth its history, and declares
it to be alone authoritative, the former Codex being abrogated.
It is this revised Codex which has come down to the modern
world, all copies of the earlier edition having disappeared.
The constitutions contained in it number 4652, the earliest
dating from Hadrian, the latest being of course Justinian's own.
A few thus belong to the period to which the greater part of the
Digest belongs, i.e. the so-called classical period of Roman law down
to the time of Alexander Severus (244) ; but the great majority are
later, and belong to one or other of the four great eras of imperial
legislation, the eras of Diocletian, of Constantine, of Theodosius II.,
and of Justinian himself. Although this Codex is said to have the
same general order as that of the Digest, viz. the order of the Per-
petual Edict, there are considerable differences of arrangement
between the two. It is divided into twelve books. Its contents,
although of course of the utmost practical importance to the lawyers
of that time, and of much value still, historical as well as legal, are
far less interesting and scientifically admirable than the extracts
preserved in the Digest. The difference is even greater than that
between the English reports of cases decided since the days of Lord
Holt and the English acts of parliament for the same two centuries.
The emperor's scheme was now complete. All the Roman law
had been gathered into two volumes of not excessive size, and a
satisfactory manual for beginners added. But Justinian and Tribo-
nian had grown so fond of legislating that they found it hard to leave
off. Moreover, the very simplifications that had been so far effected
brought into view with more clearness such anomalies or pieces of
injustice as still continued to deform the law. Thus no sooner had
the work been rounded off than fresh excrescences began to be created
by the publication of new laws. Between 534 and 565 Justinian
issued a great number of ordinances, dealing with all sorts of sub-
jects and seriously altering the law on many points — -the majority
appearing before the death of Tribonian, which happened in 545.
These ordinances are called, by way of distinction, new constitu-
tions, Novellae constitutiones post codicem (ytapai Stari^), Novels.
Although the emperor had stated in publishing the Codex that all
further statutes (if any) would be officially collected, this promise
does not seem to have been redeemed. The three collections of the
Novels which we possess are apparently private collections, nor do
we even know how many such constitutions were promulgated.
One of the three contains 168 (together with 13 Edicts), but some
of these are by the emperors Justin II. and Tiberius II. Another,
the so-called Epitome of Julian, contains 125 Novels in Latin; and
the third, the Liber authenticarum or vulgata versio, has 134, also
in Latin. This last was the collection first known and chiefly used
in the West during the middle ages; and of its 134 only 97 have been
written on by the glossatores or medieval commentators; these there-
fore alone have been received as binding in those countries which
recognize and obey the Roman law, — according to the maxim
Quicquid non agnoscit glossa, nee agnoscit curia. And, whereas
Justinian's constitutions contained in the Codex were all issued in
Latin, the rest of the book being in that tongue, these Novels were
nearly all published in Greek, Latin translations being of course
made for the use of the western provinces. They are very bulky,
and with the exception of a few, particularly the n6th and iiSth,
which introduce the most sweeping and laudable reforms into the
law of intestate succession, are much more interesting, as supplying
materials for the history of the time, social, economical and eccle-
siastical, than in respect of any purely legal merits. They may be
found printed in any edition of the Corpus juris civilis.
This Corpus juris, which bears and immortalizes Justinian's name,
consists of the four books described above: (i) The authorized
collection of imperial ordinances (Codex constitutionum) ; (2) the
authorized collection of extracts from the great jurists (Digesta or
Pandectae); (3) the elementary handbook (Institutiones) » (4) the
unauthorized collection of constitutions subsequent to the Codex
(Novellae).
From what has been already stated, the reader wrll perceive
that Justinian did not, according to a strict use of terms, codify
the Roman law. By a codification we understand the reduction
of the whole pre-existing body of law to a new form, the re-stating
it in a series of propositions, scientifically ordered, which may or
may not contain some new substance, but are at any rate new in
form. If he had, so to speak, thrown into one furnace all the law
contained in the treatises of the jurists and in the imperial
ordinances, fused them down, the gold of the one and the silver
of the other, and run them out into new moulds, this would have
been codification. What he did do was something quite different.
It was not codification but consolidation, not remoulding but
abridging. He made extracts from the existing law, preserving
the old words, and merely cutting out repetitions, removing con-
tradictions, retrenching superfluities, so as immensely to reduce
the bulk of the whole. And he made not one set of such extracts
but two, one for the jurist law, the other for the statute law. He
gave to posterity not one code but two digests or collections of
extracts, which are new only to this extent that they are arranged
in "a new order, having been previously altogether unconnected
with one another, and that here and there their words have been
modified in ordef to bring one extract into harmony with some
other. Except for this, the matter is old in expression as well as
in substance.
Thus regarded, even without remarking that the Novels, never
having been officially collected, much less incorporated with the
Codex, mar the symmetry of the structure, Justinian's work may
appear to entitle him and Tribonian to much less credit than they
have usually received for it. But let it be observed, first, that to
reduce the huge and confused mass of pre-existing law into the
compass of these two collections was an immense practical benefit
to the empire; secondly, that, whereas the work which he under-
took was accomplished in seven years, the infinitely more difficult
task of codification might probably have been left unfinished at
Tribonian's death, or even at Justinian's own, and been aban-
doned by his successor; thirdly, that in the extracts preserved in
the Digest we have the opinions of the greatest legal luminaries
given in their own admirably lucid, philosophical and concise
JUSTINIAN I.
599
language, while in the extracts of which the Codex is composed
we find valuable historical evidence bearing on the administra-
tion and social condition of the later Pagan and earlier Christian
empire; fourthly, that Justinian's age, that is to say, the intellect
of the men whose services he commanded, was quite unequal to
so vast an undertaking as the fusing upon scientific principles'
into one new organic whole of the entire law of the empire. With
sufficient time and labour the work might no doubt have been
done; but what we possess of Justinian's own legislation, and
still more what we know of the general condition of literary and
legal capacity in his time, makes it certain that it would not have
been well done, and that the result would have been not more
valuable to the Romans of that age, and much less valuable to
the modern world, than are the results, preserved in the Digest
and the Codex, of what he and Tribonian actually did.
To the merits of the work as actually performed some reference
has already been made. The chief defect of the Digest is in point
of scientific arrangement, a matter about which the Roman
lawyers, perhaps one may say the ancients generally, cared very
little. There are some repetitions and some inconsistencies, but
not more than may fairly be allowed for in a compilation of such
magnitude executed so rapidly. Tribonian has been blamed for
the insertions the compilers made in the sentences of the old
jurists (the so-called Emblemata Triboniani) ; but it was a part of
Justinian's plan that such insertions should be made, so as to
adapt those sentences to the law as settled in the emperor's
time. On Justinian's own laws, contained in the Codex and in
his Novels, a somewhat less favourable judgment must be pro-
nounced. They, and especially the latter, are diffuse and often
lax in expression, needlessly prolix, and pompously rhetorical.
The policy of many, particularly of those which deal with ecclesi-
astical matters, may also be condemned; yet some gratitude is
due to the legislator who put the law of intestate succession on
that plain and rational footing whereon it has ever since con-
tinued to stand. It is somewhat remarkable that, although
Justinian is so much more familiar to us by his legislation than
by anything else, this sphere of his imperial labour is hardly
referred to by any of the contemporary historians, and then only
with censure. Procopius complains that he and Tribonian were
always repealing old laws and enacting new ones, and accuses
them of venal motives for doing so.
The Corpus Juris of Justinian continued to be, with naturally a
few additions in the ordinances of succeeding emperors, the chief
law-book of the Roman world till the time of the Macedonian dynasty
when, towards the end of the 9th century, a new system was prepared
and issued by those sovereigns, which we know as the Basilica. It
is of course written in Greek, and consists of parts of the substance
of the Codex and the Digest, thrown together and often altered in
expression, together with some matter from the Novels and imperial
ordinances posterior to Justinian. In the western provinces, which
had been wholly severed from the empire before the publication
of the Basilica, the law as settled by Justinian held its ground;
but copies of the Corpus Juris were extremely rare, nor did the
study of it revive until the end of the nth century.
The best edition of the Digest is that of Mommsen (Berlin
1868-1870), and of the Codex that of Kriiger (Berlin 1875-1877).
2. In his financial administration of the empire, Justinian is
represented to us as being at once rapacious and extravagant.
His unwearied activity and inordinate vanity led him to under-
take a great many costly public works, many of them, such as
the erection of palaces and churches, unremunerative. The
money needed for these, for his wars, and for buying off the
barbarians who threatened the frontiers, had to be obtained by
increasing the burdens of the people. They suffered, not only
from the regular taxes, which were seldom remitted even after
bad seasons, but also from monopolies; and Procopius goes so far
as to allege that the emperor made a practice of further recruiting
his treasury by confiscating on slight or fictitious pretexts the
property of persons who had displeased Theodora or himself.
Fiscal severities were no doubt one cause of the insurrections
which now and then broke out, and in the gravest of which,
(532) thirty thousand persons are said to have perished in the
capital. It is not always easy to discover, putting together the
trustworthy evidence of Justinian's own laws and the angry
complaints of Procopius, what was the nature and justification
of the changes made in the civil administration. But the
general conclusion seems to be that these changes were always
in the direction of further centralization, increasing the power of
the chief ministers and their offices, bringing all more directly
under the control of the Crown, and in some cases limiting the
powers and appropriating the funds of local municipalities.
Financial necessities compelled retrenchment, so that a certain
number of offices were suppressed altogether, much to the dis-
gust of the office-holding class, which was numerous and wealthy,
and had almost come to look on the civil service as its hereditary
possession. The most remarkable instance of this policy was
the discontinuance of the consulship. This great office had re-
mained a dignity centuries after it had ceased to be a power;
but it was a very costly dignity, the holder being expected to
spend large sums in public displays. As these sums were provided
by the state, Justinian saved something considerable by stopping
the payment. He named no consul after Basilius, who was the
name-giving consul of 541.
In a bureaucratic despotism the greatest merit of a sovereign
is to choose capable and honest ministers. Justinian's selections
were usually capable, but not so often honest; probably it was
hard to find thoroughly upright officials; possibly they would not
have been most serviceable in carrying out the imperial will, and
especially in replenishing the imperial treasury. Even the great
Tribonian labours under the reproach of corruption, while the
fact that Justinian maintained John of Cappadocia in power long
after his greed, his unscrupulousness, and the excesses of his
private life had excited the anger of the whole empire, reflects
little credit on his own principles of government and sense of
duty to his subjects. The department of administration in
which he seems to have felt most personal interest was that of
public works. He spent immense sums on buildings of all sorts,
on quays and harbours, on fortifications, repairing the walls of
cities and erecting castles in Thrace to check the inroads of the
barbarians, on aqueducts, on monasteries, above all, upon
churches. Of these works only two remain perfect, St Sophia in
Constantinople, now a mosque, and one of the architectural
wonders of the world, and the church of SS Sergius and Bacchus,
now commonly called Little St Sophia, which stands about half
a mile from the great church, and is in its way a very delicate and
beautiful piece of work. The church of S. Vitale at Ravenna,
though built in Justinian's reign, and containing mosaic pictures
of him and Theodora, does not appear to have owed anything to
his mind or purse.
3. Justinian's ecclesiastical policy was so complex and varying
that it is impossible within the limits of this article to do more
than indicate its bare outlines. For many years before the
accession of his uncle Justin, the Eastern world had been vexed
by the struggles of the Monophysite party, who recognized only
one nature in Christ, against the view which then and ever since
has maintained itself as orthodox, that the divine and human
natures coexisted in Him. The latter doctrine had triumphed at
the council of Chalcedon, and was held by the whole Western
Church, but Egypt, great part of Syria and Asia Minor, and a
considerable minority even in Constantinople clung to Monophy-
sitism. The emperors Zeno and Anastasius had been strongly
suspected of it, and the Roman bishops had refused to communi-
cate with the patriarchs of Constantinople since 484, when they
had condemned Acacius for accepting the formula of conciliation
issued by Zeno. One of Justinian's first public acts was to put
an end to this schism by inducing Justin to make the then patri-
arch renounce this formula and declare his full adhesion to the
creed of Chalcedon. When he himself came to the throne he
endeavoured to persuade the Monophysites to come in by sum-
moning some of their leaders to a conference. This failing, he
ejected suspected prelates, and occasionally persecuted them,
though with far less severity than that applied to the heretics of
a deeper dye, such as Montanists or even Arians. Not long after-
wards, his attention having been called to the spread of Origen-
istic opinions in Syria, he issued an edict condemning fourteen
propositions drawn from the writings of the great Alexandrian,
6oo
JUSTINIAN I.
and caused a synod to be held under the presidency of Mennas
(whom he had named patriarch of Constantinople) , which renewed
the condemnation of the impugned doctrines and anathematized
Origen himself. Still later, he was induced by the machinations
of some of the prelates who haunted his court, and by the influence
of Theodora, herself much interested in theological questions,
and more than suspected of Monophysitism, to raise a needless,
mischievous, and protracted controversy. The Monophysites
sometimes alleged that they could not accept the decrees of the
council of Chalcedon because that council had not condemned,
but (as they argued) virtually approved, three writers tainted
with Nestorian principles, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret,
and Ibas, bishop of Edessa. It was represented to the emperor,
who was still pursued by the desire to bring back the schismatics,
that a great step would have been taken towards reconciliation if
a condemnation of these teachers, or rather of such of their books
as were complained of, could be brought about, since then the
Chalcedonian party would be purged from any appearance of
sympathy with the errors of Nestorius. Not stopping to reflect
that in the angry and suspicious state of men's minds he was sure
to lose as much in one direction as he would gain in the other,
Justinian entered into the idea, and put forth an edict exposing
and denouncing the errors contained in the writings of Theodore
generally, in the treatise of Theodoret against Cyril of Alexandria,
and in a letter of Bishop Ibas (a letter whose authenticity was
doubted, but which passed under his name) to the Persian bishop
Maris. This edict was circulated through the Christian world to
be subscribed by the bishops. The four Eastern patriarchs, and
the great majority of the Eastern prelates generally, subscribed,
though reluctantly, for it was felt that a dangerous precedent
was being set when dead authors were anathematized, and that
this new movement could hardly fail to weaken the authority of
the council of Chalcedon. Among the Western bishops, who
were less disposed both to Monophysitism and to subservience,
and especially by those of Africa, the edict was earnestly resisted.
When it was found that Pope Vigilius did not forthwith comply,
he was summoned to Constantinople. Even there he resisted,
not so much, it would seem, from any scruples of his own, for he
was not a high-minded man, as because he knew that he dared
not return to Italy if he gave way. Long disputes and negotia-
tions followed, the end of which was that Justinian summoned
a general council of the church, that which we reckon the Fifth,
which condemned the impugned writings, and anathematized
several other heretical authors. Its decrees were received in the
East but long contested in the Western Church, where a schism
arose that lasted for seventy years. This is the controversy
known as that of theThree Chapters ( Tria capitula,rpla. w^dXaia) ,
apparently from the three propositions or condemnations con-
tained in Justinian's original edict, one relating to Theodore's
writings and person, the second to the incriminated treatise of
Theodoret (whose person was not attacked), the third to the
letter (if genuine) of Ibas (see Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, ii. 777).
At the very end of his long career of theological discussion,
Justinian himself lapsed into heresy, by accepting the doctrine
that the earthly body of Christ was incorruptible, insensible to
the weaknesses of the flesh, a doctrine which had been advanced
by Julian, bishop of Halicarnassus, and went by the name of
Aphthartodocetism. According to his usual practice, he issued
an edict enforcing this view, and requiring all patriarchs, metro-
politans, and bishops to subscribe to it. Some, who not un-
naturally held that it was rank Monophysitism, refused at once,
and were deprived of their sees, among them Eutychius the
eminent patriarch of Constantinople. Others submitted or
temporized; but before there had been time enough for the matter
to be carried through, the emperor died, having tarnished if not
utterly forfeited by this last error the reputation won by a life
devoted to the service of Orthodoxy.
As no preceding sovereign had been so much interested in
church affairs, so none seems to have shown so much activity as a
persecutor both of pagans and of heretics. He renewed with
additional stringency the laws against both these classes. The
former embraced a large part of the rural population in certain
secluded districts, such as parts of Asia Minor and Pelopon-
nesus; and we are told that the efforts directed against them
resulted in the forcible baptism of 70,000 persons in Asia
Minor alone. Paganism, however, survived; we find it in
Laconia in the end of the gih century, and in northern Syria it
has lasted till our own times. There were also a good many
crypto-pagans among the educated population of the capital.
Procopius, for instance, if he was not actually a Pagan, was
certainly very little of a Christian. Inquiries made in the third
year of Justinian's reign drove nearly all of these persons into an
outward conformity, and their offspring seem to have become
ordinary Christians. At Athens, the philosophers who taught in
the schools hallowed by memories of Plato still openly professed
what passed for Paganism, though it was really a body of moral
doctrine, strongly tinged with mysticism, in which there was far
more of Christianity and of the speculative metaphysics of the
East than of the old Olympian religion. Justinian, partly from
religious motives, partly because he discountenanced all rivals
to the imperial university of Constantinople, closed these
Athenian schools (529). The professors sought refuge at the
court of Chosroes, king of Persia, but were soon so much disgusted
by the ideas and practices of the fire-worshippers that they re-
turned to the empire, Chosroes having magnanimously obtained
from Justinian a promise that they should be suffered to pass
the rest of their days unmolested. Heresy proved more obstinate .
The severities directed against the Montanists of Phrygia led to a
furious war, in which most of the sectaries perished, while the
doctrine was not extinguished. Harsh laws provoked the
Samaritans to a revolt, from whose effects Palestine had not
recovered when conquered by the Arabs in the following century.
The Nestorians and the Eutychian Monophysites were not threa-
tened with such severe civil penalties, although their worship
was interdicted, and their bishops were sometimes banished;
but this vexatious treatment was quite enough to keep them dis-
affected, and the rapidity of the Mahommedan conquests maybe
partly traced to that alienation of the bulk of the Egyptian and
a large part of the Syrian population which dates from Justinian's
persecutions.
4. Justinian was engaged in three great foreign wars, two of
them of his own seeking, the third a legacy which nearly every
emperor had come into for three centuries, the secular strife of
Rome and Persia. The Sassanid kings of Persia ruled a dominion
which extended from the confines of Syria to those of India, and
from the straits of Oman to the Caucasus. The martial char-
acter of their population made them formidable enemies to the
Romans, whose troops were at this epoch mainly barbarians,
the settled and civilized subjects of the empire being as a rule
averse from war. When Justinian came to the throne, his troops
were maintaining an unequal struggle on the Euphrates against
the armies of Kavadh I. (q.v.). After some campaigns, in which
the skill of Belisarius obtained considerable successes, a peace
was concluded in 533 with Chosroes I. (q.v.). This lasted till
539, when Chosroes declared war, alleging that Justinian had
been secretly intriguing against him with the Hephthalite Huns,
and doubtless moved by alarm and envy at the victories which
the Romans had been gaining in Italy. The emperor was too
much occupied in the West to be able adequately to defend his
eastern frontier. Chosroes advanced into Syria with little
resistance, and in 540 captured Antioch, then the greatest city
in Asia, carrying off its inhabitants into captivity. The war
continued with varying fortunes for four years more in this
quarter; while in the meantime an even fiercer struggle had begun
in the mountainous region inhabited by the Lazi at the south-
eastern corner of the Black Sea (see COLCHIS). When after
two-and-twenty years of fighting no substantial advantage had
been gained by either party, Chosroes agreed in 562 to a peace
which left Lazica to the Romans, but under the dishonourable
condition of their paying 30,000 pieces of gold annually to the
Persian king. Thus no result of permanent importance flowed
from these Persian wars, except that they greatly weakened the
Roman Empire, increased Justinian's financial embarrassments,
and prevented him from prosecuting with sufficient vigour his
JUSTINIAN I.
601
enterprises in the West. (See further PERSIA: Ancient History,
" The Sassanid Dynasty.")
These enterprises had begun in 533 with an attack on the
Vandals, who were then reigning in Africa. Belisarius, des-
patched from Constantinople with a large fleet and army, landed
without opposition, and destroyed the barbarian power in two
engagements. North Africa from beyond the straits of Gibraltar
to the Syrtes became again a Roman province, although the
Moorish tribes of the interior maintained a species of indepen-
dence; and part of southern Spain was also recovered for the
empire. The ease with which so important a conquest had been
effected encouraged Justinian to attack the Ostrogoths of Italy,
whose kingdom, though vast in extent, for it included part of
south-eastern Gaul, Raetia, Dalmatia and part of Pannonia, as
well as Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, had been grievously
weakened by the death first of the great Theodoric, and some
years later of his grandson Athalaric, so that the Gothic nation
was practically without a head. Justinian began the war in
535, taking as his pretext the murder of Queen Amalasuntha,
daughter of Theodoric, who had placed herself under his pro-
tection, and alleging that the Ostrogothic kingdom had always
owned a species of allegiance to the emperor at Constantinople.
There was some foundation for this claim, although of course it
could not have been made effective against Theodoric, who was
more powerful than his supposed suzerain. Belisarius, who had
been made commander of the Italian expedition, overran Sicily,
reduced southern Italy, and in 536 occupied Rome. Here he was
attacked in the following year by Vitiges, who had been chosen
king by the Goths, with a greatly superior force. After a siege
of over a year, the energy, skill, and courage of Belisarius, and the
sickness which was preying on the Gothic troops, obliged Vitiges
to retire. Belisarius pursued his diminished army northwards,
shut him up in Ravenna, and ultimately received the surrender
of that impregnable city. Vitiges was sent prisoner to Constanti-
nople, where Justinian treated him, as he had previously treated
the captive Vandal king, with clemency. The imperial adminis-
tration was established through Italy, but its rapacity soon began
to excite discontent, and the kernel of the Gothic nation had not
submitted. After two short and unfortunate reigns, the crown
had been bestowed on Totila or Baduila, a warrior of distinguished
abilities, who by degrees drove the imperial generals and governors
out of Italy. Belisarius was sent against him, but with forces
too small for the gravity of the situation. He moved from place
to place during several years, but saw city after city captured
by or open its gates to Totila, till only Ravenna, Otranto and
Ancona remained. Justinian was occupied by the ecclesiastical
controversy of the Three Chapters, and had not the money to fit
out a proper army and fleet; indeed, it may be doubted whether
he would ever have roused himself to the necessary exertions but
for the presence at Constantinople of a knot of Roman exiles,
who kept urging him to reconquer Italy, representing that with
their help and the sympathy of the people it would not be a
difficult enterprise. The emperor at last complied, and in 552
a powerful army was despatched under Narses, an Armenian
eunuch now advanced in life, but reputed the most skilful general
of the age, as Belisarius was the hottest soldier. He marched
along the coast of the Gulf of Venice, and encountered the army
of Totila at Taginae not far from Cesena. Totila was slain, and
the Gothic cause irretrievably lost. The valiant remains of the
nation made another stand under Teias on the Lactarian Hill in
Campania; after that they disappear from history. Italy was
recovered for the empire, but it was an Italy terribly impoverished
and depopulated, whose possession carried little strength with
it. Justinian's policy both in the Vandalic and in the Gothic War
stands condemned by the result. The resources of the state,
which might better have been spent in defending the northern
frontier against Slavs and Huns and the eastern frontier against
Persians, were consumed in the conquest of two countries which
had suffered too much to be of any substantial value, and which,
separated by language as well as by intervening seas, could
not be permanently retained. However, Justinian must have
been almost preternaturally wise to have foreseen this: his
conduct was in the circumstances only what might have been
expected from an ambitious prince who perceived an opportunity
of recovering territories that had formerly belonged to the
empire, and over which its rights were conceived to be only
suspended.
Besides these three great foreign wars, Justinian's reign was
troubled by a constant succession of border inroads, especially
on the northern frontier, where the various Slavonic and Hunnish
tribes who were established along the lower Danube and on the
north coast of the Black Sea made frequent marauding expedi-
tions into Thrace and Macedonia, sometimes penetrating as far as
the walls of Constantinople in one direction and the Isthmus of
Corinth in another. Immense damage was inflicted by these
marauders on the subjects of the empire, who seem to have
been mostly too peaceable to defend themselves, and whom the
emperor could not spare troops enough to protect. Fields were
laid waste, villages burnt, large numbers of people carried into
captivity; and on one occasion the capital was itself in danger.
5. It only remains to say something regarding Justinian's
personal character and capacities, with regard to which a great
diversity of opinion has existed among historians. The civilians,
looking on him as a patriarch of their science, have as a rule
extolled his wisdom and virtues; while ecclesiastics of the
Roman Church, from Cardinal Baronius downwards, have been
offended by his arbitrary conduct towards the popes, and by
his last lapse into heresy, and have therefore been disposed to
accept the stories which ascribe to him perfidy, cruelty, rapacity
and extravagance. The difficulty of arriving at a fair conclusion
is increased by the fact that Procopius, who is our chief authority
for the events of his reign, speaks with a very different voice
in his secret memoirs (the Anecdota) from that which he has used
in his published history, and that some of the accusations con-
tained in the former work are so rancorous and improbable that a
certain measure of discredit attaches to everything which it con-
tains. The truth seems to be that Justinian was not a great
ruler in the higher sense of the word, that is to say, a man of
large views, deep insight, a capacity for forming just such plans
as the circumstances needed, and carrying them out by a skilful
adaptation of means to ends. But he was a man of considerable
abilities, wonderful activity of mind, and admirable industry.
He was interested in many things, and threw himself with ardour
into whatever he took up; he contrived schemes quickly, and
pushed them on with an energy which usually made them succeed
when no long time was needed, for, if a project was delayed, there
was a risk of his tiring of it and dropping it. Although vain and
full of self-confidence, he was easily led by those who knew how
to get at him, and particularly by his wife. She exercised over
him that influence which a stronger character always exercises
over a weaker, whatever their respective positions; and unfortu-
nately it was seldom a good influence, for Theodora (<?.».) seems
to have been a woman who, with all her brilliant gifts of intelli-
gence and manner, had no principles and no pity. Justinian was
rather quick than strong or profound; his policy does not strike
one as the result of deliberate and well-considered views, but
dictated by the hopes and fancies of the moment. His activity
was in so far a misfortune as it led him to attempt too many things
at once, and engage in undertakings so costly that oppression
became necessary to provide the funds for them. Even his
devotion to work, which excites our admiration, in the centre of a
luxurious court, was to a great extent unprofitable, for it was
mainly given to theological controversies which neither he nor
any one else could settle. Still, after making all deductions, it is
plain that the man who accomplished so much, and kept the
whole world so occupied, as Justinian did during the thirty-eight
years of his reign, must have possessed no common abilities. He
was affable and easy of approach to all his subjects, with a
pleasant address; nor does he seem to have been, like his wife,
either cruel or revengeful. We hear several times of his sparing
those who had conspired against him. But he was not scrupulous
in the means he employed, and he was willing to maintain in power
detestable ministers if only they served him efficiently and filled
his coffers. His chief passion, after that for his own fame and
602
JUSTINIAN II.— JUSTIN MARTYR
glory, seems to have been for theology and religion; it was
in this field that his literary powers exerted themselves (for he
wrote controversial treatises and hymns), and his taste also, for
among his numerous buildings the churches are those on which he
spent most thought and money. Considering that his legal reforms
are those by which his name is mainly known to posterity, it is
curious that we should have hardly any information as to his legal
knowledge, or the share which he took in those reforms. In
person he was somewhat above the middle height, well-shaped,
with plenty of fresh colour in his cheeks, and an extraordinary
power of doing without food and sleep. He spent most of the
night in reading or writing, and would sometimes go for a day
with no food but a few green herbs. Two mosaic figures of him
exist at Ravenna, one in the apse of the church of S. Vitale, the
other in the church of S. Apollinare in Urbe; but of course one
cannot be sure how far in such a material the portrait fairly repre-
sents the original. He had no children by his marriage with
Theodora, and did not marry after her decease. On his death,
which took place on the i4th of November 565, the crown passed
to his nephew Justin II.
AUTHORITIES. — For the life of Justinian the chief authorities are
Procopius (Historiae, De aedificiis, Anecdota) and (from 552 A.D.)
the History of Agathias; the Chronicle of Johannes Malalas is also
of value. Occasional reference must be made to the writings of
Jordanes and Marcellinus, and even to the late compilations of
Cedrenus and Zonaras. The Vita Justiniani of Ludewig or Ludwig
(Halle, 1731), a work of patient research, is frequently referred to
by Gibbon in his important chapters relating to the reign of Justinian,
in the Decline and Fall (see Bury's edition, 1900). There is a Vie de
Justinien by Isambert (2 vols., Paris, 1856). See also Hutton's
Church of the Sixth Century (1897) ; J. B. Bury's Later Roman Empire
(1889) ; Hodgkin's Italy and her Invaders (1880). (J. BR.)
JUSTINIAN II., RHINOTMETUS (669-7 1 1 ) . East Roman emperor
685-695 and 704-711, succeeded his father Constantine IV.,
at the age of sixteen. His reign was unhappy both at home and
abroad. After a successful invasion he made a truce with the
Arabs, which admitted them to the joint possession of Armenia,
Iberia and Cyprus, while by removing 1 2,000 Christian Maronites
from their native Lebanon, he gave the Arabs a command over
Asia Minor of which they took advantage in 692 by conquering all
Armenia. In 688 Justinian decisively defeated the Bulgarians.
Meanwhile the bitter dissensions caused in the Church by the
emperor, his bloody persecution of the Manichaeans, and the
rapacity with which, through his creatures Stephanus and
Theodatus, he extorted the means of gratifying his sumptuous
tastes and his mania for erecting costly buildings, drove his
subjects into rebellion. In 695 they rose under Leontius,
and, after cutting off the emperor's nose (whence his surname),
banished him to Cherson in the Crimea. Leontius, after a
reign of three years, was in turn dethroned and imprisoned
by Tiberius Absimarus, who next assumed the purple. Jus-
tinian meanwhile had escaped from Cherson and married Theo-
dora, sister of Busirus, khan of the Khazars. Compelled,
however, by the intrigues of Tiberius, to quit his new home, he
fled to Terbelis, king of the Bulgarians. With an army of 15,000
horsemen Justinian suddenly pounced upon Constantinople,
slew his rivals Leontius and Tiberius, with thousands of their
partisans, and once more ascended the throne in 704. His
second reign was marked by an unsuccessful war against Ter-
belis, by Arab victories in Asia Minor, by devastating expedi-
tions sent against his own cities of Ravenna and Cherson,
where he inflicted horrible punishment upon the disaffected
nobles and refugees, and by the same cruel rapacity towards
his subjects. Conspiracies again broke out: Bardancs, sur-
named Philippicus, assumed the purple, and Justinian, the
last of the house of Heraclius, was assassinated in Asia Minor,
Pecember 711.
See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury,
1896), v. 179-183; J- B. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (1889), ii.
320-330, 358-367.
JUSTIN MARTYR, one of the earliest and ablest Christian
apologists, was born about 100 at Flavia Neapolis (anc. Sichem),
now Nablus, in Palestinian Syria (Samaria). His parents,
according to his own account, were Pagans (Dial. c. Tryph. 28).
He describes the course of his religious development in the
introduction to the dialogue with the Jew Trypho, in which
he relates how chance intercourse with an aged stranger brought
him to know the truth. Though this narrative is a mixture of
truth and fiction, it may be said with certainty that a thorough
study of the philosophy of Peripatetics and Pythagoreans,
Stoics and Platonists, brought home to Justin the conviction
that true knowledge was not to be found in them. On the other
hand, he came to look upon the Old Testament prophets as
approved by their antiquity, -sanctity, mystery and prophecies
to be interpreters of the truth. To this, as he tells us in another
place (Apol. ii. 12), must be added the deep impression pro-
duced upon him by the life and death of Christ. His conversion
apparently took place at Ephesus; there, at any rate, he places
his decisive interview with the old man, and there he had
those discussions with Jews and converts to Judaism, the re-
sults of which he in later years set down in his Dialogue. After
his conversion he retained his philosopher's cloak (Euseb.,
Hist. Eccl. iv. n. 8), the distinctive badge of the wandering pro-
fessional teacher of philosophy, and went about from place to
place discussing the truths of Christianity in the hope of bringing
educated Pagans, as he himself had been brought, through
philosophy to Christ. In Rome he made a fairly long stay,
giving lectures in a class-room, of his own, though not without
opposition from his fellow-teachers. Among his opponents
was the Cynic Crescentius (Apol. ii. 13). Eusebius (Hist. Eccl.
iv. 16. 7-8) concludes somewhat hastily, from the statement
of Justin and his disciple Tatian (Oral, ad Grace. 19), that the
accusation of Justin before the authorities, which led to his
death, was due to Crescentius. But we know, from the un-
doubtedly genuine A eta SS Justini et sociorum, that Justin
suffered the death of a martyr under the prefect Rusticus
between 163 and 167.
To form an opinion of Justin as a Christian and theologian,
we must turn to his Apology and to the Dialogue with the Jew
Trypho, for the authenticity of all other extant works attri-
buted to him is disputed with good reason. The Apology — it
is more correct to speak of one A pology than of two, for the second
is only a continuation of the first, and dependent upon it — was
written in Rome about 1 50. In the first part Justin defends his
fellow-believers against the charge of atheism and hostility to
the state. He then draws a positive demonstration of the truth
of his religion from the effects of the new faith, and especially
from the excellence of its moral teaching, and concludes with a
comparison of Christian and Pagan doctrines, in which the
latter are set down with naive confidence as the work of demons.
As the main support of his proof of the truth of Christianity
appears his detailed demonstration that the prophecies of the
old dispensation, which are older than the Pagan poets and philo-
sophers, have found their fulfilment in Christianity. A third part
shows, from the practices of their religious worship, that the
Christians had in truth dedicated themselves to God. The
whole closes with an appeal to the princes, with a reference
to the edict issued by Hadrian in favour of the Christians. In
the so-called Second Apology, Justin takes occasion from the
trial of a Christian recently held in Rome to argue that the inno-
cence of the Christians was proved by the very persecutions.
Even as a Christian Justin always remained a philosopher. By
his conscious recognition of the Greek philosophy as a pre-
paration for the truths of the Christian religion, he appears
as the first and most distinguished in the long list of those who
have endeavoured to reconcile Christian with non-Christian
culture. Christianity consists for him in the doctrines, guaran-
teed by. the manifestation of the Logos in the person of Christ,
of God, righteousness and immortality, truths which have been
to a certain extent foreshadowed in the monotheistic religious
philosophies. In this process the conviction of the recon-
ciliation of the sinner with God, of the salvation of the world
and the individual through Christ, fell into the background
before the vindication of supernatural truths intellectually
conceived. Thus Justin may give the impression of having
JUTE
603
rationalized Christianity, and of not having given it its full
value as a religion of salvation. It must not, however, be
forgotten that Justin is here speaking as the apologist of Christi-
anity to an educated Pagan public, on whose philosophical view
of life he had to base his arguments, and from whom he could not
expect an intimate comprehension of the religious position of
Christians. That he himself had a thorough comprehension of
it he showed in the Dialogue with the Jew Trypho. Here, where
he had to deal with the Judaism that believed in a Messiah, he
was far better able to do justice to Christianity as a revelation;
and so we find that the arguments of this work are much more
completely in harmony with primitive Christian theology than
those of the Apology. He also displays in this work a consider-
able knowledge of the Rabbinical writings and a skilful polemical
method which was surpassed by none of the later anti- Jewish
writers.
, Justin is a most valuable authority for the life of the Christian
Church in the middle of the 2nd century. While we have else-
where no connected account of this, Justin's Apology contains a
few paragraphs (61 seq.), which give a vivid description of the
public worship of the Church and its method of celebrating
the sacraments (Baptism and the Eucharist). And from this
it is clear that though, as a theologian, Justin wished to go his
own way, as a believing Christian he was ready to make his
standpoint that of the Church and its baptismal confession of
faith. His works are also of great value for the history of the
New Testament writings. He knows of no canon of the New
Testament, i.e* no fixed and inclusive collection of the apostolic
writings. His sources for the teachings of Jesus are the
" Memoirs of the Apostles," by which are probably to be under-
stood the Synoptic Gospels (without the Gospel according to
St John), which, according to his account, were read along
with the prophetic writings at the public services. From
his writings we derive the impression of an amiable personality,
who is honestly at pains to arrive at an understanding with his
opponents. As a theologian, he is of wide sympathies; as a
writer, he is often diffuse and somewhat dull. There are
not many traces of any particular literary influence of his
writings upon the Christian Church, and this need not surprise
us. The Church as a whole took but little interest in apolo-
getics and polemics, nay, had at times even an instinctive
feeling that in these controversies that which she held holy
might easily suffer loss. Thus Justin's writings were not much
read, and at the present time both the Apology and the Dialogue
are preserved in but a single MS. (cod. Paris, 450, A.D. 1364).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The editions of Robert Etienne (Stephanus)
(1551); H. Sylburg (1593); F. Morel (1615); Prudentius Maranuis
(1742) are superseded by J. C. T. Otto, Justini philosophi et martyris
opera quae feruntur omnia (3rd ed. 5 vols., Jena, 1876-1881). This
edition contains besides the Apologies (vol. i.) and the Dialogue
(vol. ii.) the following writings : Speech to the Greeks (Oratio) ; Address
to the Greeks (Cohortatio) : On the Monarchy of God; Epistle to
Diognetus; Fragments on the Resurrection and other Fragments;
Exposition of the True Faith ; Epistle to Zenas and Serenus ; Refutation
of certain Doctrines of A ristotle ; Questions and A nswers to the Orthodox ;
Questions of Christians to Pagans ; Questions of Pagans to Christians.
None of these writings, not even the Cohortatio, which former critics
ascribed to Justin, can be attributed to him. The authenticity of
the Dialogue has occasionally been disputed, but without reason.
For a handy edition of the Apology see G. Kruger, Die Apologien
Justins des Mdrtyrers (3rd ed. Tubingen, 1904). There is a good
German translation with a comprehensive commentary by H. Veil
(1894). For English translations consult the " Oxford Library of
the Fathers" and the " Ante-Nicene Library." Full information
about Justin's history and views may be had from the following
monographs: C. Semisch, Justin der Mdrtyrer (2 vols., 1840-1842);
J. Donaldson, A Critical History of Christian Literature and Doctrine,
• vol. 2 (1866); C. E. Freppel, St Justin (3rd ed., 1886); Moritz von
Engelhardt, Das Christentum Justins des Mdrtyrers (1878); T. M.
Wehofer, Die Apologie Justins des Philosophen und Mdrtyrers in
litterarhistorischer Beziehung zum ersten Male untersucht (1897);
Alfred Leonhard Feder, Justins des Mdrtyrers Lehre von Jesus
Christus (1906). On the critical questions raised by the spurious
writings consult W. Gaul, Die Abfassungsverhdltnisse der pseudo-
justinischen Cohortatio ad Graecos (1902) ; Adolf Harnack, Diodor
von Tarsus. Vier pseudo-justinische Schriften als Eigentum Diodors
nachgewiesen (1901). <G. K.)
JUTE, a vegetable fibre now occupying a position in the manu-
facturing scale inferior only to cotton and flax. The term jute
appears to have been first used in 1 746, when the captain of the
" Wake " noted in his log that he had sent on shore " 60 bales
of gunney with all the jute rope" (New Eng. Diet. s.v.). In 1795
W. Roxburgh sent to the directors of the East India Company a
bale of the fibre which he described as " the jute of the natives."
Importations of the substance had been made at earlier times
under the name of pat, an East Indian native term by which
the fibre continued to be spoken of in England till the early years
of the ipth century, when it was supplanted by the name it now
bears. This modern name appears to be derived from jhot or
jhout (Sansk. jhat), the vernacular name by which the substance
is known in the Cuttack district, where the East India Company
had extensive roperies when Roxburgh first used the term.
FIG. i. — Capsules of Jute Plants, a, Corchorus capsularis;
b, C. olitorius.
The fibre is obtained from two species of Corchorus (nat. ord.
Tiliaceae), C. capsularis and C. olitorius, the products of both
being so essentially alike that neither in commerce nor agricul-
ture is any distinction made between them. These and various
other species of Corchorus are natives of Bengal, where they have
been cultivated from very remote times for economic purposes,
although there is reason to believe that the cultivation did not
originate in the northern parts of India. The two species
cultivated for jute fibre are in all respects very similar to each
other, except in their fructification and the relatively greater
size attained by C. capsularis. They are annual plants from
5 to 10 ft. high, with a cylindrical stalk as thick as a man's
finger, and hardly branching except near the top. The light-
green leaves are from 4 to 5 in. long by i£ in. broad above the
base, and taper upward into a fine point ; the edges are serrated;
the two lower teeth are drawn out into bristle-like points. The
small whitish-yellow flowers are produced in clusters of two or
three opposite the leaves.
The capsules or seed-pods in the case of C. capsularis are
globular, rough and wrinkled, while in C. olitorius they are
slender, quill-like cylinders (about 2 in. long), a very marked
distinction, as may be noted from fig. i, in which a and b show
the capsules of C. capsularis and C. olitorius respectively.
Fig. 2 represents a flowering top of C. olitorius.
Both species are cultivated in India, not only on account
604
JUTE
of their fibre, but also for the sake of their leaves, which are there
extensively used as a pot-herb. The use of C. olitorius for the
latter purpose dates from very ancient times, it if may be identi-
fied, as some suppose, with the mallows (™^J) mentioned in
Job xxx. 4; hence the name Jew's mallow. It is certain that
the Greeks used this plant as a pot-herb; and by many other
nations around the shores of the Mediterranean this use of it
was, and is still, common. Throughout Bengal the name
by which the plants when used as edible vegetables are recog-
nized is nalita; when on the other hand they are spoken of
as fibre-producers it is generally under the name pat. The culti-
vation of C. capsularis is most prevalent in central and eastern
Bengal, while in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, where, however,
the area under cultivation is limited, C. olitorius is principally
grown. The fibre known as China jute or Tien-tsin jute is the
product of another plant, Abutilon Avicennae, a member of the
Mallow family.
Cultivation and Cropping. — Attempts have been made to grow
the jute plant in America, Egypt, Africa and other places, but
up to the present the fibre has proved much inferior to that
obtained from plants grown in India. Here the cultivation
of the plant extends from the Hugli through eastern and
northern Bengal. The successful cultivation of the plant
demands a hot, moist climate, with a fair amount of rain. Too
much rain at the beginning of the season is detrimental to the
growth, while a very dry season is disastrous. The climate of
eastern and northern Bengal appears to be ideal for the growth
of the plant.
The quality of the fibre and the produce per acre depend in a
measure on the preparation of the soil. The ground should be
ploughed about four times and all weeds removed. The seed is
then sown broadcast as in the case of flax. It is only within
quite recent years that any attention has been paid to the
selection of the seed. The following extract from Capital
(Jan. 17, 1907) indicates the new interest taken in it.
" Jute seed experiments are being continued and the report for
1906 has been issued. The object ofthese experiments is, 01 course,
to obtain a better class of jute seed by growing plants, especially
for no other purpose than to obtain their seed. The agricultural
department has about 300 maunds (25,000 Ib) of selected seed for
distribution this year. The selling price is to be Rs. 10 per maund.
The agricultural department of the government of Bengal are now
fully alive to the importance of fostering the jute industry by showing
conclusively that attention to scientific agriculture will make two
maunds of jute grow where only one maund grew before. Let them
go on (as they will) till all the ryots are thoroughly indoctrinated
into the new system."
The time of sowing extends from the middle of March to the
middle of June, while the reaping, which depends upon the time
of sowing and upon the weather, is performed from the end of
June to the middle of October. The crop is said to be ready
for gathering when the flowers appear; if gathered before, the
fibre is weak, while if left until the seed is ripe, the fibre is
stronger, but is coarser and lacks the characteristic lustre.
The fibre is separated from the stalks by a process of retting
similar to that for flax and hemp. In certain districts of
Bengal it is the practice to stack the crop for a few days previous
to retting in order to allow the leaves to dry and to drop off the
stalks. It is stated that the colour of the fibre is darkened if the
leaves are allowed to remain on during the process of retting.
It is also thought that the drying of the plants before retting
facilitates the separation of the fibre. Any simple operation
which improves the colour of the fibre or shortens the operation
of retting is worthy of consideration. The benefits to be derived
from the above process, however, cannot be great, for the bundles
are usually taken direct to the pools and streams. The period
necessary for the completion of the retting process varies
according to the temperature and to the properties of the water,
and may occupy from two days to a month. After the first few
days of immersion the stalks are examined daily to test the
progress of the retting. When the fibres are easily separated
from the stalk, the operation is complete and the bundles should
be withdrawn. The following description of the retting of
jute is taken from Royle's Fibrous Plants of India: —
" The proper point being attained, the native operator, standing
up to his middle in water, takes as many of the sticks in his hands
as he can grasp, and removing a small portion of the bark from the
ends next the roots, and grasping them together, he strips off the
whole with a little management from end to end, without breaking
either stem or fibre. Having prepared a certain quantity into this
half state, he next proceeds to wash off: this is done by taking a
large handful; swinging it round his head_he dashes it repeatedly
against the surface of the water, drawing it through towards him,
so as to wash off the impurities; then, with a dexterous throw he
fans it out on the surface of the water and carefully picks off all
remaining black spots. It is now wrung out so as to remove as
much water as possible, and then hung up on lines prepared on the
spot, to dry in the sun."
The separated fibre is then made up into bundles ready for
sending to one of the jute presses. The jute is carefully sorted
into different qualities, and then each lot is subjected to an enor-
mous hydraulic pressure from which it emerges in the shape
of the well-known bales, each weighing 400 Ib.
The crop naturally depends upon the quality of the soil,
and upon the attention which the fibre has received in its
various stages; the yield per acre varies in different districts.
Three bales per acre, or 1200 Ib is termed a 100% crop, but the
usual quantity obtained is about 2-6 bales per acre. Sometimes
the crop is stated in lakhs of 100,000 bales each. The crop in
1906 reached nearly 9,000,000 bales, and in 1907 nearly
10,000,000 was reached. The following particulars were issued
on the 1 9th of September 1906 by Messrs. W. F. Souter & Co.,
Dundee: —
Year.
Actual
acreage.
Estimated yield
(100%
equal 3 bales
per acre).
Estimated
total
crop.
Bales.
Shipment to Europe.
Shipment to America.
Supplies to
Indian mills
and local
consumption.
Out-turn
total crop.
Bales.
Jute.
Bales.
Cuttings.
Bales.
Jute.
Bales.
Cuttings.
Bales.
1901 — 1st
2,216,500
94% =
6,250,000
Final
1902 — 1st
2,249,000
2,200,000
96% =
80 % =
6,500,000
5,280,000
3.528,691
54-427
295-921
426,331
3,100,000 =
7.405,370
Final
2,200,000
80 % =
5,280,000
2,773,621
39,019
230,4'S
207,999
2,600,000 =
5,851,054
'9°3 — 'st
2,100,000
85% =
5,400,000
Final
2,250,000
93S% =
6,500,000
3-161,791
59,562
329,048
236,959
3,650,000 =
7-437,360
1004— 1st
2,700,000
8?i% =
7,100,000
Final
1905-1 st
2,850,000
3,163,500
85% =
87% =
7,400,000
8,250,000
2.939-940
44,002
253,882
290,854
3,475,782 =
7,004,460
Final
3,145,000
87% =
Outlying
8,200,000)
200,000 J
3-483-315
63,118
347.974
245,044
4,018,523 | =
8,233,358
Madras
7e.78d.
1906 — 1st
3,271,400)
Q- O/
»7 /o —
8,713,000
/ O»O"t
Outlying'
67,000)
Madras
100,000
Final
3,336,400
8,736,220
(Outlying districts and Madras, say 250,000 bales
additional)
JUTE
605
Estimated consumption of jute 1906-1907.
In Europe Bales per annum.
Scotland 1,250,000
England 20,000
Ireland 25,000
France 475,000
Belgium 120,000
Germany 750,000
Austria and Bohemia
Norway and Sweden
Russia
Holland
Spain
Italy
In America ....
In India —
Mills
Local
262,000
62,500
180,000
25,000
90,000
160,000
3,419,500 bales
600,000 „
4,400,000 „
600,000
3,900,000
500,000
8,419,500 bales
Statistics of consumption of jute, rejections and cuttings.
Consumption.
1894.
Bales.
1904.
Bales.
1906.
Bales.
United Kingdom
Continent
America
Indian mills ....
Local Indian consumption .
Total jute crop consumption
1,200,000
1,100,000
500,000
1,500,000
500,000
1,200,000
i ,800,000
500,000
2,900,000
500,000
1,295,000
2,124,500
600,000
3,900,000
500,000
4,800,000
6,900,000
8,419,500
A number of experiments in jute cultivation were made
during 1906, and the report showed that very encouraging
results were obtained from land manured with cow-dung. If
more scientific attention be given to the cultivation it is quite
possible that what is now considered as 100% yield may be
exceeded.
Characteristics. — The characters by which qualities of jute are
judged are colour, lustre, softness, strength, length, firmness,
uniformity and absence of roots. The best qualities are of a
clear whitish-yellow colour, with a fine silky lustre, soft and
smooth to the touch, and fine, long and uniform in fibre.
When the fibre is intended for goods in the natural colour it is
essential that it should be of a light shade and uniform, but if
intended for yarns which are to be dyed a dark shade, the colour
is not so important. The cultivated plant yields a fibre with a
length of from 6 to 10 ft., but in exceptional cases it has been
known to reach 14 or 15 ft. in length. The fibre is decidedly
inferior to flax and hemp in strength and tenacity; and, owing
to a peculiarity in its microscopic structure, by which the walls
of the separate cells composing the fibre vary much in thickness
at different points, the single strands of fibre are of unequal
strength. Recently prepared fibre is always stronger, more
lustrous, softer and whiter than such as has been stored for some
time — age and exposure rendering it brown in colour and harsh
and brittle in quality. Jute, indeed, is much more woody in
texture than either flax or hemp, a circumstance which may be
easily demonstrated by its behaviour under appropriate re-
agents ; and to that fact is due the change in colour and character
it undergoes on exposure to the air. The fibre bleaches with
facility, up to a certain point, sufficient to enable it to take
brilliant and delicate shades of dye colour, but it is with great
difficulty brought to a pure white by bleaching. A very striking
and remarkable fact, which has much practical interest, is its
highly hygroscopic nature. While in a dry position and atmo-
sphere it may not possess more than 6% of moisture, under
damp conditions it will absorb as much as 23 %.
Sir G. Watt, in his Dictionary of the Economic Products of India,
mentions the following eleven varieties of jute fibre: Serajganji,
Narainganji, Desi, Deora, Uttariya, Deswal, Bakrabadi, Bhatial,
Karimginji, Mirganji and Jungipuri. There are several other
varieties of minor importance. The first four form the four classes
into which the commercial fibre is divided, and they are commonly
known as Serajgunge, Naraingunge, Daisee and Dowrah. Seraj-
gunge is a soft fibre, but it is superior in colour, which ranges from
white to grey. Naraingunge is a strong fibre, possesses good spinning
qualities, and is very suitable for good warp yarns. Its colour,
which is not so high as Serajgunge, begins with a cream shade and
approaches red at the roots. All the better class yarns are spun
from these two kinds. Daisee is similar to Serajgunge in softness,
is of good quality and of great length; its drawback is the low
colour, and hence it is not so suitable for using in natural colour. It
is, however, a valuable fibre for carpet yarns, especially for dark
yarns. Dowrah is a strong, harsh and low quality fibre, and is
used principally for heavy wefts. Each class is subdivided according
to the quality and colour of the material, and each class receives a
distinctive mark called a baler's mark. Thus, the finest fibres may
be divided as follows: —
Superfine first marks.
Extra fine first marks 1st, 2nd and 3rd numbers.
Superior first marks
Standard „ ,,
Good ,, ,,
Ordinary ,, ,,
Good second „
Ordinary „ „
The lower qualities are, naturally, divided into fewer varieties.
Each baler has his own marks, the fibres of which are guaranteed
equal in equality
to some standard
mark. It would
be impossible to
give a list of the
different marks, for
there are h un-
dreds, and new
marks are con-
stantly being
added. A list of
all the principal
marks is issued in
book form by the
Calcutta Jute
Baler's association.
The relative
prices of the dif-
ferent classes de-
pend upon the
crop, upon the de-
mand and upon
the quality of the
fibre; in 1905 the
prices of Daisee
jute and First
Marks were prac-
tically the same,
although the for-
mer is always con-
sidered inferior to
the latter. It does
not follow that a
large crop of jute
will result in low
prices, for the year
1906-1907 was not
only a record one
for crops, but also
for prices. R. F. C. grade has been as high as £40 per ton, while its
lowest recorded price is £12. Similarly the price for First Marks
reached £29, 155. in 1906 as compared with £9, 53. per ton in 1897.
The following table shows a few well-known grades with the average
prices during December for the years 1903, 1904, 1905 and 1906.
FIG. 2. — Corchorus olitorius.
Class.
Dec. 1903.
Dec. 1904.
Dec. 1905.
Dec. 1906.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
First marks .
12 15 0
1600
19 15 o
27 15 o
BlackSCC . .
1126
14 5 o
17 15 o
20 15 o
RedSCC . . .
12 O O
14 17 6
18 15 o
23 15 o
Native rejections .
826
14 10 o
15 17 6
S 4 group . . .
—
25 10 o
38 o o
R F block D group
—
—
36 o o
R F circle D group
14 10 o
16 15 o
21 10 0
—
R F D group
ii 15 o
14 2 6
17 12 6
22 O O
N B green D . . .
14 5 o
—
21 O O
32 o o
Heart T 4 ...
14 12 6
17 10 o
22 10 0
34 o o
Heart T 5 . . . .
14 12 6
17 10 o
21 O O
31 o o
Daisee 2 ....
12 17 6
—
18 15 o
25 10 o
Daisee assortment
12 IO O
14 17 6
18 5 o
—
Mixed cuttings .
450
IO 0 0
IO O O
Jute Manufacture. — Long before jute came to occupy a
prominent place amongst the textile fibres of Europe, it formed
6o6
JUTE
the raw material of a large and important industry throughou
the regions of Eastern Bengal. The Hindu population made the
material up into cordage, paper and cloth, the chief use of th
latter being in the manufacture of gunny bags. Indeed, up to
1830-1840 there was little or no competition with hand labour fo
this class of material. The process of weaving gunnies for bags
and other coarse articles by these hand-loom weavers has been
described as follows: —
" SeVen sticks or chattee weaving-posts, called tana para or warp
are fixed upon the ground, occupying the length equal to the measure
of the piece to be woven, and a sufficient number of twine or threat
is wound on them as warp called tana. The warp is taken up am
removed to the weaving machine. Two pieces of wood are placet
at two ends, which are tied to the ohari and okher or roller; they an
made fast to the khoti. The belut or treadle is put into the warp,
next to that is the sarsul; a thin piece of wood is laid upon the
warp, called chupari or regulator. There is no sley used in this, nor
is a shuttle necessary; in the room of the latter a stick covered with
thread called singa is thrown into the warp as woof, which is beaten
in by a piece of plank called beyno, and as the cloth is woven it is
wound up to the roller. Next to this is a piece of wood called
khetone, which is used for smoothing and regulating the woof; a
stick is fastened to the warp to keep the woof straight."
Gunny cloth is woven of numerous qualities, according to the
purpose to which it is devoted. Some kinds are made close and
dense in texture, for carrying such seed as poppy or rape and
sugar; others less close are used for rice, pulses, and seeds of like
size, and coarser and opener kinds again are woven for the outer
cover of packages and for the sails of country boats. There is
a thin close-woven cloth made and used as garments among the
females of the aboriginal tribes near the foot of the Himalayas,
and in various localities a cloth of pure jute or of jute mixed with
cotton is used as a sheet to sleep on, as well as for wearing pur-
poses. To indicate the variety of uses to which jute is applied,
the following quotation may be cited from the official report of
Hem Chunder Kerr as applying to Midnapur.
" The articles manufactured from jute are principally (l) gunny
bags ; (2) string, rope and cord ; (3) kampa, a net-like bag for carrying
wood or hay on bullocks; (4) chat, a strip of stuff for tying bales of
cotton or cloth; (5) dola, a swing on which infants are rocked to
sleep ; (6) shika, a kind of hanging shelf for little earthen pots, &c. ;
(7) dulina, a floor-cloth ; (8) beera, a small circular stand for wooden
plates used particularly in poojahs; (9) painter's brush and brush for
white- washing; (10) ghunsi, a waist-band worn next to the skin;
(n) gochh-dari, a hair-band worn by women; (12) mukbar, a net bag
used as muzzle for cattle; (13) parchula, false hair worn by players;
(14) rakhi-bandhan, a slender arm-band worn at the Rakhi-poornima
festival; and (15) dhup, small incense sticks burned at poojahs."
The fibre began to receive attention in Great Britain towards
the close of the i8th century, and early in the igth century it was
spun into yarn and woven into cloth in the town of Abingdon.
It is claimed that this was the first British town to manufacture
the material. For years small quantities of jute were imported
into Great Britain and other European countries and into
America, but it was not until the year 1832 that the fibre may
be said to have made any great impression in Great Britain.
The first really practical experiments with the fibre were made
in this year in Chapelshade Works, Dundee, and these experi-
ments proved to be the foundation of an enormous industry. It
is interesting to note that the site of Chapelshade Works was in
1907 cleared for the erection of a large new technical college.
In common with practically all new industries progress was
slow for a time, but once the value of the fibre and the cloth
produced from it had become known the development was more
rapid. The pioneers of the work were confronted with many
difficulties; most people condemned the fibre and the cloth, many
warps were -discarded as unfit for weaving, and any attempt
to mix the fibre with flax, tow or hemp was considered a form of
deception. The real cause of most of these objections was the
fact that suitable machinery and methods of treatment had
not been developed for preparing yarns from this useful fibre.
Warden in his Linen Trade says: —
"For years after its introduction the principal spinners refused
to have anything to do with jute, and cloth made of it long retained
a tainted reputation. Indeed, it was not until Mr. Rowan got
the Dutch government, about 1838, to substitute Jute yarns for
those made from flax in the manufacture of the coffee bagging for
their East Indian possessions, that the jute trade in Dundee got a
proper start. That fortunate circumstance gave an impulse to the
spinning of the fibre which it never lost, and since that period its
progress has been truly astonishing."
The demand for this class of bagging, which is made from fine
hessian yarns, is still great. These fine Rio hessian yarns form
an important branch of the Dundee trade, and in some weeks
during 1906 as many as 1000 bales were despatched to Brazil,
besides numerous quantities to other parts of the world.
For many years Great Britain was the only European, country
engaged in the manufacture of jute, the great seat being Dundee.
Gradually, however, the trade began to extend, and now almost
every European country is partly engaged in the trade.
The success of the mechanical method of spinning and
weaving of jute in Dundee and district led to the introduction
of textile machinery into and around Calcutta. The first mill
to be run there by power was started in 1854, while by 1872
three others had been established. In the next ten years no
fewer than sixteen new mills were erected and equipped with
modern machinery from Great Britain, while in 1907 there were
thirty-nine mills engaged in the industry. The expansion of
the Indian power trade may be gathered from the following
particulars of the number of looms and spindles from 1892" to
1906. In one or two cases the number of spindles is obtained
approximately by reckoning twenty spindles per loom, which is
about the average for the Indian mills.
Year.
Looms.
Spindles.
1892-3
8-479
177.732
1893-4
9,082
189,144
1894-5
9.504
197.673
1895-6
10,071
212,595
1896-7
12,276
254,610
1897-8
12,737
271,363
1898-9
13.323
277.398
1899-1900
14,021
293,218
1900-01
15.242
315,264
1901-02
16,059
329,300
1902-03
17.091
350,120
1904'
19,901
398,020'
1905'
21,318
426,360'
1906'
26,799
520,980'
The Calcutta looms are engaged for the most part with a few
varieties of the commoner classes of jute fabrics, but the success
in this direction has been really remarkable. Dundee, on the
other hand, turns out not only the commoner classes of fabrics,
jut a very large variety of other fabrics. Amongst these may
je mentioned the following: Hessian, bagging, tarpaulin,
sacking, scrims, Brussels carpets, Wilton carpets, imitation
Brussels, and several other types of carpets, rugs and matting,
n addition to a large variety of fabrics of which jute forms a part.
Calcutta has certainly taken a large part of the trade which
Dundee held in its former days, but the continually increasing
demands for jute fabrics for new purposes have enabled Dundee
.o enter new markets and so to take part in the prosperity of the
rade.
The development of the trade with countries outside India
rom 1828 to 1906 may be seen by the following figures of
exports: —
Average per year from 1828 to 1832-33 n,8oocwt.
1833-34
1837-38 67,483
1838-39
1842-43 117,047
1843-44
1847-48 234,055
1848-49
1852-53 439,850
1853-54
1857-58 710,826
1858-59
1862-63 969,724
1863-64
1867-68 2,628,110
1868-69
1872-73 4,858,162
'873-74
1877-78 5,362,267
1878-79
1882-83 7,274,000
1883-84
1887-88 8,223,859
i
1888-89
1892-93 10,372,99'
,
1893-94
1897-98 12,084,292
1898-99
1902-03 11,959,189
1903-04
1905-06 13,693,090
1 End of calendar year, the remainder being taken to the 3ist of
Vlarch, the end of financial year.
2 Approximate number of spindles.
JUTE
607
The subjoined table shows the extent of the trade from an
agricultural, as well as from a manufacturing, point of view.
The difference between the production and the exports represents
the native consumption, for very little jute is sent overland.
The figures are taken to the 3ist of March, the end of the
Indian financial year.
Year.
Acres under
cultivation.
Production
in cwt.
Exports by
sea in cwt.
1893
2,181,334
20,419,000
10,537,512
1894
2,230,570
17,863,000
8,690,133
1895
2,275,335
21,944,400
12,976,791
1896
2,248,593
19,825,000
12,266,781
1897
2,215,105
20,418,000
11,464,356
1898
2,159,908
24,425,000
15,023,325
1899
1,690,739
19,050,000
9,864,545
1900
. 2,070,668
19,329,000
9,725,245
1901
2,102,236
23,307,000
12,414,552
1902
2,278,205
26,564,000
14,755,115
1903
2,142,700
23,489,000
13,036,486
1904
2,275,050
25,861,000
13,721,447
1905
2,899,700
26,429,000
12,875,312
1906
3,181,600
29,945,000
14,581,307
Manufacture. — In their general features the spinning and
weaving of jute fabrics do not differ essentially as to machinery
and processes from those employed in the manufacture of
hemp and heavy flax goods. Owing, however, to the woody
and brittle nature of the fibre, it has to undergo a preliminary
treatment peculiar to itself. The pioneers of the jute industry,
who did not understand this necessity, or rather who did not
know how the woody and brittle character of the fibre could be
remedied, were greatly perplexed by the difficulties they had
to encounter, the fibre spinning badly into a hard, rough and
hairy yarn owing to the splitting and breaking of the fibre.
This peculiarity of jute, coupled also with the fact that the
machinery on which it was first spun, although quite suitable
for the stronger and more elastic fibres for which it was designed,
required certain modifications to suit it to the weaker jute,
was the cause of many annoyances and failures in the early days
of the trade.
The first process in the manufacture of jute is termed batching.
Batch setting is the first part of this operation; it consists of select-
ing the different kinds or qualities of jute for any predetermined kind
of yarn. The number of bales for a batch seldom exceeds twelve, in-
deed it is generally about six, and of these there may be three, four
or even more varieties or marks. The " streaks " l or " heads " of jute
as they come from the bale are in a hard
condition in consequence of having been
subjected to a high hydraulic pressure
during baling; it is therefore necessary
to soften them before any further process
is entered. The streaks are sometimes
partly softened or crushed by means of a
steam hammer during the process of
opening the bale, then taken to the
" strikers-up " where the different varie-
ties are selected and hung on pins, and
then taken to the jute softening machine.
The more general practice, however, is
to employ what is termed a " bale
opener," or" jute crusher." The essential
parts of one type of bale opener are
three specially shaped rollers, the peri-
pheries of which contain a number of
small knobs. Two of these rollers are
supported in the same horizontal plane
of the framework, while the third or
top roller is kept in close contact by
means of weights and springs acting on
each end of the arbor. Another type of
machine termed the three pair roller jute
opener is illustrated in fig. 3. The layers from the different bales are laid
upon the feed cloth which carries them up to the rollers, between
which the layers are crushed and partly separated. The proximity
of the weighted roller or rollers to the fixed ones depends upon the
1 Also in the forms " streek," " strick " or " strike," as in Chaucer,
Cant. Tales, Prologue 676, where the Pardoner's hair is compared
with a " strike of flax." The term is also used of a handful of
hemp or other fibre, and is one of the many technical applications
of " strike " or " streak," which etymologically are cognate words.
thickness of material passing through the machine. The fibre
is delivered by what is called the delivery cloth, and the batcher
usually selects small streaks of about ij ft to 2 ft weight each and
passes them on to the attendant or feeder of the softening machine.
These small streaks are now laid as regularly as possible upon the
feed-cloth of the softening machine, a general view of which is
shown in fig. 4. The fibre passes between a series of fluted rollers,
each pair of which is kept in contact by spiral springs as shown in
the figure. The standard number of pairs is sixty-three, but different
lengths obtain. There is also a difference in the structure. of the
FIG. 3. — Jute Opener. (The three machines shown in this article
are made by Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee.)
flutes, some being straight, and others spiral, and each pair may or
may not contain the same number of flutes. The springs allow the
top rollers of each pair to rise as the material passes through the
machine. Advantage is taken of this slight upward and downward
movement of the top rollers to automatically regulate the flow of
water and oil upon the material. The apparatus for this function
is placed immediately oyer the nth and I2th rollers of the softening
machine and an idea of its construction may be gathered from fig. 5.
In many cases the water and oil are applied by less automatic, but
equally effective, means. The main object is to see that the liquids
are distributed evenly while the fibre is passing through, and to
stop the supply when the machine stops or when no fibre is passing.
The uniform moistening of the fibre in this machine facilitates the
subsequent operations, indeed the introduction of this preliminary
process (originally by hand) constituted the first important step in
the practical solution of the difficulties of jute spinning. The rela-
tive quantities of oil and water depend upon the quality of the batch.
Sometimes both whale and mineral oils are used, but in most cases
the whale oil is omitted. About I to ij gallons of oil is the usual
amount given per bale of 400 ft of jute, while the quantity of water
per bale varies from 3 to 7 gallons. The delivery attendants remove
the streaks, give them a twist to facilitate future handling, and place
Fl3. 4. — Jute Softening Machine.
them on what are termed jute barrows. The streaks are now handed
over to the cutters who cut off the roots, and finally the material is
allowed to remain for twelve to twenty-four hours to allow the mix-
ture of oil and water to thoroughly spread over the fibre.
When the moisture has spread sufficiently, the material is taken
to the " breaker card," the first machine in the preparing department.
A certain weight of jute, termed a " dollop," is laid upon the feed
cloth for each revolution of the latter. The fibre, which should be
arranged on the sheet as evenly as possible, is carried up by the
feed cloth and passes between the feed roller and the shell on to the
6o8
JUTERBOG
large cylinder. This cylinder, which has a high surface speed,
carries part of the fibre towards the workers and strippers; the
surface speed of the workers being much slower than that of the
cylinder. The pins in the two rollers oppose each other, those of
the workers being '' back-set," and this arrangement, combined
with the relative angle of the pins, and the difference in the surface
speeds of the two rollers, results in part of the fibre being broken and
carried round by the worker towards the stripper. This, as its
FIG. 5. — Improved Batching Gear.
name implies, strips the fibre off the worker, and carries it round to
the cylinder. The pins of the stripper and cylinder point in the
same direction, but since the surface speed of the cylinder is much
greater than the surface speed of the stripper, it follows that the
fibre is combed between the two, and that part is carried forward
by the cylinder to be reworked. The strippers and workers are in
pairs, of which there may be two or more. After passing the last
pair of workers and strippers the fibre is carried forward towards the
doffing roller, the pins of which are back-set, and the fibre is removed
from the cylinder by the doffer, from which it passes between the
drawing and pressing rollers into the conductor, and finally between
the delivery and pressing rollers into the sliver can. It may be
mentioned that more or less breaking takes place between each pair
of rollers, the pins of which are opposed, and that combing and
drawing out obtains between those rollers with pins pointing in
the same direction. The ratio of the surface speeds of the drawing
roller and the feed roller is termed the draft : —
surface speed of drawing roller , ,
surface speed of feed roller t-
In this machine the draft is usually about thirteen.
The sliver from the can of the breaker card may be wound into
balls, or it may be taken direct to the finisher card. In the latter
method from eight to fifteen cans are placed behind the feed rollers,
and all the slivers from these cans are united before they emerge
from the machine. The main difference between a breaker card
and a finisher card is that the latter is fitted with finer pins, that it
contains two doffing rollers, and that it usually possesses a greater
number of pairs of workers and strippers — a full circular finisher
card having four sets.
After the fibre has been thoroughly carded by the above machines,
the cans containing the sliver from the finisher card are taken to
the first drawing frame. A very common method is to let four
slivers run into one sliver at the first drawing, then two slivers from
the first drawing are run into one sliver at the second drawing frame.
There are several types of drawing frames, e.g. push-bar or slide,
rotary, spiral, ring, open-link or chain, the spiral being generally
used for the second drawing. All, however, perform the same
function, viz., combing out the fibres and thus laying them parallel,
and in addition drawing out the sliver. The designation of the
machine indicates the particular method in which the gill pins are
moved. These pins are much finer than those of the breaker and
finisher cards, consequently the fibres are more thoroughly separated.
The draft in the first drawing varies from three to five, while that
in the second drawing is usually five to seven. It is easy to see that
a certain amount of draft, or drawing out of the sliver, is necessary,
otherwise the various doublings would cause the sliver to emerge
thicker and thicker from each machine. The doublings play a very
important part in the appearance of the ultimate rove and yarn,
for the chief reason for doubling threads or slivers is to minimize
irregularities of thickness and of colour in the material. In an
ordinary case, the total doublings in jute from the breaker card to
the end of the second drawing is ninety-six: 12 X 4 X 2 = 96;
and if the slivers were made thinner and more of them used the
ultimate result would naturally be improved.
The final preparing process is that of roving. In this operation
there is no doubling of the slivers, but each sliver passes separately
through the machine, from the can to the spindle, is drawn out to
about eight times its length, and receives a small amount of twist
to strengthen it, in order that it may be successfully wound upon
the roving bobbin by the flyer. The chief piece of mechanism in
the roving frame is the gearing known as the " differential motion."
It works in conjunction with the disk and scroll, the cones, or the
expanding pulley, to impart an intermittingly variable speed to the
bobbin (each layer of the bobbin has its own particular speed which
is constant for the full traverse, but each change of direction of the
builder is accompanied by a quick change of speed to the bobbin).
It is essential that the bobbin should have such a motion, because
the delivery of the sliver and the speed of the flyer are constant for
a given size of rove, whereas the layers of rove on the bobbin increase
in length as the bobbin fills. In the jute roving frame the bobbin
is termed the " follower," because its revolutions per minute are
fewer than those of the flyer. Each layer of rove increases the
diameter of the material on the bobbin shank; hence, at the beginning
of each layer, the speed of the bobbin must be increased, and kept
at this increased speed for the whole traverse frbm top to bottom
or vice versa.
Let R = the revolutions per second of the flyer;
r = the revolutions per second of the bobbin;
d = the diameter of bobbin shaft plus the material;
L = the length of sliver delivered per second ;
then (R — r) d . ir = L.
In the above expression R, w and L are constant, therefore as
d increases the term (R — r) must decrease; this can happen only
when r is increased, that is, when the bobbin revolves quicker. It
is easy to see from the above expression that if the bobbin were the
" leader " its speed would have to decrease as it filled.
The builder, which receives its motion from the disk and scroll,
from the cones, or from the expanding pulley, has also an inter-
mittingly variable speed. It begins at a maximum speed when the
bobbin is empty, is constant for each layer, but decreases as the
bobbin fills.
The rove yarn is now ready for the spinning frame, where a further
draft of about eight is given. The principles of jute spinning are
similar to those of dry spinning for flax. For very heavy jute yarns
the spinning frame is not used — the desired amount of twist being
given at the roving frame.
The count of jute yarn is based upon the weight in pounds of
14,400 yds., such length receiving the name of spyndie." The
finest yarns weigh 2$ lb to 3 lb per spyndie, but the commonest kinds
are 7 Ib, 8 Ib, 9 Ib and lolb per spyndie. The sizes rise in pounds up
to about 20 lb, then by 2 lb up to about 50 lb per spyndie, with much
larger jumps above this weight. It is not uncommon to find 200 lb
to 300 lb rove yarn, while the weight occasionally reaches 450 lb per
spyndie. The different sizes of yarn are extensively used in a large
variety of fabrics, sometimes alone, sometimes in conjunction with
other fibres, e.g. with worsted in the various kinds of carpets, with
cotton in tapestries and household cloths, with line and tow yarns
for the same fabrics and for paddings, &c., and with wool for horse
clothing. The yarns are capable of being dyed brilliant colours,
but, unfortunately, the colours are not very fast to light. The fibre
can also be prepared to imitate human hair with remarkable close-
ness, and advantage of this is largely taken in making stage wigs.
For detailed information regarding jute, the cloths made from it
and the machinery used, see the following works: Watts's Dictionary
of the Economic Products of India ; Royle's Fibrous Plants of India ;
Sharp's Flax, Tow and Jute Spinning; Leggatt's Jute Spinning;
Woodhouse and Milne's Jute and Linen Weaving; and Woodhouse
and Milne's Textile Design: Pure and Applied. (T. Wo.)
JUTERBOG, or GtfTERBOG, a town of Germany in the Prussian
province of Brandenburg, on the Nuthe, 39 m. S.W. of Berlin,
at the junction of the main lines of railway from Berlin to Dresden
and Leipzig. Pop. (1900), 7407. The town is surrounded by
a medieval wall, with three gateways, and contains two Protes-
tant churches, of which that of St Nicholas (i4th century) is
remarkable for its three fine aisles. There are also a Roman
Catholic church, an old town-hall and a modern school. Jiiter-
bog carries on weaving and spinning both of flax and wool, and
trades in the produce of those manufactures and in cattle.
Vines are cultivated in the neighbourhood. Jiiterbog belonged
in the later middle ages to the archbishopric of Magdeburg,
passing to electoral Saxony in 1648, and to Prussia in 1815. It
was here that a treaty over the succession to the duchy of Jiilich
was made in March 1611 between Saxony and Brandenburg,
and here in November 1644 the Swedes defeated the Imperialists.
Two miles S.W. of the town is the battlefield of Dennewitz
where the Prussians defeated the French on the 6th of Septem-
ber 1813.
JUTES— JUTURNA
609
JUTES, the third of the Teutonic nations which invaded
Britain in the sth century, called by Bede lulae or luti (see
BRITAIN, ANGLO-SAXON). They settled in Kent and the Isle of
Wight together with the adjacent parts of Hampshire. In the
latter case the national name is said to have survived until
Bede's own time, in the New Forest indeed apparently very
much later. In Kent, however, it seems to have soon passed
out of use, though there is good reason for believing that the
inhabitants of that kingdom were of a different nationality from
their neighbours (see KENT, KINGDOM OF). With regard to the
origin of the Jutes, Bede only says that Angulus (Angel) lay
between the territories of the Saxons and the lutae — a statement
which points to their identity with the luti or Jyder of later
times, i.e. the inhabitants of Jutland. Some recent writers
have preferred to identify the Jutes with a tribe called Eucii
mentioned in a letter from Theodberht to Justinian (Man.
Germ. Hist., Epist. Hi., p. 132 seq.) and settled apparently in the
neighbourhood of the Franks. But these people may themselves
have come from Jutland.
See Bede, Hist. Eccles. i. 15, iv. 16. (H. M. C.)
JUTIGALPA, or JUTICALPA, the capital of the department of
Jutigalpa in eastern Honduras, on one of the main roads from
the Bay of Fonseca to the Atlantic coast, and on a small left-
hand tributary of the river Patuca. Pop. (1905), about 18,000.
Jutigalpa is the second city of Honduras, being surpassed only
by Tegucigalpa. It is the administrative centre of a moun-
tainous region rich in minerals, though mining is rendered
difficult by the lack of communications and the unsettled con-
dition of the country. The majority of the inhabitants are
Indians or half-castes, engaged in the cultivation of coffee,
bananas, tobacco, sugar or cotton.
JUTLAND (Danish Jylland), though embracing several
islands as well as a peninsula, may be said to belong to the
continental portion of the kingdom of Denmark. The peninsula
(Chersonese or Cimbric peninsula of ancient geography) extends
northward, from a line between Lubeck and the mouth of the
Elbe, for 270 m. to the promontory of the Skaw (Skagen), thus
preventing a natural communication directly east and west
between the Baltic and North Seas. The northern portion only
is Danish, and bears the name Jutland. The southern is Ger-
man, belonging to Schleswig-Holstein. The peninsula is almost
at its narrowest (36 m.) at the frontier, but Jutland has an
extreme breadth of no m. and the extent from the south-western
point (near Ribe) to the Skaw is 180 m. Jutland embraces nine
amter (counties), namely, Hjorring, Thisted, Aalborg, Ringkjob-
ing, V'iborg, Randers, Aarhus, Vejle and Ribe. The main water-
shed of the peninsula lies towards the east coast; therefore
such elevated ground as exists is found on the east, while the
western slope is gentle and consists of a low sandy plain of
slight undulation. The North Sea coast (western) and Skager-
rack coast (north-western) consist mainly of a sweeping line
of dunes with wide lagoons behind them. In the south the
northernmost of the North Frisian Islands (Fano) is Danish.
Towards the north a narrow mouth gives entry to the Limf jord,
or Liimfjord, which, wide and ramifying among islands to the
west, narrows to the east and pierces through to the Cattegat, thus
isolating the counties of Hjorring and Thisted (known together as
Vendsyssel). It is, however, bridged at Aalborg, and its depth
rarely exceeds 12 ft. The seaward banks of the lagoons are fre-
quently broken in storms, and the narrow channels through them
are constantly shifting. The east coast is slightly bolder than the
west, and indented with true estuaries and bays. From the
south-east the chain of islands forming insular Denmark ex-
tends towards Sweden, the strait between Jutland and Fiinen
having the name of the Little Belt. The low and dangerous
coasts, off which the seas are generally very shallow, are effi-
ciently served by a series of lifeboat stations. The western coast
region is well compared with the Landes of Gascony. The
interior is low. The Varde, Omme, Skjerne, Stor and Karup,
sluggish and tortuous streams draining into the western lagoons,
rise in and flow through marshes, while the eastern Limfjord
is flanked by the swamps known as Vildmose. The only
xv. 20
considerable river is the Gudenaa, flowing from S.W. into the
Randersfjord (Cattegat), and rising among the picturesque
lakes of the county of Aarhus, where the principal elevated
ground in the peninsula is found in the Himmelbjerg and adjacent
hills (exceeding 500 ft.). The German portion of the peninsula
is generally similar to that of western Jutland, the main difference
lying in the occurrence of islands (the North Frisian) off the west
coast in place of sand-bars and lagoons. Erratic blocks are of
frequent occurrence in south Jutland. (For geology, and the
general consideration of Jutland in connexion with the whole
kingdom, see DENMARK.)
Although in ancient times well wooded, the greater portion
of the interior of Jutland consisted for centuries of barren drift-
sand, which grew nothing but heather; but since 1866, chiefly
through the instrumentality of the patriotic Heath association,
assisted by annual contributions from the state, a very large
proportion of this region has been more or less reclaimed for
cultivation. The means adopted are: (i.) the plantation of trees;
(ii.) the making of irrigation canals and irrigating meadows;
(iii.) exploring for, extracting and transporting loam, a process
aided by the construction of short light railways; and (iv.), since
1889, the experimental cultivation of fenny districts. The
activity of the association takes the form partly of giving
gratuitous advice, partly of experimental attempts, and partly
of model works for imitation. The state also makes annual
grants directly to owners who are willing to place their planta-
tions under state supervision, for the sale of plants at half price
to the poorer peasantry, for making protective or sheltering
plantations,, and for free transport of marl or loam. The species
of timber almost exclusively planted are the red fir (Picea
excelsa) and the mountain pine (Finns montana) . This admirable
work quickly caused the population to increase at a more rapid
rate in the districts where it was practised than in any other part
of the Danish kingdom. The counties of Viborg, Ringkjobing
and Ribe cover the principal heath district.
Jutland is well served by railways. Two lines cross the fron-
tier from Germany on the east and west respectively and run
northward near the coasts. The eastern touches the ports of
Kolding, Fredericia, Vejle, Horsens, Aarhus, Randers, Aalborg
on Limfjord, Frederikshavn and Skagen. On the west the only
port of first importance is Esbjerg. The line runs past Skjerne,
Ringkjobing, Vemb and Holstebro to Thisted. Both throw off
many branches and are connected by lines east and west between
Kolding and Esbjerg, Skanderborg and Skjerne, Langaa and
Struer on Limfjord via Viborg. Of purely inland towns only
Viborg in the midland and Hjorring in the extreme north are
of importance.
JUTURNA (older form Diuturna, the lasting), an old Latin
divinity, a personification of the never-failing springs. Her ori-
ginal home was on the river Numicius near Lavinium, where
there was a spring called after her, supposed to possess heal-
ing qualities (whence the old Roman derivation from juvare,
to help). Her worship was early transferred to Rome,
localized by the Lacus Juturnae near the temple of Vesta, at
which Castor and Pollux, after announcing the victory of lake
Regillus, were said to have washed the sweat from their horses.
At the end of the First Punic War Lutatius Catulus erected a
temple in her honour on the Campus Martius, subsequently re-
stored by Augustus. Juturna was associated with two festivals:
the Juturnalia on the nth of January, probably a dedication
festival of a temple built by Augustus, and celebrated by the
college of the fonlani, workmen employed in the construction
and maintenance of aqueducts and fountains; and the Volcan-
alia on the 23rd of August, at which sacrifice was offered to
Volcanus, the Nymphs and Juturna, as protectors against
outbreaks of fire. In Virgil, Juturna appears as the sister of
Turnus (probably owing to the partial similarity of the names),
on whom Jupiter, to console her for the loss of her chastity,
bestowed immortality and the control of all the lakes and rivers
of Latium. For the statement that she was the wife of Janus
and mother of Fontus (or Fons), the god of fountains, Arnobius
(Adv. gentes iii. 29) is alone responsible.
610
See Virgil, Aeneid, xii. 139 and Servius ad loc.; Ovid, Fasti, ii.
583-616; Valerius Maximus, i. 8. I ; L. Deubner, " Juturna und die
Ausgrabungen auf dem romischen Forum," in Neue Jahrb. f. das
klassische Altertum (1902), p. 370.
JUVENAL (DECIMUS JUNIUS JUVENALIS) (c. 60-140), Roman
poet and satirist, was born at Aquinum. Brief accounts of his
life, varying considerably in details, are prefixed to different
MSS. of the works. But their common original cannot be traced
to any competent authority, and some of their statements
are intrinsically improbable. According to the version which
appears to be the earliest: —
" Juvenal was the son or ward of a wealthy freedman; he practised
declamation till middle age, not as a professional teacher, but as an
amateur, and made his first essay in satire by writing the lines on
Paris, the actor and favourite of Domitian, now found in the seventh
satire (lines 90 seq.). Encouraged by their success, he devoted him-
self diligently to this kind of composition, but refrained for a long
time from either publicly reciting or publishing his verses. When at
last he did come before the public, his recitations were attended by
great crowds and received with the utmost favour. But the lines
originally written on Paris, having been inserted in one of his new
satires, excited the jealous anger of an actor of the time, who was a
favourite of the emperor, and procured the poet's banishment under
the form of a military appointment to the extremity of Egypt.
Being then eighty years of age, he died shortly afterwards of grief
and vexation."
Some of these statements are so much in consonance with the
indirect evidence afforded by the satires that they may be a
series of conjectures based upon them. The rare passages in
which the poet speaks of his own position, as in satires xi. and
xiii., indicate that he was in comfortable but moderate circum-
stances. We should infer also that he was not dependent on
any professional occupation, and that he was separated in
social station, and probably too by tastes and manners, from the
higher class to which Tacitus and Pliny belonged, as he was by
character from the new men who rose to wealth by servility
under the empire. Juvenal is no organ of the pride and dignity,
still less of the urbanity, of the Cultivated representatives of the
great families of the republic. He is the champion of the more
sober virtues and ideas, and perhaps the organ of the rancours
and detraction, of an educated but depressed and embittered
middle class. He lets us know that he has no leanings to
philosophy (xiii. 121) and pours contempt on the serious epic
writing of the day (i. 162). The statement that he was a trained
and practised declaimer is confirmed both by his own words (i. 16)
and by the rhetorical mould in which his thoughts and illustra-
tions are cast. The allusions which fix the dates when his
satires first appeared, and the large experience of life which they
imply, agree with the statement that he did not come before the
world as a professed satirist till after middle age.
The statement that he continued to write satires long before
he gave them to the world accords well with the nature of their
contents and the elaborate character of their composition, and
might almost be inferred from the emphatic but yet guarded
statement of Quintilian in his short summary of Roman litera-
ture. After speaking of the merits of Lucilius, Horace and Per-
sius as satirists, he adds, " There are, too, in our own day, dis-
tinguished writers of satire whose names will be heard of here-
after " (Inst. Or. x. i, 94). There is no Roman writer of satire
who could be mentioned along with those others by so judicious
a critic, except Juvenal. The motive which a writer of satire
must have had for secrecy under Domitian is sufficiently obvious;
and the necessity of concealment and self-suppression thus im-
posed upon the writer may have permanently affected his whole
manner of composition.
So far the original of these lives follows a not improbable
tradition. But when we come to the story of the poet's exile
the case is otherwise. The undoubted reference to Juvenal in
Sidonius Apollinaris as the victim of the rage of an actor only
proves that the original story from which all the varyingversions
of the lives are derived was generally believed before the middle
of the sth century of our era. If Juvenal was banished at the
age of eighty, the author of his banishment could not have been
the " enraged actor " in reference to whom the original lines
JUVENAL
were written, as Paris was put to death in 83, and Juvenal was
certainly writing satires long after 100. The satire in which the
lines now appear was probably first published soon after the
accession of Hadrian, when Juvenal was not an octogenarian
but in the maturity of his powers. The cause of the poet's
banishment at that advanced age could not therefore have been
either the original composition or the first publication of the
lines.
An expression in xv. 45 is quoted as a proof that Juvenal had
visited Egypt. He may have done so as an exile or in a military
command; but it seems hardly consistent with the importance
which the emperors attached to the security of Egypt, or with
the concern which they took in the interests of the army, that
these conditions were combined at an age so unfit for military
employment. If any conjecture is warrantable on so obscure a
subject, it is more likely that this temporary disgrace should have
been inflicted on the poet by Domitian. Among the many vic-
tims of Juvenal's satire it is only against him and against one of
the vilest instruments of his court, the Egyptian Crispinus, that
the poet seems to be animated by personal hatred. A sense of
wrong suffered at their hands may perhaps have mingled with
the detestation which he felt towards them on public grounds.
But if he was banished under Domitian, it must have been
either before or after 93, at which time, as we learn from an
epigram of Martial, Juvenal was in Rome.
More ancient evidence is supplied by an inscription found at
Aquinum, recording, so far as it has been deciphered, the dedi-
cation of an altar to Ceres by a lunius luvenalis, tribune of the
first cohort of Dalmatians, duumvir quinquennalis, and flamen
Divi Vespasiani, a provincial magistrate whose functions
corresponded to those of the censor at Rome. This Juvenalis may
have been the poet, but he may equally well have been a relation.
The evidence of the satires does not point to a prolonged absence
from the metropolis. They are the product of immediate and
intimate familiarity with the life of the great city. An epigram
of Martial, written at the time when Juvenal was most vigorously
employed in their composition, speaks of him as settled in Rome.
He himself hints (iii. 318) that he maintained his connexion with
Aquinum, and that he had some special interest in the worship
of the " Helvinian Ceres." Nor is the tribute to the national
religion implied by the dedication of the altar to Ceres incon-
sistent with the beliefs and feelings expressed in the satires.
While the fables of mythology are often treated contemptuously
or humorously by him, other passages in the satires clearly
imply a conformity to, and even a respect for, the observances of
the national religion. The evidence as to the military post filled
by Juvenal is curious, when taken in connexion with the con-
fused tradition of his exile in a position of military importance.
But it cannot be said that the satires bear traces of military
experience; the life described in them is rather such as would
present itself to the eyes of a civilian.
The only other contemporary evidence which affords a glimpse
of Juvenal's actual life is contained in three epigrams of Martial.
Two of these (vii. 24 and 91) were written in the time of Domitian,
the third (xii. 18) early in the reign of Trajan, after Martial had
retired to his native Bilbilis. The first attests the strong regard
which Martial felt for him; but the subject of the epigram seems
to hint that Juvenal was not an easy person to get on with. In
the second, addressed to Juvenal himself, the epithet facundus
is applied to him, equally applicable to his " eloquence " as
satirist or rhetorician. In the last Martial imagines his friend
wandering about discontentedly through the crowded streets of
Rome, and undergoing all the discomforts incident to attendance
on the levies of the great. Two lines in the poem suggest that
the satirist, who inveighed with just severity against the worst
corruptions of Roman morals, was not too rigid a censor of the
morals of his friend. Indeed, his intimacy with Martial is a
ground for not attributing to him exceptional strictness of life.
The additional information as to the poet's life and circum-
stances derivable from the satires themselves is not important.
He ha,d enjoyed the training which all educated men received in
his day (i. 15); he speaks of his farm in the territory of Tibur
JUVENAL
611
(xi. 65), which furnished a young kid and mountain asparagus
for a homely dinner to which he invites a friend during the festival
of the Megalesia. prom the satire in which this invitation is
contained we are able to form an idea of the style in which he
habitually lived, and to think of him as enjoying a hale and
vigorous age (203), and also as a kindly master of a household
(159 seq.). The negative evidence afforded in the account of his
establishment suggests the inference that, like Lucilius and
Horace, Juvenal had no personal experience of either the cares
or the softening influence of family life. A comparison of this
poem with the invitation of Horace toTorquatus (Ep. i. 5) brings
out strongly the differences not in urbanity only but in kindly
feeling between the two satirists. Gaston Boissier has drawn
from the indications afforded of the career and character of
the persons to whom the satires are addressed most unfavourable
conclusions as to the social circumstances and associations of
Juvenal. If we believe that these were all real people, with whom
Juvenal lived in intimacy, we should conclude that he was most
unfortunate in his associates, and that his own relations to them
were marked rather by outspoken frankness than civility. But
they seem to be more " nominis umbrae " than real men; they
serve the purpose of enabling the satirist to aim his blows at
one particular object instead of declaiming at large. They have
none of the individuality and traits of personal character dis-
cernible in the persons addressed by Horace in his Satires and
Epistles. It is noticeable that, while Juvenal writes of the poets
and men of letters of a somewhat earlier time as if they were still
living, he makes no reference to his friend Martial or the younger
Pliny and Tacitus, who wrote their works during the years of his
own literary activity. It is equally noticeable that Juvenal's
name does not appear in Pliny's letters.
The times at which the satires were given to the world do not
in all cases coincide with those at which they were written and
to which they immediately refer. Thus the manners and per-
sonages of the age of Domitian often supply the material of satiric
representation, and are spoken of as if they belonged to the actual
life of the present,1 while allusions even in the earliest show that,
as a finished literary composition, it belongs to the age of Trajan.
The most probable explanation of these discrepancies is that in
their present form the satires are the work of the last thirty
years of the poet's life, while the first nine at least may have pre-
served with little change passages written during his earlier
manhood. The combination of the impressions, and, perhaps
of the actual compositions, of different periods also explains a
certain want of unity and continuity found in some of them.
There is no reason to doubt that the sixteen satires which we
possess were given to the world in the order in which we find them,
and that they were divided, as they are referred to in the ancient
grammarians, into five books. Book I., embracing the first five
satires, was written in the freshest vigour of the author's powers,
and is animated with the strongest hatred of Domitian. The
publication of this book belongs to the early years of Trajan.
The mention of the exile of Marius (49) shows that it was not
published before too. In the second satire, the lines 29 seq.,
" Qualis erat nuper tragico pollutus adulter
Concubitu,"
show that the memory of one of the foulest scandals of the reign
of Domitian was still fresh in the minds of men. The third satire,
imitated by Samuel Johnson in his London, presents such a picture
as Rome may have offered to the satirist at any time in the
ist century of our era; but it was under the worst emperors, Nero
and Domitian, that the arts of flatterers and foreign adventurers
were most successful, and that such scenes of violence as that
described at 2 7 7 seq. were most likely to occur ; 2 while the mention
of Veiento (185) as still enjoying influence is a distinct reference
to the court of Domitian. The fourth, which alone has any
political significance, and reflects on the emperor as a frivolous
1 This is especially noticeable in the seventh satire, but it applies
also to the mention of Crispinus, Latinus, the class of delatores, &c.,
in the first, to the notice of Veiento in the third, of Rubellius Blandus
in the eighth, of Gallicus in the thirteenth, &c.
* Cf. Tacitus, Annals, xiii. 25.
trifler rather than as a monster of lust and cruelty, is the reproduc-
tion of a real or imaginary scene from the reign of Domitian, and
is animated by the profoundest scorn and loathing both of the
tyrant himself and of the worst instruments of his tyranny.
The fifth is a social picture of the degradation to which poor
guests were exposed at the banquets of the rich, .but many of the
epigrams of Martial and the more sober evidence of one of Pliny's
letters show that the picture painted by Juvenal, though perhaps
exaggerated in colouring, was drawn from a state of society
prevalent during and immediately subsequent to the times of
Domitian.3 Book II. consists of the most elaborate of the
satires, by many critics regarded as the poet's masterpiece, the
famous sixth satire, directed against the whole female sex,
which shares with Domitian and his creatures the most cherished
place in the poet's antipathies. It shows certainly no diminu-
tion of vigour either in its representation or its invective. The
time at which this satire was composed cannot be fixed with
certainty, but some allusions render it highly probable that it
was given to the world in the later years of Trajan, and before
the accession of Hadrian. The date of the publication of
Book III., containing the seventh, eighth and ninth satires, seems
to be fixed by its opening line to the first years after the accession
of Hadrian. In the eighth satire another reference is made (120)
to the misgovernment of Marius in Africa as a recent event,
and at line 51 there may be an allusion to the Eastern wars that
occupied the last years of Trajan's reign. The ninth has no
allusion to determine its date, but it is written with the same
outspoken freedom as the second and the sixth, and belongs to
the period when the poet's power was most vigorous, and his
exposure of vice most uncompromising. In Book IV., comprising
the famous tenth, the eleventh and the twelfth satires, the author
appears more as a moralist than as a pure satirist. In the tenth,
the theme of the " vanity of human wishes " is illustrated by
great historic instances, rather than by pictures of the men and
manners of the age; and, though the declamatory vigour and
power of expression in it are occasionally as great as in the earlier
satires, and although touches of Juvenal's saturnine humour,
and especially of his misogyny, appear in all the satires of this
book, yet their general tone shows that the white heat of his
indignation is abated; and the lines of the eleventh, already
referred to (201 seq.),
" Spectent juvenes quos clamor et audax
Sponsio, quos cultae decet assedisse puellae :
Nostra bibat vernum contracta cuticula solem,"
leave no doubt that he was well advanced in years when they
were written.
Two important dates are found in Book V., comprising satires
xiii.-xvi. At xiii. 16 Juvenal speaks of his friend Calvinus as
now past sixty years of age, having been born in the consulship
of Fonteius. Now L. Fonteius Capito was consul in 67. Again
at xv. 27 an event is said to have happened in Egypt " nuper
consule lunco." There was a L. Aemilius luncus consul
suffeclus in 127. The fifth book must therefore have been pub-
lished some time after this date. More than the fourth, this
book bears the marks of age, both in the milder tone of the senti-
ments expressed, and in the feebler power of composition exhi-
bited. The last satire is now imperfect, and the authenticity
both of this and of the fifteenth has been questioned, though OD
insufficient grounds.
Thus the satires were published at different intervals, and for
the most part composed between 100 and 130, but the most
powerful in feeling and vivid in conception among them deal
with the experience and impressions of the reign of Domitian,
occasionally recall the memories or traditions of the times of
Nero and Claudius, and reproduce at least one startling page
from the annals of Tiberius.4 The same overmastering feeling
which constrained Tacitus (Agric. 2, 3), when the time of long
endurance and silence was over, to recall the " memory of the
3 Pliny's remarks on the vulgarity as well as the ostentation of his
host imply that he regarded such behaviour as exceptional, at least
in the circle in which he himself lived (Ep. ii. 6).
4 x. 56-107.
6l2
JUVENAL
former oppression," acted upon Juvenal. There is no evidence
that these two great writers, who lived and wrote at the same
time, who were animated by the same hatred of the tyrant under
whom the best years of their manhood were spent, and who both
felt most deeply the degradation of their times, were even known
to one another. Tacitus belonged to the highest official and
senatorial class, Juvenal apparently to the middle class and to
that of the struggling men of letters; and this difference in posi-
tion had much influence in determining the different bent of their
genius, and in forming one to be a great national historian, the
other to be a great social satirist. If the view of the satirist is
owing to this circumstance more limited in some directions, and
his taste and temper less conformable to the best ancient stan-
dards of propriety, he is also saved by it from prejudices to which
the traditions of his class exposed the historian. But both
writers are thoroughly national in sentiment, thoroughly mascu-
line in tone. No ancient authors express so strong a hatred of
evil. The peculiar greatness and value of both Juvenal and
Tacitus is that they did not shut their eyes to the evil through
which they had lived, but deeply resented it — the one with a
vehement and burning passion, like the " saeva indignatio " of
Swift, the other with perhaps even deeper but more restrained
emotions of mingled scorn and sorrow, like the scorn and sorrow
of Milton when " fallen on evil days and evil tongues." In one
respect there is a difference. For Tacitus the prospect is not
wholly cheerless, the detested tyranny was at an end, and its
effects might disappear with a more beneficent rule. But the
gloom of Juvenal's pessimism is unlighted by hope.
A. C. Swinburne has suggested that the secret of Juvenal's
concentrated power consisted in this, that he knew what he
hated, and that what he did hate was despotism and democracy.
But it would be hardly true to say that the animating motive of
his satire was political. It is true that he finds the most typical
examples of lust, cruelty, levity and weakness in the emperors
and their wives — in Domitian, Otho, Nero, Claudius and Messa-
lina. It is true also that he shares in the traditional idolatry of
Brutus, that he strikes at Augustus in his mention of the " three
disciples of Sulla," and that he has no word of recognition for
what even Tacitus acknowledges as the beneficent rule of Trajan.
So too his scorn for the Roman populace of his time, who cared
only for their dole of bread and the public games, is unqualified.
But it is only in connexion with its indirect effects that he seems
to think of despotism; and he has no thought of democracy at
all. It is not for the loss of liberty and of the senatorian rule
that he chafes, but for the loss of the old national manliness and
self-respect. This feeling explains his detestation of foreign
manners and superstitions, his loathing not only of inhuman
crimes and cruelties but even of the lesser derelictions from self-
respect, his scorn of luxury and of art as ministering to luxury,
his mockery of the poetry and of the stale and dilettante culture
of his time, and perhaps, too, his indifference -to the schools of
philosophy and his readiness to identify all the professors of
stoicism with the reserved and close-cropped puritans, who
concealed the worst vices under an outward appearance of
austerity. The great fault of his character, as it appears in his
writings, is that he too exclusively indulged this mood. It is
much more difficult to find what he loved and admired than
what he hated. But it is characteristic of his strong nature that,
where he does betray any sign of human sympathy or tenderness,
it is for those who by their weakness and position are dependent
on others for their protection — as for " the peasant boy with the
little dog, his playfellow,"1 or for "the home-sick lad from the
Sabine highlands, who sighs for his mother whom he has not seen
for a long time, and for the little hut and the familiar kids."2
If Juvenal is to be ranked as a great moralist, it is not for his
greatness and consistency as a thinker on moral questions. In
the rhetorical exaggeration of the famous tenth satire, for in-
stance, the highest energies of patriotism — the gallant and des-
perate defence of great causes, by sword or speech — are quoted
1 .... "Meliusne hie rusticus infans
Cum matre et casulis et conlusore catello," &c. — ix. 60.
4 xi. 152, 153.
as mere examples of disappointed ambition; and, in the indis-
criminate condemnation of the arts by which men sought to gain
a livelihood, he leaves no room for the legitimate pursuits of
industry. His services to morals do not consist in any positive
contributions to the notions of active duty, but in the strength
with which he has realized and expressed the restraining influ-
ence of the old Roman and Italian ideal of character, and also
of that religious conscience which was becoming a new power in
the world. Though he disclaims any debt to philosophy (xiii.
121), yet he really owes more to the " Stoica dogmata," then
prevalent, than he is aware of. But his highest and rarest
literary quality is his power of painting characters, scenes,
incidents and actions, whether from past history or from con-
temporary life. In this power, which is also the great power of
Tacitus, he has few equals and perhaps no superior among ancient
writers. The difference between Tacitus and Juvenal in power
of representation is that the prose historian is more of an imagi-
native poet, the satirist more of a realist and a grotesque humor-
ist. Juvenal can paint great historical pictures in all their
detail — as in the famous representation of the fall of Sejanus;
he can describe a character elaborately or hit it off with a single
stroke. The picture drawn may be a caricature, or a misrepre-
sentation of the fact — as that of the father of Demosthenes,
" blear-eyed with the soot of the glowing mass," &c. — but it is,
with rare exceptions, realistically conceived, and it is brought
before us with the vivid touches of a Defoe or a Swift, or of the
great pictorial satirist of the i8th century, Hogarth. Yet even
in this, his most characteristic talent, his proneness to exaggera-
tion, the attraction which coarse and repulsive images have for
his mind, and the tendency to sacrifice general effect to minute-
ness of detail not infrequently mar his best effects.
The difficulty is often felt of distinguishing between a powerful
rhetorician and a genuine poet, and it is felt particularly in the
case of Juvenal. He himself knew and has well described
(vii. 53 seq.) the conditions under which a great poet could
flourish; and he felt that his own age was incapable of producing
one. He has little sense of beauty either in human life or nature.
Whenever such sense is evoked it is only as a momentary relief to
his prevailing sense of the hideousness of contemporary life, or in
protest against what he regarded as the enervating influences of
art. Even his references to the great poets of the past indicate
rather a blast sense of indifference and weariness than a fresh
enjoyment of them. Yet his power of touching the springs of
tragic awe and horror is a genuine poetical gift, of the same kind
as that which is displayed by some of the early English dramatists.
But he is, on the whole, more essentially a great rhetorician than
a great poet. His training, the practical bent of his understand-
ing, his strong but morose character, the circumstances of his
time, and the materials available for his art, all fitted him to
rebuke his own age and all after-times in the tones of a powerful
preacher, rather than charm them with the art of an accom-
plished poet. The composition of his various satires shows no
negligence, but rather excess of elaboration; but it produces
the impression of mechanical contrivance rather than of organic
growth. His movement is sustained and powerful, but there is
no rise and fall in it. The verse is most carefully constructed,
and is also most effective, but it is so with the rhetorical effec-
tiveness of Lucan, not with the musical charm of Virgil. The
diction is full, even to excess, of meaning, point and emphasis.
Few writers have added so much to the currency of quotation.
But his style altogether wants the charm of ease and simplicity.
It wearies by the constant strain after effect, its mock-heroics
and allusive periphrasis, and excites distrust by its want of
moderation.
On the whole no one of the ten or twelve really great writers
of ancient Rome leaves on the mind so mixed an impression,
both as a writer and as a man, as Juvenal. He has little, if'
anything at all, of the high imaginative mood — the mood of
reverence and noble admiration — which made Ennius, Lucretius
and Virgil the truest poetical representatives of the genius of
Rome. He has nothing of the wide humanity of Cicero, of the
urbanity of Horace, of the ease and grace of Catullus. Yet he
JUVENCUS— JUVENILE OFFENDERS
613
represents another mood of ancient Rome, the mood natural to
her before she was humanized by the lessons of Greek art and
thought. If we could imagine the elder Cato living under
Domitian, cut off from all share in public life, and finding no out-
let for his combative energy except in literature, we should per-
haps understand the motives of Juvenal's satire and the place
which is his due as a representative of the genius of his country.
As a man he shows many of the strong qualities of the old Roman
plebeian — the aggressive boldness, the intolerance of superiority
and privilege, which animated the tribunes in their opposition
to the senatorian rule. Even where we least like him we find
nothing small or mean to alienate our respect from him. Though
he loses no opportunity of being coarse, he is not licentious;
though he is often truculent, he cannot be called malignant.
It is, indeed, impossible to say what motives of personal chagrin,
of love of detraction, of the mere literary passion for effective
writing, may have contributed to the indignation which inspired
his verse. But the prevailing impression we carry away after
reading him is that in all his early satires he was animated by a
sincere and manly detestation of the tyranny and cruelty, the
debauchery and luxury, the levity and effeminacy, the crimes
and frauds, which we know from other sources were then rife in
Rome, and that a more serene wisdom and a happier frame of
mind were attained by him when old age had somewhat allayed
the fierce rage which vexed his manhood.
AUTHORITIES. — The remarkable statements in a " life " found
in a late Italian MS. (Barberini, viii. 18), " lunius luyenalis Aquinas
lunio luvenale patre matre vero Septumuleia ex Aquinati municipio
Claudio Nerone et L. Antistio consulibus (55) natus est, sororem
habuit Septumuleiam quae Fuscino (Sat. xiv. i) nupsit," though not
necessarily false, cannot be accepted without confirmation.
The earliest evidence for the banishment of Juvenal is that of
Sidonius Apollinaris (c. 480), Carm. ix. 269, " Non qui tempore
Caesaris secundi | Aeterno coluit Tomos reafu | Nee qui consimili
deinde casu Ad vulgi tenuem strepentis auram | Irati fuit his-
trionis exul," lines which by the exact parallel drawn between Ovid's
fate and Juvenal's imply the belief that Juvenal died in exile. The
banishment is also mentioned by J. Malalas, a Greek historian
subsequent to Justinian, who gives the place as Pentapolis in Africa,
Chron. x. 262, Dindorf. The inscription (on a stone now lost)
is as follows, the words and letters in brackets being the conjectural
restorations of scholars: — " [Cere] ri sacrum | [D. luj nius luvenalis
| trib.coh.[I] Delmatarum | Ilvirquinq. flamen divi Vespasian! | vo-
vit dedicav[it] que | sua pec., " Corp. inscr. lat. X. 5382, xiii. 201
sqq. The best of the known manuscripts of Juvenal (P) is at
Montpellier (125); but there are several others which cannot be
neglected. Amongst these may be specially mentioned the Bodleian
MS. (Canon. Lat. 41), which contains a portion of Satire vi., the
existence of which was unknown until E. O. Winstedt published it in
the Classical Review (1899), pp. 201 seq. Another fragment in the
Bibliotheque Nationale was described by C. E. Stuart in the Classical
Quarterly (Jan. 1909). Numerous scholia and glossaries attest the
interest taken in Juvenal in post-classical times and the middle ages.
There are two classes of scholia — the older or " Pithoeana," first
published by P. Pithoeus, and the " Cornutus scholia " of less
value, specimens of which have been published by various scholars.
The earliest edition which need now be mentioned is that of
P. Pithoeus, 1585, in which P was first used for the text. Amongst
later ones we may mention the commentaries of Ruperti (1819) and
C. F. Heinrich (1839, with the old scholia), O. Jahn (1851, critical with
the old scholia), A. Weidner (1889), L. Friedlander (1895, with a full
verbal index). The most useful English commentaries are those of
J. E. B. Mayor (a voluminous and learned commentary on thirteen
of the Satires, ii.,vi. and ix. being omitted), J. D. Lewis (1882, with
a prose translation) and J. D. Duff (1898, expurgated, and ii. and ix.
being omitted). There are recent critical texts: conservative and
chiefly based on P, by F. Buecheler (1893, with selections from the
scholia) and S. G. Owen (in the Oxford Series of Texts) ; on the other
side, by A. E. Housman(i9O5)andby the same, but with fewer innova-
tions, in the new Corpus poetarum latinorum, fasc. v. The two last-
named editors alone give the newly discovered lines of Satire vi.
There are no recent translations of Juvenal into English verse.
Dryden translated i., iii., vi., x. and xvi., the others being committed
to inferior hands. Other versions are Gifford's (1802), of somemerit,
and C. Badham's (1814). Johnson's imitations of Satires iii. and x.
are well known. For the numerous articles and contributions to
the criticism and elucidation of the Satires, reference should be made
to Teuffel's Geschichte der romischen Litteratur (Eng. trans, by Warre),
§ 331, and Schanz, ditto (1901, ii. § 2, § 4200). (W. Y.S.;J. P. P.)
JUVENCUS, GAIUS VETTIUS AQUILINUS, Christian poet,
flourished during the reign of Constantine the Great. Nothing
is known of him except that he was a Spanish presbyter of dis-
tinguished family. About 330 he published his Libri evangeli-
orum IV., each book containing about 800 hexameters. The
division into books is possibly a reminiscence of the number of
the Gospels. The work itself, written with the idea of ousting
the absurdities of Pagan mythology and replacing them by the
truths of Christianity, may be called the first Christian epic.
In the Pmefatio the author expresses the hope that the sacred-
ness of his subject may procure him safety at the final con-
flagration of the world and admission into heaven. The whole
is, in the main, a poetical version of the Gospel of Matthew, the
other evangelists only being used for supplementary details.
It is founded upon a pre-vulgate Latin translation, although
there is evidence that Juvencus also consulted the Greek. In
spite of metrical irregularities, the language and style are simple
and show good taste, being free from the artificiality of other
Christian poets and prose writers, and the author has made
excellent use of Virgil (his chief model) and other classical
writers. Juvencus set the fashion of verse translations of the
Bible, and the large number of MSS. of his poem mentioned in
lists and still extant are sufficient evidence of its great popularity.
According to Jerome, he was also the author of some poems on
the sacraments, but no trace of these has survived. The Latin
Heptateuch, a hexameter version of the first seven books of the
Old Testament, has been attributed to Juvencus amongst
others; but it is now generally supposed to be the work of a
certain Cyprianus, a Gaul who lived in the 6th century, possibly
a bishop of Toulon, author of the Life of Caesarius, bishop of
Arelate (Aries).
See M . Manitius, Geschichte der christlich-lateinischen Poesie (i 89 1 ) ;
A. Ebert, Allgemeine Geschichte der Literatur des Mittelalters, vol. i.
(1889); editions of Juvencus by C. Marold (1886); J. Hiimer in
Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum, vol. xxiv. (Vienna,
1891); J.T. Hatfield.vl Study of Juvencus (1890), dealing with syntax,
metre and language; editions of the Heptateuch by J. E. B. Mayor
(1889; reviewed by W. Sanday in Classical Review, October 1889,
and by J. T. Hatfield in American Journal of Philology, vol. xi., 1890),
and R. Peiper, vol. xxiii. of the Vienna series above.
JUVENILE OFFENDERS. In modern social science the
question of the proper penal treatment of juvenile (i.e. non-
adult) offenders has been increasingly discussed; and the
reformatory principle, first applied in the case of children, has
even been extended to reclaimable adult offenders (juveniles in
crime, if not in age) in a way which brings them sufficiently
within the same category to be noticed in this article. In the
old days the main idea in England was to use the same penal
methods for all criminals, young and old; when the child broke
the law he was sent to prison like his elders. It was only in com-
paratively recent times that it was realized that child criminals
were too often the victims to circumstances beyond their own
control. They were cursed with inherited taint; they were
brought up among evil surroundings; they suffered from the
culpable neglect of vicious parents, and still more from bad
example and pernicious promptings. They were rather poten-
tial than actual criminals, calling for rescue and regeneration
rather than vindictive reprisals. Under the old system a
painstaking English gaol chaplain calculated that 58% of
all criminals had made their first lapse at fifteen. Boys
and girls laughed at imprisonment. Striplings of thirteen and
fourteen had been committed ten, twelve, sixteen or seventeen
times. Religion and moral improvement were little regarded in
prisons, industrial and technical training were impossible. The
chief lesson learnt was an intimate and contemptuous acquain-
tance with the demoralizing interior of a gaol. There were at
one time in London 200 " flash houses " frequented by 6000
boys trained and proficient in thieving and depredation.
The substantial movement for reform dates from the protests
of Charles Dickens, who roused public opinion to such an extent
that the first Reformatory School Act was passed in 1854.
Sporadic efforts to meet the evil had indeed been made
earlier. In 1756 the Marine Society established a school for the
reception and reform of younger criminals; in 1788 the City of
London formed a similar institution, which grew much later into
614
JUVENILE OFFENDERS
the farm school at Redhill. In 1838 an act of parliament
created an establishment at Parkhurst for the detention and
correction of juvenile offenders, to whom pardon was given
conditional on their entrance into some charitable institution.
Parkhurst was technically a prison, and the system combined
industrial training with religious and educational instruction.
These earlier efforts had, however, been quite insufficient to
meet the evils, for in the years immediately preceding 1854
crime was being so constantly reinforced in its beginnings,
under the existing penal system, that it threatened to
swamp the country. Unofficial, but more or less accurate,
figures showed that between 11,000 and 12,000 juveniles
passed annually through the prisons of England and Wales, a
third of the whole number being contributed by London alone.
In 1854 the total reached 14,000. The ages of offenders ranged
from less than twelve to seventeen; 60% of the whole were
between fourteen and seventeen; 46% had been committed
more than once; 18% four times and more.
The Reformatory School Act 1854, which was thrashed out
at conferences held in Birmingham in 1851 and 1853, substituted
the school for the gaol, and all judicial benches were empowered
to send delinquents to schools when they had been guilty of
acts punishable by short imprisonment, the limit of which was
at first fourteen and became afterwards ten days. A serious
flaw in this act long survived; this was the provision that a
short period of imprisonment in gaol must precede reception
into the reformatory; it was upheld by well-meaning but mis-
taken people as essential for deterrence. But more enlightened
opinion condemned the rule as inflicting an indelible prison
taint and breeding contamination, even with ample and effective
safeguards. Wiser legislation has followed, and an act of 1899
abolished preliminary imprisonment.
Existing reformatories, or " senior home office schools " as
they are officially styled, in England numbered 44 in 1907.
They receive all juvenile offenders, up to the age of sixteen, who
have been convicted of an offence punishable with penal servi-
tude or imprisonment. The number of these during the years
between 1894 ar>d !9°6 constantly varied, but the figure of the
earliest date, 6604, was never exceeded, and in some years it
was considerably less, while in 1906 it was no more than 5586,
though the general population had increased by several millions
in the period. These figures, in comparison with those»of 1854,
must be deemed highly satisfactory, even when we take into
account that the latter went up to the age of seventeen. Older
offenders, between sixteen and twenty-one, come within the
category of juvenile adults and are dealt with differently (see
Borstal Scheme below).
Other schools must be classed with the reformatory, although
they have no connexion with prisons and deal with youths
who are only potential criminals. The first in importance are
the industrial schools. When the newly devised reformatories
were doing excellent service it was realized that many of the
rising generation might some day lapse into evil ways but were
still on the right side and might with proper precautions be kept
there. They wanted preventive, not punitive treatment, and
for them industrial schools were instituted. The germ of these
establishments existed in the Ragged, Schools, " intended to
educate destitute children and save them from vagrancy and
crime." They had been invented by John Pounds (1766-1839),
a Portsmouth shoemaker, who, early in the igth century,
was moved with sympathy for these little outcasts and devoted
himself to this good work. The ragged school movement found
powerful support in active philanthropists when public atten-
tion was aroused to the prevalence of juvenile delinquency.
The first Industrial School Act was passed in 1856 and applied
only to Scotland. Next year its provisions were extended to
England, and their growth was rapid. There were 45 schools
in the beginning; in 1878 the number had more than been
doubled; in 1907 there were 102 in England and Wales and 31
in Scotland.
The provisions of the Education Acts 1871 and 1876 led to a
large increase in the number of children committed for breaches
of the law and to the establishment of two kinds of subsidiary
industrial schools, short detention of truant schools and day
industrial schools in which children do not reside but receive
their meals, their elementary education and a certain amount
of industrial training. The total admissions to truant schools
in 1907 were 1368 boys, and the numbers actually in the schools
on the last day of that year were 1125 with 2568 on licence.
The average length of detention was fourteen weeks and three
days on first admission, seventeen weeks and five days on first
re-admission, and twenty-three weeks six days on second re-
admission. The total number of admissions into truant schools
from 1878 to the end of 1907 was 44,315, of whom just half had
been licensed and not returned, 11,239 had been licensed and
once re-admitted, 8900 had been re-admitted twice or oftener.
The day industrial schools owed their origin to another reason
than the enforcement of the Education Acts. It was found that
some special treatment was required for large masses of youths
in large cities, who were in such a neglected or degraded con-
dition that there was little hope of their growing into healthy
men and women or becoming good citizens. They were left un-
clean, were ill-fed and insufficiently clothed, and were not use-
fully taught. The total number who attended these day schools
in 1907 was 1951 boys and 1232 girls.
The disciplinary system of the English schools is planned
upon the establishment or institution system, as opposed to
that of the " family " or " boarding out " systems adopted in
some countries, and some controversy has been aroused as to
the comparative value of the methods. The British practice
has always favoured the well-governed school, with the proviso
that it is kept small so that the head may know all of his charges.
But a compromise has been effected in large establishments by
dividing the boys into " houses," each containing a small
manageable total as a family under an official father or head.
Under this system the idea of the home is maintained, while
uniformity of treatment and discipline is secured by grouping
several houses together under one general authority. The plan
of " boarding out " is not generally approved of in England; the
value of the domestic training is questionable and of uncertain
quality, depending entirely upon the character and fitness of
the foster-parents secured. Education must be less systematic
in the private home, industrial training is less easily carried out,
and there can be none of that esprit de corps that stimulates
effort in physical training as applied to athletics and the playing
of games. No very definite decision has been arrived at as to
the comparative merits of institution life and boarding out.
Among the Latin races — France, Italy, Portugal and Spain —
the former is as a rule preferred; also in Belgium; in Germany,
Holland and the United States placing out in private families
is very much the rule; in Austria-Hungary and Russia both
methods are in use.
The total admissions to English reformatory schools from their
creation to the 3lst of December 1907 amounted to 76,455, or
64,031 boys and 12,424 girls. The total discharges for the same
period were 70,890, or 59,081 boys and 11,809 girls. The results
may be tested by the figures for those discharged in 1904, 1905
and 1906: —
Boys. — 3573 were placed out, of whom 66 had died, leaving 3507;
of these it was found that 2735 (or about 78%) were in regular
employment; 158 (or about 4%) were in casual employment; 439
(or about 13%) had been convicted; and 175 (or about 5%) were
unknown.
Girls. — 480, of whom 11 had died, leaving 469; of these it was
found that 384 (or about 82%) were in regular employment; 28 (or
about 6%) were in casual employment; 17 (or about 4%) had been
convicted, and 40 (or about 8%) were unknown.
For industrial schools, including truant and day schools, the
total admissions, up to the 3lst of December 1907, were 153,893, or
120,955 boys and 32,938 girls. The total discharges to the same date
(excluding transfers) were 136,961, or 108,398 boys and 28,563 girls.
The results as tested by those discharged in 1904, 1905 and 1906
were as follow: —
Boys. — 8909 were placed out, of whom 118 had since died,
leaving 8791 to be reported on; of these it was found that 7547
(or about 86%) were in regular employment; 415 (or about 4- 7%)
were in casual employment; 419 (or about 4-7%) convicted or re-
committed; and 410 (or about 4-6%) unknown.
Girls.— 2505 placed out, of whom 50 had died, leaving 2455; of
JUVENILE OFFENDERS
615
these 2180 (or about 89 %) were in regular employment; 112 (or
about 4 %) were in casual employment; 21 (or about I %) convicted
or re-committed; and 142 (or about 6 %) unknown.
These results are of course wholly independent of those achieved
by the juvenile-adult prison reformatory at Borstal instituted in
October 1902. The record of the first year's work of this excellent
system showed that 50 % of cases placed out had done well, thanks
to the system and philanthropic labours of the Borstal Association.
An interesting point in regard to the reclamation of these crimin-
ally inclined juveniles is the nature of the employments to which
they have been recommended, and in which, as shown, they have
done so well. In 1904, 1905 and 1906, the total number of boys
discharged and placed was 12,482. By far the largest number of
these, nearly a sixth, joined the army, 679 of them entering the
bands; 292 joined the navy; 961 the mercantile marine; 1567 went
to farm service; 414 worked in factories or mills as skilled hands;
but others joined as labourers, a general class the total of which was
1096. Other jobs found included miners (629), carters (352), iron
or steel workers (214), mechanics (301), shoemakers (181), tailors
(161), shop assistants (228), carpenters (178), bakers (131), messen-
gers and porters, including 112 errand boys (315). The balance
found employment in smaller numbers at other trades. The fate
of 585 was unknown, 858 had been re-convicted, and the balance
were in unrecorded or casual employment.
The outlets found by the girls from these various schools naturally
follow lines appropriate to their sex and the instruction received.
Out of a total of 2985 discharged in the three years mentioned,
1235 became general servants, 268 housemaids, 203 laundry-maids,
52 cooks, 98 nursemaids, 65 dressmakers, 221 were engaged in
factories and mills, and the balance was made up by marriage,
death or casual employment.
In Ireland the reformatory and industrial school system conforms
to that of Great Britain. There were in 1905 six reformatory and
70 industrial schools in Ireland, mostly under Roman Catholic
management.
A short account of the reformatory methods of dealing with
juvenile offenders in certain other countries will fitly find a
place here.
Austria-Hungary. — The law leaves children of less than ten
years of age to domestic discipline, as also children above that
age if not exactly criminal, although the latter may be sent to
correctional schools. There they are detained for varying
periods, but never after twenty years of age, and they may be
sent out on licence to situations or employment found for them.
These schools also receive children between ten and fourteen
guilty of crimes which are, however, by law deemed " contra-
ventions " only; also the destitute between the same ages and
the incorrigible whose parents cannot manage them.
In Hungary the penal code prescribes that children of less
than twelve cannot be charged with offences; those between
twelve and sixteen may be deemed to have acted without dis-
cretion, and thus escape sentence, but are sent to a correctional
school where they may be detained till they are twenty years of
age. An excellent system prevails in Hungary by which the
supervision of those liberated is entrusted to a " protector," a
philanthropic person in the district who visits and reports upon
the conduct of the boys, much like the " probation officer " in the
United States.
Belgium. — The law of November 1891 places the whole
mass of juveniles — those who are likely to give trouble and
those who have already done so — at the disposal of the state.
The system is very elastic, realizing the infinite variety of child-
ish natures. The purely paternal regime would be wasted upon
the really vicious; a severe discipline would press too heavily
on the well-disposed. Accordingly, all juveniles, male and
female, are divided into six principal classes with a corre-
sponding treatment, it being strictly ruled that there is no
intermingling of the classes; the very youngest, rescued early,
are never to be associated with the older, who may be already
vicious and degraded and who could not fail to exercise a per-
nicious influence. One of the great merits of the Belgian system
is that the regulations may be relaxed, and children of whose
amendment good hopes are entertained may be released provi-
sionally, either to the care of parents and guardians or to em-
ployers, artisans or agriculturists who will teach them a trade.
Denmark. — There were 61 establishments of all classes for
juveniles in Denmark in 1906, holding some 2000 inmates. In
1874, by the will of Countess Banner, a large female refuge
was founded at Castle Jagerspris, which holds some 360 girls.
Another of the same class is the Royal Vodrofsvei Bonnehjem
at Copenhagen, founded in the same year by Mile Schneider.
The regime preferred in Denmark is that of the family or the
very small school. The Jagerspris system is to divide the whole
number of 360 into small parties of 20 each under a nurse or
official mother. Employment in Danish schools is mainly
agricultural, field labour and gardening, with a certain amount
of industrial training; and on discharge the inmates go to
farms or to apprenticeship, while a few emigrate.
France. — There are five methods of disposing of juvenile
offenders in France: —
1. The preliminary or preventative prison (maisons d'arrSt and
de justice) for those arrested and accused.
2. The ordinary prison for all sentenced to less than six months,
whose time of detention is too short to admit of their transfer to a
Erovincial colony. It also receives children whom parents have
jund unmanageable.
3. The public or private penitentiary colony for the irresponsible
children, acquitted as " without discretion," as well as for the guilty
sentenced to more than six months' and less than two years'
detention.
4. The correctional colony, where the system is more severe,
receiving all sentenced for more than two years and all who have
misconducted themselves in the milder establishments.
5. Various penitentiary houses for young females, whatever their
particular sentence.
Foremost among French penal reformers stands the name of
F. A. Demetz (1796-1873), the founder of the famous colony
of Mettray. M. Demetz was a judge who, aghast at the evils
inflicted upon children whom he was compelled by law to im-
prison, left the bench and undertook to find some other outlet
for them. At that time the French law, while it acquitted
minors shown to have acted witjout discretion, still consigned
them for safe keeping and inevitable contamination to the
common gaols. M. Demetz conceived the idea of an agricul-
tural colony, and in 1840 organized a small " soci&tt paternelle,"
as it was called, of which he became vice-president. Another
philanthropist, the Vicomte de Bretignieres de Courteilles, a
landed proprietor in Touraine, associated himself in the enter-
prise and endowed the institution with land at Mettray near
Tours. The earliest labours at Mettray were in the development
of the institution, but as this approached completion they were
applied to farmwork, agricultural employment being the chief
feature of the place. The motto and device of Mettray was
" the moralization of youth by the cultivation of the soil ";
a healthy life in the open air was to replace the enervating and
demoralizing influences of the confined prisons; and this was
effected in the usual farming operations, to which were added
gardening, vine-dressing, the raising of stock and the breeding
of silkworms. The labour was not light; on the contrary, the
directors of the colony sought by constant employment to send
their charges to bed tired, ready to sleep soundly and not romp
and chatter in their dormitories. The excellence of its aims,
and the manifestly good results that were growing out of the
system, soon made Mettray a model for imitation in France and
beyond it. Many establishments were planned upon it, started
by the state or private enterprise; penitentiary colonies were
created for boys in connexion with some of the great central
prisons. The colony of Val de Yevre has a good record. It
was started by a private philanthropist, Charles J. M. Lucas,
(1803-1889) but after five-and-twenty years was handed over to
the state. Other cognate establishments are those of Petit
Quevilly near Rouen, Petit Bourg near Paris, St Hiliar and
Eysses. There are several female colonies, especially that of
Darnetal at Rouen.
It is for the magistrate or juge d1 instruction to select the class
of establishment to which the juvenile delinquents brought
before him shall be committed. The very young, those of twelve
years of age and under, are placed out in the country with fami-
lies, unless they can be again entrusted to their parents or com-
mitted to maisons paternels, containing very limited numbers,
twenty or thirty, in charge of a large staff. After twelve, and
from that age to fourteen or fifteen, the " ungrateful age " as
6ib
JUVENILE OFFENDERS
the French call it, boys are sent to a reformatory or "preservative
school," where they will be under stronger discipline. For the
third class, from fifteen to sixteen or eighteen, stricter measures
are necessary, so as to dispose of them in specially selected penal
colonies, as has already been done at Eysses, where the discipline
is severe, while embodying technical and industrial instruction.
Germany. — In most parts of the German Empire juvenile
delinquents and neglected youths are treated in the same estab-
lishments. No child of less than twelve years of age can be
proceeded against in a court of law, although in some German
states destitute or abandoned children have been taken at the
ages of six, five and even three years. Youths between twelve
and eighteen may be convicted, but their offences are passed
over if they are proved to have acted without discretion. There
are many kinds of correctional institutions and a number of
schools not of a correctional character. These last are generally
very small, the largest taking barely a hundred, but are very
numerous. Many private persons have devoted themselves to the
work. Count A. von der Recke-Volmerstein (1791-1878) about
1821 founded a refuge for neglected children in Diisselthal,
between Dusseldorf and Elberstadt. Pastor T. F. Fliedner
(1800-1864) built up a fine establishment at Kaiserswerth from
1833, in which was an infant school, a penitentiary and afi
orphan asylum. Another famous name is that of W. von Turk
(1774-1846), who studied under Pestalozzi in Switzerland.
A school which has largely influenced public opinion in Great
Britain, as in Germany, is the Rauhe Haus, near Hamburg,
founded by Dr Wickern in 1833. This began with a single
cottage but had grown in twenty years to a hamlet of twenty
houses, with from twelve to sixteen inmates in each. The
establishment is a Lutheran < ne; both boys and girls are ad-
mitted, in separate houses, and a marked feature of the place
is the number of " brothers," young men of good character
qualifying for rescue work as superintendents of homes, prison
officers and schoolmasters. They take part in the work and are
in constant touch with the boys whom they closely supervise,
being bound to " keep them in sight day and night, eat with them,
sleep in their dormitories, direct their labour, accompany them to
chapel, join in their recreations and sports." These " brothers "
are honourably known throughout the world and have per-
formed a large work in distant lands as missionaries, prison
officers and schoolmasters. The Rauhe Haus receives three
classes of juveniles: first, the boys, mostly street arabs; second,
girls of the same category; third, children taken as boarders
from private families, who confess their inability to manage
them. The instruction given is in trades, in farming operations,
gardening and fruit-raising. The pupils are largely assisted on
release, through the good offices of the citizens of Hamburg.
Holland. — In the Low Countries, refuges, called " Gods-
huis," were founded as early as the I4th century, intended for
the care and shelter of neglected youth and indigent old age.
In the 1 7th century people came from all parts of Europe to
learn from the Dutch how orphans and unfortunate children
could best be cared for. The Godshuis of Amsterdam was a vast
establishment, into which as many as 4000 juveniles were some-
times crowded, with such disastrous effects that its name was
changed to that of " pesthuis," and the government in the begin-
ning of the present century ordered it to be emptied and closed.
Other reformatory institutions in Holland are the Netherlands
Mettray, the reform school of Zetten, near the Arnheim railway
station, for Protestant girls; and that of Alkmaar for boys;
the reformatory school of St Vincent de Paul at Amsterdam for
both sexes; the Amsterdam reformatory for young vagabonds,
male and female; the reform school of Smallepod at Amsterdam.
The Netherlands Mettray, which is about five hours' journey
from Amsterdam on a farm called Rissjelt, near Zutphen, is
planned on the model of the French Mettray and was founded
about 1855 by M. Suringar, a veteran Dutch philanthropist, long
vice-president of the directors of prisons in Amsterdam.
Italy. — In Italy there is no distinction between the treatment
of the offending and the neglected or deserted in youth. There
are seventeen or more correctional establishments, eight of
which are state institutions and the rest founded by private
benevolence or by charitable associations or local communities.
None of these is exclusively agricultural; ten are industrial,
seven industrial and agricultural combined. In Italy the age
of responsibility is nine, below which no child can be charged
with an offence. The Italian schools are mostly planned on a
large scale. That of Marchiondi Spagliardi accommodates 550,
divided among three houses under one supreme head. The
Turazza institution at Treviso holds 380, and there are eight
others with from 200 to 300 inmates. The regime is very
various; the larger number of schools are on the congregate
system, with daily labour in association and isolation by night.
The " family " method is also practised with small groups, divi-
sions or companies, into which the children are formed according
to age or conduct.
Sweden. — All children below the age of sixteen may be sent
to a correctional establishment or boarded out in respectable
.families: —
1. If they have committed acts punishable by law which indicate
moral perversity and it is deemed advisable to correct them.
2. If they are neglected, ill-used, or if their moral deterioration is
feared from the vicious life and character of parents or friends.
3. If their conduct at school or at home is such that a more severe
correctional treatment is necessary for their rescue.
Under this law the state is also to provide special schools to
take all above ten who have shown peculiar depravity; all
who have reached eighteen and who are not yet thought fit
for freedom; all who have relapsed after provisional release.
Sweden is rich in institutions devoted to the care of destitute and
deserted children, all due to the efforts of the charitable. The
largest correctional establishment is that founded at Hall,
near the town of Sodertelge on the shores of the Baltic. This
admirable agricultural colony, modelled on that of Mettray,
owes its existence to the " Oscar- Josephine society," founded by
Queen Josephine, widow of Oscar I.
United States. — In the words of a report made in 1878 by
F. B. Sanborn, secretary of the American Social Science Society,
" America can justly plume herself upon the work accom-
plished by her juvenile reformatories since their inauguration
down to the present time." The first in point of date and still
the most considerable of the reformatories in the United States
is that founded in 1825, thanks to the unwearied efforts of the
great American publicist and philanthropist Edward Livingston,
which now has its home on Randall's Island in New York
City. In the following year a reformatory of the same class
was founded in Boston, and another in the year after in
Philadelphia. All were intended to receive criminal youth.
There are state reformatories now in almost all the states of
the Union, and those for juvenile adults in New York and
Massachusetts have attracted world-wide attention, aiming so
high and with such an elaboration of means that they deserve
particular description.
The great state reformatory establishment of Elmira, New
York, called into existence in 1889 with the avowed aim of
compassing the reformation of the criminal by new processes,
partakes of the system involved in the treatment of juvenile
offenders. It was based upon the principle that crime ought
to be attacked in its beginnings by other than ordinary punitive
and prison methods. Under this view, the right of society to
defend itself by punishment was denied, and it was held that a
youthful offender was more sinned against than sinning. It was
urged that his crime, due largely to inherited defects, mental or
physical and vicious surroundings, was not his own fault,
and he had a paramount claim to be treated differently by the
state when in custody. The state was not justified in using powers
of repression to imprison him in the usual mechanical hard and
fast fashion and then return him to society, no better, possibly
worse, than before; it was bound to regenerate him, to change his
nature, improve his physique, and give him a new mental equip-
ment, so that when again at large he might be fitted to take his
place amongst honest citizens, to earn his living by reputable
means and escape all temptation to drift back into crime. This
JUVENILE OFFENDERS
617
is the plausible explanation given for the state reformatory
movement, which led to the creation on such costly and extensive
lines of Elmira, and of Concord in Massachusetts, a cognate
establishment. There is very little penal about the treatment,
which is that of a boarding school; the education, thorough and
carried far, includes languages, music, science and industrial
art; diet is plentiful, even luxurious; amusements and varied
recreation are permitted; well stocked libraries are provided
with entertaining books; a prison newspaper is issued (edited
by an inmate). Physical development is sedulously cultivated
both by gymnastics and military exercises, and the whole course
is well adapted to change entirely the character of the individual
subjected to it. The trouble taken in the hope of transforming
erring youth into useful members of society goes still further.
The original sentence has been indefinite, and release on parole
will be granted to inmates who pass through the various courses
with credit and are supposed to have satisfied the authorities
of their desire to amend. The limit of detention need not exceed
twelve months, after which parole is possible, although the
average period passed before it is granted is twenty-two months.
The hope of permanent amendment is further sought by the
fact that a situation, generally with good wages and congenial
work, provided by the authorities, awaits every inmate at the
time of his discharge. The inmates, selected from a very large
class, are first offenders, but guilty generally of criminal offences,
which include manslaughter, burglary, forgery, fraud, robbery
and receiving. The exact measure of reformation achieved
can never be exactly known, from the absence of authentic
statistics and the difficulty of following up the surveillance of
individuals when released on parole. Reports issued by the
manager of Elmira claim that 81 % of those paroled have done
well, but these results are not definitely authenticated. They
are based upon the ascertained good conduct during the term of
surveillance, six or twelve months only, during which time these
subjects have not yet spent the gratuities earned and have pro-
bably still kept the situations found for them on discharge.
No doubt the material treated at Elmira and Concord is of a
kind to encourage hope of reformation, as they are first offenders
and presumably not of the criminal classes. Although the
processes are open to criticism, the discipline enforced in these
state reformatories does not err in excessive leniency. They are
not " hotels," as has been sometimes said in ridicule, where
prisoners go to enjoy themselves, have a good time, study
Plato and conic sections, and pass out to an assured future.
There is plenty of hard work, mental and physical, and the
" inmates " rather envy their fellows in state prisons. A point
to which great attention is paid is that physical degeneracy lies
at the bottom of the criminal character, and great attention
is paid to the development of nervous energy and strengthening
by every means the normal and healthful functions of the
body. A leading feature in the treatment is the frequency and
perfection with which bathing is carried out. A series of
Turkish baths forms a part of the course of instruction; the baths
being fitted elaborately with all the adjuncts of shower bath,
cold douche, ending with gymnastic exercises.
A remarkable and unique institution is the state reformatory
for women at Sherborn, Massachusetts, for women with
sentences of more than a year, who in the opinion of the court
are fit subjects for reformatory treatment. The majority of
the inmates were convicted of drunkenness, an offence which
the law of Massachusetts visits with severity — a sentence of two
years being very common. This at once differentiates the
class of women from that in ordinary penal establishments.
At the same time we find that other women guilty of serious
crime are sent by the courts to this prison with a view to
their reform. Thus of 352 inmates, while no fewer than 200 were
convicted of drunkenness, there were also 63 cases of offences
against chastity and 30 of larceny. The average age was
thirty-one and the average duration of sentence just over a
year. In appearance and in character it more resembles a
hospital or home for inebriates than a state convict prison. A
system of grades or divisions is relied upon as a stimulus to
reform. The difference in grades is denoted by small and
scarcely perceptible variations of the little details of everyday
life, such as are supposed in a peculiar degree to affect the appre-
ciation of women, e.g. in the lowest division the women have
their meals off old and chipped china; in the next the china is
less chipped; in the highest there is no chipped china; in the
next prettily set out with tumblers, cruet-stands and a pepper
pot to each prisoner. The superintendent relies greatly also on
the moralizing influence of animals and birds. Well-behaved
convicts are allowed to tend sheep, calves, pigs, chickens,
canaries and parrots. This privilege is highly esteemed and
productive, it is said, of the most softening influences.
The " George Junior Republic " (q.v.) is a remarkable institu-
tion established in 1895 at Freeville, near the centre of New
York State, by Mr. William Reuben George. The original
features of the institution are that the motto " Nothing without
labour " is rigidly enforced, and that self-government is carried
to a point that, with mere children, would appear whimsical
were it not a proved success. The place is, as the name implies,
a miniature " republic " with laws, legislature, courts and
administration of its own, all made and carried on by the
" citizens " themselves. The tone and spirit of the place
appeared to be excellent and there is much evidence that in
many cases strong and independent character is developed in
children whose antecedents have been almost hopeless.
Borstal Scheme in England. — The American system of state
reformatories as above described has been sharply criticized, but
the principle that underlies it is recognized as, in a measure,
sound, and it has been adopted by the English authorities. Some
time back the experiment of establishing a penal reformatory for
offenders above the age hitherto committed to reformatory
schools was resolved upon. This led to the foundation of the
Borstal scheme, which was first formally started in October
1902. The arguments which had led to it may be briefly stated
here. It had been conclusively shown that quite half the whole
number of professional criminals had been first convicted when
under twenty-one years of age, when still at a malleable period
of development, when in short the criminal habit had not yet
been definitely formed. Moreover these adolescents escaped
special reformatory treatment, for sixteen is in Great Britain the
age of criminal majority, after which no youthful offenders can
be committed to the state reformatory schools. But there was
always a formidable contingent of juvenile adults between
sixteen and twenty-one, sent to penal servitude, and their numbers
although diminishing rose to an average total of 15,000. It was
accordingly decided to create a penal establishment under state
control, which should be a half-way house between the prison
and the reformatory school. A selection was made of juvenile
adults, sentenced to not less than six months and sent to Borstal
in 1902 to be treated under rules approved by the home secretary.
They were to be divided on arrival into three separate classes,
penal, ordinary and special, with promotion by industry and
good conduct from the lowest to the highest, in which they
enjoyed distinctive privileges. The general system, educational
and disciplinary, was intelligent and governed by common sense.
Instruction, both manual and educational, was well suited to
the recipients; the first embraced field work, market gardening,
and a knowledge of useful handicrafts; the second was elemen-
tary but sound, aided by well-chosen libraries and brightened
by the privilege of evening association to play harmless but
interesting games. Physical development was also guaran-
teed by gymnastics and regular exercises. The results were
distinctly encouraging. They arrived at Borstal " rough,
untrained cubs," but rapidly improved in demeanour and inward
character, gaining self-reliance and self-respect, and left the
prison on the high road to regeneration. It was wisely remem-
bered that to secure lasting amendment it is not enough to
chasten the erring subject, to train his hands, to strengthen his
moral sense while still in durance; it is essential to assist him
on discharge by helping him to find work, and encourage him
by timely advice to keep him in the straight path. Too much
praise cannot be accorded to the agencies and associations
6i8
JUVENTAS— JUXON
which labour strenuously and unceasingly to this excellent end.
Especial good work has been done by the Borstal association,
founded under the .patronage of the best known and most
distinguished persons in English public life — archbishops,
judges, cabinet ministers and privy councillors — which receives
the juvenile adults on their release and helps them to employ-
ment. Their labours, backed by generous voluntary contribu-
tions, have produced very gratifying results. Although the
offenders originally selected to undergo the Borstal treatment
were those committed for a period of six months, it was recog-
nized that this limit was experimental, and that thoroughly
satisfactory results could only be obtained with sentences of
at least a year's duration, so as to give the reforming agencies
ample time to operate. In the second year's working of the
system it was formally applied to young convicts sentenced to
penal servitude between the ages of sixteen and twenty-one.
In the next year it was adopted for all offenders between the
ages of sixteen and twenty-one committed to prison, as far as
the length of sentence would permit. The commissioners of
prisons, in their Report for the year 1908 (Cd. 4300) thus
expressed themselves on the working of the experiment: —
" Experience soon began to point to the probable success of this
general application of the principle, in spite of the fact that the
prevailing shortness of sentences operated against full benefit being
derived from reformatory effort. The success was most marked in
those localities where magistrates, or other benevolent persons,
personally co-operated in making the scheme a success. Local
Borstal committees were established at all prisons, and it was arranged
that those members of the local committees should become ex
officio honorary members of the Central Borstal Association, which
it was intended should become, what it now is, the parent society
directing the general aid on discharge of this category of young
prisoners."
In spite of the general adoption of the Borstal system, there
was a large class of young criminals who were outside its effects,
those who were sentenced to terms of ten days and under for
trifling offences. These juvenile adults, once having had the fear
of prison taken away by actual experience, were found to come
back again and again. To remedy this state of affairs, a bill
was introduced in 1907 to give effect to the principle of a long
period of detention for all those showing a tendency to embark
on a criminal career. The bill was, however, dropped, but a
somewhat similar bill was introduced the next year and became
law under the title of The Prevention of Crime Act 1908.
This measure introduces a new departure in the treatment of
professional crime by initiating a system of detention for habitual
criminals (see RECIDIVISM). The act attempts the reformation
of young offenders by giving the court power to pass sentence of
detention in a Borstal institution for a term of not less than one
year nor more than three on those between the ages of sixteen
and twenty-one who by reason of criminal habits or tendencies or
association with persons of bad character require such instruction
and discipline as appear most conducive to their reformation.
The power of detention applies also to reformatory school offences,
while such persons as are already undergoing penal servitude or
imprisonment may be transferred to a Borstal institution if
detention would conduce to their advantage. The establish-
ment of other Borstal institutions is authorized by the act, while
a very useful provision is the power to release on licence if there
is a reasonable probability that the offender will abstain from
crime and lead a useful and industrious life. The licence is
issued on condition that he is placed under the supervision or
authority of some society or person willing to take charge of
him. Supervision is introduced after the expiration of the term
of sentence, and power is given to transfer to prison incorrigibles
or those exercising a bad influence on the other inmates of a
Borstal institution. The act marks a noteworthy advance in
the endeavour to arrest the growing habit of crime.
(A. G. ; T. A. I.)
JUVENTAS (Latin for "youth " : later Juventus), in Roman
mythology, the tutelar goddess of young men. She was wor-
shipped at Rome from very early times. In the front court of
the temple of Minerva on the Capitol there was a chapel of
Juventas, in which a coin had to be deposited by each youth on
his assumption of the toga virilis, and sacrifices were offered
on behalf of the rising manhood of the state. In connexion with
this chapel it is related that, when the temple was in course of
erection, Terminus, the god of boundaries, and Juventas refused
to quit the sites they had already appropriated as sacred to
themselves, which accordingly became part of the new sanctuary.
This was interpreted as a sign of the immovable boundaries and
eternal youth of the Roman state. It should be observed that in
the oldest accounts there is no mention of Juventas, whose name
(with that of Mars) was added in support of the augural predic-
tion. After the Second Punic War Greek elements were intro-
duced into her cult. In 218 B.C., by order of the Sibylline books,
a lectisternium was prepared for Juventas and a public thanks-
giving to Hercules, an association which shows the influence of
the Greek Hebe, the wife of Heracles. In 207 Marcus Livius
Salinator, after the defeat of Hasdrubal at the battle of Sena,
vowed another temple to Juventas in the Circus Maximus,
which was dedicated in 191 by C. (or M.) Licinius Lucullus; it
was destroyed by fire in 16 B.C. and rebuilt by Augustus. In
imperial times, Juventas personified, not the youth of the Roman
state, but of the future emperor.
See Dion. Halic., iii. 69, iv. 15; Livy v. 54, xxi. 62, xxxvi. 36.
JUXON, WILLIAM (1582-1663), English prelate, was the
son of Robert Juxon and was born probably at Chichester, being
educated at Merchant Taylors' School, London, and at St John's
College, Oxford, where he was elected to a scholarship in 1598.
He studied law at Oxford, but afterwards he took holy orders,
and in 1609 became vicar of St Giles, Oxford, a living which he
retained until he became rector of Somerton, Oxfordshire, in
1615. In December 1621 he succeeded his friend, William
Laud, as president of St John's College, and in 1626 and 1627
he was vice-chancellor of the university. Juxon soon obtained
other important positions, including that of chaplain-in-ordinary
to Charles I. In 1627 he was made dean of Worcester and in
1632 he was nominated to the bishopric of Hereford, an event
which led him to resign the presidency of St John's in January
1633. However, he never took up his episcopal duties at Here-
ford, as in October 1633 he was consecrated bishop of London
in succession to Laud. He appears to have been an excellent
bishop, and in March 1636 Charles I. entrusted him with impor-
tant secular duties by making him lord high treasurer of England;
thus for the next five years he was dealing with the many
financial and other difficulties which beset the king and his
advisers. He resigned the treasurership in May 1641. During
the Civil War the bishop, against whom no charges were brought
in parliament, lived undisturbed at Fulham Palace, and his
advice was often sought by the king, who had a very high
opinion of him, and who at his execution selected him to be with
him on the scaffold and to administer to him the last consola-
tions of religion. Juxon was deprived of his bishopric in 1649
and retired to Little Compton in Gloucestershire, where he had
bought an estate, and here he became famous as the owner of a
pack of hounds. At the restoration of Charles II. he became
archbishop of Canterbury and in his official capacity he took part
in the coronation of this king, but his health soon began to fail
and he died at Lambeth on the 4th of June 1663. By his will
the archbishop was a benefactor to St John's College, where
he was buried; he also aided the work of restpring St Paul's
Cathedral and rebuilt the great hall at Lambeth Palace.
See W. H. Marah, Memoirs of Archbishop Juxon and his Times
(1869); the best authority for the archbishop's life is the article by
W. H. Mutton in the Diet. Nat. Biog. (1892).
K— KABBABISH .
619
KThe eleventh letter in the Phoenician alphabet and in its
descendant Greek, the tenth in Latin owing to the omis-
sion of Teth (see I), and once more the eleventh in the
alphabets of Western Europe owing to the insertion of J.
In its long history the shape of K has changed very little. It
is on the inscription of the Moabite Stone (early 9th cent. B.C.)
in the form (written from right to left) of >l and ^ . Similar forms
are also found in early Aramaic, but another form M or H , which
is found in the Phoenician of Cyprus in the gth or loth century
B.C. has had more effect upon the later development of the
Semitic forms. The length of the two back strokes and the
manner in which they join the upright are the only variations
in Greek. In various places the back strokes, treated as an
angle < , become more rounded ( , so that the letter appears as
K , a form which in Latin probably affected the development of
C (q.v.). In Crete it is elaborated into K and P . In Latin K,
which is found in the earliest inscriptions, was soon replaced by
C. and survived only in the abbreviations for Kalendae and the
proper name Kaeso. The original name Kaph became in Greek
Kappa. The sound of K throughout has been that of the un-
voiced guttural, varying to some extent in its pronunciation
according to the nature of the vowel sound which followed it.
In Anglo-Saxon C replaced K through Latin influence, writing
being almost entirely in the hands of ecclesiastics. As the sound-
changes have been discussed under C it is necessary here only to
refer to the palatalization of K followed earlier by a final e as in
watch (Middle English wacche, Anglo-Saxon wcecce) by the side
of wake (M.E. waken, A.-S. wacan) ; batch, bake, &c. Sometimes
an older form of the substantive survives, as in the Elizabethan
and Northern make = mate alongside match. (P. Gi.)
K2, or MT GODWIN-AUSTEN, the second highest mountain
in the world, ranking after Mt Everest. It is a peak of the
Karakoram extension of the Muztagh range dividing Kashmir
from Chinese Turkestan. The height of K2 as at present deter-
mined by triangulation is 28,250 ft., but it is possible that an
ultimate revision of the values of refraction at high altitudes
may have the effect of lowering the height of K2, while it would
elevate those of Everest and Kinchinjunga. The latter moun-
tain would then rank second, and K2 third, in the scale of altitude,
Everest always maintaining its ascendancy. K2 was ascended
for the first time by the duke of the Abruzzi in June 1909, being
the highest elevation on the earth's surface ever reached by man.
KA'BA, KAABA, or KAABEH, the sacred shrine of Mahom-
medanism, containing the " black stone," in the middle of the
great mosque at Mecca (q.v.).
KABARDIA, a territory of S. Russia, now part of the province
of Terek. It is divided into Great and Little Kabardia by the
upper river Terek, and covers 3780 sq. m. on the northern slopes
of the Caucasus range (from Mount Elbruz to Pasis-mta, or
Edena) , including the Black Mountains (Kara-dagh) and the high
plains on their northern slope. Before the Russian conquest it
extended as far as the Sea of Azov. Its population is now about
70,000. One-fourth of the territory is owned by the aristocracy
and the remainder is divided among the auls or villages. A great
portion is under permanent pasture, part under forests, and some
under perpetual snow. Excellent breeds of horses are reared,
and the peasants own many cattle. The land is well cultivated
in the lower parts, the chief crops being millet, maize, wheat
and oats. Bee-keeping is extensively practised, and Kabardian
honey is in repute. Wood-cutting and the manufacture of
wooden wares, the making of bur has (felt and fur cloaks), and
saddlery are very general. Nalchik is the chief town.
The Kabardians are a branch of the Adyghe (Circassians).
The policy of Russia was always to be friendly with the Kabardian
aristocracy, who were possessed of feudal rights over the Ossetes,
the Ingushes, the Abkhasians and the mountain Tatars, and had
command of the roads leading into Transcaucasia. Ivan the
Terrible took Kabardia under his protection in the i6th century.
Later, Russian influence was counterbalanced by that of the
Crimean khans, but the Kabardian nobles nevertheless supported
Peter the Great during his Caucasian campaign in 1722-23. In
1739 Kabardia was recognized as being under the double pro-
tectorate of Russia and Turkey, but thirty-five years later it was
definitively annexed to Russia, and risings of the population in
1804 and 1822 were cruelly suppressed. Kabardia is considered
as a school of good manners in Caucasia; the Kabardian dress
sets the fashion to all .the mountaineers. Kabardians constitute
the best detachment of the personal Imperial Guards at St
Petersburg.
A short grammar of the Kabardian language and a Russian-
Kabardian dictionary, by Lopatinsky, were published in Sbornik
Materialov did Opisaniya Kavkaza (vol. xii., Tiflis, 1891). Frag-
ments of the poem " Sosyruko," some Persian tales, and the tenets
of the Mussulman religion were printed in Kabardian in 1864, by
Kazi Atazhukin and Shardanov. The common law of the Kabar-
dians has been studied by Maxim Kovalevsky and Vsevolod Miller.
KABBA, a province of the British protectorate of Northern
Nigeria, situated chiefly on the right bank of the Niger, between
7° 5' and 8° 45' N. and 5° 30' and 7° E. It has an area of 7800 sq.
m. and an estimated population of about 70,000. The province
consists of relatively healthy uplands interspersed with fertile
valleys. It formed part at one time of the Nupe emirate, and
under Fula rule the armies of Bida regularly raided for slaves
and laid waste the country. Amongst the native inhabitants
the Igbira are very industrious, and crops of tobacco, indigo, all
the African grains, and a good quantity of cotton are already
grown. The sylvan products are valuable and include palm oil,
kolas, shea and rubber. Lokoja, a town which up to 1902 was
the principal British station in the protectorate, is situated in
this province. The site of Lokoja, with a surrounding tract of
country at the junction of the Benue and the Niger, was ceded
to the British government in 1841 by the attah of Idah, whose
dominions at that time extended to the right bank of the river.
The first British settlement was a failure. In 1854 MacGregor
Laird, who had taken an active part in promoting the explora-
tion of the river, sent thither Dr W. B. Baikie, who was success-
ful in dealing with the natives and in 1857 became the first
British consul in the interior. The town of Lokoja was founded
by him in 1860. In 1868 the consulate was abolished and the
settlement was left wholly to commercial interests. In 1879
Sir George Goldie formed the Royal Niger Company, which
bought out its foreign rivals and acquired a charter from the
British government. In 1886 the company made Lokoja its
military centre, and on the transfer of the company's territories
to the Crown it remained for a time the capital of Northern
Nigeria. In 1902 the political capital of the protectorate was
shifted to Zungeru in the province of Zaria, but Lokoja remains
the commercial centre. The distance of Lokoja from the sea
at the Niger mouth is about 250 m.
In the absence of any central native authority the province
is entirely dependent for administration upon British initiative.
It has been divided into four administrative divisions. British
and native courts of justice have been established. A British
station has been established at Kabba town, which is an admir-
able site some 50 m. W. by N. of Lokoja, about 1300 ft. above
the sea, and a good road has been made from Kabba to Lokoja.
Roads have been opened through the province. (See NIGERIA.)
KABBABISH (" goatherds ": James Bruce derives the name
from Hebsh, sheep), a tribe of African nomads of Semitic origin.
It is perhaps the largest " Arab " tribe in the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan, and its many clans are scattered over the country extend-
ing S.W. from the province of Dongola to the confines of Darfur.
The Kabbabish speak Arabic, but their pronunciation differs
much from that of the true Arabs. The Kabbabish have a
tradition that they came from Tunisia and are of Mogrebin or
western descent; but while the chiefs look like Arabs, the tribes-
men resemble the Beja family. They themselves declare that
62O
KABBALAH
one of their clans, Kawahla, is not of Kabbabish blood, but was
affiliated to them long ago. Kawahla is a name of Arab forma-
tion, and J. L. Burckhardt spoke of the clan as a distinct one
living about Abu Haraz and on the Atbara. The Kabbabish
probably received Arab rulers, as did the Ababda. They are
chiefly employed in cattle, camel and sheep breeding, and before
the Sudan wars of 1883-99 tney had a monopoly of all trans-
port from the Nile, north of Abu Gussi, to Kordofan. They also
cultivate the lowlands which border the Nile, where they have
permanent villages. They are of fine physique, dark with black
wiry hair, carefully arranged in tightly rolled curls which cling
to the head, with regular features and rather thick aquiline noses.
Some of the tribes wear large hats like those of the Kabyles of
Algeria and Tunisia.
See James Bruce, Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile (1790) ;
A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan (1884); Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan (edited by Count Gleichen, 1905).
KABBALAH (late Hebrew kabbalah, qabbalah), the technical
name for the system of Jewish theosophy which played an im-
portant part in the Christian Church in the middle ages. The
term primarily denotes " reception " and then " doctrines
received by tradition." In the older Jewish literature the name
is applied to the whole body of received religious doctrine with
the exception of the Pentateuch, thus including the Prophets and
Hagiographa as well as the oral traditions ultimately embodied
in the Mishnah.1 It is only since the nth or i2th century that
Kabbalah has become the exclusive appellation for the renowned
system of theosophy which claims to have been transmitted
uninterruptedly by the mouths of the patriarchs and prophets
ever since the creation of the first man.
The cardinal doctrines of the Kabbalah embrace the nature
of the Deity, the Divine emanations or Stphiroth, the cosmogony,
Doctrine tne creation of angels and man, their destiny, and
of the the import of the revealed law. According to this
Sephiroth. esoteric doctrine, God, who is boundless and above
everything, even above being and thinking, is called En Soph
(aireipos) ; He is the space of the universe containing TO irav,
but the universe is not his space. In this boundlessness
He could not be comprehended by the intellect or described in
words, and as such the En Soph was in a certain sense Ayfn, non-
existent (Zohar, Hi. 283).2 To make his existence known and
comprehensible, the En Soph had to become active and creative.
As creation involves intention, desire, thought and work, and as
these are properties which imply limit and belong to a finite
being, and moreover as the imperfect and circumscribed nature
of this creation precludes the idea of its being the direct work
of the infinite and perfect, the En Soph had to become creative,
through the medium of ten Sephiroth or intelligences, which
emanated from him like rays proceeding from a luminary.
Now the wish to become manifest and known, and hence the
idea of creation, is co-eternal with the inscrutable Deity, and the
first manifestation of this primordial will is called the first
Sephirah or emanation. This first Sephirah, this spiritual sub-
stance which existed in the En Soph from all eternity, contained
nine other intelligences or Sephiroth. These again emanated^
one from the other, the second from the first, the third from the
second, and so on up to ten.
The ten Sephiroth, which form among themselves and with the
En Soph a strict unity, and which simply represent different aspects
of one and the same being, are respectively denominated (l) the
Crown, (2) Wisdom, (3) Intelligence, (4) Love, (5) Justice, (6) Beauty,
(7) Firmness, (8) Splendour, (9) Foundation, and (10) Kingdom.
Their evolution was as follows: " When the Holy Aged, the con-
cealed of all concealed, assumed a form, he produced everything in
the form of male and female, as things could not continue in any
other form. Hence Wisdom, the second Sephirah, and the beginning
of development, when it proceeded from the Holy Aged (another
name of the first Sephirah) emanated in male and female, for
Wisdom expanded, and Intelligence, the third Sephirah, proceeded
from it; and thus were obtained male and female, viz. Wisdom the
father and Intelligence the mother, from whose union the other
1 C. Taylor, Sayings of the Jewish Fathers (1897), pp. 106 sqq.,
175 seq. ; W. Bacher, Jew. Quart. Rev. xx. 572 sqq. (1908).
1 On the Zohar, " the Bible of the Kabbalists, see below.
pairs of Sephiroth successively emanated" (Zohar, iii. 290). These
two opposite potencies, viz. the masculine Wisdom or Sephirah
No. 2 and the feminine Intelligence or Sephirah No. 3 are joined
together by the first potency, the Crown or Sephirah No. I ; they
yield the first triad of the Sephiric decade, and constitute the divine
head of the archetypal man.
From the junction of Sephiroth Nos. 2 and 3 emanated the mascu-
line potency Love or Mercy (4) and the feminine potency Justice
(5), and from the junction of the latter two emanated again the
uniting potency Beauty (6). Beauty, the sixth Sephirah, consti-
tutes the chest in the archetypal man, and unites Love (4) and
Justice (5), which constitute the divine arms, thus yielding the
second triad of the Sephiric decade. From this second conjunction
emanated again the masculine potency Firmness (7) and the feminine
potency Splendour (8), which constitute the divine legs of the
archetypal man; and these sent forth Foundation (9), which is the
genital organ and medium of union between them, thus yielding the
third triad in the Sephiric decade. Kingdom (10), which emanated
from the ninth Sephirah, encircles all the other nine, inasmuch as
it is the Shechinah, the divine halo, which encompasses the whole by
its all-glorious presence.
In their totality and unity the ten Sephiroth are not only
denominated the World of Sephiroth, or the World of Emana-
tions, but, owing to the above representation, are called the
primordial or archetypal man ( = irpo)T07oyos) and the heavenly
an. It is this form which, as we are. assured, the prophet
Ezekiel saw in the mysterious chariot (Ezek. i. 1-28), and of
which the earthly man is a faint copy.
As the three triads respectively represent intellectual, moral
and physical qualities, the first is called the Intellectual, the
second the Moral or Sensuous, and the third the Material World.
According to this theory of the archetypal man the three
Sephiroth on the right-hand side are masculine and represent
the principle of rigour, the three on the left are feminine and
represent the principle of mercy, and the four central or uniting
Sephiroth represent the principle of mildness. Hence the right
is called " the Pillar of Judgment," the left " the Pillar of Mercy,"
and the centre " the Middle Pillar." The middle Sephiroth are
synecdochically used to represent the worlds or triads of which
they are the uniting potencies. Hence the Crown, the first
Sephirah, which unites Wisdom and Intelligence to constitute
the first triad, is by itself denominated the Intellectual World.
So Beauty is by itself described as the Sensuous World, and in
this capacity is called the Sacred King or simply the King, whilst
Kingdom, the tenth Sephirah, which unites all the nine Sephiroth,
is used to denote the Material World, and as such is denominated
the Queen or the Matron. Thus a trinity of units, viz. the
Crown, Beauty and Kingdom, is obtained within the trinity of
triads. But further, each Sephirah is as it were a trinity in
itself. It (i) has its own absolute character, (2) receives from
above, and (3) communicates to what is below. " Just as the
Sacred Aged is represented by the number three, so are all the
other lights (Sephiroth) of a threefold nature " (Zohar, iii. 288).
In this all-important doctrine of the Sephiroth, the Kabbalah
insists upon the fact that these potencies are not creations of
the En Soph, which would be a diminution of strength; that they
form among themselves and with the En Soph a strict unity, and
simply represent different aspects of the same being, just as the
different rays which proceed from the light, and which appear
different things to the eye, are only different manifestations of
one and the same light; that for this reason they all alike partake
of the perfections of the En Soph; and that as emanations from
the Infinite, the Sephiroth are infinite and perfect like the En
Soph, and yet constitute the first finite things. They are infinite
and perfect when the En Soph imparts his fullness to them, and
finite and imperfect when that fullness is withdrawn from them.
The conjunction of the Sephiroth, or, according to the language
of the Kabbalah, the union of the crowned King and Queen, pro-
duced the universe in their own image. Worlds
came into existence before the En Soph manifested
himself in the human form of emanations, but they
could not continue, and necessarily perished because the con-
ditions of development which obtained with the sexual opposites
of the Sephiroth did not exist. These worlds which perished are
compared to sparks which fly out from a red-hot iron beaten by
a hammer, and which are extinguished according to the distance
KABBALAH
621
they are removed from the burning mass. Creation is not ex
nihilo; it is simply a further expansion or evolution of the
Sephiroth.1 The world reveals and makes visible the Boundless
and the concealed of the concealed. And, though it exhibits
the Deity in less splendour than its Sephiric parents exhibit the
En Soph, because it is farther removed from the primordial
source of light than the Sephiroth, still, as it is God manifested,
all the multifarious forms in the world point out the unity which
they represent. Hence nothing in the whole universe can be
annihilated. Everything, spirit as well as body, must return
to the source whence it emanated (Zohar, ii. 218). The universe
consists of four different worlds, each of which forms a separate
Sephiric system of a decade of emanations.
They were evolved in the following order, (i) The World of
Emanations, also called the Image and the Heavenly or Archetypal
Man, is, as we have seen, a direct emanation from the En Soph.
Hence it is most intimately allied to the Deity, and is perfect and
immutable. From the conjunction of the King and Queen (i.e. these
ten Sephiroth) is produced (2) the World of Creation, or the Briatic
world, also called " the Throne." Its ten Sephiroth, being farther
removed from the En Soph, are of a more limited and circumscribed
potency, though the substances they comprise are of the purest
nature and without any admixture of matter. The angel Metatron
inhabits this world. He alone constitutes the world of pure spirit,
and is the garment of Shaddai, i.e. the visible manifestation of the
Deity. His name is numerically equivalent to that of the Lord
(Zohar, iii. 231). He governs the visible world, preserves the
harmony and guides the revolutions of all the spheres, and is the
captain of all the myriads of angelic beings. This Briatic world
again gave rise to (3) the World of Formation, or Yetziratic World.
Its ten Sephiroth, being still farther removed from the Primordial
Source, are of a less refined substance. Still they are yet without
matter. It is the abode of the angels, who are wrapped in luminous
garments, and who assume a sensuous form when they appear to
men. The myriads of the angelic hosts who people this world are
divided into ten ranks, answering to the ten Sephiroth, and each
one of these numerous angels is set over a different part of the
universe, and derives his name from the heavenly body or element
which he guards (Zohar, i. 42). From this world finally emanated
(4) the World of Action, also called the World of Matter. Its ten
Sephiroth are made up of the grosser elements of the former three
worlds; they consist of material substance limited by space and
perceptible to the senses in a multiplicity of forms. This world is
subject to constant changes and corruption, and is the dwelling of
the evil spirits. These, the grossest and most deficient of all forms,
are also divided into ten degrees, each lower than the other. The
first two are nothing more than the absence of all visible form and
organization; the third degree is the abode of darkness; whilst the
remaining seven are " the seven infernal halls," occupied by the
demons, who are the incarnation of all human vices. These seven
hells are subdivided into innumerable compartments corresponding
to every species of sin, where the demons torture the poor deluded
human beings who have suffered themselves to be led astray whilst
on earth. The prince of this region of darkness is Samael, the evil
spirit, the serpent who seduced Eve. His wife is the Harlot or the
Woman of Whoredom. The two are treated as one person, and are
called " the Beast " (Zohar, ii. 255-259, with i. 35).
The whole universe, however, was incomplete, and did not
receive its finishing stroke till man was formed, who is the
Doctrine acme of the creation and the microcosm. " The
of Man. heavenly Adam (i.e. the ten Sephiroth) who eman-
ated from the highest primordial obscurity (i.e. the En Soph)
created the earthly Adam " (Zohar, ii. 70). " Man is both the
import and the highest degree of creation, for which reason he
was formed on the sixth day. As soon as man was created
everything was complete, including the upper and nether worlds,
for everything is comprised in man. He unites in himself all
forms " (Zohar, iii. 48). Each member of his body corresponds
to a part of the visible universe. " Just as we see in the firma-
ment above, covering all things, different signs which are formed
of the stars and the planets, and which contain secret things and
profound mysteries studied by those who are wise and expert in
these things; so there are in the skin, which is the cover of the
body of the son of man, and which is like the sky that covers all
things above, signs and features which are the stars and planets
of the skin, indicating secret things and profound mysteries
whereby the wise are attracted who understand the reading of
1 The view of a mediate creation, in the place of immediate
creation out of nothing, and that the mediate beings were emana-
tions, was much influenced by Solomon ibn Gabirol (1021-1070).
the mysteries in the human face" (Zohar, ii. 76). The human form
is shaped after the four letters which constitute the Jewish
Tetragrammaton (q.v.; see also JEHOVAH). The head is in the
shape of ', the arms and the shoulders are like ", the breast like
\ and the two legs with the back again resemble71 (Zohar, ii. 72).
The souls of the whole human race pre-exist in the World of
Emanations, and are all destined to inhabit human bodies.
Like the Sephiroth from which it emanates, every soul has ten
potencies, consisting of a trinity of triads, (i) The Spirit
(neshamali) , which is the highest degree of being, corresponds
to and is operated upon by the Crown, which is the highest
triad in the Sephiroth, and is called the Intellectual World;
(2) the Soul (rtiah), which is the seat of the moral qualities,
corresponds to and is operated upon by Beauty, which is
the second triad in the Sephiroth, and is called the Moral
World; and (3) the Cruder Soul (nephesh), which is imme-
diately connected with the body, and is the cause of its lower
instincts and the animal life, corresponds to and is operated
upon by Foundation, the third triad in the Sephiroth, called
the Material World. Each soul prior to its entering into
this world consists of male and female united into one being.
When it descends on this earth the two parts are separated and
animate two different bodies. " At the time of marriage the
Holy One, blessed be he, who knows all souls and spirits, unites
them again as they were before; and they again constitute one
body and one soul, forming as it were the right and the left of
the individual. . . . This union, however, is influenced by the
deeds of the man and by the ways in which he walks. If the
man is pure and his conduct is pleasing in the sight of God, he is
united with that female part of the soul which was his component
part prior to his birth " (Zohar, i. 91). The soul's destiny upon
earth is to develop those perfections the germs of which are eter-
nally implanted in it, and it ultimately must return to the infinite
source from which it emanated. Hence, if, after assuming a
body and sojourning upon earth, it becomes polluted by sin and
fails to acquire the experience for which it descends from heaven,
it must three times reinhabit a body, till it is able to ascend in a
purified state through repeated trials. If, after its third resi-
dence in a human body, it is still too weak to withstand the con-
tamination of sin, it is united with another soul, in order that by
their combined efforts it may resist the pollution which by itself
it was unable to conquer. When the whole pleroma of pre-
existent souls in the world of the Sephiroth shall have descended
and occupied human bodies and have passed their period of
probation and have returned purified to the bosom of the infinite
Source, then the soul of Messiah will descend from the region of
souls; then the great Jubilee will commence. There shall be no
more sin, no more temptation, no more suffering. Universal
restoration will take place. Satan himself, " the venomous
Beast," will be restored to his angelic nature. Life will be an
everlasting feast, a Sabbath without end. All souls will be united
with the Highest Soul, and will supplement each other in the
Holy of Holies of the Seven Halls (Zohar, i. 45, 168; ii. 97).
According to the Kabbalah all these esoteric doctrines are
contained in the Hebrew Scriptures. The uninitiated cannot
perceive them; but they are plainly revealed to the AatlqaKy
spiritually minded, who discern the profound import and infiu-
of this theosophy beneath the surface of the letters «"* of
and words of Holy Writ. " If the law simply con- Kabbalah-
sists of ordinary expressions and narratives, such as the words
of Esau, Hagar, Laban, the ass of Balaam or Balaam himself,
why should it be called the law of truth, the perfect law, the true
witness of God ? Each word contains a sublime source, each
narrative points not only to the single instance in question, but
also to generals " (Zohar, iii. 149, cf. 152).
To obtain these heavenly mysteries, which alone make the Torah
superior to profane codes, definite hermeneutical rules are employed,
of which the following are the most important, (i) The words of
several verses in the Hebrew Scriptures which are regarded as
containing a recondite sense are placed over each other, and the
letters are formed into new words by reading them vertically. (2)
The words of the text are ranged in squares in such a manner as to
be read either vertically or boustrophedon. (3) The words are
622
KABBALAH
joined together and redivided. (4) The initials and final letters of
several words are formed into separate words. (5) Every letter of
a word is reduced to its numerical value, and the word is explained
by another of the same quantity. (6) Every letter of a word is
taken to be the initial or abbreviation of a word. (7) The twenty-
two letters of the alphabet are divided into two halves ; one half
is placed above the other; and the two letters which thus become
associated are interchanged. By this permutation, Aleph, the first
letter of the alphabet, becomes Lamed, the twelfth letter; Beth
becomes Mem, and so on. This cipher alphabet is called Albam,
from the first interchangeable pairs. (8) The commutation of the
twenty-two letters is effected by the last letter of the alphabet
taking the place of the first, the last but one the place of the second,
and so forth. This cipher is called Atbash These hermeneutical
canons are much older than the Kabbalah. They obtained in the
synagogue from time immemorial, and were used by the Christian
fathers in the interpretation of Scripture.1 _ Thus Canon V., accord-
ing to which a word is reduced to its numerical value and interpreted
by another word of the same value, is recognized in the New Testa-
ment (cf. Rev. xiii. 18). Canon VI. is adopted by Irenaeus, who
tells us that, according to the learned among the Hebrews, the name
Jesus contains two letters and a half, and signifies that Lord who
contains heaven and earth [ic" = pm B'OP niT] (Against Heresies,
ii. xxiv., i. 205, ed. Clark). The cipher Atbash (Canon VIII.) is
used in Jeremiah xxv. 26, li. 41, where Sheshach is written for
Babel. In Jer. li. I, 'Dp 31?, Leb-Kamai (" the heart of them that
rise up against me "), is written for o-avi, Chaldea, by the same
rule.
Exegesis of this sort is not the characteristic of any single circle,
people or century; unscientific methods of biblical interpreta-
tion have prevailed from Philo's treatment of the Pentateuch
to modern apologetic interpretations of Genesis, ch. i.2 The
Kabbalah itself is but an extreme and remarkable develop-
ment of certain forms of thought which had never been absent
from Judaism; it is bound up with earlier tendencies to mysti-
cism, with man's inherent striving to enter into communion with
the Deity. To seek its sources would be futile. The Pytha-
gorean theory of numbers, Neoplatonic ideas of emanation, the
Logos, the personified Wisdom, Gnosticism — these and many
other features combine to show the antiquity of tendencies which,
clad in other shapes, are already found in the old pre-Christian
Oriental religions.3 In its more mature form the Kabbalah
belongs to the period when medieval Christian mysticism was
beginning to manifest itself (viz. in Eckhart, towards end of
1 3th century); it is an age which also produced the rationalism
of Maimonides (q.v.). Although some of its foremost exponents
were famous Talmudists, it was a protest against excessive
intellectualism and Aristotelian scholasticism. It laid stress,
not on external authority, as did the Jewish law, but on in-
dividual experience and inward meditation. " The mystics
accorded the first place to prayer, which was considered as a
mystical progress towards God, demanding a state of ecstasy."1
As a result, some of the finest specimens of Jewish devotional
literature and some of the best types of Jewish individual
character have been Kabbalist.5 On the other hand, the
Kabbalah has been condemned, and nowhere more strongly
than among the Jews themselves. Jewish orthodoxy found
itself attacked by the more revolutionary aspects of mysticism
and its tendencies to alter established customs. While the
medieval scholasticism denied the possibility of knowing
anything unattainable by reason, the spirit of the Kabbalah held
that the Deity could be realized, and it sought to bridge the gulf.
Thus it encouraged an unrestrained emotionalism, rank super-
stition, an unhealthy asceticism, and the employment of artificial
means to induce the ecstatic state. That this brought moral
laxity was a stronger reason for condemning the Kabbalah,
1 See F. Weber, Judische Theologie (1897), pp. 118 sqq.
* See C. A. Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture (1899), pp. 427 sqq., 570.
' Even the " over-Soul " of the mystic Isaac Luria (1534-1572)
is a conception known in the 3rd century A.D. (Rabbi Resh Lakish).
For the early stages of Kabbalistic theories, see K. Kohler, Jew.
Ency. iii. 457 seq., and L. Ginzberg, ibid. 459 seq.; and for examples
of the relationship between old Oriental (especially Babylonian)
and Jewish Kabbalistic teaching (early and late), see especially
A. Jeremias, Babylonisches in N. Test. (Leipzig, 1905); E. Bischoff,
Bab. Aslrales im Weltbilde des Thalmud u. Midrasch (1907).
4 L. Ginzberg, Jew. Ency. iii. 465.
1 See, especially, on the mystics of Safed in Upper Galilee, S.
Schechter, Studies (1908), pp. 202-285.
and the evil effects of nervous degeneration find a more recent
illustration in the mysticism of the Chasidim (Hdsidim, " saints "),
a Jewish sect in eastern Europe which started from a movement
in the i8th century against the exaggerated casuistry of con-
temporary rabbis, and combined much that was spiritual and
beautiful with extreme emotionalism and degradation.6 The
appearance of the Kabbalah and of other forms of mysticism in
Judaism may seem contrary to ordinary and narrow concep-
tions of orthodox Jewish legalism. Its interest lies, not in its.
doctrines, which have often been absurdly over-estimated
(particularly among Christians), but in its contribution to the
study of human thought. It supplied a want which has always,
been felt by certain types, and it became a movement which
had mischievous effects upon ill-balanced minds. As usual,
the excessive self-introspection was not checked by a rational
criticism; the individual was guided by his own reason, the
limitations of which he did not realize; and in becoming a
law unto himself he ignored the accumulated experiences of
civilized humanity.7
A feature of greater interest is the extraordinary part which
this theosophy played in the Christian Church, especially at the
time of the Renaissance. We have already seen that the Sephiric
decade or the archetypal man, like Christ, is considered to be of a
double nature, both infinite and finite, perfect and imperfect.
More distinct, however, is the doctrine of the Trinity. In
Deut. vi. 43, where Yahweh occurs first, then Elohenu, and then
again Yahweh, we are told " The voice though one, consists of
three elements, fire (i.e. warmth), air (i.e. breath), and water
(i.e. humidity), yet all three are one in the mystery of the voice
and can only be one. Thus also Yahweh, Elohenu, Yahweh, con-
stitute one — three forms which are one " (Zohar, ii. 43 ; compare
iii. 65). Discussing the thrice holy in Isaiah vi. 3, one codex of the
Zohar had the following remark: " The first holy denotes the
Holy Father, the second the Holy Son, and the third the Holy
Ghost" (cf. Galatinus, De arcanis cathol. lib. ii. c. 3, p. 31;
Wolf, Bibliotheca hebraica, i. 1136). Still more distinct is.
the doctrine of the atonement. " The Messiah invokes all the
sufferings, pain, and afflictions of Israel to come upon Him. Now
if He did not remove them thus and take them upon Himself,
no man could endure the sufferings of Israel, due as their
punishment for transgressing the law; as it is written (Isa. liii. 4),.
Surely He hath borne our griefs and carried our sorrows "
(Zohar, ii. 12). These and similar statements favouring the
doctrines of the New Testament made many Kabbalists of the
highest position in the synagogue embrace the Christian faith
and write elaborate books to win their Jewish brethren over to-
Christ. As early as 1450 a company of Jewish converts in Spain,
at the head of which were Paul de Heredia, Vidal de Saragossa
de Aragon, and Davila, published compilations of Kabbalistic
treatises to prove from them the doctrines of Christianity.
They were followed by Paul Rici, professor at Pavia, and physi-,'
cian to the emperor Maximilian I. Among the best-known.
non-Jewish exponents of the Kabbalah were the Italian count
Pico di Mirandola (1463-1494), the renowned Johann Reuchlin
(1435-1522), Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa of Nettesheim (1487-
1535). Theophrastus Paracelsus (1493-1541), and, later, the
Englishman Robert Fludd (1574-1637). Prominent among the
" nine hundred theses " which Mirandola had placarded in
Rome, and which he undertook to defend in the presence
of all European scholars, whom he invited to the Eternal
City, promising to defray their travelling expenses, was the
following: " No science yields greater proof of the divinity of
Christ than magic and the Kabbalah." Mirandola so convinced
Pope Sixtus of the paramount importance of the Kabbalah
as an auxiliary to Christianity that his holiness exerted himself
to have Kabbalistic writings translated into Latin for the use of
divinity students. With equal zeal did Reuchlin act as the
6 See the instructive article by S. Schechter, Studies in Judaism
(London, 1896), pp. 1-55.
7 See the discriminating estimates by S. A. Hirsch, Jew. Quart.
Rev. xx. 50-73; I. Abrahams, Jew. Lit. (1906), ch. xvii.; Judaism
(1907), ch. vi.
KABINDA— KABIR
623
apostle of the Kabbalah. His treatises exercised an almost
magic influence upon the greatest thinkers of the time. Pope
Leo X. and the early Reformers were alike captivated by the
charms of the Kabbalah as propounded by Reuchlin, and not
only divines, but statesmen and warriors, began to study the
Oriental languages in order to be able to fathom the mysteries
of Jewish theosophy. The Zohar, that farrago of absurdity
and spiritual devotion, was the weapon with which these
Christians defended Jewish literature against hostile ecclesiastic
bodies (Abrahams, Jew. Lit. p. 106). Thus the Kabbalah
linked the old scholasticism with the new and independent
inquiries in learning and philosophy after the Renaissance,
and although it had evolved a remarkably bizarre conception
of the universe, it partly anticipated, in its own way, the scientific
study of natural philosophy.1 Jewish theosophy, then, with its
good and evil tendencies, and with its varied results, may thus
claim to have played no unimportant part in the history of
European scholarship and thought.
The main sources to be noticed are : —
1. The Sepher Yeflrah, or " book of creation," not the old
Hilkoth Y. (" rules of creation "), which belongs to the Talmudic
period (on which see Kohler, Jew. Ency. xii. 602 seq.),
but a later treatise, a combination of medieval natural
Sources. philosophy and mysticism. It has been variously
ascribed to the patriarch Abraham and to the illustrious rabbi
'Aqiba ; its essential elements, however, may be of the 3rd or 4th
century A.p., and it is apparently earlier than the 9th (see L. Ginz-
berg, op. cit. 603 sqq.). It has " had a greater influence on the
development of the Jewish mind than almost any other book after
the completion of the Talmud " (ibid.).
2. The Bahir (" brilliant," Job. xxxvii. 21), though ascribed to
Nehunyah b. Hacjqanah (ist century A.D.), is first quoted by
Nabmanides, and is now attributed to his teacher Ezra or Azriel
(1160-1238). It shows the influence of the Sepher Yesirah, is
marked by the teaching of a celestial Trinity, is a rough outline of
what the Zohar was destined to be, and gave the first opening to
a thorough study of metaphysics among the Jews. (See further
I. Broyde, Jew. Ency. ii. 442 seq.).
3. The Zohar (" shining," Dan. xii. 3) is a commentary on the
Pentateuch, according to its division into fifty-two hebdomadal
lessons. It begins with the exposition of Gen. i. 4 (" let there be
light ") and includes eleven dissertations: (l) " Additions and
Supplements"; (2) "The Mansions and Abodes," describing the
structure of paradise and hell ; (3) " The Mysteries of the Pentateuch,"
describing the evolution of the Sephiroth, &c.; (4) "The Hidden
Interpretation," deducing esoteric doctrine from the narratives in
the Pentateuch; (5) " The Faithful Shepherd," recording discussions
between Moses the faithful shepherd, the prophet Elijah and R.
doctrine of transmigration as evolved from Exod. xxi. l-xxiv. 18;
(8) " The Book of Secrets," discourses on cosmogony and demon-
ology; (9) "The Great Assembly," discourses of R. Simon to his
numerous assembly of disciples on the form of the Deity and on
pneumatology; (10) " The Young Man," discourses by young men
of superhuman origin on the mysteries of ablutions; and (ll) " The
Small Assembly," containing the discourses on the Sephiroth which
R. Simon delivered to the small congregation of six surviving
disciples. The Zohar pretends to be a compilation made by Simon
b. Yohai (the second century A.D.) of doctrines which God com-
municated to Adam in Paradise, and which have been received
uninterruptedly from the mouths of the patriarchs and prophets.
It was discovered, so the story went, in a cavern in Galilee where it
had been hidden for a thousand years. Amongst the many facts,
however, established by modern criticism which prove the Zohar
to be a compilation of the I3th century, are the following: (i) the
Zohar itself praises most fulsomely R. Simon, its reputed author,
and exalts him above Moses; (2) it mystically explains the Hebrew
vowel points, which did not obtain till 570; (3) the compiler borrows
two verses from the celebrated hymn called " The Royal Diadem,
written by Ibn Gabirol, who was born about 1021 ; (4) it mentions
the capture of Jerusalem by the crusaders and the re-taking of the
Holy City by the Saracens ; (5) it speaks of the comet which appeared
at Rome, I5th July 1264, under the pontificate of Urban IV.; (6) by
a slip the Zohar assigns a reason why its contents were not revealed
before 5060-5066 A.M., i.e. 1300-1306 A.D., (7) the doctrine of the
En Soph and the Sephiroth was not known before the I3th century;
and (8) the very existence of the Zohar itself was not known prior
1 See, e.g., G. Margoliouth, " The Doctrine of Ether in the
Kabbalah," Jew. Quart. Rev. xx. 828 sqq. On the influence of the
Kabbalah on the Reformation, see Stockl, Gesch. d. Phtiosophie des
Mittelalters, ii. 232-251.
to the I3th century. Hence it is now believed that Moses de Leon
(d. 1305), who first circulated and sold the Zohar as the production
of R. Simon, was himself the author or compiler. That eminent
scholars both in the synagogue and in the church should have been
induced to believe in its antiquity is owing to the fact that the
Zohar embodies many older opinions and doctrines, and the un-
doubted antiquity of some of them has served as a lever in the
minds of these scholars to raise the late speculations about the En
Soph, the Sephiroth, &c., to the same age.
LITERATURE. — The study of the whole subject being wrapped up
with Gnosticism and Oriental theosophy, the related literature is
immense. Among the more important works may be mentioned,
Baron von Rosenroth's Kabbala Denudata (Sulzbach, 1677-1678;
Frankfort, 1684); A. Franck, La Kabbale (Paris, 2nd ed., 1889;
German by Jellinek, Leipzig, 1844) ; C. D. Ginsburg, The Kabbalah,
its Doctrines, Development and Literature (London, 1865); I. Meyer,
Qabbalah (Philadelphia, 1888); Rubin, Kabbala und Agada (Vienna,
1895), Heidentum und Kabbalah (1893); Karppe, Et. sur les origines
du Zohar (Paris, 1891); A. E. Waite, Doctrine and Literature of the
Kabbalah (London, 1902) ; Fltigel, Philosophy, Kabbala, &c. (Balti-
more, 1902) ; D. Neumark, Gesch. d. Jud. Phttosophie d. Mittelalters
(Berlin, 1907); also S. A. Binion, in C. D. Warner's World's Best
Literature, 8425 sqq. See further the very full articles in the Jewish
Ency. by K. Kohler and L. Ginzberg (" Cabbala "), I. Broyde'
(" Bahir," " Zohar "), with the references. (C. D. G.; S. A. C.)
KABINDA, a Portuguese possession on the west coast of
Africa north of the mouth of the Congo. Westwards it borders
the Atlantic, N. and N.E. French Congo, S. and S.E. Belgian
Congo. It has a coast-line of 93 m., extends inland, at its
greatest breadth, 70 m., and has an area of about 3000 sq. m.
In its physical features, flora, fauna and inhabitants, it resembles
the coast region of French Congo (q.v.). The only considerable
river is the Chiloango, which in part forms the boundary between
Portuguese and Belgian territory, and in its lower course divides
Kabinda into two fairly even portions. The mouth of the
river is in 5° 12' S., 12° 5' E. The chief town, named Kabinda,
is a seaport on the right bank of the small river Bele, in 5° 33' S.,
i2°io'E.; pop. about 10,000. From the beauty of its situation,
and the fertility of the adjacent country, it has been called the
paradise of the coast. The harbour is sheltered and commo-
dious, with anchorage in four fathoms. Kabinda was formerly
a noted slave mart. Farther north are the ports of Landana and
Massabi. Between Kabinda and Landana is Molembo at the
head of a small bay of the same name. There is a considerable
trade in palm oil, ground nuts and other jungle produce, largely
in the hands of British and German firms.
The possession of the enclave of Kabinda by Portugal is a
result of the efforts made by that nation during the last quarter
of the igth century to obtain sovereignty over both banks of
the lower Congo. Whilst Portugal succeeded in obtaining the
southern bank of the river to the limit of navigability from
the sea, the northern bank became part of the Congo Free State
(see AFRICA, § 5). Portuguese claims to the north of the river
were, however, to some extent met by the recognition of her
right to Kabinda. The southernmost part of Kabinda is
25 m. (following the coast-line) north of the mouth of the Congo.
This district as far north as the Chiloango river (and including
the adjacent territory of Belgian Congo) is sometimes spoken
of as Kacongo. The name Loango (q.v.) was also applied to this
region as well as to the coast-lands immediately to the north.
Administratively Kabinda forms a division of the Congo dis-
trict of the province of Angola (q.v.). The inhabitants are Bantu
negroes who are called Kabindas. They are an intelligent,
energetic and enterprising people, daring sailors and active
traders.
KABIR, the most notable of the Vaishnava reformers of
religion in northern India, who flourished during the first half
of the 1 5th century. He is counted as one of the twelve disciples
of Ramanand, the great preacher in the north (about A.D. 1400)
of the doctrine of bhakti addressed to Rama, which originated
with Ramanuja (i2th century) in southern India. He himself
also mentions among his spiritual forerunners Jaideo and
Namdeo (or Nama) the earliest MarathI poet (both about 1250).
Legend relates that Kablr was the son of a Brahman widow, by
whom he was exposed, and was found on a lotus in Lahar Talao,
a pond near Benares, by a Musalman weaver named 'All (or
624
KABUL
Nun), who with his wife Nlm5. adopted him and brought him
up in their craft as a Musalman. He lived most of his life at
Benares, and afterwards removed to Maghar (or Magahar), in
the present district of Basti, where he is said to have died in
1449. There appears to be no reason to doubt that he was
originally a Musalman and a weaver; his own name and that
of his son Kamal are Mahommedan, not Hindu. His adhesion
to the doctrine of Ramanand is not a solitary instance of the
religious syncretism which prevailed at this time in northern
India. The religion of the earlier Sikh Gurus, which was largely
based upon his teaching, also aimed at the fusion of Hinduism
and Islam; and the example of Malik Muhammad,1 the author
of the Padmawat, who lived a century later than Kablr, shows
that the relations between the two creeds were in some cases
extremely intimate. It is related that at Kablr's death the
Hindus and Musalmans each claimed him as an adherent of
their faith, and that when his funeral issued forth from his house
at Maghar the contention was only assuaged by the appearance
of Kablr himself, who bade them look under the cloth which
covered the corpse, and immediately vanished. On raising the
cloth they found nothing but a heap of flowers. This was
divided between the rival faiths, half being buried by the
Musalmans and the other half burned by the Hindus.2
Kablr's fame as a preacher of bhakti, or enthusiastic devotion
to a personal God, whom he preferred to call by the Hindu names
of Rama and Hari, is greater than that of any other of the
Vaishnava spiritual leaders. His fervent conviction of the truth
and power of his doctrine, and the homely and searching expres-
sion given to it in his utterances, in the tongue of the people and
not in a learned language remote from their understanding, won
for him multitudes of adherents; and his sect, the Kablr -panthis,
is still one of the most numerous in northern India, its numbers
exceeding a million. Its headquarters are the Kablr Chaura at
Benares, where are preserved the works attributed to Kablr
(called the Granth), the greater part of which, however, were
written by his immediate disciples and their followers in his
name.
Those works which seem to have the best claim to be considered
his own compositions are the Sakhis, or stanzas, some 5000 in
number, which have a very wide currency even among those who
do not formally belong to the sect, and the Shabd&wali, consisting
of a thousand " words " (shabd), or short doctrinal expositions.
Perhaps some of the Rekhtas, or odes (100 in number), and of the
Ramainis — brief mystical poems in very obscure language — may
also be from his hand. Of these different forms specimens will be
found translated in Professor H. H. Wilson's Sketch of the Religious
Sects of the Hindus, i. 79-90. Besides the followers who call them-
selves by Kabir's name, there may be reckoned to him many other
religious sects which bear that of some intermediate guru or master,
but substantially concur with Kablr in doctrine and practice.
Such, for instance, are the Nanakshahls in the United Provinces,
the Central Provinces, and Bombay, and the Dadu-panthis, numerous
in Rajputana (Wilson, loc. cit. pp. 103 sqq.) ; theSikhs, numbering two
and a half millions in the Panjab, are also his spiritual descendants,
and their Granth or Scripture is largely stocked with texts drawn from
his works.
Kablr taught the life of bhakli (faith, or personal love and
devotion), the object of which is a personal God, and not a philo-
sophical abstraction or an impersonal quality-less, all-pervading
spiritual substance (as in the Vedanta of Sankaracharya). His
utterances do not, like those of Tulsl Das, dwell upon the inci-
dents of the human life of Rama, whom he takes as his type of the
Supreme; nevertheless, it is the essence of his creed that God
became incarnate to bring salvation to His children, mankind,
and that the human mind of this incarnation still subsists in the
Divine Person. He proclaims the unity of the Godhead, the
vanity of idols, the powerlessness of brahmans or mullas to guide
or help, and the divine origin of the human soul, divinae particula
aurae. All evil in the world is ascribed to Maya, illusion or false-
hood, and truth in thought, word and deed is enjoined as the
chief duty of man: " No act of devotion can equal truth; no
crime is so heinous as falsehood; in the heart where truth abides
1 See article HINDOSTANI LITERATURE.
.'An exactly similar tale is told of Nanak, the first Guru of the
Sikhs, who died in 1538.
there is My abode."3 The distinctions of creeds are declared to
be of no importance in the presence of God: " The city of Hara*
is to the east, that of 'Ali b is to the west; but explore your own
heart, for there are both Rama and Karlm; " 6 " Behold but One
in all things: it is the second that leads you astray. Every man
and woman that has ever been born is of the same nature as
yourself. He, whose is the world, and whose are the children of
'Ali and Rama, He is my Guru, He is my Pir." He proclaims
the universal brotherhood of man, and the duty of kindness to
all living creatures. Life is the gift of God, and must not be
violated; the shedding of blood, whether of man or animals, is a
heinous crime. The followers of Kablr do not observe celibacy,
and live quiet unostentatious lives; Wilson (p. 97) compares
them to Quakers for their hatred of violence and unobtrusive
piety.
The resemblance of many of Kabir's utterances to those of
Christ, and especially to the ideas set forth in St John's gospel,
is very striking; still more so is the existence in the ritual of the
sect of a sacramental meal, involving the eating of a consecrated
wafer and the drinking of water administered by the Ma/iant or
spiritual superior, which bears a remarkable likeness to the
Eucharist. Yet, though the deities of Hinduism and the prophet
of Islam are frequently mentioned in his sayings, the name of
Jesus has nowhere been found in them. It is conjectured that
the doctrine of Ramanand, which came from southern India, has
been influenced by the Christian settlements in that region,
which go back to very early times. It is also possible that
Suflism, the pietistic (as distinguished from the theosophic) form
of which seems to owe much to eastern Christianity, has contri-
buted some echo of the Gospel to Kabir's teaching. A third
(but scarcely probable) hypothesis is that the sect has borrowed
both maxims and ritual, long after Kabir's own time, from the
teaching of the Roman Catholic missionaries, who were estab-
lished at Agra from the reign of Akbar (1556-1605) onwards.
No critical edition of the writings current under the name of
Kablr has yet been published, though collections of his sayings
(chiefly the Sakhis) are constantly appearing from Indian presses.
The reader is referred, for a summary account of his life and doctrine,
to H. H. Wilson's Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus (Works,
i. 68 sqq.). Dr E. Trumpp's edition of the Adi Granth (Introduction,
pp. xcvii. sqq.) may also be consulted. Recent publications dealing
with the subject are the Rev. G. H. Westcott's Kabir and the Kablr
Panth (Cawnpore, 1908), and Mr. M. A. Macauliffe's The Sikh Religion
(Oxford, 1909), vi. 122-316. (C. J. L.)
KABUL, the capital of Afghanistan, standing at an elevation
of 6900 ft. above the sea in 34° 32' N. and 69° 14' E. Estimated
pop. (1901), 140,000. Lying at the foot of the bare and rocky
mountains forming the western boundary of the Kabul valley,
just below the gorge made by the Kabul River, the city extends
a mile and a half east to west and one mile north to south.
Hemmed in by the mountains, there is no way of extending it,
except in a northerly direction towards the Sherpur cantonment.
As the key of northern India, Kabul has been a city of vast
importance for countless ages. It commands all the passes
which here debouch from the north through the Hindu Kush,
and from the west through Kandahar; and through it passed
successive invasions of India by Alexander the Great, Mahmud
of Ghazni, Jenghiz Khan, Baber, Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah.
Indeed from the time of Baber to that of Nadir Shah (1526-1738)
Kabul was part of the empire of Delhi. It is now some 160 m.
from the British frontier post of Jamrud near Peshawar.
Kabul was formerly walled; the old wall had seven gates, of
which two alone remain, the Lahori and the Sirdar. The city
itself is a huddle of narrow and dirty streets, with the Bala
Hissar or fort forming the south-east angle, and rising about
150 ft. above the plain. The Amir's palace is situated outside
the town about midway between it and the Sherpur cantonment
which lies about a mile to the north-east. Formerly the greatest
3 This and the following passages in quotation marks are from
Professor Wilson's translation of loo Sakhis, pp. 83-90.
4 Benares; Hara, a name of Siva.
6 I.e. Mecca.
6 " The Bountiful," one of the Koranic names of God (Allah).
KABUL RIVER— KABYLES
625
ornament of the city was the arcaded and roofed bazaar called
Chihdr Chdtd, ascribed to Ali Mardan Khan, a noble of the I7th
century, who has left behind him many monuments of his munifi-
cent public spirit both in Kabul and in Hindustan. Its four
arms had an aggregate length of about 600 ft., with a breadth
of 30. The display of goods was remarkable, and in the evening
it was illuminated. This edifice was destroyed by Sir G. Pollock
on evacuating Kabul in 1842 as a record of the treachery of
the city.
The tomb of the Sultan Baber stands on a slope about a mile
to the west of the city in a charming spot. The grave is marked
by two erect slabs of white marble. Near him lie several of his
wives and children; the garden was formerly enclosed by a
marble wall; a clear stream waters the flower-beds. From the
hill that rises behind the tomb there is a noble prospect of his
beloved city, and of the all-fruitful plain stretching to the north
of it.
After the accession of Abdur Rahman in 1880 the city under-
went great changes. The Bala Hissar was destroyed and has
never since been entirely rebuilt, and a fortified cantonment at
Sherpur (one side of which was represented by the historic
Bemaru ridge) had taken the place of the old earthworks of the
British occupation of 1842 which were constructed on nearly the
same site. The city streets were as narrow and evil-smelling, the
surrounding gardens as picturesque and attractive, and the wealth
of fruit was as great, as they had been fifty years previously.
The amir, however, effected many improvements. Kabul is now
connected by well-planned and metalled roads with Afghan Turk-
estan on the west, with the Oxus and Bokhara on the north, and
with India on the east. The road to India was first made by
British and is now maintained by Afghan engineers. The road
southwards to Ghazni and Kandahar was always naturally ex-
cellent and has probably needed little engineering, but the general
principle of road-making in support of a military advance has
always been consistently maintained, and the expeditions of
Kabul troops to Kafiristan have been supported by a very well
graded and substantially constructed road up the Kunar valley
from Jalalabad to Asmar, and onwards to the Bashgol valley of
Kafiristan. The city ways have been improved until it has be-
come possible for wheeled vehicles to pass, and the various roads
connecting the suburbs and the city are efficiently maintained.
A purely local railway has also been introduced, to assist in
transporting building material. The buildings erected by Abdur
Rahman were pretentious, but unmarked by any originality
in design and hardly worthy representation of the beauty and
dignity of Mahommedan architecture. They included a new
palace and a durbar hall, a bridge across the river and embank-
ment, a pavilion and garden laid out around the site of Baber's
tomb overlooking the Chardeh valley; and many other buildings
of public utility connected with stud arrangements, the manu-
facture of small arms and ammunition, and the requirements
of what may be termed a wholesale shop under European direc-
tion, besides hospitals, dispensaries, bazaars, &c. The new
palace is within an entrenchment just outside the city. It is
enclosed in a fine garden, well planted with trees, where the harem
serai (or ladies' apartments) occupies a considerable space. The
public portion of the buildings comprise an ornamental and lofty
pavilion with entrances on each side, and a high-domed octagonal
room in the centre, beautifully fitted and appointed, where public
receptions take place. The durbar hall, which is a separate build-
ing, is 60 yards long by 20 broad, with a painted roof supported
by two rows of pillars. But the arrangement of terraced gardens
and the lightly constructed pavilion which graces the western
slopes of the hills overlooking Chardeh are the most attractive
of these innovations. Here, on a summer's day, with the scent
of roses pervading the heated air, the cool refreshment of the
passing breezes and of splashing fountains may be enjoyed by
the officials of the Kabul court, whilst they look across the beauty
of the thickly planted plains of Chardeh to the rugged outlines
of Paghman and the snows of the Hindu Kush. The artistic
taste of the landscape gardening is excellent, and the mountain
scenery is not unworthy of Kashmir. It is pleasant to record
that the graveyard of those officers who fell in the Kabul
campaign of 1879-1880, which lies at the northern end of the
Bemaru ridge, is not uncared for.
Kabul is believed to be the Ortospanum or Ortospana of the
geographies of Alexander's march, a name conjectured to be a
corruption of Urddhasth&na, " high place." This is the meaning of
the name Bala Hissar. But the actual name is perhaps also found
as that of a people in this position (Ptolemy's Kabolitae), if not in
the name of a city apparently identical with Ortospana, Carura,
in some copies read Cabura. It was invaded by the Arabs as early
as the thirty-fifth year of the Hegira, but it was long before the
Mahommedans effected any lasting settlement. In the early
Mahommedan histories and geographies we find (according to a
favourite Arabic love of jingle) Kabul and Z&bul constantly asso-
ciated. Zabul appears to have been the country about Ghazni.
Kabul first became a capital when Baber made himself master of it
in 1504, and here he reigned for fifteen years before his invasion of
Hindustan. In modern times it became a capital again, under
Timur Shah (see AFGHANISTAN), and so has continued both to the
end of the Durani dynasty, and under the Barakzais, who now reign.
It was occupied by Sir John Keane in 1839, General Pollock in
1842, and again by Sir Frederick, afterwards Lord Roberts, in 1879.
Kabul is also the name of the province including the city so called.
It may be considered to embrace the whole of the plains called
Koh Daman and Beghram, &c., to the Hindu Kush northward, with
the Kohistan or hill country adjoining. Eastward it extends to the
border of Jalalabad at Jagdalak; southward it includes the Logar
district, and extends to the border of Ghazni; north-westward it
includes the Paghman hills, and the valley of the upper Kabul
river, and so to the Koh-i-Baba. Roughly it embraces a territory
of about 100 m. square, chiefly mountainous. Wheat and barley are
the staple products of the arable tracts. Artificial grasses are also
much cultivated, and fruits largely, especially in the Koh Daman.
A considerable part of the population spends the summer in tents.
The villages are not enclosed by fortifications, but contain small
private castles or fortalices.
See C. Yate, Northern Afghanistan (1888) ; J. A. Gray, At the Court
of the Amir (1895); Sir T. H. H. Holdich, The Indian Borderland
(1901). (T. H. H.*)
KABUL RIVER, a river of Afghanistan, 300 m. in length. The
Kabul (ancient Kophes), which is the most important (although
not the largest) river in Afghanistan, rises at the foot of the Unai
pass leading over the Sanglakh range, an offshoot of the Hindu
Kush towards Bamian and Afghan Turkestan. Its basin forms
the province of Kabul, which includes all northern Afghanistan
between the Hindu Kush and the Safed Koh ranges. From its
source to the city of Kabul the course of the river is only 45 m.,
and this part of it is often exhausted in summer for purposes of
irrigation. Half a mile east of Kabul it is joined by the Logar,
a much larger river, which rises beyond Ghazni among the slopes
of the Gul Koh (14,200 ft.), and drains the rich and picturesque
valleys of Logar and Wardak. Below the confluence the Kabul
becomes a rapid stream with a great volume of water and gradu-
ally absorbs the whole drainage of the Hindu Kush. About 40 m.
below Kabul the Panjshir river joins it; 15 m. farther the Tagao;
20 m. from the Tagao junction the united streams of Alingar and
Alishang (rivers of Kafiristan) ; and 20 m. below that, at Balabagh,
the Surkhab from the Safed Koh. Two or three miles below Jala-
labad it is joined by the Kunar, the river of Chitral. Thence-
forward it passes by deep gorges through the Mohmand hills,
curving northward until it emerges into the Peshawar plain at
Michni. Soon afterwards it receives the Swat river from the
north and the Bara river from the south, and after a further
course of 40 m. falls into the Indus at Attock. From Jalalabad
downwards the river is navigable by boats or rafts of inflated
skins, and is considerably used for purposes of commerce.
KABYLES, or KABAIL, a confederation of tribes in Algeria,
Tunisia, and a few oases of the Sahara, who form a branch
of the great Berber race. Their name is the Arabic gabilat
(pi.: gabail), and was at first indiscriminately applied by the
Arabs to all Berber peoples. The part of Algeria which they
inhabit is usually regarded as consisting of two divisions — Great
Kabylia and Lesser Kabylia, the former being also known as
the Kabylia of the Jurjura (also called Adrar Budfel, " Mountain
of Snow "). Physically many Kabyles do not present much
contrast to the Arabs of Algeria. Both Kabyle and Arab are
white at birth, but rapidly grow brown through exposure to air
and sunshine. Both have in general brown eyes and wavy hair
626
KACH GANDAVA— KADUR
of coarse quality, varying from dark brown to jet black. In
stature there is perhaps a little difference in favour of the Kabyle,
and he appears also to be of heavier build and more muscular.
Both are clearly long-headed. Some, however, of the purer
type of Kabyles in Kabylia proper have fair skins, ruddy com-
plexions and blue or grey eyes. In fact there are two distinct
types of Kabyles: those which by much admixture have
approximated to Arab and negroid types, and those which pre-
serve Libyan features. Active, energetic and enterprising, the
Kabyle is to be found far from home — as a soldier in the French
army, as a workman in the towns, as a field labourer, or as a
pedlar or trader earning the means of purchasing his bit of ground
in his native village. The Kabyles are Mahommedans of the
Sunnite branch and the Malikite rite, looking to Morocco as the
nearer centre of their religion. Some of the Kabyles retain their
vernacular speech, while others have more or less completely
adopted Arabic. The best known of the Kabyle dialects is
the Zouave1 or Igaouaouen, those speaking it having been
settled on the northern side of the Jurjura at least from the time
of Ibn Khaldun; it is the principal basis of Hanoteau's Essai
de grammaire kabyle (Paris, 1858). Unlike their southern
brethren, the Kabyles have no alphabet, and their literature is
still in the stage of oral transmission, for the most part by pro-
fessional reciters. Hanoteau's Patsies populaires de la Kabylie
du Jurjura (Paris, 1867) gives the text and translation of a
considerable number of historical pieces, proverbial couplets and
quatrains, dancing songs, &c.
Consult General L. L. C. Faidherbe and Dr Paul Topinard, Instruc-
tions sur I' anthropologie de I'Algerie (Paris, 1874); Melchior Joseph
Eugene Daumas, Le Sahara algerien (Paris, 1845) and Mceurs et
coutumes de I'Algerie (1857) ; De Slane's translation of Ibn Khaldun's
Hist, des Berberes (Algiers, 1852); Aucapitaine, Les Kabyles et la
colonie del'Algerie (Pans, 1864) and LesBeni M'zab (1868) ; L. J. A. C.
Hanoteau and A. Letourneux, La Kabylie et les coutumes kabyles
(Paris, 1893) ; Charmetant, in Jahrbucher derVerbreitung des Glaubens
(1874) ; Masqueray, Formation des cites . . de I'Algerie (1886) ; Dugas,
La Kabylie et le peuple kabyle (Paris, 1878) ; Recoux, La Demographic
de I'Algerie (Paris, 1880); J. Liorel, Races berberes: les Kabyles
(Paris, 1893) ; Maclver and Wilkin, Libyan Notes (1901).
KACH GANDAVA, or KACHHI (Kach, Kej, Kiz), a low-lying
flat region in Baluchistan separating the Bugti hills from those
of Kalat. It is driven, like a wedge, into the frontier mountain
system and extends for 150 m. from Jacobabad to Sibi, with
nearly as great a breadth at its base on the Sind frontier. Area,
531° sq. m.; pop. (1901), 82,909. The Mula pass, which con-
nects it with the Kalat highlands, was once (when the ancient
city of Kandabel was the capital of Gandava) a much trodden
trade highway, and is still a practicable route though no longer
a popular one. The soil is fertile wherever it can be irrigated by
the floods brought down from the surrounding hills; but much
of the central portion is sandy waste. It is traversed by the
North- Western railway. The climate is unhealthy in summer,
when pestilential hot winds are sometimes destructive to life.
The annual rainfall averages only 3 in. Kachhi, though subject
to the khan of Kalat, is administered under the tribal system.
There are no schools, dispensaries or gaols.
See Baluchistan District Gazetteer, vol. vi. (Bombay, 1907).
KACHIN HILLS, a mountainous tract in Upper Burma, in-
habited by the Kachin or Chingpaw, who are known on the
Assam frontier as Singphos. Owing to the great number of
tribes, sub-tribes and clans of the Kachins, the part of the Kachin
hills which has been taken under administration in the Myitkyina
and Bhamo districts was divided into 40 Kachin hill tracts
(recently reduced to five). Beyond these tracts there are many
Kachins in Katha, Mong Mit and the northern Shan States.
The country within the Kachin hill tracts is roughly estimated at
19,177 sq. m., and consists of a series of ranges, for the most part
running north and south, and intersected by valleys, all leading
towards the Irrawaddy, which drains the country. There were
64,405 Kachins enumerated at the census of 1901. Philological
investigations show that it is probable that the progenitors
1 From the enlistment of Kabyles speaking the Zouave dialect
the Zouave regiments of the French army came to be so called.
of the Kachins or Chingpaw were the Indo-Chinese race who,
before the beginnings of history, but after the Mon-Annam wave
had covered Indo-China, forsook their home in western China
to pour over the region where Tibet, Assam, Burma and China
converge, and that the Chingpaw are the residue left round the
headquarters of the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin after those
branches, destined to become the Tibetans, the Nagas, the Bur-
mans and the Kuki Chins, had gone westwards and southwards.
In the middle of the igth century the southern limit of the
Kachins was 200 m. farther north than it is now. Since then
the race has been drifting steadily southward and eastward,
a vast aggregate of small independent clans united by no
common government, but all obeying a common impulse to
move outwards from their original seats along the line of least
resistance. Now the Kachins are on both sides of the border of
Upper Burma, and are a force to be reckoned with by frontier
administrators. According to the Kachin Hill Tribes Regula-
tion of 1895, administrative responsibility is accepted by the
British government on the left bank of the Irrawaddy for the
country south of the Nmaikha, and on the right bank for the
country south of a line drawn from the confluence of the Malikha
and Nmaikha through the northern limit of the Laban district
and including the jade mines. The tribes north of this line were
told that if they abstained from raiding to the south of it they
would not be interfered with. South of that line peace was to be
enforced and a small tribute exacted, with a minimum of inter-
ference in their private affairs. On the British side of the border
the chief objects have been the disarmament of the tribes and
the construction of frontier and internal roads. A light tribute
is exacted.
The Kachins have been the object of many police operations and
two regular expeditions: (i) Expedition of 1892-93. Bhamo was
occupied by the British on the 28th of December 1885, and almost
immediately trouble began. Constant punitive measures were carried
on by the military police; but in December 1892 a police column
proceeding to establish a post at Sima was heavily attacked, and
simultaneously the town of Myitkyina was raided by Kachins. A
force of 1200 troops was sent to put down the rising. The enemy
received their final blow at Palap, but not before three officers were
killed, three wounded, and 102 sepoys and foljowers killed and
wounded. (2) Expedition of 1895-96. The continued misconduct
of the Sana Kachins from beyond the administrative border ren-
dered punitive measures necessary. They had remained unpunished
since the attack on Myitkyina in December 1892. Two columns were
sent up, one of 250 rifles from Myitkyina, the other of 200 rifles
From Mogaung, marching in December 1895. The resistance was
insignificant, and the operations were completely successful. A
strong force of military police is stationed at Myitkyina, with several
outposts in the Kachin hills, and the country is never wholly free
from crimes of violence committed by the Kachins.
KADUR, a district of Mysore state, in southern India, with an
area of 2813 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 362,752, showing an increase
of 9% in the decade. The larger portion of the district consists
of the Malnad or hill country, which contains some of the wildest
mountain scenery in southern India. The western frontier is
formed by the chain of the Ghats, of which the highest peaks
are the Kudremukh (6215 ft.) and the Meruti Gudda (5451 ft.).
The centre is occupied by the horse-shoe range of the Baba
Budans, containing the loftiest mountain in Mysore, Mulaingiri
(6317 ft.). The Maidan or plain country lying beneath the
amphitheatre formed by the Baba Budan hills is a most fertile
region, well watered, and with the famous " black cotton soil."
The principal rivers are the Tunga and Bhadra, which rise near
each other in the Ghats, and unite to form the Tungabhadra, a
tributary of the Kistna. The eastern region is watered by the
Vedavati. At the point where this river leaves the Baba Budan
hills it is embanked to form two extensive tanks which irrigate
the lower valley. From all the rivers water is drawn off into
irrigation channels by means of anicuts or weirs. The chief
natural wealth of Kadur is in its forests, which contain inex-
haustible supplies of the finest timber, especially teak, and also
furnish shelter for the coffee plantations. Iron is found and
smelted at the foot of the hills, and corundum exists in certain
localities. Wild beasts and game are numerous, and fish are
abundant.
KAEMPFER— KAFFIRS
627
The largest town is Tarikere (pop. 10,164); the headquarters
are at Chikmagalur (9515). The staple crop is rice, chiefly
grown on the hill slopes, where the natural rainfall is sufficient,
or in the river valley, where the fields can be irrigated. Coffee
cultivation is said to have been introduced by a Mahommedan
saint, Baba Budan, more than two centuries ago; but it first
attracted European capital in 1840. The district is served by
the Southern Mahratta railway.
KAEMPFER, ENGELBRECHT (1651-1716), German traveller
and physician, was born on the i6th of November 1631 at Lemgo
in Lippe-Detmold, Westphalia, where his father was a pastor.
He studied at Hameln, Liineburg, Hamburg, Lubeck and
Danzig, and after graduating Ph.D. at Cracow, spent four years
at Konigsberg in Prussia, studying medicine and natural science.
In 1 68 1 he visited Upsala in Sweden, where he was offered
inducements to settle; but his desire for foreign travel led him to
become secretary to the embassy which Charles XI. sent through
Russia to Persia in 1683. He reached Persia by way of Moscow,
Kazan and Astrakhan, landing at Nizabad in Daghestan after
a voyage in the Caspian; from Shemakha in Shirvan he made an
expedition to the Baku peninsula, being perhaps the first modern
scientist to visit these fields of " eternal fire." In 1684 he
arrived in Isfahan, then the Persian capital. When after a stay
of more than a year the Swedish embassy prepared to return,
Kaempfer joined the fleet of the Dutch East India Company in
the Persian Gulf as chief surgeon, and in spite of fever caught
at Bander Abbasi he found opportunity to see something of
Arabia and of many of the western coast-lands of India. In
September 1689 he reached Batavia; spent the following winter
in studying Javanese natural history, and in May 1690 set out
for Japan as physician to the embassy sent yearly to that country
by the Dutch. The ship in which he sailed touched at Siam,
whose capital he visited; and in September 1690 he arrived at
Nagasaki, the only Japanese port then open to foreigners.
Kaempfer stayed two years in Japan, during which he twice
visited Tokyo. His adroitness, insinuating manners and medical
skill overcame the habitual jealousy and reticence of the natives,
and enabled him to elicit much valuable information. In
November 1692 he left Japan for Java and Europe, and in
October 1693 he landed at Amsterdam. Receiving the degree
of M.D. at Leiden, he settled down in his native city, becom-
ing also physician to the count of Lippe. He died at Lemgo on
the 2nd of November 1716.
The only work Kaempfer lived to publish was Amoenitatum
exoticarum politico-physico-medicarum fasciculi V. (Lemgo, 1712),
a selection from his papers giving results of his invaluable observa-
tions in Georgia, Persia and Japan. At his death the unpublished
manuscripts were purchased by Sir Hans Sloane, and conveyed to
England. Among them was a History of Japan, translated from the
manuscript into English by J. G. Scheuchzer and published at London,
in 2 vols., in 1727. The original German has never been published,
the extant German version being taken from the English. Besides
Japanese history, this book contains a description of the political,
social and physical state of the country in the 1 7th century. For
upwards of a hundred years it remained the chief source of informa-
tion for the general reader, and is still not wholly obsolete. A life
of the author is prefixed to the History.
KAFFA, a country of N.E. Africa, part of the Abyssinian
empire. Kaffa proper (formerly known also as Gomara) has
an area of little more than 5000 sq. m., but the name is used
in a general sense to include the neighbouring territories of
Gimirra, Jimma, Ennarea, &c. In this larger acceptation Kaffa
extends roughly from 6° to 9° N. and from 35° to 37!° E. It
forms the S.W. part of the great Abyssinian plateau and consists
of broken table-land deeply scored by mountain torrents and
densely wooded. The general elevation is about 8000 ft., while
several peaks are over 10,000 ft. From the western slopes of
the plateau descend headstreams of the Sobat. The principal
river however is the Omo, the chief feeder of Lake Rudolf.
Kaffa proper is believed to be the native home of the coffee plant
(whence the name), which grows in profusion on the mountain
sides. The principal town was Bonga, 75° N., 36° 12' E., a
great trading centre, but the Abyssinian headquarters are at
Anderacha, about 12 m. S.S.W. of Bonga. Jiren, the capital
of Jimma, 60 m. N.E. of Bonga, is a still more important town,
its weekly market being attended by some 20,000 persons.
A great variety of races inhabit these countries of southern
Ethiopia. The Kaficho (people of Kaffa proper) are said to be
of the same stock as the northern Abyssinians and to have been
separated from the rest of the country by the Mahommedan
invasion of the i6th century. Thus Jimma, immediately north
of Kaffa proper, is peopled by Mahommedan Gallas. The
Kaficho, though much mixed with Galla blood, retained their
Christianity and a knowledge of Geez, the ecclesiastical tongue
of Abyssinia. The ordinary language of the Kaficho has no
outward resemblance to modern Abyssinian. Their speech was,
however, stated by Dr C. T. Beke (c. 1850) to be cognate with
the Gonga tongue, spoken in a portion of Damot, on the northern
side of the Abai. Kaffa, after having been ruled by independent
sovereigns, who were also suzerains of the neighbouring states,
was about 1895 conquered by the Abyssinians. The first
European explorer of Kaffa was Antoine de'Abbadie, who visited
it in 1843. Not until the early years of the 2oth century was
the country accurately mapped.
KAFFIR BREAD, in botany, the popular name for a species
of Encephalartos (E. caffra), one of the cycads, a native of South
Africa, so called from the farinaceous food-stuff which is found at
the apex of the stem (Gr. kv, in, Ke</>aXi7, head, and apros, bread).
It is a tree reaching nearly 20 ft. in height, with very stiff,
spreading pinnate leaves 3 to 4 ft. long and recurving at the tip.
The species of Encephalartos, which are natives of tropical and
South Africa, form handsome greenhouse and conservatory
plants; some species are effectively used in subtropical gardening
in the summer months.
KAFFIRS (Arabic Kafir, an unbeliever), a name given by the
Arabs to the native races of the east coast of Africa. The term
was current along the east coast at the arrival of the Portuguese,
and passed from them to the Dutch and English, and to the
natives themselves under the form of Kafula. There are no
general or collective national names for these peoples, and the
various tribal divisions are mostly designated by historical or
legendary chiefs, founders of dynasties or hereditary chief-
taincies. The term has no real ethnological value, for the Kaffirs
have no national unity. To-day it is used to describe that large
family of Bantu negroes inhabiting the greater part of the Cape,
the whole of Natal and Zululand, and the Portuguese dominions
on the east coast south of the Zambezi. The name is also loosely
applied to any negro inhabitant of South Africa. For example,
the Bechuana of the Transvaal and Orange Free State are usually
called Kaffirs.
The Kaffirs. are divisible into two great branches: the Ama-
Zulu with the Ama-Swazi and Ama-Tonga and the Kaffirs proper,
represented by the Ama-Xosa, the Tembu (q.v.) and the Pondo
(q.v.). Hence the compound term Zulu-Kaffir applied in a
collective sense to all the Kaffir peoples. Intermediate between
these two branches were several broken tribes now collectively
known as Ama-Fengu, i.e. " wanderers " or " needy " people,
from fenguza, to seek service1 (see FINGO).
The ramifications of the Kaffirs proper cannot be understood
without reference to the national genealogies, most of the tribal
names, as already stated, being those of real or reputed founders
of dynasties. Thus the term Ama-Xosa means simply the " people
of Xosa," a somewhat mythical chief supposed to have flourished
about the year 1530. Ninth in descent from his son Toguh was
Palo, who died about 1780, leaving two sons, Gcaleka and Rarabe
(pronounced Kha-Kha-be), from whom came the Ama-Gcaleka,
Ama-Dhlambe (T'slambies) and the Ama-Ngquika (Gaika or
Sandili's people). The Pondo do not descend from Xosa, but
probably from an elder brother, while the Tembu, though apparently
representing a younger branch, are regarded by all the Kaffir tribes
as the royal race. Hence the Gcaleka chief, who is the head of all
1 The Ama-Fengu are regarded both by the Zulu and Ama-Xosa
as slaves or out-castes, without any right to the privileges of true-
born Kaffirs. Any tribes which become broken and mixed would
probably be regarded as Ama-Fengu by the other Kaffirs. Hence
the multiplicity of clans, such as the Ama-Bele, Aba-Sembotweni
Ama-Zizi, Ama-Kuze, Aba-Sekunene, Ama-Ntokaze, Ama-Tetyeni
Aba-Shwawa, &c., all of whom are collectively grouped as Ama-
Fengu.
KAFFIRS
the Ama-Xosa tribes, always takes his first or " great wife " from
the Tembu royal family, and her issue alone have any claim to
the succession. The subjoined genealogical tree will place Kaffir
relations in a clearer light . —
Zuide (1500?), reputed founder of the nation.
I
Tembu.
. I
Ama-Tembu
(Tambookies),
Tembuland
and Emigrant
Tembuland.
Xosa (1530?).
I
Toguh.
Palo (06. 1780?),
loth in descent
from Xosa.
I
Mpondo.
I
I
Ama-Mponda,
between river
Umtata and
Natal.
a-M
Ama-Mpondu-
misi
I
Abelungu
(dispersed?)
Gcaleka.
Klanta.
Hinza.
Kreli.
Ama-Gcaleka
(Galeka),
between the
Bashee and
Umtata rivers.
Rarabe
(Khakhabe).
I
1
Omlao.
1
Ngqika.
Macomo
Tyali.
Sandili.
i-Ngqika
Mbalu. Ndhlambe
Ama-Mbalus. Ama-Ndhlambes
Ama-Gwali. or T'slambies,
Ama-Ntinde. between the
Ama-Gqunuk- Keiskamma and
webi. Great Kei rivers.
Ama-Velelo.
Ama-Baxa.
Imi-Dange.
Imi-Dushane.
(Gaika),
Amatola highlands.
Ama-Khakhabe.
Ama-Xosa.
It will be seen that, as representing the elder branch, the Gcaleka
stand apart from the rest of Xosa's descendants, whom they group
collectively asAma-Rarabe (Ama-Khakhabe), and whose genealogies,
except in the case of the Gaikas and T'slambies, are very confused.
The Ama-Xosa country lies mainly between the Keiskama and
Umtata rivers.
The Zulu call themselves Abantu ba-Kwa-Zulu, i.e. " people of
Zulu's land," or briefly Bakwa-Zulu, from a legendary chief Zulu,
founder of the royal dynasty. They were originally an obscure tribe
occupying the basin of the Umfolosi river, but rose suddenly to
power under Chaka,1 who had been brought up among the neigh-
bouring and powerful Umtetwas, and who succeeded the chiefs of
that tribe and of his own in the beginning of the igth century.
But the true mother tribe seems to have been the extinct Ama-
Ntombela, whence the Ama-Tefulu, the U'ndwande, U'mlelas,
U'mtetwas and many others, all absorbed or claiming to be true
Zulus. But they are only so by political subjection, ana the gradual
adoption of the Zulu dress, usages and speech. Hence in most cases
the term Zulu implies political rather than blood relationship.
This remark applies also to the followers of Mosilikatze (properly
Umsilikazi), who, after a fierce struggle with the Bechuana, founded
about 1820 a second Zulu state about the head waters of the Orange
river. In 1837 most of them were driven northwards by the Boers
and are now known as Matabele.
The origin of the Zulu-Kaffir race has given rise to much
controversy. It is obvious that they are not the aborigines
of their present domain, whence in comparatively recent times —
since the beginning of the i6th century — they have displaced
the Hottentots and Bushmen of fundamentally distinct stock.
They themselves are conscious of their foreign origin. Yet
they are closely allied in speech (see BANTU LANGUAGES) and
physique to the surrounding Basuto, Bechuana and other mem-
bers of the great South African Negroid family. Hence their
appearance in the south-east corner of the continent is sufficiently
explained by the gradual onward movement of the populations
pressing southward on the Hottentot and Bushman domain.
The specific differences in speech and appearance by which they
are distinguished from the other branches of the family must
in the same way be explained by the altered conditions of their
new habitat. Hence it is that the farther they have penetrated
southwards the farther have they become differentiated from
the pure Negro type. Thus the light and clear brown complexion
1 Seventh in descent from Zulu, through Kumede, Makeba,
Punga, Ndaba, Yama and Tezengakona or Senzangakona (Bleek,
Zulu Legends').
prevalent amongst the southern Tembu becomes gradually
darker as we proceed northwards, passing at last to the blue-
black and sepia of the Ama-Swazi and Tekeza. Even many of
the mixed Fingo tribes are of a polished ebony colour, like that
of the Jolofs and other Senegambian negroes. The Kaffir hair
is uniformly of a woolly texture. The head is dolichocephalic,
but it is also high or long vertically,2 and it is in this feature of
hypsistenocephaly (height and length combined) that the Kaffir
presents the most striking contrast with the pure Negro. But,
the nose being generally rather broad 3 and the lips thick, the
Kaffir face, though somewhat oval, is never regular in the
European sense, the deviations being normally in the direction
of the Negro, with which race the peculiar odour of the skin
again connects the Kaffirs. In stature they rank next to the
Patagonians, Polynesians and West Africans, averaging from
5 ft. 9 in. to 5 ft. ii in., and even 6 ft.4 They are slim, well-
proportioned and muscular. Owing to the hard life they lead,
the women are generally inferior in appearance to the men,
except amongst the Zulu, and especially the Tembu. Hence
in the matrimonial market, while the Ama-Xosa girl realizes no
more than ten or twelve head of cattle, the Tembu belle fetches
as many as forty, and if especially fine even eighty.
The more warlike tribes were usually arrayed in leopard or ox
skins, of late years generally replaced by European blankets, with
feather head-dresses, coral and metal ornaments, bead armlets and
necklaces. The Makua and a few others practise tattooing, and the
Ama-Xosa are fond of painting or smearing their bodies with red
ochre. Their arms consist chiefly of ox-hide shields 4 to 6 ft. long,
the kerrie or club, and the assegai, of which there are two kinds,
one long, with g-in. narrow blade, for throwing, the other short, with
broad blade 12 to 1 8 in. long, for stabbing. The dwellings are simple
conical huts grouped in kraals or villages. Although cattle form their
chief wealth, and hunting and stock-breeding their main pursuits,
many have turned to husbandry. The Zulu raise regular crops of
" mealies " (maize), and the Pondo cultivate a species of millet,
tobacco, water melons, yams and other vegetables. Milk (never
taken fresh), millet and maize form the staples of food, and meat
is seldom eaten except in time of war.
A young Kaffir attains man's estate socially, not at puberty, but
upon his marriage. Polygyny is the rule and each wife is regarded
as adding dignity to the household. Marriage is by purchase, the
price being paid in cattle. Upon the husband's death family life
is continued under the headship of the eldest son of the house, the
widows by virtue of levirate becoming the property of the uncle or
nearest males, -not sons. A son inherits and honourably liquidates,
if he can, his father's debts.
Mentally the Kaffirs are superior to the Negro. In their social
and political relations they display great tact and intelligence;
they are remarkably brave, warlike and hospitable, and were honest
and truthful until through contact with the whites they became
suspicious, revengeful and thievish, besides acquiring most European
vices. Of religion as ordinarily understood they have very little,
and have certainly never developed any mythologies or dogmatic
systems. It is more than doubtful whether they had originally
formed any notion of a_ Supreme Being. Some conception, however,
of a future state is implied by a strongly developed worship of
ancestry, and by a belief in spirits and ghosts to whom sacrifices are
made. There are no idols or priests, but belief in witchcraft formerly
gave the '' witch-doctor " or medicine-man overwhelming power.6
Circumcision and polygyny are universal; the former is sometimes
attributed to Mahpmmedan influences, but has really prevailed
almost everywhere in East Africa from the remotest time.
Dearer than anything else to the Kaffir are his cattle; and many
ceremonial observances in connexion with them were once the rule.
Formerly ox-racing was a common sport, the oxen running, riderless,
over a ten-mile course. The owner of a champion racing ox was a
popular hero, and these racers were valued at hundreds of head of
cattle. Cattle are the currency of the Kaffirs in their wild state.
Ten to twenty head are the price of a wife. When a girl marries,
2 P. Topinard, Anthropology (1878), p. 274.
3 This feature varies considerably, " in the T'slambie tribes being
broader and more of the Negro shape than in the Gaika or Gcaleka,
while among the Ama-Tembu and Ama-Mpondo it assumes more of
the European character. In many of them the perfect Grecian and
Roman noses are discernible " (Fleming's Kaffraria, p. 92).
4 Gustav Fritsch gives the mean of the Ama-Xosa as I -718 metres,
less than that of the Guinea Negro (1-724), but more than the English
(1-708) and Scotch (1-710).
6 Since the early years of the igth century Protestant and Roman
Catholic missions have gained hundreds of thousands of converts
among the Kaffirs. Purely native Christian churches have also
been organized.
KAFFRARIA
629
her father (if well off) presents her with a cow from his herd.
This animal is called ubulungu or " doer of good " and is regarded as
sacred. It must never be killed nor may its descendants, as long
as it lives. A hair of its tail is tied round the neck of each child
immediately after birth. In large kraals there is the " dancing-ox,"
usually of red colour. Its horns are trained to peculiar shapes by
early mutilations. It figures in many ceremonies when it is paid
a kind of knee-worship.
The Kaffirs have three, not four, seasons: "Green Heads,"
" Kindness " and " Cutting "; the first and last referring to the
crops, the second to the " warm weather." Women and children
only eat after the men are satisfied. A light beer made from
sorghum is the national drink.
Of the few industries the chief are copper and iron smelting,
practised by the Tembu, Zulu and Swazi, who manufacture weapons,
spoons and agricultural implements both for their own use and for
trade. The Swazi display some taste in wood-carving, and others
prepare a peculiar water-tight vessel of grass. Characteristic of this
race is their neglect of the art of navigation. Not the smallest
boats are ever made for crossing the rivers, much less for venturing
on the sea, except by the Makazana of Delagoa Bay and by the
Zambezi people, who have canoes and flat-bottomed boats made of
planks.
The Kaffir race had a distinct and apparently very old political
system, which may be described as a patriarchal monarchy limited
by a powerful aristocracy. Under British rule the tribal indepen-
dence of the Kaffirs has disappeared. Varying degrees of autonomy
have been granted, but the supreme powers of the chiefs have gone,
the Swazi being in 1904 the last to be brought to order. In the
Transkeian Territories tribal organization exists, but it is modified
by special legislation and the natives are under the control of
special magistrates. To a considerable extent in Natal and through-
out Zululand the Kaffirs are placed in reserves, where tribal
organization is kept up under European supervision. In Basuto-
land the tribal organization is very strong, and the power of chiefs
is upheld by the imperial government, which exercises general
supervision.
See Gustav Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Sudafrikas, with atlas, 30
plates and 120 typical heads (Breslau, 1872); W. H. I. Bleek,
Comparative Grammar of the South African Languages (London and
Cape Town, pt. i., 1862; pt. ii., 1869); Theo. Hahn, Grundziige
einer Grammatik des Herero (Berlin, 1857); Dr Colenso, Grammar of
the Zulu-Kafir Language (1855); Girard de Rialle, Les Peuples de
I'Afrique et del'Amerique (Paris, 1880); G. W. Stow, The Native
Races of South Africa (London, 1905) ; G. McC. Theal, History and
Ethnography of South Africa, 7505 to 179$ (3 vols., London, 1907-
1910) and History of South Africa since 1795 (5 vols., London, 1908),
specially valuable for the political history of the Kaffirs; Caesar C.
Henkel, The Native or Transkeian Territories (Hamburg, 1903);
The Natives of South Africa (1901), and its sequel, The South African
Natives (1908); Dudley Kidd, The Essential Kafir (1904) and Kafir
Socialism. The last four books deal with the many social and
economic questions raised by the contact of the Kaffir races with
Europeans.
KAFFRARIA, the descriptive name given to the S.E. part of
the Cape province, South Africa. Kaffraria, i.e. the land of the
Kaffirs (q.v.) , is no longer an official designation. It used to com-
prise the districts now known as King William's Town and
East London, which formed British Kaffraria, annexed to Cape
Colony in 1865, and the territory beyond the Kei River south of
the Drakensberg Mountains as far as the Natal frontier, known
as Kaffraria proper. As a geographical term it is still used to
indicate the Transkeian territories of the Cape provinces com-
prising the four administrative divisions of Transkei, Pondoland,
Tembuland and Griqualand East, incorporated into Cape
Colony at various periods between 1879 and 1894. They have a
total area of 18,310 sq. m., and a population (1904) of 834,644,
of whom 16,777 were whites. Excluding Pondoland — not
counted previously to 1904 — the population had increased from
487,364 in 1891 to 631,887 in 1904.
Physical Features. — The physical characteristics of Kaffraria bear
a general resemblance to those of the Cape province proper. The
country rises from sea-level in a series of terraces to the rugged range
of the Drakensberg. Between that range and the coast-lands
are many subsidiary ranges with fertile valleys through which a
large number of rivers make their way to the Indian Ocean. These
rivers have very rapid falls in comparison to their length and when
less than 40 m. from the coast are still 2000 ft. above sea-level.
The chief, beginning at the south, are the Kei, the Bashee, the
Umtata, the St John's or Umzimvubu, and the Umtamvuna,
which separates Kaffraria from Natal. The St John's River rises
in the Drakensberg near the Basuto-Natal frontier. The river
valley has a length of 140 m., the river with its many twists being
double that length. It receives numerous tributaries, one, the
Tsitza, possessing a magnificent waterfall, the river leaping over an
almost vertical precipice of 375 ft. The St John's reaches the
sea between precipitous cliffs some 1200 ft. high and covered with
verdure. The mouth is obstructed by a sand bar over which there
is 14 ft. of water. None of the rivers of Kaffraria except the
St John's is navigable.
Kaffraria is one of the most fertile regions in South Africa. The
mountain gorges abound in fine trees, thick forest and bush cover
the river banks, grass grows luxuriantly in the lower regions, and
the lowlands and valleys are favourable to almost any kind of fruit,
field and garden cultivation. The coast districts are very hot in
summer, the temperature from October to April on an average
varying from 70° to 90° F., while in winter the day temperature is
seldom below 50°, though the nights are very cold. But the varia-
tion in altitude places climates of all grades within easy reach,
from the burning coast to the often snow-clad mountain. Thunder-
storms are frequent in summer; the winters are generally dry.
On the whole the climate is extremely healthy. At St John's are
sulphur springs.
A considerable area is devoted to the raising of wheat and other
cereals, especially in the northern district (Griqualand East), where
in the higher valleys are many farms owned by Europeans. Large
quantities of stock are raised. Most of the land is held by the
natives under tribal tenure, and the ease with which their wants are
supplied is detrimental to the full cultivation of the land. Kaffraria
is, however, one of the chief recruiting grounds for labour throughout
South Africa. Most of the white inhabitants are engaged in trade.
Towns and Communication. — The chief town is Kokstad (?.f.),
pop. (1904), 2903, the capital of Griqualand East. Umtata (2100 ft.
above the sea, pop. 2342) on the river of the same name, capital of
Tembuland, is the residence of an assistant chief magistrate, head-
quarters of a division of the Cape Mounted Rifles, and seat of the
Anglican bishopric of Kaffraria. The principal buildings are the
cathedral, a Gothic structure, built 1901-1906, and the town-hall,
a fine building in Renaissance style, erected 1907-1908. Port St John
is the chief town in Pondoland, and the only harbour of the country.
Butterworth is the chief town in Transkei. Cala (pop. about 1000),
in the N. W. part of Tembuland, is the educational centre of Kaffraria.
A railway, 107 m. long, the first link in the direct Cape-Natal line,
runs from Indwe, 65 m. from Sterkstroom Junction on the main
line from East London to the Transvaal, to Maclear, an agricultural
centre in Griqualand East. Another railway parallel but south of
that described also traverses Kaffraria. Starting from Amabele,
a station on the main line from East London to the north, it goes
via Butterworth (132 m. from East London) to Umtata (234 m.).
Administration and Justice. — The Cape administrative and judicial
system is in force, save as modified by special enactments of the
Cape parliament. A " Native Territories Penal Code " which came
into operation on the 1st of January 1887 governs the relations of
the natives, who are under the jurisdiction of a chief magistrate
(resident at Cape Town) with subordinate magistrates in the Terri-
tories. In civil affairs the tribal organization and native laws are
maintained. No chief, however, exercises criminal jurisdiction. Since
1898 certain provisions of the Glen Grey Act have been applied
to Kaffraria (see GLEN GREY). The revenue is included in the ordi-
nary budget of the Cape province. The expenditure on Kaffraria
considerably exceeds the revenue derived from it. The franchise
laws are the same as in the Cape proper. Though the Kaffirs out-
number the whites by fifty to one, white men form the bulk of the
electorate, which in 1904 numbered 4778.
Religion. — Numbers of Protestant missionary societies have
churches and educational establishments in Kaffraria, but, except
in Fingoland, the bulk of the Kaffirs are heathen. The Griquas
profess Christianity and have their own churches and ministers.
The Anglican diocese of St John's, Kaffraria, was founded in 1873.
Annexation to the Cape. — The story of the conflicts between
the Kaffir tribes and the Cape colonists is told under CAPE
COLONY. As early as 1819 Kaffirland, or Kaffraria, was held
not to extend west beyond the Keiskamma River. The region
east of that river as far as the Kei River became in 1847 the
Crown colony of British Kaffraria, and was annexed to Cape
Colony in 1865. The Transkeian territories remained in nominal
independence until 1875, when the Tembu sought British pro-
tection. An inter-tribal war in 1877 between Fingo and Gcaleka
resulted in the territory of the Gcaleka chief Kreli being occupied
by the British. It was not, however, till 1879 that Fingoland
and the Idutywa Reserve, together with the district then
commonly called Noman's-land, were proclaimed an integral
part of the Cape. About this time most of the rest of
Kaffraria came under British control, but it was 1885 before
Gcalekaland, the coast region of Transkei, and the various dis-
tricts comprising Tembuland — Bomvanaland on the coast, Tem-
buland Proper and Emigrant Tembuland — were annexed to the
colony. By the annexation, the frontier of the colony was
630
KAFIRISTAN
carried to the Umtata River, so that by 1885 only Pondoland,
fronting on the Indian Ocean, separated the Cape from Natal.
In Pondoland, Port St John, proclaimed British territory in 1881,
was, along with the lower reaches of the St John's River, incor-
porated with Cape Colony in 1884; in 1886 the Xesibe country
(Mount Ayliff) was annexed to the Cape and added to Griqua-
land East; and in the following year Rhode Valley was included
within the boundary line. The rest of Pondoland, chiefly in virtue
of a British protectorate established over all the coast region
in 1885, was already more or less under British control, and in
1894 it was annexed to the Cape in its entirety. Thus the whole
of Kaffraria was incorporated in Cape Colony, with the exception
of some 1550 sq. m., then part of Noman's-land, annexed by
Natal in 1866 and named Alfred county. To the wise adminis-
tration of Major Sir Henry G. Elliot, who served in Kaffraria in
various official capacities from 1877 to 1903, the country owes
much of its prosperity.
Particulars concerning each of the four divisions of Kaffraria
follow.
• Griqualand East (area, 7594 sq. m.), so called to distinguish it
from Griqualand West, a district north of the Orange River, lies
between Basutoland (N.W.), Natal (N.E.), Tembuland (S.W.)
and Pondoland (S.E.). It occupies the southern slopes of the
Drakensberg or the fertile valleys at their feet. It includes most of
the region formerly called Noman's-land, and afterwards named
Adam Kok's Land from the Griqua chief who occupied it in 1862
with the consent of the British authorities, and governed the
country till his death in 1876, establishing a volksraad on the Dutch
model. The Griquas are still ruled by an officially appointed head-
man. The majority of the inhabitants are Basutos and Kaffirs
(Pondomisi, Ama-Baka and other tribes). The Griquas number
about 6000. Since its annexation to Cape Colony Griqualand East
has made fairly rapid progress. The population rose from 121,000
jn 1881 to 222,685 m 19041 °f whom 5901 were whites. Stock-breed-
ing on the uplands, tillage on the lower slopes of the Drakensberg,
are the chief industries. On these slopes and uplands the climate
is delightful and well suited to Europeans. There is considerable
trade with Basutoland in grain and stock, and through Kokstad
with Port St John and Port Shepstone, Natal. Much of the best
agricultural land is owned by Europeans.
Tembuland (area. 4122 sq. m.), which lies S.W. of Griqualand East
and comprises the districts of Tembuland Proper, Emigrant Tembu-
land and Bomvanaland, takes its name from the Tembu nation,
called sometimes Tambookies, one of the most powerful of the
Kaffir groups. In the national genealogies the Tembu hold an
honourable position, being traditionally descended from Tembu,
elder brother of Xosa, from whom most of the other Kaffirs claim
descent. The inhabitants increased from about 160,000 in 1881
to 231,472 in 1904, of whom 8056 were whites. The chief town is
Umtata.
Transkei (area, 2552 sq. m.) comprises the districts of Fingoland,
the Idutywa Reserve and Gcalekaland, this last being named from
the Gcaleka nation, who claim to be the senior branch of the Xosa
family, the principal royal line of the Kaffir tribes. They still form
the chief element of the population, which rose from 136,000 in
1881 to 177,730 in 1904 (1707 whites). Here are some prosperous
missionary stations, where the natives are taught agriculture,
mechanical industries and a knowledge of letters. The heroic
deeds of Hinza, Kreli and other chiefs famous in the wars are still
remembered ; but witchcraft, rain-making and other pagan practices
seem to have died out. Even more advanced in all social respects
are the Fingo, who give their name to the district of Fingoland, and
also form the bulk of the population in the Idutywa Reserve. They
wear European clothes, support their schools by voluntary contri-
butions, edit newspapers, translate English poetry, set their national
songs to correct music, and the majority profess Christianity.
The industrial institution of Blythswood, about 20 m. N.W. of
Butterworth, is a branch of Lovedale (q.v.), and is largely supported
by the Fingo.
Pondoland (area, 4040 sq. m.; pop. (1904), 202,757 (including
1113 whites), an estimated increase of 36,000 since 1891) is bounded
E. by the sea, N. by Natal, W. by Griqualand East, by S. and
Tembuland. In Pondoland the primitive organization of the natives
has been little altered and the influence of the chiefs is very great.
Land is held almost wholly in tribal tenure, though a number of
whites possess farms acquired before the annexation of the country.
The Pondo have shown some appreciation of the benefits of educa-
tion.
See G. McCall Theal's History of South Africa and other works
cited under CAPE COLONY ; also The Native or Transkeian Territories,
by C. C. Henkel (Hamburg, 1903), a useful handbook by an ex-official
in the Transkeian Territories.
KAFIRISTAN, a province of Afghanistan. Very little of this
country was known with accuracy and nothing at first hand until
General Sir W. (then Colonel) Lockhart headed a mission to
examine the passes of the Hindu Kush range in 1885-1886. He
penetrated into the upper part of the Bashgal valley, but after
a few days he found himself compelled to return to Chitral.
Previously Major Tanner, R.A., had sought to enter Kafiristan
from Jalalabad, but sudden severe illness cut short his enterprise.
M'Nair, the famous explorer of the Indian Survey department,
believed that he had actually visited this little-known land
during an adventurous journey which he made from India and
through Chitral in disguise; but the internal evidence of his
reports shows that he mistook the Kalash district of Chitral,
with its debased and idolatrous population, for the true Kafir-
istan of his hopes. In 1889 Mr G. S. Robertson (afterwards Sir
George Robertson, K. C.S.I.) was sent on a mission to Kafiristan.
He only remained a few days, but a year later he revisited
the country, staying amongst the Kafirs for nearly a year.
Although his movements were hampered, his presence in the
country being regarded with suspicion, he was able to study
the people, and, in spite of intertribal jealousy, to meet members
of many of the tribes. The facts observed and the information
collected by him during his sojourn in eastern Kafiristan, and
during short expeditions to the inner valleys, are the most trust-
worthy foundations of our knowledge of this interesting country.
Kafiristan, which literally means " the land of the infidel," is
the name given to a tract of country enclosed between Chitral
and Afghan territory. It was formerly peopled by pagan
mountaineers, who maintained a wild independence until 1895,
when they were finally subdued by Abdur Rahman, the amir of
Kabul, who also compelled them to accept the religion of Islam.
The territory thus ill named is included between 34° 30' and
36° N., and from about 70° to 71° 30' E. As the western and
northern boundaries are imperfectly known, its size cannot be
estimated with any certainty. Its greatest extent is from east
to west at 35° 10' N.; its greatest breadth is probably about
71° E. The total area approximates to 5000 sq. m. Along the
N. the boundary is the province of Badakshan, on the N.E. the
Lutkho valley of Chitral. Chitral and lower Chitral enclose it
to the E., and the Kunar valley on the S.E. Afghanistan proper
supplies the S. limit. The ranges above the Nijrao and Panshcr
valleys of Afghanistan wall it in upon the W. The northern
frontier is split by the narrow Minjan valley of Badakshan,
which seems to rise in the very heart of Kafiristan.
Speaking generally, the country consists of an irregular series of
main valleys, for the most part deep, narrow and tortuous, into which
a varying number of still deeper, narrower and more twisted valleys,
ravines and glens pour their torrent water. The mountain ranges
of Metamorphic rock, which separate the main drainage valleys, are
all of considerable altitude, rugged and difficult, with the outline of
a choppy sea petrified. During the winter months, when the snow
lies deep, Kafiristan becomes a number of isolated communities,
with few if any means of intercommunication. In the whole land
there is probably nothing in the shape of a plain. Much of the silent,
gigantic country warms the heart as well as captivates the eye with
its grandeur and varied beauty; much of it is the bare skeleton of
the world wasted by countless centuries of storms and frost, and
profoundly melancholy in its sempiternal ruin. Every variety of
mountain scenery can be found : silent peaks and hard, naked ridges,
snowfields and glaciers; mighty pine forests, wooded slopes and
grazing grounds; or wild vine and pomegranate thickets bordering
sparkling streams. At low elevations the hill-sides are covered with
the wild olive and evergreen oaks. Many kinds of fruit trees —
walnuts, mulberries, apricots and apples — grow near the villages
or by the wayside, as well as splendid horse-chestnuts and other
shade trees. Higher in elevation, and from 4000 to 8000 ft., are
the dense pine and cedar forests. Above this altitude the slopes
become dreary, the juniper, cedar and wild rhubarb gradually
giving place to scanty willow patches, tamarisk and stunted birches.
Over 13,000 ft. there are merely mosses and rough grass. Familiar
wildflowers blossom at different heights. The rivers teeni with fish.
Immense numbers of red-legged partridges live in the lower valleys,
as well as pigeons and doves. Gorgeously plumaged pheasants are
plentiful. Of wild animals the chief are the markhor (a goat) and
the oorial (a sheep). In the winter the former are recklessly slaugh-
tered by hunters, being either brought to bay by trained hounds,
or trapped in pits, or caught floundering in the snow-drifts ; but in the
summer immense herds move on the higher slopes. The ibex is very
rare. Bears and leopards are fairly common, as well as the smaller
hill creatures.
KAFIRISTAN
631
All the northern passes leading into Badakshan or into the Minjan
valley of Badakshan seem to be over 15,000 ft. in altitude. Of
n . x these the chief are the Mandal, the Kamah (these two
alone have been explored by a European traveller) , the
Kti, the Kulam and the Ramgal passes. Those to the
east, the Chitral passes, are somewhat lower, ranging from 12,000 to
14,000 ft., e.g. the Zidig, the Shui, the Shawal and the Parpit, while
the Patkun, which crosses one of the dwindled spurs near the Kunar
river, is only 8400 ft. high. Between neighbouring valleys the
very numerous communicating footways must rarely be lower than
10,000, while they sometimes exceed 14,000 ft. The western passes
are unknown. All these toilsome paths are so faintly indicated,
even when free from snow, that to adventure them without a local
guide is usually unsafe. Yet the light-framed cattle of these jagged
mountains can be forced over many of the worst passes. Ordinarily
the herding tracks, near the crest of the ridges and high above the
white torrents, are scarcely discoverable to untutored eyes. They
wind and waver, rise, drop and twist about the irregular semi-
precipitous slopes with baffling eccentricity and abruptness. Never-
theless the cattle nose their way along blunderingly, but without
hurt. Of no less importance in the open months, and the sole trade
routes during winter, are the lower paths by the river. An unguided
traveller is continually at fault upon these main lines of intercourse
and traffic.
All the rivers find their tumultuous way into the Kabul, either
directly, as the Alingar at Laghman, or after commingling with the
„. Kunar at Arundu and at Chigar-Serai. The Bashgal,
itfvers. draining the eastern portion of the country, empties
itself into the Kunar at Arundu. It draws its highest waters from
three main sources at the head of the Bashgal valley. It glides
gently through a lake close to this origin, and then through a smaller
tarn. The first affluent of importance is the Skorigal, which joins
it above the village of Pshui. Next comes the noisier Manangal water,
from the Shawal pass, which enters the main stream at Lutdeh or
Bragamatal, the chief settlement of the Bashgal branch of the Katir
tribe. By-and-by the main stream becomes, at the hamlet of
Sunra, a raging, shrieking torrent in a dark narrow valley, its run
obstructed by giant boulders and great tree-trunks. Racing past
Bagalgrom, the chief village of the Madugal Kafirs, the river clamours
round the great spur which, 1800 ft. higher up, gives space for the
terraces and houses of Kamdesh, the headquarters of the Kam
people. The next important affluent is the river which drains the
Pittigal valley, its passes and branches. Also on the left bank, and
still lower down, is the joining-place of the Gourdesh valley waters.
Finally it ends in the Kunar just above Arundu and Birkot. The
middle part of Kafiristan, including the valleys occupied by the
Presun, Kti, Ashkun and Wai tribes, is drained by a river variously
called the Pech, the Kamah, and the Presun or Viron River. It has
been only partially explored. Fed by the fountains and snows of
the upper Presun valley, it is joined at the village of Shtevgrom by
the torrent from the Kamah pass. Thence it moves quietly past
meadowland, formerly set apart as holy ground, watering on its
way all the Presun villages. Below the last of them, with an abrupt
bend, it hurries into the unexplored and rockbound Tsaru country,
where it absorbs on the right hand the Kti and the Ashkun and
on the left the Wai rivers, finally losing itself in the Kunar, close
to Chigar-Serai. Concerning the Alingar or Kao, which carries
the drainage of western Kafiristan into the Kabul at Laghman,
there are no trustworthy details. It is formed from the waters of
all the valleys inhabited by the Ramgal Kafirs, and by that small
branch of the Katirs known as the Kalam tribe.
The climate varies with the altitude, but in the summer-time it is
hot at all elevations. In the higher valleys the winter is rigorous.
,... f Snow falls heavily everywhere over 4000 ft. above the
sea-level. During the winter of 1890-1891 at Kamdesh
(elevation 6100 ft.) the thermometer never fell below 17° F. In
many of the valleys the absence of wind is remarkable. Conse-
quently a great deal of cold can be borne without discomfort. The
Kunar valley, which is wet and windy in winter, but where snow,
if it falls, melts quickly, gives a much greater sensation of cold than
the still Kafiristan valleys of much lower actual temperature. A
deficiency of rain necessitates the employment of a somewhat
elaborate system of irrigation, which in its turn is dependent upon
the snowfall.
The present inhabitants are probably mainly descended from
the broken tribes of eastern Afghanistan, who, refusing to accept
Islam (in the loth century), were driven away by the
fervid swordsmen of Mahomet. Descending upon
the feeble inhabitants of the trackless slopes and perilous valleys
of modern Kafiristan, themselves, most likely, refugees of an
earlier date, they subjugated and enslaved them and partially
amalgamated with them. These ancient peoples seem to be
represented by the Presun tribe, by the slaves and by fragments
of lost peoples, now known as the Jazhis and the Aroms. The
old division of the tribes into the Siah-Posh, or the black-robed
Kafirs, and the Safed-Posh, or the white-robed, was neither
The Katirs.
scientific nor convenient, for while the Siah-Posh have much in
common in dress, language, customs and appearance, the Safed-
Posh divisions were not more dissimilar from the Siah-Posh
than they were from one another. Perhaps the best division
at present possible is into (i) Siah-Posh, (2) Waigulis, and
[3) Presungalis or Viron folk.
The black-robed Kafirs consist of one very large, widely spread
tribe, the Katirs, and four much smaller communities, the Kam,
"he Madugalis, the Kashtan or Kashtoz, and the
Gourdesh. Numerically, it is probable that the Katirs j£*h
are more important than all the remaining tribes put
together. They inhabit several valleys, each community being
independent of the others, but all acknowledging the same origin
and a general relationship. The Katirs fall readily into the following
jroups: (a) Those of the Bashgal valley, also called Kamoz and
Lutdehchis, who occupy eleven villages between Badawan and
Sunra, the border hamlet of the Madugal country, namely, Ptsigrom,
Pshui or Pshowar, Apsai, Shidgal, Bragamatal (Lutdeh), Baiindra,
Badamuk, Oulagal, Chabu, Baprok and Purstam; (6) the Kti or
Katwar Kafirs, who live in two settlements in the Kti valley; (c) the
Kulam people, who have four villages in the valley of the same
name; (d) the Ramgalis, or Gabariks, who are the most numerous,
and possess the western part on the Afghan border. Of the
remaining tribes of the Siah-Posh, the chief is the Kam or Kamtoz,
who inhabit the Bashgal valley, from the Madugal boundary to the
Kunar valley, and its lateral branches in seven chief settlements,
namely, Urmir, Kambrom or Kamdesh, Mergrom, Kamu, Sarat,
Pittigal and Bazgal. The next Siah-Posh tribe in importance is the
Muman or Madugal Kafirs, who have three villages in the short
tract between the Katirs and the Kam in the Bashgal valley. The
last Siah-Posh tribe is the Kashtan or Kashtoz, who in 1891 were
all located in one greatly overcrowded village, their outlying settle-
ment having been plundered by the Afghan tribes of the Kunar
valley. One colony of Siah-Posh Kafirs lives in the Gourdesh
valley ; but they differ from all the other tribes, and are believed to be
descended, in great part, from the ancient people called the Aroms.
Our exact knowledge of the Waigulis is scanty. They seem to be
related in language and origin with a people fierce, shy and isolated,
called the Ashkun, who are quite unknown. The Wai rfte
speak a tongue altogether different from that spoken by wa/™,/s
the Siah-Posh and by the Presungalis. The names of
their ten chief villages are Runchi, Nishi, Jamma, Amzhi, Chimion,
Kegili, Akun or Akum, Mildesh, Bargal and Prainta. Of these
Amzhi and Nishi are the best known.
The Presungalis, also called Viron, live in a high valley. _ In all
respects they differ from other Kafirs, in none more than in their
unwarlike disposition. Simple, timid, stolid-featured The
and rather clumsy, they are remarkable for their in-/*esun#aHs.
dustry and powers of endurance. They probably repre-
sent some of the earliest immigrants. Six large well-built villages
are occupied by them — Shtevgrom, Pontzgrom, Diogrom, Kstigi-
grom, Satsumgrom and Paskigrom.
The slaves are fairly numerous. Their origin is probably partly
from the very ancient inhabitants and parity from war prisoners.
Coarse in feature and dark in tint, they cannot \>e The Slaves.
distinguished from the lowest class of freemen, while
their dress is indistinctive. They are of two classes — household
slaves, who are treated not unkindly; and artisan slaves, who are
the skilled handicraftsmen— ^carvers, blacksmiths, bootmakers and
so forth; many of the musicians are also slaves. They live in a
particular portion of a village, and were considered to a certain
extent unclean, and might not approach closely to certain sacred
spots. All slaves seem to wear the Siah-Posh dress, even when they
own as masters the feeble Presungal folk.
Little respect is shown to women, except in particular cases to a
few of advanced years. Usually they are mistresses and slaves,
saleable chattels and field-workers. Degraded, immoral, \yomeo.
overworked and carelessly fed, they are also, as a rule,
unpleasant to the sight. Little girls are sometimes quite beautiful,
but rough usage and exposure to all weathers soon make their
complexions coarse and dark. They are invariably dirty and
uncombed. In comparison with the men they are somewhat short.
Physically they are capable of enormous labour, and are very
enduring. All the field-work falls to them, as well as all kinds of
inferior occupations, such as load-carrying. They have no rights as
against their husbands or, failing them, their male relations. They
cannot inherit or possess property.
There are certainly three tongues spoken, besides many dialects,
that used by the Siah-Posh being of course the most common ; and
although it has many dialects, the employers of one seem Laaguage.
to understand all the others. It is a Prakritic language.
Of the remaining two, the Wai and the Presun have no similarity ;
they are also unlike the Siah-Posh. Kafirs themselves maintain
that very young children from any valley can acquire the Wai
speech, but that only those born in the Presungal can ever converse
in that language, even roughly. To European ears it is disconcert-
ingly difficult, and it is perhaps impossible to learn.
632
KAFIRISTAN
Before their conquest by Abdur Rahman all the Kafirs were
idolaters of a rather low type. There were lingering traces of
Reli ion ancestor-worship, and perhaps of fire-worship also. The
gods were numerous; tribal, family, household deities
had to be propitiated, and mischievous spirits and fairies haunted
forests, rivers, vales and great stones. Imra was the Creator, and
all the other supernatural powers were subordinate to him. Of the
inferior gods, Moni seemed to be the most ancient; but Gish, the
war-god, was by far the most popular. It was his worship, doubt-
less, which kept the Kafirs so long independent. In life as a hero,
and after death as a god, he symbolized hatred to the religion of
Mahomet. Every village revered his shrine; some possessed two.
Imra, Gish and Moni were honoured with separate little temples,
as was usually Dizani goddess; but three or four of the others would
share one between them, each looking out of a small separate square
window. The worshipped object was either a large fragment of
stone or an image of wood conventionally carved, with round white
stories for eyes. Different animals were sacrificed at different
shrines: cows to Imra, male goats and bulls to Gish, sheep to the
god of wealth; but goats were generally acceptable, and were also
slain ceremonially to discover a complaisant god, to solemnize a vow,
to end a quarrel, to ratify brotherhood. The ministers of religion
were a hereditary priest, a well-born chanter of praise, and a buffoon
of low station, who wassupposed to become inspired at each sacrifice,
and to have the power of seeing fairies and other spirits whenever
they were near, also of understanding their wishes. The blood of
the offering, together with flour, wine and butter, was cast on the
shrine after the animal and the other gifts had been sanctified with
water sprinkled by the officiating priests, while he cried " Such,
such!" ("Be pure!"). Dense clouds of smoke from burning
juniper-cedar, which crackled and gave forth pungent incense, added
to the spectacle, which was dignified by the bearing of the officials
and solemnized by the devout responses of the congregation. There
was no human sacrifice except when a prisoner of war, after a
solemn service at a shrine, was taken away and stabbed before the
wooden tomb of some unavenged headman. Kafirs believed in a
kind of Hell where wicked people burned ; but the Hereafter was an
underground region entered by a guarded aperture, and inhabited
by the shapes which men see in dreams. Suicide was as unknown
as fear of dying. Melancholy afflicted only the sick and the be-
reaved. Religious traditions, miracles and anecdotes were puerile,
and pointed no social lesson or any religious law. Music, dancing
and songs of praise were acceptable to the gods, and every village
(grom) had its dancing platform and dancing house (gram ma),
furnished with a simple altar. No prayers were offered, only
invocations, exhortative or remonstrant.
The great majority of the tribes were made up of clans. A
person's importance was derived chiefly from the wealth of his
Tribal family and the number of male adults which it contained.
Orzanlza- ~^le Power. °f a family, as shown by the number and
tloa quality of its fighting men as well as by the strength of
its followers, was the index of that family's influence.
Weak clans and detached families, or poor but free households,
carried their independence modestly. The lowest clan above the
slaves sought service with their wealthier tribesmen as henchmen
and armed shepherd^ By intricate ceremonial, associated with
complicated duties, social and religious, which extended over two
years, punctuated at intervals by prodigious compulsory banquets,
rich men could become elders or jast. Still further outlay and
ostentation enabled the few who could sustain the cost to rank still
higher as chief or Mir. Theoretically, all the important and outside
affairs of the tribe were managed by the jast in council ; actually
they were controlled by two or three of the most respected of that
class. Very serious questions which inflamed the minds of the people
would be debated in informal parliaments of the whole tribe. Kafirs
have a remarkable fondness for discussing in conclave. Orators,
consequently, are influential. The internal business of a tribe was
managed by an elected magistrate with twelve assistants. It was
their duty to see that the customs of the people were respected;
that the proper seasons for gathering fruit were rigidly observed.
They regulated the irrigation of the fields, moderating the incessant
quarrels which originated in the competition for the water; and they
kept the channels in good repair. Their chief, helped by contribu-
tions in kind from all householders, entertained tribal guests. He
also saw that the weekly Kafir Sabbath, from the sowing to the
carrying of the crops, was carefully observed, the fires kept burning,
and the dancers collected and encouraged. Opposition to these
annual magistrates or infraction of tribal laws was punished by fines,
which were the perquisites and the payment of those officials.
Serious offences against the whole people were judged by the com-
munity itself; the sentences ranged as high as expulsion from the
settlement, accompanied with the burning of the culprit's house
and the spoliation of his goods. In such cases, the family and the
clan refusing to intervene, the offender at once became cowed into
submission.
Habitations are generally strong, and built largely of wood.
They are frequently two or more storeys high, often with an open
gallery at the top. Wealthy owners were fond of elaborate carving
in simple designs and devices. A room is square, with a smoke-
hole when possible; small windows, with shutters and bolts, and
heavy doors fastened by a sliding wooden pin, are common.
The nature of the ground, its defensible character, the necessity
of not encroaching upon the scanty arable land, and such House^ aaa
considerations, determine the design of the villages. Sped- vlu
mens of many varieties may be discovered. There is the
shockingly overcrowded oblong kind, fort-shaped, three storeys
high, and on a river's bank, which is pierced by an underground
way leading to the water. Here all rooms look on to the large
central courtyard ; outwards are few or no windows. There is also
the tiny hamlet of a few piled-up hovels perched on the flattish top
of some huge rock, inaccessible when the ladder connecting it with
the neighbouring hill-side or leading to the ground is withdrawn.
Some villages on mounds are defended at the base by a circular wall
strengthened with an entanglement of branches. Others cling to
the knife-edged back of some difficult spur. Many are hidden away
up side ravines. A few boldly rely upon the numbers of their
fighting men, and are unprotected save by watch-towers. While
frequently very picturesque at a distance, all are dirty and grimed
with smoke; bones and horns of slaughtered animals litter the
ground. The ground floor of a house is usually a winter stable for
cows and the latrine, as well as the manure store for the household ;
the middle part contains the family treasures; on the top is the
living-place. In cold valleys, such as the Presungal, the houses are
often clustered upon a hillock, and penetrate into the soil to the
depth of two or more apartments. Notched poles are the universal
ladders and stairways.
In height Kafirs average about 5 ft. 6 in. They are lean; always
in hard condition; active jumpers, untiring walkers, expert moun-
taineers; exceptionally they are tall and heavy. With c. .
chests fairly deep, and muscular, springy legs, there is istlcs
some lightness and want of power about the shoulder
muscles, the arms and the hand-grasp. In complexion they are
purely Eastern. Some tribes, notably the Wai, are fairer than
others, but the average colour is that of the natives of the Punjab.
Albinos, or red-haired people, number less than J % of the popula-
tion. As a rule, the features are well-shaped, especially the nose.
The glance is wild and bold, with the wide-lidded, restless gaze of
the hawk; or the exact converse — a shifty, furtive peer under
lowered brows. This look is rather common amongst the wealthier
families and the most famous tribesmen. The shape of a man's
head not uncommonly indicates his social rank. Several have the
brows of thinkers and men of affairs. The degraded forms are the
bird-of-prey type — low, hairy foreheads, hooked noses with receding
chin, or the thickened, coarse features of the darker slave class.
Intellectually they are of good average power. Their moral charac-
teristics are passionate covetousness, and jealousy so intense that
it smothers prudence. Before finally destroying, it constantly
endangered their wildly cherished independence. Revenge, espe-
cially on neighbouring Kafirs, is obtained at any price. Kafirs are
subtle, crafty, quick in danger and resolute, as might be expected
of people who have been plunderers and assassins for centuries,
whose lives were the forfeit of a fault in unflinchingness or of a
moment's vacillation. Stealthy daring, born of wary and healthy
nerves and the training of generations, almost transformed into an
instinct, is the national characteristic. Ghastly shadows, they
flitted in the precincts of hostile villages far distant from their own
valleys, living upon the poorest food carried in a fetid goatskin
bag; ever ready to stab in the darkness or to wriggle through aper-
tures, to slay as they slept men, women and baoies. Then, with
clothing for prize, and human ears as a trophy, they sped, watchful
as hares, for their far-away hills, avenger Pathans racing furiously
in their track. Kafirs, most faithful to one another, never aban-
doned a comrade. If he were killed, they sought to carry away his
head for funeral observances. As traders, though cunning enough,
they are no match for the Afghan. They were more successful as
brigands and blackmailers than as skilled thieves. In night robbery
and in pilfering they showed little ingenuity. Truth was considered
innately dangerous; but a Kafir is far more trustworthy than his
Mahommedan neighbours. Although hospitality is generally
viewed as a hopeful investment, it can be calculated on, and is
unstinted. Kafirs are capable of strong friendship. They are not
cruel, being kind to children and to animals, and protective to the
weak and the old. Family ties and the claim of blood even triumph
over jealousy and covetousness.
The national attire of the men is a badly-cured goatskin, confined
at the waist by a leather belt studded with nails, supporting the
I-hilted dagger, strong but clumsy, of slave manufacture, _
sheathed in wood covered with iron or brass, and often weaaans
prettily ornamented. Women are dressed in a long, ijteaslls Ac.
very dark tunic of wool, ample below the shoulders, and
edged with red. This is fastened at the bosom by an iron pin, a
thorn, or a fibula; it is gathered round the body by a woven band,
an inch wide, knotted in front to dangle down in tassels. On this
girdle is carried a fantastically handled knife in a leather covering.
The woman's tunic is sometimes worn by men. As worn by women
its shape is something between a long frock-coat and an Inverness
cape. Its hue and the blackness of the hairy goatskin give the
name of Siah-Posh, " black-robed," to the majority of the clans.
The other tribes wear such articles of cotton attire as they can
obtain by barter, by theft, or by killing beyond the border, for
KAFIRISTAN
633
only woollen cloth is made in the country. Of late years long robes
from Chitral and Badakshan have been imported by the wealthy,
as well as the material for loose cotton trousers and wide shirts.
Clothing, always hard to obtain, is precious property. Formerly
little girls, the children of slaves, or else poor relations, used to be
sold in exchange for clothes and ammunition. Mahommedans
eagerly bought the children, which enabled them in one transaction
to acquire a female slave and to convert an infidel. Men go bare-
headed, which wrinkles them prematurely, or they wear Chitral
caps. Certain priests, and others of like degree, wind a strip of
cotton cloth round their brows. Siah-Posh women wear curious
horned caps or a small square white head-dress upon informal
occasions. Females of other tribes bind their heads with turbans
ornamented with shells and other finery. Excellent snow gaiters
are made of goat's hair for both sexes, and of woollen material for
women. Boots, strongly sewn, of soft red leather cannot be used
in the snow or when it is wet, because they are imperfectly tanned.
For the ceremonial dances all manner of gay-coloured articles of
attire, made of cheap silk, cotton velvet, and sham cloth-of-gold,
are displayed, and false jewelry and tawdry ornaments; but they
are not manufactured in the country, but brought from Peshawar
by pedlars. Woollen blankets and goat's-hair mats cover the bed-
steads— four-legged wooden frames laced across with string or
leather thongs. Low square stools, 18 in. broad, made upon the
same principle as the bedsteads, are peculiar to the Kafirs and their
half-breed neighbours of the border. Iron tripod tables, singularly
Greek in design, are fashioned in Waigul. A warrior's weapons are
a matchlock (rarely a flintlock), a bow and arrows, a spear and the
dagger which he never puts aside day or night. The axes, often
carried, arc light and weak, and chiefly indicate rank. Clubs, care-
fully ornamented by carving, are of little use in a quarrel; their
purpose is that of a walking-stick. As they are somewhat long,
these walking-clubs have been often supposed to be leaping-poles.
Swords are rarely seen, and shields, earned purely for ostentation,
seldom. Soft stone is quarried to make large utensils, and great
grim chests of wood become grain boxes or coffins indifferently.
Prettily carved bowls with handles, or with dummy spouts, hold
milk, butter, water or small quantities of flour. Wine, grain,
everything else, is stored or carried in goatskin bags. Musical
instruments are represented by reed flageolets, small drums, primi-
tive fiddles, and a kind of harp.
Isolated and at the outskirts of every village is a house used by
women when menstruating and for lying-in. Children are named
Peculiar as soon as born. The infant is given to the mother to
Customs suckle, while a wise woman rapidly recites the family
ancestral names; the name pronounced at the instant
the baby begins to feed is that by which it is thereafter known.
Everybody has a double name, the father's being prefixed to that
given at birth. Very often the two are the same. There is a special
day for the first head-shaving. No hair is allowed on a male's
scalp, except from a 4-in. circle at the back of the head, whence long
locks hang down straight. Puberty is attained ceremoniously by
boys. Girls simply change a fillet for a cotton cap when nature
proclaims womanhood. Marriage is merely the purchase of a wife
through intermediaries, accompanied by feasting. Divorce is often
merely a sale or the sending away of a wife to stave for her parents
in shame. Sexual morality is low. Public opinion applauds gal-
lantry, and looks upon adultery as hospitality, provided it is not
discovered by the husband. If found out, inflagrante delicto, there is a
fiscal fine in cows. There is much collusion to get this penalty paid
in poor households. Funeral rites are most elaborate, according to the
rank and warrior fame of the deceased, if a male, and to the wealth
and standing of the family, if a woman. Children are simply carried
to the cemetery in a blanket, followed by a string of women lamenting.
A really great man is mourned over for days with orations, dancing,
wine-drinking and food distribution. Gun-firing gives notice of
the procession. After two or three days the corpse is placed in the
coffin at a secluded spot, and the observances are continued with a
straw figure lashed upon a bed, to be danced about, lamented over,
and harangued as before. During regular intervals for business and
refreshment old women wail genealogies. A year later, with some-
what similar ritual, a wooden statue is inaugurated preliminary to
erection on the roadside or in the village Valhalla. The dead are
not buried, but deposited in great boxes collected in an assigned
place. Finery is placed with the body, as well as vessels holding
water and food. Several corpses may be heaped in one receptacle,
which is, rarely, ornamented with flags ; its lid is kept from warping
by heavy stones. The wooden statues or effigies are at times
sacrificed to when there is sickness, and at one of the many annual
festivals food is set before them. Among the Presungal there are
none of these images. Blood-feuds within a tribe do not exist.
The slayer of his fellow, even by accident, has to pay a heavy
compensation or else become an outcast. Several hamlets and at
least one village are peopled by families who had thus been driven
forth from the community. The stigma attaches itself to children
and their marriage connexions. Its outward symbol is an inability
to look in the face any of the dead person's family. This avoidance
is ceremonial. In private and after dark all may be good friends
after a decorous interval. The compensation is seldom paid,
although payment carries with it much enhancement of family
dignity. All the laws to punish theft, assault, adultery and other
injury are based on a system of compensation whenever possible,
and of enlisting the whole of the community in all acts of punish-
ment. Kafirs have true conceptions of justice. There is no death
penalty; a fighting male is too valuable a property of the whole
tribe to be so wasted. War begins honourably with proper notice,
as a rule, but the murder of an unsuspecting traveller may be the
first intimation. Bullets or arrow-heads sent to a tribe or village
is the correct announcement of hostilities. The slaying of a tribes-
man need not in all cases cause a war. Sometimes it may be avoided
by the sinning tribe handing over a male to be killed by the injured
relations. Ambush, early morning attacks by large numbers, and
stealthy killing parties of two or three are the favourite tactics.
Peace is made by the sacrifice of cows handed over by the weaker
tribe to be offered up to a special god of the stronger. When both
sides have shown equal force and address, the same number of
animals are exchanged. Field-work falls exclusively to the women.
It is poor. The ploughs arc light and very shallow. A woman, who
only looks as if she were yoked with the ox, keeps the beast in the
furrows, while a second holds the handle. All the operations of
agriculture are done primitively. Grazing and dairy-farming are
the real trade of the Kafirs, the surplus produce being exchanged on
the frontier or sold for Kabul rupees. Herders watch their charges
fully armed against marauders.
History. — The history of Kafiristan has always been of the
floating legendary sort. At the present day there are men living
in Chitral and on other parts of the Kafiristan frontier who
are prepared to testify as eye-witnesses to marvels observed,
and also heard, by them, not only in the more remote valleys
but even in the Afghan borderland itself. It is not surprising
therefore that the earlier records are to a great extent fairy tales
of a more or less imaginative kind and chiefly of value to those
interested in folk-lore. Sir Henry Yule, a scientific soldier, a
profound geographer and a careful student, as the result of his
researches thought that the present Kafiristan was part of that
pagan country stretching between Kashmir and Kabul which
medieval Asiatics referred to vaguely as Bilaur, a name to be
found in Marco Polo as Bolor. The first distinct mention of the
Kafirs as a separate people appears in the history of Timur.
On his march to the invasion of India the people at Andarab
appealed to Timur for help against the Kator and the Siah-Posh
Kafirs. He responded and entered the country of those tribes
through the upper part of the Panjhir valley. It was in deep
winter weather and Timur had to be let down the snows by
glissade in a basket guided by ropes. A detachment of 10,000
horse which he speaks of as having been sent against the Siah-
Posh to his left, presumably therefore to the north, met with
disaster; but he himself claims to have been victorious. Never-
theless he seems quickly to have evacuated the impracticable
mountain land, quitting the country at Khawak. He caused an
inscription to be carved in the defiles of Kator to commemorate
his invasion and to explain its route. Inside the Kafir country
on the Najil or Alishang River there is a fort still called Timur's
Castle, and in the Kalam fort there is said to be a stone engraved
to record that as the farthest point of his advance. In the
Memoirs of Baber there is mention of the Kafirs raiding
into Panjhir and of their taste for drinking, every man having a
leathern wine-bottle slung round his neck. The Ain-i-Akbari
makes occasional mention of the Kafirs, probably on the autho-
rity of the famous Memoirs; it also contains a passage which
may possibly have originated the widespread story that the
Kafirs were descendants of the Greeks. Yule however be-
lieved that this passage did not refer to the Kafirs at all, but
to the claims to descent from Alexander of the rulers in Swat
before the time of the Yusufzai. Many of the princelings
of the little Hindu-Kush states at the present day pride them-
selves on a similar origin, maintaining the founders of their
race to be Alexander, " the two-horned," and a princess sent
down miraculously from heaven to wed him.
Benedict Goes, travelling from Peshawar to Kabul in 1603,
heard of a place called Capperstam, where no Mahommedan
might enter on pain of death. Hindu traders were allowed to
visit the country, but not the temples. Benedict Goes tasted
the Kafir wine, and from all that he heard suspected
that the Kafirs might be Christians. Nothing more is heard of
the Kafirs until 1788, when Rennell's Memoir of a Map of
634
KAGERA— K'AI-FENG FU
Hindostan was published. Twenty-six years later Elphinstone's
Caubal was published. During the British occupation of
Kabul in 1830-1840 a deputation of Kafirs journeyed there to
invite a visit to their country from the Christians whom they
assumed to be their kindred. But the Afghans grew furiously
jealous, and the deputation was sent coldly away.
After Sir George Robertson's sojourn in the country and the
visit of several Kafirs to India with him in 1892 an increasing
intimacy continued, especially with the people of the eastern
valleys, until 1895, when by the terms of an agreement entered
into between the government of India and the ruler of Afghani-
stan the whole of the Kafir territory came nominally under the
sway of Kabul. The amir Abdur Rahman at once set about
enforcing his authority, and the curtain, partially lifted, fell
again heavily and in darkness. Nothing but rumours reached
the outside world, rumours of successful invasions, of the
wholesale deportation of boys to Kabul for instruction in the
religion of Islam, of rebellions, of terrible repressions. Finally
even rumour ceased. A powerful Asiatic ruler has the means
of ensuring a silence which is absolute, and nothing is ever
known from Kabul except what the amir wishes to be known.
Probably larger numbers of the growing boys and young men of
Kafiristan are fanatical Mahommedans, fanatical with the zeal
of the recent convert, while the older people and the majority
of the population cherish their ancient customs in secret and
their degraded religion in fear and trembling — waiting dumbly
for a sign.
See Sir G. S. Robertson, Kafirs of the Hindu-Rush (London,
1896). (G.S.R.)
KAGERA, a river of east equatorial Africa, the most remote
headstream of the Nile. The sources of its principal upper
branch, the Nyavarongo, rise in the hill country immediately
east of Lake Kivu. After a course of over 400 m. the Kagera
enters Victoria Nyanza on its western shore in o° 58' S. It is
navigable by steamers for 70 m. from its mouth, being
obstructed by rapids above that point. The river was first
heard of by J. H. Speke in 1858, and was first seen (by white
men) by the same traveller (Jan. 16, 1862) on his journey to
discover the Nile source. Speke was well aware that the Kagera
was the chief river emptying into the Victoria Nyanza and in
that sense the headstream of the Nile. By him the stream was
called " Kitangule," kagera being given as equivalent to " river."
The exploration of the Kagera has been largely the work of
German travellers.
See NILE; also Speke's Discovery of the Source of the Nile (Edin-
burgh, 1863); R. Kandt's Caput Nili (Berlin, 1904); and map by
P. Sprigade and M. Moisel in Grosser deutscher Kolonialatlas , No. 16
(Berlin, 1906).
KAHLUR, or BILASPUR, a native state of India, within the
Punjab. It is one of the hill states that came under British
protection after the first Sikh war in 1846. The Gurkhas
had overrun the country in the early part of the igth century,
and expelled the raja, who was, however, reinstated by the
British in 1815. The state occupies part of the basin of the
Sutlej amid the lower slopes of the Himalaya. Area, 448 sq. m.
Pop. (1901), 90,873; estimated gross revenue, £10,000; tribute,
£530. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Chandel Rajput. The
town of Bilaspur is situated on the left bank of the Sutlej,
1465 ft. above sea-level; pop. (1901), 3192.
KAHN, GUSTAVE (1859- ), French poet, was born at
Metz on the 2ist of December 1859. He was educated in Paris
at the Ecole des Charles and the Ecole des langues orientales,
and began to contribute to obscure Parisian reviews. After
four years spent in Africa he returned to Paris in 1885, and
founded in 1886 a weekly review, La Vogue, in which many of
his early poems appeared. In the autumn of the same year he
founded, with Jean Moreas and Paul Adam, a short-lived periodi-
cal, Le Symbolists, in which they preached the nebulous poetic
doctrine of Stephane Mallarme; and in 1888 he became one
of the editors of the Revue independante. He contributed
poetry and criticism to the French and Belgian reviews favour-
able to the extreme symbolists, and, with Catulle Mendes,
he founded at the Odeon, the Theatre Antoine and the Theatre
Sarah Bernhardt, matinees for the production of the plays of
the younger poets. He claimed to be the earliest writer of the
vers libre, and explained his methods and the history of the move-
ment in a preface to his Premiers poemes ( 1 897) . Later books are
Le Livre d'images (1897); Les Fleurs de la passion (1900); some
novels; and a valuable contribution to the history of modern.
French verse in Symbolistes et decadents (1902).
KAHNIS, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1814-1888), German
Lutheran theologian, was born at Greiz on the 22nd of December
1814. He studied at Halle, and in 1850 was appointed professor
ordinarius at Leipzig. Ten years later he was made canon of
Meissen. He retired in i88"6, and died on the 2oth of June
1888 at Leipzig. Kahnis was at first a neo-Lutheran, blessed
by E. W. Hengstenberg and his pietistic friends. He then
attached himself to the Old Lutheran party, interpreting Luther-
anism in a broad and liberal spirit and showing some appre-
ciation of rationalism. His Lutherische Dogmatik, historisch-
genetisch dargestellt (3 vols., 1861-1868; 2nd ed. in 2 vols.,
1874-1875), by making concessions to modern criticism, by
spiritualizing and adapting the old dogmas, by attacking the
idea of an infallible canon of Scripture and the conventional
theory of inspiration, by laying stress on the human side of
Scripture and insisting on the progressive character of revelation,
brought him into conflict with his former friends. A. W.
Diekhoff, Franz Delitzsch (Fiir und wider Kahnis, 1863) and
Hengstenberg (Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, 1862) protested
loudly against the heresy, and Kahnis replied to Hengstenberg
in a vigorous pamphlet, Zeugniss fur die Grundwahrheiten des
Prolestantismus gegen Dr Hengstenberg (1862).
Other works by Kahnis are Lehre vom Abendmahl (1851), Der
innere Gang des deutschen Protestantismus sett Mitte des vorigen
Jahrhunderts (1854; 3rd ed. in 2 vols., 1874; Eng. trans., 1856);
Christentum und Luthertum (1871) ; Geschichte der deutschen Reforma-
tion, vol. i. (1872) ; Der Gang der Kirche in Lebensbildern (1881 , &c.) ;
and Cber das Verhdltnis der alien Philosophie zum Christentum (1884).
K'AI-FENG FU, the capital of the province of Honan, China.
It is situated in 34° 52' N., 114° 33' E., on a branch line of
the Peking-Hankow railway, and forms also the district city of
Siang-fu. A city on the present site was first built by Duke
Chwang (774-700 B.C.) to mark off (k'ai) the boundary of his
fief (flng); hence its name. It has, however, passed under
several aliases in Chinese history. During the Chow, Suy and
T'ang dynasties (557-907) it was known as P'ien-chow. During
the Wu-tai, or five dynasties (907-960), it was the Tung-king, or
eastern capital. Under the Sung and Kin dynasties (960-: 260)
it was called P'ien-king. By the Yuan or Mongol dynasty
(1260-1368) its name was again changed to P'ien-liang, and
on the return of the Chinese to power with the establishment of
the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), its original name was restored.
The city is situated at the point where the last spur of the
Kuen-lun mountain system merges in the eastern plain, and a
few miles south of the Hwang-ho. Its position, therefore, lays it
open to the destructive influences of this river. In 1642 it was
totally destroyed by a flood caused by the dikes bursting, and
on several prior and subsequent occasions it has suffered injury
from the same cause. The city is large and imposing, with
broad streets and handsome buildings, the most notable of
which are a twelve-storeyed pagoda 600 ft. high, and a watch
tower from which, at a height of 200 ft., the inhabitants are
able to observe the approach of the yellow waters of the
river in times of flood. The city wall forms a substantial
protection and is pierced by five gates. The whole neighbour-
hood, which is the site of one of the earliest settlements of
the Chinese in China, is full of historical associations, and it
was in this city that the Jews who entered China in A.D. 1163
first established a colony. For many centuries these people
held themselves aloof from the natives, and practised the
rites of their religion in a temple built and supported by
themselves. At last, however, they fell upon evil times, and
in 1851, out of the seventy families which constituted the
original colony, only seven remained. For fifty years no rabbi
KAILAS— KAIRAWAN
635
had ministered to the wants of this remnant. In 1833 the
city was attacked by the T'ai-p'ing rebels, and, though at
the first assault its defenders successfully resisted the enemy,
it was subsequently taken. The captors looted and partially
destroyed the town. It has now little commerce, but contains
several schools on Western lines — including a government college
opened in 1902, and a military school near the railway station.
A mint was established in 1905, and there is a district branch
of the imperial post. The population — largely Mahommedan —
was estimated (1908) at 200,000. Jews numbered about 400.
KAILAS, a mountain in Tibet. It is the highest peak of
the range of mountains lying to the north of Lake Manasora-
war, with an altitude of over 22,000 ft. It is famous in Sanskrit
literature as Siva's paradise, and is a favourite place of pil-
grimage with Hindus, who regard it as the most sacred spot
on earth. A track encircles the base of the mountain, and it
takes the pilgrim three weeks to complete the round, pros-
trating himself all the way.
KAIN, the name of a sub-province and of a town of Khorasan,
Persia. The sub-province extends about 300 m. N. to S., from
Khaf to SeTstan, and about 150 m. W. to E., from the hills of
Tun to the Afghan frontier, comprising the whole of south-
western Khorasan. It is very hilly, but contains many wide
plains and fertile villages at a mean elevation of 4000 ft. It has
a population of about 150,000, rears great numbers of camels
and produces much grain, saffron, wool, silk and opium. The
chief manufactures are felts and other woollen fabrics, princi-
pally carpets, which have a world-wide reputation. The best
Kami carpets are made at Darakhsh, a village in the Zlrkuh
district and 50 m. N.E. of Birjend. It is divided into eleven
administrative divisions: — Shahabad (with the capital Birjend),
Naharjan, Alghur, Tabas sunni Khaneh, Zirkiih Shakhan, Kain,
Nlmbuluk, Nehbandan, Khusf, Arab Khaneh or Momenabad.
The town of Kain, the capital of the sub-province until 1 740,
when it was supplanted by Birjend, is situated 65 m. N. of
Birjend on the eastern side of a broad valley, stretching from
N. to S., at the base of the mountain Abuzar, in 33° 42' N. and
59° 8' E., and at an elevation of 4500 ft. Its population is
barely 5000. It is surrounded by a mud wall and bastions,
and near it, on a hill rising 500 ft. above the plain, are the ruins
of an ancient castle which, together with the old town, was
destroyed either by Shah Rukh (1404-1447), a son, or by
Baysunkur (d. 1433), a grandson of Timur (Tamerlane), who
afterwards built a new town. After a time the Uzbegs took
possession and held the town until Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629)
expelled them. In the i8th century it fell under the sway of the
Afghans and remained a dependency of Herat until 1851.
A large number of windmills are at work outside the town. The
great mosque, now in a ruinous state, was built A.H. 796 (A.D.
1394) by Karen b. Jamshid and repaired by Yusof Dowlatyar.
KAIRA, or KHEDA, a town and district of British India,
in the northern division of Bombay. The town is 20 m. S.W.
of Ahmedabad and 7 m. from Mehmadabad railway station.
Pop. (1901), 10,392. Its antiquity is proved by the evidence of
copperplate grants to have been known as early as the sth
century. Early in the i8th century it passed to the Babi family,
with whom it remained till 1763, when it was taken by the
Mahrattas; it was finally handed over to the British in 1803.
It was a large military station till 1830, when the cantonment
was removed to Deesa.
The DISTRICT or KAIRA has an area of 1595 sq. m.; pop.
(1901), 716,332, showing a decrease of 18% in the decade, due
to the results of famine. Except a small corner of hilly ground
near its northern boundary and in the south-east and south,
where the land along the Mahi is furrowed into deep ravines,
the district forms one unbroken plain, sloping gently towards
the south-west. The north and north-east portions are dotted with
patches of rich rice-land, broken by untilled tracts of low brush-
wood. The centre of the district is very fertile and highly
cultivated; the luxuriant fields are surrounded by high hedges,
and the whole country is clothed with clusters of shapely trees.
To the west this belt of rich vegetation passes into a bare
though well-cultivated tract of rice-land, growing more barren
and open till it reaches the maritime belt, whitened by a salt-like
crust, along the Gulf of Cambay. The chief rivers are the
Mahi on the south-east and south, and the Sabarmati on the
western boundary. The Mahi, owing to its deeply cut bed and
sandbanks, is impracticable for either navigation or irrigation;
but the waters of the Sabarmati are largely utilized for the latter
purpose. A smaller stream, the Khari, also waters a consider-
able area by means of canals and sluices. The principal crops
are cotton, millets, rice and 'pulse; the industries are calico-
printing, dyeing, and the manufacture of soap and glass. The
chief centre of trade is Nadiad, on the railway, with a cotton-
mill. A special article of export is ghi, or clarified butter. The
Bombay & Baroda railway runs through the district. The famine
of 1899-1900 was felt more severely here than in any other part
of the province, the loss of cattle being specially heavy.
KAIRAWAN (KEROUAN), the " sacred " city of Tunisia, 36 m.
S. by W. by rail from Susa, and about 80 m. due S. from the
capital. Kairawan is built in an open plain a little west of a
stream which flows south to the Sidi-el-Hani lake. Of the
luxuriant gardens and olive groves mentioned in the early Arabic
accounts of the place hardly a remnant is left. Kairawan,
in shape an irregular oblong, is surrounded by a crenellated
brick wall with towers and bastions and five gates. The city,
however, spreads beyond the walls, chiefly to the south and
west. Some of the finest treasures of Saracenic art in Tunisia
are in Kairawan; but the city suffered greatly from the vulgari-
zation which followed the Turkish conquest, and also from the
blundering attempts of the French to restore buildings falling
into ruin. The streets have been paved and planted with
trees, but the town retains much of its Oriental aspect. The
houses are built round a central courtyard, and present nothing
but bare walls to the street. The chief buildings are the mosques,
which are open to Christians, Kairawan being the only town in
Tunisia where this privilege is granted.
In the northern quarter stands the great mosque founded by
Sidi Okba ibn Nafi, and containing his shrine and the tombs of
many rulers of Tunisia. To the outside it presents a heavy
buttressed wall, with little of either grandeur or grace. It
consists of three parts: a cloistered court, from which rises the
massive and stately minaret, the maksura or mosque proper, and
the vestibule. The maksura is a rectangular domed chamber
divided by 296 marble and porphyry columns into 17 aisles,
each aisle having 8 arches. The central aisle is wider than the
others, the columns being arranged by threes. All the columns
are Roman or Byzantine, and are the spoil of many ancient
cities. Access to the central aisle is gained through a door of
sculptured wood known as the Beautiful Gate. It has an in-
scription with the record of its construction. The walls are of
painted plaster- work; the mimbar or pulpit is of carved wood,
each panel bearing a different design. The court is surrounded
by a double arcade with coupled columns. In all the mosque
contains 439 columns, including two of alabaster given by one
of the Byzantine emperors. To the Mahommedan mind the
crowning distinction of the building is that through divine
inspiration the founder was enabled to set it absolutely true
to Mecca. The mosque of Sidi Okba is the prototype of
many other notable mosques (see MOSQUE). Of greater external
beauty than that of Sidi Okba is the mosque of the Three Gates.
Cufic inscriptions on the facade record its erection in the gth and
its restoration in the isth century A.D. Internally the mosque
is a single chamber supported by sixteen Roman columns. One
of the finest specimens of Moorish architecture in Kairawan is
the zawia of Sidi Abid-el-Ghariani (d. c. A.D. 1400), one of the
Almoravides, in whose family is the hereditary governorship
of the city. The entrance, a door' in a false arcade of black
and white marble, leads into a court whose arches support an
upper colonnade. The town contains many other notable
buildings, but none of such importance as the mosque of the
Companion (i.e. of the Prophet), outside the walls to the N.W.
This mosque is specially sacred as possessing what are said to be
three hairs of the Prophet's beard, buried with the saint, who
636
KAISERSLAUTERN— KAKAPO
was one of the companions of Mahomet. (This legend gave rise
to the report that the tomb contained the remains of Mahomet's
barber.) The mosque consists of several courts and chambers,
and contains some beautiful stained glass. The court which
forms the entrance to the shrine of the saint is richly adorned
with tiles and plaster-work, and is surrounded by an arcade of
white marble columns, supporting a painted wooden roof. The
minaret is faced with tiles and is surmounted by a gilded crescent.
The 19th-century mosque of Sidi Amar Abada, also outside the
wall, is in the form of a cross and is crowned with seven cupolas.
In the suburbs are huge cisterns, attributed to the pth century,
which still supply the city with water. The cemetery covers a
large area and has thousands of Cufic and Arabic inscriptions.
Formerly famous for its carpets and its oil of roses, Kairawan
is now known in northern Africa rather for copper vessels,
articles in morocco leather, potash and saltpetre. The town
has a population of about 20,000, including a few hundred
Europeans.
Arab historians relate the foundation of Kairawan by Okba with
miraculous circumstances (Tabari ii. 63; Yaqut iv. 213). The date
is variously given (see Weil, Gesch. d. Chalifen, i. 283 seq.); accord-
ing to Tabari it must have been before 670. The legend says that
Okba determined to found a city which should be a rallying-point for
the followers of Mahomet in Africa. He led his companions into
the desert, and having exhorted the serpents and wild beasts, in the
name of the Prophet, to retire, he struck his spear into the ground
exclaiming " Here is your Kairawan " (resting-place), so naming
the city.1 In the 8th century Kairawan was the capital of the
province of Ifrikia governed by amirs appointed by the caliphs.
Later it became the capital of the Aghlabite princes, thereafter
following the fortunes of the successive rulers of the country (see
TUNISIA: History). After Mecca and Medina Kairawan is the most
sacred city in the eyes of the Mahommedans of Africa, and constant
pilgrimages are made to its shrines. Until the time of the French
occupation no Christian was allowed to pass through the gates
without a special permit from the bey, whilst Jews were altogether
forbidden to approach the holy city. Contrary to expectation no
opposition was offered by the citizens to the occupation of the place
. by the French troops in 1 88 1. On that occasion the native troops
hastened to the mosques to perform their devotions; they were
followed by European soldiers, and the mosques having thus been
" violated " have remained open ever since to non-Mahommedans.
See Murray's Handbook to Algeria and Tunis, by Sir R. L. Playfair
(1895); A. M. Broadley, The Last Punic War: Tunis Past and
Present (1882) and H. Saladin, Tunis et Kairouan (1908).
KAISERSLAUTERN, a town in the Bavarian palatinate, on
the Waldlauter, in the hilly district of Westrich, 41 m. by rail
W. of Mannheim. Pop. (1905), 52,306. Among its educational
institutions are a gymnasium, a Protestant normal school, a
commercial school and an industrial museum. The house of
correction occupies the site of Frederick Barbarossa's castle,
which was demolished by the French in 1713. Kaiserslautern is
one of the most important industrial towns in the palatinate.
Its industries include cotton and wool spinning and weaving,
iron-founding, and the manufacture of beer, tobacco, gloves,
boots, furniture, &c. There is some trade in fruit and in timber.
Kaiserslautern takes its name from the emperor (Kaiser)
Frederick I., who built a castle here about 1152, although it
appears to have been a royal residence in Carolingian times. It
became an imperial city, a dignity which it retained until 1357,
when it passed to the palatinate. In 1621 it was taken by the
Spanish, in 1631 by the Swedish, in 1635 by the imperial and
in 1713 by the French troops. During 1793 and 1794 it was the
scene of fighting; and in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 it was
the base of operations of the second German army, under Prince
Frederick Charles. It was one of the early stations of the
Reformation, and in 1849 was the centre of the revolutionary
spirit in the palatinate.
See Lehmann, Urkundliche Geschichte von Kaiserslautern (Kaisers-
lautern, 1853), and E. Jost, Geschichte der Stadt Kaiserslautern
(Kaiserslautern, 1886).
KAISERSWERTH, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, on
the right bank of the Rhine, 6 m. below Dusseldorf. Pop. (1905),
2462. It possesses a Protestant and a large old Romanesque
1 Though Okba founded his city in a desert place, excavations
undertaken in 1908 revealed the existence of Roman ruins, including
a temple of Saturn, in the neighbourhood.
Roman Catholic church of the I2th or I3th century, with a
valuable shrine, said to contain the bones of St Suitbert, and has
several benevolent institutions, of which the chief is the Diakon-
issen Anstalt, or training-school for Protestant sisters of charity.
This institution, founded by Pastor Theodor Fliedner (1800-
1864) in 1836, has more than too branches, some being in Asia
and America; the head establishment at Kaiserswerth includes
an orphanage, a lunatic asylum and a Magdalen institution.
The Roman Catholic hospital occupies the former Franciscan
convent. The population is engaged in silk-weaving and other
small industries.
In 710 Pippin of Heristal presented the site of the town to Bishop
Suitbert, who built the Benedictine monastery round which the
town gradually formed. Until 1214 Kaiserswerth lay on an island,
but in that year Count Adolph V. of Berg, who was besieging it,
dammed up effectually one arm of the Rhine. About the beginning
of the 1401 century Kaiserswerth, then an imperial city, came to
the archbishopric of Cologne, and afterwards to the duchy of
Juliers, whence, after some vicissitudes, it finally passed into the
possession of the princes of the palatinate, wnose rights, long
disputed by the elector of Cologne, were legally settled in 1772. In
1702 the fortress was captured by the Austrians and Prussians, and
the Kaiserpfalz, whence the young emperor Henry IV. was abducted
by Archbishop Anno of Cologne in 1062, was blown up.
See I. Disselhoff, Das Diaconissenmutterhaus zu Kaiserswerth
(new ed., 1903; Eng. trans., 1883).
KAITHAL, or KYTHAL, an ancient town of British India in
Karnal district, Punjab. Pop. (1901), 14,408. It is said to have
been founded by the mythical hero Yudisthira, and is con-
nected by tradition with the monkey-god Hanuman. In 1767
it fell into the hands of the Sikh chieftain, Bhai Desu Singh,
whose descendants, the bhais of Kaithal, ranked among the
most powerful Cis-Sutlej chiefs. Their territories lapsed to the
British in 1843. There remain the fort of the bhais, and several
Mahommedan tombs of the I3th century and later. There is
some trade in grain, sal-ammoniac, live stock and blankets; and
cotton, saltpetre, lac ornaments and toys are manufactured.
KAKAPO, the Maori name, signifying " night parrot," and
frequently adopted by English writers, of a bird, commonly
called by the British in New Zealand the "ground-parrot" or
" owl-parrot." The existence of this singular form was first
made known in 1843 by Ernst Dieffenbach ( Trawls in N. Zealand,
ii. 194), from some of its tail-feathers obtained by him, and he
suggested that it was one of the Cuculidae, possibly belonging
to the genus Cenlropus, but he added that it was becoming scarce,
and that no example had been seen for many years. G. R. Gray,
noticing it in June 1845 (Zoo/. Voy. " Erebus " and " Terror,"
pt. ix. p. 9), was able to say little more of it, but very soon after-
wards a skin was received at the British Museum, of which, in
the following September, he published a figure (Gen. Birds,
pt. xvii.), naming it Strigops* habroptUus, and rightly placing
it among the parrots, but he did not describe it technically for
another eighteen months (Proc. Zool. Society, 1847, p. 61). Many
specimens have now been received in Europe, so that it is repre-
sented in most museums, and several examples have reached
England alive.
In habits the kakapo is almost wholly nocturnal,3 hiding in
holes (which in some instances it seems to make for itself) under
the roots of trees or rocks during the day time, and only issuing
forth about sunset to seek its food, which is solely vegetable in
kind, and consists of .the twigs, leaves, seeds and fruits of trees,
grass and fern roots — some observers say mosses also. It some-
times climbs trees, but generally remains on the ground, only
using its comparatively short wings to balance itself in running
or to break its fall when it drops from a tree — though not always
then — being apparently incapable of real flight. It thus becomes
an easy prey to the marauding creatures — cats, rats and so forth
— which European colonists have, by accident or design, let
loose in New Zealand. Sir G. Grey says it had been, within the
memory of old people, abundant in every part of that country,
* This generic term was subsequently altered by Van dcr Hoeven,
rather pedantically, to Stringops, a spelling now generally adopted.
3 It has, however, been occasionally observed abroad by day;
and, in captivity, one example at least is said to have been as active
by day as by night.
KAKAR— KALAHARI DESERT
637
but (writing in 1854) was then found only in the unsettled
districts.
The kakapo is about the size of a raven, of a green or brownish-
green colour, thickly freckled and irregularly barred with dark
brown, and dashed here and there with longitudinal stripes of
light yellow. Examples are subject to much variation in colour
and shade, and in some the lower parts are deeply tinged with
yellow. Externally the most striking feature of the bird is its
head, armed with a powerful beak that it well knows how to use,
and its face clothed with hairs and elongated feathers that
sufficiently resemble the physiognomy of an owl to justify the
generic name bestowed upon it. Of its internal structure little
has been described, and that not always correctly. Its furcula
has been said (Proc. Zool. Society, 1874, p. 594) to be " lost,"
whereas the clavicles, which in most birds unite to form that
bone, are present, though they do not meet, while in like manner
the bird has been declared (op. cit., 1867, p. 624, note) to furnish
among the Carinatae " the only apparent exception to the pres-
ence of a keel " to the sternum. The keel, however, is undoubt-
edly there, as remarked by Blanchard (Ann. Nat. Sc., Zoologie,
4th series, vol. xi. p. 83) and A. Milne Edwards (Ois. Foss. de la
France, ii. 516), and, though much reduced in size, is nearly as
much developed as in the Dodo and the Ocydrome. The aborted
condition of this process can hardly be regarded but in connexion
with the incapacity of the bird for flight, and may very likely be
the result of disuse. There can be scarcely any doubt as to the
propriety of considering this genus the type of a separate family
of Psitlaci; but whether it stands alone or some other forms
(Pezoporus or Geopsittacus, for example, which in coloration and
habits present some curious analogies) should be placed with it,
must await future determination. In captivity the kakapo is
said to show much intelligence, as well as an affectionate and
playful disposition. Unfortunately it does not seem to share
the longevity characteristic of most parrots, and none that has
been held in confinement appears to have long survived, while
many succumb speedily.
For further details see Gould's Birds of Australia (ii. 247), and
Handbook (ii. 539); DrFinsch'sDiePapageien (i. 241), and Sir Walter
Buller's Birds of New Zealand especially. (A. N.)
KAKAR, a Pathan tribe on the Zhob valley frontier of Balu-
chistan. The Kakars inhabit the back of the Suliman mountains
between Quetta and the Gomal river; they are a very ancient
race, and it is probable that they were in possession of these
slopes long before the advent of Afghan or Arab. They are
divided into many distinct tribes who have no connexion beyond
the common name of Kakar. Not only is there no chief of the
Kakars, or general jirgah (or council) of the whole tribe, but in
most cases there are no recognized heads of the different clans.
In 1901 they numbered 105,444. During the second Afghan
War the Kakars caused some annoyance on the British line of
communications; and the Kakars inhabiting the Zhob valley
were punished by the Zhob valley expedition of 1884.
KALA-AZAR, or Dum-Dum fever, a tropical disease, character-
ized by remittent fever, anaemia and enlargement of the spleen
(splenomegaly) and often of the liver. It is due to a protozoon
parasite (see PARASITIC DISEASES), discovered in 1900 by Lcish-
man in the spleen, and is of a malarial type. The treatment is
similar to that for malaria. In Assam good results have been
obtained by segregation.
KALABAGH, a town of British India in the Mianwali district
of the Punjab. Pop. (1901), 5824. It is picturesquely situated
at the foot of the Salt range, on the right bank of the Indus,
opposite the railway station of Mari. The houses nestle against
the side of a precipitous hill of solid rock-salt, piled in successive
tiers, the roof of each tier forming the street which passes in front
of the row immediately above, and a cliff, also of pure rock-salt,
towers above the town. The supply of salt, which is worked
from open quarries, is practically inexhaustible. Alum also
occurs in the neighbouring hills, and forms a considerable item
of local trade. Iron implements are manufactured.
KALACH, also known as DONSKAYA, a village of S.E.
Russia, in the territory of the Don Cossacks, and a river port on
the Don, 31 m. N.E. of Nizhne-Chirskaya, in 43° 30' E. and 48°
43' N. Its permanent population, only about 1200, increases
greatly in summer. It is the terminus of the railway (45 m.)
which connects the Don with Tsaritsyn on the Volga, and all the
goods (especially fish, petroleum, cereals and timber) brought
from the Caspian Sea up the Volga and destined for middle
Russia, or for export through the Sea of Azov, are unloaded at
Tsaritsyn and sent over to Kalach on the Don.
KALAHANDI (formerly KAROND), a feudatory state of India,
which was transferred from the Central Provinces to the Orissa
division of Bengal in 1905. A range of the Eastern Ghats runs
from N.E. to S.W. through the state, with open undulating
country to the north. Area 3745 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 350,529;
estimated revenue, £8000 ; tribute, £800. The inhabitants
mostly belong to the aboriginal race of Khonds. A murderous
outbreak against Hindu settlers called for armed intervention
in 1882. The chief, Raghu Kishor Deo, was murdered by a
servant in 1897, and during the minority of his son, Brij Mohan
Deo, the state was placed in charge of a British political agent.
The capital is Bhawani Patna.
KALAHARI DESERT, a region of South Africa, lying mainly
between 20° and 28° S. and 19° and 24° E., and covering fully
120,000 sq. m. The greater part of this territory forms the
western portion of the (British) Bechuanaland protectorate, but
it extends south into that part of Bechuanaland annexed to the
Cape and west into German South- West Africa. The Orange
river marks its southern limit; westward it reaches to the foot of
the Nama and Damara hills, eastward to the cultivable parts
of Bechuanaland, northward and north-westward to the valley
of the Okavango and the bed of Lake Ngami. The Kalahari,
part of the immense inner table-land of South Africa, has an
average elevation of over 3000 ft. with a general slope from east
to west and a dip northward to Ngami. Described by Robert
Moffat as " the southern Sahara," the Kalahari resembles the
great desert of North Africa in being generally arid and in being
scored by the beds of dried-up rivers. It presents however
many points of difference from the Sahara. The surface soil
is mainly red sand, but in places limestone overlies shale and
conglomerates. The ground is undulating and its appearance
is comparable with that of the ocean at times of heavy swell.
The crests of the waves are represented by sand dunes, rising
from 30 to zoo ft.; the troughs between the dunes vary greatly
in breadth. On the eastern border long tongues of sand project
into the veld, while the veld in places penetrates far into the
desert. There are also, and especially along the river beds,
extensive mud flats. After heavy rain these become pans or
lakes, and water is then also found in mud-bottomed pools along
the beds of the rivers. The water in the pans is often brackish,
and in some cases thickly encrusted with salt. Pans also occur
in crater-like depressions where rock rises above the desert sands.
A tough, sun-bleached grass, growing knee-high in tufts at
intervals of about 15 in., covers the dunes and gives the
general colour of the landscape. Considerable parts of the
Kalahari, chiefly in the west and north, are however covered
with dense scrub and there are occasional patches of forest.
Next to the lack of water the chief characteristics of the desert
are the tuberous and herbaceous plants and the large numbers
of big game found in it. Of the plants the most remarkable is
the water-melon, of which both the bitter and sweet variety are
found, and which supplies both man and beast with water. The
game includes the lion, leopard, hippopotamus, rhinoceros,
buffalo, zebra, quagga, many kinds of antelope (among them
the kudu and gnu), baboon and ostrich. The elephant, giraffe
and eland are also found. The hunting of these three last-named
animals is prohibited, and for all game there is a close time from
the beginning of September to the end of February.
The climate is hot, dry and healthy, save in the neighbourhood
of the large marshes in the north, where malarial fever is preva-
lent. In this region the drainage is N.E. to the great Makarikari
marsh and the Botletle, the river connecting the marsh with the
Ngami system. In the south the drainage is towards the Orange.
The Molopo and the Kuruman, which in their upper course in
63 8
KALAMATA— KALAT
eastern Bechuanaland are perennial streams, lose their water
by evaporation and percolation on their way westward through
the Kalahari. The Molopo, a very imposing river on the map,
is dry in its lower stretches. The annual rainfall does not
exceed 10 in. It occurs in the summer months, September to
March, and chiefly in thunderstorms. The country is suffering
from progressive desiccation, but there is good evidence of an
abundant supply of water not far beneath the surface. In the
water-melon season a few white farmers living on the edge of
the desert send their herds thither to graze. Such few spots as
have been under cultivation by artificial irrigation yield excellent
.returns to the farmer; but the chief commercial products of the
desert are the skins of animals.
The Kalahari is the home of wandering Bushmen (q.v.), who live
entirely by the chase, killing their prey with poisoned arrows, of
Ba-Kalahari, and along the western border of Hottentots, who are
both hunters and cattle-rearers. The Ba-Kalahari (men of the
Kalahari), who constitute the majority of the inhabitants, appear
to belong to the Batau tribe of the Bechuanas, now no longer
having separate tribal existence, and traditionally reported to be
the oldest of the Bechuana tribes. Their features are markedly
negroid, though their skin is less black than that of many negro
peoples. They have thin legs and arms. The Ba-Kalahari are
said to have possessed enormous herds of large horned cattle until
deprived of them and driven into the desert by a fresh migration of
more powerful Bechuana tribes. Unlike the Bushmen, and in spite
of desert life, the Ba-Kalahari have a true passion for agriculture
and cattle-breeding. They carefully cultivate their gardens, though
in many cases all they can grow is a scanty supply of melons and
pumpkins, and they rear small herds of goats. They are also clever
hunters, and from the neighbouring Bechuana chiefs obtain spears,
knives, tobacco and dogs in exchange for the skins of the animals
they kill. In disposition they are peaceful to timidity, grave and
almost morose. Livingstone states that he never saw Ba-Kalahari
children at play. An ingenious method is employed to obtain water
where there is no open well or running stream. To one end of a reed
about 2 ft. long a bunch of grass is tied, and this end of the reed is
inserted in a hole dug at a spot where water is known to exist under-
ground, the wet sand being rammed down firmly round it. An ostrich
egg-shell, the usual water vessel, is placed on the ground alongside
the reed. The water-drawer, generally a woman, then sucks up the
water through the reed, dexterously squirting it into the adjacent
egg-shell. To aid her aim she places between her lips a straw, the
other end of which is inserted in the shell. The shells, when filled,
are buried, the object of the Ba-Kalahari being to preserve their
supplies from any sudden raid by Bushmen or other foe. Early
travellers stated that no amount of bullying or hunting in a Ba-
Kalahari village would result in a find of water; but that on friendly
relations being established the natives would bring a supply,
however arid the district. The British government has since sunk
wells in one or two districts. Though the Ba Kalahari have no
religion in the strict sense of the word, they show traces of totemism,
and as Batau, i.e. " men of the lion," revere rather than fear that
beast.
The Kalahari was first crossed to Lake Ngami by David Living-
stone, accompanied by William C. Oswell, in 1849. In 1878-1879 a
party of Boers, with about three hundred wagons, trekked from the
Transvaal across the Kalahari to Ngami and thence to the hinterland
of Angola. Many of the party, men, women and children, perished
of thirst during the journey. Survivors stated that in all some
250 people and 9000 cattle died.
See BECHUANALAND. Die Kalahari, by Dr Siegfried Passarge
(Berlin, 1904), is a valuable treatise on the geology, topography,
hydrography, climate and flora of the desert, with maps ana biblio-
graphy. The author spent two years (1896-1898) in the Kalahari.
See also Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, &c., by
David Livingstone (London, 1857).
KALAMATA (officially KaXa^ai, from an ancient town near
the site), chief town of the modern Greek nomarchy of Messenia
in the Morea, situated on the left bank of the Nedon, about
i m. from the sea. Pop. (1907), 13,123. There is a suburb on
the right bank of the stream. On a hill behind the town are the
ruins of a medieval castle, but no ancient Greek remains have
been discovered, although some travellers have identified the
site with that of the classical Pharae or Pherae. It is the seat
of a court of justice and of an archbishop. During the middle
ages it was for a time a fief of the Villehardouins. In 1685
Kalamata was captured by the Venetians; in 1770, and again
in 1821, it was the revolutionary headquarters in the Morea. In
1825 it was sacked by Ibrahim Pasha. Kalamata is situated in
a very fruitful district, of which it is the emporium. The harbour,
though recently improved, offers little shelter to shipping.
Vessels load and discharge by means of lighters, the outer
harbour having a depth at entrance of 24 ft. and inside of 14 ft.
The inner harbour has a depth of 15 ft. and is sheltered by a
breakwater 1640 ft. in length; in the winter months the fishing
craft take shelter in the haven of Armyro. The silk industry,
formerly important, still employs about 300 women and^ girls
in four spinning establishments. Olive oil and silk are the chief
exports.
KALAMAZOO, a city and the county-seat of Kalamazoo
county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Kalamazoo
River, about 49 m. S. of Grand Rapids and 144 m. W. of Detroit.
Pop. (1900) 24,404, of whom 4710 were foreign-born; (igro
census) 30,437- It is served by the Michigan Central, the Lake
Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Rapids .& Indiana, the
Kalamazoo, Lake Shore & Chicago, and the Chicago, Kalamazoo
& Saginaw railways, and by interurban electric lines. The city
has a public library, and is the seat of Kalamazoo college
(Baptist), which grew out of the Kalamazoo literary institute
(1833) and was chartered under its present name in 1855; the
Michigan female seminary (Presbyterian), established in 1866;
the Western State normal school (1904); Nazareth Academy
(1897), for girls; Barbour Hall (1899), a school for boys; two
private schools for the feeble-minded; and the Michigan asylum
for the insane, opened in 1859. The surrounding country is
famous for its celery, and the city is an important manufacturing
centre, ranking third among the cities of the state in the value
of its factory products in 1904. The value of the factory pro-
duct in 1904 was $13,141,767, an increase of 82-9% since 1900.
The waterworks and electric-lighting plant are owned and
operated by the municipality. Kalamazoo was settled in 1829,
was known as Bronson (in honour of Titus Bronson, an early
settler) until 1836, was incorporated as the village of Kalamazoo
in 1838, and in 1884 became a city under a charter granted in
the preceding year.
KALAPUYA, or CALLAPOOYA, a tribe and stock of North-
American Indians, whose former range was the valley of the
Willamette River, Oregon. They now number little more than
a hundred, on a reservation on Grande Ronde reservation,
Oregon.
KALAT, the capital of Baluchistan, situated in 29° 2' N. and
66° 35' E., about 6780 ft. above sea-level, 88 m. from Quetta.
The town gives its name also to a native state with an area, in-
cluding Makran and Kharan, of 71,593 m. and a population (1901)
of 470,336. The word Kalat is derived from kala — a fortress;
and Kalat is the most picturesque fortress in the Baluch high-
lands. It crowns a low hill, round the base of which clusters
the closely built mass of flat-roofed mud houses which form the
insignificant town. A miri or citadel, having an imposing ap-
pearance, dominates the town, and contains within its walls the
palace of the khan. It was in an upper room of this residence
that Mehrab Khan, ruler of Baluchistan, was killed during the
storming of the town and citadel by the British troops at the
close of the first Afghan War in 1839. In 1901 it had a popu-
lation of only 2000. The valleys immediately surrounding the
fortress are well cultivated and thickly inhabited, in spite of
their elevation and the extremes of temperature to which they
are exposed. Recent surveys of Baluchistan have determined
the position of Hozdar or Khozdar (27° 48' N., 66° 38' E.) to
be about 50 m. S. of Kalat. Khozdar was the former capital
of Baluchistan, and is as directly connected with the southern
branches of the Mulla Pass as Kalat is with the northern, the
Mulla being the ancient trade route to Gandava (Kandabe) and
Sind. In spite of the rugged and barren nature of the mountain
districts of the Kalat highlands, the main routes through them
(concentrating on Khozdar rather than on Kalat) are compara-
tively easy. The old " Pathan vat," the trade highway between
Kalat and Karachi by the Hab valley, passes through Khozdar.
From Khozdar another route strikes a little west of south to
Wad, and then passes easily into Las Bela. This is the " Kohan
vat." A third route runs to Nal, and leads to the head of the
Kolwa valley (meeting with no great physical obstruction),
and then strikes into the open high road to Persia. Some of the
KALAT-I-GHILZAI— KALEIDOSCOPE
639
valleys about Kalat (Mastang, for instance) are wide and fertile,
full of thriving villages and strikingly picturesque; and in spite of
the great preponderance of mountain wilderness (a wilderness
which is, however, in many parts well adapted for the pasturage
of sheep) existing in the Sarawan lowlands almost equally with
the Jalawan highlands, it is not difficult to understand the import-
ance which the province of Kalat, anciently called Turan (or
Tubaran) , maintained in the eyes of medieval Arab geographers
(see BALUCHISTAN). New light has been thrown on the history of
Kalat by the translation of an unpublished manuscript obtained
at Tatta by Mr Tate, of the Indian Survey Department, who has
added thereto notes from the Tufhat-ul-Kiram, for the use of
which he was indebted to Khan Sahib Rasul Baksh, mukhtiardar
of Tatta. According to these authorities, the family of the khans
of Kalat is of Arabic origin, and not, as is usually stated, of
Brahuic extraction. They belong to the Ahmadzai branch of the
Mirwari clan, which originally emigrated from Oman to the
Kolwa valley of Mekran. The khan of Kalat, Mir Mahmud Khan,
who succeeded his father in 1893, is the leading chieftain in the
Baluch Confederacy. The revenue of the khan is estimated at
nearly £60,000, including subsidies from the British government;
and an accrued surplus of £240,000 has been invested in Indian
securities.
See G. P. Tate, Kalat (Calcutta, 1896); Baluchistan District
Gazetteer, vol. vi. (Bombay, 1907). (T. H. H.*)
KALAT-I-GHILZAI, a fort in Afghanistan. It is situated on
an isolated rocky eminence 5543 ft. above sea-level and 200 ft.
above the plain, on the right bank of the river Tarnak, on the
road between Kabul and Kandahar, 87 m. from Kandahar and
229 m. from Kabul. It is celebrated for its gallant defence by
Captain Craigie and a sepoy garrison against the Afghans in the
first Afghan War of 1842. In memory of this feat of arms, the
1 2th Pioneers still bear the name of "The Kalat-i-Ghilzai
Regiment," and carry a special colour with the motto "Invicta."
KALB, JOHANN (" BARON DE KALB ") (1721-1780), German
soldier in the American War of Independence, was born in
Hiittendorf , near Bayreuth, on the 2gth of June 1721. He was of
peasant parentage, and left home when he was sixteen to become
a butler; in 1743 he was a lieutenant in a German regiment
in the French service, calling himself at this time Jean de Kalb.
He served with the French in the War of the Austrian Succes-
sion, becoming captain in 1747 and major in 1756; in the Seven
Years' War he was in the corps of the comte de Broglie, render-
ing great assistance to the French after Rossbach (November
1757) and showing great bravery at Bergen (April 1759); and in
1 763 he resigned his commission. As secret agent, appointed by
Choiseul, he visited America in 1 768-1 769 to inquire into the feel-
ing of the colonists toward Great Britain. From his retirement at
Milon la Chapelle, Kalb went to Metz for garrison duty under
de Broglie in 1775. Soon afterwards he received permission to
volunteer in the army of the American colonies, in which the
rank of major-general was promised to him by Silas Deane.
After many delays he sailed with eleven other officers on the ship
fitted out by Lafayette and arrived at Philadelphia in July 1777.
His commission from Deane was disallowed, but the Continental
Congress granted him the rank of major-general (dating from the
1 5th of September 1777), and in October he joined the army,
where his growing admiration for Washington soon led him to
view with disfavour de Broglie's scheme for putting a European
officer in chief command. Early in 1778, as second in command
to Lafayette for the proposed expedition against Canada, he
accompanied Lafayette to Albany; but no adequate preparations
had been made, and the expedition was abandoned. In April
1780, he was sent from Morristown, New Jersey, with his division
or Maryland men, his Delaware regiment and the ist artillery, to
relieve Charleston, but on arriving at Petersburg, Virginia, he
learned that Charleston had already fallen. In his camp at
Buffalo Ford and Deep River, General Horatio Gates joined him
on the 25th of July; and next day Gates led the army by the short
and desolate road directly towards Camden. On the nth-i3th
of August, when Kalb advised an immediate attack on Rawdon,
Gates hesitated and then marched to a position on the Salisbury-
Charlotte road which he had previously refused to take. On the
1 4th Cornwallis had occupied Camden, and a battle took place
there on the i6th when, the other American troops having broken
and fled, Kalb, unhorsed and fighting fiercely at the head of his
right wing, was wounded eleven times. He was taken prisoner
and died on the igth of August 1780 in Camden. Here in 1825
Lafayette laid the corner-stone of a monument to him. In 1887
a statue of him by Ephraim Keyser was dedicated in Annapolis,
Maryland.
See Friedrich Kapp, Leben des amerikanischen Generals Jonann
Kalb (Stuttgart, 1862; English version, privately printed, New
York, 1870), which is summarized in George W. Greene's The
German Element in the War of American Independence (New York,
1876).
KALCKREUTH (or KALKREUTH), FRIEDRICH ADOLF,
COUNT VON (1737-1818), Prussian soldier, entered the regiment
of Gardes du Corps in 1752, and in 1758 was adjutant or aide de
camp to Frederick the Great's brother, Prince Henry, with whom
he served throughout the later stages of the Seven Years' War.
He won special distinction at the battle of Freiberg (Sept. 29,
1762), for which Frederick promoted him major. Personal
differences with Prince Henry severed their connexion in 1766,
and for many years Kalckreuth lived in comparative retirement.
But he made the campaign of the War of the Bavarian Succession
as a colonel, and on the accession of Frederick William II. was
restored to favour. He greatly distinguished himself as a major-
general in the invasion of Holland in 1787, and by 1792 had be-
come count and lieutenant-general. Under Brunswick he took
a conspicuous part in the campaign of Valmy in 1792, the siege
and capture of Mainz in 1793, and the battle of Kaiserslautern in
1794. In the campaigns against Napoleon in 1806 he played a
marked part for good or evil, both at Auerstadt and in the miser-
able retreat of the beaten Prussians. In 1 807 he defended Danzig
for 78 days against the French under Marshal Lefebvre, with far
greater skill and energy than he had shown in the previous year.
He was promoted field marshal soon afterwards, and conducted
many of the negotiations at Tilsit. He died as governor of Berlin
in 1818.
The-Dictees du Feldmarechal Kalckreuth were published by his son
(Paris, 1844).
KALCKREUTH, LEOPOLD, COUNT VON (1855- ), German
painter, a direct descendant of the famous field-marshal (see
above), was born at Diisseldorf, received his first training at
Weimar from his father, the landscape painter Count Stanislaus
von Kalckreuth (1820-1894), and subsequently studied at the
academies of Weimar and Munich. Although he painted some
portraits remarkable for their power of expression, he devoted
himself principally to depicting with relentless realism the
monotonous life of the fishing folk on the sea-coast, and of the
peasants in the fields. His palette is joyless, and almost melan-
choly, and in his technique he is strongly influenced by the im-
pressionists. He was one of the founders of the secessionist
movement. From 1885 to 1890 Count von Kalckreuth was
professor at the Weimar art school. In 1890 he resigned his pro-
fessorship and retired to his estate of Hockricht in Silesia, where
he occupied himself in painting subjects drawn from the life of
the country-folk. In 1895 he became a professor at the art
school at Karlsruhe. The Munich Pinakothek has his "Rain-
bow " and the Dresden Gallery his " Old Age." Among his
chief works are the " Funeral at Dachau," " Homewards,"
" Wedding Procession in the Carpathian Mountains," " The
Gleaners," "Old Age," "Before the Fish Auction," "Summer,"
and " Going to School."
See A. Ph. W. v. Kalckreuth, Gesch. der Herren, Freiherren und
Grafen von Kalckreuth (Potsdam, 1904).
KALEIDOSCOPE (from Gr. (caX6s, beautiful, eKos, form, and
ffKoirtiv, to view). The article REFLECTION explains the sym-
metrical arrangement of images formed by two mirrors inclined at
an angle which is a sub-multiple of four right angles. This is
the principle of the kaleidoscope, an optical toy which received
its present form at the hands of Sir David Brewster about the
640
KALERGIS— KALGOORLIE
year 1815, and which at once became exceedingly popular owing
to the beauty and variety of the images and the sudden and
unexpected changes from one graceful form to another. A
hundred years earlier R. Bradley had employed a similar arrange-
ment which seems to have passed into oblivion (New Improvements
of Planting and Gardening, 1710). The instrument has been
extensively used by designers. In its simplest form it consists
of a tube about twelve inches long containing two glass plates,
extending along its whole length and inclined at an angle of 60°.
The eye-end of the tube is closed by a metal plate having a small
hole at its centre near the intersection of the glass plates. The
other end is closed by a plate of muffed glass at the distance of
distinct vision, and parallel to this is fixed a plate of clear glass.
In the intervening space (the object-box) are contained a number
of fragments of brilliantly coloured glass, and as the tube is
turned round its axis these fragments alter their positions and
give rise to the various patterns. A third reflecting plate is
sometimes employed, the cross-section of the three forming an
equilateral triangle. Sir David Brewster modified his apparatus
by moving the object-box and closing the end of the tube by a
lens of short focus which forms images of distant objects at the
distance of distinct vision. These images take the place of the
coloured fragments of glass, and they are symmetrically multi-
plied by the mirrors. In the polyangular kaleidoscope the angle
between the mirrors can be altered at pleasure. Such instruments
are occasionally found in old collections of philosophical appara-
tus and they have been used in order to explain to students the
formation of multiple images. (C. J. J.)
KALERGIS, DIMITRI (DEMETRIOS) (1803-1867), Greek
statesman, was a Cretan by birth, studied medicine at Paris and
on the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence went to the
Morea and joined the insurgents. He fought under Karaiskakis,
was taken prisoner by the Turks before Athens and mulcted of
an ear; later he acted as aide de camp to the French philhellene
Colonel Fabvier and to Count Capo d'Istria, president of Greece.
In 1832 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel. In 1843, as com-
mander of a cavalry division, he was the prime mover in the
insurrection which forced King Otto to dismiss his Bavarian
ministers. He was appointed military commandant of Athens
and aide de camp to the king, but after the fall of the Mavro-
cordato ministry in 1845 was forced to go into exile, and spent
several years in London, where he became an intimate of Prince
Louis Napoleon. In 1848 he made an abortive descent on the
Greek coast, in the hope of revolutionizing the kingdom. He
was captured, but soon released and, after a stay in the island
of Zante, went to Paris (1853). At the instance of the Western
Powers he was recalled on the outbreak of the Crimean War and
appointed minister of war in the reconstituted Mavrocordato
cabinet (1854). He was, however, disliked by King Otto and
his consort, and in October 1855 was forced to resign. In 1861
he was appointed minister plenipotentiary in Paris, in which
capacity he took an important part in the negotiations which
followed the fall of the Bavarian dynasty and led to the accession
of Prince George of Denmark to the Greek throne.
KALEWALA, or KALEVALA, the name of the Finnish national
epos. It takes its name from the three sons of Kalewa (or
Finland), viz. the ancient Wainamoinen, the inventor of the
sacred harp Kantele; the cunning art-smith, Ilmarinen; and the
gallant Lemminkainen, who is a sort of Arctic Don Juan. The
adventures of these three heroes are wound about a plot for
securing in marriage the hand of the daughter of Louhi, a hero
from Pohjola, a land of the cold north. Ilmarinen is set to
construct a magic mill, the Sanpo, which grinds out meal, salt
and gold, and as this has fallen into the hands of the folk of
Pohjola, it is needful to recover it. The poem actually opens,
however, with a very poetical theory of the origin of the world.
The virgin daughter of the atmosphere, Luonnotar, wanders for
seven hundred years in space, until she bethinks her to invoke
Ukko, the northern Zeus, who sends his eagle to her; this bird
makes its nest on the knees of Luonnotar and lays in it seven
eggs. Oat of the substance of these eggs the visible world is
made. But it is empty and sterile until Wainamoinen descends
upon it and woos the exquisite Aino. She disappears into space,
and it is to recover from his loss and to find another bride that
Wainamoinen makes his series of epical adventures in the dismal
country of Pohjola. Various episodes of great strangeness and
beauty accompany the lengthy recital of the struggle to acquire
the magical Sanpo, which gives prosperity to whoever possesses
it. In the midst of a battle the Sanpo is broken and falls into
the sea, but one fragment floats on the waves, and, being stranded
on the shores of Finland, secures eternal felicity for that country.
At the very close of the poem a virgin, Mariatta, brings forth a
king who drives Wainamoinen out of the country, and this is
understood to refer to the ultimate conquest of Paganism by
Christianity.
The Kalewala was probably composed at various times and by
various bards, but always in sympathy with the latent traditions
of the Finnish race, and with a mixture of symbolism and realism
exactly accordant with the instincts of that race. While in the
other antique epics of the world bloodshed takes a predominant
place, the Kalewala is characteristically gentle, lyrical and even
domestic, dwelling at great length on situations of moral beauty
and romantic pathos. It is entirely concerned with the folk-lore
and the traditions of the primeval Finnish race. The poem is
written in eight-syllabled trochaic verse, and an idea of its style
may be obtained from Longfellow's Hiawatha, which is a pretty
true imitation of the Finnish epic.
Until the igth century the Kalewala existed only in fragments in
the memories and on the lips of the peasants. A collection of a few
of these scattered songs was published in 1822 by Dr Zacharius
Topelius, but it was not until 1835 that anything like a complete
and systematically arranged collection was given to the world by
Dr Elias Lonnrot. For years Dr Lonnrot wandered from place to
place in the most remote districts, living with the peasantry, and
taking down from their lips all that they knew of their popular songs.
Some of the most valuable were discovered in the governments of
Archangel _ and Olonetz. After unwearied diligence Lonnrot was
successful in collecting 12,000 lines. These he arranged as methodi-
cally as he could into thirty-two runes or cantos, which he published
exactly as he heard them sung or chanted. Continuing his re-
searches, Dr Lonnrot published in 1849 a new edition of 22,793
verses in fifty runes. A still more complete text was published by
A. V. Forsman in 1887. The importance of this indigenous epic
was at once recognized in Europe, and translations were made into
Swedish, German and French. Several translations into English
exist, the fullest being that by J. M. Crawford in 1888. The best
foreign editions are those of Castren in Swedish (1844), Leouzon le
Due in French (1845 and 1868), Schiefner in German (1852). (E. G.)
KALGAN (CHANG-CHIA K'ow), a city of China, in the pro-
vince of Chih-li, with a population estimated at from 70,000 to
1 00,000. It lies in the line of the Great Wall, 1 2 2 m. by rail N. W.
of Peking, commanding an important pass between China and
Mongolia. Its position is stated as in 40° 50' N. and 1 14° 54' E.,
and its height above the sea as 2810 ft. The valley amid the
mountains in which it is situated is under excellent cultivation,
and thickly studded with villages. Kalgan consists of a walled
town or fortress and suburbs 3 m. long. The streets are wide,
and excellent shops are abundant; but the ordinary houses have
an unusual appearance, from the fact that they are mostly roofed
with earth and become covered with green-sward. Large
quantities of soda are manufactured; and the town is the seat
of a very extensive transit trade. In October 1909 it was con-
nected by railway with Peking. In early autumn long lines of
camels come in from all quarters for the conveyance of the tea-
chests from Kalgan to Kiakhta; and each caravan usually makes
three journeys in the winter. Some Russian merchants have
permanent residences and warehouses just outside the gate. On
the way to Peking the road passes over a beautiful bridge of seven
arches, ornamented with marble figures of animals. The name
Kalgan is Mongolian, and means a barrier or " gate-beam."
KALGOORLIE, a mining town of Western Australia, 24 m.
by rail E.N.E. of Coolgardie. Pop. (1901), 6652. It is a thriving
town with an electric tramway service, and is the junction of four
lines of railway. The gold-field, discovered in 1893, is very
rich, supporting about 15,000 miners. The town is supplied
with water, like Coolgardie, from a source near Perth 360 m.
distant.
KALI— KALIDASA
641
KALI (black), or Kali Ma (the Black Mother), in Hindu
mythology, the goddess of destruction and death, the wife
of Siva. According to one theory, Calcutta owes its name to
her, being originally Kalighat, " Kali's landing-place." Siva's
consort has many names (e.g. Durga, Bhawani, Parvati, &c.).
Her idol is black, with four arms, and red palms to the hands.
Her eyes are red, and her face and breasts are besmeared with
blood. Her hair is matted, and she has projecting fang-like teeth,
between which protrudes a tongue dripping with blood. She
wears a necklace of skulls, her earrings are dead bodies, and she
is girded with serpents. She stands on the body of Siva, to
account for which attitude there is an elaborate legend. She is
more worshipped in Gondwana and the forest tracts to the east
and south of it than in any other part of India. Formerly
human sacrifice was the essential of her ritual. The victim,
always a male, was taken to her temple after sunset and im-
prisoned there. When morning came he was dead: the priests
told the people that Kali had sucked his blood in the night. At
Dantewara in Bastar there is a famous shrine of Kali under the
name of Danteswari. Here many a human head has been
presented on her altar. About 1830 it is said that upwards of
twenty-five full-grown men were immolated at once by the raja.
Cutting their flesh and burning portions of their body were
among the acts of devotion of her worshippers. Kali is goddess
of small-pox and cholera. The Thugs murdered their victims
in her honour, and to her the sacred pickaxe, wherewith their
graves were dug, was consecrated.
The Hook-swinging Festival (Churruk or Churuck Puja),
one of the most notable celebrations in honour of the
goddess Kali, has now been prohibited in British territory.
Those who had vowed themselves to self-torture submitted to
be swung in the air supported only by hooks passed through the
muscles over the blade-bones. These hooks were hung from a
long crossbeam, which see-sawed upon a huge upright pole.
Hoisted into the air by men pulling down the other end of the
see-saw beam, the victim was then whirled round in a circle.
The torture u sually lasted fifteen or twenty minutes.
See A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897).
KALIDASA, the most illustrious name among the writers of
the second epoch of Sanskrit literature, which, as contrasted
with the age of the Vedic hymns, may be characterized as the
period of artificial poetry. Owing to the absence of the historical
sense in the Hindu race, it is impossible to fix with chronological
exactness the lifetime of either Kalidasa or any other Sanskrit
author. Native tradition places him in the ist century B.C.;
but the evidence on which this belief rests is worthless. The
works of the poet contain no allusions by which their date can
be directly determined; yet the extremely corrupt form of the
Prakrit or popular dialects spoken by the women and the sub-
ordinate characters in his plays, as compared with the Prakrit
in inscriptions of ascertained age, led such authorities as Weber
and Lassen to agree in fixing on the 3rd century A.D. as the
approximate period to which the writings of Kalidasa should
be referred.
He was one of the " nine gems " at the court of King Vikra-
maditya or Vikrama, at Ujjain, and the tendency is now to
regard the latter as having flourished about AD. 375; others,
however, place him as late as the 6th century. The richness of
his creative fancy, his delicacy of sentiment, and his keen appre-
ciation of the beauties of nature, combined with remarkable
powers of description, place Kalidasa in the first rank of Oriental
poets. The effect, however, of his productions as a whole is
greatly marred by extreme artificiality of diction, which, though
to a less extent than in other Hindu poets, not unfrequently
takes the form of puerile conceits and plays on words. In this
respect his writings contrast very unfavourably with the more
genuine poetry of the Vedas. Though a true poet, he is wanting
in that artistic sense of proportion so characteristic of the Greek
mind, which exactly adjusts the parts to the whole, and combines
form and matter into an inseparable poetic unity. Kalidasa's
fame rests chiefly on his dramas, but he is also distinguished as
an epic and a lyric poet.
xv. 21
He wrote three plays, the plots of which all bear a general resem-
blance, inasmuch as they consist of love intrigues, which, after
numerous and seemingly insurmountable impediments of a similar
nature, are ultimately brought to a successful conclusion.
Of these, Sakuntala, is that which has always justly enjoyed the
greatest fame and popularity. The unqualified praise bestowed
upon it by Goethe sufficiently guarantees its poetic merit. There
are two recensions of the text in India, the Bengali and the Devana-
gari, the latter being generally considered older and purer. Sakun-
tala was first translated into English by Sir William Jones (Calcutta,
1789), who used the Bengali recension. It was soon after translated
into German by G. Forster (1791; new ed. Leipzig, 1879). An
edition of the Sanskrit original, with French translation, was pub-
lished by A. L. Ch6zy at Paris in 1830. This formed the basis of a
translation by B. Hirzel (Zurich, 1830); later trans, by L. Fritze
(Chemnitz, 1876). Other editions of the Bengali recension were
published by Prema Chandra (Calcutta, 1860) for the use of European
students and by R. Pischel (2nd ed., Kiel, 1886). The Devanagari
recension was first edited by O. Bohtlingk (Bonn, 1842), with a
German translation. On this were based the successive German
translations of E. Meier (Tubingen, 1851) and E. Lobedanz (8th
cd., Leipzig, 1892). The same recension has been edited by Dr C.
Burkhard with a Sanskrit-Latin vocabulary and short Prakrit gram-
mar (Breslau, 1872), and by Professor Monier Williams (Oxford, 2nd
ed. 1876), who also translated the drama (5th ed., 1887). There is
another translation by P. N. Patankar (Poona, -1888- ). There
are also a South Indian and a Cashmir recension.
The Vikramorvasi, or Urvasi won by Valour, abounds with fine
lyrical passages, and is of all Indian dramas second only to Sakuntala
in poetic beauty. It was edited by R. Lenz (Berlin, 1833) and trans-
lated into German by C. G. A. Hofer (Berlin, 1837), by B. Hirzel
(1838), by E. Lobedanz (Leipzig, 1861) and F. Bollensen (Petersburg,
1845). There is also an English edition by Monier Williams,
H. H. "
metrical and prose version by Professor H. H. Wilson, and a literal
prose translation by Professor E. B. Cowell (1851). The latest
editions are by S. P. Pandit (Bombay, 1879) and K. B. Paranjpe
(ibid. 1898).
The third play, entitled Malavikagnimitra, has considerable
poetical and dramatic merit, but is confessedly inferior to the other
two. It possesses the advantage, however, that its hero Agnimitra
and its heroine Malavika are more ordinary and human characters
than those of the other plays. It is edited by O. F. Tullberg
(Bonn, 1840), by Shankar P. Pandit, with English notes (1869), and
S. S. Ayyar (Poona, 1896); translated into German by A. Weber
(1856), and into English by C. H. Tawney (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1898).
Two epic poems are also attributed to Kalidasa. The longer of
these is entitled Raghuvamsa, the subject of which is the same as
that of the Ramayana, viz. the history of Rama, but beginning with
a long account of his ancestors, the ancient rulers of Ayodhya
(ed. by A. F. Stenzler, London. 1832 ; and with Eng. trans, and notes
by Gopal Raghunath Nandargikar, Poona, 1897; verse trans, by
P. de Lacy Johnstone, 1902). The other epic is the Kumarasam-
bhwua,_ the theme of which is the birth of Kumara, otherwise called
Karttikeya or Skanda, god of war (ed. by Stenzler, London, 1838;
K. M. Banerjea, 3rd ed. Calcutta, 1872; Parvanikara and Parab,
Bombay, 1893; and M. R. Kale and S. R. Dharadhara, ibid. 1907;
Eng. trans, by R. T. Griffith, 1879). Though containing many fine
passages, it is tame as a whole.
His lyrical poems are the Meghaduta and the Ritusamhdra. The
Meghaduta, or the Cloud-Messenger, describes the complaint of an
exiled lover, and the message he sends to his wife by a cloud. It is
full of deep feeling, and abounds with fine descriptions of the
beauties of nature. It was edited with free English translation by
H. H. Wilson (Calcutta, 1813), and by J. Gildemeister (Bonn, 1841);
a German adaptation by M. Muller appeared at Konigsberg (1847),
and one by C. Schiltz at Bielefeld (1859). It was edited by F.
Johnson, with vocabulary and Wilson's metrical translation (London,
1867); later editions by K. P. Parab (Bombay, 1891) and K. B.
Pathak (Poona, 1894). The Ritusamhara, or Collection of the
Seasons, is a short poem, of less importance, on the six seasons of
the year. There is an edition by P. yon Bohlen, with prose Latin
and metrical German translation (Leipzig, 1840); Eng. trans, by
C. S. Sitaram Ayyar (Bombay, 1897).
Another poem, entitled the Nalodaya, or Rise of Nala, edited by
F. Senary (Berlin, 1830), W. Yates (Calcutta, 1844) and Vidyasagara
(Calcutta, 1873), is a treatment of the story of Nala and Damayanti,
but describes especially the restoration of Nala to prosperity and
power. It has been ascribed to the celebrated Kalidasa, but was
probably written by another poet of the same name. It is full of
most absurd verbal conceits and metrical extravagances.
So many poems, partly of a very different stamp, are attributed
to Kalidasa that it is scarcely possible to avoid the necessity of
assuming the existence of more authors than one of that name. It
is'by no means improbable that there were three poets thus named;
indeed modern native astronomers are so convinced of the existence
of a triad of authors of this name that they apply the term Kalidasa
to designate the number three.
On Kalidasa generally, see A. A. Macdonell's History of Sanskrit
Literature (1900), and on his date G. Huth, Die Zeit des K. (Berlin,
1890). (A. A. M.)
642
KALIMPONG— KALKBRENNER
KALIMPONG, a village of British India, in the Darjeeling
district of Bengal, 4000 ft. above sea-level; pop. (1901), 1069.
It is a frontier market for the purchase of wool and mules from
Tibet, and an important agricultural fair is held in November.
In 1900 Kalimpong was chosen by the Church of Scotland as the
site of cottage homes, known as St Andrew's Colonial Homes,
for the education and training of poor European and Eurasian
children.
KALINGA, or CALINGA, one of the nine kingdoms of southern
India in ancient times. Its exact limits varied, but included
the eastern Madras coast from Pulicat to Chicacole, running
inland from the Bay of Bengal to the Eastern Ghats. The name
at one time had a wider and vaguer meaning, comprehending
Orissa, and possibly extending to the Ganges valley. The Kalinga
of Pliny certainly included Orissa, but latterly it seems to have
been confined to the Telugu-speaking country; and in the
time of Hsiian Tsang (630 A.D.) it was distinguished on the south
and west from Andhra, and on the north from Odra or Orissa.
Taranatha, the Tibetan historian, speaks of Kalinga as one
division of the country of Telinga. Hsiian Tsang speaks of
Kalinga (" Kie-ling-kia ") having its capital at what has been
identified with the site either of Rajahmundry or Coringa.
Both these towns, as well as Singapur, Calingapatam and Chica-
cole, share the honour of having been the chief cities of Kalinga
at different periods; but inscriptions recently deciphered seem
to prove that the capital of the Ganga dynasty of Kalinga was
at Mukhalingam in the Ganjam district.
KALINJAR, a town and hill fort of British India in the Banda
district of the United Provinces. Pop. (1901), 3015. The fort
stands on an isolated rock, the termination of the Vindhya
range, at an elevation of 1203 ft., overlooking the plains of
Bundelkhand. Kalinjar is the most characteristic specimen of
the hill-fortresses, originally hill-shrines, of central India. Its
antiquity is proved by its mention in the Mahabharata. It was
besieged by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1023, and here the Afghan
emperor Sher Shah met his death in 1545, and Kalinjar played
a prominent part in history down to the time of the Mutiny in
1857, when it was held by a small British garrison. Both the
fort and the town, which stands at the foot of the hill, are of
interest to the antiquary on account of their remains of temples,
sculptures, inscriptions and caves.
KALIR IQALIRl, ELEAZER, Hebrew liturgical poet, whose
hymns (piyyutim) are found in profusion in the festival prayers
of the German synagogal rite. The age in which he lived is
unknown. Some (basing the view on Saadiah's Sefer ha-galuy)
place him as early as the 6th century, others regard him as
belonging to the loth century. Kalir's style is powerful but
involved; he may be described as a Hebrew Browning.
Some beautiful renderings of Kalir's poems may be found in the
volumes of Davis & Adler's edition of the German Festival Prayers
entitled Service of the Synagogue.
KALISCH, ISIDOR (1816-1886), Jewish divine, was born at
Krotoschin in Prussia on the isth of November 1816, and was
educated at Berlin, Breslau and Prague. In 1848 he came to
London, but passed on in 1849 to America, where he ministered
as rabbi inCleveland, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, Detroit and Newark,
New Jersey. At Newark from 1875 he gave himself entirely
to literary work, and exercised a strong influence as leader of
the radical and reforming Jewish party.
Among his works are Wegweisen fur rationelle Forschungen in den
biblischen Schriften (1853); and translations of Nathan der Weise
(1869); Sepher Jezirah (1877); and Munz's History of Philosophy
among the Jews (1881). He also wrote a good deal of German and
Hebrew verse.
KALISCH, MARCUS (or MATJRICE) (1828-1 885), Jewish scholar,
was born in Pomerania in 1828, and died in England 1885.
He was one of the pioneers of the critical study of the Old
Testament in England. At one time he was secretary to the
Chief Rabbi; in 1853 he became tutor in the Rothschild family
and enjoyed leisure to produce his commentaries and other
works. The first instalment of his commentary on the Penta-
teuch was Exodus (1855) ; this was followed by Genesis (1858) and
Leviticus in two parts (1867-1872). Kalisch wrote before the
publication of Wellhausen's works, and anticipated him in some
important points. Besides these works, Kalisch published in
1877-1878 two volumes of Bible studies (on Balaam and Jonah).
He was also author of a once popular Hebrew grammar in two
volumes (1862-1863). In 1880 he published Path and Coal, a
brilliant discussion of human destiny. His commentaries are
of permanent value, not only because of the author's originality,
but also because of his erudition. No other works in English
contain such full citations of earlier literature. (I. A.)
KALISPEL, or PEND D'OREILLE, a tribe of North-American
Indians of Salishan stock. They formerly ranged the country
around Pend d'Oreille Lake, Washington. They number some
600, and are settled on a reservation in Montana.
KALISZ, a government of Russian Poland, having Prussia on
the W., and the governments of Warsaw and Piotrkow on the E.
Its area is 4390 sq. m. Its surface is a lowland, sloping towards
the west, and is drained by the Prosna and the Warta and their
tributaries, and also by the Bzura. It was formerly covered
with countless small lakes and thick forests; the latter are now
mostly destroyed, but many lakes and marshes exist still.
Pop. (1897), 844,358 of whom 427,978 were women, and 113,609
lived in towns; estimated pop. (1906), 983,200. They are chiefly
Poles. Roman Catholics number 83%; Jews and Protestants
each amount to 7%. Agriculture is carried to perfection on
a number of estates, as also livestock breeding. The crops
principally raised are rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes.
Various domestic trades, including the weaving of linen and wool,
are carried on in the villages. There are some factories, pro-
ducing chiefly cloth and cottons. The government is divided
into eight districts, the chief towns of which, with their popula-
tions in 1897, are: Kalisz (21,680), Kolo (9400), Konin (8530),
Leczyca (8863), Slupec (3758), Sieradz (7019), Turek (8141)
and Wielun (7442).
KALISZ, the chief town of the above government, situated in
51° 46' N. and 18° E., 147 m. by rail W.S.W. of Warsaw, on the
banks of the Prosna, which there forms the boundary of Prussia.
Pop. (1871), 18,088; (1897), 21,680, of whom 37% were Jews.
It is one of the oldest and finest cities of Poland, is the seat of a
Roman Catholic bishop, and possesses a castle, a teachers' insti-
tute and a large public park. The industrial establishments
comprise a brewery, and factories for ribbons, cloth and sugar,
and tanneries.
Kalisz is identified with the Calisia of Ptolemy, and its antiquity
is indicated by the abundance of coins and other objects of ancient
art which have been discovered on the site, as well as by the numerous
burial mounds existing in the vicinity. It was the scene of the
decisive victory of Augustus the Strong of Poland over the Swedes
on the 2gth of October 1706, of several minor conflicts in 1813, and
of the friendly meeting of the Russian and Prussian troops in 1835,
in memory of which an iron obelisk was erected in the town by
Nicholas I. in 1841. The treaty of 1813 between Russia and Prussia
was signed here.
KALK, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, on the right
bank of the Rhine, 2 m. E. of Cologne. Pop. (1905), 25,478.
Kalk is an important junction of railway lines connecting Cologne
with places on the right bank of the river. It has various iron
and chemical industries, brickworks and breweries, and an
electric tramway joins it with Cologne.
KALKAS, or KHALKAS, a Mongoloid people mainly concen-
trated in the northern steppes of Mongolia near their kinsmen,
the Buriats. According to Sir H. Howorth they derive their
name from the river Kalka, which runs into the Buir lake. Of
all Mongolians they physically differ most from the true Mongol
type (see MONGOLS). Their colour is a brown rather than a
yellow, and their eyes are open and not oblique. They have,
however, the broad flat face, high cheekbones and lank black
hair of their race. They number some 250,000, and their terri-
tory is divided into the four khanates of Tushetu (Tushiyetu),
Tsetien (Setzen), Sai'noi'm (Sain Noyan) and Jesaktu (Jassaktu).
KALKBRENNER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1784-1849),
German pianist and composer, son of Christian Kalkbrenner
, a Jewish musician of Cassel, was educated at the
KALLAY— KALNOKY
643
Paris Conservatoire, and soon began to play in public. From
1814 to 1823 he was well known as a brilliant performer and a
successful teacher in London, and then settled in Paris, dying at
Enghien, near there, in 1849. He became a member of the Paris
piano-manufacturing firm of Pleyel & Co., and made a fortune
by his business and his art combined. His numerous compo-
sitions are less remembered now than his instruction-book, with
" studies," which have had considerable vogue among pianists.
KALLAY, BENJAMIN VON (1830-1903), Austro-Hungarian
statesman, was born at Budapest on the 22nd of December 1839.
His family derived their name from their estates at Nagy Kallo,
in Szabolcs, and claimed descent from the Balogh Semjen
tribe, which colonized the counties of Borsod, Szabolcs, and
Szatmir, at the close of the 9th century, when the Magyars
conquered Hungary. They played a prominent part in Hun-
garian history as early as the reign of Koloman (1095-1114);
and from King Matthias Corvinus (1458-1490) they received
their estates at Mezo Tur, near Kecskemet, granted to Michael
Kallay for his heroic defence of Jajce in Bosnia, and still held by
his descendants. The father of Benjamin von Kallay, a superior
official of the Hungarian Government, died in 1845, and his
widow, who survived until 1903, devoted herself to the education
of her son. At an early age Kallay manifested a deep interest
in politics, and especially in the Eastern Question. He travelled
in Russia, European Turkey and Asia Minor, gaining a thorough
knowledge of Greek, Turkish and several Slavonic languages.
He became as proficient in Servian as in his native tongue. In
1867 he entered the Hungarian Diet as Conservative deputy for
Muhlbach (Szasy-Szebes) ; in 1869 he was appointed consul-
general at Belgrade; and in 1872 he visited Bosnia for the first
time. His views on Balkan questions strongly influenced
Count Andrassy, the Austro-Hungarian minister for foreign
affairs. Leaving Belgrade in 1875, he resumed his seat in the
Diet, and shortly afterwards founded the journal Kelet Nepe, or
Eastern Folk, in which he defended the vigorous policy of
Andrassy. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 he went to
Philippopolis as Austro-Hungarian envoy extraordinary on the
International Eastern Rumelian Commission. In 1879 he became
second, and soon afterwards first, departmental chief at the
foreign office in Vienna. On the 4th of June 1882 he was
appointed Imperial minister of finance and administrator of
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the distinction with which he
filled this office, for a period of 21 years, is his chief title of fame
(see BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA). Kallay was an honorary
member of the Budapest and Vienna academies of science, and
attained some eminence as a writer. He translated J. S. Mill's
Liberty into Hungarian, adding an introductory critique; while
his version of Galatea, a play by the Greek dramatist S. N.
Basiliades (1843-1874), proved successful on the Hungarian
stage. His monographs on Servian history (Geschichte der
Serben) and on the Oriental ambition of Russia (Die Orienlpoliiik
Russlands) were translated into German by J. H. Schwicker,
and published at Leipzig in 1878. But, in his own opinion, his
masterpiece was an academic oration on the political and geo-
graphical position of Hungary as a link between East and West.
In 1873 Kallay married the countess Vilma Bethlen, who bore
him two daughters and a son. His popularity in Bosnia was
partly due to the tact and personal charm of his wife. He died
on the i3th of July 1903.
KALMAR (CALMAR), a seaport of Sweden on the Baltic coast,
chief town of the district (Ian) of Kalmar, 250 m. S. S. W. of
Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900), 12,715. It lies opposite the
island of Oland, mainly on two small islands, but partly on the
mainland, where there is a pleasant park. The streets are
regular, and most of the houses are of wood. The principal
public edifices, however, are constructed of limestone from
Oland, including the cathedral, built by Nicodemus Tessin and
his son Nicodemus in the second half of the i7th century.
Ralmar, a town of great antiquity, was formerly strongly forti-
fied, and there remains the island-fortress of Kalmarnahus,
dating partly from the izth century, but mainly from the i6th
and 1 7th. It contains the beautiful chamber of King Eric XIV.
(d. 1577), an historical museum, and in the courtyard a fine ornate
well-cover. This stronghold stood several sieges in the i4th,
1 5th and i6th centuries, and the town gives name to the treaty
(Kalmar Union) by which Sweden, Norway and Denmark were
united into one kingdom in 1397. Kalmar has an artificial
harbour admitting vessels drawing 19 ft. There are a school of
navigation, and tobacco and match factories, the produce of
which, together with timber and oats, is exported. Ship-
building is carried on.
KALMUCK, or KALMYK STEPPE, a territory or reservation
belonging to the Kalmuck or Kalmyk Tatars, in the Russian
government of Astrakhan, bounded by the Volga on the N.E.,
the Manych on the S.W., the Caspian Sea on the E., and the
territory of the Don Cossacks on the N.W. Its area is 36,900
sq. m., to which has to be added a. second reservation of 3045
sq. m. on the left bank of the lower Volga. According to I. V.
Mushketov, the Kalmuck Steppe must be divided into two parts,
western and eastern. The former, occupied by the Ergeni hills,
is deeply trenched by ravines and rises 300 and occasionally
630 ft. above the sea. It is built up of Tertiary deposits,
belonging to the Sarmatian division of the Miocene period and
covered with loess and black earth, and its escarpments repre-
sent the old shore-line of the Caspian. No Caspian deposits
are found on or within the Ergeni hills. These hills exhibit the
usual black earth flora, and they have a settled population. The
eastern part of the steppe is a plain, lying for the most part
30 to 40 ft. below the level of the sea, and sloping gently towards
the Volga. Post-Pliocene " Aral-Caspian deposits," containing
the usual fossils (Hydrobia, Neritina, eight species of Cardium,
two of Dreissena, three of Adacna and Lilhoglyphus caspius),
attain thicknesses varying from 105 ft. to 7 or 10 ft., and dis-
appear in places. Lacustrine and fluviatile deposits occur
intermingled with the above. Large areas of moving sands
exist near Enotayevsk, where high dunes or barkhans have been
formed. A narrow tract of land along the coast of the Caspian,
known as 'the " hillocks of Baer," is covered with hillocks
elongated from west to east, perpendicularly to the coast-line,
the spaces between them being filled with water or overgrown
with thickets of reed, Salix, Ulmus campestris, almond trees,
&c. An archipelago of little islands is thus formed close to the
shore by these mounds, which are backed on the N. and N.W.
by strings of salt lakes, partly desiccated. Small streams
originate in the Ergenis, but are lost as soon as they reach the
lowlands, where water can only be obtained from wells. The
scanty vegetation is a mixture of the flora of south-east Russia
and that of the deserts of central Asia. The steppe has an
estimated population of 130,000 persons, living in over 27,700
kibitkas, or felt tents. There are over 60 Buddhist monasteries.
Part of the Kalmucks are settled (chiefly in the hilly parts), the
remainder being nomads. They breed horses, cattle and sheep,
but suffer heavy losses from murrain. Some attempts at
agriculture and tree-planting are being made. The breeding of
livestock, fishing, and some domestic trades, chiefly carried on
by the women, are the principal sources of maintenance.
See I. V. Mushketov, Geol. Researches in the Kalmyk Steppe in
1884-1885 (St Petersburg, 1894, in Russian); Kostenkov's works
(1868-1870); and other works quoted in Semenov's Geogr. Diet
and Russ. Encycl. Diet. (P. A. K. ; J. T. BE.)
KALN6KY, GUSTAV SIEGMUND, COUNT (1832-1898), Austro-
Hungarian statesman, was born at Lettowitz, in Moravia, on
the 2gth of December 1832, of an old Transylvanian family
which had held countly rank in Hungary from the I7th century.
After spending some years in a hussar regiment, in 1854 he entered
the diplomatic service without giving up his connexion with the
army, in which he reached the rank of general in 1879. He was
for the ten years 1860 to 1870 secretary of embassy at London,
and then, after serving at Rome and Copenhagen, was in 1880
appointed ambassador at St Petersburg. His success in Russia
procured for him, on the death of Baron v. Haymerle in 1881, the
appointment of minister of foreign affairs for Austria-Hungary,
a post which he held for fourteen years. Essentially a diplomatist ,
644
KALOCSA— KALYAN
he took little or no part in the vexed internal affairs of the
Dual Monarchy, and he came little before the public except at
the annual statement on foreign affairs before the Delegations.
His management of the affairs of his department was, however,
very successful; he confirmed and maintained the alliance with
Germany, which had been formed by his predecessors, and co-
operated with Bismarck in the arrangements by which Italy
joined the alliance. Kalnoky's special influence was seen in the
improvement of Austrian relations with Russia, following on
the meeting of the three emperors in September 1884 at Skier-
nevice, at which he was present. His Russophile policy caused
some adverse criticism in Hungary. His friendliness for Russia
did not, however, prevent him from strengthening the position
of Austria as against Russia in the Balkan Peninsula by the
establishment of a closer political and commercial understanding
with Servia and Rumania. In 1885 he interfered after the
battle of Slivnitza to arrest the advance of the Bulgarians on
Belgrade, but he lost influence in Servia after the abdication of
King Milan. Though he kept aloof from the Clerical party,
Kalnoky was a strong Catholic; and his sympathy for the
difficulties of the Church caused adverse comment in Italy,
when, in 1891, he stated in a speech before the Delegations that
the question of the position of the pope was still unsettled.
He subsequently explained that by this he did not refer to the
Roman question, which was permanently settled, but to the
possibility of the pope leaving Rome. The jealousy felt in
Hungary against the Ultramontanes led to his fall. In 1895 a
case of clerical interference in the internal affairs of Hungary by
the nuncio Agliardi aroused a strong protest in the Hungarian
parliament, and consequent differences between Banffy, the
Hungarian minister, and the minister for foreign affairs led to
Kalnoky's resignation. He died on the i3th of February 1898
at Prodlitz in Moravia.
KALOCSA, a town of Hungary, in the county of Pest-Pilis-
Solt-Kis-Kun, 88 m. S. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900),
11,372. It is situated in a marshy but highly productive dis-
trict, near the left bank of the Danube, and was once of far
greater importance than at present. Kalocsa is the see of one
of the four Roman Catholic archbishops in Hungary. Amongst
its buildings are a fine cathedral, the archiepiscopal palace, an
astronomical observatory, a seminary for priests, and colleges
for training of male and female teachers. The inhabitants of
Kalocsa and its wide-spreading communal lands are chiefly
employed in the cultivation of the vine, fruit, flax, hemp and
cereals, in the capture of water-fowl and in fishing. Kalocsa
is one of the oldest towns in Hungary. The present arch-
bishopric, founded about 1135, is a development of a bishopric
said to have been founded in the year 1000 by King Stephen the
Saint. It suffered much during the i6th century from the
hordes of Ottomans who then ravaged the country. A large
part of the town was destroyed by a fire in 1875.
KALPI, or CALPEE, a town of British India, in the Jalaun
district of the United Provinces, on the right bank of the Jumna,
45 m. S.W. of Cawnpore. Pop. (1901), 10,139. It was founded,
according to tradition, by Vasudeva, at the end of the 4th century
A.D. In 1196 it fell to Kutab-ud-din, the viceroy of Mahommed
Ghori, and during the subsequent Mahommedan period it played
a large part in the annals of this part of India. About the
middle of the i8th century it passed into the hands of the Mah-
rattas. It was captured by the British in 1803, and since 1806
has remained in British possession. In May 1858 Sir Hugh
Rose (Lord Strathnairn) defeated here a force of about 10,000
rebels under the rani of Jhansi. Kalpi had a mint for copper
coinage in the reign of Akbar; and the East India Company made
it one of their principal stations for providing the " commercial
investment." The old town, which is beside the river, has ruins
of a fort, and several temples of interest, while in the neighbour-
hood are many ancient tombs. There is a lofty modern tower
ornamented with representations of the battles of the Ramayana.
The new town lies away from the river to the south-east. Kalpi
is still a centre of local trade (principally in grain, ghi and cotton),
with a station on the Indian Midland railway from Jhansi to
Cawnpore, which here crosses the Jumna. There are manufac-
tures of sugar and paper.
KALUGA, a government of middle Russia, surrounded by
those of Moscow, Smolensk, Orel and Tula, with an area of
ir,942 sq. m. Its surface is an undulating plain, reaching 800
to 900 ft. in its highest parts, which lie in the S.W., and deeply
trenched by watercourses, especially in the N.E. The Oka, a
main tributary of the Volga, and its confluents (the Zhizdra and
Ugra) drain all but a strip of country in the west, which is
traversed by the Bolva, an affluent of the Dnieper. The govern-
ment is built up mainly of carboniferous deposits (coal-bearing),
with patches of the soft Jurassic clays and limestones which
formerly covered them. Cretaceous deposits occur in the S.W.,
and Devonian h'mestones and shales crop out in the S.E. The
government is covered with a thick layer of boulder clay in the
north, with vast ridges and fields of boulders brought during the
Glacial Period from Finland and the government of Olonets; large
areas in the middle are strewn with flint boulders and patches
of loess are seen farther south. The mean annual temperature is
41° F. Iron ores are the chief mineral wealth, nearly 40,000
persons being engaged in mining. Beds of coal occur in several
places, and some of them are worked. Fireclay, china-clay,
chalk, grindstone, pure quartz sand, phosphorite and copper are
also extracted. Forests cover 20% of the surface, and occur
chiefly in the south. The soil is not very suitable for agriculture,
and owing to a rather dense population, considerable numbers of
the inhabitants find occupation in industry, or as carriers and
carpenters for one-half of the year at the Black Sea ports.
The population (1,025,705 in 1860) was 1,176,353 in 1897,
nearly all Great Russians. -There were 116 women to 100 men,
and out of the total population 94,853 lived in towns. The
estimated population in 1906 was 1,287,300. Of the total area
over 4,000,000 acres are owned by the peasant communities,
nearly 3,000,000 acres by private owners and some 250,000 by
the Crown. The principal crops are rye, oats, barley, buckwheat,
and potatoes. Hemp is grown for local use and export. Bees
are kept. The chief non-agricultural industries are distilleries,
iron-works, factories for cloth, cottons, paper, matches, leather
and china, flour-mills and oil works. Large quantities of wooden
wares are fabricated in the villages of the south. A considerable
trade is carried on in hemp, hempseed and hempseed oil, corn
and hides; and iron, machinery, leather, glass, chemicals and
linen are exported. The government is divided into n
districts, the chief towns of which, with their populations in
1897, are: Kaluga (49,728), Borovsk (8407), Kozelsk (5908),
Likhvin (1776), Maloyaroslavets (2500), Medyn (4392),
Meshchovsk (3667), Mosalsk (2652), Peremyshl (3956), Tarusa
(1989) and Zhizdra (5996). (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
KALUGA, the chief town of the above government, situated
on the left bank of the Oka, 117 m. S.W. of Moscow by rail,
in 54° 3!' N. and 36° 6' E. Pop. (1870), 36,880; (1897) 49,728.
It is the see of a Greek Orthodox bishop. The public buildings
include the cathedral of the Trinity (rebuilt in the igth century
in place of an older edifice dating from 1687), two monastic
establishments, an ecclesiastical seminary, and a lunatic asylum.
The principal articles of industrial production are leather, oil,
bast mats, wax candles, starch and Kaluga cakes. The first
historical mention of Kaluga occurs in 1389; its incorporation
with the principality of Moscow took place in 1518. In 1607
it was held by the second false Demetrius and vainly besieged
for four months by the forces of Shuisky, who had ascended the
Russian throne as Basil IV. on the death of the first false
Demetrius. In 1619 Kaluga fell into the hands of the hetman
or chief of the Zaporozhian Cossacks. Later two-thirds of its
inhabitants were carried off by a plague; and in 1622 the whole
place was laid waste by a conflagration. It recovered, however,
in spite of several other conflagrations (especially in 1742 and
I7S4)- On several occasions Kaluga was the residence of poltyi-
cal prisoners; among others Shamyl, the Lesghian chief, spent
his exile there (1859-1870).
KALYAN, a town of British India, in the Thana district of
Bombay, situated 33 m. N.E. of Bombay city, where the two
KAMA— KAME
645
main lines of the Great Indian Peninsula railway diverge. Pop.
(1901), 10,740. There is a considerable industry of rice-husking.
Kalyan is known to have been the capital of a kingdom and a
centre of sea-borne commerce in the early centuries of the
Christian era. The oldest remains now existing are of Mahom-
medan times.
KAMA, or KAMADEVA, in Hindu mythology, the god of love.
He is variously stated to have been the child of Brahma or
Dharma (virtue). In the Rig Veda, Kama (desire) is described
as the first movement that arose in the One after it had come
into life through the power of fervour or abstraction. In the
Atharva-Veda Kama does not mean sexual desire, but rather the
yearning after the good of all created things. Later Kama is
simply the Hindu Cupid. While attempting to lure Siva to
sin, he was destroyed by a fiery glance of the goddess' third eye.
Thus in Hindu poetry Kama is known as Ananga, the " bodiless
god." Kama's wife Rati (voluptuousness) mourned him so
greatly that Siva relented, and he was reborn as the child of
Krishna and Rukmini. The babe was called Pradyumna
(Cupid). He is represented armed with a bow of sugar-cane;
\t is strung with bees, and its five arrows are tipped with flowers
Vvhich overcome the five senses. A fish adorns his flag, and he
rides a parrot or sparrow, emblematic of lubricity.
KAMALA, a red powder formerly used in medicine as an
anthelmintic and employed in India as a yellow dye. It is
obtained from Mallotus philippinensis, Mull., a small euphor-
biaceous tree from 20 to 45 ft. in height, distributed from southern
Arabia in the west to north Australia and the Philippines in the
east. In India kamala has several ancient Sanskrit names, one
of which, kapila, signifies dusky or tawny red. Under the name
of wars, kanbil, or qinbil, kamala appears to have been known to
the Arabian physicians as a remedy for tapeworm and skin
diseases as early as the loth century, and indeed is mentioned
by Paulus ^Egineta still earlier. The drug was formerly in the
British Pharmacopoeia, but is inferior to many other anthel-
mintics and is not now employed.
KAMCHATKA, a peninsula of N.-E. Siberia, stretching from
the land of the Chukchis S.S.W. for 750 m., with a width of from
80 to 300 m. (51° to 62° N., and 156° to 163° E.), between the Sea
of Okhotsk a-nd Bering Sea. It forms part of the Russian
Maritime Province. Area, 104, 260 sq. m.
The isthmus which connects the peninsula with the mainland
is a flat tundra, sloping gently both ways. The mountain chain,
which Ditmar calls central, seems to be interrupted under 57°
N. by a deep indentation corresponding to the valley of the
Tighil. There too the hydrographical network, as well as the
south-west to north-east strike of the clay-slates and metamor-
phic schists on Ditmar's map, seem to indicate the existence
of two chains running south-west to north-east, parallel to the
volcanic chain of S.-E. Kamchatka. Glaciers were not known
till the year 1899, when they were discovered on the Byelaya
and Ushkinskaya (15,400 ft.) mountains. Thick Tertiary
deposits, probably Miocene, overlie the middle portions of the
west coast. The southern parts of the central range are com-
posed of granites, syenites, porphyries and crystalline slates,
while in the north of Ichinskaya volcano, which is the highest
summit of the peninsula (16,^20 ft.), the mountains consist
chiefly of Tertiary sandstones and old volcanic rocks. Coal-
bearing clays containing fresh-water molluscs and dicotyledo-
nous plants, as also conglomerates, alternate with the sandstones
in these Tertiary deposits. Amber is found in them. Very
extensive layers of melaphyre and andesite, as also of con-
glomerates and volcanic tuffs, cover the middle portions of the
peninsula. The south-eastern portion is occupied by a chain
of volcanoes, running along the indented coast, from Cape
Lopatka to Cape Kronotskiy (54° 25' N.), and separated from
the rest of the peninsula by the valleys of the Bystraya (an
affluent of the Bolstraya, on the west coast) and Kamchatka
rivers. Another chain of volcanoes runs from Ichinskaya
(which burst into activity several times in the i8th and igth
centuries) to Shiveluch, seemingly parallel to the above but
farther north. The two chains contain twelve active and twenty-
six extinct volcanoes, from 7000 to more than 15,000 ft. high.
The highest volcanoes are grouped under 56° N., and the highest
of them, Kluchevskaya (16,990 ft.), is in a state of almost in-
cessant activity(notable outbreaks in 1729, 1737, 1841, 1853-1854,
and 1896-1897), a flow of its lava having reached to Kamchatka
river in 1853. The active Shiveluch (9900 ft.) is the last volcano
of this chain. Several lakes and probably Avacha Bay are old
craters. Copper, mercury, and iron ores, as also pure copper,
ochre and sulphur, are found in the peninsula. The principal
river is the Kamchatka (325 m. long), which flows first north-
eastwards in a fertile longitudinal valley, and then, bending
suddenly to the east, pierces the above-mentioned volcanic
chain. The other rivers are the Tighil (135 m.) and the Bolstraya
(120 m.), both flowing into the Sea of Okhotsk; and the Avacha,
flowing into the Pacific.
The floating ice which accumulates in the northern parts of
the Sea of Okhotsk and the cold current which flows along the
east coast of the peninsula render its summers chilly, but the
winter is relatively wa»m, and temperatures below -40° F. are
experienced only in the highlands of the interior and on the
Okhotsk littoral. The average temperatures at Petropavlovsk
(53° N.) are: year 37° F., January 17°, July 58°; while in the
valley of the Kamchatka the average temperature of the winter is
16°, and of the summer as high as 58° and 64°. Rain and snow
are copious, and dense fogs enshroud the coast in summer; conse-
quently the mountains are well clothed with timber and the
meadows with grass, except in the tundras of the north. The
natives eat extensively the bulbs of the Martagon lily, and weave
cloth out of the fibres of the Kamchatka nettle. Delphinopterus
leucus, the sea-lion (Otaria Stellcri), and walrus abound off the
coasts. The sea-otter (Enhydris marina) has been destroyed.
The population (5846 in 1870) was 7270 in 1900. The
southern part of the peninsula is occupied by Kamchadales, who
exhibit many attributes of the Mongolian race, but are more
similar to the aborigines of N.E. Asia and N.W. America.
Fishing (quantities of salmon enter the rivers) and hunting are
their chief occupations. Dog-sledges are principally used as
means of communication. The efforts of the government to
introduce cattle-breeding have failed. The Kamchadale lan-
guage cannot be assigned to any known group; its vocabulary is
extremely poor. The purity of the tongue is best preserved
by the people of the Penzhinsk district on the W. coast. North
of 57° N. the peninsula is peopled with Koryaks, settled and
nomad, and Lamuts (Tunguses), who came from the W. coast of
the Sea of Okhotsk. The principal Russian settlements are:
Petropavlovsk, on the E. coast, on Avacha Bay, with an ex-
cellent roadstead; Verkhne-Kamchatsk and Nizhne-Kamchatsk
in the valley of the Kamchatka river; Bolsheryetsk, on the
Bolshaya; and Tighil, on the W. coast.
The Russians made their first settlements in Kamchatka
in the end of the i7th century; in 1696 Atlasov founded
Verkhne-Kamchatsk, and in 1704 Robelev founded Bolsheryetsk.
In 1720 a survey of the peninsula was undertaken; in 1725-1730
it was visited by Bering's expedition; and in 1733-1745 it was
the scene of the labours of the Krasheninnikov and Steller
expedition.
See G. A. Erman, Reise um die Erde Hi., (Berlin, 1848); C. von
Ditmar, Reisen und Aufenthalt in Kamchatka in den Jahren iS$i-
1855 (1890-1900) ; G. Kennan, Tent Life in Siberia (1870), and paper
in Jour, of American Geog. Soc. (1876); K. Diener, in Petermann's
Mitteilungen (1891, vol. xxxvii.); V. A. Obruchev, in Izvestia of the
East Siberian Geographical Society (xxiii. 4, 5; 1892); F. H. H.
Guillemard, Cruise of the " Marchesa " (2nd ed., London, 1889) ; and
G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton in Scott. Geog. Mag. (May, 1899), with
bibliography. (P. A. K. ; J. T. BE.)
KAME (a form of Scandinavian comb, hill), in physical
geography, a short ridge or bunched mound of gravel or sand,
" tumultuously stratified," occurring in connexion with glacial
deposits, having been formed at the mouths of tunnels under the
ice. When the ice-sheet melts, these features, formerly con-
cealed by the glacier, are revealed. They are common in the
glaciated portions of the lower Scottish valleys. By some
authorities the term " kame," or specifically " serpentine
646
KAMENETS— KAMPEN
kame," is taken as synonymous with " esker," which however is
preferably to be applied to the long mound deposited within the
ice-tunnel, not to the bunched mound at its mouth.
KAMENETS PODOLSKIY, or PODOLIAN KAMENETS (Polish
Kamieniec), a town of S.-W. Russia, chief town of the govern-
ment of Podolia. It stands in 48° 40' N. and 26° 30' E., on a
high, rocky bluff of the river Smotrich, a left hand tributary of
the Dniester, and near the Austrian frontier. Pop. (1863),
20,699; (1900) 39,113, of whom 50% were Jews and 30%
Poles. Round the town lies a cluster of suburban villages,
Polish Folwark, Russian Folwark, Zinkovtsui, Karvasarui, &c.;
and on the opposite side of the river, accessible by a wooden
bridge, stands the castle which long frowned defiance across the
Dniester to Khotin in Bessarabia. Kamenets is the see of a
Roman Catholic and a Greek Orthodox bishop. The Roman
Catholic cathedral of St Peter and St Paul, built in 1361, is dis-
tinguished by a minaret, recalling the time when it was used as a
mosque by the Turks ( 1 6 7 2- 1 699) . The Greek cathedral of John
the Baptist dates from the i6th century, .but up to 1798 belonged
to the Basilian monastery. Other buildings are the Orthodox
Greek monastery of the Trinity, and the Catholic Armenian
church (founded in 1398), possessing a 14th-century missal and an
image of the Virgin Mary that saw the Mongol invasion of 1 230-
1 242. The town contains Orthodox Greek and Roman Catholic
seminaries, Jewish colleges, and an archaeological museum for
church antiquities, founded in 1890. Kamenets was laid waste
by the Mongol leader Batu in 1240. In 1434 it was made the
chief town of the province of Podolia. In the isth and i6th
centuries it suffered frequently from the invasions of Tatars,
Moldavians and Turks; and in 1672 the hetman of the Cossacks,
Doroshenko, assisted by Sultan Mahommed IV. of Turkey, made
himself master of the place. Restored to Poland by the peace
of Karlowitz (1699), it passed with Podolia to Russia in 1795.
Here the Turks were defeated by the Poles in 1633, and here
twenty years later peace was concluded between the same
antagonists. The fortifications were demolished in 1813.
KAMENZ, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Black
Elster, 21 m. N.E. of Dresden, on a branch line of railway
from Bischofswerda. Pop. (1900), 9726. It has four Evangeli-
cal churches, among them a Wendish one, and a handsome new
town-hall with _ a library. The hospital is dedicated to the
memory of Lessing, who was born here. A colossal bust of the
poet was placed opposite the Wendish church in 1863, and a
monument was raised to him on a neighbouring hill in 1864.
The industries of Kamenz include wool-spinning, and the manu-
facture of cloth, glass, crockery and stoneware. Built about
1 200, Kamenz, was known by the name Dreikretcham until the
i6th century. In 1318 it passed to the mark of Brandenburg;
in 1319 to Bohemia; and in 1635, after suffering much in the
Hussite and Thirty Years' wars, it came into the possession of
Saxony. In 1706 and 1842 it was almost entirely consumed
by fire.
KAMENZ is also the name of a village in Prussia, not far from
Breslau; pop. 900. This is famous on account of its Cistercian
monastery, founded in 1094. Of the house, which was closed in
1810, only a few buildings remain.
KAMES, HENRY HOME, LORD (1696-1782), Scottish lawyer
and philosopher, son of George Home of Kames, in Berwickshire,
where he was born in 1696. After receiving a somewhat
imperfect education from a private tutor, he was in 1712 inden-
tured to a writer to the signet in Edinburgh, but an accidental
introduction to Sir Hew Dalrymple, then president of the court
of session, determined him to aspire to the position of advocate.
He accordingly set himself to studying various branches of
literature, specially metaphysics and moral philosophy. He was
called to the bar in January 1724, and, as he lacked those
brilliant qualities which sometimes command immediate success,
he employed his leisure in the compilation of Remarkable Deci-
sions in the Court of Session from 1716 to 1J2& (1728). This
work having attracted attention, his power of ingenious
reasoning and mastery of law gradually gained him a leading
position at the bar. In 1752 he was appointed a judge in the
court of session under the title of Lord Kames, and in 1763 he was
made one of the lords of justiciary. In 1741 he married Agatha
Drummond, through whom in 1761 he succeeded to the estate
of Blair Drummond, Perthshire. He continued to discharge his
judicial duties till within a few days of his death at Edinburgh
on the 27th of December 1782.
Lord Kames took a special interest in agricultural and commercial
affairs. In 1755 he was appointed a member of the board of trustees
for encouragement of the fisheries, arts and manufactures of Scotland ,
and about the same time he was named one of the commissioners
for the management of the forfeited estates annexed to the Crown.
On the subject of agriculture he wrote The Gentleman Farmer (1776).
In 1765 he published a small pamphlet On the Flax Husbandry of
Scotland; and, besides availing himself of his extensive acquaintance
with the proprietors of Scotland to recommend the introduction of
manufactures, he took a prominent part in furthering the project
of the Forth and Clyde Canal. He was also one of the founders of
the Physical and Literary Society, afterwards the Royal Society of
Edinburgh. It is, however, as a writer on philosophy that Lord
Kames is best known. In 1751 he published his Essays on the
Principles of Morality and Natural Religion (Ger. trans., Leipzig,
1772), in which he endeavoured to maintain the doctrine of innate
ideas, but conceded to man an apparent but only apparent freedom
of the will. His statement of the latter doctrine so aroused the
alarm of certain clergymen of the Church of Scotland that he found
it necessary to withdraw what was regarded as a serious error, and
to attribute man's delusive sense of freedom, not to an innate
conviction implanted by God, but to the influence of the passions.
His other philosophical works are An Introduction to the Art of
Thinking (1761), Elements of Criticism (1762), Sketches of the
History of Man (1774).
See Life of Lord Kames, by A. F. Tytler, Lord Woodhouselee
(2 vols., 1807).
KAMMIN, or CAMMIN, a town in the Prussian province of
Pomerania, 2^ m. from the Baltic, on the Kamminsche Bodden,
a lake connected with the sea by the Dievenow. Pop. (1905),
5923. Among its four Evangelical churches, the cathedral
and the church of St Mary are noteworthy. Iron-founding and
brewing are carried on in the town, which has also some fishing
and shipping. There is steamer communication with Stettin,
about 40 m. S.S.W. Kammin is of Wendish origin, and obtained
municipal privileges in 1274. From about 1200 till 1628 it was
the seat of a bishopric, which at the latter date became a secular
principality, being in 1648 incorporated with Brandenburg.
See Kiichen, Geschichte der Sladt Kammin (Kammin, 1885).
KAMPEN, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on
the left bank of the Ysel, 3^ m. above its mouth, and a terminal
railway station 8 m. N.W. of Zwolle. It has regular steamboat
communication with Zwolle, Deventer, Amsterdam, and Enk-
'luizen. Pop. (1900), 19,664. Kampen is surrounded by beauti-
ul gardens and promenades in the place of the old city walls,
and has a fine river front. The four turreted gateways furnish
excellent examples of i6th and I7th century architecture. Of
;he churches the Bovenkerk (" upper church "), or church of St
Nicholas, ranks with the cathedral of Utrecht and the Janskerk
at 's Hertogenbosch as one of the three great medieval churches
n Holland. It was begun in 1369, and has double aisles, ambula-
tory and radiating chapels, and contains some finely carved
woodwork. The Roman Catholic Buitenkerk (" outer church ")
s also a fine building of the i4th century, with good modern
lanelling. There are many other, though slighter, remains of
the ancient churches and monasteries of Kampen; but the most
remarkable building is the old town-hall, which is unsurpassed in
Holland. It dates from the I4th century, but was partly restored
after a fire in 1543. The exterior is adorned with niched statues
and beautiful iron trellis work round the windows. The old
council-chamber is wainscoted in black oak, and contains a
remarkable sculptured chimney-piece (1545) and fine wood
carving. The town-hall contains the municipal library, collec-
tions of tapestry, portraits and antiquities, and valuable archives
relating to the town and province. Kampen is the seat of a
Christian Reformed theological school, a gymnasium, a higher
burgher school, a municipal school of design, and a large orphan-
age. There are few or no local taxes, the municipal chest being
illed by the revenues derived from the fertile delta-land, the
Kampeneiland, which is always being built up at the mouth of
KAMPTEE— KANARIS
647
the Ysel. There is a considerable trade in dairy produce; and
there are shipyards, rope-walks, a tool factory, cigar factories,
paper mills, &c.
KAMPTEE, or KAMTHI, a town of British India, in the Nagpur
district of the Central Provinces, just below the confluence of the
Kanhan with the rivers Pench and Kolar; to m. N.E. of Nagpur
by rail. Pop. (1901), 38,888, showing a continuous decrease since
1881. Kamptee was founded in 1821, as a military cantonment
in the neighbourhood of the native capital of Nagpur, and became
an important centre of trade. Since the opening of the railway,
trade has largely been diverted to Nagpur, and the garrison has
recently been reduced. The town is well laid out with wide
roads, gardens and tanks.
KAMRUP, a district of British India, in the Brahmaputra
valley division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The headquarters
are at Gauhati. Area, 3858 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 589,187,
showing a decrease of 7% in the decade. In the immediate
neighbourhood of the Brahmaputra the land is low, and exposed
to annual inundation. In this marshy tract reeds and canes
flourish luxuriantly, and the only cultivation is that of rice. At
a comparatively short distance from the river banks the ground
begins to rise in undulating knolls towards the mountains of
Bhutan on the north, and towards the Khasi hills on the south.
The hills south of the Brahmaputra in some parts reach the
height of 800 ft. The Brahmaputra, which divides the district
into two nearly equal portions, is navigable by river steamers
throughout the year, and receives several tributaries navigable
by large native boats in the rainy season. The chief of these are
the Manas, Chaul Khoya and Barnadi on the north, and the
Kulsi and Dibru on the south bank. There is a government
forest preserve in the district and also a plantation where
seedlings of teak, sdl, sissu, slim, and nahor are reared, and
experiments are being made with the caoutchouc tree. The
population is entirely rural, the only town with upwards of 5000
inhabitants being Gauhati (11,661). The temples of Hajo and
Kamakhya attract many pilgrims from all quarters. The staple
crop of the district is rice, of which there are three crops. The
indigenous manufactures are confined to the weaving of silk and
cotton cloths for home use, and to the making of brass cups and
plates. The cultivation and manufacture of tea by European
capital is not very prosperous. The chief exports are rice, oil-
seeds, timber and cotton; the imports are fine rice, salt, piece
goods, sugar, betel-nuts, coco-nuts and hardware. A section of
the Assam-Bengal railway starts from Gauhati, and a branch
of the Eastern Bengal railway has recently been opened to the
opposite bank of the river. A metalled road runs due south from
Gauhati to Shillong.
KAMYSHIN, a town of Russia, in the government of Saratov,
145 m. by river S.S.W. of the city of Saratov, on the right bank of
the Volga. Pop. (1861), 8644; (1897), 15,934. Being the terminus
of the railway to Tambov, Moscow and the Baltic ports, it is an
important port for the export of cereals and salt from the Volga,
and it imports timber and wooden wares. It is famous for its
water-melons. Peter the Great built here a fort, which was
known at first as Dmitrievsk, but acquired its present name
in 1780.
KANAKA, a Polynesian word meaning " man," used by Poly-
nesians to describe themselves. Its ethnical value, never great,
has been entirely destroyed by its indiscriminate use by the
French to describe all South Sea islanders, whether black or
brown. The corrupt French form canaque has been used by
some English writers. The term came into prominence in 1884-
1885 in connexion with the scandals arising over the kidnap-
ping of South Sea islanders for enforced labour on the sugar
plantations of north Queensland.
KANAKA, or CANARA, the name of two adjoining districts of
British India: North Kanara in the presidency of Bombay,
South Kanara in that of Madras. Both are on the western
coast.
NORTH KANAKA DISTRICT forms part of the southern division
of Bombay. The administrative headquarters are at Karwar,
which is also the chief seaport. Area, 3945 sq. m.; pop .(1901),
454,490, showing an increase of 2% in the decade. The trade of
the interior, which used to pass down to the seaports, has been
largely diverted by the opening of the Southern Mahratta rail-
way. Along the coast rice is the chief crop, and coco-nut palms
are also important. In the upland there are valuable gardens of
areca palms, cardamoms and pepper. Rice and timber are
exported, and sandalwood-carving and salt manufacture are
carried on. The main feature in the physical geography of the
district is the range of the Western Ghats, which, running from
north to south, divides it into two parts, a lowland or coast strip
(Payanghat), and an upland plateau (Balaghat). The coast-line
is only broken by the Karwar headland in the north, and by the
estuaries of four rivers and the mouths of many smaller streams,
through which the salt water finds an entrance into numerous
lagoons winding several miles inland. The breadth of the low-
lands varies from 5 to 15 miles. From this narrow belt rise a few
smooth, flat-topped hills, from 200 to 300 ft. high; and at places
it is crossed by lofty, rugged, densely wooded spurs, which, start-
ing from the main range, maintain almost to the coast a height of
not less than 1000 ft. Among these hills lie well-tilled valleys of
garden and rice land. The plateau of the Balaghat is irregular,
varying from 1500 to 2000 ft. in height. In some parts the
country rises into well-wooded knolls, in others it is studded by
small, isolated, steep hills. Except on the banks of streams and
in the more open glades, the whole is one broad waste of wood-
land and forest. The open spaces are dotted with hamlets or
parcelled out into rice clearings. Of the rivers flowing eastward
from the watershed of the Sahyadri hills the only one of impor-
tance is the Wardha or Varada, a tributary of the Tungabhadra.
Of those that flow westwards, the four principal ones, proceeding
from north to south, are the Kali, Gungawali, Tadri and Shara-
vati. The last of these forms the famous Gersoppa Falls. Exten-
sive forests clothe the hills, and are conserved under the rules
of the forest department.
SOUTH KANARA DISTRICT has its headquarters at Mangalore.
Area, 4021 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 1,134,713, showing an increase
of 7 % in the decade. The district is intersected by rivers, none
of which exceeds 100 miles in length. They all take their rise
in the Western Ghats, and many are navigable during the fair
weather for from 15 to 25 miles from the coast. The chief of
these streams are the Netravati, Gurpur and Chendragiri.
Numerous groves of coco-nut palms extend along the coast,
and green rice-fields are seen in every valley. The Western Ghats,
rising to a height of 3000 to 6000 ft., fringe the eastern boundary.
Forest land of great extent and value exists, but most of it is
private property. Jungle products (besides timber) consist of
bamboo, cardamoms, wild arrowroot, gall-nuts, gamboge, catechu,
fibrous bark, cinnamon, gums, resin, dyes, honey and beeswax.
The forests formerly abounded in game, which, however, is
rapidly decreasing under incessant shooting. The staple crop
is rice. The chief articles of import are piece goods, cotton yarn,
oils and salt. Tiles are manufactured in several places out of a
fine potter's clay. The Azhikal-Mangalore line of the Madras
railway serves the district.
See South Canara District Manual (2 vols., Madras, 1894-1895).
KANARESE, a language of the Dravidian family, spoken by
about ten millions of people in southern India, chiefly in Mysore,
Hyderabad, and the adjoining districts of Madras and Bombay.
It has an ancient literature, written in an alphabet closely
resembling that employed for Telugu. Since the I2th century
the Kanarese-speaking people have largely adopted the Lingayat
form of faith, which may be described as an anti-Brahmanical
sect of Siva worshippers (see HINDUISM). Most of them are
agriculturists, but they also engage actively in trade.
KANARIS (or CANARIS), CONSTANTINE (1790-1877), Greek
patriot, belonged to the class of coasting sailors who produced
if not the most honest, at least the bravest, and the most success-
ful of the combatants in the cause of Greek independence. He
belonged by birth to the little island of Psara, to the north-west
of Chio. He first became prominent as the effective leader of
the signal vengeance taken by the Greeks for the massacre at
648
KANAUJ— KANDAHAR
Chio in April 1822 by the Turkish Capitan Pasha. The com-
mander of the force of fifty small vessels and eight fireships sent
to assail the Turkish fleet was the navarch Miaoulis, but it was
Kanaris who executed the attack with the fireships on the flag-
ship of the Capitan Pasha on the night of the i8th of June 1822.
The Turks were celebrating the feast of Bahram at the end of the
Ramadan fast. Kanaris had two small brigs fitted as fireships,
and thirty-six men. He was allowed to come close to the
Turkish flagship, and succeeded in attaching his fireships to
her, setting them on fire, and escaping with his party. The
fire reached the powder and the flagship blew up, sending the
Capitan Pasha and 2000 Turks into the air. Kanaris was
undoubtedly aided by the almost incredible sloth and folly of
his opponents, but he chose his time well, and the service of the
fireships was always considered peculiarly dangerous. That
Kanaris could carry out the venture with a volunteer party not
belonging to a regularly disciplined service, not only proved him
to be a clever partisan fighter, but showed that he was a leader
of men. He repeated the feat at Tenedos in November of 1822,
and was then considered to have disposed of nearly 400x3 Turks
in the two ventures. When his native island, Psara, was occu-
pied by the Turks he continued to serve under the command
of Miaoulis. He was no less distinguished in other attacks with
fireships at Samos and Mytilene in 1824, which finally established
an utter panic in the Turkish navy. His efforts to destroy the
ships of Mehemet All at Alexandria in 1825' were defeated by
contrary winds. When the' Greeks tried to organize a regular
navy he was appointed captain of the frigate " Hellas " in 1826.
In politics he was a follower of Capo d'Istria. He helped to upset
the government of King Otho and to establish his successor,
was prime minister in 1864-1865, came back from retirement to
preside over the ministry formed during the crisis of the Russo-
Turkish war, and died in office on the isth of September 1877.
Kanaris is described as of small stature, simple in appearance,
somewhat shy and melancholy. He is justly remembered as the
most blameless of the popular heroes of the War of Independence.
He was almost the only one among them whom Dundonald, with
whom he served in a successful attack on an Egyptian war-ship
near Alexandria, exempts from the sweeping charges of cowardice
he brings against the Greeks. (D. H.)
KANAUJ, an ancient city of British India, in Farukhabad
district, United Provinces, near the left bank of the Ganges.
Pop. (1901), 18,552. Kanauj in early times formed the capital of
a great Hindu kingdom. Its prosperity dates from a prehistoric
period, and seems to have culminated about the 6th century
under Harsha. In 1019 it fell before Mahmud of Ghazni, and
again in 1194 before Mahommed Ghori. The existing ruins
extend over the lands of five villages, occupying a semicircle
fully 4 m. in diameter. No Hindu buildings remain intact; but
the great mosque, constructed by Ibrahim Shah of Jaunpur in
1406 out of Hindu temples, is still called by Hindus " Sita's
Kitchen." Kanauj, which is traditionally said to be derived
from Kanyakubja ( = the crooked maiden), has given its name
to an important division of Brahmans in northern India. Hindu-
ism in Lower Bengal also dates its origin from a Brahman migra-
tion southwards fiom this city, about 800 or 900. Kanauj is
now noted for the distilling of scents.
KANDAHAR, the largest city in Afghanistan, situated in
31° 37' N. lat. and 65° 43' E. long., 3400 ft. above the sea. It is
370 m. distant from Herat on the N.W., by Girishk and
Farah — Girishk being 75 m., and Farah 225 m. from Kandahar.
From Kabul, on the N.E., it is distant 315 m., by Kalat-i-
Ghilzai and Ghazni — Kalat-i-Ghilzai being 85 m., and Ghazni
225 m. from Kandahar. To the Peshin valley the distance is
about no m., and from Peshin to India the three principal routes
measure approximately as follows: by the Zhob valley to Dera
Ismail Khan, 300 m.; by the Bori valley to Dera Ghazi Khan,
275 m.; by Quetta and the Bolan to Dadar, 125 m.; and by
Chappar and Nari to Sibi, 120 m. The Indian railway system
extends to New Chaman, within some 80 m. of Kandahar. Im-
mediately round the city is a plain, highly cultivated and well
populated to the south and west; but on the north-west barren,
and bounded by a double line of hills, rising to about 1000 ft.
above its general level, and breaking its dull monotony with
irregular lines of scarped precipices, crowned with fantastic
pinnacles and peaks. To the north-west these hills form the
watershed between the valleys of the Arghandab and the Tarnak,
until they are lost in the mountain masses of the Hazarajat — a
wild region inhabited by tribes of Tatar origin, which effectually
shuts off Kandahar from communication with the north. On the
south-west they lose themselves in the sandy desert of Registan,
which wraps itself round the plain of Kandahar, and forms
another impassable barrier. But there is a break in these hills — a
gate, as it were, to the great high road between Herat and India;
and it is this gate which the fortress of Kandahar so effectually
guards, and to which it owes its strategic importance. Other
routes there are, open to trade, between Herat and northern
India, either following the banks of the Hari Rud, or, more
circuitously, through the valley of the Helmund to Kabul; or the
line of hills between the Arghandab and the Tarnak may be
crossed close to Kalat-i-Ghilzai; but of the two former it may
be said that they are not ways open to the passage of Afghan
armies owing to the hereditary hostility existing between the
Aeimak and Hazara tribes and the Afghans generally, while the
latter is not beyond striking distance from Kandahar. The one
great high road from Herat and the Persian frontier to India is
that which passes by Farah and crosses the Helmund at Girishk.
Between Kandahar and India the road is comparatively open,
and would be available for railway communication but for the
jealous exclusiveness of the Afghans.
To the north-west, and parallel to the long ridges of the Tarnak
watershed, stretches the great road to Kabul, traversed by Nott
in 1842, and by Stewart and subsequently by Roberts in 1880.
Between this and the direct route to Peshin is a road which leads
through Maruf to the Kundar river and the Guleri pass into the
plains of Hindustan at Dera Ismail Khan. This is the most
direct route to northern India, but it involves the passage of
some rough country, across the great watershed between the
basins of the Helmund and the Indus. But the best known road
from Kandahar to India is that which stretches across the series
of open stony plains interspersed with rocky hills of irregular
formation leading to the foot of the Kwaja Amran (Khojak)
range, on the far side of which from Kandahar lies the valley of
Peshin. The passage of the Kwaja Amran involves a rise and
fall of some 2300 ft., but the range has been tunnelled and a
railway now connects the frontier post of New Chaman with
Quetta. Two lines of railway now connect Quetta with Sind,
the one known as the Harnai loop, the other as the Bolan or
Mashkaf line. They meet at Sibi (see BALUCHISTAN). Several
roads to India have been developed through Baluchistan, but
they are all dominated from Kandahar. Thus Kandahar be-
comes a sort of focus of all the direct routes converging from the
wide-stretching western frontier of India towards Herat and
Persia, and the fortress of Kandahar gives protection on the one
hand' to trade between Hindustan and Herat, and on the other
it lends to Kabul security from invasion by way of Herat.
Kandahar is approximately a square-built city, surrounded
by a wall of about 3? m. circuit, and from 25 to 30 ft. high, with
an average breadth of 15 ft. Outside the wall is a ditch 10 ft.
deep. The city and its defences are entirely mud-built. There
are four main streets crossing each other nearly at right angles,
the central " chouk " being covered with a dome. These streets
are wide and bordered with trees, and are flanked by shops with
open fronts and verandas. There are no buildings of any great
pretension in Kandahar, a few of the more wealthy Hindus
occupying the best houses. The tomb of Ahmad Shah is the
only attempt at monumental architecture. This, with its rather
handsome cupola, and the twelve minor tombs of Ahmad Shah's
children grouped around, contains a few good specimens of
fretwork and of inlaid inscriptions. The four streets of the city
divide it into convenient quarters for the accommodation of its
mixed population of Duranis, Ghilzais, Parsiwans and Kakars,
numbering in all some 30,000 souls. Of these the greater
proportion are the Parsiwans (chiefly Kizilbashes).
KANDI— KANDY
649
It is reckoned that there are 1600 shops and 182 mosques in
the city. The mullahs of these mosques are generally men 01
considerable power. The walls of the city are pierced by the
four principal gates of " Kabul," " Shikarpur," " Herat " and
the " Idgah," opposite the four main streets, with two minor
gates, called the Top Khana and the Bardurani respectively, in
the western half of the city. The Idgah gate passes through
the citadel, which is a square-built enclosure with sides of aboul
260 yds. in length. The flank defences of the main wall are
insufficient; indeed there is no pretence at scientific structure
about any part of the defences; but the site of the city is wel
chosen for defence, and the water supply (drawn by canals from
the Arghandab or derived from wells) is good.
About 4 m. west of the present city, stretched along the slopes ol
a rocky ridge, and extending into the plains at its foot, are the ruins
of the old city of Kandahar sacked and plundered by Nadir Shah
in 1738. From the top of the ridge a small citadel overlooks the
half-buried ruins. On the north-east face of the hill forty steps
cut out of solid limestone, lead upward to a small, dome-roofed
recess, which contains some interesting Persian inscriptions cut in
relief on the rock, recording particulars of the history of Kandahar,
and defining the vast extent of the kingdom of the emperor Baber.
Popular belief ascribes the foundation of the old city to Alexander
the Great.
Although Kandahar has long ceased to be the seat of govern-
ment, it is nevertheless by far the most important trade centre in
Afghanistan, and the revenues of the Kandahar province assist
largely in supporting the chief power at Kabul. There are no
manufactures or industries of any importance peculiar to Kandahar,
but the long lines of bazaars display goods from England, Russia,
Hindustan, Persia and Turkestan, embracing a trade area as large
probably as that of any city in Asia. The customs and town dues
together amount to a sum equal to the land revenue of the Kandahar
province, which is of considerable extent, stretching to Pul-i-Sangin,
10 m. south of Kalat-i-Ghilzai on the Kabul side, to the Helmund
on the west, and to the Hazara country on the north. Although
Farah has been governed from Kandahar since 1863, its revenues
are not reckoned as a part of those of the province. The land
revenue proper is assessed in grain, the salaries of government
officials, pay of soldiers, &c., being disbursed by " barats " or orders
for grain at rates fixed by government, usually about 20 % above
the city market prices. The greater part of the English goods sold
at Herat are imported by Karachi and Kandahar — a fact which
testifies to the great insecurity of trade between Meshed and Herat.
Some of the items included as town dues are curious. For instance,
the tariff on animals exposed for sale includes a charge of 5 % ad
valorem on slave girls, besides a charge of I rupee per head. The
kidney fat of all sheep and the skins of all goats slaughtered in the
public yard are perquisites of government, the former being used for
the manufacture of soap, which, with snuff, is a government mono-
poly. The imports consist chiefly of English goods, indigo, cloth,
boots, leather, sugar, salt, iron and copper, from Hindustan, and of
shawls, carpets, " barak " (native woollen cloth), postins (coats
made of skins), shoes, silks, opium and carpets from Meshed, Herat
and Turkestan. The exports are wool, cotton, madder, cummin
seed, asafoetida, fruit, silk and horses. The system of coinage is
also curious: 105 English rupees are melted down, and the alloy
extracted, leaving 100 rupees' worth of silver; 295 more English
rupees are then melted, and the molten metal mixed with the 100
rupees silver; and out of this 808 Kandahari rupees are coined. As
the Kandahari rupee is worth about 8 annas (half an English rupee)
the government thus realizes a profit of I %. Government accounts
are kept in " Kham " rupees, the " Kham " being worth about
five-sixths of a Kandahari rupee; in other words, it about equals
the franc, or the Persian " kran."
Immediately to the south and west of Kandahar is a stretch of
well-irrigated and highly cultivated country, but the valley of the
Arghandab is the most fertile in the district, and, from the luxuriant
abundance of its orchards and vineyards, offers the most striking
scenes of landscape beauty. The pomegranate fields form a striking
feature in the valley — the pomegranates of Kandahar, with its
" sirdar " melons and grapes, being unequalled in quality by any
in the East. The vines are grown on artificial banks, probably for
want of the necessary wood to trellis them — the grapes being largely
exported in a semi-dried state. Fruit, indeed, besides being largely
exported, fcrms the chief staple of the food supply of the inhabitants
throughout Afghanistan. The art of irrigation is so well understood
that the water supply is at times exhausted, no river water being
allowed to run to waste. The plains about Kandahar are chiefly
watered by canals drawn from the Arghandab near Baba-wali, and
conducted through the same gap in the hills which admits the Herat
road. The amount of irrigation and the number of water channels
form a considerable impediment to the movements of troops, not
only immediately about Kandahar, but in all districts where the
main rivers and streams are bordered by green bands of cultivation.
Irrigation by " karez " is also largely resorted to. The karez is a
system ot underground channelling which usually taps a sub-surface
water supply at the foot of some of the many rugged and apparently
waterless hills which cover the face of the country. The water is
not brought to the surface, but is carried over long distances by an
underground channel or drain, which is constructed by sinking
shafts at intervals along the required course and connecting the
shafts by tunnelling. The general agricultural products of the
country are wheat, barley, pulse, fruit, madder, asafoetida, lucerne,
clover and tobacco.
Of the mineral resources of the Kandahar district not much is
known, but an abandoned gold mine exists about 2 m. north of the
town. Some general idea of the resources of the Kandahar district
may be gathered from the fact that it supplied the British troops
with everything except luxuries during the entire period of occupa-
tion in 1879-81 ; and that, in spite of the great strain thrown on
those resources by the presence of the two armies of Ayub Khan and
of General Roberts, and after the total failure of the autumn crops
and only a partial harvest the previous spring, the army was fed
without great difficulty until the final evacuation, at one-third of
the prices paid in Quetta for supplies drawn from India.
History. — Kandahar has a stormy history. Sultan Mahmud of
Ghazni took it in the llth century from the Afghans who then held
it. In the beginning of the I3th century it was taken by Jenghiz
Khan, and in the I4th by Timur. In 1507 it was captured by the
emperor Baber, but shortly afterwards it fell again into Afghan
hands, to be retaken by Baber in 1521. Baber's son, Humayun,
agreed to cede Kandahar to Persia, but failed to keep his word, and
the Persians besieged the place unsuccessfully. Thus it remained
in the possession of the Moguls till 1625, when it was taken by Shah
Abbas. Aurangzeb tried to take it in 1649 with 5000 men, but
failed. Another attempt in 1652 was equally unsuccessful. It
remained in Persian possession till 1709, when it was taken by the
Afghans, but was retaken after a two years' siege by Nadir Shah.
Nadir Shah was assassinated in 1749, and immediately on hearing
the news of his death Ahmad Shah (Abdali) seized Nadir Shah's
treasure at Kandahar, and proclaimed himself king, with the consent,
not only of the Afghans, but, strange to say, of the Hazaras and
Baluchis as well. He at once changed the site of the city to its
present position, and thus founded the Afghan kingdom, with
modern Kandahar as its capital. Ahmad Shah died in 1773, and
was succeeded by his son Timur, who died in 1793, and left the
throne to his son Zaman Shah. This prince was deposed by his
half-brother Mahmud, who was in his turn deposed by Shah Shuja,
the full brother of Zaman Shah. After a short reign Shah Shuja
was compelled to abdicate from his inability to repress the rising
power of Fateh Khan, a Barakzai chief, and he took refuge first
with Ranjit Singh, who then ruled the Punjab, and finally secured
the protection of British power. Afghanistan was now practically
dismembered. Mahmud was reinstated by Fateh Khan, whom he
appointed his vizier, and whose nephews, Dost Mahommed Khan
and Kohn dil Khan, he placed respectively in the governments of
Kabul and Kandahar. Fateh Khan was barbarously murdered by
Kamran (Mahmud's son) near Ghazni in 1818; and in retaliation
Mahmud himself was driven from power, and the Barakzai clan
secured the sovereignty of Afghanistan. While Dost Mahommed
held Kabul, Kandahar became temporarily a sort of independent
chiefship under two or three of his brothers. In 1839 the cause of
Shah Shuja was actively supported by the British. Kandahar was
occupied, and Shah Shuja reinstated on the throne of his ancestors
Dost Mahommed was defeated near Kabul, and after surrender to
the British force, was deported into Hindustan. The British army
of occupation in southern Afghanistan continued to occupy Kandahar
from 1839 till the autumn of 1842, when General Nott marched on
Kabul to meet Pollock's advance from Jalalabad. The cantonments
near the city, built by Nott's division, were repaired and again
:cupied by the British army in 1879, when Shere AH was driven
from power by the invasion of Afghanistan, nor were they finally
evacuated till the spring of 1881. Trade statistics of late years
show a gradual increase of exports to India from Kandahar and the
countries adjacent thereto, but a curious falling-off in imports. The
short-sighted policy of the amir Abdur Rahman in discouraging
imports doubtless affected the balance, nor did his affectation of
gnonng the railway between New Chaman and Kila Abdulla (on
'JM Peshin side of the Khojak) conduce to the improvement of trade
(T. H. H.*)
KANDI, a town of British India, in Murshidabad district,
Bengal. Pop. (1901), 12,037. It is the residence of the rajas
of Paikpara, a wealthy and devout Hindu family. The founder
of this family was Ganga Govind Singh, the banyan or agent of
Warren Hastings, who was born at Kandi, and retired hither
n his old age with an immense fortune. His name has acquired
celebrity for the most magnificent sraddha, or funeral obsequies,
ever performed in Bengal, celebrated in honour of his mother, at
a cost, it is said, of £200,000.
KANDY, a town near the centre of Ceylon, 75 m. from Colombo
by rail, formerly the capital of a kingdom of the same name.
650
KANE— KANGAROO
situated towards the heart of the island, 1718 ft. above the sea.
It lies round the margin of an artificial lake constructed by the
last king of Kandy in 1806, and is beautifully surrounded by
hills. The most striking objects are the temples (of which twelve
are Buddhist and four Brahman), the tombs of the Kandian
kings, and the various buildings of the royal residence, partly
allowed to fall into disrepair, partly utilized by the government.
Of the temples the Dalada Malagawa is worthy of particular
mention; it claims, as the name indicates, to be in possession of a
Buddha tooth.
Kandy was occupied by the Portuguese in the i6th century and
by the Dutch in 1 763 ; but in both instances the native kings
succeeded in shaking off the foreign yoke. The British got
possession of the place in 1803, but the garrison afterwards
capitulated and were massacred, and it was not till 1814-15
that the king was defeated and dethroned. The British autho-
rity was formally established by the convention of March 2, 1815.
In 1848, owing to an attempt at rebellion, the town was for a
time under martial law. It has been greatly improved of recent
years. Sir William Gregory when governor did much to restore
the ancient Kandy decorations, while the Victoria Jubilee
Commemoration Building, including " Ferguson Memorial Hall,"
and two fine hotels, add to the improvements. The Royal
Botanic Gardens are situated at Peradeniya, 3 m. distant.
Kandy is a uniquely beautiful, highland, tropical town, full of
interesting historical and Buddhistic associations. A water
supply and electric lighting have been introduced. Roman
Catholic missions are active in the work of education, for which
a large block of buildings has been erected. Church of England,
Wesleyan and Baptist missions are also at work. The population
of the town in 1900 was 26,386; of the district, 377,591. Average
annual rainfall, 815 in.; average temperature, 75-3. There is a
branch railway from Kandy, north to Matale, 17 m.
KANE, ELISHA KENT (18205-1857), American scientist and
explorer, was born in Philadelphia on the 2oth of February 1820,
the son of the jurist John Kintzing Kane (1795-1858), a friend
and supporter of Andrew Jackson, attorney-general of Pennsyl-
vania in 1845-1846,11.8. judge of the Eastern District of Pennsyl-
vania after 1846, and president of the American Philosophical
Society in 1856-1858. Young Kane entered the university of
Virginia and obtained the degree of M.D. in 1842, and in the
following year entered the U.S. navy as surgeon. He had
already acquired a considerable reputation in physiological
research. The ship to which he was appointed was ordered to
China, and he found opportunities during the voyage for indulg-
ing his passion for exploration, making a journey from Rio
de Janeiro to the base of the Andes, and another from Bombay
through India to Ceylon. On the arrival of the ship at its des-
tination he provided a substitute for his post and crossed over
to the island of Luzon, which he explored. In 1844 he left
China, and, returning by India, Persia, Syria, Egypt, Greece,
Austria, Germany and Switzerland, reached America in 1846.
In that year he was ordered to the west coast of Africa, where he
visited Dahomey, and contracted fever, which told severely on
his constitution. On his return in 1847, he exchanged the naval
for the military service, and was sent to join the U.S. army in
Mexico, where he had some extraordinary adventures, and where
he was again stricken with fever.
On the fitting out of the first Grinnell expedition, in 1850,
to search for Sir John Franklin, Kane was appointed surgeon
and naturalist under Lieut, de Haven, who commanded the
ships " Advance " and " Rescue." The expedition, after an
absence of sixteen months, during nine of which the ships were
ice-bound, returned without having found any trace of the miss-
ing vessels. Kane was in feeble health, but worked on at his
narrative of the expedition, which was published in 1854, under
the title of The U.S. Grinnell Expedition in Search of Sir John
Franklin. He was determined not to give up the search for
Franklin, and in spite of ill-health travelled through the States
lecturing to obtain funds, and gave up his pay for twenty
months. At length Henry Grinnell fitted out an expedition,
in the little brig " Advance," of which Kane was given the
command. She sailed in June 1853, and passing up Smith
Sound at the head of Baffin Bay advanced into the enclosed
sea which now bears the name of Kane Basin, thus establishing
the Polar route of many future Arctic expeditions. Here, off
the coast of Greenland, the expedition passed two winters,
accomplishing much useful geographical, as well as scientific,
work, including the attainment of what was to remain for sixteen
years the highest northern latitude, 80° 35' N. (June 1854).
From this point a large area of open water was seen which was
believed to be an " open Polar Sea," a chimera which played an
important and delusive role in subsequent explorations. After
enduring the greatest hardships it was resolved to abandon the
ship, Upernivik being reached on the 5th of August 1855,
whence a relief expedition brought the explorers home. Medals
were authorized by Congress, and in the following year Dr Kane
received the founder's medal of the Royal Geographical Society,
and, two years later, a gold medal from the Paris Geographical
Society. He published The Second Grinnell Expedition in 1856.
Dr Kane died at Havana on the i6th of February 1857, at the
age of thirty-seven. Between his first and second arctic voyages
he made the acquaintance of the Fox family, the spiritualists. *
With one of the daughters, Margaret, he carried on a long corre-
spondence, which was afterwards published by the lady, who
declared that they were privately married.
See Biography of E. K. Kane, by William Elder (1858); Life of
E. K. Kane and other American Explorers, by S. M. Smucker (1858) ;
The Love-Life ofDr Kane, containing the Correspondence and a History
of the Engagement and Secret Marriage between E. K. Kane and
Margaret Fox (New York, 1866); " Discoveries of Dr Kane," in
Jour, of the Roy. Geog. Soc., vol. xxviii. (reprinted in R. G. S. Arctic
Papers of 1875).
KANE, a borough of McKean county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.,
about 90 m. E.S.E. of Erie. Pop. (1890), 2944; (1900), 5296,
(971 foreign-born); (1910) 6626. It is served by the Pennsyl-
vania, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Kane & Elk, and the Big Level
& Kinzua railways. It is situated about 2015 ft. above the
sea in a region producing natural gas, oil, lumber and silica, and
has some reputation as a summer resort. The borough has
manufactories of window glass, plate glass and bottles, and
repair shops of the Pennsylvania railroad. Kane was settled
in 1859, and was incorporated as a borough in 1887. It was
named in honour of John Kintzing Kane, father of Elisha Kent
Kane, the Arctic explorer.
KANGAROO, the universally accepted, though not apparently
the native, designation of the more typical representatives of the
marsupial family Macropodidae (see MARSUPIALIA). Although
intimately connected with the cuscuses and phalangers by
means of the musk-kangaroo, the kangaroos and wallabies,
together with the rat-kangaroos, are easily distinguishable from
other diprotodont marsupials by their general conformation, and
by peculiarities in the structure of their limbs, teeth and other
organs. They vary in size from that of a sheep to a small rabbit.
The head, especially in the larger species, is small, compared with
the rest of the body, and tapers forward to the muzzle. The
shoulders and fore-limbs are feebly developed, and the hind-limbs
of disproportionate strength and magnitude, which give the
animals a peculiarly awkward appearance when moving about on
all-fours, as they occasionally do when feeding. Rapid progres-
sion is, however, performed only by the powerful hind-limbs, the
animals covering the ground by a series of immense bounds,
during which the fore part of the body is inclined forwards, and
balanced by the long, strong and tapering tail, which is carried
horizontally backwards. When not moving, they often assume
a perfectly upright position, the tail aiding the two hind-legs to
form a tripod, and the front-limbs dangling by the side of the
chest. This position gives full scope for the senses of sight,
hearing and smell to warn of the approach of enemies. The
fore-paws have five digits, each armed with a strong, curved
claw. The hind-foot is extremely long, narrow and (except in
the musk-kangaroo) without the first toe. It consists mainly
of one very large and strong toe, corresponding to the fourth of
the human foot, ending in a strong curved and pointed claw
KANGAROO
651
(fig. 2). Close to the outer side of this lies a smaller fifth digit,
and to the inner side two excessively slender toes (the second and
third), bound together almost to the extremity in a common
FIG. i. — The Great Grey Kangaroo (Macropus giganteus).
integument. The two little claws of these toes, projecting to-
gether from the skin, may be of use in scratching and cleaning
the fur of the animal, but the toes must have'quite lost all con-
nexion with the functions of support or progression. This type
of foot-structure is termed syndactylous.
The dental formula, when completely de-
veloped, is incisors f-, canines o~, premolars f ,
molars f on each side, giving a total of 34
teeth. The three incisors of the upper jaw
are arranged in a continuous arched series,
and have crowns with broad cutting edges;
the first or middle incisor is often larger than
the others. Corresponding to these in the
lower jaw is but one tooth on each side, which
is of great size, directed horizontally forwards,
narrow, lanceolate and pointed with sharp
edges. Owing to the slight union of the two
halves of the lower jaw in front in many
species the two lower incisors work together
like the blades of a pair of scissors. The
canines are absent or rudimentary in the
lower, and often deciduous at an early age
in the upper jaw. The first two premolars
are compressed, with cutting longitudinal
/' fit m m edges, the anterior one is deciduous, being
lost about the time the second one replaces
the milk-molar, so that three premolars are
never found in place and use in the same indi-
vidual. The last premolar and the molars
have quadrate crowns, provided with two
strong transverse ridges, or with four obtuse
cusps. In Macropus giganteus and its imme-
diate allies, the premolars and sometimes the
1 H first molar are shed, so that in old examples
only the two posterior molars and the incisors
FIG. 2.— Skeleton are found jn piace The milk-dentition, as
foot^o/ Kan- 'm otner marsupials, is confined to a single
garoo.
tooth on each side of each jaw, the other
molars and incisors being never changed. The
dentition of the kangaroos, functionally considered, thus consists
of sharp-edged incisors, most developed near the median line of
the mouth, for the purpose of cropping herbage, and ridged or
tuberculated molars for crushing.
The number of vertebrae is — in the cervical region 7, dorsal
13, lumbar 6, sacral 2, caudal varying according to the length of
the tail, but generally from 21 to 23. In the fore-limb the clavicle
and the radius and ulna are well developed, allowing of con-
siderable freedom of motion of the fore-paw. The pelvis has large
epipubic or " marsupial " bones. The femur is short, and the
tibia and fibula of great length, as is the foot, the whole of
which is applied to the ground when the animal is at rest in the
upright position.
The stomach is large and very complex, its walls being puc-
kered by longitudinal muscular bands into a number of folds.
The alimentary canal is long, and the caecum well developed.
The young (which, as in other marsupials, leave the uterus in an
extremely small and imperfect condition) are placed in the pouch
as soon as they are born; and to this they resort temporarily
for shelter for some time after they are able to run, jump and
feed upon the herbage which forms the nourishment of the parent.
During the early period of their sojourn in the pouch, the blind,
naked, helpless young creatures (which in the great kangaroo
scarcely exceed an inch in length) are attached by their mouths
to the nipple of the mother, and are fed by milk injected into
their stomach by the contraction of the muscle covering the
mammary gland. In this stage of existence the elongated upper
part of the larynx projects into the posterior nares, and so main-
tains a free communication between the lungs and the external
surface, independently of the mouth and gullet, thus averting
danger of suffocation while the milk is passing down the gullet.
Kangaroos are vegetable-feeders, browsing on grass and
various kinds of herbage, but the smaller, species also eat
FIG. 3. — Skull and teeth of Bennett's Wallaby (Macropus ruficottis
bennetlii): il, i1, i3, first, second and third upper incisors; pm,
second premolar (the first having been already shed) ; ml, m1, m3, m4,
last premolar and three molars. The last, not fully developed, is
nearly concealed by the ascending part of the lower jaw.
roots. They are naturally timid and inoffensive, but the larger
kinds when hard pressed will turn and defend themselves,
sometimes killing a dog by grasping it in their fore-paws, and
inflicting terrible wounds with the sharp claws of their powerful
hind-legs, supporting themselves meanwhile upon the tail.
The majority are inhabitants of Australia and Tasmania,
forming one of the most prominent and characteristic features
of the fauna of these lands, and performing the part of the deer
and antelopes of other parts of the world. They were important
sources of food-supply to the natives, and are hunted by the
colonists, both for sport and on account of the damage they do
in consuming grass required for cattle and sheep. A few species
are found in New Guinea, and the adjacent islands, which belong,
in the zoological sense, to the Australian province, beyond the
bounds of which none occurs.
The more typical representatives of the group constitute the sub-
family Macropodinae, in which the cutting-edges of the upper
incisors are nearly level, or the first pair but slightly longer than the
others (fig. 3). The canines are rudimentary and often wanting.
The molars are usually not longer (from before backwards) than the
anterior premolars, and less compressed than in the next section.
The crowns of the molars have two prominent transverse ridges.
The fore-limbs are small with subequal toes, armed with strong,
moderately long, curved claws. Hind-limbs very long and strongly
made. Head small, with more or less elongated muzzle. Ears
generally rather long and ovate.
652
KANGAROO-RAT— KANGRA
The typical genus Macropus, in which the muzzle is generally
naked, the ears large, the fur on the nape of the neck usually directed
backwards, the claw of the fourth hind-toe very large, and the tail
stout and tapering, includes a large number of species. Among
these, the great grey kangaroo (M. giganteus, fig. l) deserves special
mention on account of having been discovered during Captain
Cook's first voyage in 1770. The great red kangaroo (M. rufus) is
about the same size, while other large species are M . antilopinus and
M. robustus. The larger wallabies, or brush-kangaroos, such as the
red-necked wallaby (M. ruficollis) constitute a group of smaller-
sized species; while the smaller wallabies, such as the filander (q.v.)
(M. muelleri) and M. thetidis, constitute yet another section. The
genus ranges from the eastern Austrp-Malay islands to New Guinea.
Nearly allied are the rock-wallabies of Australia and Tasmania,
constituting the genus Petrogale, chiefly distinguished by the thinner
tail being more densely haired and terminating in a tuff. Well-
known species are P. penicillata, P. xanthopus and P. lateralis. The
few species of nail-tailed wallabies, Onychogale, which are confined to
the Australian mainland, take their name from the presence of a
horny spur at the end of the tail, and are further distinguished by
the hairy muzzle. O. unguifer, O. fraenatus and 0. lunatus repre-
sent the group. The hare-wallabies, such as Lagorchestes leporotdes,
L. hirsutus and L. consepicillatus, constitute a genus with the same
distribution as the last, and likewise with a hairy muzzle, but with
a rather short, evenly furred tail, devoid of a spur. They are great
leapers and swift runners, mostly frequenting open stony plains.
More distinct is the Papuan genus Dorcopsis, as typified by D.
muelleri, although it is to some extent connected with Macropus
by D. macleyi. The muzzle is naked, the fur on the nape of the neck
directed more or less completely forward, and the hind-limbs are
less disproportionately elongated. Perhaps, however, the most
Fig. 4.-Skull and teeth of .Lesueuir's Rat- Kangaroo (Bettongia
lesueuiri). c, upper canine. Other letters as in fig. 3. The anterior
premolar has been shed.
distinctive feature of the genus is the great fore-and-aft length of
the penultimate premolar in both jaws. Other species are D.
rufolateralis and D. aurantiacus. In the tree-kangaroos, which
include the Papuan Dendrolagus inustus, D. ursinus, D. dorianus, D.
benetianus and D. maximus, and the North Queensland D. lum-
holtzi, the reduction in the length of the hind-limbs is carried to a
still further degree, so that the proportions of the fore and hind
limbs are almost normal. The genus agrees with Dorcopsis in the
direction of the hair on the neck, but the muzzle is only partially
hairy, and the elongation of the penultimate premolar is less.
These kangaroos are largely arboreal in their habits, but they descend
to the ground to feed. . Lastly, we have the banded wallaby, Lago-
strophus fasciatus, of Western Australia, a small species character-
ized by its naked muzzle, the presence of long bristles on the hind-
feet which conceal the claws, and also of dark transverse bands
on the lower part of the back. The skull has a remarkably narrow
and pointed muzzle and much inflated auditory bullae; while the
two halves of the lower jaw are firmly welded together at their
junction, thus effectually preventing the scissor-like action of the
lower incisors distinctive of Macropus and its immediate allies.
As regards the teeth, canines are wanting, and the penultimate
upper premolar is short, from before backwards, with a distinct
ledge on the inner side.
In the rat-kangaroos, or kangaroo-rats, as they are called in
Australia, constituting the sub-family Potoroinae, the first upper
incisor is narrow, curved, and much exceeds the others in length ;
the upper canines are persistent, flattened, blunt and slightly curved!
and the first two premolars of both jaws have large, simple, com-
pressed crowns, with a nearly straight or slightly concave free cut-
ting-edge, and both outer and inner surfaces usually marked by a
series of parallel, vertical groovesand ridges. Molars with quadrate
crowns and a blunt conical cusp at each corner, the last notably
smaller than the rest, sometimes rudimentary or absent. Fore-
feet narrow ; the three middle toes considerably exceeding the first
and fifth in length and their claws long, compressed and but
slightly curved. Hind-feet as in Macropus. Tail long, and some-
times partially prehensile when it is used for carrying bundles of
grass with which these animals build their nests. The group is
confined to Australia and Tasmania, and all the species are rela-
tively small.
In the members of the typical genus Potorous (formerly known as
Hypsiprymnus) the head is long and slender, with the auditory
bullae somewhat swollen ; while the ridges on the first two premolars
are few and perpendicular, and there are large vacuities on the
palate. The tarsus is short and the muzzle naked. The genus
includes P. tridactylus, P. gilberti and P. platyops. In Betlongia, on
the other hand, the head is shorter and wider, with smaller and more
rounded ears, and more swollen auditory bullae. The ridges on the
first two premolars are also more numerous and somewhat oblique
(fig. 4) ; the tarsus is long and the tail is prehensile. The species
include B. lesueuiri, B. gaimardi and B. cuniculus. The South
Australian Caloprymnus campestris represents a genus near akin
to the last, but with the edge of the hairy border of the bare muzzle
less emarginate in the middle line, still more swollen auditory bullae,
very large and posterially expanded nasals and longer vacuities on
the palate. The list is completed by Aepyprymnus rufescens, which
differs from all the others by the hairy muzzle, and the absence
of inflation in the auditory bullae and of vacuities in the palate.
Perhaps, however, the most interesting member of the whole
group is the tiny musk-kangaroo (Hypsiprymnodon moschatus)
of north-east Australia, which alone represents the sub-family
Hypsiprymnodontinae, characterized by the presence of an opposable
first toe on the hind-foot and the outward inclination of the penulti-
mate upper premolar, as well by the small and feeble claws. In
all these features the musk-kangaroo connects the Macropodidae
with the Phalangeridae. The other teeth are like those of the rat-
kangaroos. (W. H. F.; R. L.*)
KANGAROO-RAT, a name applied in different parts of the
world to two widely different groups of mammals. In Australia
it is used to denote the small kangaroo-like marsupials techni-
cally known as Potoroinae, which zoologists prefer to call rat-
kangaroos (see MARSUPIALIA and KANGAROO). In North
America it is employed for certain small jumping rat-like rodents
nearly allied to the pocket-gophers and belonging to the family
Geomyidae. Kangaroo-rats in this latter series are represented
by three North American genera, of which Dipodomys phillipsi,
Cricetodipus agilis and Microdipodops megacephalus may respec-
tively be taken as examples. Resembling pocket-gophers in
the possession of cheek-pouches, kangaroo-rats, together with
pocket-mice, are distinguished by their elongated hind-limbs
and tails, large eyes, well-developed ears and general jerboa-like
appearance and habits. The upper incisor teeth are also rela-
tively narrower, and there are important differences in the skull.
The cheek-teeth are rootless in kangaroo-rats, but they develop
roots in the pocket-mice. The former inhabit open, sandy
districts, where they burrow beneath rocks or stones, and hop
about like jerboas; their food consisting of grasses and other
plants.
KANOAVAR, a small district of Persia, situated between
Hamadan and Kermanshah, and, being held in fief by the family
of a deceased court official, forming a separate government.
The district is very fertile and contains 30 villages. Its revenues
amount to about £500 per annum, and its chief place is the large
village of Kangavar, which has a population of about 2500 and
is 47 m. from Hamadan on the high road to Kermanshah.
KANGRA, a town and district of British India, in the Jullundur
division of the Punjab. The town, sometimes called Nagarkot,
is situated 2409 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901), 4746. The
Katoch rajas had a stronghold here, with a fort and rich temples.
Mahmud of Ghazni took the fort in 1009 and from one of the
temples carried off a vast treasure. In 1360 Kangra was again
plundered, by Feroz Shah. The temple of Devi Bajreshri was
one of the oldest and wealthiest in northern India. It was de-
stroyed, together with the fort and the town, by an earthquake
on the 4th of April 1905, when 1339 lives were lost in this place
alone, and about 20,000 elsewhere. In 1855 the headquarters of
the district were removed to the sanitarium of Dharmsala.
The district of Kangra extends from the Jullundur Doab far
into the southern ranges of the Himalaya. Besides some Rajput
states, annex'ed after the Sikh wars, it includes Lahul, Spiti and
Kulu, which are essentially Tibetan. The Beas is the only
important river. Area, 9978 sq. m., of which Kangra proper has
only 2725. Pop. (1901), 768,124; average density 77 persons per
sq. m., but with only one person per sq. m. in Spiti. Tea
KANISHKA— KANO
653
cultivation was introduced into Kangra about 1850. The
Palampur fair, established by government with a view to foster-
ing commerce with central Asia, attracts a small concourse of
Yarkandi merchants. The Lahulis carry on an enterprising
trade with Ladakh and countries beyond the frontier, by means
of pack sheep and goats. Rice, tea, potatoes, opium, spices,
wool and honey are the chief exports.
See Kangra District Gazetteer (Lahore, 1906).
KANISHKA, king of Kabul, Kashmir, and north-western
India in the and century A.D., was a Tatar of the Kushan tribe,
one of the five into which the Yue-chi Tatars were divided.
His dominions extended as far down into India as Madura, and
probably as far to the north-west as Bokhara. Private inscrip-
tions found in the Punjab and Sind, in the Yusufzai district and
at Madura, and referred by European scholars to his reign, are
dated in the years five to twenty-eight of an unknown era. It is
the references by Chinese historians to the Yue-chi tribes before
their incursion into India, together with conclusions drawn from
the history of art and literature in'his reign, that render the date
given the most probable. Kanishka's predecessors on the throne
were Pagans; but shortly after his accession he professed himself,
probably from political reasons, a Buddhist. He spent vast sums
in the construction of Buddhist monuments; and under his
auspices the fourth Buddhist council, the council of Jalandhara
(Jullunder) was convened under the presidency of Vasumitra. At
this council three treatises, commentaries on the Canon, one on
each of the three baskets into which it is divided, were composed.
King Kanishka had these treatises, when completed and revised
by Asvaghosha, written out on copper plates, and enclosed the
latter in stone boxes, which he placed in a memorial mound.
For some centuries afterwards these works survived in India;
but they exist now only in Chinese translations or adaptations.
We are not told in what language they were written. It was
probably Sanskrit (not Pali, the language of the Canon) — just
as in Europe we have works of exegetical commentary composed,
in Latin, on the basis of the Testament and Septuagint in Greek.
This change of the language used as a medium of literary inter-
course was partly the cause, partly the effect, of a complete re-
vulsion in the intellectual life of India. The reign of Kanishka
was certainly the turning-point in this remarkable change. It
has been suggested with great plausibility, that the wide extent
of his domains facilitated the incursion into India of Western
modes of thought; and thus led in the first place to the corruption
and gradual decline of Buddhism, and secondly to the gradual
rise of Hinduism. Only the publication of the books written
at the time will enable us to say whether this hypothesis — for at
present it is nothing more — is really a sufficient, explanation of
the very important results of his reign. In any case it was a
migration of nomad hordes in Central Asia that led, in Europe,
to the downfall of the Roman civilization; and then, through the
conversion of the invaders, to medieval conditions of life and
thought. It was the very same migration of nomad hordes that
led, in India, to the downfall of the Buddhist civilization; and
subsequently, after the conversion of the Saka and Tatar
invaders, to medieval Hinduism. As India was nearer to the
starting-point of the migration, its results were felt there some-
what sooner.
AUTHORITIES. — Vincent A. Smith, The Early History of India
(Oxford, 1908) ; " The Kushan Period of Indian History," in J.R.A.S.
(1903); M. Boyer, " L'fipoque de Kaniska," in Journal Asiatique
(1900) ; T. Walters, On Yuan Chwang (London, 1904, 1905) ; J. Taka-
kusu, " The Sarvastivadin Abhidharma Books," in Jour, of the Pali
Text Soc. (1905), esp. pp. 118-130; Rhys Davids, Buddhist India
(London, 1903), ch. xvi., " Kanishka." (T. W. R. D.)
KANKAKEE, a city and the county-seat of Kankakee county,
Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, on the Kankakee
river, 56 m S. of Chicago. Pop. (1900), 13,595, of whom
3346 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 13,986. Kankakee is
served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the
Illinois Central, and the Chicago, Indiana & Southern (con-
trolled by the New York Central) railways. It is the seat of the
Eastern Hospital for the Insane (1879) a state institution;
St Joseph's Seminary (Roman Catholic) and a Conservatory
of Music. At Bourbonnais Grove, 3 m. N. of Kankakee is St
Viateur's College (founded 1868), a well-known Roman Catholic
divinity school, and Notre Dame Academy, another Catholic
institution. The city has a public library and four large parks;
in Court House Square there is a monument erected by popular
subscription in honour of the soldiers from Kankakee county
who died in the Civil War. There are rock quarries here, and
the city manufactures sewing machines, musical instruments,
especially pianos, foundry and machine shop products, agri-
cultural implements and furniture. The total value of the
factory product in 1905 was $2,089,143, an increase of 222 %
since 1900. Kankakee is also a shipping point for agricultural
products. It was first settled in 1832; was platted as the town
of Bourbonnais in 1853, when Kankakee county was first
organized; was chartered as the city of Kankakee in 1855, and
was re-chartered in 1892.
KANKER, a feudatory state of India, within the Central
Provinces; area, 1429 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 103,536; estimated
revenue, £10,000. It is a hilly tract, containing the headwaters
of the Mahanadi. The extensive forests have recently been made
profitable by the opening of a branch railway. The residence
of the raja, who is of an old Rajput family though ruling over
Gonds, is at Kanker (pop. 3906).
KANO, one of the most important provinces of the British
protectorate of Northern Nigeria. It includes the ancient
emirates of Kano, Katsena, Daura and Kazaure, and covers an
area of about 31,000 sq. m. The sub-province of Katagum was
incorporated with Kano in 1905, and is included within this area.
The population of the double province is estimated at about
2,250,000.
Kano was one of the original seven Hausa states. Written
annals carry the record of its kings back to about A.D. 900.
Legendary history goes back much further. It was conquered
by the Songhoi (Songhay) in the early part of the i6th century,
and more than once appears to have made at least partial sub-
mission to Bornu. Mahommedanism was introduced at a period
which, according to the system adopted for the dating of the
annals, must be placed either in the I2thorthei4thcentury. The
Hausa system of government and taxation was adopted by the
Fula when in the early part of the igth century that Mahommedan
people overran the Hausa states. It has been erroneously stated
that the Fula imposed Mahommedanism on the Hausa states.
The fact that they adopted the existing system of government
and taxation, which are based upon Koranic law, would in itself
be sufficient proof that this was not the case. But the annals of
Kano distinctly record the introduction and describe the develop-
ment of Mahommedanism at an early period of local history.
The capital is the city of KANO, situated in 12° N. and 8o°32'E.,
220 m. S.S.E. of Sokoto and 500 N.E. of Lagos. It is built on an
open plain, and is encompassed by a wall n m. in perimeter and
pierced by thirteen gates. The wall is from 30 to 50 ft. high and
about 40 ft. thick at the base. Round the wall is a deep double
ditch, a dwarf wall running along its centre. The gates are
simply cow-hide, but are set in massive entrance towers. Only
about a third of the area (7! sq. m.) enclosed by the walls is
inhabited nor was the whole space ever occupied by buildings,
the intention of the founders of the city being to wall in ground
sufficient to grow food for the inhabitants during a siege. The
arable land within the city is mainly on the west and north; only
to the south-east do the houses come right to the walls. Within
the walls are two steep hills, one, Dala, about 120 ft. high being
the most ancient quarter of the town. Dala lies north-west. To
its east is a great pond, the Jakara, i| m. long, and by its north-
east shore is the market of the Arab merchants. Here also was the
slave market. The palace of the emir, in front of which is a large
open space, is in the Fula quarter in the south-east of the city.
The palace consists of a number of buildings covering 33 acres and
surrounded by a wall 20 to 30 ft. high. The architecture of the
city is not without merit. The houses are built of clay with
(generally) flat roofs impervious to fire. Traces of Moorish
influence are evident and the horseshoe arch ie common. The
654
KANSAS
audience hall of the emir's palace — 25 ft. sq. and 18 ft. high — is
decorated with designs in black, white, green and yellow, the
yellow designs (formed of micaceous sand) glistening like gold.
The dome-shaped roof is supported by twenty arches.
The city is divided into fourteen quarters, each presided over
by a headman, and inhabited by separate sections of trie com-
munity. It is probably the greatest commercial city in the
central Sudan. Other towns, like Zaria, may do as much trade,
but Kano is pre-eminent as a manufacturing centre. The chief
industry is the weaving of cloth from native grown cotton.
Leather goods of all kinds are also manufactured, and from Kano
come most of the " morocco leather " goods on the European
markets. Dyeing is another large trade, as is the preparation of
indigo. Of traders there are four distinct classes. They are:
(1) Arabs from Tripoli, who export ostrich feathers, skins and
ivory, and bring in burnouses, scents, sweets, tea, sugar, &c.;
(2) Salaga merchants who import kola nuts from the hinterland
of the Guinea Coast, taking in exchange cloth and live stock and
leather and other goods; (3) the Asbenawa traders, who come
from the oases of Asben or Air with camels laden with salt and
" potash " (i.e. sodium carbonates), and with herds of cattle and
sheep, receiving in return cotton and hardware and kolas;
(4) the Hausa merchants. This last class trades with the other
three and despatches caravans to Illorin and other places, where
the Kano goods, the " potash " and other merchandise are ex-
changed for kolas and European goods. The " potash " finds
a ready sale among the Yorubas, being largely used for cooking
purposes. In Kano itself is a great market for livestock: camels,
horses, oxen, asses and goats being on sale.
Besides Hausa, who represent the indigenous population,
there are large colonies of Kanuri (from Bornu) and Nupians
in Kano. The Fula form the aristocratic class. The population
is said to amount to 100,000. About a mile and a half east of
Kano is Nassarawa, formerly the emir's suburban residence, but
since 1902 the British Residency and barracks.
The city of Kano appears on the map of the Arab geographer,
Idrisi, A.D. 1145, and the hill of Dala is mentioned in the earliest
records as the original site of Kano. Earth, however, concluded that
the present town does not date earlier than the second half of the
1 6th century, and that before the rise of the Fula power (c. 1800)
scarcely any great Arab merchant ever visited Kano. The present
town may be the successor of an older town occupying a position of
similar pre-eminence. Kano submitted to the Fula without much
resistance, and under them in the first half of the igth century
flourished greatly. It was visited by Hugh Clapperton, an English
officer, in 1824, and in it Earth lived some time in 1851 and again
in 1854. Earth's descriptions of the wealth and importance of the
city attracted great attention in Europe, and Kano was subsequently
visited by several travellers, missionaries, and students of Hausa,
but none was permitted to live permanently in the city. In the
closing years of the century, Kano became the centre of resistance
to British influence, and the emir, Alieu, was the most inveterate of
Fula slave raiders. In February 1903 the city was captured by a
British force under Colonel T. L. N. Morland, and a new emir,
Abbas, a brother of Alieu, installed.
After the occupation by the British in 1903 the province was
organized for administration on the same system as that adopted
throughout northern Nigeria. The emir on his installation takes
an oath of allegiance to the British Crown, and accepts the position
of a chief of the first class under British rule. A resident is placed
at his court, and assistant residents have their headquarters in the
administrative districts of the province. British courts of justice
are established side by side with the native courts throughout the
province. Taxation is assessed under British supervision and paid
into the native treasury. A fixed portion is paid by the emir to the
British government. The emir is not allowed to maintain a standing
army, and the city of Kano is the headquarters of the British garrison.
The conditions of appointment of the emirs are fully laid down
in the terms accepted at Sokoto on the close of the Sokoto-Kano
campaign of 1903. Since the introduction of British rule there
has been no serious trouble in the province. The emir Abbas worked
loyally with the British and proved himself a ruler of remarkable
ability and intelligence. He was indefatigable in dispensing justice,
and himself presided over a native court in which he disposed of
from fifty to a hundred cases a month. He also took an active in-
terest in the reform and reorganization of the system of taxation,
and in the opening of the country to trade. He further showed him-
self helpful in arranging difficulties which at times arose in connexion
with the lesser chiefs of his province.
The province of Kano is generally fertile. For a radius of 30 m.
round the capital the country is closely cultivated and densely
populated, with some 40 walled towns and with villages and hamlets
hardly half a mile apart. Kano district proper contains 170 walled
towns and about 450 villages. There are many streams, but water
is chiefly obtained from wells 15 to 40 ft. deep. The principal
crops are African grains, wheat, onions, cotton, tobacco, indigo, with
sugar-cane, cassava, &c. The population is chiefly agricultural, but
also commercial and industrial. The chief industries are weaving,
leather-making, dyeing and working in iron and pottery. Cattle
are abundant. (See NIGERIA: History; and SOKOTO.)
Consult the Travels of Heinrich Barth (new ed., London, 1890);
Hausaland, by C. H. Robinson (London, 1896); Northern Nigeria,
by Sir F. D. Lugard, in vol. xxii. Geographical Journal (London,
1904) ; A Tropical Dependency, by Lady Lugard (London, 1905) ; the
Colonial Office Reports on Northern Nigeria from 1902 onward, and
other works cited under NIGERIA. (F. L. L.)
KANSAS (known as the "Sunflower State"), the central
commonwealth of the United States of America, lying between
37° and 40° N. lat. and between 94° 38' and 102° i' 34" W. long.
(i.e. 25° W. long, from Washington). It is bounded on the N.
by Nebraska, on the E. by Missouri, on the S. by Oklahoma, and
on the W. by Colorado. The state is nearly rectangular in shape,
with a breadth of about 210 m. from N. to S. and a length of
about 410 m. from E. to W. It contains an area of 82,158 sq. m.
(including 384 sq. m. of water surface).
Physiography. — Three physiographic regions may be distin-
guished within the state — the first, a small portion of the Ozark
uplift in the extreme south-east corner; the second, the Prairie
Plains, covering approximately the east third of the state; the
third, the Great Plains, covering the remaining area. Between
the latter two there is only the most gradual transition. The
entire state is indeed practically an undulating plain, gently
sloping from west to east at an average of about 7 ft. per mile.
There is also an inclination in the eastern half from north to
south, as indicated by the course of the rivers, most of which
flow south-easterly (the Kansas, with its general easterly course,
is the principal exception), the north-west corner being the
highest portion of the state. The lowest point in the state in its
south-east part, in Montgomery county, is 725 ft. above sea level.
The average elevation of the east boundary is about 850 ft., while
contour lines of 3500-3900 ft. run near the west border. Some-
what more than half the total area is below 2000 ft. The
gently rolling prairie surface is diversified by an endless suc-
cession of broad plains, isolated hills and ridges, and moderate
valleys. In places there are terraced uplands, and in others the
undulating plain is cut by erosion into low escarpments. The
bluffs on the Missouri are in places 200 ft. high, and the valley of
the Cimarron, in the south-west, has deep cuts, almost gorges.
The west central portion has considerable irregularities of
contour, and the north-west is distinctively hilly. In the south-
west, below the Arkansas river, is an area of sandhills, and the
Ozark Plateau region, as above stated, extends into the south-
east corner, though not there much elevated. The great central
valley is traversed by the Kansas (or Kaw) river, which, inclusive
of the Smoky Hill Branch, extends the entire length of the state,
with lateral valleys on the north. Another broad valley is formed
in the south half of the state by the Arkansas river, with lateral
valleys on the north and south. The south-east portion contains
the important Neosho and smaller valleys. In the extreme south-
west is the valley of the Cimarron, and along the south boundary
is a network of the south tributaries of the Arkansas. Numerous
small affluents of the Missouri enrich and diversify the north-east
quarter. The streams of Kansas are usually fed by perennial
springs, and, as a rule, the east and middle portions of the state
are well watered. Most of the streams maintain a good flow of
water in the driest seasons, and in case of heavy rains many of
them " underflow " the adjacent bottom lands, saturating the
permeable substratum of the country with the surplus water,
which in time drains out and feeds the subsiding streams. This
feature is particularly true of the Saline, Solomon and Smoky Hill
rivers. The west part is more elevated and water is less abundant.
Climate. — The climate of Kansas is exceptionally salubrious.
Extremes of heat and cold occur, but as a rule the winters are dry
and mild, while the summer heats are tempered by the perpetual
prairie breezes, and the summer nights arc usually cool and refresh-
ing. The average annual temperature of the state for seventeen years
preceding 1903 was 54-3° F., the warmest mean being 56-0°, the
KANSAS
655
coldest 52-6°. The extreme variation of yearly means throughout
the east, west and middle sections during the same period was
very slight, 51 '6° to 56'6°, and the greatest variation for any one
section was 37°. The absolute extremes were 116° and —34°. The
dryness of the air tempers exceedingly to the senses the cold of
winter and the heat of summer. The temperature over the state
is much more uniform than is the precipitation, which diminishes
somewhat regularly westward. In the above period of seventeen
years the yearly means in the west section varied from 1 1 "93 to
29-21 in. (av. I9'2i), in the middle from 18-58 to 34/30 (av. 26'68),
in the east from 26-00 to 45-71 (av. 34-78); the mean for the state
ranging from 20' 12 to 35*50 (av. 27'I2).1 The precipitation in the
west is not sufficient for confident agriculture in any series of years,
since agriculture is practically dependent upon the mean fall ; a fact
that has been and is of profound importance in the history of the
state. The line of 20 in. fall (about the limit of certain agriculture)
approximately bisects the state in dry years. The precipitation is
very largely in the growing season — at Dodge the fall between April
and October is 78 % of that for the year. Freshets and droughts
at times work havoc. The former made notable 1844 and 1858 ; and
the latter 1860, 1874 and 1894. Tornadoes are also a not infrequent
infliction, least common in the west. The years 1871, 1879, 1881 and
1892 were made memorable by particularly severe storms. There
are 150 to 175 " growing days ' for crops between the frosts of spring
and autumn, and eight in ten days are bright with sunshine — half
of them without a cloud. Winds are prevailingly from the south (in
the winter often from the north-west).
Fauna and Flora. — The fauna and flora of the state are those which
are characteristic of the plain region generally of which Kansas
is a part. The state lies partly in the humid, or Carolinian, and
partly in the arid, or Upper Sonoran, area of the Upper Austral
life-zone; 100° W. long, is approximately the dividing line between
these areas. The bison and elk have disappeared. A very great
variety of birds is found within the state, either as residents or as
visitants from the adjoining avifaunal regions — mountain, plain,
northern and southern. In 1886 Colonel N. S. Goss compiled a list of
335 species, of which 175 were known to breed in the state. The
wild turkey, once abundant, was near extermination in 1886, and
prairie chickens (pinnated grouse) have also greatly diminished in
number. The jack-rabbit is characteristic of the prairie. Locusts
(" grasshoppers " in local usage) have worked incalculable damage,
notably in 1854, 1866, and above all in 1874-1875. In the last two
cases their ravages extended over a great portion of the state.
Kansas has no forests. Along the streams there is commonly a
fringe of timber, which in the east is fairly heavy. There is an in-
creasing scarcity westward. With the advancing settlement of the
state thin wind-break rows become a feature of the prairies. The
lessened ravages of prairie fires have facilitated artificial afforesting,
and many cities, in particular, are abundantly and beautifully
shaded. Oaks, elms, hickory, honey-locusts, white ash, sycamore
and willows, the rapid growing but miserable box-elder and cotton-
wood, are the most common trees. Black walnut was common in
the river valleys in Territorial days. The planting of tree reserves
by the United States government in the arid counties of this state
promises great success. A National Forest of 302,387 acres in
Finney, Kearney, Hamilton and Grant counties was set aside in
May 1908. Buffalo and bunch, and other short native prairie
grasses, very nutritious ranging food but unavailable as hay, once
covered the plains and pastured immense herds of buffalo and other
animals, but with increasing settlement they have given way gener-
ally to exotic bladed species, valuable alike for pasture and for hay,
except in the western regions. The hardy and ubiquitous sunflower
has been chosen as the state flower or floral emblem. Cactus and
yucca occur in the west.
The soil of the upland prairies is generally a deep rich clay loam
of a dark colour. The bottom lands near the streams are a black
sandy loam; and the intermediate lands, or "second bottoms,"
show a rich and deep black loam, containing very little sand. These
soils are all easily cultivated, free from stones, and exceedingly
productive. There are exceptional spots on the upland prairies
composed of stiff clay, not as easily cultivated, but very productive
when properly managed and enriched. The south-west section is
distinctively sandy.
Agriculture. — The United States Census of 1900 shows that of the
farming area of the state in 1900 (41,662,970 acres, 79*6 % of the
total area), 6o'l % was " improved." The value of all farm
property was $864,100,286 — of which land and improvements
(including buildings), livestock and implements and machinery
represented respectively 74-5, 22-1 and 3-4 %. Almost nine-tenths
of all farms derived their principal income from livestock or hay
and grain, these two sources being about equally important. Of the
total value of farm products in 1899 ($209,895,542), crops represented
537, animal products 45-9 and forest products only 0-4 %. In
1899 the wheat crop was 38,778,450 bushels, being less than that of
Minnesota, North Dakota, Ohio or South Dakota. According to
1 For the thirty years 1877-1906 the mean rainfall for ten-year
periods was: at Dodge, 22'8 in., 18-4 in. and 227 in.; and at Law-
rence, 35' i in., 39'2 in. and 367 in. for the first, second and third
periods respectively.
the Year Book of the United States Department of Agriculture, the
crop in 1906 was 81,830,611 bushels, almost one-ninth of the crop
of the entire country for that year, and much more than the crop of
any other state. In 1909 it was87,2O3,ooobushels (lessthanthe crops
of either Minnesota or North Dakota). Winter wheat constitutes
almost the entire output. The hard varieties rank in the flour market
with the finest Minnesota wheat. The wheat belt crosses the state
from north to south in its central third. Greater even than wheat in
absolute output, though not relatively to the output of other states,
is Indian corn. In 1906 the crop was 195,075,000 bushels, and in
1909 it was 154,225,000. The crop is very variable, according to
seasons and prospective markets; ranging e.g. in the decade 1892-
1901 from 42-6 (1901) to 225-1 (1899) million bushels. The Indian
corn belt is mainly in the eastern third of the state. In the five years
1896-1900 the combined value of the crops of Indian corn and wheat
exceeded the value of the same crops in any other state of the
Union (Illinois being a close second). In the western third irrigation
has been tried, in the earlier years unsuccessfully; in all Kansas, in
1899, there were 23,620 acres irrigated, of which 8939 were in
Finney and 7071 in Kearney county. In this western third the
rainfall is insufficient for Indian corn; but Kafir corn, an exceptional
drought-resisting cereal, has made extraordinary progress in this
region, and indeed generally over the state, since 1893, its acreage
increasing 416'! % in the decade 1895—1904. With the saccharine
variety of sorghum, which increased greatly in the same period, this
grain is replacing Indian corn. Oats are the third great cereal crop,
the yield being 24,780,000 bushels in 1906 and 27,185,000 in 1909.
Alfalfa showed an increased acreage in 1895-1904 of 3IO'8 %; it is
valuable in the west for the same qualities as the Kafir corn. The
hay crop in 1909 was 2,652,000 tons. Alfalfa, the Japanese soy bean
and the wheat fields — which furnish the finest of pasture in the early
spring and ordinarily well into the winter season — are the props of a
prosperous dairy industry. In the early 'eighties the organization
of creameries and cheese factories began in the county-seats; they
depended upon gathered cream. About 1889 separators and the
whole-milk system were introduced, and about the same time began
the service of refrigerator cars on the railways ; the hand separator
becarhe common about 1901. Western Kansas is the dairy country.
Its great ranges, whose insufficient rainfall makes impossible the
certain, and therefore the profitable, cultivation of cereals, or other
settled agriculture, lend themselves with profit to stock and dairy
farming. Dairy products increased 6o'6 % in value from 1895 to
1904, amounting in the latter year to $16,420,005. This value was
almost equalled by that of eggs and poultry ($14,050,727), which
increased 79-7 % in the same decade. The livestock interest is
stimulated by the enormous demand for beef -cattle at Kansas City.
Sugar-beet culture was tried in the years following 1890 with
indifferent success until the introduction of bounties in 1901. It
has extended along the Arkansas valley from the Colorado beet
district and into the north-western counties. There is a large beet-
sugar factory at Garden City, Finney county. Experiments have
been made unsuccessfully in sugar cane (1885) and silk culture
(1885 seq.). The bright climate and pure atmosphere are admirably
adapted to the growth of the apple, pear, peach, plum, grape and
cherry. The smaller fruits also, with scarce an exception, flourish
finely. The fruit product of Kansas ($2,431,773 in 1899) is not,
however, as yet particularly notable when compared with that of
various other states.
According to the estimates of the state department of agriculture,
of the total value of all agricultural products in the twenty years
1885-1904 ($3,078,999,855), Indian corn and wheat together
represented more than two-fifths (821-3 and 518'! million dollars
respectively), and livestock products nearly one-third (1024-9
millions). The aggregate value of all agricultural products in 1903-
1904 was $754,954,208.
Minerals. — In the east portion of the state are immense beds of
bituminous coal, often at shallow depths or cropping out on the
surface. In 1907 more than 95 % of the coal came from Crawford,
Cherokee, Leavenworth and Usage counties, and about 91-5 % from
the first two. The total value of the production of coal in 1905
(6,423,979 tons) was $9,350,542, and in 1908 (6,245,508 tons)
$9,292,222. In the central portion, which belongs to the Triassic
formation, magnesian limestone, ferruginous sandstone and gypsum
are representative rocks. Gypsum (in beautiful crystalline form) is
found in an almost continuous bed across the state running north-
east and south-west with three principal areas, the northern in
Marshall county, the central in Dickinson and Saline counties, and
the southern (the heaviest, being 3 to 40 ft. thick) in Barber and
Comanche counties. The product in 1908 was valued at $281,339.
Magnesian limestone, or dolomite, is especially plentiful along the
Blue, Republican and Neosho rivers and their tributaries. This
beautiful stone, resembling white, grey and cream-coloured marble,
is exceedingly useful for building purposes. It crops out in the
bluffs in endless quantities, and is easily worked. The stone
resources of the state are largely, but by no means exclusively,
confined to the central part. There are marbles in Osage and
other counties, shell marble in Montgomery county, white limestone
in Chase county, a valuable bandera flagstone and hydraulic cement
rock near Fort Scott, &c. The limestones produced in 1908 were
valued at $403,176 and the sandstones at $67,950. In the central
656
KANSAS
region salt is produced in immense quantities, within a great north to
south belt about Hutchinson. The beds, which are exploited by the
brine method at Hutchinson, at Ellsworth (Ellsworth county), at
Anthony (Harper county) and at Sterling (Rice county), lie from
400 to 1200 ft. underground, and are in places as much as 350 ft.
thick and 99 % pure. At Kanopolis in Ellsworth county, at Lyons
in Rice county and at Kingman, Kingman county, the salt is mined
and sold as rock-salt. In the south-west salt is found in beds and
dry incrustations, varying in thickness from a few inches to 2 ft. The
total product from 1880-1899 was valued at $5,538,855; the product
of 1908 (when Kansas ranked fourth among the states producing
salt) was valued at $882,984. The development has been mainly
since 1887 at Hutchinson and since about 1890 in the rock-salt
mines. In the west portion of the state, which belongs to the
Cretaceous formation, chalks and a species of native quicklime are
very prominent in the river bluffs. The white and cream-coloured
chalks are much used for building purposes, but the blue is usually
too soft for exposure to the weather. The quicklime as quarried
from the bluffs slakes perfectly, and with sand makes a fairly good
mortar, without calcination or other previous preparation. The
lignite found near the Colorado line makes a valuable domestic
fuel.
Natural gas, oil, zinc and lead have been discovered in south-east
Kansas and have given that section an extraordinary growth and
prosperity. Indications of gas were found about the time of the
Civil War, but only in the early "seventies were they recognized as
unmistakable, and they were not successfully developed until the
'eighties. lola, in Allen county, is the centre of the field, and the
gas yields heat, light, and a cheap fuel for smelters, cement-works
and other manufacturing plants throughout a large region. The
pools lie from 400 to 950 ft. below the surface; some wells have been
drilled 1500 ft. deep. The value of the natural gas produced in
the state was $15,873 in 1889, $2,261,836 in 1905 and $7,691,587 in
1908, when there were 1917 producing wells, and Kansas ranked
fourth of the states of the United States in the value of the natural
gas product, being surpassed by Pennsylvania, West Virginia and
Ohio. Petroleum was discovered about 1865 in Miami and Bourbon
counties, and about 1892 at Neodesha, Wilson county. There was
only slight commercial exploitation before 1900. The production
increased from 74,714 barrels in that year to 4,250,779 in 1904; in
1908 it was 1,801,781 barrels. Chanute has been the most active
centre of production. The field was prospected here in the 'nineties,
but developed only after 1900. In 1877 an immense deposit of
lead was discovered on land now within the limits of Galena. Rich
zinc blendes were at first thrown away among the by-products of
the lead mines. After the discovery of their true nature there was
a slow development, and at the end cf the century a notable boom
in the fields. From 1876 to 1897 the total value of the output of
the Galena field was between $25,000,000 and $26,000,000; but at
present Kansas is far more important as a smelter than as a miner
of zinc and lead, and in 1906 58% of all spelter produced in the
United States came from smelters in Kansas. In 1908 the mines'
output was 2293 tons of lead valued at $192,612 and 8628 tons
of zinc valued at $811,032. Pottery, fire, ochre and brick clays
are abundant, the first two mainly in the eastern part of the state.
Coffeyville has large vitrified brick interests. In 1908 the total
value of all. the mineral products (incompletely reported) of Kansas
was $26,162.213.
Industry and Trade. — Manufactures are not characteristic of the
state. The rank of the state in manufactures in 1900 was sixteenth
and in farm products seventh in the Union. The value of the
manufactured product in 1900, according to the Twelfth United
States Census, was $172,129,398, an increase of 56-2% over the
output of 1890; of this total value, the part representing establish-
ments under the " factory system " was $154,008,544,' and in 1905
the value of the factory product was $198,244,992, an increase of
28-7%. Kansas City, Topeka, Wichita, Leavenworth and Atchison
were the only cities which had manufactures whose gross product
was valued in 1905 at more than $3,000,000 each; their joint pro-
duct was valued at $126,515,804, and that of Kansas City alone was
$96,473,050, almost half the output of the state. The most impor-
tant manufacturing industry, both in 1900 and in 1905, was slaugh-
tering and meat-packing — for which Kansas City is the second centre
of the country — with a product for the state valued at $77,411,883
in 1900, and $96,375,639 in 1905; in both these years the value of
the product of Kansas was exceeded only by that of Illinois. The
flour and grist mill industry ranked next, with a product valued at
$21,328,747 in 1900 and nearly twice that amount, $42,034,019,
in 1905. In 1900 a quarter of the wheat crop was handled by the
mills of the state. Lesser manufacturing interests are railway shop
construction (value in 1905, $11,521,144); zinc smelting and refining
(value in 1905, $10,999,468); the manufacture of cheese, butter and
condensed milk (value in 1905, $3,946,349); and of foundry and
machine shop products (value in 1905, $3,756,825).
1 All subsequent figures in this paragraph for manufactures in
1900 are given for establishments under the " factory system " only,
BO as to be comparable with statistics for 1905, which do not include
minor establishments.
Communications. — Kansas is excellently provided with railways,
with an aggregate length in January 1909 of 8914-77 m. (in 1870,
1880, 1890 respectively, 1,501, 3,244 and 8,710 m.). The most
important systems are the Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6, the
Missouri Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Union
Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy, and the St Louis & San Francisco systems. The first train
entered Kansas on the Union Pacific in 1860. During the following
decade the lines of the Missouri Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas &
Texas and the Santa F<5 were well under construction. These roads
give excellent connexions with Chicago, the Gulf and the Pacific.
Kansas has an eastern river front of 150 m. on the Missouri, which is
navigable for steamboats of good size. The internal rivers of the
state are not utilized for commercial purposes.
Population. — In population Kansas ranked in 1900 and 1910
(1,690,949) twenty-second in the Union. The decennial in-
creases of population from 1860 to 1900 were 239-9, I73'4> 43'3
and 3-0%, the population in IQCXJ being 1,470,495, or 18 to the
sq. m.2 Of this number 22-5% lived in cities of 2500 or more
inhabitants. Nine cities numbered more than 10,000 inhabi-
tants: Kansas City (51,418), Topeka — the state capital (33,608),
Wichita (24,671), Leavenworth (20,735), Atchison (15,722),
Lawrence — the seat of the state university (10,862), Fort Scott
(10,322), Galena (10,155) and Pittsburg (10,112). The life of
all of these save the last two goes back to Territorial days; but
the importance of Fort Scott, like that of Galena and Pittsburg,
is due to the development of the mineral counties in the south-
east. Other cities of above 5000 inhabitants were Hutchinson
(9379), Emporia (8223), Parsons (7682), Ottawa (6934), Newton
(6208), Arkansas City (6140), Salina (6074), Argentine (5878)
and lola (5791). The number of negroes (3-5%) is somewhat
large for a northern and western state. This is largely owing to
an exodus of coloured people from the South in 1878-1880, at a
time when their condition was an unusually hard one: an exodus
turned mainly toward Kansas. The population is very largely
American-born (91 -4% in 1900; 47-1% being natives of Kansas).
Germans, British, Scandinavians and Russians constitute the
bulk of the foreign-born. The west third of the state is compara-
tively scantily populated, owing to its aridity. In the 'seventies,
after a succession of wet seasons, and again in the 'eighties,
settlement was pushed far westward, beyond the limits of safe
agriculture, but hundreds of settlers — and indeed many entire
communities — were literally starved out by the recurrence of
droughts. Irrigation has made a surer future for limited areas,
however, and the introduction of drought-resisting crops and the
substitution of dairy and livestock interests in the place of
agriculture have brightened the outlook in the western counties,
whose population increased rapidly after 1900. The early
'eighties were made notable by a tremendous " boom " in real
estate, rural and urban, throughout the commonwealth. As
regards the distribution of religious sects, in 1906 there were
458,190 communicants of all denominations, and of this number
121,208 were Methodists (108,097 being Methodist Episcopalians
of the Northern Church), 93,195 were Roman Catholics, 46,299
were Baptists (34,975 being members of the Northern Baptist
Convention and 10,011 of the National (Colored) Baptist Con-
vention), 40,765 were Presbyterians (33,465 being members of
the Northern Church) and 40,356 were Disciples of Christ. The
German-Russian Mennonites, whose immigration became notable
about 1874, furnished at first many examples of communal
economy, but these were later abandoned. In 1906 the total
number of Mennonites was 7445, of whom 3581 were members
of the General Conference of Mennonites of North America, 1825
belonged to the Schellenberger Bruder-gemeinde, and the others
were distributed among seven other sects.
2 According to the state census Kansas had in 1905 a total
population of 1,544,968; nearly 28% lived in cities of 2500 or more
inhabitants; 13 cities had more than 10,000 inhabitants: Kansas
City (67,614), Topeka (37,641), Wichita (31,110), Leavenworth
(20,934), Atchison (18,159), Pittsburg (15,012), Coffeyville (13,196),
Fort Scott (12,248), Parsons (11,720), Lawrence (11,708), Hutchinson
(11,215), Independence (11,206), and lola (10,287). Other cities of
above 5000 inhabitants each were: Chanute (9704), Emporia (8974),
Winfield (7845), Salina (7829), Ottawa (7727), Arkansas City (7634),
Newton (6601), Galena (6449), Argentine (6053), Junction City (5264)
and Cherry vale (5089).
KANSAS
657
Government.— The constitution is that adopted at Wyandotte
on the 2gth of July 1859 and ratified by the people on the 4th
of October 1859; it came into operation on the 2gth of January
1861, and was amended in 1861, 1864, 1867, 1873, 1875, 1876,
1880, 1888, 1900, 1902, 1904 and 1906. An amendment may
be proposed by either branch of the legislature, and, if approved
by two-thirds of the members elected to each house as well
as by a majority of the electors voting on it at a general
election, it is adopted. A constitutional convention to revise or
amend the constitution may be called in the same manner.
Universal manhood suffrage is the rule, but women may vote in
school and municipal elections, Kansas being the first state to
grant women municipal suffrage as well as the right to hold
municipal offices (1887). General elections to state, county and
township offices are biennial, in even-numbered years, and take
place on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November.
The state executive officers are a governor, lieutenant-governor,
secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, attorney-general and super-
intendent of public instruction, all elected for a term of two
years. The governor appoints, with the approval of the Senate,
a board of public works and some other administrative boards,
and he may veto any bill from the legislature, which cannot
thereafter become a law unless again approved by two-thirds of
the members elected to each house.
The legislature, consisting of a Senate and a House of Repre-
sentatives, meets in regular session at Topeka, the capital, on the
second Tuesday of January in odd-numbered years. The
membership of the senate is limited to 40, and that of the house
of representatives to 125. Senators are elected for four years
and representatives for two years. In regular sessions not ex-
ceeding fifty days and in special sessions not exceeding thirty
days the members of both houses are paid three dollars a day
besides an allowance for travelling expenses, but they receive no
compensation for the extra time of longer sessions. In 1908 a
direct primary law was passed applicable to all nominations
except for presidential electors, school district officers and officers
in cities of less than 5000 inhabitants; like public elections the
primaries are made a public charge; nomination is by petition
signed by a certain percentage (for state office, at least i%; for
district office, at least 2%; for sub-district or county office, at
least 3%) of the party vote; the direct nominating system
applies to the candidates for the United States Senate, the
nominee chosen by the direct primaries of each party being the
nominee of the party.
The judicial power is vested in one supreme court, thirty-eight
district courts, one probate court for each county, and two or more
justices of the peace for each township. All justices are elected:
those of the supreme court, seven in number, for six years, two or
three every two years; those of the district courts for four years; and
those of the probate courts and the justices of the peace for two
years. The more important affairs of each county are managed by
a board of commissioners, who are elected by districts for four years,
but each county elects also a clerk, a treasurer, a probate judge, a
register of deeds, a sheriff, a coroner, an attorney, a clerk of the
district court, and a surveyor, and the district court for the county
appoints a county auditor. The township officers, all elected for
two years, are a trustee, a clerk, a treasurer, two or more justices of
the peace, two constables and one road overseer for each road
district. Cities are governed under a general law, but by this law
they are divided into three classes according to size, and the govern-
ment is different for each class. Those having a population of more
than 15,000 constitute the first class, those having a population of
more than 2000 but not more than 15,000 constitute the second class,
and those having a population not exceeding 2000 constitute the
third class. Municipal elections are far removed from those of the
state, being held in odd-numbered years in April. In cities of the
first class the state law requires the election of a mayor, city clerk,
city treasurer, police judge and councilmen; in those of the second
class it requires the election of a mayor, police judge, city treasurer,
councilmen, board of education, justices of the peace and constables;
and in those of the third class it requires the election of a mayor,
police judge and councilmen. Several other offices provided for
in each class are filled by the appointment of the mayor.
The principal grounds for a divorce in Kansas are adultery,
extreme cruelty, habitual drunkenness, abandonment for one year,
gross neglect of duty, and imprisonment in the penitentiary as a
felon subsequent to marriage, but the applicant for a divorce must
have resided in the state the entire year preceding the presentment
of the petition. A married woman has the same rights to her
property after marriage as before marriage, except that she is not
permitted to bequeath away from her husband more than one-half
of it without his written consent, and no will made by the husband
can affect the right of the wife, if she survive him, to one-half of
the property of which he died seized. Whenever a husband dies
intestate, leaving a farm or a houae and lot in a town or city which
was the residence of the family at his death, his widow, widow and
children, or children alone if there be no widow, may hold the same
as a homestead to the extent of 160 acres if it be a farm, or one acre
if it be a town or city lot. A homestead of this size is exempt from
levy for the debts of the intestate except in case of an incumbrance
given by consent of both husband and wife, or of obligations for
purchase money, or of liens for making improvements, and the
homestead of a family cannot be alienated without the joint consent
of husband and wife. The homestead status ceases, however,
whenever the widow marries again or when all the children arrive
at the age of majority. An eight-hour labour law was passed in
1891 and was upheld by the state supreme court. In 1909 a law was
passed for state regulation of fire insurance rates (except in the case
of farmers' mutuals insuring farm property only) and forbidding
local discrimination of rates within the state. In the same year a
law was passed requiring that any corporation acting as a common
carrier in the state must receive the permission of the state board
of railway commissioners for the issue of stocks, bonds or other
evidences of indebtedness.
The manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors except for
medical, scientific and mechanical purposes were prohibited by a
constitutional amendment adopted in 1880. The Murray liquor
law of 1 88 1, providing for the enforcement of the amendment, was
declared constitutional by the state supreme court in 1883. At
many sessions of the legislature its enemies vainly attempted its
repeal. It was more seriously threatened in 1890 by the " Original
Package Decision," of the United States Supreme Court, the
decision, namely, that the state law could not apply to liquor
introduced into Kansas from another state and sold from the
original package, such inter-state commerce being within the exclu-
sive jurisdiction of Congress. That body thereupon gave Kansas
the power needed, and its action was upheld by the Federal Supreme
Court. The enforcement of the law has varied, however, enormously
according to the locality. In 1906-1907 a fresh crusade to enforce
the law was begun by the attorney-general, who brought ouster
suits against the mayors of Wichita, Junction City, Pittsburg and
Leavenworth for not enforcing the law and for replacing it with
the " fine " system, which was merely an irregular licence. In 1907
the attorney-general's office turned its attention to outside brewing
companies doing business in the state and secured injunctions against
such breweries doing business in the state and the appointment of
receivers of their property. The provision of the law permitting
the sale of whisky for medicinal, scientific or mechanical purposes
was repealed by a law of 1909 prohibiting the sale, manufacture or
barter of spirituous, malt, vinous or any other intoxicating liquors
within the state. The severity of this law was ascribed to efforts
of the liquor interests to render it objectionable.
The constitution forbids the Contraction of a state debt exceeding
$1,000,000. The actual debt on the 3Oth of June 1908 was $605,000,
which was a permanent school fund. Taxation is on the general-
property system. The entire system has been — as in other states
where it prevails — extremely irregular and arbitrary as regards local
assessments, and very imperfect ; and the figures of total valuation (in
1880 $160,570,761, in 1890 $347,717,218, in 1906 $408,329,749, and
in 1908, when it was supposed to be the actual valuation of all taxable
property, $2,453,691,859), though significant of taxation methods,
are not significant of the general condition or progress of the
state.
Education. — Of higher educational institutions, the state supports
the university of Kansas at Lawrence (1866), an agricultural college
at Manhattan (1863; aided by the United States government); a
normal school at Emporia (1865), a western branch of the same at
Hays (1902); a manual training normal school (1903) at Pittsburg,
western university (Quindaro) for negroes and the Topeka indus-
trial and educational institute (1896, reorganized on the plan of
Tuskegee institute in 1900) also for negroes. The university of
Kansas was organized in 1864 and opened in 1866. Its engineering
department was established in 1870, its normal department in 1876
(abolished 1885), its department of music in 1877, its department of
law in 1878, and the department of pharmacy in 1885; in 1891 the
preparatory department was abolished and the university was re-
organized with " schools " in place of the former " departments."
In 1899 a school of medicine was established, in connexion with
which the Eleanor Taylor Bell memorial hospital was erected in
1905. In 1907-1908 the university had a faculty of 211, an enrol-
ment of 2063 (1361 men and 702 women); the university library
contained 60,000 volumes and 37,000 pamphlets. An efficient com-
pulsory education law was passed in 1903. Kansas ranks very high
among the states in its small percentage of illiteracy (inability to
write) — in 1900 only 2-9% of persons at least ten years of age; the
figures for native whites, foreign whites and negroes being respectively
1-3, 8-5, 22-3. In addition to the state schools, various flourishing
private or denominational institutions are maintained. The largest
658
KANSAS
of these are the Kansas Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal,
1886) at Salina and Baker University (Methodist Episcopal, 1858) at
Baldwin. Among the many smaller colleges are Washburn College
(Congregational, 1869) at Topeka, the Southwest Kansas College
(Methodist Episcopal, opened 1886) at Winfield, the College of Em-
poria (Presbyterian, 1883) at Emporia, Bethany College (Lutheran,
l88i)at Lindsborg, Fairmount College (non-sectarian, 1895) at Wich-
ita, St Mary 'sCollege(RomanCatholic, 1869)3! St Mary's, and Ottawa
University (Baptist, 1865) at Ottawa. At Topeka is the College of
the Sisters of Bethany (Protestant Episcopal, 1861) for women.
There are also various small professional schools and private normal
schools. An industrial school for Indian children is maintained by
the United States near Lawrence (Haskell Institute, 1884). Among
the state charitable and reformatory institutions are state hospitals
for the insane at Topeka and Osawatomie and a hospital for epileptics
at Parsons; industrial reform schools for girls at Beloit, for boys at
Topeka, and for criminals under twenty-five at Hutchinson; a
penitentiary at Lansing; a soldiers' orphans' home at Atchison and
a soldiers' home at Dodge City ; and schools for feeble-minded youth
at Winfield, for the deaf at Olathe, and for the blind at Kansas
City. These institutions are under the supervision of a state board
of control. The state contributes also to many institutions on a
private basis. Most of the counties maintain poor farms and
administer outdoor relief, and some care for insane patients at the
cost of the state.
History. — The territory now included in Kansas was first
visited by Europeans in 1541, when Francisco de Coronado led his
Spaniards from New Mexico across the buffalo plains in search
of the wealth of " Quivira," a region located by Bandelier and
other authorities in Kansas north-east of the Great Bend of the
Arkansas. Thereafter, save for a brief French occupation, 1710-
1725, and possibly slight explorations equally inconsequential,
Kansas remained in undisturbed' possession of the Indians until in
1 803 it passed to the United States (all save the part west of 100°
long, and south of the Arkansas river) as part of the Louisiana
Purchase. The explorations for the United States of Z. M. Pike
(1807) and S. H. Long (1819) tended to confirm old ideas of sandy
wastes west of the Mississippi. But with the establishment of
prairie commerce to Santa Fe (New Mexico), the waves of
emigration to the Mormon land and to California, the growth of
traffic to Salt Lake, and the explorations for a transcontinental
railway, Kansas became well known, and was taken out of that
mythical " Great American Desert," in which, thanks especially
to Pike and to Washington Irving, it had been supposed to lie.
The trade with Santa Fe began about 1804, although regular
caravans were begun only about 1825. This trade is one of the
most picturesque chapters in border history, and picturesque in
retrospect, too, is the army of emigrants crossing the continent
in " prairie schooners " to California or Utah, of whom almost
all went through Kansas.
But this movement of hunters, trappers, traders, Mormons,
miners and homeseekers left nothing to show of settlement in
Kansas, for which, therefore, the succession of Territorial govern-
ments organized for the northern portion of the Louisiana
Purchase had no real significance. Before 1854 Kansas was an
Indian land, although on its Indian reservations (created in its
east part for eastern tribes removed thither after 1830) some few
whites resided: missionaries, blacksmiths, agents, farmers
supposed to teach the Indians agriculture, and land " squatters,"
— possibly 800 in all. Fort Leavenworth was established in
1827, Fort Scott in 1842, Fort Riley in 1853. There were
Methodist (1829), Baptist, Quaker, Catholic and Presbyterian
missions active by 1837. Importunities to Congress to institute
a Territorial government began in 1852. This was realized by
the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854.
By that Act Kansas (which from 1854 to 1861 included a large
part of Colorado) became, for almost a decade, the storm centre of
national political passion, and her history of prime significance
in the unfolding prologue of the Civil War. Despite the Mis-
souri Compromise, which had prohibited slavery in the Louisiana
Purchase N. of 36° 30' N. lat. (except in Missouri), slaves were
living at the missions and elsewhere, among Indians and whites,
in 1834. The " popular sovereignty " principle of the Kansas-
Nebraska Bill involved a sectional struggle for the new Territory.
Time showed that the winning of Kansas was a question of the
lightest-footed immigrant. Slaveholders were not footloose;
they had all to lose if they should carry their blacks into Kansas
and should nevertheless fail to make it a slave-state. Thus the
South had to establish slavery by other than actual slaveholders,
unless Missouri should act for her to establish it. But Missouri
did not move her slaves; while her vicinity encouraged border
partisans to seek such establishment even without residence —
by intimidation, election frauds and outrage. This determined
at once the nature of the Kansas struggle and its outcome;
and after the South had played and lost in Kansas, " the war
for the Union caught up and nationalized the verdict of the
Territorial broil."
In the summer of 1854 Missouri " squatters " began to post
claims to border lands and warn away intending anti-slavery
settlers. The immigration of these from the North was fostered
in every way, notably through the New England Emigrant Aid
Company (see LAWRENCE, A. A.), whose example was widely imi-
tated. Little organized effort was made in the South to settle the
Territory; Lawrence (Wakarusa) and Topeka, free-state centres,
and Leavenworth, Lecompton and Atchison, pro-slavery towns,
were among those settled in 1854.
At the first election (Nov. 1854), held for a delegate to Con-
gress, some 1 700 armed Missourians invaded Kansas and stuffed
the ballot boxes; and this intimidation and fraud was practised
on a much larger scale in the election of a Territorial legislature
in March 1855. The resultant legislature (at Pawnee, later at
Shawnee Mission) adopted the laws of Missouri almost en bloc,
made it a felony to utter a word against slavery, made extreme
pro-slavery views a qualification for office, declared death the
penalty for aiding a slave to escape, and in general repudiated
liberty for its opponents. The radical free-state men thereupon
began the importation of rifles. All criticism of this is incon-
sequent;" fighting gear " was notoriously the only effective asset
of Missourians in Kansas, every Southern band in Kansas was
militarily organized and armed, and the free-state men armed
only under necessity. Furthermore, a free-state "government "
was set up, the " bogus " legislature at Shawnee being " repu-
diated." Perfecting their organization in a series of popular
conventions, they adopted (Dec. 1855) the Topeka Constitution
— which declared the exclusion of negroes from Kansas — elected
state officials, and sent a contestant delegate to Congress.
The Topeka " government " was simply a craftily impressive
organization, a standing protest. It met now and then, and
directed sentiment, being twice dispersed by United States
troops; but it passed no laws, and did nothing that conflicted
with the Territorial government countenanced by Congress.
On the other hand, the laws of the " bogus " legislature were
generally ignored by the free-state partisans, except in cases
(e.g. the service of a writ) where that was impossible without
apparent actual rebellion against the authority of the legisla-
ture, and therefore of Congress.
Meanwhile the " border war " began. During the (almost
bloodless) " Wakarusa War " Lawrence was threatened by an
armed force from Missouri, but was saved by the intervention
of Governor Shannon. Up to this time the initiative and the
bulk of outrages lay assuredly heavily on the pro-slavery side;
hereafter they became increasingly common and more evenly
divided. In May 1856 another Missouri force entered Lawrence
without resistance, destroyed its printing offices, wrecked build-
ings and pillaged generally. This was the day before the assault
on Charles Sumner (q.v.) in the Senate of the United States.
These two outrages fired Northern passion and determination.
In Kansas they were a stimulus to the most radical elements.
Immediately after the sack of Lawrence, John Brown and a small
band murdered and mutilated five pro-slavery men, on Potta-
watomie Creek; a horrible deed, showing a new spirit on the free-
state side, and of ghastly consequence — for it contributed power-
fully to widen further the licence of highway robbery, pillage and
arson, the ruin of homes, the driving off of settlers, marauding
expeditions, attacks on towns, outrages in short of every kind,
that made the following months a welter of lawlessness and
crime, until Governor Geary — by putting himself above all
partisanship, repudiating Missouri, and using Federal troops —
KANSAS
659
put an end to them late in 1856. (In the isolated south-eastern
counties they continued through 1856-1858, mainly to the
advantage of the " jay-hawkers " of free-state Kansas and to
the terror of Missouri.)
The struggle now passed into another phase, in which questions
of state predominate. But something may be remarked in
passing of the leaders in the period of turbulence. John Brown
wished to deal a blow against slavery, but did nothing to aid any
conservative political organization to that end. James H.
Lane was another radical, and always favoured force. He was
a political adventurer, an enthusiastic, energetic, ambitious, ill-
balanced man, shrewd and magnetic. He assuredly did much
for the free-state cause; meek politics were not alone sufficient
in those years in Kansas. The leader of the conservative free-
soilers was Charles Robinson (1818-1894). He was born in
Massachusetts, studied medicine at the Berkshire Medical
School, and had had political experience in California, whither
he had gone in 1849, and where in 1850-1852 he was a member of
the legislature and a successful anti-slavery leader. In 1854 he
had come to Kansas as an agent of the Emigrant Aid Company.
He was the author of the Topeka government idea, or at least
was its moving spirit, serving throughout as the " governor "
under it; though averse to force, he would use it if necessary,
and was first in command in the " Wakarusa War." His par-
tisans say that he saved Kansas, and regard Lane as a fomenter
of trouble who accomplished nothing. Andrew H. Reeder
(1807-1864), who showed himself a pro-slavery sympathizer
as first Territorial governor, was removed from office for favour-
ing the free-state party; he became a leader in the free-state
cause. Every governor who followed him was forced by the
logic of events and truth tacitly to acknowledge that right lay
with the free-state party. Reeder and Shannon fled the Terri-
tory in fear of assassination by the pro-slavery party, with which
at first they had had most sympathy. Among the pro-slavery
leaders David Rice Atchison (1807-1886), United States Senator
in 1843-1855, accompanied both expeditions against Lawrence;
but he urged moderation, as always, at the end of what was a
legitimate result of his radical agitation.
In June 1857 delegates were elected to a constitutional con-
vention. The election Act did not provide for any popular vote
upon the constitution they should form, and was passed over
Governor John W. Geary's veto. A census, miserably deficient
(largely owing to free-state abstention and obstruction), was
the basis of apportionment of delegates. The free-state party
demanded a popular vote on the constitution. On the justice of
this Governor Robert J. Walker and President Buchanan were at
first unequivocally agreed, and the governor promised fairplay.
Nevertheless only pro-slavery men voted, and the convention
was thus pro-slavery. The document it framed is known as the
Lecompton Constitution. Before the convention met, the free-
state party, abandoning its policy of political inaction, captured
the Territorial legislature. On the constitutional convention
rested, then, all hope of saving Kansas for slavery; and that
would be impossible if they should submit their handiwork to
the people. The convention declared slave property to be
" before and higher than any constitutional sanction " and for-
bade amendments affecting it; but it provided for a popular
vote on the alternatives, the " constitution with slavery " or
the " constitution with no slavery." If the latter should be
adopted, slavery should cease " except " that the right to pro-
perty in slaves in the Territory should not be interfered with.
The free-state men regarded this as including the right to
property in offspring of slaves, and therefore as pure fraud.
Governor Walker stood firmly against this iniquitous scheme;
he saw that slavery was, otherwise, doomed, but he thought
Kansas could be saved to the Democratic party though lost to
slavery. But President Buchanan, under Southern influence,
repudiated his former assurances. There is reason to believe
that the whole scheme was originated at Washington, and though
Buchanan was not privy to it before the event, yet he adopted
it. He abandoned Walker, who left Kansas; and he dismissed
Acting-Governor Frederick P. Stanton for convoking the (now
free-state) legislature. This body promptly ordered a vote on
the third alternative, " Against the Constitution."
The free-state men ignored the alternatives set by the Lecomp-
ton Convention; but they participated nevertheless in the pro-
visional election tor officers under the Lecompton government,
capturing all offices, and then, the same day, voted overwhelm-
ingly against the constitution (Jan. 4, 1858).
Nevertheless, Buchanan, against the urgent counsel of Gover-
nor Denver, urged on Congress (Feb. 2) the admission of
Kansas under the Lecompton Constitution. He was opposed by
Senator Stephen A. Douglas, the leader of the Northern Demo-
cracy. The Senate upheld the President; the House of Repre-
sentatives voted down his policy ; and finally both houses accepted
the English Bill, by which Kansas was virtually offered some
millions of acres of public lands if she should accept the Lecomp-
ton Constitution.1 On the 2ist of August 1858, by a vote of
1 1,300 to 1788, Kansas resisted this temptation. The plan of the
Administration thus effectually miscarried, and its final result
was a profound split in the Democratic party.
The free-state men framed an excellent anti-slavery consti-
tution at Leavenworth in March-April 1858, but the origins
of the convention were illegal and their work was still-born.
On the 29th of July 1859 still another constitution was therefore
framed at Wyandotte, and on the 4th of October it was ratified
by the people. Meanwhile the Topeka " government " dis-
appeared, and also, with its single purpose equally served, the
free-state party, most of it (once largely Democratic) passing
into the Republican party, now first organized in the Territory.
On the 2gth of January 1861 Kansas was admitted to the Union
under the Wyandotte Constitution. The United States Census
of 1860 gave her a population of 107,204 inhabitants. The
struggle in Kansas, the first physical national struggle over
slavery, was of paramounf importance in the breaking up of the
Whig party, the firm establishment of an uncompromisingly
anti-slavery party, the sectionalization of the Democracy, and
the general preparation of the country for the Civil War.
Drought and famine came in 1860, and then upon the impover-
ished state came the strain of the Civil War. Nevertheless Kansas
furnished proportionally a very large quota of men to the Union
armies. Military operations within her own borders were largely
confined to a guerrilla warfare, carrying on the bitter neighbour-
hood strife between Kansas and Missouri. The Confederate
officers began by repressing predatory plundering from Missouri ;
but after James H. Lane, with an undisciplined brigade, had
crossed the border, sacking, burning and killing in his progress,
Missouri " bushrangers " retaliated in kind. Freebooters trained
in Territorial licence had a free hand on both sides. Kansas bands
were long the more successful. But William C. Quantrell, after
sacking various small Kansas towns along the Missouri river
(1862-63), in August 1863 took Lawrence (q.v.) and put it
mercilessly to fire and sword — the most ghastly episode in border
history. In the autumn of 1864 the Confederate general,
Sterling Price, aiming to enter Kansas from Missouri but de-
feated by General Pleasanton's cavalry, retreated southward, zig-
zagging on both sides of the Missouri-Kansas line. This ended
for Kansas the border raids and the war. Lane was probably
the first United States officer to enlist negroes as soldiers. Many
of them (and Indians too) fought bravely for the state. Indian
raids and wars troubled the state from 1864 to 1878. The tribes
domiciled in Kansas were rapidly moved to Indian Territory
after 1868.
1 The English Bill was not a bribe to the degree that it has usually
been considered to be, inasmuch as it " reduced the grant of land
demanded by the Lecompton Ordinance from 23,500,000 acres to
3,500,000 acres, and offered only the normal cession to new states."
But this grant of 3,500,000 acres was conditioned on the acceptance
of the Lecompton Constitution, and Congress made no promise of
any grant if that Constitution were not adopted. The bill was
introduced by William Hayden English (1822-1896), a Democratic
representative in Congress in 1853-1861 (see Frank H. Hodder,
" Some Aspects of the English Bill for the Admission of Kansas,"
in Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the
Year 1906, i. 201-210).
66o
KANSAS CITY
After the Civil War the Republicans held uninterrupted
supremacy in national elections, and almost as complete control
in the state government, until 1892. From about 1870 onward,
however, elements of reform and of discontent were embodied
in a succession of radical parties of protest. Prohibition arose
thus, was accepted by the Republicans, and passed into the con-
stitution. Woman suffrage became a vital political issue. Much
legislation has been passed to control the railways. General
control of the media of commerce, economic co-operation, tax
reform, banking reforms, legislation against monopolies, disposal
of state lands, legislation in aid of the farmer and labourer, have
been issues of one party or another. The movement of the
Patrons of Industry (1874), growing into the Grange, Farmers'
Alliance, and finally into the People's (Populist) party (see
FARMERS' MOVEMENT), was perhaps of greatest importance. In
conjunction with the Democrats the Populists controlled the
state government in 1892-1894 and 1896-1898. These two
parties decidedly outnumbered the Republicans at the polls from
1890-1898, but they could win only by fusion. In 1892-1893,
when the Populists elected the governor and the Senate, and
the Republicans (as the courts eventually determined) the House
of Representatives, political passion was so high as to threaten
armed conflicts in the capital. The Australian ballot was
introduced in 1893. In the decade following 1880, struggles in
the western counties for the location of county seats (the bitter-
est local political fights known in western states) repeatedly led
to bloodshed and the interference of state militia.
TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS *
Andrew H. Reeder July 7, l854-Aug. 16, '55
Sept. 7, 1855-Aug. 18, '56
Sept. 9, i8s6-Mar. 12, '57
May 27, l857-Nov. 16, '57
May 12, i8s8-Oct. 10, '58
Dec. 1 8, I8s8-Dec. 17, '60
Acting Governors *
Aggregate
Daniel Woodson 5 times (164 days) Apr. 17, i855~Apr. 16, '57
Frederick P. Stanton 2 „ ( 78 „ ) Apr. 16, l857-Dec. 21, '57
James W. Denver I „ ( 23 „ ) Dec. 21, i857-May 12, '58
Hugh S. Walsh 4(5?),, (177 - ) July 3. i8s8-June 16, '60
George M. Beebe 2 „ (131 „ ) Sept. II, l86o-Feb. 9, '61
STATE GOVERNORS
Charles Robinson Republican
Thomas Carney
Samuel J. Crawford
N. Green (to fill vacancy)
James M. Harvey
Thomas A. Osborn
George T. Anthony
John P. St John
George W. Click
John A. Martin
Lyman U. Humphrey
Lorenzo D. Lewelling Populist
Republican
Democrat- Populist
Republican
Wilson Shannon
John W. Geary
Robert J. Walker
James W. Denver
Samuel Medary
Democrat
Republican
Edmund N. Morrill
John W. Leedy
W. E. Stanley
Willis J. Bailey
Edward W. Hoch
Walter R. Stubbs
1861-1863
1863-1865
1865-1869
1869 (3 months)
1869-1873
1873-1877
1877-1879
1879-1883
1883-1885
1885-1889
1889-1893
1893-1895
1895-1897
1897-1899
1899-1903
1903-1905
1905-1909
IQOQ-
AUTHORITIES. — Consult for physiographic descriptions general
works on the United States, exploration, surveys, &c., also paper by
George I. Adams in American Geographical Society, Bulletin 34
(1902), pp. 89-104. Onclimate see U.S. Department of Agriculture,
' Crop Service (monthly, since 1887). On soil and
Kansas Climate and
...'..'.. of the State
Board of Agriculture; Experiment Station Bulletin of the Kansas
Agricultural College (Manhattan) ; and statistics in the United States
Statistical Abstract (annual, Washington), and Federal Census
reports. On manufactures see Federal Census reports; Kansas
Bureau of Labor and Industry, Annual Report (1885 seq.) ; Kansas
Inspector of Coal Mines, Annual Report (1887 seq.). On administra-
tion consult the State of Kansas Blue Book (Topeka, periodical), and
1 Terms of actual service in Kansas, not period of commissions.
The appointment was for four years. Reeder was removed, all the
others resigned.
2 Secretaries of the Territory who served as governors in the
interims of gubernatorial terms or when the governor was absent
from the Territory. In the case of H. S. Walsh several dates cannot
be fixed with exactness.
reports of the various state officers (Treasurer, annum, then biennial
since 1 877-1 878 ; Board of Trusteesof State Charities and Corrections,
biennial, 1877-1878 seq.; State Board of Health, founded 1885,
annual, then biennial reports since 1901-1902; Bureau of Labor
Statistics, founded 1885, annual reports; Irrigation Commission,
organized 1895, annual reports, &c.). On taxation see Report and
Bill of the State Tax Commission, created 1901 (Topeka, 1901). On
the history of the state, see A. T. Andreas, History of Kansas (Chicago,
1883 ; compiled mainly by J. C. Hebbard) ; D. W. Wilder's Annals of
Kansas (Topeka, 1875 and later.), indispensable for reference;
L. W. Spring's Kansas (Boston, 1885, in the American Common-
wealth Series) ; Charles Robinson, The Kansas Conflict (New York,
1892); Eli Thayer, The Kansas Crusade (New York, 1889); the
Proceedings of the Kansas State Historical Society (Topeka, 1891
seq.), full of the most valuable material; W. E. Connelley, Kansas
Territorial Governors (Topeka, 1900); W. E. Miller, The Peopling of
Kansas (Columbus, O., 1906), a doctoral dissertation of Columbia
University; and for the controversy touching John Brown, G. W.
Brown's The Truth at Last, Reminiscences of Old John Brown (Rock-
ford, 111., 1880), and W. E. Connelley, An Appeal to the Record . . .
Refuting . . . Things Written for . . . Charles Robinson and G. W.
Brown (Topeka, 1903). W. C. Webb's Republican Election Methods
in Kansas, General Election of 1892, and Legislative Investigations
(Topeka, 1893) may also be mentioned.
KANSAS CITY, a city and the county-seat of Wyandotte
county, Kansas, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Missouri River, at
the mouth of the Kansas, altitude about 800 ft. It is separated
from its greater neighbour, Kansas City, Missouri, only by the
state line, and is the largest city in the state. Pop. (1890),
38,315; (1900), 51,418, of whom 6,377 were foreign-born and
6509 were negroes; (1910 census) 82,331. It is served by the
Union Pacific, the Missouri Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island
& Pacific, and the Chicago Great Western railways, and by
electric lines connecting with Leavenworth and with Kansas
City, Missouri. There are several bridges across the Kansas
river. The city covers the low, level bottom-land at the junction
of the two rivers, and spreads over the surrounding highlands to
the W., the principal residential district. Its plan is regular.
The first effective steps toward a city park and boulevard system
were taken in 1907, when a board of park commissioners, consist-
ing of three members, was appointed by the mayor. The city
has been divided into the South Park District and the North
Park District, and at the close of 1908 there were 10 m. of
boulevards and parks aggregating 1 60 acres. A massive steel and
concrete toll viaduct, about if m. in length, extends from the
bluffs of Kansas City, Kan., across the Kansas valley to tiie bluffs
of Kansas City, Mo., and is used by pedestrians, vehicles and
street cars. There is a fine public library building given by
Andrew Carnegie. The charities of the city are co-ordinated
through the associated charities. Among charitable state-aided
institutions are the St Margaret's hospital (Roman Catholic),
Bethany hospital (Methodist), a children's home (1893), and,
for negroes, the Douglass hospital training school for nurses
(1898) — the last the largest private charity of the state. The
medical department of the Kansas state university, the other
departments of which are in Lawrence, is in Kansas City; and
among the other educational institutions of the city are the
Western university and industrial school (a co-educational school
for negroes), the Kansas City Baptist theological seminary
(1902), and the Kansas City university (Methodist Protestant,
1896) , which had 454 students in 1908-1909 and comprises Mather
college (for liberal arts), Wilson high school (preparatory), a
school of elocution and oratory (in Kansas City, Mo.), a Normal
School, Kansas City Hahnemann Medical College (in Kansas
City, Mo.), and a school of theology. The city is the seat of the
Kansas (State) school for the blind. Kansas City is one of the
largest cities in the country without a drinking saloon. Indus-
trially the city is important for its stockyards and its meat-packing
interests. With the exception of Chicago, it is the largest live-
stock market in the United States. The product-value of the
city's factories in 1905 was $96,473,050; 93-5% consisting of
the product of the wholesale slaughtering and meat-packing
houses. Especially in the South-west markets Kansas City
has an advantage over Chicago, St Louis, and other large pack-
ing centres (except St Joseph), not only in freights, but in its
situation among the "corn and beef" states; it shares also the
KANSAS CITY
661
extraordinary railway facilities of Kansas City, Missouri. There
are various important manufactures, such as soap and candles,
subsidiary to the packing industry; and the city has large flour
mills, railway and machine shops, and foundries. A large
cotton-mill, producing coarse fabrics, was opened in 1907.
Natural gas derived from the Kansas fields became available for
lighting and heating, and crude oil for fuel, in 1906.
Kansas City was founded in 1886 by the consolidation of " old "
Kansas City, Armourdale and Wyandotte (in which Armstrong
and Riverview were then included). Of these municipalities
Wyandotte, the oldest, was originally settled by the Wyandotte
Indians in 1843; it was platted and settled by whites in 1857;
and was incorporated as a town in 1858, and as a city in 1859. At
Wyandotte were made the first moves for the Territorial organi-
zation of Kansas and Nebraska. During the Kansas struggle
Wyandotte was a pro-slavery town, while Quindaro (1856),
a few miles up the Missouri, was a free-state settlement and
Wyandotte's commercial rival until after the Civil War. The
convention that framed the constitution, the Wyandotte Con-
stitution, under which Kansas was admitted to the Union,
met here in July 1859. " Old " Kansas City was surveyed in
1869 and was incorporated as a city in 1872. Armourdale was
laid out in 1880 and incorporated in 1882. The packing
interest was first established in 1867; the first large packing
plant was that of Armour & Co., which was removed to what is
now Kansas City in 1871. Kansas City adopted government by
commission in 1909.
KANSAS CITY, a city and port of entry of Jackson county,
Missouri, U.S.A., the second in size and importance in the state,
situated at the confluence of the Missouri and Kansas rivers,
adjoining Kansas City, Kansas, and 235 m. W. by N. of St
Louis. Pop. (1890), 132,716; (1900), 163,752, of whom 18,410
were foreign born (German, 4816; Irish, 3507; Swedish, 1869;
English, 1863; English-Canadian, 1369; Italian, 1034), and
17,567 were negroes; (1910 census) 248,381. Kansas City, the
gateway to the South-west, is one of the leading railway centres
of the United States. It is served by the Union Pacific, the
Missouri Pacific, the 'Frisco System, the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago Great
Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago &
Alton, the Wabash, the Kansas City Southern, the Chicago,
Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Leaven-
worth, Kansas & Western, the Kansas City, Mexico & Orient,
the St Louis, Kansas City & Colorado, the Quincy, Omaha &
Kansas City, and the St Joseph & Grand Island railways, and
by steamboat lines to numerous river ports.
The present retail, office, and wholesale sections were once high
bluffs and deep ravines, but through and across these well graded
streets were constructed. South and west of this highland,
along the Kansas river, is a low, level tract occupied chiefly by
railway yards, stock yards, wholesale houses and manufacturing
establishments; north «and east of the highland is a flat section,
the Missouri River bottoms, occupied largely by manufactories,
railway yards, grain elevators and homes of employes. Much
high and dry " made " land has been reclaimed from the river
flood-plain. Two great railway bridges across the Missouri,
many smaller bridges across the Kansas, and a great inter-
state toll viaduct extending from bluff to bluff across the valley
of the latter river, lie within the metropolitan area of the two
cities. The streets of the Missouri city are generally wide
and excellently paved. The city-hall (1890-1893), the court-
house (1888-1892), and the Federal Building (1892-1900) are
the most imposing of the public buildings. A convention
hall, 314 ft. long and 198 ft. wide, with a seating capacity of
about 15,000, is covered by a steel-frame roof without a column
for its support; the exterior of the walls is cut stone and brick.
The building was erected within three months, to replace one
destroyed by fire, for the National Democratic Convention
which met here on the 4th of July 1900. The Public Library
with walls of white limestone and Texas granite, contained (1908)
95,000 volumes. The Congregational, the Calvary Baptist, the
Second Presbyterian, the Independence Avenue Christian, the
Independence Avenue Methodist, and the Second Christian
Science churches are the finest church buildings. The board
of trade building, the building of the Star newspaper, and several
large office buildings (including the Scarritt, Long, and New
York Life Insurance buildings) are worthy of mention.
Kansas City has over 2000 acres in public parks; but Swope
Park, containing 1354 acres, lies south of the city limits. The
others are distributed with a design to give each section a recrea-
tion ground within easy walking distance, and all (including
Swope) are connected by parkways, boulevards and street-car
lines. The Paseo Parkway, 250 ft. wide, extends from N. to S.
through the centre of the city for a distance of 2 1 m., and adjoin-
ing it near its middle is the Parade, or principal playground.
The city has eight cemeteries, the largest of which are Union,
Elmwood, Mt Washington, St Mary's and Forest Hill. The
charitable institutions and professional schools included in 1908
about thirty hospitals, several children's homes and homes for
the aged, an industrial home, the Kansas City school of law,
the University medical college, and the Scarritt training school.
The city has an excellent public school system. A Methodist
Episcopal institutional church, admirably equipped, was opened
in 1906. The city has a juvenile court, and maintains a free
employment bureau.
Kansas City is primarily a commercial centre, and its trade in
livestock, grain and agricultural implements is especially large.
The annual pure-bred livestock show is of national importance.
The city's factory product increased from $23,588,653 in 1900
to $35>573>°49 m I9°S, or 50-8 %. Natural gas and crude
petroleum from Kansas fields became of industrial importance
about 1906. Natural gas is used to light the residence streets
and to heat many of the residences.
Kansas City is one of the few cities in the United States em-
powered to frame its own charter. The first was adopted in
1875 and the second in 1889. In 1905 a new charter, drawn on
the lines of the model " municipal program " advocated by the
National Municipal League, was submitted to popular vote, but
was defeated by the influence of the saloons and other special
interests. The charter of 1908 is a revision of this proposed
charter of 1905 with the objectionable features eliminated; it
was adopted by a large majority vote. Under the provisions
of the charter of 1908 the people elect a mayor, city treasurer,
city comptroller, and judges of the municipal court, each for a
term of two years. The legislative body is the common council
composed of two houses, each having as many members as there
are wards in the city — 14 in 1908. The members of the lower
house are elected, one by each ward, in the spring of each even
numbered year. The upper house members are elected by the city
at large and serve four years. A board of public works, board
of park commissioners, board of fire and water commissioners,
a board of civil service, a city counsellor, a city auditor, a city
assessor, a purchasing agent, and subordinate officers, are ap-
pointed by the mayor, without confirmation by the common
council. A non-partisan board composed of citizens who must
not be physicians has general control of the city's hospitals and
health department. A new hospital at a cost of half a million
dollars was completed in 1908. The charter provides for a
referendum vote on franchises, which may be ordered by the
council or by petition of the people, the signatures of 20% of the
registered voters being sufficient to force such election. Public
work may be prevented by remonstrance of interested property
owners except in certain instances, when the city, by vote of the
people, may overrule all remonstrances. A civic league attempts
to give a non-partisan estimate of all municipal candidates.
The juvenile court, the arts and tenement commissions-, the
municipal employment bureau, and a park board are provided
for by the charter. All the members of the city board of
election commissioners and a majority of the police board are
appointed by the governor of the state; and the police control
the grant of liquor licences. The city is supplied with water
drawn from the Missouri river above the mouth of the Kansas
or Kaw (which is used as a sewer by Kansas City, Kan.);
the main pumping station and settling basins being at
662
KANSK— KANT
Quindaro, several miles up the river in Kansas; whence the water
is carried beneath the Kansas, through a tunnel, to a high-pres-
sure distributing station in the west bottoms. The waterworks
(direct pressure system) were acquired by the city in 1895. All
other public services are in private hands. The street-railway
service is based on a universal 5-cent transfer throughout the
metropolitan area. Some of the first overhead electric trolleys
used in the United States were used here in 1885.
The first permanent settlement within the present limits of
Kansas City, which took its name from Kansas river,1 was
established by French fur traders about 1821. Westport, a
little inland town — platted 1833, a city 1857, merged in
Kansas City in 1899 — now a fashionable residence district
of Kansas City — was a rival of Independence in the Santa Fe
trade which she gained almost in tola in 1844 when the great
Missouri flood (the greatest the river has known) destroyed
the river landing utilized by Independence. Meanwhile, what
is now Kansas City, and was then Westport Landing, being on
the river where a swift current wore a rocky shore, steadily
increased in importance and overshadowed Westport. But in
1838 lots were surveyed and the name changed to the Town of
Kansas. It was officially organized in part in 1^47, formally
incorporated as atown in 1850, chartered under its present name
in 1853, rechartered in 1875, in 1889 and in 1908. Before 1850
it was practically the exclusive eastern terminus on the river for
the Santa Fe trade,2 and a great outfitting point for Californian
emigrants. The history of this border trade is full of picturesque
colour. During the Civil War both Independence and Westport
were the scene of battles; Kansas City escaped, but her trade
went to Leavenworth, where it had the protection of an army
post and a quiet frontier. After the war the railways came,
taking away the traffic to Santa Fe, and other cities farther up
the Missouri river took over the trade to its upper valley. In
1866 Kansas City was entered by the first railway from St Louis;
1867 saw the beginning of the packing industry; in 1869 a railway
bridge across the Missouri assured it predominance over Leaven-
worth and St Joseph; and since that time — save for a depression
shortly after 1890, following a real-estate boom — the material
progress of the city has been remarkable; the population in-
creased from 4418 in 1860 to 32,260 in 1870, 55.785 in 1880, and
132,716 in 1890.
See T. S. Case (ed.), History of Kansas City, Missouri (Syracuse,
1888) ; William Griffith, History of Kansas City (Kansas City, 1900) ;
for industrial history, the Greater Kansas City Yearbook (1907 seq.);
for all features of municipal interest, the Kansas City Annual
{Kansas City, 1907 seq.), prepared for the Business Men's League.
KANSK, a town of eastern Siberia, in the government of
Yeniseisk, 151 m. by rail E. of Krasnoyarsk, on the Kan River,
a tributary of the Yenisei, and on the Siberian highway. Pop.
(1897), 7504. It is the chief town of a district in which gold
is found, but lies on low ground subject to inundation by the
river.
KAN-SUH, a north-western province of China, bounded N. by
Mongolia, E. by Shen-si, S. by Szech'uen, W. by Tibet and N.W.
by Turkestan. The boundary on the N. remains undefined, but
the province may be said to occupy the territory lying between
32° 30' and 40° N., and 108° and 98° 20' E., and to contain about
26o,ooosq.m. The population is estimated at 9, 800,000. Western
Kan-suh is mountainous, and largely a wilderness of sand and
snow, but east of the Hwang-ho the country is cultivated. The
principal river is the Hwang-ho, and in the mountains to the
south of Lan-chow Fu rises the Wei-ho, which traverses Shen-si
and flows into the Hwang-ho at Tung-kwan. The chief products
" Kansas " — in archaic variants of spelling and pronunciation,
" Kansaw," and still called, locally and colloquially, the " Kaw."
2 Before Kansas City, first Old Franklin (opposite Boonville), then
Ft. Osage, Liberty, Sibley, Lexington, Independence and Westport
had successively been abandoned as terminals, as the transfer-
point from boat to prairie caravan was moved steadily up the
Missouri. Whisky, groceries, prints and notions were staples sent
to Santa F6; wool, buffalo robes and dried buffalo meat, Mexican
silver coin, gold and silver dust and ore came in return. In 1860
the trade employed 3000 wagons and 7000 men, and amounted to
millions of dollars in value.
of Kan-suh are cloth, horse hides, a kind of curd like butter which
is known by the Mongols under the name of ivuta, musk, plums,
onions, dates, sweet melons and medicines. (See CHINA.)
KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804), German philosopher, was
born at Konigsberg on the 22nd of April 1724. His grandfather
was an emigrant from Scotland, and the name Cant is not un-
common in the north of Scotland, whence the family is said to
have come. His father was a saddler in Konigsberg, then a
stronghold of Pietism, to the strong influence of which Kant was
subjected in his early years. In his tenth year he was entered
at the Collegium Fredericianum with the definite view of studying
theology. His inclination at this time was towards classics, and
he was recognized, with his school-fellow, David Ruhnken, as
among the most promising classical scholars of the college. His
taste for the greater Latin authors, particularly Lucretius, was
never lost, and he acquired at school an unusual facility in Latin
composition. With Greek authors he does not appear to have
been equally familiar. During his university course, which
began in 1740, Kant was principally attracted towards mathe-
matics and physics. The lectures on classics do not seem to have
satisfied him, and, though he attended courses on theology, and
even preached on one or two occasions, he appears finally to have
given up the intention of entering the Church. The last years
of his university studies were much disturbed by poverty. His
'father died in 1746, and for nine years he was compelled to
earn his own living as a private tutor. Although he disliked
the life and was not specially qualified for it — as he used to say
regarding the excellent precepts of his Padagogik, he was never
able to apply them — yet he added to his other accomplishments
a grace and polish which he displayed ever afterwards to a
degree somewhat unusual in a philosopher by profession.
In 1755 Kant became tutor in the family of Count Kayserling.
By the kindness of a friend named Richter, he was enabled to
resume his university career, and in the autumn of that year he
graduated as doctor and qualified as privatdocent. For fifteen
years he continued to labour in this position, his fame as writer
and lecturer steadily increasing. Though twice he failed to
obtain a professorship at Konigsberg, he steadily refused ap-
pointments elsewhere. The only academic preferment received
by him during the lengthy probation was the post of under-
librarian (1766). His lectures, at first mainly upon physics,
gradually expanded until nearly all descriptions of philosophy
were included under them.
In 1770 he obtained the chair of logic and metaphysics at
Konigsberg, and delivered as his inaugural address the disserta-
tion De mundi sensibilis el intelligibilis forma et principiis.
Eleven years later appeared the Kritik of Pure Reason, the work
towards which he had been steadily advancing, and of which all
his later writings are developments. In 1783 he published the
Prolegomena, intended as an introduction to the Kritik, which
had been found to stand in need of some explanatory comment.
A second edition of the Kritik, with some modifications, appeared
in 1787, after which it remained unaltered.
In spite of its frequent obscurity, its novel terminology, and
its declared opposition to prevailing systems, the Kantian philo-
sophy made rapid progress in Germany. In the course of ten
or twelve years from the publication of the Kritik of Pure Reason,
it was expounded in all the leading universities, and it even
penetrated into the schools of the Church of Rome. Such men
as J. Schulz in Konigsberg, J. G. Kiesewetter in Berlin, Jakob
in Halle, Born and A. L. Heydenreich in Leipzig, K. L. Reinhold
and E. Schmid in Jena, Buhle in Gottingen, Tennemann in
Marburg, and Snell in Giessen, with many others, made it the
basis of their philosophical teaching, while theologians like
Tieftrunk, Staudlin, and Ammon eagerly applied it to Christian
doctrine and morality. Young men flocked to Konigsberg as to
a shrine of philosophy. The Prussian Government even under-
took the expense of their support. Kant was hailed by some
as a second Messiah. He was consulted as an oracle on all
questions of casuistry — as, for example, on the lawfulness of
inoculation for the small-pox. This universal homage for a long
time left Kant unaffected; it was only in his later years that he
KANT
663
spoke of his system as the limit of philosophy, and resented all
further progress. He still pursued his quiet round of lecturing
and authorship, and contributed from time to time papers to
the literary journals. Of these, among the most remarkable was
his review of Herder's Philosophy of History, which greatly
exasperated that author, and led to a violent act of retaliation
some years after in his Metakritik of Pure Reason. Schiller at
this period in vain sought to engage Kant upon his Horen. He
remained true to the Berlin Journal, in which most of his
criticisms appeared.
In 1792 Kant, in the full height of his reputation, was involved
in a collision with the Government on the question of his religious
doctrines. Naturally his philosophy had excited the declared
opposition of all adherents of historical Christianity, since its
plain tendency was towards a moral rationalism, and it could not
be reconciled to the literal doctrines of the Lutheran Church.
It would have been much better to permit his exposition of the
philosophy of religion to enjoy the same literary rights as his
earlier works, since Kant could not be interdicted without first
silencing a multitude of theologians who were at least equally
separated from positive Christianity. The Government, how-
ever, judged otherwise; and after the first part of his book, On
Religion within the Limits of Reason alone, had appeared in the
Berlin Journal, the publication of the remainder, which treats
in a more rationalizing style of the peculiarities of Christianity,
was forbidden. Kant, thus shut out from Berlin, availed himself
of his local privilege, and, with the sanction of the theological
faculty of his own university, published the full work in Konigs-
berg. The Government, probably influenced as much by hatred
and fear of the French Revolution, of which Kant was supposed
to be a partisan, as by love of orthodoxy, resented the act; and
a secret cabinet order was received by him intimating the dis-
pleasure of the king, Frederick William II., and exacting a pledge
not to lecture or write at all on religious subjects in future. With
this mandate Kant, after a struggle, complied, and kept his
engagement till 1797, when the death of the king, according to
his construction of his promise, set him free. This incident, how-
ever, produced a very unfavourable effect on his spirits. He
withdrew in 1 794 from society; next year he gave up all his classes
but one public lecture en logic or metaphysics; and in 1 797, before
the removal of the interdict on his theological teaching, he ceased
altogether his public labours, after an academic course of forty-
two years. He previously, in the same year, finished his treatises
on the Metaphysics of Ethics, which, with his Anthropology, com-
pleted in 1798, were the last considerable works that he revised
with his own hand. His Lectures on Logic, on Physical Geography,
on Paedagogics, were edited during his lifetime by his friends and
pupils. By way of asserting his right to resume theological
disquisition, he also issued in 1798 his Strife of the Faculties, in
which all the strongest points of his work on religion were urged
afresh, and the correspondence that had passed between himself
and his censors was given to the world.
From the date of his retirement from the chair Kant declined
in strength, and gave tokens of intellectual decay. His memory
began to fail, and a large work at which he wrought night and
day, on the connexion between physics and metaphysics, was
found to be only a repetition of his already published doctrines.
After 1802, finding himself attacked with a weakness in the limbs
attended with frequent fits of falling, he mitigated the Spartan
severity of his life, and consented to receive medical advice. A
constant restlessness oppressed him; his sight gave way; his
conversation became an extraordinary mixture of metaphors;
and it was only at intervals that gleams of his former power
broke out, especially when some old chord of association was
struck in natural science or physical geography. A few days
before his decease, with a great effort he thanked his medical
attendant for his visits in the words, " I have not yet lost my
feeling for humanity." On the i2th of February 1804 he died,
having almost completed his eightieth year. His stature was
small, and his appearance feeble. He was little more than five
feet high; his breast was almost concave, and, like Schleier-
macher, he was deformed in the right shoulder. His senses were
quick and delicate; and, though of weak constitution, he escaped
by strict regimen all serious illness.
His life was arranged with mechanical regularity; and, as he
never married, he kept the habits of his studious youth to old
age. His man-servant, who awoke him summer and winter at
five o'clock, testified that he had not once failed in thirty years
to respond to the call. After rising he studied for two hours,
then lectured other two, and spent the rest of the forenoon, till
one, at his desk. He then dined at a restaurant, which he fre-
quently changed, to avoid the influx of strangers, who crowded
to see and hear him. This was his only regular meal; and he
often prolonged the conversation till late in the afternoon. He
then walked out for at least an hour in all weathers, and spent
the evening in lighter reading, except an hour or two devoted
to the preparation of his next day's lectures, after which he
retired between nine and ten to rest. In his earlier years he often
spent his evenings in general society, where his knowledge and
conversational talents made him the life of every party. He was
especially intimate with the families of two English merchants
of the name of Green and Motherby, where he found many
opportunities of meeting ship-captains, and other travelled
persons, and thus gratifying his passion for physical geography.
This social circle included also the celebrated J. G. Hamann, the
friend of Herder and Jacobi, who was thus a mediator between
Kant and these philosophical adversaries.
Kant's reading was of the most extensive and miscellaneous
kind. He cared comparatively little for the history of specula-
tion, but his acquaintance with books of science, general history,
travels and belles lettres was boundless. He was well versed in
English literature, chiefly of the age of Queen Anne, and had read
English philosophy from Locke to Hume, and the Scottish school.
He was at home in Voltaire and Rousseau, but had little or no
acquaintance with the French sensational philosophy. He was
familiar with all German literature up to the date of his Kritik,
but ceased to follow it in its great development by Goethe and
Schiller. It was his habit to obtain books in sheets from his
publishers Kanter and Nicolovius; and he read over for many
years all the new works in their catalogue, in order to keep abreast
of universal knowledge. He was fond of newspapers and works
on politics; and this was the only kind of reading that could
interrupt his studies in philosophy.
As a lecturer, Kant avoided altogether that rigid style in which
his books were written. He sat behind a low desk, with a few
jottings on slips of paper, or textbooks marked on the margin,
before him, and delivered an extemporaneous address, opening
up the subject by partial glimpses, and with many anecdotes or
familiar illustrations, till a complete idea of it was presented.
His voice was extremely weak, but sometimes rose into eloquence,
and always commanded perfect silence. Though kind to his
students, he refused to remit their fees, as this, he thought, would
discourage independence. It was another principle that his
chief exertions should be bestowed on the intermediate class of
talent, as the geniuses would help themselves, and the dunces
were beyond remedy.
Simple, honourable, truthful, kind-hearted and high-minded
as Kant was in all moral respects, he was somewhat deficient in
theregion of sentiment. Hehadlittle enthusiasm for the beauties
of nature, and indeed never sailed out into the Baltic, or travelled
more than 40 miles from Konigsberg. Music he disregarded, and
all poetry that was more than sententious prose. His ethics have
been reproached with some justice as setting up too low an ideal
for the female sex. Though faithful in a high degree to the duties
of friendship, he could not bear to visit his friends in sickness,
and after their death he repressed all allusion to their memory.
His engrossing intellectual labours no doubt tended somewhat
to harden his character; and in his zeal for rectitude of purpose
he forgot the part which affection and sentiment must ever play
in the human constitution.
On the 1 2th of February 1904, the hundredth anniversary
of Kant's death, a Kantian society (Kanlgesellschafi) was formed
at Halle under the leadership of Professor H. Vaihinger to
promote Kantian studies. In 1909 it had an annual membership
664
KANT
of 191; it supports the periodical Kantstudien (founded 1896;
see BIBLIOGRAPHY, ad init.).
THE WRITINGS OF KANT
No other thinker of modern times has been throughout his work
so penetrated with the fundamental conceptions of physical science;
no other has been able to hold with such firmness the balance
between empirical and speculative ideas. Beyond all question much
of the influence which the critical philosophy has exercised and
continues to exercise must be ascribed to this characteristic feature
in the training of its great author.
The early writings of Kant are almost without exception on
questions of physical science. It was only by degrees that philo-
sophical problems began to engage his attention, and that the main
portion of his literary activity was turned towards them. The
following are the most important of the works which bear directly
on physical science.
1. Gedanken von der wahren Schdtzung der lebendigen Krdfte (1747) ;
an essay dealing with the famous dispute between the Cartesians
and Leibnitzians regarding the expression for the amount of a force.
According to the Cartesians, this quantity was directly proportional
to velocity; according to their opponents, it varied with the square
of the velocity. The dispute has now lost its interest, for physicists
have learned to distinguish accurately the two quantities which are
vaguely included under the expression amount of force, and conse-
quently have been able to show in what each party was correct and
in what it was in error. Kant's essay, with some fallacious explana-
tions and divisions, criticizes acutely the arguments of the Leib-
nitzians, and concludes with an attempt to show that both modes
of expression are correct when correctly limited and interpreted.
2. Whether the Earth in its Revolution has experienced some Change
since the Earliest Times (1754; ed. and trans., W. Hastie, 1900,
Kant's Cosmogony; cf. Lord Kelvin in The Age of the Earth, 1897,
p. 7). In this brief essay Kant throws out a notion which has since
been carried out, in ignorance of Kant's priority, by Delaunay(l865)
and Adams. He points out that the action of the moon in raising
the waters of the earth must have a secondary effect in the slight
retardation of the earth's motion, and refers to a similar cause the
fact that the moon turns always the same face to the earth.
3. Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels, published
anonymously in 1755 (4th ed. 1808; republished H. Ebert, 1890).
In this remarkable work Kant, proceeding from the Newtonian
conception of the solar system, extends his consideration to the
entire sidereal system, points out how the whole may be mechanically
regarded, and throws out the important speculation which has since
received the title of the nebular hypothesis. In some details, such
e.g. as the regarding of the motion of the entire solar system as
portion of the general cosmical mechanism, he had predecessors,
among others Thomas Wright of Durham, but the work as a whole
contains a wonderfully acute anticipation of much that was after-
wards carried out by Herschel and Laplace. The hypothesis of the
original nebular condition of the system, with the consequent
explanation of the great phenomena of planetary formations and
movements of the satellites and rings, is unquestionably to be
assigned to Kant. (On this question see discussion in W. Hastie's
Kant's Cosmogony, as above.)
4. Meditationum quarundam de igne succincta delineatio (1755):
an inaugural dissertation, containing little beyond the notion that
bodies operate on one another through the medium of a uniformly
diffused, elastic and subtle matter (ether) which is the underlying
substance of heat and light. Both heat and light are regarded as
vibrations of this diffused ether.
5. On the Causes of Earthquakes (1755); Description of the Earth-
quake of if '$ 5 (1756); Consideration of some Recently Experienced
Earthquakes (1756).
6. Explanatory Remarks on the Theory of the Winds (1756). In
this brief tract, Kant, apparently in entire ignorance of the explana-
tion given in 1735 by Hadley, points out how the varying velocity of
rotation of the successive zones of the earth's surface furnishes a key
to the phenomena of periodic winds. His theory is in almost entire
agreement with that now received. See the parallel statements
from Kant's tract and Dove's essay on the influence of the rotation
of the earth on the flow of its atmosphere (1835), given in Zollner's
work, Ueber die Natur der Cometen, pp. 477-482.
7. On the Different Races of Men (1775); Determination of the
Notion of a Human Race (1785); Conjectural Beginning of Human
History (1786): three tracts containing some points of interest as
regards the empirical grounds for Kant's doctrine of teleology.
Reference will be made to them in the notice of the Kritih of
Judgment.
8. On the Volcanoes in the Moon ( 1 78 5) ; On the Influence of the Moon
on the Weather (1794). The second of these contains a remarkable
discussion of the relation between the centre of the moon's figure and
its centre of gravity. From the difference between these Kant is
led to conjecture that the climatic conditions of the side of the moon
turned from us must be altogether unlike those of the face presented
to us. His views have been restated by Hansen.
9. Lectures on Physical Geography (1822): published from notes of
Kant's lectures, with the approval of the author.
Consideration of these works is sufficient to show that Kant's
mastery of the science of his time was complete and thorough, and
that his philosophy is to be dealt with as having throughout a
reference to general scientific conceptions. For more detailed
treatment of his importance in science, reference may be made to
Zollner's essay on " Kant and his Merits on Natural Science " con-
tained in the work on the Nature of Comets (pp. 426-484) ; to Dietrich,
Kant and Newton-, Schultze, Kant and Darwin; Reuschle's careful
analysis of the scientific works in the Deutsche Vierteljahrs-Schrift
(1868); W. Hastie's introduction to Kant's Cosmogony (1900), which
summarizes criticism to that date; and articles in Kant-Sludien
(1896 foil.).
The notice of the philosophical writings of Kant need not be more
than bibliographical, as in the account of his philosophy it will be
necessary to consider at some length the successive stages in the
development of his thought. Arranged chronologically these works
are as follows: —
1755. Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae novae
dilucidatio.
1756. Metaphysicae cum geometria junctae usus in philosophia
naturali, cujus specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam.
1762. Die falsche Spitzfindigkeii der mer syltogistischen Figuren,
" The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures " (trans. T. K.
Abbott, Kant's Introduction to Logic and his Essay on the Mistaken
Subtilty of the Figures, 1885).
1763. Versuch den Begriff der negativen Grossen in die Weltweisheit
einzufuhren, " Attempt to introduce the Notion of Negative Quan-
tities into Philosophy."
1763. Der einzig mogliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des
Daseins Gottes, " The only possible Foundation for a Demonstration
of the Existence of God. '
1764. Beobachtungen uber das Gefilhl des Schonen und Erhabenen
(Riga, 1771; Konigsberg, 1776).
1764. Untersuchung uber die Deutlichkeit der Grundsatze der natur-
lichen Theologie und Moral, " Essay on the Evidence (Clearness) of
the Fundamental Propositions of Natural Theology and Ethics."
1766. Trdume eines Geistersehers, erldutert durch Trdume der
Metaphysik, " Dreams of a Ghost-seer (or Clairvoyant), explained
by the Dreams of Metaphysic " (Eng. trans. E. F. Goerwitz, with
introd. by F. Sewall, 1900).
1768. Von dent ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im
Raum, " Foundation for the Distinction of Positions in Space."
The above may all be regarded as belonging to the precritical
period of Kant's development. The following introduce the notions
and principles characteristic of the critical philosophy.
1770. De mundi sensibilis et intelligibilis forma et principiis.
1781. Kritik der reinen Vernunft, " Kritik of Pure Reason "
(revised ed. 1787; ed. Vaihinger, 1881 foil, and B. Erdmann, 1900;
Eng. trans., F. Max Miiller, 1896, 2nd ed. 1907, and J. M. D.
Meiklejohn, 1854).
1783. Prolegomena zu einer jeden kunftigen Metaphysik die als
Wissenschaft wird auftreten konnen, " Prolegomena to all Future
Metaphysic which may present itself as Science " (ed. B. Erdmann,
1878; Eng. trans. J. P. Mahaffy and J. H. Bernard, 2nd ed. 1889;
Belfort Bax, 1883 and Paul Carus, 1902; and cf. M. Apel, Kommentar
zu Kanls Prolegomena, 1908).
1784. Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte im weltbiirgerlicher
Absichi, " Notion of a Universal History in a Cosmopolitan Sense."
With this may be coupled the review of Herder in I78JJ.
1785. Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitlen, Foundations of
the Metaphysic of Ethics " (see T. K. Abbott, Fundamental Principles
of the Metaphysic of Ethics, 3rd ed. 1907).
1786. Metaphysische Anfangsgrunde der Naturwissenschaft, " Meta-
physical Elements of Natural Science " (ed. A. Hofler, 1900; trans.
Belfort Bax, Prolegomena and Metaphysical Foundations, 1883).
1788. Ueber den Gebrauch teleologischer Prinzipien in der
Philosophie, " On the Employment of Teleological Principles in
Philosophy."
1788. Kritik der praktischen Vernunft, " Kritik of Practical
Reason " (trans. T. K. Abbott, ed. 1898).
1790. Kritik der Urtheilskraft, " Kritik of Judgment " (trans,
with notes I. H. Bernard, 1892).
1790. Ueber eine Entdeckung, nach der alle neue Kritik der reinen
Vernunft durch eine dltere entbehrlich gemacht werden soil, " On a
Discovery by which all the recent Critique of Pure Reason is super-
seded by a more ancient " (i.e by Leibnitz's philosophy).
1791. Ueber die wirklichen Forlschrilte der Metaphysik seit Leibnitz
und Wolff, " On the Real Advances of Metaphysics since Leibnitz
and Wolff " ; and Ueber das Misslingen oiler philosophischen Versuche
in der Theodicee.
1793. Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft,
" Religion within the Bounds of Reason only " (Eng. trans. J. W.
Semple, 1838).
1794. Ueber Philosophie iiberhaupt, "On Philosophy generally,"
and Das Ende oiler Dinge.
1795. Zum ewigen Frieden (Eng. trans., M. Campbell Smith, 1903).
1797. Metaphysische Anfangsgrunde der Rechtslehre (trans. W
Hastie), and Metaphysische Anfangsgrunde der Tugendlehre.
1798. Der Streit der Facultdten, " Contest of the Faculties."
1798. Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht.
KANT
665
The Kantian Philosophy.1
Historians are accustomed to divide the general current of
speculation into epochs or periods marked by the dominance of some
single philosophic conception with its systematic evolution. Perjiaps
in no case is the character of an epoch more clearly apparent than
in that of the critical philosophy. The great work of Kant absolutely
closed the lines of speculation along which the philosophical literature
of the l8th century had proceeded, and substituted for them a new
and more comprehensive method of regarding the essential problems
of thought, a method which has prescribed the course of philosophic
speculation in the present age. The critical system has thus a two-
fold aspect. It takes up into itself what had characterized the
previous efforts of modern thought, shows the imperfect nature of
the fundamental notions therein employed, and offers a new solution
of the problems to which these notions had been applied. It opens
up a new series of questions upon which subsequent philosophic
reflection has been directed, and gives to them the form, under
which it is possible that they should be fruitfully regarded. A work
of this kind is essentially epoch-making.
In any complete account of the Kantian system it is therefore
necessary that there should be constant reference, on the one hand,
to the peculiar character of the preceding 18th-century philosophy,
and, on the other hand, to the problems left for renewed treatment
to more modern thought. Fortunately the development of the
Kantian system itself furnishes such treatment as is necessary of
the former reference. For the critical philosophy was a work of
slow growth. In the early writings of Kant we are able to trace
with great definiteness the successive stages through which he passed
from the notions of the preceding philosophy to the new and com-
prehensive method which gives its special character to the critical
work. Scarcely any great mind, it has been said with justice, ever
matured so slowly. In the early essays we find the principles of
the current philosophies, those of Leibnitz and English empiricism,
applied in various directions to those problems which serve as tests
of their truth and completeness; we note the appearance of the
difficulties or contradictions which manifest the one-sidedness or
imperfection of the principle applied; and we can trace the gradual
growth of the new conceptions which were destined, in the completed
system, to take the place of the earlier method. To understand the
Kantian work it is indispensable to trace the history of its growth
in the mind of its author.
Of the two preceding stages of modern philosophy, only the
second, that of Locke and Leibnitz , seems to have influenced
practically the course of Kant's speculation. With the Cartesian
movement as a whole he shows little acquaintance and no sympathy,
and his own philosophic conception is never brought into relation
with the systematic treatment of metaphysical problems charac-
teristic of the Cartesian method. The fundamental question for
• philosophic reflection presented itself to him in the form which it
had assumed in the hands of Locke and his successors in England,
of Leibnitz and the Leibnitzian school in Germany. The transition
from the Cartesian movement to this second stage of modern thought
had 'doubtless been natural and indeed necessary. Nevertheless the
full bearings of the philosophic question were somewhat obscured by
the comparatively limited fashion in which it was then regarded
The tendency towards what may be technically called subjectivism
a tendency which differentiates the modern from the ancient methoc
of speculation, is expressed in Locke and Leibnitz in a definite and
peculiar fashion. However widely the two systems differ in details
they are at one in a certain fundamental conception which dominate:
the whole course of their philosophic construction. They are through
out individualist, i.e. they accept as given fact the existence of the
concrete thinking subject, and endeavour to show how this subject
as an individual conscious being, is related to the wider universe o
which he forms part. In dealing with such a problem, there an
evidently two lines along which investigation may proceed It ma;
be asked how the individual mind comes to know himself and tin
system of things with which he is connected, how the varied content
of his experience are to be accounted for, and what certaint}
attaches to his subjective consciousness of things. Regarded from
the individualist point of view, this line of inquiry becomes purely
psychological, and the answer may be presented as it was presented
by Locke, in the fashion of a natural history of the growth of con
scious experience in the mind of the subject. Or, it may be furthe
asked how is the individual really connected with the system o
things apparently disclosed to him in conscious experience? what i
the precise significance of the existence which he ascribes both t
himself and to the objects of experience ? what is the nature of th
relation between himself as one part of the system, and the system
as a whole ? This second inquiry is specifically metaphysical in
bearing and the kind of answer furnished to it by Leibnitz on th
one hand by Berkeley on the other, is in fact prescribed or deter
mined beforehand by the fundamental conception of the mdivi
dualist method with which both begin their investigations, So soo
as we make clear to ourselves the essential nature of this method
we are able to discern the specific difficulties or perplexities ansm
1 See further IDEALISM; METAPHYSICS; LOGIC, &c., where Kant
relation to subsequent thought is discussed.
n the attempt to carry it out systematically, and thus to note with
recisipn the special problems presented to Kant at the out*
is philosophic reflections.
Consider, first, the application of the method on its psychological
idc, as it appears in Locke. Starting with the assumption of
onscious experience as the content or filling-m of the individual
mind, Locke proceeds to explain its genesis and nature by reference
o the real universe of things and its mechanical operation upon the
mind. The result of the interaction of mind, i.e. the individual
mind, and the system of things, is conscious experience, consisting
f ideas, which may be variously compounded, divided, compared,
>r dealt with by the subjective faculties or powers with which the
ntity, Mind, is supposed to be endowed. Matter of fact and matter
>f knowledge are thus at a stroke dissevered. The very notion of
elation between mind and things leads at once to the counter notion
of the absolute restriction of mind to its own subjective nature.
That Locke was unable to reconcile these opposed notions is not
urprising; that the difficulties and obscurities of the Essay arise
rom the impossibility of reconciling them is evident on the slightest
:onsideration of the main positions of that work. Of these difficulties
he philosophies of Berkeley and Hume are systematic treatments,
n Berkeley we find the resolute determination to accept only the
one notion, that of mind as restricted to its own conscious experience,
and to attempt by this means to explain the nature of the external
reality to which obscure reference is made. Any success in the
attempt is due only to the fact that Berkeley introduces alongside
of his individualist notion a totally new conception, that of mind
tself as not in the same way one of the matters of conscious experi-
ence, but as capable of reflection upon the whole of experience and
of reference to the supreme mind as the ground of all reality. It is
only in Hume that we have definitely and completely the evolution
of the individualist notion as groundwork of a theory of knowledge ;
and it is in his writings, therefore, that we may expect to find the
'undamental difficulty of that notion clearly apparent. It is not a
ittle remarkable that we should find in Hume, not only the sceptical
dissolution of all fixity of cognition, which is the inevitable result
of the individualist method, but also the clearest consciousness of
the very root of the difficulty. The systematic application of the
doctrine that conscious experience consists only of isolated objects
of knowledge, impressions or ideas, leads Hume to distinguish
between truths reached by analysis and truths which involve real
connexion of the objects of knowledge. The first he is willing to
accept without further inquiry, though it is an error to suppose, as
Kant seems to have supposed, that he regarded mathematical
propositions as coming under this head (see HUME) ; with respect to
the second, he finds himself, and confesses that he finds himself,
hopelessly at fault. No real connexion;, between isolated objects
of experience are perceived by us. No single matter of fact neces-
sarily implies the existence of any other. In short, if the difficulty
be put in its ultimate form, no existence thought as a distinct
individual can transcend itself, or imply relation to any other
existence. If the parts of conscious experience are regarded as so
many distinct things, there is no possibility of connecting them other
than contingently, if at all. If the individual mind be really
thought as individual, it is impossible to explain how it should have
knowledge or consciousness at all. " In short," says Hume, "there
are two principles which I cannot render consistent, nor is it in my
power to renounce either of them, viz. that all our distinct perceptions
are distinct existences, and that the mind never perceives any real
connexion among distinct existences. Did our perceptions either
inhere in something simple or individual, or did the mind perceive
some real connexion among them, there would be no difficulty in
the case " (App. to Treatise of Human Nature).
Thus, on the one hand, the individualist conception, when' carried
out to its full extent, leads to the total negation of all real cognition.
If the real system of things, to which conscious experience has
reference, be regarded as standing in casual relation to this experience
there is no conceivable ground for the extension to reality of the
notions which somehow are involved in thought. The same result
is apparent, on the other hand, when we consider the theory of
knowledge implied in the Leibnitzian individualism. The meta-
physical conception of the monads, each of which is the universe
in nuce, presents insuperable difficulties when the connexion or
interdependence of the monads is in question, and these difficulties
obtrude themselves when the attempt is made to work put a con-
sistent doctrine of cognition. For the whole mass of cognisable fact,
the mundus intelligibilis, is contained impliciter in each monad,
and the several modes of apprehension can only be regarded as so
many stages in the developing consciousness of the monad. Sense
and understanding, real connexion of facts and analysis of notions,
are not, therefore, distinct in kind, but differ only in degree. The
same fundamental axioms, the logical principles of identity and
sufficient reason, are applicable in explanation of all given proposi-
tions. It is true that Leibnitz himself did not work out any com-
plete doctrine of knowledge, but in the hands of his successors the
theory took definite shape in the principle that the whole work of
cognition is in essence analytical. The process of analysis might
be complete or incomplete. For finite intelligences there was an
inevitable incompleteness so far as knowledge of matters of fact was
666
KANT
concerned. In respect to them, the final result was found in a series
of irreducible notions or categories, the prima possibilia, the analysis
and elucidation of which was specifically the business of philosophy
or metaphysics.
It will be observed that, in the Leibnitzian as in the empirical
individualism, the fundamental notion is still that of the abstract
separation of the thinking subject from the materials of conscious
experience. From this separation arise all the difficulties in the
effort to develop the notion systematically, and in tracing the his-
tory of Kant's philosophical progress we are able to discern the
gradual perception on his part that here was to be found the ultimate
cause of the perplexities which became apparent in considering the
subordinate doctrines of the system. The successive essays which
have already been enumerated as composing Kant's precritical work
are not to be regarded as so many imperfect sketches of the doctrines
of the Kritik, nor are we to look in them for anticipations of the
critical view. They are essentially tentative, and exhibit with
unusual clearness the manner in which the difficulties of a received
theory force on a wider and more comprehensive view. There can be
no doubt that some of the special features of the Kritik are to be
found in these precritical essays, e.g. the doctrine of the Aesthetik
is certainly foreshadowed in the Dissertation of 1770; the Kritik,
however, is no patchwork, and what appears in the Dissertation
takes an altogether new form when it is wrought into the more
comprehensive conception of the later treatise.
The particular problem which gave the occasion to the first of
the precritical writings is, in an imperfect or particular fashion, the
fundamental question to which the Kritik is an answer. What is
the nature 9f the distinction between knowledge gained by analysis
of notions and knowledge of matters of fact? Kant seems never to
have been satisfied with the Wolffian identification of logical axioms
and of the principle of sufficient reason. The tract on the False
Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures, in which the view of thought
or reason as analytic is clearly expressed, closes with the significant
division of judgments into those which rest upon the logicaUaxioms
of identity and contradiction and those for which no logical ground
can be shown. Such immediate or indemonstrable judgments, it is
said, abound in our experience. They are, in fact, as Kant presently
perceived, the foundations for all judgments regarding real existence.
It was impossible that the question regarding their nature and
legitimacy and their distinction from analytic judgments should not
present itself to him. The three tracts belonging to the years 1763-
1764 bring forward in the sharpest fashion the essential opposition
between the two classes of judgments. In the Essay on Negative
Quantities, the fundamental thought is the total distinction in kind
between logical opposition (the contradictoriness of notions, which
Kant always viewed as formed, definite products of thought) and
real opposition. For the one adequate explanation is found in the
logical axiom of analytical thinking; for the other no such explanation
is to be had. Logical ground and real ground are totally distinct.
" I can understand perfectly well," says Kant, " how a consequence
follows from its reason according to the law of identity, since it is
discoverable by mere analysis of the notion contained in it. ...
But how something follows from another thing and not according to
the law of identity, this I should gladly have made clear to me. . . .
How shall I comprehend that, since something is, something else
should be?" Real things, in short, are distinct existences, and, as
distinct, not necessarily or logically connected in thought. " I have,"
he proceeds, " reflected on the nature of our knowledge in relation
to our judgment of reason and consequent, and I intend to expound
fully the result of my reflections. It follows from them that the
relation of a real ground to that which is thereby posited or denied
cannot be expressed by a judgment but only by means of a notion,
which by analysis may certainly be reduced to yet simpler notions
of real grounds, but yet in such a way that the final resort of all our
cognition in this regard must be found in simple and irreducible
notions of real grounds, the relation of which to their consequents
cannot be made clear."
The striking simijarity between Kant's expressions in this Essay
and the remarks with which Hume introduces his analysis cf the
notion of cause has led to the supposition that at this period of
his philosophical career Kant was definitely under the influence
of the earlier empirical thinker. Consideration of the whole passage
is quite sufficient to show the groundlessness of this supposition.
The difficulty with which Kant is presented was one arising inevi-
tably from reflection upon the Leibnitzian theory of knowledge, and
the solution does not in any way go beyond that theory. It is a
solution, in fact, which must have been impossible had the purport
of Hume's empirical doctrine been present to Kant's mind. He is
here at the point at which he remained for many years, accepting
without any criticism certain fundamental notions as required for
real cognition. His ideal of metaphysic is still that of complete
analysis of given notions. No glimmering of the further question,
Whence come these notions and with what right do we apply them
in cognition? is yet apparent. Any direct influence from Hume
must be referred to a later period in his career.
The prize essay On the Principles of Natural Theology and Morals
brings forward the same fundamental opposition — though in a
special form. Here, for the first time, appears definitely the dis-
tinction between synthesis and analysis, and in the distinction is
found the reason for the superior certainty and clearness of mathe-
matics as opposed to philosophy. Mathematics, Kant thinks,
proceeds synthetically, for in it the notions are constructed. Meta-
physics, on the other hand, is analytical in method ; in it the notions
are given, and by analysis they are cleared up. It is to be observed
that the description of mathematics as synthetic is not an anticipa-
tion of the critical doctrine on the same subject. Kant does not,
in this place, raise the question as to the reason for assuming that
the arbitrary syntheses of mathematical construction have any
reference to reality. The deeper significance of synthesis has not
yet become apparent.
In the Only Possible Ground of Proof for the Existence of God, the
argument, though largely Leibnitzian, advances one step farther
towards the ultimate inquiry. For there Kant states as precisely
as in the critique of speculative theology his fundamental doctrine
that real existence is not a predicate to be added in thought to the
conception of a possible subject. So far as subjective thought is con-
cerned, possibility, not real existence, is contained in any judgment.
The year 1765 was marked by the publication of Leibnitz's post-
humous Nouveaux Essais, in which his theory of knowledge is more
fully stated than in any of his previous tracts. In all probability
Kant gave some attention to this work, though no special reference
to it occurs in his writings, and it may have assisted to give addi-
tional precision to his doctrine. In the curious essay, Dreams of a
Clairvoyant, published 1766, he emphasizes his previously reached
conclusion that connexions of real fact are mediated in our thought
by ultimate notions, but adds that the significance and warrant for
such notions can be furnished only by experience. He is inclined,
therefore, to regard as the function of metaphysics the complete
statement of these ultimate, indemonstrable notions, and therefore
the determination of the limits to knowledge by their means. Even
at this point, where he approximates more closely to Hume than to
any other thinker, the difficulty raised by Hume does not seem
to occur to him. He still appears to think that experience does
warrant the employment of such notions, and when there is taken
into account his correspondence with Lambert during the next few
years, one would be inclined to say that the Archilektonik of the
latter represents most completely Kant's idea of philosophy.
On another side Kant had been shaking himself free from the
principles of the Leibnitzian philosophy. According to Leibnitz,
space, the order of coexisting things, resulted from the relations of
monads to one another. But Kant began to see that such a con-
ception did not accord with the manner in which we determine
directions or positions in space. In the curious little essay, On the
Ground of distinguishing Particular Divisions in Space, he pointed
out that the idea of space as a whole is not deducible from the
experience of particular spaces, or particular relations of objects in
space, that we only cognize relations in space by reference to space
as a whole, and finally that definite positions involve reference to
space as a given whole.
The whole development of Kant's thought up to this point is
intelligible when regarded from the Leibnitzian point of view, with
which he started. There appears no reason to conclude that Hume
at this time exercised any direct influence. One may go still
further, and add that even in the Dissertation of 1770, generally
regarded as more than foreshadowing the Kritik, the really critical
question is not involved. A brief notice of the contents of this
tract will suffice to show how far removed Kant yet was from the
methods and principles of the critical or transcendental philosophy.
Sense and understanding, according to the Dissertation, arc the two
sources of knowledge. _ The objects of the one are things of sense
or phenomena; the objects of the other are noumena. These are
absolutely distinct, and are not to be regarded as differing only in
degree. In phenomena we distinguish matter, which is given by
sense, and form, which is the law of the order of sensations. Such
form is twofold — the order of space and time. Sensations formed
by space and time compose the world of appearance, and this when
treated by the understanding, according to logical rules, is experi-
ence. But the logical use of the understanding is not its only use.
Much more important is the real use, by which are produced the
pure notions whereby we think things as they are. These pure
notions are the laws of the operation of the intellect; they are
leges intellectus.
Apart, then, from the expanded treatment of space and time as
subjective forms, we find in the Dissertation little more than the
very precise and definite formulation of the slowly growing opposi-
tion to the Leibnitzian doctrines. That the pure intellectual
notions should be defended as springing from the nature of intellect
is not out of harmony with the statement of the Traume eines
Geistersehers, for there the pure notions were allowed to exist, but
were not held to have validity for actual things except on grounds
of experience. Here they are supposed to exist, dissevered from
experience, and are allowed validity as determinations of things in
themselves.
The stage which Kant had now reached in his philosophical
development was one of great significance. The doctrine of know-
ledge expressed in the Dissertation was the final form which the
Wolffian rationalism could assume for him, and, though many of
the elements of the Kritik are contained therein, it was not really
in advance of the Wolffian theory. The doctrine of space and time
KANT
667
as forms of sense-perception, the reference of both space and time
and the pure intellectual notions to the laws of the activity of mind
itself, the distinction between sense and understanding as one of
kind, not of degree, with the correlative distinction between pheno-
mena and noumena, — all of these reappear, though changed and
modified, in the Kritik. But, despite this resemblance, it seems clear
that, so far as the Dissertation is concerned, the way had only been
prepared for the true critical inquiry, and that the real import of
Hume's sceptical problem had not yet dawned upon Kant. From
the manner, however, in which the doctrine of knowledge had been
stated in the Dissertation, the further inquiry had been rendered
inevitable. It had become quite impossible for Kant to remain
longer satisfied with the ambiguous position assigned to a funda-
mental element of his doctrine of knowledge, the so-called pure
intellectual notions. Those notions, according to the Dissertation,
had no function save in relation to things-in-themselves, i.e. to
objects which are not directly or immediately brought into relation
to our faculty of cognition. They did not serve as the connecting
links of formed experience; on the contrary, they were supposed
to be absolutely dissevered from all experience which was possible
for intelligence like ours. In his previous essays, Kant, while like-
wise maintaining that such pure, irreducible notions existed, had
asserted in general terms that they applied to experience, and that
their applicability or justification rested on experience itself, but
had not raised the question as to the ground of such justification.
Now, from another side, the supreme difficulty was presented — how
could such notions have application to any objects whatsoever?
For some time the correlative difficulty, how objects of sense-
perception were possible, does not seem to have suggested itself
to Kant. In the Dissertation sense-perception had been taken as
receptivity of representations of objects,' and experience as the
product of the treatment of such representations by the logical or
analytical processes of understanding. Some traces of this confused
fashion of regarding sense-perceptions are left even in the Kritik,
specially perhaps in the Aesthetik, and they give rise to much of
the ambiguity which unfortunately attaches to the more developed
theory of cognition. So soon, however, as the critical question was
put, On what rests the reference of representations in us to the object
or thing? in other words, How do we come to have knowledge of
objects at all? it became apparent that the problem was one of
perfect generality, and applied, not only to cognition through the
pure notions, but to sense-perceptions likewise. It is in the state-
ment of this general problem that we find the new and characteristic
feature of Kant's work.
There is thus no reason to doubt the substantial accuracy of Kant's
reference to the particular occasion or cause of the critical inquiry.
Up to the stage indicated by the Dissertation he had been attempting,
in various ways, to unite two radically divergent modes of explaining
cognition — that which would account for the content of experience
by reference to affection from things without us, and that which
viewed the intellect itself as somehow furnished with the means of
pure, rational cognition. He now discovered that Hume's sceptical
analysis of the notion of cause was really the treatment of one
typical or crucial instance of the much more general problem. If
experience, says Hume, consists solely of states of mind somehow
given to us, each of which exists as an effect, and therefore as dis-
tinct from others, with what right do we make the common assump-
tion that parts of experience are necessarily connected ? The only
possible answer, drawn from the premises laid down, must be that
there is no warrant for such an assumption. Necessity for thought,
as Kant had been willing to admit and as Hume also held, involves
or implies something more than is given in experience — for that
which is given is contingent — and rests upon an a priori or pure
notion. But a priori notions, did they exist, could have no claim
to regulate experience. Hume, therefore, for his part, rejected
entirely the notion of cause as being fictitious and delusive, and
professed to account for the habit of regarding experience as neces-
sarily connected by reference to arbitrarily formed custom of
thinking. Experience, as given, contingent material, had a certain
uniformity, and recurring uniformities generated in us the habit of
regarding things as necessarily connected. That such a resort to
experience for explanation could lead to no valid conclusion has
been already noted as evident to Hume himself.
The dogmatic or individualist conception of experience had thus
proved itself inadequate to the solution of Hume's difficulty regarding
the notion of cause, — a difficulty which Kant, erroneously, had
thought to be the only case contemplated by his predecessor. The
perception of its inadequacy in this respect, and the consequent
generalization of Hume's problem, are the essential features of the
new critical method. For Kant was now prepared to formulate
his general inquiry in a definite fashion. His long-continued
reflection on the Wolffian doctrine of knowledge had made clear to
him that synthetic connexion, the essence of real cognition, was
not contained in the products of thinking as a formal activity of
mind operating on material otherwise supplied. On the other hand,
Hume's analysis enabled him to see that synthetic connexion was
not contained in experience regarded as given material. Thus
neither the formal nor the material aspect of conscious experience,
when regarded from the individualist point of view, supplied any
foundation for real knowledge, whether a priori or empirical. An
absolutely new conception of experience was necessary, if the fact
of cognition was to be explained at all, and the various modes in
which Kant expresses the business of his critical philosophy were
merely different fashions of stating the one ultimate problem, differ-
ing according to the particular aspect of knowledge which he
happened to have in view. To inquire how synthetic a priori
judgments are possible, or how far cognition extends, or what
worth attaches to metaphysical propositions, is simply to ask, in
a specific form, what elements are necessarily involved in experience
of which the subject is conscious. How is it possible for the indivi-
dual thinking subject to connect together the parts of his experience
in the mode we call cognition?
The problem of the critical philosophy is, therefore, the complete
analysis of experience from the point of view of the conditions under
which such experience is possible for the conscious subject. The
central ideas are thus self-consciousness, as the supreme condition
under which experience is subjectively possible, and the manifold
details of experience as a varied and complex whole. The solution
of the problem demanded the utmost care in keeping the due
balance between these ideas; and it can hardly be said that Kant
was perfectly successful. He is frequently untrue to the more
comprehensive conception which dominates his work as a whole.
The influence of his previous philosophical training, nay, even the
unconscious influence of terminology, frequently induces in his
statements a certain laxity and want of clearness. He selects
definitely for his starting point neither the idea of self-consciousness
nor the 'details of experience, but in his actual procedure passes from
one to the other, rarely, if ever, taking into full consideration the
weighty question of their relation to one another. Above all, he is
continuously under the influence of the individualist notion which
he had done so much to explode. The conception of conscious
experience, which is the net result of the Kritik, is indefinitely pro-
founder and richer than that which had ruled the i8th century
philosophizing, but for Kant such experience still appears as some-
how the arbitrary product of the relation between the individual
conscious subject and the realm of real facts. When he is actually
analysing the conditions of knowledge, the influence of the indivi-
dualist conception is not prominent; the conditions are stated as
quite general, as conditions of knowledge. But so soon as the deeper,
metaphysical problems present themselves, the shadow of the old
doctrine reappears. Knowledge is regarded as a mechanical product,
part furnished by the subject, part given to the subject, and is thus
viewed as mechanically divisible into a priori and a posteriori, into
pure and empirical, necessary and contingent. The individual as
an agent, conscious of universal moral law, is yet regarded as in a
measure opposed to experience, and the Kantian ethical code remains
purely formal. The ultimate relation between intelligence and
natural fact, expressed in the notion of end, is thought as problem-
atic or contingent. The difficulties or obscurities of the Kantian
system, of which the above are merely the more prominent, may all
be traced to the one source, the false or at least inadequate idea of
the individual. The more thorough explanation of the relation
between experience as critically conceived and the individual subject
was the problem left by Kant for his successors.
In any detailed exposition of the critical system it would be
requisite in the first place to state with some fullness the precise
nature of the problems immediately before Kant, and in the second
place to follow with some closeness the successive stages of the
system as presented in the throe main works, the Kritik of Pure
Reason, the Kritik of Practical Reason and the Kritik of Judgment,
with the more important of the minor works, the Metaphysic of
Nature and the Metaphysic of Ethics. It 'would be necessary, also,
in any such expanded treatment, to bring out clearly the Kantian
classification of the philosophical sciences, and to indicate the
relation between the critical or transcendental investigation of the
several faculties and the more developed sciences to which that
investigation serves as introduction. As any detailed statement of
the critical system, however compressed, would be beyond the limits
of the present article, it is proposed here to select only the more
salient doctrines, and to point out in connexion with them what
advance had been effected by Kant, and what remained for sub-
sequent efforts at complete solution of the problems raised by him.
Much that is of interest and value must necessarily be omitted in
any sketch of so elaborate a system, and for all points of special
interpretation reference must needs be made to the many elaborate
dissertations on or about the Kantian philosophy.
The doctrine from which Kant starts in his critical or transcen-
dental investigation of knowledge is that to which the slow develop-
ment of his thought had led him. The essence of cognition or
knowledge was a synthetic act, an act of combining in thought
the detached elements of experience. Now synthesis was explicable
neither by reference to pure thought, the logical or elaborative
faculty, which in Kant's view remained analytic in function, nor
by reference to the effects of external real things upon our faculties
of cognition. For, on the one hand, analysis or logical treatment
applied only to objects of knowledge as already given in synthetic
forms, and, on the other hand, real things could yield only isolated
effects and not the combination of these effects in the forms of
cognitive experience. If experience is to be matter of knowledge
for the conscious subject, it must be regarded as the conjoint product
668
KANT
of given material and synthetic combination. Form and matter
may indeed be regarded separably and dealt with in isolation for
purposes of critical inquiry, but in experience they are necessarily
and inseparably united. The problem of the Kritik thus becomes
for Kant the complete statement of the elements necessarily involved
in synthesis, and of the subjective processes by which these elements
are realized in our individual consciousness. He is not asking, with
Locke, whence the details of experience arise; he is not attempting
a natural history of the growth of experience in the individual mind ;
but he is endeavouring to state exhaustively what conditions are
necessarily involved in any fact of knowledge, i.e. in any synthetic
combination of parts of experience by the conscious subject.
So far as the elements necessarily involved in conscious experience
are concerned, these may be enumerated briefly thus: — given data of
sense, inner or outer; the forms of perception, i.e. space and time;
the forms of thought, i.e. the categories; the ultimate condition of
knowledge, the identity of the pure ego or self. The ego or self is
the central unity in reference to which alone is any part of experience
cognizable. But the consciousness of self is the foundation of
knowledge only when related to given material. The ego has not
in itself the element of difference, and the essence of knowledge is
the consciousness of unity in difference. For knowledge, therefore, it
is necessary that difference should be given to the ego. The modes
under which it is possible for such given difference to become portion
of the conscious experience of the ego, the modes under which the
isolated data can be synthetically combined so as to form a cogni-
zable whole, make up the form of cognition, and upon this form
rests the possibility of any a priori or rational knowledge.
The notion of the ego as a purely logical unity, containing in
itself no element of difference, and having only analytical identity, is
fundamental in the critical system, and lies at the root of all its
difficulties and perplexities. To say that the ego as an individual
does not produce the world of experience is by no means the same as
to say that the ego is pure unity without element of difference. In
the one case we are treating the ego as one of the objects of experience
and denying of it productive efficacy; in the second case we are
dealing with the unity of the ego as a condition of knowledge, of
any experience whatsoever. In this second sense, it is wholly wrong
to assert that the ego is pure identity, pure unity. The unity and
identity of the ego, so regarded, are taken in abstraction, i.e. as
dissevered from the more complex whole of which they are necessary
elements. When the ego is taken as a condition of knowledge, its
unity is not more important than the difference necessarily correlated
with it. That the ego as a thing should not produce difference is
quite beside the mark. The consequences of the abstract separation
which Kant so draws between the ego and the world of experience
are apparent throughout his whole system. Assuming at the outset
an opposition between the two, self and matter of knowledge, he
is driven by the exigencies of the problem of reconciliation to insert
term after term as means of bringing them together, but never
succeeds in attaining a junction which is more than mechanical. To
the end, the ego remains, partly the pure logical ego, partly the
concrete individual spirit, and no explanation is afforded of the
relation between them. It is for this reason that the system of
forms of perception and categories appears so contingent and hap-
hazard. No attempt is made to show how or why the difference
supplied for the pure logical ego should present, itself necessarily
under these forms. They are regarded rather as portions of the
subjective mechanism of the individual consciousness. The mind
or self appears as though it were endowed with a complex machinery
by which alone it could act upon the material supplied to it. Such
a crude conception is far, indeed, from doing justice to Kant's view,
but it undoubtedly represents the underlying assumption of many of
his cardinal doctrines. The philosophy of Fichte is historically
interesting as that in which the deficiencies of Kant's fundamental
position were first discerned and the attempt made to remedy them.
Unfortunately for the consistency of the Kritik, Kant does not
attempt to work out systematically the elements involved in
knowledge before considering the subjective processes by which
knowledge is realized in consciousness. He mixes up the two
inquiries, and in the general division of his work depends rather
upon the results of previous psychology than upon the lines pre-
scribed by his own new conception of experience. He treats the
elements of cognition separately in connexion with the several sub-
jective processes involved in knowledge, viz. sense and under-
standing. Great ambiguity is the natural result of this procedure.
For it was not possible for Kant to avoid the misleading connotation
of the terms employed by him. In strictness, sense, understanding,
imagination and reason ought to have had their, functions defined
in close relation to the elements of knowledge with which they are
severally connected, and as these elements have no existence as
separate facts, but only as factors in the complex organic whole, it
might have been possible to avoid the error of supposing that each
subjective process furnished a distinct, separately cognizable portion
of a mechanical whole. But the use of separate terms, such as
sense and understanding, almost unavoidably led to phraseology
only interpretable as signifying that each furnished a specific kind
of knowledge, and all Kant's previous training contributed to
strengthen this erroneous view. Especially noteworthy is this in
the case of the categories. Kant insists upon treating these as
Begriffe, notions, and assigns to them certain characteristics of
notions. But it is readily seen, and in the Logik Kant shows him-
self fully aware of the fact, that these pure connective links of
experience, general aspects of objects of intelligible experience, do
not resemble concepts formed by the so-called logical or elaborative
processes from representations of completed objects. Nothing but
harm can follow from any attempt to identify two products which
differ so entirely. So, again, the Aesthetik is rendered extremely
obscure and difficult by the prevalence of the view, already noted
as obtaining in the Dissertation, that sense is a faculty receiving
representations of objects. Kant was anxious to avoid the error of
Leibnitz, who had taken sense and understanding to differ in degree
only, not in kind ; but in avoiding the one error he fell into another
of no less importance.
The consideration of the several elements which in combination
make up the fact of cognition, or perception, as it may be called,
contains little or nothing bearing on the origin and nature of the
given data of sense, inner or outer. The manifold of sense, which
plays so important a part in the critical theory of knowledge, is left
in an obscure and perplexed position. So much is clear, however,
that according to Kant sense is not to be regarded as receptive of
representations of objects. The data of sense are mere stimuli, not
partial or confused representations. The sense-manifold is not to
be conceived as haying, per se, any of the qualities of objects as
actually cognized; its parts are not cognizable per se, nor can it
with propriety be said to be received successively or simultaneously.
When we apply predicates to the sense-manifold regarded in isola-
tion, we make that which is only a factor in the experience of objects
into a separate, independent object, and use our predicates trans-
cendently. Kant is not always in his language faithful to his view of
the sense-manifold, but the theory as a whole, together with his own
express definitions, is unmistakable. On the origin of the data of
sense, Kant's remarks are few and little satisfactory. He very
commonly employs the term affection of the faculty of sense as
expressing the mode of origin, but offers no further explanation of
a term which has significance only when interpreted after a somewhat
mechanical fashion. Unquestionably certain of his remarks indicate
the view that the origin is to be sought in things-in-themselves, but
against hasty misinterpretations of such remarks there are certain
cautions to be borne in mind. The relation between phenomena
and noumena in the Kantian system does not in the least resemble
that which plays so important a part in modern psychology —
between the subjective results of sense affection and the character
of the objective conditions of such affection. Kant has pointedly
declared that it would be a gross absurdity to suppose that in his
view separate, distinct things-in-themselves existed corresponding
to the several objects of perception. And, finally, it is not at all
difficult to understand why Kant should say that the affection of
sense originated in the action of things-in-themselves, when we
consider what was the thing-in-itself to which he was referring.
The thing-in-itself to which the empirical order and relations of
sense-experience are referred is the divine order, which is not matter
of knowledge, but involved in oitf practical or moral beliefs. Critics
who limit their view to the Kritik of Pure Reason, and there, in all
probability, to the first or constructive portion of the work, must
necessarily fail to interpret the doctrines of the Kantian system,
which do not become clear or definite till the system has been
developed. Reason was, for Kant, an organic whole ; the speculative
and moral aspects are never severed; and the solution of problems
which appear at first sight to belong solely to the region of speculative
thought may be found ultimately to depend upon certain charac-
teristics of our nature as practical.
Data of sense-affection do not contain in themselves synthetic
combination. The first conditions of such combination are found
by Kant in the universal forms under which alone sense-phenomena
manifest themselves in experience. These universal forms of per-
ception, space and time, are necessary, a priori, and in character-
istic features resembling intuitions, not notions. Thev occupy,
therefore, a peculiar position, and one section of the Kritik, the
Aesthetik, is entirely devoted to the consideration of them. It is
important to observe that it is only through the a priori character
of these perceptive forms that rational science of nature is at all
possible. Kant is here able to resume, with fresh insight, his pre-
vious discussions regarding the synthetic character of mathematical
propositions. In his early essays he had rightly drawn the distinc-
tion between mathematical demonstration and philosophic proof,
referring the certainty of the first to the fact that the constructions
were synthetic in character and entirely determined by the action
of constructive imagination. It had not then occurred to him to
ask, With what right do we assume that the conclusions arrived at
from arbitrary constructions in mathematical matter have applica-
bility to objects of experience? Might not mathematics be a purely
imaginary science? To this question he is now enabled to return an
answer. Space and time, the two essential conditions of sense-
perception, are not data given by things, but universal forms of
intellect into which all data of sense must be received. Hence,
whatever is true of space and time regarded by imagination as
objects, i.e. quantitative constructions, must be true of the objects
making up our sense-experience. The same forms and the same
constructive activity of imagination are involved in mathematical
KANT
669
synthesis and in the constitution of objects of sense-experience. The
foundation for pure or rational mathematics, there being included
under this the pure science of movement, is thus laid in the critical
doctrine of space and time.
The Aesthetik isolates sense-perception, and considers its forms as
though it were an independent, complete faculty. A certain con-
fusion, arising from this, is noticeable in the Analytik when the
necessity for justifying the position of the categories is under dis-
cussion, but the real difficulty in which Kant was involved by his
doctrine of space and time has its roots even deeper than the
erroneous isolation of sensibility. He has hot in any way " de-
duced " space and time, but, proceeding from the ordinary current
view of sense-experience, has found these remaining as residuum
after analysis. The relation in which they stand to the categories
or pure notions is ambiguous; and, when Kant has to consider the
fashion in which category and data of sense are to be brought
together, he merely places side by side as a priori elements the pure
connective notions and the pure forms of perception, and finds it,
apparently, only a matter of contingent convenience that they
should harmonize with one another and so render cognition possible.
To this point also Fichte was the first to call attention.
Affection of sense, even when received into the pure forms of
perception, is not matter of knowledge. For cognition there .is
requisite synthetic combination, and the intellectual function
through which such combination takes place. The forms of in-
tellectual function Kant proceeds to enumerate with the aid of the
commonly received logical doctrines. For this reference to logic
he has been severely blamed, but the precise nature of the debt due
to the commonly accepted logical classification is very generally
misconceived. Synthetic combination, Kant points out, is formally
expressed in a judgment, which is the act of uniting representations.
At the foundation of the judgments which express the types of
synthetic combination, through which knowledge is possible, lie
the pure general notions, the abstract aspect of the conditions under
which objects are cognizable in experience. General logic has also
to deal with the union of representations, though its unity is analytic
merely, not synthetic. But the same intellectual function which
serves to give unity in the analytic judgments of formal logic serves
to give unity to the synthetic combinations of real perception. It
appeared evident, then, to Kant that in the forms of judgment, as
they are stated in the common logic, there must be found the
analogues of the types of judgment which are involved in transcen-
dental logic, or in the theory of real cognition. His view of the
ordinary logic was wide and comprehensive, though in his restriction
of the science to pure form one can trace the influence of his earlier
training, and it is no small part of the value of the critical philosophy
that it has revived the study of logic and prepared the way for a
more thorough consideration of logical doctrines. The position
assigned to logic by Kant is not, in all probability, one which can
be defended; indeed, it is hard to see how Kant himself, in consis-
tency with the critical doctrine of knowledge, could have retained
many of the older logical theorems, but the precision with which
the position was stated, and the sharpness with which logic was
marked off from cognate philosophic disciplines, prepared the way
for the more thoughtful treatment of the whole question.
Formal logic thus yields to Kant the list of the general notions,
pure intellectual predicates, or categories, through which alone
experience is possible for a conscious subject. It has already been
noted haw serious was the error involved in the description of
these as notions, without further attempt to clear up their precise
significance. Kant, indeed, was mainly influenced by his strong
opposition to the Leibnitzian rationalism, and therefore assigns the
categories to understanding, the logical faculty, without considera-
tion of the question, — which might have been suggested by the
previous statements of the Dissertation, — what relation these cate-
gories held to the empirical notions formed by comparison, abstrac-
tion and generalization when directed upon representations of
objects. But when the categories are described as notions, i.e.
formed products of thought, there rises of necessity the problem
which had presented itself to Kant at every stage of his pre-critical
thinking, — with what right can we assume that these notions apply
to objects of experience? The answer which he proceeds to give
altogether explodes the definition of the categories as formed pro-
ducts of thought, and enables us to see more clearly the nature of
the new conception of experience which lies in the background of
all the critical work.
The unity of the ego, which has been already noted as an element
entering into the synthesis of cognition, is a unity of a quite distinct
and peculiar kind. That the ego to which different parts of experi-
ence are presented must be the same ego, if there is to be cognition
at all, is analytically evident; but the peculiarity is that the ego
must be conscious of its own unity and identity, and this unity of
self-consciousness is only possible in relation to difference not
contained in the ego but given to it. _ The unity of apperception,
then, as Kant calls it, is only possible in relation to synthetic unity
of experience itself, and the forms of this synthetic unity, the cate-
gories, are, therefore, on the one hand, necessary as forms in which
self-consciousness is realized, and, on the other hand, restricted in
their application and validity to the data of given sense, or the
particular element of experience. Thus experience presents itself
as the organic combination of the particular of sense with the
individual unity of the ego through the universal forms of the
categories. Reference of representations to the unity of the object,
synthetic unity of apperception, and subsumption of data of sense
under the categories, are thus three sides or aspects of the one
fundamental fact.
In this deduction of the categories, as Kant calls it, there appears
for the first time an endeavour to connect together into one organic
whole the several elements entering into experience. It is evident,
however, that much was wanting before this essential task could be
regarded as complete. Kant has certainly brought together self-
consciousness, the system of the categories and data of sense. He
has shown that the conditions of self-consciousness are the conditions
of possible experience. But he has not shown, nor did he attempt
to show, how it was that the conditions of self-consciousness are
the very categories arrived at by consideration of the system of
logical judgments. He does endeavour to show, but with small
success, how the junction of category and data of sense is brought
about, for according to his scheme these stood, to a certain extent
at least, apart from and independent of one another. The failure
to effect an organic combination of the several elements was the
natural consequence of the false start which had been made.
The mode in which Kant endeavours to show how the several
portions of cognition are subjectively realized brings into the clearest
light the inconsistencies and imperfections of his doctrine. Sense
had been assumed as furnishing the particular of knowledge, under-
standing as furnishing the universal ; and it had been expressly
declared that the particular was cognizable only in and through the
universal. Still, each was conceived as somehow in itself complete
and finished. Sense and understanding had distinct functions, and
there was wanting some common term, some intermediary which
should bring them into conjunction. Data of sense as purely
particular could have nothing in common with the categories as
purely universal. But data of sense had at least one universal
aspect, — their aspect as the particular of the general forms, space
and time. Categories were in themselves abstract and valueless,
serviceable only when restricted to possible objects of experience.
There was thus a common ground on which category and intuition
were united in one, and an intermediate process whereby the univer-
sal of the category might be so far individualized as to comprehend
the particular of sense. This intermediate process — which is really
the junction of understanding and sense — Kant calls productive
imagination, and it is only through productive imagination that
knowledge or experience is actually realized in our subjective
consciousness. The specific forms of productive imagination are
called schemata, and upon the nature of the schema Kant gives much
that has proved of extreme value for subsequent thought.
Productive imagination is thus the concrete element of knowledge,
and its general modes are the abstract expression of the a priori
laws of all possible experience. The categories are restricted in
their applicability to the schema, i.e. to the pure forms of conjunction
of the manifold in time, and in the modes of combination of schemata
and categories we have the foundation for the rational sciences of
mathematics and physics. Perception or real cognition is thus
conceived as a complex fact, involving data of sense and pure
perceptive forms, determined by the category and realized through
productive imagination in the schema. The system of principles
which may be deduced from the consideration of the mode in which
understanding and sense are united by productive imagination is
the positive result of the critical theory of knowledge, and some of
its features are remarkable enough to deserve attention. According
to his usual plan, Kant arranges these principles in conformity with
the table of the categories, dividing the four classes, however, into
two main groups, the mathematical and the dynamical. The
mathematical principles are the abstract expression of the necessary
mode in which data of sense are determined by the category in the
form of intuitions or representations of objects; the dynamical are
the abstract expression of the modes in which the existence of
objects 6f intuition is determined. The mathematical principles are
constitutive, i.e. express determinations of the objects themselves;
the dynamical are regulative, i.e. express the conditions under which
objects can form parts of real experience. Under the mathematical
principles come the general rules which furnish the ground for the
application of quantitative reasoning to real facts of experience. For
as data of sense are only possible objects when received in the forms
of space and time, and as space and time are only cognized when
determined in definite fashion by the understanding through the
schema of number (quantity) or degree (quality), all intuitions are
extensive quantities and contain a real element, that of sense, which
has degree. Under the dynamical principles, the general modes in
which the existence of objects are determined, fall the analogies
of experience, or general rules according to which the existence of
objects in relation to one another can be determined, and the
postulates of experience, the general rules according to which the
existence of objects for us or our own subjective existence can be
determined. The analogies of experience rest upon the order of
perceptions in time, i.e. their permanence, succession or coexistence,
and the principles are respectively those of substance, causality and
reciprocity. It is to be observed that Kant in the expression of
these analogies reaches the final solution of the difficulty which had
6yo
KANT
so long pressed upon him, the difficulty as to the relation of the pure
connective notions to experience. These notions are not directly
applicable to experience, nor do we find in experience anything
corresponding to the pure intellectual notions of substance, cause
and reciprocity. But experience is for us the combination of data
of sense in the forms of productive imagination, forms determined
by the pure intellectual notions, and accordingly experience is
possible for us only as in modes corresponding to the notions. The
permanent in time is substance in any possible experience, and no
experience is possible save through the determination of all changes
as in relation to a permanent in time. Determined sequence is the
causal relation in any possible experience, and no experience is
possible save through the determination of perceived changes as in
relation to a determined order in time. So with coexistence and
reciprocity.
The postulates of experience are general expressions of the signifi-
cance of existence in the experience of a conscious subject. The
element of reality in such experience must always be given by
intuition, and, so far as determination of existence is assumed,
external intuition is a necessary condition of inner intuition. The
existence of external things is as certain as the existence of the con-
crete subject, and the subject cannot cognise himself as existing
save in relation to the world of facts of external perception. Inner
and outer reality are strictly correlative elements in the experience
of the conscious subject.
Throughout the positive portion of his theory of cognition, Kant
has been beset by the doctrine that the categories, as finished, com-
plete notions, have an import or significance transcending the bounds
of possible experience. Morever, the manner in which space and
time had been treated made it possible for him to regard these as
contingent forms, necessary for intelligences like ours, but not to be
viewed as absolutely necessary. The real meaning of these pecu-
liarities is hardly ever expressed by him, though it is clear that the
solution of the matter is to be found in the inadequacy of the positive
theory to meet the demands of reason for completed explanation.
But the conclusion to which he was led was one of the greatest
importance for the after development of his system. Cognition is
necessarily limited. The categories are restricted in their applica-
tion to elements of possible experience to that which is presented
in intuition, and all intuition is for the ego contingent. But to assert
that cognition is limited and its matter contingent is to form the idea
of an intelligence for whom cognition would not be limited and for
whom the data of intuition would not be given, contingent facts, but
necessarily produced along with the pure categories. This idea of
an intuitive understanding is the definite expression for the complete
explanation which reason demands, and it involves the conception
of a realm of objects for such an understanding, a realm of objects
which, in opposition to the phenomena of our relative and limited
experience, may be called noumena or things-in-themselves. The
noumenon, therefore, is in one way the object of a non-sensuous
intuition, but more correctly is the expression of the limited and
partial character of our knowledge. The idea of a noumenon is thus
a limiting notion.
Assuredly, the difficult section of the Kritik, on the ground of the
distinction between phenomena and noumena, would not have led
to so much misconception as it has done, had Kant then brought
forward what lies at the root of the distinction, his doctrine of reason
and its functions. Understanding, as has been seen, is the faculty
of cognition strictly so called; and within its realm, that of space,
time and matter, positive knowledge is attainable. But the ultimate
conception of understanding, that of the world of objects, quantita-
tively determined, and standing in relation of mutual reciprocity
to one another, is not a final ground of explanation. We are still able
and necessitated to reflect upon the whole world of phenomena as
thus cognized, and driven to inquire after its significance. In our
reflection we necessarily treat the objects, not as phenomena, as
matters of positive, scientific knowledge, but as things-in-themselves,
as noumena. The distinction between phenomena and noumena
is, therefore, nothing but the expression of the distinction between
understanding and reason, a distinction which, according to Kant,
is merely subjective.
The specific function of reason is the effort after completed ex-
planation of the experience presented in cognition. But in such
effort there are no notions to be employed other than the categories,
and these, as has already been seen, have validity only in reference
to objects of possible experience. We may expect, then, to find
the transcendent employment of the categories leading into various
difficulties and inconsistencies. The criticism of reason in its specific
aspect throws fresh light on the limits to human knowledge and the
significance of experience.
Experience has presented itself as the complex result of relation
between the ego or subject and the world of phenomena. Reason
may therefore attempt a completed explanation either of the ego or
of the world of phenomena or of the total relation between them.
The three inquiries correspond to the subjects of the three ancient
metaphysical sciences, rational psychology, rational cosmology,
rational theology. It is readily seen, in regard to the first of them,
that all attempts to determine the nature of the ego as a simple,
perdurable, immaterial substance rest upon a confusion between
the ego as pure logical unity and the ego as object of intuition, and
involve a transcendent use of the categories of' experience. It
profits not to apply such categories to the soul, for no intuition
corresponding to them is or can be given. The idea of the soul
must be regarded as transcendent. So too when we endeavour,
with the help of the categories of quantity, quality, relation and
modality, to determine the nature and relation of parts of the world,
we find that reason is landed in a peculiar difficulty. Any solution
that can be given is top narrow for the demands of reason and too
wide for the restrictions of understanding. The transcendent
employment of the categories leads to antinomy, or equally balanced
statements of apparently contradictory results. Due attention to
the relation between understanding and reason enables us to solve
the antinomies and to discover their precise origin and significance.
Finally, the endeavour to find in the conception of God, as the
supreme reality, the explanation of experience, is seen to lead to
no valid conclusion. There is not any intuition given whereby we
might show the reality of our idea of a Supreme Being. So far as
knowledge is concerned, God remains a transcendental ideal.
The criticism of the transcendental ideas, which is also the
examination of the claims of metaphysic to rank as a science, yields
a definite and intelligible result. These ideas, the expression of the
various modes in which unity of reason may be sought, have no
objects corresponding to them in the sphere of cognition. They
have not, therefore, like the categories, any constitutive value, and all
attempts at metaphysical construction with the notions or categories
of science must be resigned as of necessity hopeless. But the ideas
are not, on that account, destitute of all value. They are supremely
significant, as indicating the very essence of the function of reason.
The limits of scientific cognition become intelligible, only when the
sphere of understanding is subjected to critical reflexion and com-
pared with the possible sphere of reason, that is, the sphere of
rationally complete cognition. The ideas, therefore, in relation to
knowledge strictly so called, have regulative value, for they furnish
the general precepts for extension and completion of knowledge,
and, at the same time, since they spring from reason itself, they
have a real value in relation to reason as the very inmost nature
of intelligence. Self-consciousness cannot be regarded as merely
a mechanically determined result. Free reflection upon the whole
system of knowledge is sufficient to indicate that the sphere of
intuition, with its rational principles, does not exhaust conscious
experience. There still remains, over and above the realm of nature,
the realm of free, self-conscious spirit; and, within this sphere, it
may be anticipated that the ideas will acquire a significance richer
and deeper than the merely regulative import which they possess
in reference to cognition.
Where, then, are we to look for this realm of free self-conscious-
ness? Not in the sphere of cognition, where objects are mechani-
cally determined, but in that of will or of reason as practical. That
reason is practical or prescribes ends for itself is sufficiently manifest
from the mere fact of the existence of the conception of morality or
duty, a conception which can have no corresponding object within
the sphere of intuition, and which is theoretically, or in accordance
with the categories of understanding, incognizable. The presence
of this conception is the datum upon which may be founded a special
investigation of the conditions of reason as practical, a Kritik of
pure practical reason, and the analysis of it yields the statement of
the formal prescripts of morality.
The realization of duty is impossible for any being which is not
thought as free, i.e. capable of self-determination. Freedom, it is
true, is theoretically not an object of cognition, but its impossibility
is not thereby demonstrated. The theoretical proof rather serves
as useful aid towards the more exact determination of the nature
and province of self-determination, and of its relation to the whole
concrete nature of humanity. For in man self-determination and
mechanical determination by empirical motives coexist, and only in
so far as he belongs and is conscious of belonging both to the sphere
of sense and to the sphere of reason does moral obligation become
possible for him. The supreme end prescribed by reason in its
practical aspect, namely, the complete subordination of the empirical
side of nature to the prescripts of morality, demands, as conditions
of its possible realization, the permanence of ethical progress in the
moral agent, the certainty of freedom in self-determination, and the
necessary harmonizing of the spheres of sense and reason through
the intelligent author or ground of both. These conditions, the
postulates of practical reason, are the concrete expressions of the
three transcendental ideas, and in them we have the full significance
of the ideas for reason. Immortality of the soul, positive freedom
of will, and the existence of an intelligent ground of things are
speculative ideas practically warranted, though theoretically neither
demonstrable nor comprehensible.
Thus reason as self-determining supplies notions of freedom;
reason as determined supplies categories of understanding. Union
between the two spheres, which seem at first sight disparate, is
found in the necessary postulate that reason shall be realized, for its
realization is only possible in the sphere of sense. But such a union,
when regarded in abstracto, rests upon, or involves, a notion of quite
a new order, that of the adaptation of nature to reason, or, as it
may be expressed, that of end in nature. Understanding and
reason thus coalesce in the faculty of judgment, which mediates
between, or brings together, the universal and particular elements
KANT
671
in conscious experience. Judgment is here merely reflective ; that
is to say, the particular element is given, so determined as to be
possible material of knowledge, while the universal, not necessary
for cognition, is supplied by reason itself. The empirical details of
nature, which are not determined by the categories of understanding,
are judged as being arranged or ordered by intelligence, for in no
other fashion could nature, in its particular, contingent aspect, be
thought as forming a complete, consistent, intelligible whole.
The investigation of the conditions under which adaptation of
nature to intelligence is conceivable and possible makes up the
subject of the third great Kritik, the Kritik of Judgment, a work
presenting unusual difficulties to the interpreter of the Kantian
system. The general principle of the adaptation of nature to our
faculties of cognition has two specific applications, with the second
of which it is more closely connected than with the first. In the
first place, the adaptation may be merely subjective, when the
empirical condition for the exercise of judgment is furnished by the
feeling of pleasure or pain; such adaptation is aesthetic. In the
second place, the adaptation may be objective or logical, when
empirical facts are given of such a kind that their possibility can
be conceived only through the notion of the end realized in them ;
such adaptation is teleological, and the empirical facts in question
are organisms.
Aesthetics, or the scientific consideration of the judgments resting
on the feelings of pleasure and pain arising from the harmony or
want of harmony between the particular of experience and the laws
of understanding, is the special subject of the Kritik of Judgment,
but the doctrine of teleology there unfolded is the more important
for the complete view of the critical system. For the analysis of
the teleological judgment and of the consequences flowing from it
leads to the final statement of the nature of experience as conceived
by Kant. The phenomena of organic production furnish data for a
special kind of judgment, which, however, involves or rests upon
a quite general principle, that of the contingency of the particular
element in nature and its subjectively necessary adaptation to our
faculty of cognition. The notion of contingency arises, according
to Kant, from the fact that understanding and sense are distinct,
that understanding does not determine the particular of sense, and,
consequently, that the principle of the adaptation of the particular
to our understanding is merely supplied by reason on account of the
peculiarity or limited character of understanding. End in nature,
therefore, is a subjective or problematic conception, implying the
limits of understanding, and consequently resting upon the idea of
an understanding constituted unlike ours — of an intuitive under-
standing in which particular and universal should be given together.
The idea of such an understanding is, for cognition, transcendent,
for no corresponding fact of intuition is furnished, but it is realized
with practical certainty in relation to reason as practical. For we
are, from practical grounds, compelled with at least practical
necessity to ascribe a certain aim or end to this supreme understand-
ing. The moral law, or reason as practical, prescribes the realiza-
tion of the highest good, and such realization implies a higher order
than that of nature. We must, therefore, regard the supreme
cause as a moral cause, and nature as so ordered that realization of
the moral end is in it possible. The final conception of the Kantian
philosophy is, therefore, that of ethical teleology. As Kant expresses
it in a remarkable passage of the Kritik, " The systematic unity of
ends in this world of intelligences, which, although as mere nature
it is to be called only the world of sense, can yet as a system of
freedom be called an intelligible, i.e. moral world (regnum gratiae),
leads inevitably to the teleological unity of all things which consti-
tute this great whole according to universal natural laws, just as
the unity of the former is according to universal and necessary moral
laws, and unites the practical with the speculative reason. The
world must be represented as having originated from an idea, if it
is to harmonize with that use of reason without which we should
hold ourselves unworthy of reason — viz. the moral use, which
rests entirely on the idea of the supreme good. Hence all natural
research tends towards the form of a system of ends, and in its
highest development would be a physico-theology. But this, since
it arises from the moral order as a unity grounded in the very
essence of freedom and not accidentally instituted by external
commands, establishes the teleology of nature on grounds which
a priori must be inseparably connected with the inner possibility of
things. The teleology of nature is thus made to rest on a transcen-
dental theology, which takes the ideal of supreme ontological per-
fection as a principle of systematic unity, a principle which connects
all things according to universal and necessary natural laws, since
they all have their origin in the absolute necessity of a single primal
being " (p. 538).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Editions and works of reference are exceedingly
numerous. Since 1896 an indispensable guide is the periodical
review Kantstudien (Hamburg and Berlin, thrice yearly), edited by
Hans Vaihinger and Bruno Bauch, which contains admirable
original articles and notices of all important books on Kant and
Kantianism. It has reproduced a number of striking portraits of
Kant. For books up to 1887 see Erich Adickes in Philosophical
Review (Boston, 1892 foil.); for 1890-1894 R. Reicke's Kant
Bibliographie (1895). See also in general the latest edition of
Ueberweg's Grundriss der Ceschichte der Philosophic.
EDITIONS. — Complete editions of Kant's works are as follows:
(i) G. Hartenstein (Leipzig, 1838-1839, 10 vols.) ; (2) K. Rosenkranz
and F. W. Schubert (Leipzig, 1838-1840, 12 vols., the I2th con-
taining a history of the Kantian school) ; (3) G. Hartenstein, " in
chronological order" (Leipzig, 1867-1869, 8 vols.); (4) Kirchmann
(in the " Philosophische Bibliothek," Berlin, 1868-1873, 8 vols. and
supplement) ; (5) under the auspices of the Koniglich Preussische
Akademie der Wissenschaften a new collected edition was begun
in 1900 (vol. ii., 1906) in charge of a number of editors. It was
planned in four sections: Works, Letters, MSS. Remains and
Vorlesungen. There are also useful editions of the three Kritiks by
Kehrbach, and critical editions of the Prolegomena and Kritik der
reinen Vernunft by B. Erdmann (see also his Beitrage zur Geschichte
una Revision des Textes von Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft (1900).
A useful selection (in English) is that of John Watson, The Philosophy
of Kant (Glasgow, 1888).
TRANSLATIONS. — There are translations in all the principal
languages. The chief English translators are J. P. Mahaffy, W.
Hastie, T. K. Abbott, J. H. Bernard and Belfort Bax. Their
versions have been mentioned in the section on " Works " above.
BIOGRAPHICAL. — Schubert in the nth vol. of Rosenkranz's
edition; Borowski, Darslellung des Lebens una Charakters Kants
(Konigsberg, 1804); Wasianski, Kant in seinen letzten Lebensjahren
(Konigsberg, 1804) ; Stuckenberg, The Life of Immanuel Kant (1882) ;
Rudolf Reicke, Kants Briefwechsel (1900). See also several of the
critical works below. On Kant's portraits see D. Minden, Ueber
Portraits una Abbildungen Imm. Kants (1868) and cf. frontispieces
of Kantstudien (as above).
CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors). — R. Adamson,
Philosophy of Kant (1879; Germ, trans., 1880); Felix Adler, A
Critique of Kant's Ethics (1908) ; S. Aicher, Kants Begriff der Erkennt-
nis verglichen mil dem des Aristoteles (1907); M. Apel, Immanuel
Kant: Ein Bild seines Lebens und Denkens (1904) ; Arnoldt, Kritische
Exkurse im Gebiete der Kantforschung (1894); C. Bache, "Kants
Prinzip der Autonomie im Verhaltnis zur Idee des Reichs der Zwecke "
(Kantstudien, 1909) ; B. Bauch, Luther und Kant (1904) ; Paul
Boehm, Die vorkritischen Schriflen Kants (1906); E. Caird,
Critical Philosophy of Kant (2 vojs., 1889) ; Chalybaus, Historische
Entwickelung der spekulativen Philosophic von Kant bis Hegel (5th
ed., 1860); H. S. Chamberlain, Immanuel Kant (1909); Cousin,
Lemons sur la philosophic de Kant (4th ed., 1864); B. Erdmann,
Immanuel Kant, Kants Kritizismus in der I und 2 Auflage der " Kritik
derreinen Vernunft "(1877) ;O. Ev/a\d,Kants kritischer Idealismus als
Grundlage von Erkenntnistheorie und Ethik (1908) and Kants Methodo-
logie in ihren Grundziigen (1906); Kuno Fischer, Immanuel Kant
(4th ed., 1898-1899), Die beiden Kantischen Schulen in Jena (1862),
and Commentary on Kant's Kritik of Pure Reason (1878) ; F. Forster,
Der Entwicklungsgang der Kantischen Ethik bis zur Kritik der reinen
Vernunft (1893); A. Fouillee, Le Moralisme de Kant el I'amoralisme
contemporaine (1905); C. R. E. von Hartmann, Kants Erkenntnis-
theorie und Metaphysik in den vier Perioden ihrer Entwickelung (1894) ;
A. Hegler, Die Psychologic in Rants Ethik (1891); G. D. Hicks, Die
Begriff e Phanomenon und Noumenon in ihrem Verhdltniss zu einander
bei Kant (1897); G. Jacoby, Herders und Kants Aesthetik (1907);
W. Kabitz, Studien zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Fichteschen
Wissenschaftslehre aus der Kantischen Philosophic (1902) ; M. Kelly,
Kant's Philosophy as rectified by Schopenhauer (1909) ; W. Koppel-
mann, I. Kant und die Grundlagen der christlichen Religion (1890);
M. Kronenberg, Kant: Sein Leben und seine Lehre (1897; 3rd ed.,
1905) ; E. Kilhnemann, Kants und Schillers Begriindung der Aesthelik
(1895) and Die Kantischen Studien Schillers und die Komposition des
Wallenstein (1889); H. Levy, Kants Lehre vom Schematismus der
reinen Verstandesbegriffe (1901); Arthur O. Lovejoy, Kant and the
English Platonists (1908); J. P. Mahaffy, Kant's Critical Philosophy
for English Readers (1872-1874) ; W. Mengel, Kants Begriindung der
Religion (1900) ; A. Messer, Kants Ethik (1904) ; H. Meyer-Benfey,
Herder und Kant (1904) ; Morris, Kant's Critique of Pure Reason
(Chicago, 1882); C. Oesterreich, Kant und die Metaphysik (1906);
F. Paulsen, Kant: Sein Leben und seine Lehre (1898; 4th ed., 1904;
Eng. 1902); Harold H. Prichard, Kant's Theory of Knowledge
(1909); A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, The Development from Kant
to Hegel (1882); and, on Kant's philosophy of religion, in The
Philosophic Radicals (1907) ; F. Rademaker, Kants Lehren vom innern
Sinn in der Kritik der reinen Vernunft (1908); R. Reininger, Kants
Lehre vom inneren Sinn und seine Theorie der Erfahrung (1900);
C. B. Renouvier, Critique de la doctrine de Kant (1906) ; H. Romundt,
Kants philosophisclie Religionslehre eine Fruchtder gesammten Vernunft-
kritik (1902) ; T. Ruyssen, Kant (1900) ; E. Saenger, Kants Lehrevom
Glauben (1903) ; O. Schapp, Kants Lehre vom Genie und die Entstehung
der " Kritik der Urteilskraft " (1901) ; Carl Schmidt, Beitrage zur
Entwickelung der Kant'schen Ethik (1900); A. Schweitzer, Die
Religionsphilosophie Kants (1899); H. Sidgwick, Lectures on the
Philosophy of Kant (1905) ; I. H. Stirling, Text Book to Kant (l88l):
G. Simmel, Kant und Goethe (1906); L. Staehlin, Kant, Lotze und
Ritschl (1889) ; O. Thon, Die Grundprinzipien der Kantischen Moral-
philosophic (1895) : T. Valentiner, Kant und die platonische Philoso-
phic (1904); C. Vorlander, Kant, Schiller, Goethe (1907); G. C.
Uphues, Kant und sein Vorgdnger (1906); W. Wallace, Kant (1905):
M. Wartenberg, Kants Theorie der Kausalitdt (1899); John Watson,
Philosophy of Kant Explained (1908), Kant and his English Critics
672
KANURI— KARACHI
(1881); A. Weir, A Student's Introduction to Critical Philosophy
(1906) ; G.A. Wyneken, Hegel's Kritik Kants (1898) ; W. Windelband,
Kuno Fischer und sein Kant (1897).
On Kant's theory of education, see E. F. Biichner, The Educational
Theory of Immanuel Kant (trans'., ed., intro., 1904); trans, of Ueber
Padagogik by Annette Churton (1899) ; J. Geluk, Kant (1883).
(R. AD.; X.)
KANURI, or BERIBERI, an African tribe of mixed origin, the
dominant race of Bornu. They are large-boned and coarse-
featured, but contain nevertheless a distinct strain of Fula
blood. Beriberi (or Berberi) is the name given them by the
Hausa (see BORNU).
KAOLIN, a pure white clay, know also as china-clay, since it
is an essential ingredient in the manufacture of china, or porce-
lain. The word kaolin, formerly written by some authors
caulin, is said to be a corruption of the Chinese Kau-ling, meaning
" High Ridge," the name of a hill east of King-te-chen, whence
the earliest samples of the clay sent to Europe were obtained
by the Pere d'Entrecolles, a French Jesuit missionary in China
in the early part of the i8th century. His specimens, examined
in Paris by R. A. Reaumur, showed that true porcelain, the
composition of which had not previously been known in Europe,
contained two essential ingredients, which came to be known
— though it now appears incorrectly — as kaolin and petuntse,
corresponding respectively to our china-clay and china-stone.
The kaolin confers plasticity on the paste and secures retention
of form for the ware when exposed to the heat of the kiln, whilst
the petuntse gives the translucency so characteristic of porcelain.
Some of the earliest discoveries of kaolin in Europe were at
Aue, near Schneeberg in Saxony, and at St Yrieix, near Limoges
in France. In England it was discovered in Cornwall about
the year 1750 by William Cookworthy, of Plymouth; and in
1768 he took out his patent for making porcelain from moorstone
or growan (china-stone) and growan clay (kaolin), the latter
imparting " whiteness and infusibility " to the china. These
raw materials were found first at Tregonning Hill, near Breage,
and afterwards at St Stephen's in Brannel, near St Austell;
and their discovery led to the manufacture of hard paste, or true
porcelain, at Plymouth and subsequently at Bristol.
Kaolin is a hydrous aluminium silicate, having the formula
H4Al2Si2O9, or Al2Si2O7.2H2O, but in common clay this silicate
is largely mixed with impurities. Certain clays contain pearly
white hexagonal scales, usually microscopic, referable to the
monoclinic system, and having the chemical composition of
kaolin. This crystalline substance was germed kaolinite by
S. W. Johnson and J. M. Blake in 1867, and it is new regarded
as the basis of pure clay. The kaolinite of Amlwch in Anglesey
has been studied by Allan Dick. The origin of kaolin may be
traced to the alteration of certain aluminous silicates like feldspar,
scapolite, beryl and topaz; but all large deposits of china-clay
are due to the decomposition of feldspar, generally in granite, but
sometimes in gneiss, pitchstone, &c. The turbidity of many
feldspars is the result of partial " kaolinization," or alteration
to kaolin. The china-clay rocks of Cornwall and Devon are
granites in which the orthoclase has become kaolinized. These
rocks are sometimes known as carclazite, a name proposed by
J. H. Collins from a typical locality, the Carclaze mine, near
St Austell. It has often been supposed that the alteration of
the granite has been effected mainly by meteoric agencies,
the carbonic acid having decomposed the alkaline silicate of the
feldspar, whilst the aluminous silicate assumes a hydrated con-
dition and forms kaolin. In many cases, however, it seems
likely that the change has been effected by subterranean agencies,
probably by heated vapours carrying fluorine and boron, since
minerals containing these elements, like tourmaline, often occur
in association with the china-clay. According to F. H. Butler
the kaolinization of the west of England granite may have been
effected by a solution of carbonic acid at a high temperature,
acting from below.
The china-stone, or petuntse, is a granitic rock which still
retains much of the unaltered feldspar, on which its fusibility
depends. In order to prepare kaolin for the market, the china-
clay rock is broken up, and the clay washed out by means of
water. The liquid containing the clay in mechanical suspension
is run into channels called " drags " where the coarser im-
purities subside, and whence it passes to another set of channels
known as " micas," where the finer materials settle down.
Thus purified, the clay-water is led into a series of pits or tanks,
in which the finely divided clay is slowly deposited; and, after
acquiring sufficient consistency, it is transferred to the drying-
house, or " dry," heated by flues, where the moisture is expelled,
and the kaolin obtained as a soft white earthy substance. The
clay has extensive application in the arts, being used not only
in ceramic manufacture but in paper-making, bleaching and
various chemical industries.
Under the species " kaolinite " may be included several
minerals which have received distinctive names, such as the
Saxon mineral called from its pearly lustre nacrite, a name
originally given by A. Brongniart to a nacreous mica; pholerite
found chiefly in cracks of ironstone and named by J. Guillemin
from the Greek <po\is, a scale ; and lithomarge, the old
German Steinmark, a compact clay-like body of white, yellow
or red colour. Dr C. Hintze has pointed out that the word
pholerite should properly be written pholidite (<£o\is, <£oXi6os).
Closely related to kaolinite is the mineral called halloysite, a
name given to it by P. Berthier after his uncle Omalius
d'Halloy, the Belgian geologist. (F. W. R.*)
KAPUNDA, a municipal town of Light county, South Aus-
tralia, 48 m. by rail N.N.E. of Adelaide. Pop. (1901), 1805.
It is the centre of a large wheat-growing district. The celebrated
copper mines discovered in 1843 were closed in 1879. There are
quarries near the town, in which is found fine marble of every
colour from dark blue to white. This marble was largely used
in the Houses of Parliament at Adelaide.
KAPURTHALA, a native state of India, within the Punjab.
Area, 652 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 314,341, showing an increase of
5% in the decade; estimated gross revenue, £178,000; tribute,
£8700. The Kapurthala family is descended from Jassa Singh,
a contemporary of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah, who by his
intelligence and bravery made himself the leading Sikh of his
day. At one time it held possessions on both sides of the Sutlej,
and also in the Bar! Doab. The cis-Sutlej estates and scattered
tracts in the Bari Doab were forfeited owing to the hostility
of the chief in the first Sikh war; but the latter were afterwards
restored in recognition of the loyalty of Raja Randhir Singh
during the mutiny of 1857, when he led a contingent to Oudh
which did good service. He also received a grant of land in
Oudh, 700 sq. m. in extent, yielding a gross rental of £89,000.
In Oudh, however, he exercises no sovereign powers, occupying
only the status of a large landholder, with the title of Raja-i-
Rajagan. Raja Sir Jagatjit Singh, K. C.S.I., was born in 1872,
succeeded his father in 1877, and attained his majority in 1890.
During the Tirah expedition of 1897-98 the Kapurthala imperial
service infantry took a prominent part. The territory is crossed
by the railway from Jullundur to Amritsar. The state has a
large export trade in wheat, sugar, tobacco and cotton. The
hand-painted cloths and metal-work of Phagwara are well
known. The town of Kapurthala is 1 1 miles from Jullundur;
pop. (1901), 18,519.
KARACHI, or KURRACHEE, a seaport and district of British
India, in the Sind province of Bombay. The city is situated at
the extreme western end of the Indus delta, 500 m. by sea from
Bombay and 820 m. by rail from Lahore, being the maritime
terminus of the North-Western railway, and the main gateway
for the trade of the Punjab and part of central Asia. It is also
the capital of the province of Sind. Pop. (1881), 73,500;
(1891), 105,199; (1901), 115,407. Before 1725 no town appears
to have existed here; but about that time some little trade began
to centre upon the convenient harbour, and the silting up of
Shahbandar, the ancient port of Sind, shortly afterwards drove
much of its former trade and population to the rising village.
Under the Kalhora princes, the khan of Kalat obtained a grant
of the town, but in 1795 it was captured by the Talpur Mirs, who
built the fort at Manora, at the entrance to the harbour. They
also made considerable efforts to increase the trade of the port
KARAGEORGE
673
and at the time of the British acquisition of the province the town
and suburbs contained a population of 14,000. This was in 1843,
from which time the importance of the place practically dates.
The harbour of Karachi has an extreme length and breadth
of about 5 m. It is protected by the promontory of Manora
Head; and the entrance is partially closed by rocks and by the
peninsula (formerly an island) of Kiamari. On Manora Head,
which is fortified, are the buildings of the port establishment, a
cantonment, &c. Kiamari is the landing-place for passengers
and goods, and has three piers and railway connexions. The
harbour improvements were begun in 1854 with the building of
the Napier Mole or causeway connecting Kiamari with the main-
land. The entrance has a minimum depth of 25 ft.; and a large
number of improvements and extensions have been carried out
by the harbour board, which was created in 1 880, and transformed
in 1886 into the port trust.
The great extension of the canal colonies in the Punjab,
entirely devoted to the cultivation of wheat, has immensely
increased the export trade of Karachi. It now ranks as the
third port of India, being surpassed only by Calcutta and
Bombay. The principal articles of export, besides wheat, are
oilseeds, cotton, wool, hides and bones. The annual value of
exports, including specie, amounts to about nine millions
sterling. There are iron works and manufactures of cotton
cloth, silk scarves and carpets. The fisheries and oyster beds
are important.
Among the principal public buildings are government house,
the Frere municipal hall, and the Napier barracks. The military
cantonments, stretching north-east of the city, form the head-
quarters of a brigade in the 4th division of the southern army.
An excellent water supply is provided by an underground
aqueduct 18 m. in length. The chief educational institutions
are the Dayaram Jethmal Arts College, with a law class; five
high schools, of which two are for Europeans and one for
Mahommedans; a convent school for girls; and an engineer-
ing class. The average rainfall for the year is about 5 in.
The rainy months are July and August, but one or two heavy
showers usually fall about Christmas. The end of May, begin-
ning of June, and first fortnight in October are hot. November,
December, January, February and March are delightfully cool
and dry; the remaining months are damp with a constant cool
sea breeze.
The DISTRICT OF KARACHI has an area of 11,970 sq. m. Pop.
(1901), 607,439, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. It
consists of an immense tract of land stretching from the mouth
of the Indus to the Baluch boundary. It differs in general
appearance from the rest of Sind, having a rugged, mountainous
region along its western border. The country gradually slopes
away to the south-east, till in the extreme south the Indus delta
presents a broad expanse of low, flat and unpicturesque alluvium.
Besides the Indus and its mouths, the only river in the district
is the Hab, forming the boundary between Sind and Baluchistan.
The Manchhar lake in Sehwan sub-division forms the only con-
siderable sheet of water in Sind. The hot springs at Pir Mangho
are 6 m. N. of Karachi town. The principal crops are rice,
millets, oil-seeds and wheat. In addition to Karachi, there are
seaports at Sirgonda and Keti Bandar, which conduct a con-
siderable coasting trade. Tatta was the old capital of Sind.
Kotri is an important railway station on the Indus. The main
line of the North-Western railway runs through the district.
From Kotri downwards the line has been doubled to Karachi,
and at Kotri a bridge has been constructed across the Indus
opposite Hyderabad, to connect with the Rajputana railway
system.
See A. F. Baillie, Kurrachee: Past, Present and Future (1890).
KARAGEORGE (in Servian, Karadyordye) (c. 1766-1817), the
leader of the Servians during their first revolution against the
Turks (1804-13), and founder of the Servian dynasty Kara-
georgevich. His Christian name was George (Dyordye), but
being not only of dark complexion but of gloomy, taciturn and
easily excitable temper, he was nicknamed by the Servians
xv. 22
" Tsrni Dyordye " and by the Turks " Karageorge," both mean-
ing " Black George," the Turkish name becoming soon the
generally adopted one. He was born in 1766 (according to some
in 1768), the son of an extremely poor Servian peasant, Petroniye
Petrovich. When quite a young man, he entered the service
of a renowned Turkish brigand, Fazli-Bey by name, and
accompanied his master on his adventurous expeditions. When
twenty he married and started a small farm. But having killed
a Turk, he left Servia for Syrmia, in Croatia-Slavonia, where
the monks of the monastery Krushedol engaged him as one
of their forest guards. He remained in the service of the monks
nearly two years, then enlisted into an Austrian regiment, and
as sergeant took part in the Austrian war against Turkey
(1788-91). He deserted his regiment, returned to Servia, and
settled in the village of Topola, living sometimes as a peaceful
farmer and sometimes again as the leader of a small band of
" hayduks " — men who attacked, robbed and in most cases
killed the travelling Turks in revenge for the oppression of their
country.
The circumstances in which the Servians rose against the
janissaries of ' the pashalik of Belgrade are related in the
article on SERVIA. The leaders of the insurgents' bands and
other men of influence met about the middle of February 1804
at the village of Orashatz, and there elected Karageorge as the
supreme leader (Vrhovni Vozd) of the nation. Under his
command the Servians speedily cleared their country not only
of the janissaries disloyal to the Sultan, but of all other Turks,
who withdrew from the open country to the fortified places.
Karageorge and his armed Servians demanded from the Sultan
the privileges of self-government. The Porte, confronted by
the chances of a war with Russia, decided in the autumn of
1806 to grant to the Servians a fairly large measure of autonomy.
Unfortunately Karageorge was comparatively poor in political
gifts and diplomatic tact. While the hattisherif granting the
rights demanded by the Servians was on the way to Servia,
Karageorge attacked the Turks in Belgrade and Shabats,
captured the towns first and then also the citadels, and allowed
the Turkish population of Belgrade to be massacred. At the
same time the Russian headquarters in Bucharest informed
Karageorge that Russia was at war with Turkey and that the
Tsar counted on the co-operation of the Servians. Karageorge
ana! his Servians then definitely rejected all the concessions
which the Porte had granted them, and joined Russia, hoping
thereby to secure the complete independence of Servia. The
co-operation of the Servians with the Russians was of no great
importance, and probably disappointing to both parties. But
as the principal theatre of war was far away from Servia on the
lower Danube, Karageorge was able to give more attention to
the internal organization of Servia. The national assembly
proclaimed Karageorge the hereditary chief and gospodar of
the Servians (Dec. 26, 1808), he on his part promising under
oath to govern the country " through and by the national
council " (senate).
Karageorge's hasty and uncompromising temper and imperious
habits, as well as his want of political tact, soon made him many
enemies amongst the more prominent Servians (voyvodes and
senators). His difficulties were considerably increased by the
intrigues of the Russian political agent to Servia, Rodophinikin.
A crisis came during the summer months of the year 1813. The
treaty of peace, concluded by the Russians somewhat hurriedly
in Bucharest in 1812, did not secure efficiently the safety of the
Servians. The Turks demanded from Karageorge, as a pre-
liminary condition for peace, that the Servians should lay down
their arms, and Karageorge refused to comply. Thereupon the
entire Turkish army which fought against the Russians on the
Danube, being disengaged, invaded Servia. After a few
inefficient attempts to stem the invasion, Karageorge gave up
the struggle, and with most of the voyvodes and chiefs of the
nation left the country, and crossed to Hungary as a refugee
(Sept. 20, 1813). From Hungary he went to Russia and settled
in Khotin (Bessarabia), enjoying a pension from the Tsar's
government. But in the summer of 1817 he suddenly and
674
KARA-HISSAR— KARAJICH
secretly left Russia and reappeared quite alone in Servia in
the neighbourhood of Semendria (Smederevo) on the Danube.
The motives and the object of his return are not clear. Some
believe that he was sent by the Hetaerists to raise up Servia to
a new war with Turkey and thereby facilitate the rising of the
Greek people. It is generally assumed, however, that, having
heard that Servia, under the guidance of Milosh Obrenovich,
had obtained a certain measure of self-government, he desired
to put himself again at the head of the nation. This impression
seems to have been that of Milosh himself, who at once reported
to the Pasha of Belgrade the arrival of Karageorge. The pasha
demanded that Karageorge, alive or dead, should be delivered to
him immediately, and made Milosh personally responsible for
the execution of that order. Karageorge's removal could not
unfortunately be separated from the personal interest of Milosh;
already acknowledged as chief of the nation, Milosh did not like
to be displaced by his old chief, who in a critical moment had
left the country. Karageorge was killed (July 27, O.S., 1817)
while he was asleep, and his head was sent to the pasha for trans-
mission to Constantinople. It is impossible to exonerate Milosh
Obrenovich from responsibility for the murder, which became
the starting-point for a series of tragedies in the modern history
of Servia.
Karageorge was one of the most remarkable Servians of the
igth century. No other man could have led the bands of
undisciplined and badly-armed Servian peasants to such decisive
victories against the Turks. Although he never assumed the
title of prince, he practically was the first chief and master
(gospodar) of the people of Servia. He succeeded, however, not
because he was liked but because he was feared. His gloomy
silence, his easily aroused anger, his habit of punishing without
hesitation the slightest transgressions by death, spread terror
among the people. He is believed to have killed his own father
in a fit of anger when the old man refused to follow him in his
flight to Hungary at the beginning of his career. In another
fit of rage at the report that his brother Marinko had assaulted
a girl, he ordered his men to seize his brother and 10 hang him
there and then in his presence, and he forbade his mother to go
into mourning for him. Even by his admirers he is admitted to
have killed by his own hand no fewer than 125 men who pro-
voked his anger. But in battles he is acknowledged to have
been always admirable, displaying marvellous energy and valour,
and giving proofs of a real military genius. The Servians con-
sider him one of their greatest men. In grateful remembrance
of his services to the national cause they elected his younger son,
Alexander, in 1842, to be the reigning prince of Servia, and
again in 1903 they chose his grandson, Peter Karageorgevich
(son of Alexander) to be the king of Servia.
See SERVIA; also Ranke, Die serbische Revolution; Stoyan Nova-
kovich, Vaskzhs srpske drzhave (Belgrade, 1904); M. G. Milityevich,
Karadyordye (Belgrade, 1904). (C. Mi.)
KARA-HISSAR ("Black Castle"), (i) AFIUM KARA-
HISSAR (q.v.). (2) ICHJE, or ISCHA KARA-HISSAR (anc. Doci-
tnium), a small village about 14 m. N.E. of No. i. Docimium
was a Macedonian colony established on an older site. It was
a self-governing municipality, striking its own coins, and stood
on the Apamea-Synnada-Pessinus road, by which the cele-
brated marble called Synnadic, Docimian and Phrygian was
conveyed to the coast. The quarries are 25 m. from the village,
and the marble was carried thence direct to Synnada (Chifut
Kassaba). Some of the marble has the rich purple veins in
which poets saw the blood of Atys.
See W. M. Ramsay, Hist. Geog. of Asia Minor (London, 1890);
Murray, Hbk. to Asia Minor (1893).
KARA-HISSAR SHARKI {i.e. "eastern Kara-Hissar "],
also called Shabin Kara-Hissar from the alum mines in its vicin-
ity, the chief town of a sanjak of the same name in the Sivas
vilayet of Asia Minor. Pop. about 12,000, two-thirds Mussul-
man. It is the Roman Colonia, which gradually superseded
Pompey's foundation, Nicopolis, whose ruins lie at Purkh,
about 12 m. W. (hence Kara-Hissar is called Nikopoli by the
Armenians). In later Byzantine times it was an important
frontier station, and did not pass into Ottoman hands till
twelve years after the capture of Constantinople. The town,
altitude 4860 ft., is built round the foot of a lofty rock, upon
which stand the ruins of the Byzantine castle, Maurocastron,
the Kara Hissar Daula of early Moslem chroniclers. It is
connected with its port, Kerasund, and with Sivas, Erzingan
and Erzerum, by carriage roads.
KARAISKAKIS, GEORGES (1782-1827), leader in the War
of Greek Independence, was born at Agrapha in 1782. During
the earlier stages of the war he served in the Morea, and had a
somewhat discreditable share in the intrigues which divided the
Greek leaders. But he showed a sense of the necessity for
providing the country with a government, and was a steady
supporter of Capo d'Istria. His most honourable services were
performed in the middle and later stages of the war. He helped
to raise the first siege of Missolonghi in 1823, and did his best to
save the town in the second siege in 1826. In that year he
commanded the patriot forces in Rumelia, and though he failed
to co-operate effectually with other chiefs, or with the foreign
sympathizers fighting for the Greeks, he gained some successes
against the Turks which were very welcome amid the disasters
of the time. He took a share in the unsuccessful attempts to
raise the siege of Athens in 1827, and made an effort to prevent
the disastrous massacre of the Turkish garrison of fort S
Spiridion. He was shot in action on the 4th of May 1827.
Finlay speaks of him as a capable partisan leader who had great
influence over his men, and describes him as of " middle size,
thin, dark-complexioned, with a bright expressive animal eye
which indicated gipsy blood."
See G. Finlay, History of the Greek Revolution (London, 1861).
KARAJICH, VUK STEFANOVICH (1787-1864), the father of
modern Servian literature, was born on the 6th of November
1787 in the Servian village of Trshich, on the border between
Bosnia and Servia. Having learnt to read and write in the old
monastery Tronosha (near his native village), he was engaged
as writer and reader of letters to the commander of the insurgents
of his district at the beginning of the first Servian rising against
the Turks in 1804. Mostly in the position of a scribe to different
voyvodes, sometimes as school-teacher, he served his country
during the first revolution (1804-1813), at the collapse of which
he left Servia, but instead of following Karageorge and other
voyvodes to Russia he went to Vienna. There he was introduced
to the great Slavonic scholar Yerney Kopitar, who, having heard
him recite some Servian national ballads, encouraged him to
collect the poems and popular songs, write a grammar of the
Servian language, and, if possible, a dictionary. This programme
of literary work was adhered to by Karajich, who all his life
acknowledged gratefully what he owed to his learned teacher.
In the second half of the i8th and in the beginning of the igth
century all Servian literary efforts were written in a language
which was not the Servian vernacular, but an artificial language,
of which the foundation was the Old Slavonic in use in the
churches, but somewhat Russianized, and mixed with Servian
words forced into Russian forms. That language, called by its
writers " the Slavonic-Servian," was neither Slavonic nor
Servian. It was written in Old Cyrillic letters, many of which
had no meaning in the Servian language, while there were several
sounds in that language which had no corresponding signs or
letters in the Old Slavonic alphabet. The Servian philosopher
Dositey Obradovich (who at the end of the i8th century spent
some time in London teaching Greek) was the first Servian
author to proclaim the principle that the books for the Servian
people ought to be written in the language of the people. But
the great majority of his contemporaries were of opinion that
the language of Servian literature ought to be evolved out of
the dead Old Slavonic of the church books. The church natur-
ally decidedly supported this view. Karajich was the great
reformer who changed all this. Encouraged by Kopitar, he
published in 1814 (2nd ed., 1815) in Vienna his first book, Mala
Prostonarodna Slaveno-Serbska Pyesmarilsa (" A small collection
of Slavonic-Servian songs of the common people "), containing a
KARA-KALPAKS— KARA-KUM
675
hundred lyric songs, sung by the peasant women of Servia, and
six poems about heroes, or as the Servians call them Yunachke
pesme, which are generally recited by the blind bards or by
peasants. From that time Karajich's literary activity moved
on two parallel lines: to give scientific justification and founda-
tion to the adoption of the vernacular Servian as the literary
language; and, by collecting and publishing national songs,
folk-lore, proverbs, &c., to show the richness of the Servian
people's poetical and intellectual gifts, and the wealth and
beauty of the Servian language. By his reform of the Servian
alphabet and orthography, his Servian grammar and his
Servian dictionary, he established the fact that the Servian
language contains thirty distinct sounds, for six of which the
Old Slavonic alphabet had no special letters. He introduced
new letters for those special sounds, at the same time throwing
out of the Old Slavonic alphabet eighteen letters for which
the Servian language had no use. This reform was stren-
uously opposed by the church and many conservative authors,
who went so far as to induce the Servian government to
prohibit the printing of books in new letters, a prohibition
removed in 1859. Karajich's alphabet facilitated his reform of
orthography, his principle being: write as you speak, and read as
it is written 1 Hardly any other language in the civilized world
has such a simple, logical, scientific spelling system and ortho-
graphy as the Servian has in Karajich's system. His first gram-
matical essay was published in Vienna in 1814, Pismenitsa
Serbskoga yezika po govoru prostoga naroda (" The grammar of
the Servian language as spoken by the common people").
An improved edition appeared in Vienna in 1818, together with
his great work Srpski Ryechnik (Lexicon Serbico-Germanico-
Latinum). This dictionary — containing 26,270 words — was
full of important contributions to folk-lore, as Karajich never
missed an opportunity to add to the meaning of the word the
description of the national customs or popular beliefs connected
with it. A new edition of his dictionary, containing 46,270
words, was published at Vienna in 1852. Meanwhile he gave
himself earnestly to the work of collecting the "creations of the
mind of the Servian common people." He travelled through
Servian countries (Servia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro,
Dalmatia, Syrmia, Croatia), and the result was shown in a
largely augmented edition of his Srpske Narodne Pyesme, of
which the first three volumes appeared at Leipzig in 1823 and
1824, the fourth volume appearing at Vienna in 1833. Popular
Stories and Enigmas was published in 1821, and Servian National
Proverbs in 1836. From 1826 to 1834 he was the editor of an
annual, called Danitsa (The Morning Star), which he filled with
important contributions concerning the ethnography and modern
history of the Servian people. In 1828 he published a historical
monograph, Milosh Obrenovich, Prince of Servia; in 1837, in
German, Montenegro and Montenegrins; in 1867, The Servian
Governing Council of Slate. He supplied Leopold Ranke with
the materials for his History of the Servian Revolution. He also
translated the New Testament into Servian, for the British and
Foreign Bible Society (Vienna, 1847). Karajich died in Vienna
on the 6th of February 1864; and his remains were transferred
to Belgrade in 1897 with great solemnity and at the expense of
the government of Servia. (C. Mi.)
KARA-KALPAKS (" Black Caps "), a Mongolo-Tatar people,
originally dominant along the east coast of the Aral Sea, where
they still number some thousands. They thus form geographi-
cally the transition between the northern Kirghiz and the
southern Turkomans. Once a powerful nation, they are
scattered for the most part in Astrakhan, Perm, Orenburg, in
the Caucasian province of Kuban, and in Tobolsk, Siberia,
numbering in all about 50,000. These emigrants have crossed
much with the alien populations among whom they have settled;
but the pure type on the Aral Sea are a tall powerful people,
with broad flat faces, large eyes, short noses and heavy chins.
Their women are the most beautiful in Turkestan. The name
of " Black Caps " is given them in allusion to their high sheep-
skin hats. They are a peaceful agricultural folk, who have
suffered much from their fierce nomad neighbours.
KARAKORUM (Turkish, " black stone debris "), the name of
two cities in Mongolia. One of these, according to G. Potanin,
was the capital of the Uighur kingdom in the 8th century, and the
other was in the i3th century a capital of the steppe monarchy
of Mongolia. The same name seems also to have been applied to
the Khangai range at the headwaters of the Orkhon. (i) The
Uighur KARAKORUM, also named Mubalik (" bad town "), was
situated on the left bank of the Orkhon, in the Talal-khain-dala
steppe, to the south-east of Ughei-nor. It was deserted after
the fall of the Uighur kingdom, and in the loth century Abaki,
the founder of the Khitan kingdom, planted on its ruins a
stone bearing a description of his victories. (2) The Mongolian
KARAKORUM was founded at the birth of the Mongolian monarchy
established by Jenghiz Khan. A palace for the khan was built
in it by Chinese architects in 1234, and its walls were erected in
1235. Piano Carpini visited it in 1246, Rubruquis in 1253, and
Marco Polo in 1275. Later, the fourth Mongoh'an king, Kublai,
left Karakorum, in order to reside at Kai-pin-fu, near Peking.
When the khan Arik-bog declared himself and Karakorum inde-
pendent of Kublai-Khan, the latter besieged Karakorum, took
it by famine, and probably laid it waste so thoroughly that the
town was afterwards forgotten.
The exact sites of the two Mongolian capitals were only estab-
lished in 1889-1891. Sir H. Yule (The Book of Marco Polo, 1871)
was the first to distinguish two cities of this name. The Russian
traveller Paderin in 1871 visited the Uighur capital (see TURKS),
named now by the Mongols Kara Balghasun (" black city ") or
Khara-kherem (" black wall "), of which only the wall and a
tower are in existence, while the streets and ruins outside the
wall are seen at a distance of if m. Paderin's belief that this
was the old Mongol capital has been shown to be incorrect. As to
the Mongolian Karakorum, it is identified by several authorities
with a site on which towards the close of the i6th century the
Buddhist monastery of Erdeni Tsu was built. This monastery
lies about 25 m. south by east of the Uighur capital. North
and north-east of the monastery are ruins of ancient buildings.
Professor D. Pozdneev, who visited Erdeni Tsu for a second time
in 1892, stated that the earthen wall surrounding the monastery
might well be part of the wall of the old city. The proper posi-
tion of the two Karakorums was determined by the expedition
of N. Yadrintsev in 1889, and the two expeditions of the Helsing-
fors Ugro-Finnish society (1890) and the Russian academy of
science, under Dr W. Radlov (1891), which were sent out to
study Yadrintsev's discovery.
See Works (Trudy) of the Orkhon Expedition (St Petersburg, 1892) ;
Yule's Marco Polo, edition revised by Henri Cordier (of Paris), vol. i.
ch. xlvi. (London, 1903). Cordier confines the use of Karakorum
to the Mongol capital ; Pozdneev, Mongolia and the Mongols, vol. i.
(St Petersburg, 1896); C. W. Campbell, "Journeys in Mongolia,"
Geog. Journ. vol. xx. (1903), with map. Campbell's report was
printed as a parliamentary paper (China No. i, 1904).
KARA-KUL, the name of two lakes (" Great " and " Little ")
of Russian Turkestan, in the province of Ferghana, and on
the Pamir plateau. Great Kara-kul, 12 m. long and 10 m.
wide (formerly much larger), is under 39° N., to the south of the
Trans- Alai range, and lies at an altitude of 13,200 ft.; it is sur-
rounded by high mountains, and is reached from the north over
the Kyzyl-art pass (14,015 ft.). A peninsula projecting from
the south shore and an island off the north shore divide it into
two basins, a smaller eastern one which is shallow, 42 to 63 ft.,
and a larger western one, which has depths of 726 to 756 ft.
It has no drainage outlet. Little Kara-kul lies in the north-
east Pamir, or Sarikol, north-west of the Mustagh-ata peak
(25,850 ft.), at an altitude of 12,700 ft. It varies in depth from
79 ft. in the south to 50 to 70 ft. in the middle, and 1000 ft. or
more in the north. It is a moraine lake; and a stream of the
same name flows through it, but is named Ghez in its farther
course towards Kashgar in East Turkestan.
KARA-KUM ("Black Sands"), a flat desert in Russian Central
Asia. It extends to nearly 110,000 sq. m., and is bounded on
the N.W. by the Ust-urt plateau, between the Sea of Aral and
the Caspian Sea, on the N.E. by the Amu-darya, on the S. by
the Turkoman oases, and on the W. it nearly reaches the Caspian
676
KARAMAN— KARAMZIN
Sea. Only part of this surface is covered with sand. There
are broad expanses (takyrs) of clay soil upon which water accu-
mulates in the spring;- in the summer these are muddy, but later
quite dry, and merely a few Solanaceae and bushes grow on
them. There is also shor, similar to the above but encrusted with
salt and gypsum, and relieved only by Solanaceae along their
borders. The remainder is occupied with sand, which, accord-
ing to V. Mainov, assumes five different forms, (i) Barkhans,
chiefly in the east, which are mounds of loose sand, 15 to 35 ft.
high, hoof-shaped, having their gently sloping convex sides
turned towards the prevailing winds, and a concave side, 30° to
40° steep, on the opposite slope. They are disposed in groups
or chains, and the winds drive them at an average rate of 20 ft.
annually towards the south and south-east. Some grass (Stipa
pennata) and bushes of saksaul (Haloxylon ammodendron) and
other steppe bushes (e.g. Calligonium, Halimodendron and Atra-
phaxis) grow on them. (2) Mounds of sand, of about the same
size, but irregular in shape and of a slightly firmer consistence,
mostly bearing the same bushes, and also Artemisia and Tamarix;
they are chiefly met with in the east and south. (3) A sandy
desert, slightly undulating, and covered in spring with grass and
flowers (e.g. tulips, Rheum, various Umbelliferae), which are soon
burned by the sun; they cover very large spaces in the south-
east. (4) Sands disposed in waves from 50 to 70 ft., and occa-
sionally up to loo ft. high, at a distance of from 200 to 400 ft.
from each other; they cover the central portion, and their vege-
tation is practically the same as in the preceding division. (5)
Dunes on the shores of the Caspian, composed of moving sands,
35 to 80 ft. high and devoid of vegetation.
A typical feature of the Kara-kum is the number of " old
river beds," which may have been either channels of tributaries
of the Amu and other rivers or depressions which contained
elongated salt lakes. Water is only found in wells, 10 to 20 m.
apart — sometimes as much as 100 m. — which are dug in the
takyrs and give saline water, occasionally unfit to drink, and in
pools of rain-water retained in the lower parts of the takyrs.
The population of the Kara-kum, consisting of nomad Kirghiz
and Turkomans, is very small. The region in the north of the
province of Syr-darya, between Lake Aral and Lake Chalkar-
teniz, is also called Kara-kum. (P. A. K.;J. T. BE.)
KARAMAN (anc. Laranda, a name still used by the Christian
inhabitants), a town in the Konia vilayet of Asia Minor, situated
in the plain north of Mount Taurus. Pop. 8000. It has few
industries and little trade, but the medieval walls, well preserved
castle and mosques are interesting, and the old Seljuk medresse,
or college, is a beautiful building. Karaman is connected with
Konia by railway, having a station on the first section of the
Bagdad railway. Little is known of its ancient history except
that it was destroyed by Perdiccas about 322 B.C., and after-
wards became a seat of Isaurian pirates. It was occupied
by Frederick Barbarossa in 1190; in 1466 it was captured by
Mahommed II., and in 1486 by Bayezid II.
KARAMANIA, formerly an independent inland province in
the south of Asia Minor, named after Karaman, the son of an
Armenian convert to Islam, who married a daughter of Ala
ed-Din Kaikobad, the Seljuk sultan of Rum, and was granted
Laranda in fief,and made governor of Selefke, 1223-1245. The
name Karaman is, however, Turkoman and that of a powerful
tribe, settled apparently near Laranda. The Armenian convert
must have been adopted into this. On the collapse of the Seljuk
empire, Karaman's grandson, Mahmud, 1279-1319, founded a
state, which included Pamphylia, Lycaonia and large parts of
Cilicia, Cappadocia and Phrygia. Its capital, Laranda, super-
seded Konia. This state was frequently at war with the kings
of Lesser Armenia, the Lusignan princes of Cyprus and the
knights of Rhodes. It was also engaged in a long struggle for
supremacy with the Osmanli Turks, which only ended in 1472,
when it was definitely annexed by Mahommed II. The Os-
manlis divided Karamania into Kharij north, and Ichili south, of
the Taurus, and restored Konia to its metropolitan position. The
name Karamania is now often given by geographers to Ichili
only; but so far as it has had any exact significance in modern
times, it has stood for the whole province of Konia. Before the
present provincial division was made (1864), Karamania was
the eyalet of which Konia was the capital, and it did not extend
to the sea, the whole littoral from Adalia eastward being under
the pasha of Adana. Nevertheless, in Levantine popular usage
at the present day, " Karamania " signifies the coast from
Adalia to Messina. (D. G. H.)
KARAMNASA, a river of northern India, tributary to the
Ganges on its right bank, forming the boundary between Bengal
and the United Provinces. The name means " destroyer of
religious merit," which is explained by more than one legend.
To this day all high-caste Hindus have to be carried over without
being defiled by the touch of its waters.
KARA MUSTAFA (d. 1683), Turkish vizier, surnamed " Mer-
zifunli," was a son of Uruj Bey, a notable. Sipahi of Merzifun
(Marsovan), and brother-in-law to Ahmed Kuprili, whom he
succeeded as grand vizier in 1676, after having for some years
held the office of Kaimmakam or locum tenens. His greed and
ostentation were equalled by his incapacity, and he behaved
with characteristic insolence to the foreign ambassadors, from
whom he extorted large bribes. After conducting a campaign
in Poland which terminated unfortunately, he gave a ready
response to the appeal for aid made by the Hungarians under
Imre Thokoly (q.v.) when they rose against Austria, his hope
being to form out of the Habsburg dominions a Mussulman em-
pire of the West, of which he should be the sultan. The plan
was foiled in part by his own lack of military skill, but chiefly
through the heroic resistance of Vienna and its timely relief by
John Sobieski, king of Poland. Kara Mustafa paid for his
defeat with his life; he was beheaded at Belgrade in 1683 and
his head was brought to the sultan on a silver dish.
Another KARA MUSTAFA PASHA (d. 1643), who figures in
Turkish history, was by birth a Hungarian, who was enrolled
in the Janissaries, rose to be Kapudan Pasha under Murad IV.,
and after the capture of Bagdad was made grand vizier. He
was severe, but just and impartial, and strove to effect necessary
reforms by reducing the numbers of the Janissaries, improving
the coinage, and checking the state expenditure. But the dis-
content of the Janissaries led to his dismissal and death in 1643.
KARAMZIN, NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH (1765-1826), Rus-
sian historian, critic, novelist and poet, was born at the village of
Mikhailovka, in the government of Orenburg, and not at Sim-
birsk as many of his English and German biographers incorrectly
state, on the ist of December (old style) 1765. His father was an
officer in the Russian army, of Tatar extraction. He was sent
to Moscow to study under Professor Schaden, whence he after-
wards removed to St Petersburg, where he made the acquaint-
ance of Dmitriev, a Russian poet of some merit, and occupied
himself with translating essays by foreign writers into his native
language. After residing some time at St Petersburg, he went
to Simbirsk, where he lived in retirement till induced to revisit
Moscow. There, finding himself in the midst of the society of
learned men, he again betook himself to literary work. In 1789
he resolved to travel, and visited Germany, France, Switzerland
and England. On his return he published his Letters of a Russian
Traveller, which met with great success. These letters were first
printed in the Moscow Journal, which he edited, but were after-
wards collected and issued in six volumes (1797-1801). In the
same periodical Karamzin also published translations of some of
the tales of Marmontel, and some original stories, among which
may be mentioned Poor Liza and Natalia the Boyar's Daughter.
In 1794 and 1795 Karamzin abandoned his literary journal, and
published a miscellany in two volumes, entitled Aglaia, in which
appeared, among other things, " The Island of Bornholm " and
" Ilia Mourometz," a story based upon the adventures of the well-
known hero of many a Russian legend. In 1797-1799 he issued
another miscellany or poetical almanac, The Aonides, in con-
junction with Derzha'vin and Dmitriev. In 1798 he compiled
The Pantheon, a collection of pieces from the works of the most
celebrated authors ancient and modern, translated into Russian.
Many of his lighter productions were subsequently printed by
him in a volume entitled My Trifles. In 1802 and 1803 Karamzin
KARA SEA— KAREN
677
edited the journal the European Messenger. It was not
until after the publication of this work that he realized where
his strength lay, and commenced his History of the Russian
Empire. In order to accomplish the task, he secluded himself
for two years; and, on the cause of his retirement becoming
known to the emperor Alexander, Karamzin was invited to
Tver, where he read to the emperoi the first eight volumes
of his history. In 1816 he removed to St Petersburg, where he
spent the happiest days of his life, enjoying the favour of
Alexander, and submitting to him the sheets of his great work,
which the emperor read over with him in the gardens of the
palace of Tzarskoe Selo. He did not, however, live to carry
his work further than the eleventh volume, terminating it at
the accession of Michael Romanov in 1613. He died on the
22nd of May (old style) 1826, in the Taurida palace. A
monument was erected to his memory at Simbirsk in 1845.
As an historian Karamzin has deservedly a very high reputation.
Till the appearance of his work little had been done in this direction
in Russia. The preceding attempt of Tatistchev was merely a rough
sketch, inelegant in style, and without the true spirit of criticism.
Karamzin was most industrious in accumulating materials, and the
notes to his volumes are mines of curious information. The style
of his history is elegant and flowing, modelled rather upon the
easy sentences of the French prose writers than the long periodical
paragraphs of the old Slavonic school. Perhaps Karamzin may
justly be censured for the false gloss and romantic air thrown over
the early Russian annals, concealing the coarseness and cruelty of
the native manners; in this respect he reminds us of Sir Walter
Scott, whose writings were at this time creating a great sensation
throughput Europe, and probably had their influence upon him.
Karamzin appears openly as the panegyrist of the autocracy; indeed,
his work has been styled the " Epic of Despotism." He does not
hesitate to avow his admiration of Ivan the Terrible, and considers
him and his grandfather Ivan III. as the builders up of Russian
greatness, a glory which in his earlier writings, perhaps at that time
more under the influence of Western ideas, he had assigned to Peter
the Great In the battle-pieces (e.g. the description of the field of
Koulikovo, the taking of Kazan, &c.) we find considerable powers
of description; and the characters of many of the chief personages
in the Russian annals are drawn in firm and bold lines. As a critic
Karamzin was of great service to his country; in fact he may be
regarded as the founder of the review and essay (in the Western
style) among the Russians.
KARA SEA, a portion of the Arctic Ocean demarcated, and
except on the north-west completely enclosed, by NovayaZemlya,
Vaygach Island and the Siberian coast. It is approached
from the west by three straits — Matochkin, between the two
islands of Novaya Zemlya, and Kara and Yugor to the north
and south of Vaygach Island respectively. On the south-
east Kara Bay penetrates deeply into the mainland, and to the
west of this the short Kara river enters the sea. The sea is all
shallow, the deepest parts lying off Vaygach Island and the
northern part of Novaya Zemlya. It had long the reputation
of being almost constantly ice-bound, but after the Norwegian
captain Johannesen had demonstrated its accessibility in 1869,
and Nordenskiold had crossed it to the mouth of the Yenisei in
1875, it was considered by many to offer a possible trade route
between European Russia and the north of Siberia. But the
open season is in any case very short, and the western straits
are sometimes icebound during the entire year.
KARASU-BAZAR, a town of Russia, in the Crimea and govern-
ment of Taurida, in 45° 3' N. and 34° 26' E., 25 m. E.N.E. of
Simferopol. Pop. (1897), 12,961, consisting of Tatars, Arme-
nians, Greeks, Qaraite Jews, and about 200 so-called Krym-
chaki, i.e. Jews who have adopted the Tatar language and
dress, and who live chiefly by making morocco leather goods,
knives, embroidery and so forth. The site is low, but the town
is surrounded by hills, which afford protection from the north
wind. The dirty streets full of petty traders, the gloomy bazaar
with its multitude of tiny shops, the market squares, the blind
alleys, the little gates in the dead courtyard walls, all give the
place the stamp of a Tatar or Turkish town. Placed on the
high road between Simferopol and Kerch, and in the midst of a
country rich in corn land, vineyards and gardens, Karasu-Bazar
used to be a chief seat of commercial activity in the Crimea; but
it is gradually declining in importance, though still a considerable
centre for the export of fruit.
The caves of Akkaya close by give evidence of early occupation
of the spot. When in 1736 Khan Feta Ghirai was driven by
the Russians from Bakhchi-sarai he settled at Karasu-Bazar,
but next year the town was captured, plundered and burned by
the Russians.
KARATEGHIN, a country of Central Asia, subject to Bokhara,
and consisting of a highland district bounded on the N. by
Samarkand and Ferghana (Khokand), on the E. by Ferghana, on
the S. by Darvaz, and on the W. by Hissar and other Bokharian
provinces. The plateau is traversed by the Surkhabor Vakhsh,a
right-hand tributary of the Amu-darya (Oxus) . On the N. border
run the Hissar and Zarafshan mountains, and on the S. border
the Peter I. (Periokhtan) range (24,900 ft.). The area is 8000
sq. m. and the population about 6o,ooo-five-sixths Tajiks, the
rest Kara-kirghiz. With the neighbouring lands Karateghin has
no communication except during summer, that is, from May to
September. The winter climate is extremely severe; snow begins
to fall in October and it is May before it disappears. During the
warmer months, however, the mountain sides are richly clothed
with the foliage of maple, mountain ash, apple, pear and walnut
trees; the orchards furnish, not only apples and pears, but
peaches, cherries, mulberries and apricots; and the farmers grow
sufficient corn to export. Both cattle and horses are of a small
and hardy breed. Rough woollen cloth and mohair are woven by
the natives, who also make excellent fire-arms and other weapons.
Gold is found in various places and there are salt-pits in the moun-
tains. The chief town, Harm or Garm, is a place of some 2000
inhabitants, situated on a hill on the right bank of the Surkhab.
The native princes, who claimed to be descended from Alex-
ander the Great, were till 1868 practically independent, though
their allegiance was claimed in an ineffective way by Khokand,
but eventually Bokhara took advantage of their intestine feuds
to secure their real submission in 1877.
KARAULI, or KEROWLEE, a native state of India, in the
Rajputana agency. Area, 1242 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 156,786;
estimated revenue about £330,000. Almost the entire territory
is composed of hills and broken ground, but there are no lofty
peaks, the highest having an elevation of less than 1400 ft. above
sea-level. The Chambal river flows along the south-east boundary
of the state. Iron ore and building stone comprise the mineral
resources. The prevailing agricultural products are millets,
which form the staple food of the people. The only manufactures
consist of a little weaving, dyeing, wood-turning and stone-
cutting. The principal imports are piece goods, salt, sugar,
cotton, buffaloes and bullocks; the exports rice and goats. The
feudal aristocracy of the state consists of Jadu Rajputs connected
with the ruling house. They pay a tribute in lieu of constant
military service, but in case of emergency or on occasions of state
display they are bound to attend on the chief with their retainers.
The maharaja is the head of the clan, which claims descent from
Krishna. Maharaja Bhanwar Pal Deo, who was born in 1862
and succeeded in 1866, was appointed G.C.I.E. in 1897, on the
occasion of Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee.
The town of KARAULI had a population in 1901 of 23,482. It
dates from 1348, and is well situated in a position naturally
defended by ravines on the north and east, while it is further
protected by a great wall. The palace of the maharaja is a
handsome block of buildings dating mainly from the middle
of the i8th century.
KAREN, one of the chief hill races of Burma. The Karens
inhabit the central Pegu Yoma range, forming the watershed
between the Sittang and Irrawaddy rivers, the Paunglaung
range between the Sittang and the Salween, and the eastern
slopes of the Arakan Yoma mountains to the west of the Irra-
waddy delta. They are supposed to be the descendants of
Chinese tribes driven southwards by the pressure of the Shan
races, before they were again made to retire into the hills by the
expansion of the Mon power. Their own traditions ascribe their
original home to the west of the sandy desert of Gobi stretching
between China and Tibet. According to the census of 1901 they
numbered in all 727,235 persons within British India, divided
into the Sgaw, 86,434, the Pwo, 174,070, and the Bghai, 4936,
678
KAREN-NI— KARLI
while 457,355 are returned as " unspecified." The Sgaw and
Pwo are collectively known as the " White Karens," and chiefly
inhabit British territory. They take their name from the colour
of their clothes. The Bghai, or " Red Karens," who are supposed
by some to be an entirely distinct race, chiefly inhabit the
independent hill state of Karen-ni (q.v.). The Karen is of a
squarer build than the Burman, his skin is fairer, and he has more
of the Mongolian obliquity of the eyes. In character also the
people differ from the Burmese. They are singularly devoid of
humour, they are stolid and cautious, and lack altogether the
light gaiety and fascination of the Burmese. They are noted for
truthfulness and chastity, but are dirty and addicted to drink.
The White Karens furnish perhaps the most notable instance
of conversion to Christianity of any native race in the British
empire. Prepared by prophecies current among them, and by
curious traditions of a biblical flavour, in addition to their an-
tagonism to the dominant Burmese, they embraced with fervour
the new creed brought to them by the missionaries, so that out
of the 147,525 Christians in Burma according to the census of
1901 upwards of a hundred thousand were Karens. The Red
Karens differ considerably from the White Karens. They are
the wildest and most lawless of the so-called Karen tribes. Every
male belonging to the clan used to have the rising sun tattooed
in bright vermilion on his back. The men are small and wizened,
but athletic, and have broad reddish-brown faces. Their dress
consists of a short pair of breeches, usually of a reddish colour,
with black and white stripes interwoven perpendicularly or like
a tartan, and a handkerchief is tied round the head. The Karen
language is tonal, and belongs to the Siamese-Chinese branch of
the Indo-Chinese family.
See D. M. Smeaton, The Loyal Karens of Burma (1887) ; J. Nisbet,
Burma under British Rule (1901) ; M. and B. Ferrars, Burma (1900) ;
and O'Connor Scott, The Silken East (1904). (J. G. Sc.)
KAREN-NI, the country of the Red Karens, a collection of
small states, formerly independent, but now feudatory to Burma.
It is situated approximately between 18° 50' and 19° 55' N. and
between 97° 10' and 97° 50' E. The tract is bounded on the N.
by the Shan states of Mong Pai, Hsatung and Mawkmai; on the
E. by Siam; on the S. by the Papun district of Lower Burma;
and on the W. a stretch of mountainous country, inhabited by
the Bre and various other small tribes, formerly in a state of
independence, divides it from the districts of Toungoo and
Yamethin. It is divided in a general way into eastern and
western Karen-ni; the former consisting of one state, Gantara-
wadi, with an approximate area of 2500 sq. m.; the latter of
the four small states of Kyebogyi, area about 350 sq. m.; Baw-
lake, 200 sq. m.; Nammekon, 50 sq. m.; and Naungpale, about
30 sq m. The small states of western Karen-ni were formerly
all subject to Bawlake, but the subordination has now ceased.
Karen-ni consists of two widely differing tracts of country, which
roughly mark now, and formerly actually did mark, the division
into east and west. Gantarawadi has, however, encroached
westwards beyond the boundaries which nature would assign to
it. The first of these two divisions is the southern portion of the
valley of the Hpilu, or Balu stream, an open, fairly level plain,
well watered and in some parts swampy. The second division
is a series of chains of hills, intersected by deep valleys, through
which run the two main rivers, the Salween and the Pawn, and
their feeder streams. Many of the latter are dried up in the hot
season and only flow freely during the rains. The whole country
being hilly, the most conspicuous ridge is that lying between the
Pawn and the Salween, which has an average altitude of 5000 ft.
It is crossed by several tracks, passable for pack-animals, the
most in use being the road between Sawlon, the capital of Gantara-
wadi and Man Mail. The principal peak east of the Salween is
on the Loi Lan ridge, 7109 ft. above mean sea-level. Parts of
this ridge form the boundary between eastern Karen-ni and
Mawkmai on the west and Siam on the east. It falls away
rapidly to the south, and at Pang Salang is crossed at a height
of 2200 ft. by the road from Hsataw to Mehawnghsawn. West of
the Balu valley the continuation of the eastern rim of the Myelat
plateau rises in Loi Nangpa to about 5000 ft. The Nam Pawn
is a large river, with an average breadth of 100 yds,, but is
unnavigable owing to its rocky bed. Even timber cannot be
floated down it without the assistance of elephants. The Salween
throughout Karen-ni is navigated by large native craft. Its
tributary, the Me Pai, on the eastern bank, is navigable as far as
Mehawnghsawn in Siamese territory. The Balu stream flows
out of the Inle lake, and is navigable from that point to close on
Lawpita, where it sinks into the ground in a marsh or succession
of funnel holes. Its breadth averages 50 yds., and its depth is
15 ft. in some places.
The chief tribes are the Red Karens (24,043), Bres (3500), and
Padaungs (1867). Total revenue, Rs. 37,000. An agent of the
British government, with a guard of military police, is posted at
the village of Loikaw. Little of the history of the Red Karens
is known; but it appears to be generally admitted that Bawlake
was originally the chief state of the whole country, east and west,
but eastern Karen-ni under Papaw-gyi early became the most
powerful. Slaving raids far into the Shan states brought on
invasions from Burma, which, however, were not very successful.
Eastern Karen-ni was never reduced until Sawlapaw, having
defied the British government, was overcome and deposed by
General Collett in the beginning of 1889. Sawlawi was then
appointed myoza, and received a sanad, or patent of appoint-
ment, on the same terms as the chiefs of the Shan states. The
independence of the Western Karen-ni states had been
guaranteed by the British government in a treaty with King
Mindon in 1875. They were, however, formally recognized as
feudatories in 1892 and were presented with sanads on the 23rd
of January of that year. Gantarawadi pays a regular tribute of
Rs. 5000 yearly, whereas these chieflets pay an annual kadaw,
or nuzzur, of about Rs. 100. They are forbidden to carry out
a sentence of death passed on a criminal without the sanction of
the superintendent of the southern Shan states, but otherwise
retain nearly all their customary law.
Tin, or what is called tin, is worked in Bawlake. It appears,
however, to be very impure. It is worked intermittently by White
Karens on the upper waters of the Hkemapyu stream. Rubies,
spinels and other stones are found in the upper Tu valley and in the
west of Nammekon state, but they are of inferior quality. The
trade in teak is the chief or only source of wealth in Karen-ni.
The largest and most important forests are those on the left bank
of the Salween. Others lie on both banks of the Nam Pawn, and
in western Karen-ni on the Nam Tu. The yearly out-turn is
estimated at over 20,000 logs, and forest officers have estimated
that an annual out-turn of 9000 logs might be kept up without
injury to the forests. Some quantity of cutch is exported, as also
stick-lac, which the Red Karens graft so as to foster the production.
Other valuable forest produce exists, but is not exported. Rice,
areca-nuts, and betel-vine leaf are the chief agricultural products.
The Red Karen women weave their own and their husbands'
clothing. A characteristic manufacture is the pa-si or Karen metal
drum, which is made at Ngwedaung. These drums are from 2\ to
3 ft. across the boss, with sides of about the same depth. The sound
is out of proportion to the metal used, and is inferior to that of the
Shan and Burmese gongs. It is thought that the population of
Karen-ni is steadily decreasing. The birth-rate of the people is
considered to exceed the death-rate by very little, and the Red
Karen habit of life is most unwholesome. Numbers have enlisted
in the Burma police, but there are various opinions as to their
value. (J. G. Sc.)
KARIKAL, a French settlement in India, situated on the
south-east coast, within the limits of Tanjore district, with an
area of 53 sq. m., and a population (1901) of 56,595. The site
was promised to the French by the Tanjore raja in 1738, in
return for services rendered, but was only obtained by them by
force in 1739. It was captured by the British in 1760, restored
in 1765, again taken in 1768, and finally restored in 1817. The
town is neatly built on one of the mouths of the Cauvery, and
carries on a brisk trade with Ceylon, exporting rice and importing
chiefly European articles and timber. A chef ' de I' administration,
subordinate to the government at Pondicherry, is in charge of
the settlement, and there is a tribunal of first instance.
KARLI, a village of British India, in the Poona district of the
Bombay presidency, famous for its rock caves. Pop. (1901),
903. The great cave of Karli is said by Fergusson to be without
exception the largest and finest fhaitya cave in India; it was
KARLOWITZ— KARMA
"679
excavated at a time when the style was in its greatest purity,
and is splendidly preserved. The great chaitya hall is 126 ft.
long, 45 ft. 7 in. wide, and about 46 ft. high. A row of ornamental
columns rises on either side to the ribbed teak roof, and at the
far end of the nave is a massive dagoba. Dating from the begin-
ning of the Christian era or earlier, this cave has a wooden roof,
which repeats the pattern of the walls, and which Fergusson
considers to be part of the original design. Since wood rapidly
deteriorates in India owing to the climate and the ravages of
white ants, the state of preservation of this roof is remarkable.
KARLOWITZ, or CARLOWITZ (Hungarian, Karl6eza; Croatian,
Karlovci), a city of Croatia-Slavonia, in the county of Syrmia;
on the right bank of the Danube, and on the railway from Peter-
wardein, 6 m. N.W. to Belgrade. Pop. (1900), 5643. Kar-
lowitz is the seat of an Orthodox metropolitan, and has several
churches and schools, and a hospital. The fruit-farms and
vineyards of the Fruska Gora, a range of hills to the south, yield
excellent plum brandy and red wine. An obelisk at Slankamen,
13 m. E. by S., commemorates the defeat of the Turks by Louis
of Baden, in 1691. The treaty of Karlowitz, between Austria,
Turkey, Poland and Venice, was concluded in 1699; in 1848-
1849 the city was the headquarters of Servian opposition to
Hungary. It was included, until 1881, in the Military Frontier.
KARLSKRONA [CARLSCRONA,] a seaport of Sweden, on the
Baltic coast, chief town of the district (/an) of Blekinge, and head-
quarters of the Swedish navy. Pop. (1900), 23,955. It >s
pleasantly situated upon islands and the mainland, 290 m. S.S.W.
of Stockholm by rail. The harbour is capacious and secure,
with a sufficient depth of water for the largest vessels. It has
three entrances; the principal, and the only one practicable for
large vessels, is to the south of the town, and is defended by two
strong forts, at Drottningskar on the island of Aspo, and on the
islet of Kungsholm. The dry docks, of great extent, are cut out
of the solid granite. There is slip-accommodation for large
vessels. Karlskrona is the seat of the Royal Naval Society, and
has a navy-arsenal and hospital, and naval and other schools.
Charles XI., the founder of the town as naval headquarters
(1680), is commemorated by a bronze statue (1897). There are
factories for naval equipments, galvanized metal goods, felt hats,
canvas, leather and rice, and breweries and granite quarries.
Exports are granite and timber; imports, coal, flour, provisions,
hides and machinery.
KARLSRUHE, or CARLSRUHE, a city of Germany, capital of
the grand-duchy of Baden, 33 m. S.W. of Heidelberg, on the
railway Frankfort-on-Main-Basel, and 39 m. N.W. of Stuttgart.
Pop. (1895), 84,030; (1905), 111,200. It stands on an elevated
plain, 5 m. E. of the Rhine and on the fringe of the Hardtwald
forest. Karlsruhe takes its name from Karl Wilhelm, margrave
of Baden, who, owing to disputes with the citizens of Durlach,
erected here in 1715 a hunting seat, around which the town has
been built. The city is surrounded by beautiful parks and
gardens. The palace (Schloss), built in 1751-1776 on the site
of the previous erection of 1715, is a plain building in the old
French style, composed of a centre and two wings, presenting
nothing remarkable except the octagon tower (Bleiturm), from
the summit of which a splendid view of the city and surrounding
country is obtained, and the marble saloon, in which the meridian
of Cassini was fixed or drawn. In front of the palace is the
Great Circle, a semicircular line of buildings, containing the
government offices. From the palace the principal streets,
fourteen in number, radiate in the form of an expanded fan, in a
S.E., S. and S.W. direction, and are again intersected by parallel
streets. This fan-like plan of the older city has, however, been
abandoned in the more modern extensions. Karlsruhe has
several fine public squares, the principal of which are the
Schlossplatz, with Schwanthaler's statue of the grand duke
Karl Friedrich in the centre, and market square (Markt-
platz), with a fountain and a statue of Louis, grand duke of
Baden. In the centre of the Rondelplatz is an obelisk in honour
of the grand duke Karl Wilhelm. The finest street is the Kaiser-
strasse, running from east to west and having a length of a mile
and a half and a uniform breadth of 72 ft. In it are several of
the chief public buildings, notably the technical high school,
the arsenal and the post office. Among other notable buildings
are the town hall; the theatre; the hall of representatives; the
mint; the joint museum of the grand-ducal and national collec-
tions (natural history, archaeology, ethnology, art and a library
of over 1 50,000 volumes) ; the palace of the heir-apparent, a late
Renaissance building of 1891-1896; the imperial bank (1893) ; the
national industrial hall, with an exhibition of machinery; the new
law courts; and the hall of fine arts, which shelters a good picture
gallery. The city has six Evangelical and four Roman Catholic
Churches. The most noteworthy of these are the Evangelical
town church, the burial-place of the margraves of Baden; the
Christuskirche, and the Bernharduskirche. Karlsruhe possesses
further the Zahringen museum of curiosities, which is in the left
wing of the Schloss; an architectural school (1891) ; industrial art
school and museum; cadet school (1892); botanical and electro-
technical institutes; and horticultural and agricultural schools.
Of its recent public monuments may be mentioned one to Joseph
Victor von Scheffel (1826-1886); a bronze equestrian statue of
the emperor William I. (1896); and a memorial of the 1870-71
war. Karlsruhe is the headquarters of the XIV. German army
corps. Since 1870 the industry of the city has grown rapidly,
as well as the city itself. There are large railway workshops;
and the principal branches of industry are the making of loco-
motives, carriages, tools and machinery, jewelry, furniture,
gloves, cement, carpets, perfumery, tobacco and beer. There
is an important arms factory. Maxau, on the Rhine, serves as
the river port of Karlsruhe and is connected with it by a canal
finished in 1901.
See Fecht, Geschichte der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Karlsruhe
(Karlsruhe, 1887); F. von Weech, Karlsruhe, Geschichte der Stadt
undihrer Verwaltung (Karlsruhe, 1893-1902) ; Naeher, Die Umgebung
der Residenz Karlsruhe (Karlsruhe, 1888) ; and the annual Chrontk
der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Karlsruhe.
KARLSTAD [CARLSTAD], a town of Sweden, the capital of the
district (Ian) of Vermland, on the island of Tingvalla under the
northern shore of Lake Vener, 205 m. W. of Stockholm by the
Christiania railway. Pop. (1900), 11,869. The fine Klar River
here enters the lake, descending from the mountains of the fron-
tier. To the north-west lies the Fryksdal or valley of the Nors
River, containing three beautiful lakes and fancifully named the
" Swedish Switzerland." In this and other parts of the district
are numerous iron- works. Karlstad was founded in 1584. It
is the seat of a bishop and has a cathedral. Trade is carried on
by way of the lake and the Gota canal. There are mechanical
works, match factories and stockinet factories, and a mineral
spring rich in iron, the water of which is bottled for export.
Under the constitution of united Sweden and Norway, in the
event of the necessity of electing a Regent and the disagreement
of the parliaments of the two countries, Karlstad was
indicated as the meeting-place of a delegacy for the purpose.
Here, on the 3ist of August 1905 the conference met to decide
upon the severance of the union between Sweden and Norway,
the delegates concluding their work on the 23rd of September.
KARLSTADT or CARLSTADT (Hungarian, Karolyvaros; Croa-
tian, Karlovac), a royal free city, municipality and garrison town
in the county of Agram, Croatia-Slavonia; standing on hilly
ground beside the river Kulpa, which here receives the Korana
and the Dobra. Pop. (1900), 7396. Karlstadt is on the railway
from Agram to Fiume. It consists of the fortress, now obsolete,
the inner town and the suburbs. Besides the Roman Catholic
and Orthodox churches, its chief buildings are the Franciscan
monastery, law-courts and several large schools, including one
for military cadets. Karlstadt has a considerable transit trade
in grain, wine, spirits and honey, and manufactures the liqueur
called rosoglio.
KARMA, sometimes written KARMAN, a Sanskrit noun (from
the root kri, to do), meaning deed or action. In addition to this
simple meaning it has also, both in the philosophical and the
colloquial speech of India a technical meaning, denoting " a
person's deeds as determining his future lot." This is not
merely in the.vague sense that on the whole good will be rewarded
68o
KARMAN— KARNAK
and evil punished, but that every single act must work out to
the uttermost its inevitable consequences, and receive its retribu-
tion, however many ages the process may require. Every part
of the material universe — man, woman, insect, tree, stone, or
whatever it be — is the dwelling of an eternal spirit that is working
out its destiny, and while receiving reward and punishment for
the past is laying up reward and punishment for the future.
This view of existence as an endless and concomitant sowing and
reaping is accepted by learned and unlearned alike as accounting
for those inequalities in human life which might otherwise lead
men to doubt the justice of God. Every act of every person has
not only a moral value producing merit or demerit , but also an
inherent power which works out its fitting reward or punishment.
To the Hindu this does not make heaven and heh1 unnecessary.
These two exist in many forms more or less grotesque, and after
death the soul passes to one of them and there receives its due;
but that existence too is marked by desire and action, and is
therefore productive of merit or demerit, and as the soul is thus
still entangled in the meshes of karma it must again assume an
earthly garb and continue the strife. Salvation is to the Hindu
simply deliverance from the power of karma, and each of the
philosophic systems has its own method of obtaining it. The
last book of the Laws of Manu deals with karmaphalam, " the
fruit of karma," and gives many curious details of the way in
which sin is punished and merit rewarded. The origin of the
doctrine cannot be traced with certainty, but there is little doubt
that it is post-vedic, and that it was readily accepted by Buddha
in the 6th century B.C. As he did not believe in the existence of
soul he had to modify the doctrine (see BUDDHISM).
KARMAN, J6ZSEF (1760-1795), Hungarian author, was
born at Losoncz on the i4th of March 1769, the son of a Cal-
vinist pastor. He was educated at Losoncz and Pest, whence he
migrated to Vienna. There he made the acquaintance of the
beautiful and eccentric Countess Markovics, who was for a time
his mistress, but she was not, as has often been supposed, the
heroine of his famous novel Fanni Hagyomanai (Fanny's testa-
ment). Subsequently he settled in Pest as a lawyer. His sensi-
bility, social charm, liberal ideas (he was one of the earliest of
the Magyar freemasons) and personal beauty, opened the doors
of the best houses to him. He was generally known as the
Pest Alcibiades, and was especially at home in the salons of the
Protestant magnates. In 1792, together with Count Raday, he
founded the first theatrical society at Buda. He maintained that
Pest, not Pressburg, should be the literary centre of Hungary,
and in 1794 founded the first Hungarian quarterly, Urania,
but it met with little support and ceased to exist in 1795, after
three volumes had appeared. Karman, who had long been
suffering from an incurable disease, died in the same year.
The most important contribution to Urania was his sentimental
novel, Fanni Hagyomanai, much in the style of La nouvdle
Heloise and Werther, the most exquisite product of Hungarian
prose in the i8th century and one of the finest psychological
romances in the literature. Karman also wrote two satires and
fragments of an historical novel, while his literary programme is
set forth in his dissertation Anemzet csinosoddsa.
Karman's collected works were published in Abafi's Nemzeti
Konyvtdr (Pest, 1878), &c., preceded by a life of Karman. See
F. Barath, Joseph Kdrmdn (Hung., Vas. Ujs, 1874); Zsolt Beothy,
article on Kirman in Ktpes Irodalomtortenet (Budapest, 1894).
(R. N. B.)
KARNAK, a village in Upper Egypt (pop. 1907, 12,585),
which has given its name to the northern half of the ruins of
Thebes on the east bank of the Nile, the southern being known
as Luxor (q.v.). The Karnak ruins comprise three great enclo-
sures built of crude brick. The northernmost and smallest of
these contained a temple of the god Mont, built by Amenophis
III., and restored by Rameses II. and the Ptolemies. Except
a well-preserved gateway dating from the reign of Ptolemy Euer-
getes I., little more than the plan of the foundations is traceable.
Its axis, the line of which is continued beyond the enclosure wall
by an avenue of sphinxes, pointed down-stream (N.E.). The
southern enclosure contained a temple of the goddess Mut, also
built by Amenophis III., and almost as ruinous as the last, but
on a much larger scale. At the back is the sacred lake in the
shape of a horse-shoe. The axis of the temple runs approxi-
mately northward, and is continued by a great avenue of rams
to the southern pylons of the central enclosure. This last is of
vast dimensions, forming approximately a square of 1500 ft., and
it contains the greatest of all known temples, the Karnak temple
of Ammon (see ARCHITECTURE, sect. " Egyptian," with plan).
Inside and outside each of these enclosures there were a number
of subsidiary temples and shrines, mostly erected by individual
kings to special deities. The triad of Thebes was formed by
Ammon, his wife Mut and their son Khons. The large temple
of Khons is in the enclosure of the Ammon temple, and the temple
of Mut, as already stated, is connected with the latter by the
avenue of rams. The Mont temple, on the other hand, is isolated
from the others and turned away from them; it is smaller than
that of Khons. Mont, however, may perhaps be considered a
special god of Thebes; he certainly was a great god from very
ancient times in the immediate neighbourhood, his seats being
about 4 m. N.E. at Medamot, the ancient Madu, and about 10 m.
S.W. on the west bank at Hermonthis.
It is probable that a temple of Ammon existed at Karnak
under the Old Kingdom, if not in the prehistoric age; but it
was unimportant, and no trace of it has been discovered. Slight
remains of a considerable temple of the Middle Kingdom survive
behind the shrine of the great temple, and numbers of fine
statues of the twelfth and later dynasties have been found ; two
of these were placed against the later seventh pylon, while a
large number were buried in a great pit, in the area behind that
pylon, which has yielded an enormous number of valuable and
interesting monuments reaching to the age of the Ptolemies.
The axis of the early temple lay from E. to W., and was followed
by the main line of the later growth; but at the beginning of the
eighteenth dynasty, Amenophis I. built a temple south of the
west front of the eld one, and at right angles to it, and thus
started a new axis which was later developed in the series of
pylons VII.-X., and the avenue to the temple of Mut. The
Vlllth pylon in particular was built by Hatshepsut, probably
as an approach to this temple of Amenophis, but eventually
Tethmosis III. cleared the latter away entirely. Thebes was
then the royal residence, and Ammon of Karnak was the great
god of the state. Tethmosis I. built a court round the temple
of the Middle Kingdom, entered through a pylon (No. V.), and
later added the pylon No. IV. with obelisks in front of it. Hat-
shepsut placed two splendid obelisks between the Pylons IV.
and V., and built a shrine in the court of Tethmosis I., in front
of the old temple. Tethmosis III., greatest of the Pharaohs,
remodelled the buildings about the obelisks of his unloved sister
with the deliberate intention of hiding them from view, and
largely reconstructed the surroundings of the court. At a later
date, after his wars were over, he altered Hatshepsut's sanctuary,
engraving on the walls about it a record of his campaigns; to
this time also is to be attributed the erection of a great festival
hall at the back of the temple. The small innermost pylon
(No. VI.) is likewise the work of Tethmosis III. Amenophis
III., though so great a builder at Thebes, seems to have contented
himself with erecting a great pylon (No. III.) at the west end.
The closely crowded succession of broad pylons here suggests
a want of space for westward expansion, and this is perhaps
explained by a trace of a quay found by Legrain in 1905 near the
southern line of pylons; a branch of the Nile or a large canal
may have limited the growth. As has been stated, Tethmosis
III. continued on the southern axis; he destroyed the temple of
Amenophis I. and erected a larger pylon (No. VII.) to the north
of Hatshcpsut's No. VIII. To these Haremheb added two
great pylons and the long avenue of ram-figures, changing the
axis slightly so as to lead direct to the temple of Mut built by
Amenophis III. All of these southern pylons are well spaced.
In the angle between these pylons and the main temple was
the great rectangular sacred lake. By this time the temple of
Karnak had attained to little more than half of its ultimate
length from east to west.
KARNAL— KAROLYI
681
With the XlXth Dynasty there is a notable change perhaps
due to the filling of the hypothetical canal. No more was added
on the southern line of building, but westward Rameses I.
erected pylon No. II. at an ample distance from that of
Amenophis III., and Seti I. and Rameses II. utilized the space
between for their immense Hall of Columns, one of the most
celebrated achievements of Egyptian architecture. The mate-
rials of which the pylon is composed bear witness to a temple
having stood near by of the heretic and unacknowledged kings
of the XVIIIth Dynasty. Haremheb's pylon No. IX. was like-
wise constructed out of the ruins of a temple dedicated by
Amenophis IV. (Akhenaten) to the sun-god Harmakhis.
Rameses III. built a fine temple, still well preserved, to Ammon
at right angles to the axis westward of pylon No. II. ; Sheshonk I.
(Dynasty XXII.) commenced a great colonnaded court in front
of the pylon, enclosing part of this temple and a smaller triple
shrine built by Seti II. In the centre of the court Tirhaka
(Tirhaka, Dynasty XXV.) set up huge columns 64 ft. high,
rivalling those of the central aisle in the Hall of Columns, for
some building now destroyed. A vast unfinished pylon at the
west end (No. I.), 370 ft. wide and 142! ft. high, is of later date
than the court, and is usually attributed to the Ptolemaic age.
It will be observed that the successive pylons diminish in size
from the outside inwards. Portions of the solid crude-brick
scaffolding are still seen banked against this pylon. About 100
metres west of it is a stone quay, on the platform of which stood
a pair of obelisks of Seti II.; numerous graffiti recording the
height of the Nile from the XXIst to the XXVIth Dynasties
are engraved on the quay.
Besides the kings named above, numbers of others contributed
in greater or less measure to the building or decoration of the
colossal temple. Alexander the Great restored a chamber in the
festival hall of Tethmosis III., and Ptolemy Soter built the central
shrine of granite in the name of Philip Arrhidaeus. The walls
throughout, as usually in Egyptian temples, are covered with
scenes and inscriptions, many of these, such as those which record
the annals of Tethmosis III., the campaign of Seti I. in Syria, the
exploit of Rameses II. at the battle of Kadesh and his treaty with
the Hittites, and the dedication of Sheshonk's victories to Ammon,
are of great historical importance. Several large stelae with
interesting inscriptions have been found in the ruins, and statues
of many ages of workmanship. In December 1903 M. Legrain,
who has been engaged for several years in clearing the' temple
area systematically, first tapped an immense deposit of colossal
statues, stelae and other votive objects large and small in the
space between pylon No. VII. and the great hypostyle hall.
After three seasons' work, much of it in deep water, 750 large
monuments have been extracted, while the small figures, &c.
in bronze and other materials amount to nearly 20,000. The
value of the find, both from the artistic and historical stand-
points, is immense. The purpose of the deposit is still in
doubt; many of the objects are of the finest materials and
finest workmanship, and in perfect preservation: even precious
metals are not absent. Multitudes of objects in wood, ivory,
&c., have decayed beyond recovery. That all were waste pieces
seems incredible. They are found lying in the utmost confusion;
in date they range from the XHth Dynasty to the Ptolemaic
period.
The inundation annually reaches the floor of the temple, and
the saltpetre produced from the organic matter about the ruins,
annually melting and crystallizing, has disintegrated the soft
sandstone in the lower courses of the walls and the lower drums
and bases of the columns. There is moreover no solid foundation
in any part of the temple. Slight falls of masonry have taken
place from time to time, and the accumulation of rubbish was
the only thing that prevented a great disaster. Repairs, often
on a large scale, have therefore gone on side by side with the
clearance, especially since the fall of many columns in the great
hall in 1899. All the columns which fell in that year were re-
erected by 1908.
The temple of Khons, in the S.W. corner of the great enclosure,
is approached by an avenue of rams, and entered through a fine
pylon erected by Euergetes I. It was built by Rameses III.
and his successors of the XXth Dynasty, with Hrihor of
Dynasty XXI. Excavations in the opposite S.E. corner have
revealed flint weapons and other sepulchral remains of the
earliest periods, proving that the history of Thebes goes back
to a remote antiquity.
See Baedeker's Handbook for Egypt ; also Description de I'Egypte. ,
A lias, Antiquit^s (tome iii.) ; A. Mariette, Karnak, Etude topographique
etarcheologique; L. Borchardt, Zur Baugeschichte des Ammontempels
von Karnak ; G. Legrain in Recueil des travaux relatifs a I'arch. Egypt.,
vol. xxvii. &c.; and reports in Annales du service des antiquites de
I'Egypte. (F. LL. G.)
KARNAL, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi
division of the Punjab. The town is 7 m. from the right bank
of the Jumna, with a railway station 76 m. N. of Delhi. Pop.
(1901), 23,559. There are manufactures of cotton cloth and
boots, besides considerable local trade and an annual horse
fair.
The DISTRICT or KARNAL stretches along the right bank of
the Jurnna, north of Delhi. It is entirely an alluvial plain,
but is crossed by the low uplift of the watershed between the
Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal. Area, 3153 sq. m.; pop.
(1901), 883,225, showing an increase of nearly 3% in the decade.
The principal crops are millets, wheat, pulse, rice, cotton and
sugar-cane. There are several factories for ginning and pressing
cotton. The district is traversed by the Delhi-Umballa-Kalka
railway, and also by the Western Jumna canal. It suffered from
famine in 1896-1897, and again to some extent in 1899-1900.
No district of India can boast of a more ancient history than
Karnal, as almost every town or stream is connected with the
legends of the Mahabharata. The town of Karnal itself is said
to owe its foundation to Raja Kama, the mythical champion of
the Kauravas in the great war which forms the theme of the
national epic. Panipat, in the south of the district, is said to
have been one of the pledges demanded from Duryodhana by
Yudisthira as the price of peace in that famous conflict. In
historical times the plains of Panipat have three times proved
the theatre of battles which decided the fate of Upper India. It
was here that Ibrahim Lodi and his vast host were defeated in
1526 by the veteran army of Baber; in 1556 Akbar reasserted the
claims of his family on the same battlefield against the Hindu
general of the house of Adil Shah, which had driven the heirs
of Baber from the throne for a brief interval; and at Panipat
too, on the 7th of January 1761, the Mahratta confederation
was defeated by Ahmad Shah Durani. During the troublous
period which then ensued the Sikhs managed to introduce them-
selves, and in 1767 one of their chieftains, Desu Singh, appro-
priated the fort of Kaithal, which had been built during the
reign of Akbar. His descendants, the bhais of Kaithal, were
reckoned amongst the most important Cis-Sutlej princes.
Different portions of this district have lapsed from time to time
into the^hands of the British.
KAROLYI, ALOYS, COUNT (1825-1889), Austro-Hungarian
diplomatist, was born in Vienna on the 8th of August 1825. The
greatness of the Hungarian family of Karolyi dates from the
time of Alexander Karolyi (1668-1743), one of the generals of
Francis Rakoczy II., who in 1711 negotiated the peace of
Szatmar between the insurgent Hungarians and the new king,
the emperor Charles VI., was made a count of the Empire in
1712, and subsequently became a field marshal in the imperial
army. Aloys Karolyi entered the Austrian diplomatic service,
and was attached successively to embassies at various European
capitals. In 1858 he -was sent to St Petersburg on a special
mission to seek the support of Russia against Napoleon III.
He was ambassador at Berlin in 1866 at the time of the rupture
between Prussia and Austria, and after the Seven Weeks' War
was charged with the negotiation of the preliminaries of peace
at Nikolsburg. He was again sent to Berlin in 1871, acted
as second plenipotentiary at the Berlin congress of 1878, and
was sent in the same year to London, where he represented
Austria for ten years. He died on the 2nd of December 1889
at T6tmegyer.
682
KAROSS— KARS
KAROSS, a cloak made of sheepskin, or the hide of other
animals, with the hair left on. It is properly confined to the
coat of skin without sleeves worn by the Hottentots and Bush-
men of South Africa. These karosses are now often replaced
by a blanket. Their chiefs wore karosses of the skin of the wild
cat, leopard or caracal. The word is also loosely applied to the
cloaks of leopard-skin worn by the chiefs and principal men of
the Kaffir tribes. Kaross is probably either a genuine Hottentot
word, or else an adaptation of the Dutch kuras (Portuguese
coura$a), a cuirass. In a vocabulary dated 1673 karos is
described as a " corrupt Dutch word."
KARR, JEAN BAPTISTE ALPHONSE (1808-1890), French
critic and novelist, was born in Paris, on the 24th of November
1808, and after being educated at the College Bourbon, became a
teacher there. In 1832 he published a novel, Sous les lilleuls,
characterized by an attractive originality and a delightful
freshness of personal sentiment. A second novel, Une heure trap
lard, followed next year, and was succeeded by many other
popular works. His Vendredi soir (1835) and Le Chemin le plus
court (1836) continued the vein of autobiographical romance
with which he had made his first success. Genevieve (1838) is
one of his best stories, and his Voyage autour de man jardin
(1845) was deservedly popular. Others were Feu Bressier
(1848), and Fort en theme (1853), which had some influence in
stimulating educational reform. In 1839 Alphonse Karr, who
was essentially a brilliant journalist, became editor of Le Figaro,
to which he had been a constant contributor; and he also started
a monthly journal, Les Guepes, of a keenly satirical tone, a
publication which brought him the reputation of a somewhat
bitter wit. His epigrams were frequently quoted; e.g. " plus
ca change, plus c'est la meme chose," and, on the proposal to
abolish capital punishment, " je veux bien que messieurs les
assassins commencent." In 1848 he founded Le Journal. In
1855 he went to live at Nice, where he indulged his predilections
for floriculture, and gave his name to more than one new variety.
Indeed he practically founded the trade in cut flowers on the
Riviera. He was also devoted to fishing, and in Les Soirees de
Sainte-Adresse (1853) and Au hard de la mer (1860) he made use
of his experiences. His reminiscences, Lime de bord, were
published in 1879-1880. He died at St Raphael (Var), on the
29th of September 1890.
KARRER, FELIX (1825-1903), Austrian geologist, was born
in Venice on the nth of March 1825. He was educated in
Vienna, and served for a time in the war department, but he
retired from the public service at the age of thirty-two, and
devoted himself to science. He made especial studies of the
Tertiary formations and fossils of the Vienna Basin, and investi-
gated the geological relations of the thermal and other springs
in that region. He became an authority on the foraminifera,
on which subject he published numerous papers. He wrote
also a little book entitled Der Boden der Hauptslddte Europas
(1881). He died in Vienna on the igth of April 1903.
KARROO, two extensive plateaus in the Cape province,
South Africa, known respectively as the Great and Little Karroo.
Karroo is a corruption of Karusa, a Hottentot word meaning
dry, barren, and its use as a place-name indicates the character
of the plateaus so designated. They form the two intermediate
" steps " between the coast-lands and the inner plateau which
constitutes the largest part of South Africa. The Little (also
called Southern) Karroo is the table-land nearest the southern
coast-line of the Cape, and is bounded north by the Zwaarteberg,
which separates it from the Great Karroo. From west to east
the Little Karroo has a length of some 200 m., whilst its average
width is 30 m. West of the Zwaarteberg the Little Karroo
merges into the Great Karroo. Eastward it is limited by the
hills which almost reach the sea in the direction of St Francis
and Algoa Bays. The Great Karroo is of much larger extent.
Bounded south, as stated, by the Zwaarteberg, further east by
the Zuurberg (of the coast chain), its northern limit is the
mountain range which, under various names, such as Nieuwveld
and Sneeuwberg, forms the wall of the inner plateau. To
the south-west and west it is bounded by the Hex River Moun-
tains and the Cold Bokkeveld, eastward by the Great Fish
River. West to east it extends fully 350 m. in a straight line,
varying in breadth from more than 80 to less than 40 m. Whilst
the Little Karroo is divided by a chain of hills which run across
it from east to west, and varies in altitude from 1000 to 2000 ft.,
the Great Karroo has more the aspect of a vast plain and has
a level of from 2000 to 3000 ft. The total area of the Karroo
plateaus is stated to be over 100,000 sq. m. The plains are
dotted with low ranges of kopjes. The chief characteristics of
the Karroo are the absence of running water during a great part
of the year and the consequent parched aspect of the country.
There is little vegetation save stunted shrubs, such as the
mimosa (which generally marks the river beds), wild pome-
granate, and wax heaths, known collectively as Karroo bush.
After the early rains the bush bursts into gorgeous purple and
yellow blossoms and vivid greens, affording striking evidence of
the fertility of the soil. Such parts of the Karroo as are
under perennial irrigation are among the most productive lands
in South Africa. Even the parched bush provides sufficient
nourishment for millions of sheep and goats. There are also
numerous ostrich farms, in particular in the districts of
Oudtshoorn and Ladismith in the Little Karroo, where lucerne
grows with extraordinary luxuriance. The Karroo is admirably
adapted to sufferers from pulmonary complaints. The dryness
of the air tempers the heat of summer, which reaches in January
a mean maximum of 87° F., whilst July, the coldest month,
has a mean minimum of 36° F. A marked feature of the climate
is the great daily range (nearly 30°) in temperature; the Karroo
towns are also subject to violent dust storms. Game, formerly
plentiful, has been, with the exception of buck, almost exter-
minated. In a looser sense the term Karroo is also used of the
vast northern plains of the Cape which are part of the inner
table-land of the continent. (See CAPE COLONY.)
KARS, a province of Russian Transcaucasia, having the
governments of Kutais and Tiflis on the N., those of Tiflis and
Erivan on the E., and Asiatic Turkey on the S. and W. Its
area amounts to 7410 sq. m. It is a mountainous, or rather a
highland, country, being in reality a plateau, with ranges of
mountains running across it. The northern border is formed
by the Arzyan range, a branch of the Ajari Mts., which attains
altitudes of over 9000 ft. In the south the Kara-dagh reach
10,270 ft. in Mount Ala-dagh, and the Agry-dagh 10,720 ft.
in Mount Ashakh; and in the middle Allah-akhbar rises to
10,215 ft- The passes which connect valley with valley often lie
at considerable altitudes, the average of those in the S.E. being
9000 ft. Chaldir-gol (altitude 6520 ft.) and one or two other
smaller lakes lie towards the N.E. ; the Chaldir-gol is overhung
on the S.W. by the Kysyr-dagh (10,470 ft.). The east side of
the province is throughout demarcated by the Arpa-chai, which
receives from the right the Kars river, and as it leaves the
province at its S.E. corner joins the Aras. The Kura rises within
the province not far from the Kysyr-dagh and flows across it
westwards, then eastwards and north-eastwards, quitting it in
the north-east. The winters are very severe. The towns of
Kaghyshman (4620 ft.) and Sarykamish (7800 ft.) have a
winter temperature like that of Finland, and at the latter place,
with an annual mean (35° F.) equal to that of Hammerfest in
the extreme north of Norway, the thermometer goes down in
winter to 40° below zero and rises in summer to 99°. The annual
mean temperature at Kars is 40-5° and at Ardahan, farther
north, 37°. The Alpine meadows (yailas) reach up to 1000 ft.
and afford excellent pasturage in spring and summer. The
province is almost everywhere heavily forested. Firs and
birches flourish as high as 7000 ft., and the vine up to above
3000 ft. Cereals ripen well, and barley and maize grow up to
considerable altitudes. Large numbers of cattle and sheep are
bred. Extensive deposits of salt occur at Kaghyshman and
Olty. The population was 167,610 in 1883 and 292,863 in 1897.
The estimated population in 1906 was 349,100. It is mixed.
In remote antiquity the province was inhabited by Armenians,
the ruins of whose capital, Ani, attest the ancient prosperity of
the country. To the Armenians succeeded the Turks, while
KARS— KARUN
683
Kurds invaded the Alpine pasturages above the valley of the
Aras; and after them Kabardians, Circassians, Ossetes and
Kara-papaks successively found a refuge in this highland region.
After the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, when this region was
transferred to Russia by the treaty of Berlin, some 82,730
Turks emigrated to Asia Minor, their places being taken by nearly
22,000 Armenians, Greeks and Russians. At the census of
1897 the population consisted principally of Armenians (73,400),
Kurds (43,000), Greeks (32,600), Kara-papaks (30,000), Russians,
Turks and Persians. The capital is Kars. The province is
divided into four districts, the chief towns of which are Kars
(<?.».), Ardahan (pop. 800 in 1897), Kaghyshman (3435) and
Olty. (J. T. BE.)
KARS, a fortified town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the
province of Kars, formerly at the head of a sanjak in the Turkish
vilayet of Erzerum. It is situated in 40° 37' N. and 43° 6' E.,
185 m. by rail S.W. of Tiflis, on a dark basalt spur of the Soghanli-
dagh, above the deep ravine of the Kars-chai, a sub-tributary
of the Aras. Pop. (1878), 8672; (1897), 20,891. There are
three considerable suburbs — Orta-kapi to the S., Bairam Pasha
to the E., and Timur Pasha on the western side of- the river.
At the N.W. corner of the town, overhanging the river, is the
ancient citadel, in earlier times a strong military post, but
completely commanded by the surrounding eminences. The
place is, however, still defended by a fort and batteries. There
is a loth century cathedral, Kars being the see of a bishop of
the Orthodox Greek Church. Coarse woollens, carpets and felt
are manufactured.
During the gth and icth centuries the seat of an independent
Armenian principality, Kars was captured and destroyed by the
Seljuk Turks in the nth century, by the Mongols in the i3th, and
by Timur (Tamerlane) in 1387. The citadel, it would appear,
was built by Sultan Murad III. during the war with Persia, at
the close of the i6th century. It was strong enough to with-
stand a siege by Nadir Shah of Persia, in 1731, and in 1807 it
successfully resisted the Russians. After a brave defence it sur-
rendered on the 23rd of June 1828 to the Russian general Count
I. F. Paskevich, n,ooo men becoming prisoners of war. During
the Crimean War the Turkish garrison, guided by General
Williams (Sir W. Fenwick Williams of Kars) and other foreign
officers, kept the Russians at bay during a protracted siege;
but, after the garrison had been devastated by cholera, and
food had utterly failed, nothing was left but to capitulate
(Nov. 1855). The fortress was again stormed by the Russians
in the war of 1877-78, and on its conclusion was transferred to
Russia.
See Kmety, The Defence of Kars (1856), translated from the
German; H. A. Lake, Kars and our Captivity in Russia (London,
1856); and Narrative of the Defence of Kars (London, 1857);
Dr Sandwith, Narrative of the Siege of Kars (London, 1856);
C. B. Norman, Armenia and the Campaign of 1877 (London, 1878) ;
Greene, Russian Army and its Campaigns in Turkey (1879).
KARSHI, a town of Bokhara, in Central Asia, situated 96 m.
S.E. of the city of Bokhara, in a plain at the junction of two
main confluents of the Kashka-darya. It is a large and strag-
gling place, with a citadel, and the population amounts to
25,000. There are three colleges, and the Biki mosque is a fine
building inlaid with blue and white tiles. Along the river
stretches a fine promenade sheltered by poplars. Poppies and
tobacco are largely grown, the tobacco being deemed the best
in Central Asia. There is a considerable trade in grain; but the
commercial prosperity of Karshi is mainly due to its being a
meeting-point for the roads from Samarkand, Bokhara, Hissar,
Balkh and Maimana, and serves as the market where the
Turkomans and Uzbegs dispose of their carpets, knives and fire-
arms. Its coppersmiths turn out excellent work. Karshi was
a favourite residence of Timur (Tamerlane).
KARST, in physical geography, the region east of the northern
part of the Adriatic. It is composed of high and dry limestone
ridges. The country is excessively faulted by a long series of
parallel fractures that border the N.E. Adriatic and continue
inland that series of steps which descend beneath the sea and
produce the series of long parallel islands off the coast of Triest
and along the Dalmatian shore. It has been shown by E. Suess
(Antlitz der Erde, vol. i. pt. 2, ch. iii.) that the N. Adriatic is a
sunken dish that has descended along these fractures and folds,
which are not uncommonly the scene of earthquakes, showing
that these movements are still in progress. The crust is very
much broken in consequence and the water sinks readily through
the broken limestone rocks, which owing to their nature are also
very absorbent. The result is that the scenery is barren and
desolate, and as this structure always, wherever found, gives
rise to similar features, a landscape of this character is called a
Karst landscape. The water running in underground channels
dissolves and denudes away the underlying rock, producing
great caves as at Adelsberg, and breaking the surface with
sinks, potholes and unroofed chasms. The barren nature of a
purely limestone country is seen in the treeless regions of some
parts of Derbyshire, while the underground streams and sinks
of parts of Yorkshire, and the unroofed gorge formed by the
Cheddar cliffs, give some indication of the action that in the
high fractured mountains of the Karst produces a depressing
landscape which has some of the features of the " bad lands " of
America, though due to a different cause.
KARSTEN, KARL JOHANN BERNHARD (1782-1853),
German mineralogist, was born at Biitzow in Mecklenburg, on
the 26th of November 1782. He was author of several compre-
hensive works, including H andbuch der Eisenhiiltenkunde (2 vols.,
i8i6;3rded.,i84i); System der Metallurgie geschichllich , slatistisch ,
theorelisch undtechnisch (5 vols. with atlas, 1831-1832); Lehrbuch
der Salinenkunde (2 vols., 1846-1847). He was well known as
editor of the Archivfiir Bcrgbau und Hiiltenwesen (20 vols., 1818-
1831); and (with H. von Dechen) of the Archiv fur Mineralogie,
Geognosie, Bergbau und Hiitlenkunde (26 vols., 1820-1854). He
died at Berlin on the 22nd of August 1853. His son, Dr Hermann
Karsten (1800-1877), was professor of mathematics and physics
in the university of Rostock.
KARTIKEYA, in Hindu mythology, the god of war. Of his
birth there are various legends. One relates that he had no
mother but was produced by Siva alone, and was suckled by six
nymphs of the Ganges, being miraculously endowed with six
faces that he might simultaneously obtain nourishment from
each. Another story is that six babes, miraculously conceived,
were born of the six nymphs, and that Parvati, the wife of Siva,
in her great affection for them, embraced the infants so closely
that they became one, but preserved six faces, twelve arms, feet,
eyes, &c. Kartikeya became the victor of giants and the leader
of the armies of the gods. He is represented as riding a peacock.
In southern India he is known as Subramanya.
KARUN, an important river of Persia. Its head-waters are
in the mountain cluster known since at least the I4th century
as Zardeh Kuh (13,000 ft.) and situated in the Bakhtiari country
about 115 m. W. of Isfahan. In its upper course until it reaches
Shush ter it is called Ab i Kurang (also Kurand and Kuran),
and in the Bundahish, an old cosmographical work in Pahlavi,
it is named Kharae.1 From the junction of the two principal
sources in the Zardeh Kuh at an altitude of about 8000 ft., the
Ab i Kurang is a powerful stream, full, deep and flowing with
great velocity for most of its upper course between precipices
varying in height from 1000 to 3000 ft. The steepness and
height of its banks make it in general useless for irrigation
purposes. From its principal sources to Shushter the distance
as the crow flies is only about 75 m., but the course of the river
is so tortuous that it travels 250 m. before it reaches that
city. Besides being fed on its journey through the Bakhtiari
country by many mountain-side streams, fresh-water and salt,
it receives various tributaries, the most important being the
Ab i Bazuft from the right and the Ab i Barz from the left. At
Shushter it divides into two branches, one the " Gerger," an
artificial channel cut in olden times and flowing east of the
1 The real principal source of the river has been correctly located
at ten miles above the reputed principal source, but the name Kurang
has been erroneously explained as standing for Kuh i rang and has
been given to the mountain with the real principal source. Kuh
i rang has been wrongly explained as meaning the " variegated
mountain."
684
KARWAR— KASAI
city, the other the " Shutait " flowing west. These two branches,
which are navigable to within a few miles below Shushter, unite
after a run of about 50 m. at Band i Kir, 24 m. S. of Shushter,
and there also take up the Ab i Diz (river of Dizful). From
Band i Kir to a point two miles above Muhamrah the river is
called Karun (Rio Carom of the Portuguese writers of the i6th
and 1 7th centuries) and is navigable all the way with the
exception of about two miles at Ahvaz, where a series of cliffs
and rocky shelves cross the river and cause rapids. Between
Ahvaz and Band i Kir (46 m. by river, 24 m. by road) the river
has an average depth of about 20 ft., but below Ahvaz down to
a few miles above Muhamrah it is in places very shallow, and
vessels with a draught exceeding 3 ft. are liable to ground.
About 12 m. above Muhamrah and branching off to the left
is a choked-up river bed called the " blind Karun," by which
the Karun found its way to the sea in former days. Ten miles
farther a part of the river branches off to the left and due S. by
a channel called Bahmashir (from Bahman-Ardashir, the name
of the district in the early middle ages) which is navigable to
the sea for vessels of little draught. The principal river, here
about a quarter of a mile broad and 20 to 30 ft. deep, now flows
west, and after passing Muhamrah enters into the Shatt el Arab
about 20 m. below Basra. This part of the river, from the
Bahmashir to the Shatt, is a little over three miles in length and,
as its name, Hafar (" dug ") implies, an artificial channel. It
was dug c. A.D. 980 by Azud ed-Dowleh to facilitate communica-
tion by water between Basra and Ahvaz, as related by the Arab
geographer Mukaddasi A.D. 986. The total length of the river
is 460 to 470 m. while the distance from the sources to its
junction with the Shatt el Arab is only 160 m. as the crow flies.
The Karun up to Ahvaz was opened to international navigation
on the 30th of October 1888, and Messrs Lynch of London
established a fortnightly steamer service on it immediately
after.
To increase the water supply of Isfahan Shah Tahmasp I.
(1524-1576) and some of his successors, notably Shah Abbas I.
(1587-1629), undertook some works for diverting the Kurang
into a valley which drains into the Zayendeh-rud, the river of
Isfahan, by tunnelling, or cutting through a narrow rocky ridge
separating the two river systems. The result of many years'
work, a cleft 30x3 yds. long, 15 broad and 18 deep, cut into the
rock, probably amounting to no more than one-twentieth of the
necessary work, can be seen at the junction of the two principal
sources of the Kurang.
On the upper Karun see Mrs Bishop, Journeys in Persia and
Kurdistan (London, 1891); Lord Curzon, Persia and the Persian
Question (London, 1892); Lieut. -Colonel H. A. Sawyer, "The
Bakhtiari Mountains and Upper Elam," Geog. Journal (Dec. 1894).
(A. H.-S.)
KARWAR, or CARWAR, a seaport of British India, adminis-
trative headquarters of North Kanara district in the Bombay
presidency; 295 m. S. of Bombay city. Pop. (1901), 16,847. As
early as 1660 the East India Company had a factory here, with
a trade in muslin and pepper; but it suffered frequently from
Dutch, Portuguese and native attacks, and in 1752 the English
agent was withdrawn. Old Karwar fell into ruins, but a new
town grew up after the transfer of North Kanara to the Bombay
presidency. It is the only safe harbour all the year round
between Bombay and Cochin. In the bay is a cluster of islets
called the Oyster Rocks, on the largest of which is a lighthouse.
Two smaller islands in the bay afford good shelter to native
craft during the strong north-west winds that prevail from
February to April. The commercial importance of Karwar has
declined since the opening of the railway to Marmagao in
Portuguese territory.
KARWI, a town of British India, in the Banda district of the
United Provinces, on a branch of the Indian Midland railway;
pop. (1901), 7743. Before the Mutiny it was the residence of
a Mahratta noble, who lived in great state, and whose accumu-
lations constituted the treasure afterwards famous as " the
Kirwee and Banda Prize Money."
KARYOGAMY (Gr. n&pvov, nut or kernel, thus " nucleus,"
and 7<i/w>s, marriage), in biology: (i) the fusion of nuclei to
form a single nucleus in syngamic processes (see REPRODUCTION) ;
(2) the process of pairing in Infusoria (?.».), in which two migra-
tory nuclei are interchanged and fuse with two stationary
nuclei, while the cytoplasmic bodies of the two mates are in
intimate temporary union.
KASAI, or CASSAI, a river of Africa, the chief southern
affluent of the Congo. It enters the main stream in 3° 10' S.,
16° 16' E. after a course of over 800 m. from its source in the
highlands which form the south-western edge of the Congo
basin — separating the Congo and Zambezi systems. The Kasai
and its many tributaries cover a very large part of the Congo
basin. The Kasai rises in about 12° S., 19° E. and flows first in
a north-easterly direction. About 10° 35' S., 22° 15' E. it makes
a rectangular bend northward and then takes a north-westerly
direction. Five rivers — the Luembo, Chiumbo, Luijimo or
Luashimo, Chikapa and Lovua or Lowo — rise west of the
Kasai and run in parallel courses for a considerable distance,
falling successively into the parent stream (between 7° and 6° S.)
as it bends westward in its northern course. The Luembo and
Chiumbo join and enter the Kasai as one river. A number of
rapids occur in these streams. A few miles below the confluence
of the Lowo, the last of the five rivers named to join the Kasai,
the main stream is interrupted by the Wissmann Falls which,
though not very high, bar further navigation from the north.
Below this point the river receives several right-hand (eastern)
tributaries. These also have their source in the Zambezi-Congo
watershed, rising just north of 12° S., flowing north in parallel
lines, and in their lower course bending west to join the Kasai.
The chief of these affluents are the Lulua and the Sankuru, the
Lulua running between the Kasai and the Sankuru. The
Sankuru makes a bold curve westward on reaching 4° S.,
following that parallel of latitude a considerable distance. Its
waters are of a bright yellow colour. After the junction of the
two rivers (in 4° 17' S., 20° 15' E.), the united stream of the Kasai
flows N.W. to the Congo. From the south it is joined by the
Loange and the Kwango. The Kwango is a large river rising
a little north of 12° S., and west of the source of the Kasai.
Without any marked bends it flows north — is joined from the
east by the Juma, Wamba and other streams — and has a course
of 600 m. before joining the Kasai in 3° S., 18' E. The lower
reaches of the Kwango are navigable; the upper course is
interrupted by rapids. On the north (in 3° 8' S., 17° E.) the
lower Kasai is joined by the Lukenye or Ikatta. This river,
the most northerly affluent of the Kasai, rises between 24° and
25° E., and about 3° S. in swampy land through which the
Lomami (another Congo affluent) flows northward. The
Lukenye has an east to west direction flowing across a level
country once occupied by a lake, of which Lake Leopold II.
(q.v.), connected with the lower course of the Lukenye, is the
scanty remnant. Below the lake the Lukenye is known as the
Mfini. Near its mouth the Kasai, in its lower course generally
a broad stream strewn with islands, is narrowed to about half a
mile on passing through a gap in the inner line of the West African
highlands, by the cutting of which the old lake of the Kasai basin
must have been drained. The Kasai enters the Congo with a
minimum depth of 25 feet and a breadth of about 700 yards,
at a height of 942 ft. above the sea. The confluence is known
as the Kwa mouth, Kwa being an alternative name for the
lower Kasai. The volume of water entering the Congo averages
3 2 1, ocx) cub. ft. per second: far the largest amount discharged by
any of the Congo affluents. In floodtime the current flows at the
rate of 5 or 6 m. an hour. The Kasai and its tributaries are
navigable for over 1500 m. by steamer.
The Kwango affluent of the Kasai was the first of the large
affluents of the Congo known to Europeans. It was reached by
the Portuguese from their settlements on the west coast in the i6tn
century. Of its lower course they were ignorant. Portuguese
travellers in the i8th century are believed to have reached the upper
Kasai, but the first accurate knowledge of the river basin was
obtained by David Livingstone, who reached the upper Kasai from
the east and explored in part the upper Kwango (1854-1855).
V. L. Cameron and Paul Pogge crossed the upper Kasai in the early
" seventies." The Kwa mouth was seen by H. M. Stanley in his
journey down the Congo in 1877, and he rightly regarded it as the
KASBEK— KASHGAR
685
outlet of the Kwango, though not surmising it was also the outlet
of the Kasai. In 1882 Stanley ascended the river to the Kwango-
Kasai confluence and thence proceeding up the Mfini discovered
Lake Leopold II. In 1884 George Grenfell journeyed up the river
beyond the Kwango confluence. The systematic exploration of
the main stream and its chief tributaries was, however, mainly the
work of Hermann von Wissmann, Ludwig Wolf, Paul Pogge and
other Germans during 1880-1887. (See Wissmann's books, especi-
ally Im Innern Afrikas, Leipzig, 1888.) On his third journey, 1886,
Wissmann was accompanied by Grenfell. Major von Mechow, an
Austrian, explored the middle Kwango in 1880, and its lower course
was subsequently surveyed by Grenfell and Holman Bentley, a
Baptist missionary. In 1899-1900 a Belgian expedition under
Captain C. Lemaire traced the Congo-Zambezi watershed, obtaining
valuable information concerning the upper courses of the southern
Kasai tributaries. The upper Kasai basin and its peoples were
further investigated by a Hungarian traveller, E. Torday, in 1908-
1909. (See Torday's paper in Geog. Jour., 1910; also CONGO and the
authorities there cited.)
KASBEK (Georgian, Mkin-vari; Ossetian, Urs-khokh],
one of the chief summits of the Caucasus, situated in 42° 42' N.
and 44° 30' E., 7 m. as the crow flies from a station of the same
name on the high road to Tiflis. Its altitude is 16,545 ft. It
rises on the range which runs north of the main range (main
water-parting), and which is pierced by the gorges of the Ardon
and the Terek. It represents an extinct volcano, built up of
trachyte and sheathed with lava, and has the shape of a double
cone, whose base lies at an altitude of 5800 ft. Owing to the
steepness of its slopes, its eight glaciers cover an aggregate surface
of not more than 8 sq. m., though one of them, Maliev, is 36 m.
long. The best-known glacier is the Dyevdorak, or Devdorak,
which creeps down the north-eastern slope into a gorge of the
same name, reaching a level of 7530 ft. At its eastern foot runs
the Georgian military road through the pass of Darial (7805 ft.).
The summit was first climbed in 1868 by D. W. Freshfield,
A. W. Moore, and C. Tucker, with a Swiss guide. Several
successful ascents have been made since, the most valuable in
scientific results being that of Pastukhov (1889) and that of
G. Merzbacher and L. Purtscheller in 1890. Kasbek has a
great literature, and has left a deep mark in Russian poetry.
See D. W. Freshfield in Proc. Geog. Soc. (November 1888) and The
Exploration of the Caucasus (2nd ed., 2 vols., 1902) ; Hatisian's
"Kazbek Glaciers" in Izvestia Russ. Geog. Soc. (xxiv., 1888);
Pastukhov in Izvestia of the Caucasus Branch of Russ. Geog. Soc.
(x. I, 1891, with large-scale map).
KASHAN, a small province of Persia, situated between
Isfahan and Kum. It is divided into the two districts germsir, the
" warm," and sardsir, the " cold," the former with the city of
Kashan in the plains, the latter in the hills. It has a population
of 75,000 to 80,000, and pays a yearly revenue of about £18,000.
KASHAN (Cashan) is the provincial capital, in 34° o' N. and
51° 27' E., at an elevation of 3190 ft., 150 m. from Teheran;
P°P- 3Sioo°> including a few hundred Jews occupied as silk-
winders, and a few Zoroastrians engaged in trade. Great
quantities of silk stuffs, from raw material imported from Gilan,
and copper utensils are manufactured at Kashan and sent to all
parts of Persia. Kashan also exports rose-water made in villages
in the hilly districts about 20 m. from the city, and is the
only place in Persia where cobalt can be obtained, from the
mine at Kamsar, 19 m. to the south. At the foot of the hills
4 m. W. of the city are the beautiful gardens of Fin, the
scene of the official murder, on the gth of January 1852, of
Mirza Taki Khan, Amir Nizam, the grand vizier, one of the
ablest ministers that Persia has had in modern times.
KASHGAR, an important city of Chinese Turkestan, in
39° 24' 26" N. lat., 76° 6' 47" E. long., 4043 ft. above sea-level.
It consists of two towns, Kuhna Shahr or " old city," and Yangi
Shahr or " new city," about five miles apart, and separated from
one another by the Kyzyl Su, a tributary of the Tarim river. It
is called Su-leh by the Chinese, which perhaps represents an
original Solek or Sorak. This name seems to be older than
Kashgar, which is said to mean " variegated houses." Situated
at the junction of routes from the valley of the Oxus, from
Khokand and Samarkand, Almati, Aksu, and Khotan, the last
two leading from China and India, Kashgar has been noted from
very early times as a political and commercial centre. Like all
other cities of Central Asia, it has changed hands repeatedly, and
was from 1864-1887 the seat of government of the Amir Yakub
Beg, surnamed the Atalik Ghazi, who established and for a
brief period ruled with remarkable success a Mahommedan state
comprising the chief cities of the Tarim basin from Turfan
round along the skirt of the mountains to Khotan. But the
kingdom collapsed with his death and the Chinese retook the
country in 1877 and have held it since.
Kuhna Shahr is a small fortified city on high ground over-
looking the river Tuman. Its walls are lofty and supported by
buttress bastions with loopholed turrets at intervals; the
fortifications, however, are but of hard clay and are much out
of repair. The city contains about 2500 houses. Beyond the
bridge, a little way off, are the ruins of ancient Kashgar,
which once covered a large extent of country on both sides of the
Tuman, and the walls of which even now are 12 feet wide at the
top and twice that in height. This city — Aski Shahr (Old Town)
as it is now called — was destroyed in 1514 by Mirza Ababakar
(Abubekr) on the approach of Sultan Said Khan's army. About
two miles to the north beyond the river is the shrine of Hazrat
Afak, the saint king of the country, who died and was buried here
in 1693. It is a handsome mausoleum faced with blue and white
glazed tiles, standing under the shade of some magnificent silver
poplars. About it Yakub Beg erected a commodious college,
mosque and monastery, the whole being surrounded by rich
orchards, fruit gardens and vineyards. The Yangi Shahr of
Kashgar is, as its name implies, modern, having been built in
1838. It is of oblong shape running north and south, and is
entered by a single gateway. The walls are lofty and massive
and topped by turrets, while on each side is a projecting bastion.
The whole is surrounded by a deep and wide ditch, which can be
filled from the river, at the risk, however, of bringing down the
whole structure, for the walls are of mud, and stand upon a
porous sandy soil. In the time of the Chinese, before Yakub
Beg's sway, Yangi Shahr held a garrison of six thousand men,
and was the residence of the amban or governor. Yakub erected
his orda or palace on the site of the amban's residence, and two
hundred ladies of his harem occupied a commodious enclosure
hard by. The population of Kashgar has been recently estimated
at 60,000 in the Kuhna Shahr and only 2000 in the Yangi
Shahr.
With the overthrow of the Chinese rule in 1865 the manu-
facturing industries of Kashgar declined. Silk culture and
carpet manufacture have flourished for ages at Khotan, and the
products always find a ready sale at Kashgar. Other manu-
factures consist of a strong coarse cotton cloth called kham (which
forms the dress of the common people, and for winter wear is
padded with cotton and quilted), boots and shoes, saddlery, felts,
furs and sheepskins made up into cloaks, and various articles of
domestic use. A curious street sight in Kashgar is presented by
the hawkers of meat pies, pastry and sweetmeats, which they
trundle about on hand-barrows just as their counterparts do in
Europe; while the knife-grinder's cart, and the vegetable seller
with his tray or basket on his head, recall exactly similar itinerant
traders further west.
The earliest authentic mention of Kashgar is during the second
period of ascendancy of the Han dynasty, when the Chinese con-
quered the Hiungnu, Yutien (Khotan), Sulei (Kashgar), and a group
of states in the Tarim basin almost up to the foot of the Tian Shan
mountains. This happened in 76 B.C. Kashgar does not appear
to have been known in the West at this time but Ptolemy speaks of
Scythia beyond the Imaus. which is in a Kasia Regio, possibly ex-
hibiting the name whence Kashgar and Kashgaria (often applied to
the district) are formed. Next ensues a long epoch of obscurity.
The country was converted to Buddhism and probably ruled by
Indo-Scythian or Kushan kings. Hsuan Tswang passed through
Kashgar (which he calls Ka-sha) on his return journey from India
to China. The Buddhist religion, then beginning to decay in India,
was working its way to a new growth in China, and contemporane-
ously the Nestorian Christians were establishing bishoprics at Herat,
Merv and Samarkand, whence they subsequently proceeded to
Kashgar, and finally to China itself. In the 8th century came the
Arab invasion from the west, and we find Kashgar and Turkestan
lending assistance to the reigning queen of Bokhara, to enable her
to repel the enemy. But although the Mahommedan religion from
the very commencement sustained checks, it nevertheless made its
686
KASHI— KASHMIR
weight felt upon the independent states of Turkestan to the nortl
and east, and thus acquired a steadily growing influence. It wa
not, however, till the loth century that Islam was established a
Kashgar, under the Uighur kingdom (see TURKS). The Uighur
appear to have been the descendants of the people called Tolas am
to have been one of the many Turkish tribes who migrated westward
from China. Boghra Khan, the most celebrated prince of this line
was converted to Mahommedanism late in the loth century and tht
Uighur kingdom lasted until 1 120 but was distracted by complicatec
dynastic struggles. The Uighurs employed an alphabet based upon
the Syriac and borrowed from the Nestorian missionaries. They
spoke a dialect of Turkish preserved in the Kudatku Bilik, a mora
treatise composed in 1065. Their kingdom was destroyed by an
invasion of the Kara-Kitais, another Turkish tribe pressing west-
wards from the Chinese frontier, who in their turn were swept away
in 1219 by Jenghiz Khan. His invasion gave a decided check to the
progress of the Mahommedan creed, but on his death, and during
the rule of the Jagatai Khans, who became converts to that faith
it began to reassert its ascendancy. Marco Polo visited the city
which he calls Cascar, about 1275 and left some notes on it.
In 1389-1390 Timur ravaged Kashgar, Andijan and the intervening
country. Kashgar passed through a troublous time, and in 1514, on
the invasion of the Khan Sultan Said, was destroyed by Mirza Aba-
bakar, who with the aid of ten thousand men built the new fort with
massive defences higher up on the banks of the Tuman. The dynasty
of the Jagatai Khans collapsed in 1572 by the dismemberment ol
the cou ntry between rival representatives ; and soon after two power-
ful Khoja factions, the White and Black Mountaineers (Ak and
Kara Taghluk), arose, whose dissensions and warfares, with the inter-
vention of the Kalmucks of Dzungaria, fill up the history till 1759,
when a Chinese army from Hi (Kulja) invaded the country, and,
after perpetrating wholesale massacres, finally consolidated their
authority by settling therein Chinese emigrants, together with a
Manchu garrison. The Chinese had thoughts of pushing their con-
quests towards western Turkestan and Samarkand, the chiefs of
which sent to ask assistance of the Afghan king Ahmed Shah. This
monarch despatched an embassy to Peking to demand the restitution
of the Mahommedan states of Central Asia, but the embassy was not
well received, and Ahmed Shah was too much engaged with the Sikhs
to attempt to enforce his demands by arms. The Chinese continued
to hold Kashgar, with sundry interruptions from Mahommedan
revolts — one of the most serious occurring in 1827, when the territory
was invaded and the city taken by Jahanghir Khoja; Chang-lung,
however, the Chinese general of Hi, recovered possession of Kashgar
and the other revolted cities in 1828. A revolt in 1829 under
Mahommed AH Khan and Yusuf, brother of Jahanghir, was more
successful, and resulted in the concession of several important trade
privileges to the Mahommedans of the district of Alty Shahr (the
six cities "), as it was then named. Until 1846 the country enjoyed
peace under the just and liberal rule of Zahir-ud-din, the Chinese
governor, but in that year a fresh Khoja revolt under Kath Tora led
to his making himself master of the city, with circumstances of
unbridled licence and oppression. His reign was, however, brief,
for at the end of seventy-five days, on the approach of the Chinese,
he fled back to Khokand amid the jeers of the inhabitants. The last
of the Khoja revolts (1857) was of about equal duration with the
previous one.and took place under Wali-Khan,a degraded debauchee,
and the murderer of the lamented traveller Adolf Schlagintweit.
The great Tungani (Dungani) revolt, or insurrection of the Chinese
Mahommedans, which broke out in 1862 in Kansuh, spread rapidly
to Dzungaria and through the line of towns in the Tarim basin. The
Tungani troops in Yarkand rose, and(loth of August l863)massacred
some seven thousand Chinese, while the inhabitants of Kashgar,
rising in their turn against their masters, invoked the aid of Sadik
Beg, a Kirghiz chief, who was reinforced by Buzurg Khan, the heir
of Jahanghir, and Yakub Beg, his general, these being despatched
at Sadik's request by the ruler of Khokand to raise what troops they
could to aid his Mahommedan friends in Kashgar. Sadik Beg soon
repented of having asked for a Khoja, and eventually marched
against Kashgar, which by this time had succumbed to Buzurg Khan
and Yakub Beg, but was defeated and driven back to Khokand.
Buzurg Khan delivered himself up to indolence and debauchery, but
Yakub Beg, with singular energy and perseverance, made himself
master of Yangi Shahr, Yangi-Hissar, Yarkand and other towns, and
eventually became sole master of the country, Buzurg Khan proving
himself totally unfitted for the post of ruler. Kashgar and the other
cities of the Tarim basin remained under Yakub Beg's rule until
1877, when the Chinese regained possession of their ancient dominion.
(C. E. D. B.;C. EL.)
KASHI, or KASI, formerly the Persian word for all glazed
and enamelled pottery irrespectively; now the accepted term
for certain kinds of enamelled tile- work, including brick-work and
tile-mosaic work, manufactured in Persia and parts of Mahom-
medan India, chiefly during the i6th and I7th centuries.1
Undoubtedly originating in the Semitic word for glass, has,
1 Kashf, the Hindu name for the sacred city of Benares, has no
ceramic significance.
it is quite possible that the name kashi is immediately derived
from Kashan, a town in Persia noted for its faience. This ancient
pottery site, in turn, probably receives its name from the old-
time industry; as a " city of the plain " it would obviously
have no claim to the farther-eastern suffix shan, meaning a
mountain. Sir George Birdwood wisely considers that " the
art of glazing eathenware has, in Persia, descended in an
almost unbroken tradition from the period of the greatness of
Chaldaea and Assyria . . . the name kas, by which it is known in
Arabic and Hebrew, carries us back to the manufacture of glass
and enamels for which great Sidon was already famous 1500
years before Christ . . . the designs used in the decoration of Sind
and Punjab glazed pottery also go to prove how much these
Indian wares have been influenced by Persian examples and the
Persian tradition of the much earlier art of Nineveh and Baby-
lon " (The Industrial Arts of India, 1880). The two native names
for glass, kanch and shisha, common to Persia and India, are,
seemingly, modifications of kashi. The Indian tradition of
Chinese potters settling in bygone days at Lahore and Hala
respectively, still lingers in the Punjab and Sind provinces,
and evidently travelled eastward from Persia with the Moguls.
Howbeit in Lahore the name Chfni is sometimes wrongly applied
to kashi work; and the so-called Chinf-ka-Rauza mausoleum at
Agra is an instance of this misuse. It now seems an established
fact that a colony of Chinese ceramic experts migrated to
Isfahan during the i6th century (probably in the reign, and
at the invitation, of Shah Abbas I.), and there helped to revive
the jaded pottery industry of that district.
Kashi work consisted of two kinds: (a) Enamel-faced tiles and
bricks of strongly fired red earthenware, or terra-cotta ; (b) Enamel-
faced tiles and tesserae of lightly fired " lime-mortar," or sandstone.
Tile-mosaic work is described by some authorities as the true kashi.
From examination of figured tile-mosaic patterns, it would appear
that, in some instances, the shaped tesserae had been cut out of
enamelled slabs or tiles after firing; in other examples to have been
cut into shape before receiving their facing of coloured enamel.
Mosaic panels in the fort at Lahore are described by I. L. Kipling
as " showing a gul dasta, or foliated pattern of a branching tree, each
leaf of which is a separate piece of pottery." Conventional repre-
sentations of foliage, flowers and fruit, intricate geometrical figures,
interlacing arabesques, and decorative calligraphy — inscriptions in
Arabic and Persian — constitute the ordinary kashi designs. The
:olours chiefly used were cobalt blue, copper blue (turquoise colour),
lead-antimoniate yellow (mustard colour), manganese purple, iron
brown and tin white. A colour-scheme, popular with Mogul and
contemporary Persian kashigars, was the design, in cobalt blue and
copper blue, reserved on a ground of deep mustard yellow. Before
applying the enamel colours, the rough face of the tile, or the tesserae,
receiveda thin coating of slip of variable composition. It is prob-
ibly owing to some defect in this part of the process, or to imperfect
iring, that the enamelled tile surfaces on many old buildings,
jarticularly on the south side, have weathered and flaked away.
In India the finest examples of kashi work are in the Punjab and
5ind provinces. At Lahore, amongst many beautiful structures,
:he most notable are the mosque of Wazir Khan (A.D. 1634) and the
gateways of three famous pleasure gardens, the Shalamar Bagh
A.D. 1637), the Gulabi Bagh (A.D. 1640), and the Charburji (c. A.D.
1665). At Tatta the Jami Masjid, built by Shah Jahan (c. A.D. 1645),
s a splendid illustration ; whilst in that " vast cemetery of six square
miles " on the adjacent Malki plateau, are numerous Mahommedan
ombs (A.D. 1570-1640) with extraordinary kashi ornamentation.
Delhi, Multan, Jullundur, Shahdara, Lahore cantonment, Agra and
•lyderabad (Sind), all possess excellent monuments of the best period
'iz. those erected during the reigns of Akbar and Jahangir (A.D.
556-1628).
In Persia, at Isfahan, Kashan, Meshed and Kerman are a few
luildings and ruins showing the old kashi work ; the palace of Chehel
Situn in Isfahan, built during the reign of Shah Abbas I. (c. A.D.
600), is a magnificent specimen of this art.
Occasional revivals of the manufacture have taken place both in
ndia and Persia. Mahommed Sharif, a potter of Jullundur in the
'unjab, reproduced the Mogul enamelled tile-work in 1885, and there
s a manuscript record of a certain Ustad Ali Mahommed, of Isfahan,
who revived the Persian processes in 1887. (W. B.*; C. S. C.)
KASHMIR, or CASHMERE, a native state of India, including
nuch of the Himalayan mountain system to the north of the
'unjab. It has been fabled in song for its beauty (e.g. in Moore's
.alia Rookh), and is the chief health resort for Europeans in
ndia, while politically it is important as guarding one of the
pproaches to India on the north-west frontier. The proper
KASHMIR
687
name of the state is Jammu and Kashmir, and it comprises ir
all an estimated area of 80,900 sq. m., with a population (1901
°f 2,905,578, showing an increase of 14-21 % in the decade. I
is bounded on the north by some petty hills chiefships and b>
the Karakoram mountains; on the east by Tibet; and on th
south and west by the Punjab and North-West Frontie
provinces. The state is in direct political subordination to th
Government of India, which is represented by a resident. It
territories comprise the provinces of Jammu (including the
jagir of Punch), Kashmir, Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit; the
Shin states of Yaghistan, of which the most important are
Chilas, Darel and Tangir, are nominally subordinate to it, am
the two former pay a tribute of gold dust. The following ari
the statistics for the main divisions of the state: —
Area in sq. m. Pop. in 1901.
Jammu 5,223 1,521,307
Kashmir 7,922 i, ,57,394
Frontier Districts 443 226,877
The remainder of the state consists of uninhabited mountains
and its only really important possessions are the districts o:
Jammu and Kashmir.
Physical Conformation. — The greater portion of the country
is mountainous, and with the exception of a strip of plain on the
south-west, which is continuous with the great level of the
Punjab, may be conveniently divided into the following regions
(1) The outer hills and the central mountains of Jammu district
(2) The valley of Kashmir.
(3) The far side of the great central range, including Ladakh
Baltistan and Gilgit.
The hills in the outer region of Jammu, adjoining the Punjab
plains, begin with a height of 100 to 200 ft., followed by a tract
of rugged country, including various ridges running nearly
parallel, with long narrow valleys between. The average
height of these ridges is from 3000 to 4000 ft. The central
mountains are commonly 8000 to 10,000 ft., covered with
pasture or else with forest. Then follow the more lofty mountain
ranges, including the region of perpetual snow. A great chain
of snowy mountains branching off south-east and north-west
divides the drainage of the Chenab and the Jhelum rivers from
that of the higher branches of the Indus. It is within spurs
from this chain that the valley of Kashmir is enclosed amid
hills which rise from 14,000 to 15,000 ft., while the valley itself
forms a cup-like basin at an elevation of 5000 to 6000 ft. All
beyond that great range is a wide tract of mountainous country,
bordering the north-western part of Tibet and embracing
Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit.
The length of the Kashmir valley, including the inner slopes of
its surrounding hills, is about 1 20 m. from north-west to south-east
with a maximum width of about 75 m. The low and comparatively
level floor of the basin is 84 m. long and 20 to 24 m. broad.
The hills forming the northern half-circuit of the Kashmir valley,
and running beyond, include many lofty mountain masses and
peaks, the most conspicuous of which, a little outside the confines of
Kashmir, is Nanga Parbat, the fourth highest mountain in the world,
26,656 ft. above the sea, with an extensivearea of glacieron its eastern
face. The great ridge which is thrown off to the south-west by
_Nanga Parbat rises, at a distance of 1 2 m. , toanother summit 20,740 ft.
in height, from which run south-west, and south-east the ridges
which are the northern watershed boundary of Kashmir. The
former range, after running 70 m. south-west, between the valleys
of the Kishenganga and the Kunhar or Nain-sukh, turns southward,
closely pressing the river Jhelum, after it has received the Kishen-
ganga, with a break a few miles farther south which admits the
Kunhar. This range presents several prominent summits, the highest
two 16,487 and 15,544 ft. above the sea. The range which runs
south-east from the junction peakabove mentioned divides the valley
of the Kishenganga from that of the Astor and other tributaries of
the Indus. The highest point on this range, where it skirts Kash-
mir, is 17,202 ft. above the sea. For more than 50 m. from Nanga
Parbat there are no glaciers on this range; thence eastward they
increase; one, near the Zoji-la pass, is only 10,850 ft. above the sea.
The mountains at the east end of the valley, running nearly north
and south, drain inwards to the Jhelum, and on the other side to the
Wardwan, a tributary of the Chenab. The highest part of this
eastern boundary is 14,700 ft. There no are glaciers. The highest
point on the Panjal range, which forms the south and south-west
boundary, is 15,523 ft. above the sea.
The river Jhelum (g.f.) or Behat (Sanskrit (Vitasta) — the Hydaspes
of Greek historians and geographers — flows north-westward through
the middle of the valley. After a slow and winding course it expands
about 25 m. below Srinagar, over a slight depression in the plain, and
forms the Wular lake and marsh, which is about 12$ m. by 5 m. in
extent, and surrounded by the lofty mountains which tower over
the north and north-east of the valley. Leaving the lake on the
south-west side, near the town of Sopur, the river pursues its sluggish
course south-westward, about 18 m. to the gorge at Baramulla.
From this point the stream is more rapid through the narrow valley
which conducts it westward 75 m. to Muzaffarabad, where it turns
sharply south, joined by the Kishenganga. At Islamabad, about
40 m. above Srinagar, the river is 5400 ft. above sea-level, and at
Srinagar 5235 ft. It has thus a fall of about 4 ft. per mile in this part
of its course. For the next 24 m. to the Wular lake, and thence to
Baramulla, its fall is only about 2 J ft. in the mile. On the 80 m. of the
river in the flat valley between Islamabad and Baramulla, there is
much boat traffic; but none below Baramulla, till the river comes
out into the plains.
On the north-east side of this low narrow plain of the Jhelum is
a broad hilly tract between which and the higher boundary range
runs the Kishenganga River. Near the east end of this interior hilly
tract, and connected with the higher range, is one summit 17,839 ft.
Around this peak and between the ridges which run from it are many
small glaciers. These heights look down on one side into the beauti-
ful valley of the Sind River, and on another into the valley of the
Lidar, which join the Jhelum. Among the hills north of Srinagar
rises one conspicuous mountain mass, 16,903 ft. in height, from which
on its north side descend tributaries of the Kishenganga, and on the
south the Wangat River, which flows into the Sind. By these rivers
and their numerous affluents the whole>alley of Kashmir is watered
abundantly.
Around the foot of many spurs of the hills which run down on the
Kashmir plain are pieces of low table-land, called kar&va. These
terraces vary in height at different parts of the valley from 100 to
300 ft. above the alluvial plain. Those which are near each other
are mostly about the same level, and separated by deep ravines.
The level plain in the middle of the Kashmir valley consists of fine
clay and sand, with water- worn pebbles. The karewas consist of
horizontal beds of clay and sand, the lacustrine nature of which is
shown by the shells which they contain.
Two passes lead northward from the Kashmir valley, the Burzil
(13,500 ft.) and the Kamri (14,050). The Burzil is the main pass
between Srinagar and Gilgit via Astor. It is usually practicable
only between the middle of July and the middle of September. The
road from Srinagar to Lehin Ladakh follows the Sind valley to the
Zoji-la-pass (11,300 ft.) Only a short piece of the road, where snow
accumulates, prevents this pass being used all the year. At the
south-east end of the valley are three passes, the Margan (i i ,500 ft.),
the Hoksar (13,315) and the Marbal (11,500), leading to the valleys
of the Chenab and the Ravi. South of Islamabad, on the direct
route to Jammu and Sialkot, is the Banihal pass (9236 ft.). Further
west on the Panjal range is the Pir Panjal or Panchal pass (i i ,400 ft.),
with a second pass, the Rattan Pir (8200 ft.), across a second ridge
about 15 m. south-west of it. Between the two passes is the beauti-
fully situated fort of Baramgali. This place is in the domain of the
raja of Punch, cousin and tributary of the maharaja of Kashmir.
At Rajaori, south of these passes, the road divides: one line leads
to Bhimber and Gujrat, the other to Jammu and Sialkot by Aknur
South-west of Baramulla is the Haji Pir pass (8500 ft.), which
indicates the road to Punch. From Punch one road leads down to
:he plains at the town of Jhelum, another eastward through the
lills to the Rattan Pir pass and Rajaori. Lastly, there is the river
pass of the Jhelum, which is the easy route from the valley west-
ward, having two ways down to the plains, one by Muzaffarabad
and the Hazara valley to Hasan Abdal, the other by the British hill
station of Murree to Rawalpindi.
Geology. — Thegeneral strike of the beds, and of the folds which have
affected them, is from N.W. to S.E., parallel to the mountain ranges.
Along the south-western border lies the zone of Tertiary beds which
orms the Sub-Himalayas. Next to this is a great belt of Palaeozoic
rocks, through which rise the granite, gneiss and schist of the
Zanskar and Dhauladhar ranges and of the Pir Panjal. In the midst
)f the Palaeozoic area lie the alluvium and Pleistocene deposits of
the Srinagar valley, and the Mesozoic and Carboniferous basin of the
upper part of the Sind valley. Beyond the great Palaeozoic belt
s a zone of Mesozoic and Tertiary beds which commences at Kargil
and extends south-eastward past the Kashmir boundary to Spiti and
jeyond. Finally, in Baltistan and the Ladakh range there is a broad
•zone composed chiefly of gneiss and schist of ancient date.
The oldest fossils found belong either to the Ordovician or Silurian
ystems. But it is not until the Carboniferous is reached that fossils
>ecome at all abundant (so far as is yet known). The Mesozoic
deposits belong chiefly to the Trias and Jura, but Cretaceous beds
have been found near the head of the Tsarap valley. The Tertiary
ystem includes representatives of all the principal divisions recog-
lized in other parts of the Himalayas.
Climate. — The valley of Kashmir, sheltered from the south-west
nonsoon by the Panjal range, has not the periodical rains of India,
ts rainfall is irregular, greatest in the spring months. Occasional
688
KASHMIR
storms in the monsoon pass over the crests of the Panjal and give
heavy rain on the elevated plateaus on the Kashmir side. And
again clouds pass over the valley and are arrested by the higher hills
on the north-east side. Snow falls on the surrounding hills at inter-
vals from October to March. In the valley the first snow generally
falls about the end of December, but never to any great amount.
The hottest months are July, August and the greater part of Septem-
ber, during which the noon shade temperature varies from 85° to 90°
and occasionally 95° at Srinagar, probably the hottest place in the
valley. The coldest months are January and February, when for
several weeks the average minimum temperature is about 15° below
freezing. As a health resort the province, excluding Srinagar, which
is insanitary and relaxing, has no rival anywhere in the neighbour-
hood of India. Its climate is admirably adapted to the European
constitution, and in consequence of the varied range of temperature
and the facility of moving about the visitor is enabled with ease to
select places at elevations most congenial to him. Formerly only
200 passes a year were issued by the government, but now no restric-
tion is placed on visitors, and their number increases annually.
European sportsmen and travellers, in addition to residents of India,
resort there freely. The railway to Rawalpindi, and a driving road
thence to Srinagar make the valley easy of access. When the
temperature in Srinagar rises at the beginning of June, there is a
general exodus to Gulmarg, which has become a fashionable hill-
station. This great influx of visitors has resulted in a corresponding
diminution of game. Special game preservation rules have been intro-
duced, and nullahs are let out for stated periods with a restriction
on the number of head to be shot. The wild animals of the country
include ibex, markhor, oorial, the Kashmir stag, and black and brown
bears. Many sportsmen now cross into Ladakh and the Pamirs.
People. — The great majority of the inhabitants of Kashmir
are professedly Mahommedans, but their conversion to the faith
of Islam is comparatively recent and they are still strongly in-
fluenced by their ancient superstitions. At the census of 1901
out of a total population in the whole state of 2,905,578,
there were 2,154,695 Mahommedans, 689,073 Hindus, 35,047
Buddhists and 25,828 Sikhs. The Hindus are mostly found in
Jammu, and the Buddhists are confined to Ladakh. In Kashmir
proper the few Hindus (60,682) are almost all Brahmans, known
as Pundits. Superstition has made the Kashmiri timid; tyranny
has made him a liar; while physical disasters have made him
selfish and pessimistic. Up to recent times the cultivator lived
under a system of begar, which entitled an official to take either
labour or commodities free of payment from the villages.
Having no security of property, the people had no incentive
to effort, and with no security for life they lost the independence
of free men. But the land settlement of 1889 swept all these
abuses away. Restrictive monopolies, under which bricks,
lime, paper and certain other manufactures were closed to
private enterprise, were abolished. The results of the settle-
ment are thus enumerated by Sir Walter Lawrence: " Little by
little, confidence has sprung up. Land which had no value in
1889 is now eagerly sought after by all classes. Cultivation has
extended and improved. Houses have been rebuilt and repaired,
fields fenced in, orchards planted, vegetable gardens well stocked
and new mills constructed. Women no longer are seen toiling
in the fields, for their husbands are now at home to do the
work, and the long journeys to Gilgit are a thing of the past.
When the harvest is ripe the peasant reaps it at his own good
t ime, and not a soldier ever enters the villages. " In consequence
of this improvement in their conditions of life and of the influx of
wealth into the country brought by visitors, the Kashmiri grows
every year in material prosperity and independence of character.
The Kashmir women have a reputation for beauty which is not
altogether deserved, but the children are always pretty.
The language spoken in Kashmir is akin to that of the Punjab,
though marked by many peculiarities. It possesses an ancient
literature, which is written in a special character (see KASHMIRI).
Natural Calamities. — The effect of physical calamities partly inci-
dental to the climate of Kashmir, upon the character of its in-
habitants has been referred to. The list includes fires, floods, earth-
§uakes, famines and cholera. The ravages of fire are chiefly felt in
rinagar, where the wood houses and their thatched roofs fall an
easy prey to the flames. The national habit of carrying a kangar,
or small brazier, underneath the clothes for the purpose of warming
the body, is a fruitful cause of fires. Srinagar is said to have been
burnt down eighteen times. Many disastrous floods are recorded,
the greatest being the terrible inundation which followed the slipping
of the Khadanyar mountain below Baramula in A.D. 879. The
channel of the Jhelum river was blocked and a large part of the
valley submerged. In 1841 a serious flood caused great damage to
life and property; there was another in 1893, when six out of the
seven bridges in Srinagar were washed away, 25,426 acres under
crops were submerged and 2225 houses were wrecked ; another flood
occurred in July 1903, when the bund between the Dal Lake and the
canal gave way, and the lake rose 10 ft. in half an hour. Between
two and three thousand houses in and around Srinagar collapsed,
while over 40 miles of the tonga road were submerged. Since the l§th
century eleven great earthquakes have occurred, all of long duration
and accompanied by great loss of life. During the igth century
there were four severe earthquakes, the last two occurring in 1864
and 1885, when some 3500 people were killed. Native historians
record nineteen great famines, the last two occurring in 1831 and
1877. In 1878 it was reported that only two-fifths of the total
population of the valley survived. During the igth century also
there were ten epidemics of cholera, all more or less disastrous, while
the worst (in 1892) was probably the last. During that year 5781
persons died in Srinagar and 5931 in the villages. The centre of
infection is generally supposed to be the squalid capital of Srinagar,
and some efforts to improve its sanitation have been made of recent
years.
Crops. — The staple crop of the valley is rice, which forms the chief
food of the people. Indian corn comes next; wheat, barley and
oats are also grown. Every kind of English vegetable thrives well,
especially asparagus, artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarlet-
runners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are met
with all over the valley, wild but bearing fruit, and the cultivated
orchards yield pears, apples, peaches, cherries, &c., equal to the best
European produce. The chief trees are deodar, firs and pines, chenar
or plane, maple, birch and walnut. There are state departments of
viticulture, hops, horticulture and sericulture. A complete list of the
flora and fauna of the valley will be found in Sir Walter Lawrence's
book on Kashmir.
Industries. — The chief industry of Srinagar was formerly the
weaving of the celebrated Kashmir shawl, which dates back to the
days of the emperor Baber. These shawls first became fashionable
in Europe in the reign of Napoleon, when they fetched from £10 to
£100; but the industry received a blow at the time of the Franco-
German War, and the famine of 1877 scattered the weavers. The
place of the Kashmir shawl has to some extent been taken by the
Kashmir carpet, but the most thriving industry now is that of silk-
weaving. Srinagar is also celebrated for its silver-work, papier
mach6 and wood-carving. The minerals and metals of the Jammu
district are promising, and a company has been formed to work them.
Coal of fair quality has been found, but the difficulties of transport
interfere with its working.
History. — The metrical chronicle of the kings of Kashmir,
called Rajatarangini, was pronounced by Professor H. H.
Wilson to be the only Sanskrit composition yet discovered to
which the title of history can with any propriety be applied.
It first became known to the Mahommedans when, on Akbar's
invasion of Kashmir in 1588, a copy was presented to the
emperor. A translation into Persian was made by his order,
and a summary of its contents, ^from this Persian translation,
is given by Abu'l Fazl in the A'in-i-Akbari. The Rajalaran-
gini, the first of a series of four Sanskrit histories, was written
about the middle of the i2th century by P. Kalhana. His
work, in six books, makes use of earlier writings now lost.
Commencing with traditional history of very early times, it
comes down to the reign of Sangrama Deva, 1006; the second
work, by Jonaraja, takes up the history in continuation of
Kalhana's, and, entering the Mahommedan period, gives an
account of the reigns down to that of Zain-ul-ab-ad-din, 1412.
P. Srivara carried on the record to the accession of Fah Shah,
1486. And the fourth work, called Rajavalipataka, by Prajnia
Bhatta, completes the history to the time of the incorporation
of Kashmir in the dominions of the Mogul emperor Akbar, 1588.
In the Rajatarangini it is stated that the valley of Kashmir
was formerly a lake, and that it was drained by the great rishi
or sage, Kasyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting
the gap in the hills at Baramulla (Varaha-mula). When Kashmir
had been drained, he brought in the Brahmans to occupy it.
'This is still the local tradition, and in the existing physical
condition of the country we may see some ground for the story
which has taken this form. The name of Kasyapa is by history
and tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the
chief town or collection of dwellings in the valley was called
Kasyapa-pur — a name which has been plausibly identified
with the Kacririiirupos of Hecataeus (Steph. Byz., s.v.) and
Ka<nr6.Tvpos of Herodotus (iii. 102, iv. 44). Kashmir is the
country meant also by Ptolemy's KaoTnfata. The ancient
KASHMIRI
689
name Kasyapa-pur was applied to the kingdom of Kashmir
when it comprehended great part of the Punjab and extended
beyond the Indus. In the 7th century Kashmir is said by the
Chinese traveller Hsuan Tsang to have included Kabul and
the Punjab, and the hill region of Gandhara, the country of
the Gandarae of classical geography.
At an early date the Sanskrit name of the country became
Kasmir. The earliest inhabitants, according to the Rajataran-
gini, were the people called Naga, a word which signifies " snake."
The history shows the prevalence in early times of tree and
serpent worship, of which some sculptured stones found in
Kashmir still retain the memorials. The town of Islamabad
is called also by its ancient name Anant-nag (" eternal snake").
The source of the Jhelum is at Vir-nag (the powerful snake),
&c. The other races mentioned as inhabiting this country and
the neighbouring hills are Gandhari, Khasa and Daradae. The
Khasa people are supposed to have given the name Kasmir.
In the Mahabharata the Kasmira and Daradae are named together
among the Kshattriya races of northern India. The question
whether, in the immigration of the Aryans into India, Kashmir
was taken on the way, or entered afterwards by that people after
they had reached the Punjab from the north-west, appears to
require an answer in favour of the latter view (see vol. ii. of
Dr J. Muir's Sanskrit Texts). The Aryan races of Kashmir and
surrounding hrlls, which have at the present time separate
geographical distribution, are given by Mr Drew as Kashmiri
(mostly Mahommedan) , in the Kashmir basin and a few scattered
places outside; Dard (mostly Mahommedan) in Gilgit and hills
north of Kashmir; Dogra (Hindu) in Jamma; Dogra (Mahom-
medan, called Chibali) in Punch and hill country west of Kash-
mir; Pahdri or mountaineers (Hindu) in Kishtwar, east of
Kashmir, and hills about the valley of the Chenab.
In the time of Asoka, about 245 B.C., one of the Indian
Buddhist missions was sent to Kashmir and Gandhara. After
his death Brahmanism revived. Then in the time of the three
Kushan princes, Huvishka, Jushka and Kanishka, who ruled
over Kashmir about the beginning of the Christian era, Buddhism
was to a great extent restored, though for several centuries the
two religions existed together in Kashmir, Hinduism pre-
dominating. Yet Kashmir, when Buddhism was gradually
losing its hold, continued to send Buddhist teachers to other
lands. In this Hindu-Buddhist period, and chiefly between
the 5th and icth centuries of the Christian era, were erected
the Hindu temples in Kashmir. In the 6th and 7th centuries
Kashmir was visited by some of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims
to India. The country is called Shie-mi in the narrative of To
Yeng and Sung Yun (578). One of the Chinese travellers of
the next century was for a time an elephant-tamer to the king
of Kashmir. Hsuan Tsang spent two years (631-633) in Kash-
mir (Kia-chl-mi-lo) . He entered by Baramula and left by the
Pir Panjal pass. He describes the hill-girt valley, and the
abundance of flowers and fruits, and he mentions the tradition
about the lake. He found in Kashmir many Buddhists as well
as Hindus. In the following century the kings of Kashmir appear
to have paid homage and tribute to China, though this is not
alluded to in the Kashmir chronicle. Hindu kings continued to
reign till about 1 294, when Udiana Deva was put to death by his
Mahommedan vizier, Amir Shah, who ascended the throne under
the name of Shams-ud-din.
Of the Mahommedan rulers mentioned in the Sanskrit chroni-
cles, one, who reigned about the close of the I4th century, has
made his name prominent by his active opposition to the Hindu
religion, and his destruction of temples. This was Sikandar,
known as But-shikan, or the " idol-breaker." It was in his time
that India was invaded by Timur, to whom Sikandar made sub-
mission and paid tribute. The country fell into the hands of
the Moguls in 1588. In the time of Alamgir it passed to Ahmad
Shah Durani, on his third invasion of India (1756); and from
that time it remained in the hands of Afghans till it was wrested
from them by Ranjit Singh, the Sikh monarch of the Punjab,
in 1819. Eight Hindu and Sikh governors under Ranjit Singh
and his successors were followed by two Mahommedans similarly
appointed, the second of whom, Shekh Imam-ud-din, was in
charge when the battles of the first Sikh war 1846 brought about
new relations between the British Government and the Sikhs.
Gulab Singh, a Dogra Rajput, had from a humble position
been raised to high office by Ranjit Singh, who conferred on him
the small principality of Jammu. On the final defeat of the
Sikhs at Sobraon (February 1846), Gulab Singh was called to
take a leading part in arranging conditions of peace. The treaty
of Lahore (March 9, 1846) sets forth that, the British Govern-
ment having demanded, in addition to a certain assignment of
territory, a payment of a crore and a half of rupees (i| millions
sterling), and the Sikh government being unable to pay the whole,
the maharaja (Dhulip Singh) cedes, as equivalent for one crore,
the hill country belonging to the Punjab between the Beas
and the Indus, including Kashmir and Hazara. The governor-
general, Sir Henry Hardinge, considered it expedient to make over
Kashmir to the Jammu chief, securing his friendship while the
British government was administering the Punjab on behalf of
the young maharaja. Gulab Singh was well prepared to make
up the payment in default of which Kashmir was ceded to
the British; and so, in consideration of his services in restoring
peace, his independent sovereignty of the country made over to
him was recognized, and he was admitted to a separate treaty.
Gulab Singh had already, after several extensions of territory
east and west of Jammu, conquered Ladakh (a Buddhist country,
and till then subject to Lhasa), and had then annexed Skardo,
which was under independent Mahommedan rulers. He had
thus by degrees half encircled Kashmir, and by this last addition
his possessions attained nearly their present form and extent.
Gulab Singh died in 1857, and was succeeded by his son, Ranbir
Singh, who died in 1885. The next ruler, Maharaja Partab Singh,
G. C.S.I, (b. 1850), immediately on his accession inaugurated
the settlement reforms already described. His rule was re-
markable for the reassertion of the Kashmir sovereignty over
Gilgit (q.v.). Kashmir imperial service troops participated in
the Black Mountain expedition of 1891, the Hunza Nagar
operations of 1891, and the Tirah campaign of 1897-1898. The
total revenue of the state is about £666,000.
See Drew, Jammu and Kashmir (1875) ; M. A. Stein, Kalhana's
Rajalarangini (1900) ; W.R. Lawrence, The Valley of Kashmir (1895) ;
Colonel A. Durand, The Making of a Frontier (1899) ; R. Lydekker,
" The Geology of the Kashmir and Chamba Territories," Records of
the Geological Survey of India, vol. xxii. (1883); J. Duke, Kashmir
Handbook (1903). (T. H. H.*)
KASHMIRI (properly KaSmiri), the name of the vernacular
language spoken in the valley of Kashmir (properly Kasmir) and
in the hills adjoining. In the Indian census of 1901 the number
of speakers was returned at 1,007,957. By origin it is the most
southern member of the Dard group of the Pisaca languages (see
INDO- ARYAN LANGUAGES). The other members of the group are
Shina, spoken to its north in the country round Gilgit, and
Kohistam, spoken in the hill country on both sides of the river
Indus before it debouches on to the plains of India. The Pisaca
languages also include Khowar, the vernacular of Chitral, and the
Kafir group of speeches, of which the most important is the
Bashgali of Kafiristan. Of all these forms of speech Kashmiri
is the only one which possesses a literature, or indeed an alphabet.
It is also the only one which has been dealt with in the census of
India, and it is therefore impossible to give even approximate
figures for the numbers of speakers of the others. The whole
family occupies the three-sided tract of country between the
Hindu-Kush and the north-western frontier of British India.
As explained in INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES, the Pisaca lan-
guages are Aryan, but are neither Iranian nor Indo-Aryan. They
represent the speech of an independent Aryan migration over the
Hindu-Kush directly into their present inhospitable seats, where
they have developed a phonetic system of their own, while they
have retained unchanged forms of extreme antiquity which
have long passed out of current use both in Persia and in India.
Their speakers appear to have left the main Aryan body after the
great fission which resulted in the Indo-Aryan migration, but
before all the typical peculiarities of Iranian speech had fully
developed. They are thus representatives of a stage of
690
KASHMIRI
linguistic progress later than that of Sanskrit, and earlier than
that which we find recorded in the Iranian Avesta.
The immigrants into Kashmir must have been Shins, speaking
a language closely allied to the ancestor of the modern Shina.
They appear to have dispossessed and absorbed an older non-
Aryan people, whom local tradition now classes as Nagas, or
Snake-gods, and, at an early period, to have come themselves
under the influence of Indo-Aryan immigrants from the south,
who entered the valley along the course of the river Jhelam. The
language has therefore lost most of its original Pisaca character,
and is now a mixed one. Sanskrit has been actively studied for
many centuries, and the Kashmiri vocabulary, and even its
grammar, are now largely Indian. So much is this the case that,
for convenience' sake, it is now frequently classed (see INDO-
ARYAN LANGUAGES) as belonging to the north-western group of
Indo-Aryan languages, instead of as belonging to the Pisaca
family as its origin demands. It cannot be said that either
classification is wrong.
Kashmiri has few dialects. In the valley there are slight
changes of idiom from place to place, but the only important
variety is Kishtwari, spoken in the hills south-west of Kashmir.
Smaller dialects, such as Pogul and RambanI of the hills south of
the Banihal pass, may also be mentioned. The language itself
is an old one. Pure Kashmiri words are preserved in the Sanskrit
Rdjatarangini written by Kalhana in the i2th century A. D., and,
judging from these specimens, the language does not appear to
have changed materially since his time.
General Character of the Language. — Kashmiri is a language of
great philological interest. The two principal features which at
once strike the student are the numerous epenthetic changes of
vowels and consonants and the employment of pronominal
suffixes. In both cases the phenomena are perfectly plain, cause
and effect being alike presented to the eye in the somewhat com-
plicated systems of declension and conjugation. The Indo-
Aryan languages proper have long ago passed through this stage,
and many of the phenomena now presented by them are due to
its influence, although all record of it has disappeared. In this
way a study of Kashmiri explains a number of difficulties found
by the student of Indo-Aryan vernaculars.1
In the following account the reader is presumed to be in possession
of the facts recorded in the articles INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES and
PRAKRIT, and the following contractions will be employed: Ksh. =
Kashmiri ; Skr. = Sanskrit ; P. = Pisaca ; Sh. = Shina.
A. Vocabulary. The vocabulary of Kashmiri is, as has been
explained, mixed. At its basis it has a large number of words which
are also found in the neighbouring Shina, and these are such as con-
note the most familiar ideas and such as are in most frequent use.
Thus, the personal pronouns, the earlier numerals, the words for
" father," mother, ' " fire," " the sun," are all closely connected
with corresponding Shina words. There is also a large Indian
element, consisting partly of words derived from Sanskrit vocables
introduced in ancient times, and partly of words borrowed in later
days from the vernaculars of the Punjab. Finally, there is a con-
siderable Persian (including Arabic) element due to the long Mus-
sulman domination of the Happy Valley. Many of these have been
considerably altered in accordance with Kashmiri phonetic rules,
so that they sometimes appear in strange forms. Thus the Persian
lagam, a bridle, has become lakatn, and the Arabic bdbat, concerning,
appears as bapat. The population speaking Kashmiri is mainly
Mussulman, there being, roughly speaking, nine Mahommedan
Kashmiris to less than one Hindu. This difference of religion has
strongly influenced the vocabulary. The Mussulmans use Persian
and Arabic words with great freedom, while the Hindus, or" Pandits"
as they are called, confine their borrowings almost entirely to words
derived from Sanskrit. As the literary class is mostly Hindu, it
follows that Kashmiri literature, taken as a whole, while affording
most interesting and profitable study, hardly represents the actual
language spoken by the mass of the people. There are, however, a few
good Kashmiri works written by Mussulmans in their own dialect.
B. Written Characters. Mussulmans and Christian missionaries em-
ploy an adaptation of the Persian character for their writings. This
alphabet is quite unsuited for representing the very complex Kash-
miri vowel system. Hindus employ the Sarada alphabet, of Indian
origin and akin to the well-known Nagari. Kashmiri vowel sounds
can be recorded very successfully in this character, but there is, unfor-
1 See G. A. Grierson, " On Pronominal Suffixes in the Kacmiri
Languages," and " On the Radical and Participial Tenses of the
Modern Indo-Aryan Languages," in Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal, vol. Ixiv. (1895), pt. i. pp. 336 and 352.
tunately, no fixed system of spelling. The Nagari alphabet is also com-
ing into use in printed books, no Sarada types being yet in existence.
C. Phonetics. Comparing the Kashmiri with the Sanskrit alpha-
bet (see SANSKRIT), we must first note a considerable extension
of the vowel system. Not only does Ksh. possess the vowels a, a,
i, i, u, it, r, e, ai, o, au, and the anunasika or nasal symbol ~, but it
has also a flat o (like the a in " hat ") a flat e (like the e in " met "),
a short 6 (like the o in " hot ") and a broad a (like the a in " all ").
It also has a series of what natives call " matra-vov/e\s," which are
represented in the Roman character by small letters above the line,
viz. ", ', ", u. Of these, ° is simply a very short indeterminate
sound something like that of the Hebrew sh"wa mobile, except that
it may sometimes be the only vowel in a word, as in ts"h, thou.
The ' is a hardly audible i, while " and " are quite inaudible at the
end of a syllable. When •' or " is followed by a consonant in the same
syllable * generally and " always becomes a full j or u respectively and
is so pronounced. On the other hand, in similar circumstances,
* remains unchanged in writing, but is pronounced like a short
German u. It should be observed that this a always represents an
older I, and is still considered to be a palatal, not, like ", a labial
vowel. Although these matra-vowels are so slightly heard, they
exercise a great influence on the sound of a preceding syllable. We
may compare the sound of a in the English word mar." If we
add e to the end of this word we get " mare," in which the sound of
the a is altogether changed, although the e is not itself pronounced
in its proper place. The back-action of these matra-vowels is
technically known as umlaut or " epenthesis," and is the most
striking feature of the Kashmiri language, the structure of which is
unintelligible without a thorough knowledge of the system. In the
following pages when a vowel is epenthetically affected by a matra-
vowel the fact will be denoted by a dot placed under it, thus kar".
This is not the native system, according to which the change is
indicated sometimes by a diacritical mark and sometimes by writing
a different letter. The changes of pronunciation effected by each
matra-vowel are shown in the following table. If natives employ
a different letter to indicate the change the fact is mentioned. In
other cases they content themselves with diacritical marks. When
no entry is made, it should be understood that the sound of the
vowel remains unaltered : —
M
S-A
II
Pronunciation when followed by
£>
a-matra
i-matra
u-matra
u-matra
a
a (ad"r, be
a' (kar', pr.
u (as in Ger-
o (like first o in
moist) (some
fca'r', made,
man : kar*,
" promote ";
thing like a
short Ger-
plural masc.)
pr. kur,made,
fern, sing.)
kar", pr. kor,
made, masc.
man 6)
sing.)
a
6 (ki}nar, pr.
6' (German 6;
6 (m<jra, pr.
d (mar", pr.
kon'r, make
mar', pr.
mdr, killed,
mdr, written,
one-eyed)
mij'r', killed,
fern, sing.)
mor", killed,
(like a long
masc. plur.)
masc. sing.)
German 6)
i
—
—
yu (/ft-4, pr.
yu (liv, pr.
lyiiv, plas-
lyuv, written
tered, fern.
lyuv", plas- j
sing.
tered, masc.
sing.)
I
—
—
—
yu (nil", pr.
nyul, written
nyul", blue,
masc. sing.)
u
—
u' (gur<, pr.
—
—
gu'r', horses)
u
—
u' (gur', pr.
—
—
gu'r', cow-
herds)
6
j (lfd"r, pr.
—
yu (tslP,
yu (tstlu, pr.
lid"r, be yel-
pr. tsyul,
tsyul, writ-
low)
squeezed,
ten tsyul",
fern, sing.)
squeezed,
masc. sing.)
e
—
J (*fcfr\_ pr.
i (phjr*, pr.
yu (pher", pr.
and written
phir, written,
phyiir, writ-
phir', turned,
phlr'', turned,
ten phyur".
masc. plur.)
fern, sing.)
turned, masc.
6
u (hfkh'r, pr.
o' (w(th{, pr.
H (w$lh*, pr.
sing.)
o (woth", pr.
hukh"r, make
wd'lh1, arisen,
wuth, arisen,
tvoth, arisen,
dry)
masc. plur.)
fern, sing.)
masc. sing.)
0
—
it' (bu'z', pr.
u (bQZ*, pr.
u (boz", pr.
bu'z.', written
buz, written,
buz, written
buz', heard.
buz", heard,
buz", heard,
masc. plur.)
fern, sing.)
masc. sine.)
The letters u and »', even when not M-matra or i-matra, often change
a preceding long a to <!, which is usually written a, and 5 respectively.
Thus rawukh, they have lost, is pronounced rawukh, and, in the
KASHMIRI
691
native character, is written rowukh. Similarly mdlis becomes m&lis
(molts). The diphthong ai is pronounced 6 when it commences a
word ; thus, ai(h, eight, is pronounced 6(h. When i and u commence
a won! they are pronounced yi and wu respectively. With one
important exception, common to all Pisaca languages, Kashmiri
employs every consonant found in the Sanskrit alphabet. The
exception is the series of aspirated consonants, gh, jh, ij.h, dh and bh,
which are wanting in Ksh., the corresponding unaspirated consonants
being substituted for them. Thus, Skr. ghofakas, but Ksh. gur", a
horse ; Skr. bhavali, Ksh. bovi, he will be. There is a tendency to
use dental letters where Hindi employs cerebrals, as in Hindi u(h,
Ksh. woth, arise. Cerebral letters are, however, owing to Sanskrit
influence, on the whole better preserved in Ksh. than in the other
Pisaca languages. The cerebral $ has almost disappeared, § being
employed instead. The only common word in which it is found is
the numeral s.ah, six, which is merely a learned spelling for sah, due
to the influence of the Skr. s.a(. From the palatals c, ch, j, a new
series of consonants has been formed, viz. ts, tsh (aspirate of ts — i.e.
ts-\-h, not t+sh), and z (as in English, not dz). Thus, Skr. coras,
Ksh. tsur, a thief; Skr. chalayati, Ksh. tshali, he will deceive; Skr.
jalam, Ksh. zal, water. The sibilant .£, and occasionally s, are
frequently represented by h. Thus, Skr. dasa, Ksh. dah, ten; Skr.
siras, Ksh. hir, a head. We may compare with this the Persian
word Hind, India (compare the Greek 'Iv8is, an Indian), derived
from the Skr. Smdhus, the river Indus. When such an h is followed
by a palatal letter the s returns; thus, from the base his-, like this,
we have the nominative masculine hjh", but the feminine his", and
the abstract noun hisyar, because " and y are palatal letters.
The palatal letters i, e, u-matra and y often change a preceding
consonant. The modifications will be seen from the following
examples: rat-, night; nom. plur. rq,ts"; woth, arise; wtftsh'', she
arose : lad, build ; laz", she was built : ran, cook ; ran", she was cooked ;
pap, a tablet; Ag. sing, pad: kath-, a stalk; nom. plur. kache: bad-,
great; nom. plur. fem. baje: batuk", a duck; fem. baPc*: hfkh", dry;
fem. hfch*; sr$g", cheap; srojyar, cheapness: w^l", a ring; fem. WQJ",
a small ring ; Ids, be weary ; Ids* or lots*, she was weary. These changes
are each subject to certain rules. Cerebral letters Q, (h, 4) change
only before t, e or y, and not before u-matra. The others, on the
contrary, do not change i, but do change before e, y or u-matra.
No word can end in an unaspirated surd consonant. If such a conso-
nant falls at the end of a word it is aspirated. Thus, ak, one, becomes
akh (but ace. akis) ; ka(, a ram, becomes ka(h ; and hat, a hundred, hath.
D. Declension. If the above phonetic rules are borne in mind,
declension in Kashmiri is a fairly simple process. If attention is
not paid to them, the whole system at once becomes a field of in-
extricable confusion. In the following pages it will be assumed that
the reader is familiar with them.
Nouns substantive and adjective have two genders, a masculine
and a feminine. Words referring to males are masculine, and to
females are feminine. Inanimate things are sometimes masculine
and sometimes feminine. Pronouns have three genders, arranged
on a different principle. One gender refers to male living beings,
another to female living beings, and a third (or neuter) to all inani-
mate things whether they are grammatically masculine or feminine.
Nouns ending in " are masculine, and most, but not all, of those
ending in ', ", e or n are feminine. Of nouns ending in consonants,
some are masculine, and some are feminine. No rule can be formu-
lated regarding these, except that all abstract nouns ending in ar
(a very numerous class) are masculine. There are four declensions.
The first consists of masculine nouns ending in a consonant, in a, e
or * (very few of these last two). The second consists of the impor-
tant class of masculine nouns in "; the third of feminine nouns in
•', *, or n (being the feminines corresponding to the masculine nouns
of the second declension) ; and the fourth of feminine nouns ending
in ", e or a consonant.
The noun possesses two numbers, a singular and a plural, and in
each number there are, besides the nominative, three organic cases,
the accusative, the case of the agent (see below, under " verbs "), and
the ablative. The accusative, when not definite, may also be the
same in form as the nominative. The following are the forms which
a noun takes in each declension, the words chosen as examples being:
First declension, tsur, a thief; second declension, mqlu, a father;
third declension, maja, a mother; fourth declension, (a) mal, a
garland, (b) rat-, night.
First
Declension.
Second
Declension.
Third
Declension.
Fourth Declension
a. b.
Sing. :
Nom.
tsur
mal" (pr.mdl)
m$j*(m6j)
mal
rath
Ace.
tsuras
mqlis (mdlis)
maje
mali
r#sfl (rots)
Ag.
tsuran
mq.1* (mo* I')
maji
mali
rq.ts" (rots)
Abl.
tsura
mali
maji
mali
ryts" (rots)
Plur. :
Nom
tsur
mal' (mo'l')
maje
mala
ryts* (rots)
Ace.
tsuran
malen
majen
tndlan
rQ.ts"n (rotsun)
Ag.
and
Abl.
tsurau
malyau
majyau
malau
r9ts"v (rdtsiiv)
The declension 46 is confined to certain nouns in *, tk, d, n, h and /,
in which the final consonant is liable to change owing to a following
u-matra.
Other cases are formed (as in true Indo-Aryan languages) by the
addition of postpositions, some of which are added to the accusative,
while others are added to the ablative case. To the former are added
manz, in; kit", to or for; sutin, with, and others. To the ablative are
added sutin, when it signifies " by means of " ; putshy, f or ; pe(h",
from, and others. For the genitive, masculine nouns in the singular,
signifying animate beings, take sand", and if they signify things
without life, take ku. All masculine plural nouns and all feminine
nouns whether singular or plural take hand". Sand" and hand" are
added to the accusative, which drops a final s, while k" is added to
the ablative. Thus, tsura sand", of the thief ; mgl' sand", of the father ;
sonak" (usually written sonuk"), of gold (son, abl. sing, sona) ; tsuran
hand", of thieves; karen hand", of bracelets (second declension);
maje hand", of the mother; majen hand", of the mothers. Masculine
proper names, however, take n" in the singular, as in Radhakr^nan^
of Radhakrishna. These genitive terminations, and also the dative
termination kit", are adjectives, and agree with the governing
noun in gender, number and case. Thus, tsura. sand" necfv",
the son of the thief; tsura sand' neciyi, by the son of the thief; tsura
sanz* kof", the daughter of the thief; kul}k" lang, a bough of the
tree; kulic* land", a twig of the tree. Sand" has fern. sing, sanz",
masc. plur. sand', fern. plur. sanza. Similarly hand". K" has fem.
sing, c", masc. plur. k1, fem. plur. ce; n", fem. sing, n, masc. plur.
n\ fem. plur. ne. Similarly for the dative we have the following
forms: mqlis kit" pq,n", water (masc.) for the father; mqlis kits" gav,
a cow for the father; mqlis kit' rav, blankets (masc. plur.) for the
father; mg.lis kitsa pothe, books (fem. plur.) for the father. All these
postpositions of the genitive and kft" of the dative are declined
regularly as substantives, the masculine ones belonging to the
second declension and the feminine ones to the third. Note that
the feminine plural of sand" is sanza, not sanze, as we might expect;
so also feminine nouns in ts", tsh", z" and S*.
Adjectives ending in " (second declension) form the feminine in *,
with the usual changes of the preceding consonant. Thus tat", hot,
fem. tats" (pronounced tuts). Other adjectives do not change for
gender. All adjectives agree with the qualified noun in gender,
number and case, the postposition, if any, being added to the latter
word of the two. Take, for example, chat", white, and gur", a horse.
From these we have chat" gur", a white horse; ace. sing, chatis guris;
nom. plur. chat? gur'; and chatyau guryau siftin, by means of white
horses.
The first two personal pronouns are boh. I; me, me, by me; as*,
we; ase, us, by us; and ts°h, thou; tse, thee, by thee; tf¥,ye; tohe
you, by you. Possessive pronouns are employed instead of the
genitive. Thus, myg,n", my; sg,n", our; cyyn", thy; tuhand", your.
For the third person, we have sing. masc. suh, fem. soh, neut. tih;
ace. sing. (masc. or fem.) tamis or tas, neut. tath; agent sing masc.
neut. tarn', fem. tami. The plural is of common gender throughout.
Nom. tint ; ace. timan ; ag. titnau. The possessive pronoun is tasand",
of him, of her; tamyuk", of it ; tihand", of them. The neuter gender
is used for all things without life.
Other pronouns are: — This: yih (com. gen.); ace. masc. fem.
yimis, or nomis, neut, yith, noth; ag. masc. neut., yim*, nfrm*, fem.
yimi, nomi; nom. plur. yim, fem. yima, and so on.
That (within sight) : masc. neut. huh, fem. hoh ; ace. masc. fem.
humis or amis, neut. huth, and so on; nom. plur. masc hum. '
Who, masc. yus, fem. yossa, neut. yih; ace. masc. fem. yemis,
yes, neut. yeth; ag. masc. neut. yem>, fem. yemi; nom. plur. masc.
yim, and so on.
Who? masc. kus, fem. kossa, neut. kyah; ace. masc. fem. kamis,
kas, neut. kath;ag. masc. neut. kam', fem. kami; nom. plur. masc. kant.
Self, ps.no,. Anyone, someone, kah, kuh, or katshah, neut. ketshah.
Kashmiri makes very free use of pronominal suffixes, which are
added to verbs to supply the place of personal terminations. These
represent almost any case, and are as follows : —
First Person.
Second Person.
Third Person.
Sing. —
Nom.
s
kh, h
none
Ace.
m
th, y
i
Dat.
m
y
5
Ag.
m
th,y
n
Plur.—
Nom.
none
wa
none
Other
cases
none
no
kh,h
Before these the verbal terminations are often slightly changed
for the sake of euphony, and, when necessary for the pronunciation,
the vowel a is inserted as a junction vowel.
In this connexion we may mention another set of suffixes also
commonly added to verbs, with an adverbial force. Of these na
negatives the verb, as in chuh, he is; chuna, he is not; d asks a
692
KASHMIRI
question, as in chwa, is he ? ti adds emphasis, as in chuti, he is indeed ;
and tya asks a question with emphasis, as in chutya, is he indeed ?
Two or three suffixes may be employed together, as in kar", was
made, kqru-m, was made by me, kqr"-m-akh, thou wast made by
me; kqr"-m-akh-a, wast thou made by me? The two kh suffixes
become h when they are followed by a pronominal suffix commencing
with a vowel, as in kqr"-h-as (for kqr"-kh-as) , I was made by them.
E. Conjugation. As in the case of the modern Indo-Aryan
vernaculars, the conjugation of the verb is mainly participial.
Three only of the old tenses, the present, the future and the impera-
tive have survived, the first having become a future, and the second
a past conditional. These three we may call radical tenses. The
rest, viz. the Kashmiri present, imperfect, past, aorist, perfect and
other past tenses are all participial.
The verb substantive, which is also used as an auxiliary verb,
has two tenses, a present and a past. The former is made by adding
the pronominal suffixes of the nominative to a base chu(h), and the
latter by adding the same to a base as". Thus: —
Singular
Plural
Masculine
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
I
2
3
chu-s, I am
chu-kh, thou
art
chuh, he is
che-s, I am
che-kh, thou
art
cheh, she is
chih, we are
chi-wa, you
are
chih, they are
cheh, we are
che-wa, you are
cheh, they are
i
2
3
qsu-s, I was
asu-kh, thou
wast
Q.S", he was
qs"-s, I was
qs"-kh, thou
wast
qs", she was
qs', we were
qs'-wa, you
were
qs', they
were
asa, we were
asa-wa, you
were
asa, they were
As for the finite verb, the modern future (old present), and the past
conditional (old future) do not change for gender, and do not employ
suffixes, but retain relics of the old personal terminations of the
tenses from which they are derived. They are thus conjugated,
taking the verbal root kar, as the typical verb.
Future, I shall make, &c.
Past Conditional, (if) I had made, &c.
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
I
2
3
kara
karakh
kari
karav
kariv
karan
karahd
karah&kh
karihe
karahav
kq^hlv
karah&n
For the imperative we have 2nd person singular, kar, plur. kariv,
third person singular and plural karin.
Many of the above forms will be intelligible from a consideration
of the closely allied Sanskrit, although they are not derived from
that language; but some (e.g. those of the second person singular)
can only be explained by the analogy of the Iranian and of the
Pisaca languages.
The present participle is formed by adding an to the root; thus,
karan, making. It does not change for gender. From this we get a
present and an imperfect, formed by adding respectively the present
and past tenses of the auxiliary verb. Thus, karan chus, I (mascu-
line) am making, I make; karan ches, I (feminine) am making, I
make; karan qsus, I (masculine) was making; and so on.
There are several past participles, all of which are liable to change
for gender, and are utilized in conjugation. We have: —
Singular
Plural
Masculine
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
Weak past participle
Strong past participle
Pluperfect participle
Compound past parti-
ciple
kar"
karydv
karyav
kqr"mqt"
kar"
karyeya
karyeya
kqf'mqts"
kari
karyey
kareyey
kar'mat'
kare
karyeya
karyiya
karematsa
In the strong past participle and the pluperfect participle, the
final v and y (like the final h of chuh quoted above) are not parts of
the original words, but are only added for the sake of euphony.
The true words are katyo, karye, karya and karyeye. There arc
three conjugations. The first includes all transitive verbs. These
have both the weak and the strong past participles. The second
conjugation consists of sixty-six common intransitive verbs, which
also have both of these participles. The third conjugation consists
Oi the remaining intransitive verbs. These have only the strong
past participle. The weak past participle in the first two conjuga-
tions refers to something which has lately happened, and is used to
• °jmca" 'mmed'.ate past tense. The strong past participle is more
indefinite, and is employed to form a tense corresponding to the
Greek aorist. The pluperfect participle refers to something which
happened a long time ago, and is used to form the past tense of
narration. As the third conjugation has no weak past participle,
the strong past participle is employed to make the immediate past,
and the pluperfect participle is employed to make the aorist past,
while the new pluperfect participle is formed to make the tense of
narration. Thus, from the root wuph, fly (third conjugation) we
have wuphyov, he flew just now, while karyov (first conjugation)
means " he was made at some indefinite time "; wuphyav, he flew
at some indefinite time, but karyav, he was made a long time ago;
finally, the new participle of the third conjugation, wuphiyav, he
flew a long time ago.
The corresponding tenses are formed by adding pronominal
suffixes to the weak, the strong, or the pluperfect participle. In the
last two the final v and y, being no longer required by euphony, are
dropped. In the case of transitive verbs the participles are passive
by derivation and in signification, and hence the suffix indicating
the subject must be in the agent case. Thus kar" means "made."
For " I made " we must say " made by me," kqru-m; for " thou
madest," kqru-th, made by thee, and so on. If the thing made is
feminine the participle must be feminine, and similarly if it is plural
it must be plural. Thus, kqru-m, I made him; kqr"-m, I made her;
kqri-m, I made them (masculine) ; and karc-m, I made them (femi-
nine). Similarly from the other two participles we have karyo-m,
I made him; karyeya-m, I made her; karyd-m, I made him (a long
time ago). The past participles of intransitive verbs are not
passive, and hence the suffix indicating the subject must be in the
nominative form. Thus tsql", escaped (second conjugation) ; tsqlu-s,
escaped-I, I (masculine) escaped ; tsaj'-s, I (feminine) escaped, and so
on. Similarly for the third conjugation, wuphyov, flew; wuphyo-s,
I (masculine) flew; wuphyeya-s, I (feminine) flew, &c.
As explained above, these suffixes may be piled one on another.
As a further example we may give kar", made; kqru-n, made by
him, he made; kqru-n-as, made by him I, he made nie, or (as -i also
means " for him ") he made for him; kqru-n-as-a, did he make me?
or, did he make for him ? and so on.
Tenses corresponding to the English perfect and pluperfect are
formed by conjugating the auxiliary verb, adding the appropriate
suffixes, with the compound past participle. Thus kqr"mqt" chu-
n-as, made am-by-him-I, he has made me; tsql" mat" chu-kh,
escaped art thou, thou hast escaped; wuphyomqt" chu-s, flown am-I,
I have flown. Similarly for the pluperfect, kqr"mqtu qsu-n-as,
made was-by-him-I, he had made me, and so on.
Many verbs have irregular past participles. Thus mar, die, has
mud"; di, give, has rfj/"; khi, eat, has khyauv for its weak, and kheydv
for its strong participle, while ni, take, has nyuv and niydv, respec-
tively. Others must be learnt from the regular grammars.
The infinitive is formed by adding -un to the root ; thus kar-un, to
make. _ It is declined like a somewhat irregular noun of the first
declension, its accusative being karanas. There are three forms of
the noun of agency, of which typical examples are kar-awun",
kar-an-wql" , and! kar-an-grakh, a maker.
The passive is formed by conjugating the verb yi, come, with the
ablative of the infinitive. Thus, karana yiwan chuh, it is coming by
making, or into making, i.e. it is being made. A root is made
active or causal by adding -anaw, -aw, or -"raw. Thus, kar-anaw,
cause to make; kumal, be tender, kumal-aw, make tender; kal, be
dumb, kal-"raw, make dumb. Some verbs take one form and some
another, and there are numerous irregularities, especially in the case
of the last.
_ F. Indeclindbles. Indeclinables (adverbs, prepositions, conjunc-
tions and interjections) must be learnt from the dictionary. The
number of interjections is very large, and they are distinguished by
minute rules depending on the gender of the person addressed and
the exact amount of respect due to him.
Literature. — Kashmiri possesses a somewhat extensive litera-
ture, which has been very little studied. The missionary William
Carey published in 1821 a version of the New Testament (in the
Sarada character), which was the first book published in the
language. In 1885 the Rev. J. Hinton Knowles published at
Bombay a collection of Kashmiri proverbs and sayings, and K. F.
Burkhard in 1895 published an edition of Mahmud Gaml's poem
on Yusuf and Zulaikha. This, with the exception of later trans-
lations of the Scriptures in the Persian character and a few minor
works, is all the literature that has been printed or about which
anything has been written. Mahmud Gaml's poem is valuable as
an example of the Kashmiri used by Mussulmans. For Hindu
literature, we may quote a history of Krishna by Dinanatha.
The very popular Lalla-vakya, a poem on Saiva philosopy by
a woman named Lalladevi, is said to be the oldest work in the
language which has survived. Another esteemed work is the
Siva Parinaya of Krsna Rajanaka, a living author. These and
other books which have been studied by the present writer have
little independent value, being imitations of Sanskrit literature.
Nothing is known about the dates of most of the authors.
KASHUBES— KASSALA
693
AUTHORITIES.— The scientific study of Kashmiri is of very recent
date. The only printed lexicographical work is a short vocabulary
by W. J. Elmslie (London, 1872). K. F. Burkhard brought out a
grammar of the Mussulman dialect in the Proceedings of the Royal
Bavarian Academy of Science for 1887-1889, of which a translation
by G. A. Grierson appeared in the Indian Antiquary of 1895 and the
following years (reprinted as a separate publication, Bombay, 1897).
T. R. Wade's Grammar (London, 1888) is the merest sketch, and the
only attempt at a complete work of the kind in English is G. A.
Grierson's Essays on Kaynin Grammar (London and Calcutta, 1899).
A valuable native grammar in Sanskrit, the Kasmrras'abdamzta, of
Isvara Kaula, , has been edited by the same writer (Calcutta, 1888).
For an examination of the origin of Kashmiri grammatical forms
and the Pisaca question generally, see G. A. Grierson's " On Certain
Suffixes in the Modern Indo-Aryan Vernaculars " in the Zeitschrift
fur Vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Cebiete der Indogerman-
ischen Sprachen for 1903 and The Pisaca Languages of North-Western
India (London, 1906).
The only important text which has been published is Burkhard's
edition, with a partial translation, of Mahmud Gami's " Yusuf and
Zulaikha " in the Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesell-
schaft for 1895 and 1899. The text of the Siva Parinaya, edited by
G. A. Grierson, is in course of publication by the Asiatic Society of
Bengal. (G. A. GR.)
KASHUBES (sing. Kaszub, plur. Kaszebe), a Slavonic people
numbering about 200,000, and living on the borders of West
Prussia and Pomerania, along the Baltic coast between Danzig
and Lake Garden, and inland as far as Konitz. They have no
literature and no history, as they consist of peasants and fisher-
men, the educated classes being mostly Germans or Poles. Their
language has been held to be but a dialect of Polish, but it seems
better to separate it, as in some points it is quite independent,
in some it offers a resemblance to the language of the Polabs (q.it.).
This is most seen in the western dialect of the so-called Slovinci
(of whom there are about 250 left) and Kabatki, whereas the
eastern Kashube is more like Polish, which is encroaching upon
and assimilating it. Lorentz calls the western dialect a language,
and distinguishes 38 vowels. The chief points of Kashube as
against Polish are that all its vowels can be nasal instead of a
and e only, that it has preserved quantity and a free accent, has
developed several special vowels, e. g. 6, cs, u, and has preserved
the original order, e.g. gard as against grod. The consonants
are very like Polish. (See also SLAVS.)
AUTHORITIES. — F. Lorentz, SlovinzischeGrammatik (St Petersburg,
1903) and " Die gegenseitigen Verhaltnisse der sogen. Lechischen
Sprachen," in Arch. f. Slav. Phil. xxiv. (1902); J. Baudouin de
Courtenay, " Kurzes Resum6 der Kaschubischen Frage," ibid.
xxvi. (1904); G. Bronisch, Kaschubische Dialektstudien (Leipzig,
1896-1898) ; S. Ramult, Siownik jezyka pomorskiego czyli kaszubskiego,
i.e. " Dictionary of the Seacoast (Pomeranian) or Kashube Language"
(Cracow, 1893). (E. H. M.)
KASIMOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Ryazan,
on the Oka river, in 54° 56' N. and 41° 3' E., 75 m. E.N.E. of
Ryazan. Pop. (1897), 13,545, of whom about 1000 were Tatars.
It is famed for its tanneries and leather goods, sheepskins and
post-horse bells. Founded in 1152, it was formerly known as
Meshcherski Gorodets. In the 1 5th century it became the capital
of a Tatar khanate, subject to Moscow, and so remained until
1667. The town possesses a cathedral, and a mosque supposed
to have been built by Kasim, founder of the Tatar principality.
Near the mosque stands a mausoleum built by Shah-Ali in 1555.
Lying on the direct road from Astrakhan to Moscow and Nizhniy-
Novgorod, Kasimov is a place of some trade, and has a large
annual fair in July. The waiters in' the best hotels of St Peters-
burg are mostly Kasimov Tatars.
See Veliaminov-Zernov, The Kasimov Tsars (St Petersburg,
1863-1866).
KASSA (Germ. Kaschau; Lat. Cassovia), the capital of the
county of Abauj-Torna, in Hungary, 170 m. N.E. of Budapest by
rail. Pop. (1900), 35,856. Kassa is one of the oldest and hand-
somest towns of Hungary, and is pleasantly situated on the right
bank of the Hernad. It is surrounded on three sides by hills
covered with forests and vineyards, and opens to the S.E. to-
wards a pretty valley watered by the Hernad and the Tarcza.
Kassa consists of the inner town, which was the former old town
surrounded with walls, and of three suburbs separated from it by
a broad glacis. The most remarkable building, considered the
grandest masterpiece of architecture in Hungary, is the Gothic
cathedral of St Elizabeth. Begun about 1270 by Stephen V., it
was continued (1342-1382) by Queen Elizabeth, wife of Charles I.,
and her son Louis I., and finished about 1468, in the reign of
Matthias I. (Corvinus). The interior was transformed in the
i8th century to the Renaissance style, and the whole church
thoroughly restored in 1877-1896. The church of St Michael
and the Franciscan or garrison church date from the i3th cen-
tury. The royal law academy, founded in 1659, and sanctioned
by golden bull of King Leopold I. in 1660, has an extensive
library; there are also a museum, a Roman Catholic upper
gymnasium and seminary for priests, and other schools and
benevolent institutions. Kassa is the see of a Roman Catholic
bishopric. It is the chief political and commercial town of Upper
Hungary, and the principal entrepdt for the commerce between
Hungary and Galicia. Its most important manufactures are
tobacco, machinery, iron, furniture, textiles and milling. About
3 m. N.W. of the town are the baths of Banko, with alkaline and
ferruginous springs, and about 1 2 m. N.E. lies Rank-Herlein, with
an intermittent chalybeate spring. About 20 m. W. of Kassa lies
the famous Premonstratensian abbey of Jaszo, founded in the
1 2th century. The abbey contains a rich library and valuable
archives. In the neighbourhood is a fine stalactite grotto,
which often served as a place of refuge to the inhabitants in war
time.
Kassa was created a town and granted special privileges by
Bela IV. in 1235, and was raised to the rank of a royal free town
by Stephen V. in 1270. In 1290 it was surrounded with walls.
The subsequent history presents a long record of revolts, sieges
and disastrous conflagrations. In 1430 the plague carried Off a
great number of the inhabitants. In 1458 the right of minting
money according to the pattern and value of the Buda coinage
was granted to the municipality by King Matthias I. The
bishopric was established in 1804. In the revolutionary war of
1848-49 the Hungarians were twice defeated before the walls of
Kassa by the Austrians under General Schlick, and the town was
held successively by the Austrians, Hungarians and Russians.
KASSALA, a town and mudiria of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
The town, a military station of some importance, lies on the river
Gash (Mareb) in 15° 28' N., 36° 24' E., 260 m. E.S.E. of Khartum
and 240 m. W. of Massawa, the nearest seaport. Pop. about
20,000. It is built on a plain, 1700 ft. above the sea, at the foot
of the Abyssinian highlands 15 m.W. of the frontier of the Italian
colony of Eritrea. Two dome-shaped mountains about 2600 ft.
high, jebels Mokram and Kassala, rise abruptly from the plain
some 3 m. to the east and south-east. These mountains and
the numerous gardens Kassala contains give to the place a
picturesque appearance. The chief buildings are of brick, but
most of the natives dwell in grass tukls. A short distance from
the town is Khatmia, containing a tomb mosque with a high
tower, the headquarters of the Morgani family. The sheikhs El
Morgani are the chiefs of a religious brotherhood widely spread
and of considerable influence in the eastern Sudan. The Morgani
family are of Afghan descent. Long settled in Jidda, the head
of the family removed to the Sudan about 1800 and founded the
Morgani sect. Kassala was founded by the Egyptians in 1840
as a fortified post from which to control their newly conquered
territory near the Abyssinian frontier. In a few years it grew
into a place of some importance. In November 1883 it was be-
sieged by the dervishes. The garrison held out till the 3oth of July
1885 when owing to lack of food they capitulated. Kassala was
captured from the dervishes by an Italian force under Colonel
Baratieri on the i7th of July 1894 and by the Italians was handed
over on Christmas day 1897 to Egypt. The bulk of the inhabit-
ants are Hallenga " Arabs."
Kassala mudiria contains some of the most fertile land in the
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It corresponds roughly with the dis-
trict formerly known as Taka. It is a region of light rainfall, and
cultivation depends chiefly on the Gash flood. The river is how-
ever absolutely dry from October to June. White durra of
excellent quality is raised.
694
KASSASSIN— KATANGA
KASSASSIN, a village of Lower Egypt 22 m. by rail W. of
Ismailia on the Suez Canal. At this place, on the 28th of August
and again on the pth of September 1882 the British force opera-
ting against Arabi Pasha was attacked by the Egyptians — both
attacks being repulsed (see EGYPT: Military Operations).
KASSITES, an Elamite tribe who played an important part
in the history of Babylonia. They still inhabited the north-
western mountains of Elam, immediately south of Holwan, when
Sennacherib attacked them in 702 B.C. They are the Kossaeans
of Ptolemy, who divides Susiana between them and the Ely-
maeans; according to Strabo (xi. 13,3,6) they were the neighbours
of the Medes. Th. Noldeke (Gott. G. G., 1874, pp. 173 seq.) has
shown that they are the Kissians of the older Greek authors who
are identified with the Susians by Aeschylus (Choeph. 424, Pers.
17, 120) and Herodotus (v. 49, 52). We already hear of them as
attacking Babylonia in the gth year of Samsu-iluna the son of
Khammurabi, and about 1780 B.C. they overran Babylonia and
founded a dynasty there which lasted for 576 years and nine
months. In the course of centuries, however, they were absorbed
into the Babylonian population; the kings adopted Semitic names
and married into the royal family of Assyria. Like the other
languages of the non-Semitic tribes of Elam that of the Kassites
was agglutinative; a vocabulary of it has been handed down in a
cuneiform tablet, as well as a list of Kassite names with their
Semitic equivalents. It has no connexion with Indo-European,
as has erroneously been supposed. Some of the Kassite deities
were introduced into the Babylonian pantheon, and the Kassite
tribe of Khabira seems to have settled in the Babylonian plain.
See FT. Delitzsch, Die Spracheder Kossder (1884). (A. H. S.),.
KASTAMUNI, or KASTAMBfjL. (i) A vilayet of Asia Minor
which includes Paphlagonia and parts of Pontus and Galatia.
It is divided into four sanjaks — Kastamuni, Boli, Changra and
Sinope— is rich in mineral wealth, and has many mineral springs
and extensive forests, the timber being used for charcoal and
building and the bark for tanning. The products are chiefly
cereals, fruits, opium, cotton, tobacco, wool, ordinary goat-hair
and mohair, in which there is a large trade. There are coal-mines
at and near Eregli (anc. Heracleia) which yield steam coal nearly
as good in quality as the English, but they are badly worked.
Its population comprises about 993,000 Moslems and 27,000
Christians. (2) The capital of the vilayet, the ancient Castamon,
altitude 2500 ft., situated in the narrow valley of the Geuk Irmak
(Amnias), and connected by a carriage road, 54 m., with its port
Ineboli on the Black Sea. The town is noted for its copper
utensils, but the famous copper mines about 36 m. N., worked
from ancient times to the igth century, are now abandoned.
There are over 30 mosques in the town, a dervish monastery, and
numerous theological colleges (medresses), and the Moslem inhabi-
tants have a reputation for bigotry. The climate though subject
to extremes of heat and cold is healthy; in winter the roads are
often closed by snow. The population of 16,000 includes about
2500 Christians. Castamon became an important city in later
Byzantine times. It lay on the northern trunk-road to the
Euphrates and was built round a strong fortress whose ruins
crown the rocky hill west of the town. It was taken by the
Danishmand Amirs of Sivas early in the 1 2th century, and passed
to the Turks in 1393. (J. G. C. A.)
K ASTORIA (Turkish Kesrie), a city of Macedonia, European
Turkey, in the vilayet of Monastir, 45 m. S. by W. of Monastir
(Bitolia). Pop. (1905), about 10,000, one-third of whom are
Greeks, one-third Slavs, and the remainder Albanians or Turks.
Kastoria occupies part of a peninsula on the western shore of
Lake Kastoria, which here receives from the north its affluent the
Zhelova. The lake is formed in a deep hollow surrounded by
limestone mountains, and is drained on the south by the Bis-
tritza, a large river which flows S.E. nearly to the Greek frontier,
then sharply turns N.E., and finally enters the Gulf of Salonica.
The lake has an area of 20 sq. m., and is 2850 ft. above sea-level.
Kastoria is the seat of an Orthodox archbishop. It is usually
identified with the ancient Celelrum, captured by the Romans
under Sulpicius, during the first Macedonian campaign, 200 B.C.,
and better known for the defence maintained by Bryennius
against Alexis I. in 1084. A Byzantine wall with round towers
runs across the peninsula.
KASUR, a town of British India, in the Lahore district of the
Punjab, situated on the north bank of the old bed of the river
Beas, 34 m. S.E. of Lahore. Pop. (1901), 22,022. A Rajput
colony seems to have occupied the present site before the earliest
Mahommedan invasion; but Kasur does not appear in history
until late in the Mussulman period, when it was settled by a
Pathan colony from beyond the Indus. It has an export trade
in grain and cotton, and manufactures of cotton and leather
goods.
KATAGUM, the sub-province of the double province of Kano
in the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria. It lies approxi-
mately between 11° and 13° N. and 8° 20' and 10° 40' E. It is
bounded N. by the French Sudan, E. by Bornu, S. by Bauchi,
and W. by Kano. Katagum consists of several small but ancient
Mahommedan emirates — Katagum, Messau, Gummel, Hadeija,
Machena, with a fringe of Bedde pagans on its eastern frontier
towards Bornu, and other pagans on the south towards Bauchi.
The Waube flows from Kano through the province via Hadeija
and by Damjiri in Bornu to Lake Chad, affording a route for the
transport of goods brought by the Zungeru-Zaria-Kano railway
to the headquarters of Katagum and western Bornu. Katagum
is a fertile province inhabited by an industrious people whose
manufactures rival those of Kano.
In ancient times the province of Katagum formed the debate-
able country between Bornu and the Hausa states. Though
Mahommedan it resisted the Fula invasion. Its northern
emirates were for a long time subject to Bornu, and its customs
are nearly assimilated to those of B ornu. The province was taken
under administrative control by the British in October 1903. In
1904 the capitals of Gummel, Hadeija, Messau and Jemaari,
were brought into touch with the administration and native and
provincial courts established. At the beginning of 1 905 Katagum
was incorporated as a sub-province with the province of Kano,
and the administrative organization of a double province was
extended over the whole. Hadeija, which is a very wealthy
town and holds an important position both as a source of supplies
and a centre of trade, received a garrison of mounted infantry
and became the capital of the sub-province.
Hadeija was an old Habe town and its name, an evident cor-
ruption of Khadija, the name of the celebrated wife and first
convert of Mahomet, is a strong presumption of the incorrectness
of the Fula claim to have introduced Islam to its inhabitants.
The ruling dynasty of Hadeija was, however, overthrown by Fula
usurpation towards the end of the i8th century, and the Fula
ruler received a flag and a blessing from Dan Fodio at the begin-
ning of his sacred war in the opening years of the igth century.
Nevertheless the habit of independence being strong in the town
of Hadeija the little emirate held its own against Sokoto, Bornu
and all comers. Though included nominally within the province
at Katagum it was the boast of Hadeija that it had never been
conquered. It had made nominal submission to the British in
1903 on the successful conclusion of the Kano-Sokoto campaign,
and in 1905, as has been stated, was chosen as the capital of the
sub-province. The emir's attitude became, however, in the
spring of 1906 openly antagonistic to the British and a military
expedition was sent against him. The emir with his disaffected
chiefs made a plucky stand but aRer five hours' street fighting
the town was reduced. The emir and three of his sons were killed,
and a new emir, the rightful heir to the throne, who had shown
himself in favour of a peaceful policy, was appointed. The
offices of the war chiefs in Hadeija were abolished and 150 yards
of the town wall were broken down.
Slave dealing is at an end in Katagum. The military station
at Hadeija forms a link in the chain of British forts which extends
along the northern frontier of the protectorate. (See NIGERIA.)
(F. L. L.)
KATANGA, a district of Belgian Congo, forming the south-
eastern part of the colony. Area, approximately, 1 80,000 sq. m.;
estimated population 1,000,000. The natives are members of
KATER— KATHIAWAR
695
the Luba-Lunda group of Bantus. It is a highly mineralized
region, being specially rich in copper ore. Gold, iron and tin
are also mined. Katanga is bounded S. and S.E. by Northern
Rhodesia, and British capital is largely interested in the develop-
ment of its resources, the administration of the territory being
entrusted to a committee on which British members have seats.
Direct railway communication with Cape Town and Beira was
established in 1909. There is also a rail and river service via
the Congo to the west coast. (See CONGO FREE STATE.)
KATER, HENRY (1777-1835), English physicist of German
descent, was born at Bristol on the i6th of April 1777. At first
he purposed to study law; but this he abandoned on his father's
death in 1794, and entered the army, obtaining a commission
in the xath regiment of foot, then stationed in India, where he
rendered valuable assistance in the great trigonometrical survey.
Failing health obliged him to return to England; and in 1808,
being then a lieutenant, he entered on a distinguished student
career in the senior department of the Royal Military College at
Sandhurst. Shortly after he was promoted to the rank of
captain. In 1814 he retired on half-pay, and devoted the.
remainder of his life to scientific research. He died at London
on the 26th of April 1835.
His first important contribution to scientific knowledge was
the comparison of the merits of the Cassegrainian and Gregorian
telescopes, from which (Phil. Trans., 1813 and 1814) he deduced
that the illuminating power of the former exceeded that of the
latter in the proportion of 5 : 2. This inferiority of the Gregorian
he explained as being probably due to the mutual interference
of the rays as they crossed at the principal focus before reflection
at the second mirror. His most valuable work was the determina-
tion of the length of the second's pendulum, first at London and
subsequently at various stations throughout the country (Phil.
Trans., 1818, 1819). In these researches he skilfully took
advantage of the well-known property of reciprocity between the
centres of suspension and oscillation of an oscillating body, so
as to determine experimentally the precise position of the centre
of oscillation; the distance between these centres was then the
length of the ideal simple pendulum having the same time of
oscillation. As the inventor of the floating collimator, Kater
rendered a great service to practical astronomy (Phil. Trans.,
1825, 1828). He also published memoirs (Phil. Trans., 1821,
1831) on British standards of length and mass; and in 1832 he
published an account of his labours in verifying the Russian
standards of length. For his services to Russia in this respect
he received in 1814 the decoration of the order of St. Anne; and
the same year he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society.
His attention was also turned to the subject of compass needles,
his Bakerian lecture " On the Best Kind of Steel and Form for a
Compass Needle" (Phil. Trans., 1821) containing the results of many
experiments. The treatise on " Mechanics" in Lardner's Cyclopaedia
was partly written by him; and his interest in more purely astro-
nomical questions was evidenced by two communications to the
Astronomical Society's Memoirs for 1831-1833 — the one on an obser-
vation of Saturn's outer ring, the other on a method of determining
longitude by means of lunar eclipses.
KATHA, a district in the northern division of Upper Burma,
with an area of 6994 sq. m., 3730 of which consists of the former
separate state of Wuntho. It is bounded N. by the Upper
Chindwin, Bhamo and Myitkyina districts, E. by the Kaukkwe
River as far as the Irrawaddy, thence east of the Irrawaddy by
the Shan State of Mong Mit( Momeik), and by the Shweli River,
S. by the Ruby Mines district and Shwebo, and W. by the Upper
Chindwin district. Three ranges of hills run through the district,
known as the Minwun, Gangaw and Mangin ranges. They
separate the three main rivers — the Irrawaddy, the Meza and the
Mu. The Minwun range runs from north to south, and forms
for a considerable part of its length the dividing line between the
Katha district proper and what formerly was the Wuntho state.
Its average altitude is between 1500 and 2000 ft. The Gangaw
range runs from the north of the district for a considerable
portion of its length close to and down the right bank of the
Irrawaddy as far as Tigyaing, where the Myatheindan pagoda
gives its name to the last point. Its highest point is 4400 ft.,
but the average is between 1500 and 2000 ft. The Katha branch
of the railway crosses it at Petsut, a village 12 miles west of
Katha town. The Mangin range runs through Wuntho (highest
peak, Maingthon, 5450 ft.).
Gold, copper, iron and lead are found in considerable quantities
in the district. The Kyaukpazat gold-mines, worked by an
English company, gave good returns, but the quartz reef proved
to be a mere pocket and is now worked out. The iron, copper
and lead are not now worked. Jade and soapstone also exist,
and salt is produced from brine wells. There are three forest
reserves in Katha, with a total area of 1119 sq. m. The popula-
tion in 1901 was 176,223, an increase of 32% in the decade.
The number of Shans is about half that of Burmese, and of Kadus
half that of Shans. The Shans are mostly in the Wuntho sub-
division. Rice is the chief crop in the plains, tea, cotton,
sesamum and hill rice in the hills. The valley of the Meza,
which is very malarious, was used as a convict settlement under
Burmese rule. The district was first occupied by British troops
in 1886, but it was not finally quieted till 1890, when the Wuntho
sawbwa was deposed and his state incorporated in Katha district.
KATHA is the headquarters of the district. The principal
means of communication are the Irrawaddy Flotilla steamers,
which run between Mandalay and Bhamo, and the railway which
communicates with Sagaing to the south and Myitkyina to the
north. A ferry-steamer plies between Katha and Bhamo.
KATHIAWAR, or KATTYWAR, a peninsula of India, within
the Gujarat division of Bombay, giving its name to a political
agency. Total area, about 23,400 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 2,645,805.
These figures include a portion of the British district of Ahme-
dabad, a portion of the state of Baroda, and the small Portuguese
settlement of Diu. The peninsula is bounded N. by the Runn
of Cutch, E. by Ahmedabad district and the Gulf of Cambay, and
S. and W. by the Arabian Sea. The extreme length is 220 m.;
the greatest breadth about 165 m. Generally speaking, the
surface is undulating, with low ranges running in various direc-
tions. With the exception of the Tangha and Mandav hills,
in the west of Jhalawar, and some unimportant hills in Hallar,
the northern portion of the country is flat; but in the south, from
near Gogo, the Gir range runs nearly parallel with the coast, and
at a distance of about 20 m. from it, along the north of Babriawar
and Sorath, to the neighbourhood of Girnar. Opposite this latter
mountain is the solitary Osam hill, and then still farther west
is the Barada group, between Hallar and Barada, running about
20 m. north and south from Gumli to Ranawao. The Girnar
group of mountains is an important granitic mass, the highest
peak of which rises to 3500 ft. The principal river is the Bhadar,
which rises in the Mandav hills, and flowing S.W. falls into the
sea at Navi-Bandar; it is everywhere marked by highly culti-
vated lands adjoining its course of about 1 1 5 m. Other rivers are
the Aji, Machhu and Satrunji — the last remarkable for romantic
scenery. Four of the old races, the Jaitwas, Churasamas,
Solunkis and Walas still exist as proprietors of the soil who
exercised sovereignty in the country prior to the immigration
of the Jhalas, Jadejas, Purmars, Kathis, Gohels, Jats, Mahom-
medans and Mahrattas, between whom the country is now chiefly
portioned out. Kathiawar has many notable antiquities, com-
prising a rock inscription of Asoka, Buddhist caves, and fine Jain
temples on the sacred hill of Girnar and at Palitana.
The political agency of Kathiawar has an area of 20,882 sq. m.
In 1901 the population was 2,320,196, showing a decrease of
1 5 % in the decade due to the results of famine. The estimated
gross revenue of the several states is £1,278,000; total tribute
(payable to the British, the gaekwar of Baroda and the nawab
of Junagarh) , £70,000. There are altogether 1 93 states of varying
size and importance, of which 14 exercise independent jurisdic-
tion, while the rest are more or less under British administration.
The eight states of the first class are Junagaw, Nawanagar,
Bhaunagar, Porbandar, Dhrangadra, Morvi, Gondal and Jafara-
bad. The headquarters of the political agent are at Rajkot, in
the centre of the peninsula, where also is the Rajkumar college,
for the education of the sons of the chiefs. There is a similar
school for girasias, or chiefs of lower rank, at Gondal. An
696
KATKOV— KATSENA
excellent system of metre-gauge railways has been provided at
the cost of the leading states. Maritime trade is also very active,
the chief ports being Porbandar, Mangrol and Verawal. In
1903-1904 the total sea-borne exports were valued at £1,300,000,
and the imports at £1,120,000. The progressive prosperity of
Kathiawar received a shock from the famine of 1899-1900,
which was felt everywhere with extreme severity.
KATKOV, MICHAEL NIKIFOROVICH (1818-1887), Russian
journalist, was born in Moscow in 1818. On finishing his course
at the university he devoted himself to literature and philosophy,
and showed so little individuality that during the reign of
Nicholas I. he never once came into disagreeable contact with the
authorities. With the Liberal reaction and strong reform move-
ment which characterized the earlier years of Alexander II. 's reign
(1855-1881) he thoroughly sympathized, and for some time he
warmly advocated the introduction of liberal institutions of the
British type, but when he perceived that the agitation was assum-
ing a Socialistic and Nihilist tinge, and that in some quarters of
the Liberal camp indulgence was being shown to Polish national
aspirations, he gradually modified his attitude until he came to
be regarded by the Liberals as a renegade. At the beginning of
1863 he assumed the management and editorship of the Moscow
Gazette, and he retained that position till his death in 1887.
During these twenty-four years he exercised considerable influ-
ence on public opinion and even on the Government, by repre-
senting with great ability the moderately Conservative spirit
of Moscow in opposition to the occasionally ultra-Liberal and
always cosmopolitan spirit of St Petersburg. With the Slavo-
phils he agreed in advocating the extension of Russian influence
in south-eastern Europe, but he carefully kept aloof from them
and condemned their archaeological and ecclesiastical senti-
mentality. Though generally temperate in his views, he was
extremely incisive and often violent in his modes of expressing
them, so that he made many enemies and sometimes incurred
the displeasure of the press-censure and the ministers, against
which he was more than once protected by Alexander III. in
consideration of his able advocacy of national interests. He is
remembered chiefly as an energetic opponent of Polish national
aspirations, of extreme Liberalism, of the system of public
instruction based on natural science, and of German political
influence. In this last capacity he helped to prepare the way
for the Franco-Russian alliance.
KATMANDU (less correctly KHATMANDU), the capital of the
state of Nepal, India, situated on the bank of the Vishnumati
river at its confluence with the Baghmati, in 27° 36' N., 85° 24' E.
The town, which is said to have been founded about 723, contains
a population estimated at 70,000, occupying 5000 houses made
of brick, and usually from two to four storeys high. Many of
the houses have large projecting wooden windows or balconies,
richly carved. The maharaja's palace, a huge, rambling, un-
gainly building, stands in the centre of the town, which also
contains numerous temples. One of these, a wooden building
in the centre of the town, gives it its name (kat = wood).
The streets are extremely narrow, and the whole town very
dirty. A British resident is stationed about a mile north of the
town.
KATO, TAKA-AKIRA (1850- ), Japanese statesman, was
born at Nagoya, and commenced life as an employee in the great
firm of Mitsu Bishi. In 1887 he became private secretary to
Count Okuma, minister of state for foreign affairs. Subse-
quently he served as director of a bureau in the finance depart-
ment, and from 1894 to 1899 he represented his country at the
court of St James. He received the portfolio of foreign affairs
in the fourth Ito cabinet (1900-1901), which remained in office
only a few months. Appointed again to the same position in the
Saionji cabinet (1906), he resigned after a brief interval, being
opposed to the nationalization of the private railways, which
measure the cabinet approved. He then remained without
office until 1908, when he again accepted the post of ambassador
in London. He was decorated with the grand cross of St Michael
and St George, and earned the reputation of being one of the
strongest men among the junior statesmen.
KATRINE, LOCH, a freshwater lake of Scotland, lying almost
entirely in Perthshire. The boundary between the counties of
Perth and Stirling runs from Glengyle, at the head of the lake,
down the centre to a point opposite Stronachlachar from which
it strikes to the south-western shore towards Loch Arklet. The
loch, which has a south-easterly trend, is about 8 m. long, and
its greatest breadth is i m. It lies 364 ft. above the sea-
level. It occupies an area of 4! square miles and has a drainage
basin of 375 square miles. The average depth is 142 ft.,
the greatest depth being 495 ft. The average annual rainfall is
78 inches. The mean temperature at the surface is 56-4° F., and
at the bottom 41° F. The scenery has been immortalized in Sir
Walter Scott's Lady of the Lake. The surrounding hills are of
considerable altitude, the most remarkable being the head of
Ben A'an (1750 ft.) and the grassy craigs and broken contour
of Ben Venue (2393 ft.). It is fed by the Gyle and numerous
burns, and drained by the Achray to Loch Achray and thence
by the Black Avon to Loch Vennacher. Since 1859 it has
formed the chief source of the water-supply of Glasgow, the
aqueduct leaving the lake about i^ m. S.E. of Strenachlachar.
By powers obtained in 1885 the level of the lake was increased
by 5 ft. by a system of sluices regulating the outflow of the
Achray. One result of this damming up has been to submerge
the Silver Strand and to curtail the dimensions of Ellen's Isle.
The principal points on the shores are Glengyle, formerly a fast-
ness of the Macgregors, the Trossachs, the Goblins' Cave on Ben
Venue, and Stronachlachar (Gaelic, " the mason's nose "), from
which there is a ferry to Coilachra on the opposite side. A road
has been constructed from the Trossachs for nearly six miles
along the northern shore. During summer steamers ply be-
tween the Trossachs and Stronachlachar and there is a daily
service of coaches from the Trossachs to Callander (about 10 m.)
and to Aberfoyle (9 m.), and between Stronachlachar, to Inver-
snaid on Loch Lomond (about 4^ m.). The road to Inversnaid
runs through the Macgregors' country referred to in Scott's
Rob Roy.
KATSENA, an ancient state of the western Sudan, now in-
cluded in the province of Kano in the British protectorate of
Northern Nigeria. Katsena was amongst the oldest of the Hausa
states. There exist manuscripts which carry back its history
for about 1000 years and tradition ascribes the origin of the
Hausa population, which is known also by the name of Habe or
Habeche, to the union of Bajibda of Bagdad with a prehistoric
queen of Daura. The conquest of the Habe of Katsena by the
Fula about the beginning of the igth century made little differ-
ence to the country. The more cultivated Habe were already
Mahommedan and the new rulers adopted the existing customs
and system of government. These were in many respects highly
developed and included elaborate systems of taxation and
justice.
The capital of the administrative district is a town of the same
name, in 13° N., 7° 41' E., being 160 m. E. by S. of the city of
Sokoto, and 84 m. N.W. of Kano. The walls of Katsena have
a circuit of between 13 and 14 miles, but only a small part of the
enclosed space is inhabited. In the i7th and i8th centuries it
appears to have been the largest town in the Hausa countries,
and its inhabitants at that time numbered some 100,000. The
date of the foundation of the present town must be comparatively
modern, for it is believed to have been moved from its ancient
site and at the time of Leo Africanus (c. 1513) there was no place
of any considerable size in the province of Katsena. Before that
period Katsena boasted of being the chief seat of learning
throughout the Hausa states and this reputation was main-
tained to the time of the Fula conquest. In the beginning of the
1 9th century the town fell into the hands of the Fula, but only
after a protracted and heroic defence. In March 1903 Sir F.
Lugard visited Katsena on his way from Sokoto and the emir and
chiefs accepted British suzerainty without fighting. The Katsena
district has since formed an administrative district in the double
province of Kano and Katagum. The emir was unfaithful to
his oath of allegiance to the British crown, and was deposed in
1904. His successor was installed and took the oath of allegiance
KATSURA— KAUFFMANN, ANGELICA
697
in December of the same year. Katsena is a rich and populous
district.
See the Travels of Heinrich Earth (new ed., London, 1890, chs.
xxiii. and xxiv.). Consult also the Annual Reports on Northern
Nigeria issued by the Colonial Office, London, particularly the Report
for 1902.
KATSENA is also the name of a town in the district of Katsena-
Allah, in the province of Muri, Northern Nigeria. This district
is watered by a river of the same name which takes its rise in the
mountains of the German colony of Cameroon, and flows into the
Benue at a point above Abinsi.
KATSURA, TARO, MARQUESS (1847- ), Japanese soldier
and statesman, was born in 1847 in Choshu. He commenced
his career by fighting under the Imperial banner in the civil war
of the Restoration, and he displayed such talent that he was
twice sent at public expense to Germany (in 1870 and 1884) to
study strategy and tactics. In 1886 he was appointed vice-
minister of war, and in 1891 the command of division devolved
on him. He led the left wing of the Japanese army in the
campaign of 1894-95 against China, and made a memorable march
in the depth of winter from the north-east shore of the Yellow
Sea to Haicheng, finally occupying Niuchwang, and effecting a
junction with the second army corps which moved up the
Liaotung peninsula. For these services he received the title
of viscount. He held the portfolio of war from 1898 to 1901,
when he became premier and retained office for four and a half
years, a record in Japan. In 1902 his cabinet concluded the
first entente with England, which event procured for Katsura the
rank of count. He also directed state affairs throughout the war
with Russia, and concluded the offensive and defensive treaty
of 1905 with Great Britain, receiving from King Edward the
grand cross of the order of St Michael and St George, and being
raised by the mikado to the rank of marquess. He resigned the
premiership in 1905 to Marquess Saionji, but was again invited
to form a cabinet in 1908. Marquess Katsura might be con-
sidered the chief exponent of conservative views in Japan.
Adhering strictly to the doctrine that ministries were respon-
sible to the emperor alone and not at all to the diet, he stood
wholly aloof from political parties, only his remarkable gift of
tact and conciliation enabling him to govern on such principles.
KATTERFELTO (or KATERFELTO), GUSTAVUS (d. 1799),
quack doctor and conjurer, was born in Prussia. About 1782
he came to London, where his advertisements in the newspapers,
headed " Wonders! Wonders! Wonders!" enabled him to
trade most profitably upon the credulity of the public during the
widespread influenza epidemic of that year. His public enter-
tainment, which, besides conjuring, included electrical and
chemical experiments and demonstrations with the microscope,
extracted a flattering testimonial from the royal family, who
witnessed it in 1784. The poet William Cowper refers to
Katterfelto in The Task; he became notorious for a long tour
he undertook, exciting marvel by his conjuring performances.
KATTOWITZ, a town in the Prussian province of Silesia, on
the Rawa, near the Russian frontier, 5 m. S.E. from Beuthen by
rail. Pop. (1875), 11,352; (1905), 35,772. There are large iron-
works, foundries and machine shops in the town, and near it
zinc and anthracite mines. The growth of Kattowitz, like that
of other places in the same district, has been very rapid, owing
to the development of the mineral resources of the neighbour-
hood. In 1815 it was a mere village, and became a town in 1867.
It has monuments to the emperors William I. and Frederick III.
See G. Hoffmann, Geschichte der Stadt Kattowitz (Kattowitz, 1895).
KATWA, or CUTWA, a town of British India, in Burdwan
district, Bengal, situated at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and
Ajai rivers. Pop. (1901), 7220. It was the residence of many
wealthy merchants, but its commercial importance has declined
as it is without railway communication and the difficulties of
the river navigation have increased. It was formerly regarded
as the key to Murshidabad. The old fort, of which scarcely a
vestige remains, is noted as the scene of the defeat of the
Mahrattas by Ali Vardi Khan.
KATYDID, the name given to certain North American insects,
belonging to the family Locustidae, and related to the green or
tree grasshoppers of England. As in other members of the
family, the chirrup, alleged to resemble the words " Katydid,"
is produced by the friction of a file on the underside of the left
forewing over a ridge on the upperside of the right. Several
species, belonging mostly to the genera Microcentonus and
Cyrtophallus, are known.
KAUFBEUREN, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the
Wertach, 55 m. S.W. of Munich by rail. Pop. (1905), 8955.
Kaufbeuren is still surrounded by its medieval walls and presents
a picturesque appearance. It has a handsome town hall with
fine paintings, an old tower (the Hexenturm, or witches' tower),
a museum and various educational institutions. The most
interesting of the ecclesiastical buildings is the chapel of St
Blasius, which was restored in 1896. The chief industries are
cotton spinning, weaving, bleaching, dyeing, printing, machine
building and lithography, and there is an active trade in wine,
beer and cheese. Kaufbeuren is said to have been founded in
842, and is first mentioned in chronicles of the year 1126. It
appears to have become a free imperial city about 1288, retain-
ing the dignity until 1803, when it passed to Bavaria. It was
formerly a resort of pilgrims, and Roman coins have been found
in the vicinity.
See F. Stieve,Z>ie Reichsstadt Kaufbeurenund diebayrische Restaura-
tionspolitik (Munich, 1870); and Schroder, Geschichte der Stadt und
Katholischen Pfarrei Kaufbeuren (Augsburg, 1903).
KAUFFMANN, [MARIA ANNA] ANGELICA (1741-1807), the
once popular artist and Royal Academician, was born at Coire in
the Grisons, on the 3oth of October 1741. Her father, John
Josef Kauffmann, was a poor man and mediocre painter, but
apparently very successful in teaching his precocious daughter.
She rapidly acquired several languages, read incessantly, and
showed marked talents as a musician. Her greatest progress,
however, was in painting; and in her twelfth year she had become
a notability, with bishops and nobles for her sitters. In 1754.
her father took her to Milan. Later visits to Italy of long dura-
tion appear to have succeeded this excursion; in 1763 she visited
Rome, returning to it again in 1764. From Rome she passed to
Bologna and Venice, being everywhere feted and caressed, as
much for her talents as for her personal charms. Writing from
Rome in August 1764 to his friend Franke, Winckelmann refers
to her exceptional popularity. She was then painting his picture,
a half-length, of which she also made an etching. She spoke
Italian as well as German, he says; and she also expressed her-
self with facility in French and English — one result of the last-
named accomplishment being that she painted all the English
visitors to the Eternal City. " She may be styled beautiful,"
he adds, " and in singing may vie with our best virtuosi." While
at Venice, she was induced by Lady Wentworth, the wife of the
English ambassador to accompany her to London, where she
appeared in 1766. One of her first works was a portrait of
Garrick, exhibited in the year of her arrival at " Mr Moreing's
great room in Maiden Lane." The rank of Lady Wentworth
opened society to her, and she was everywhere well received, the
royal family especially showing her great favour.
Her firmest friend, however, was Sir Joshua Reynolds. In his
pocket-book her name as " Miss Angelica " or " Miss Angel "
appears frequently, and in 1766 he painted her, a compliment
which she returned by her " Portrait of Sir Joshua Reynolds,"
aetat. 46. Another instance of her intimacy with Reynolds is
to be found in the variation of Guercino's " Et in Arcadia ego "
produced by her at this date, a subject which Reynolds repeated
a few years later in his portrait of Mrs Bouverie and Mrs Crewe.
When, about November 1767, she was entrapped into a clandes-
tine marriage with an adventurer who passed for a Swedish count
[the Count de Horn) Reynolds befriended her, and it was doubt-
less owing to his good offices that her name is found among the
signatories to the famous petition to the king for the establish-
ment of the Royal Academy. In its first catalogue of 1 769 she
appears with "R.A." after her name (an honour which she shared
698
KAUFMANN, C. P.— KAULBACH
with another lady and compatriot, Mary Moser) ; and she con-
tributed the " Interview of Hector and Andromache," and three
other classical compositions. From this time until 1782 she was
an annual exhibitor, sending sometimes as many as seven
pictures, generally classic or allegorical subjects. One of the
most notable of her performances was- the " Leonardo expiring
in the Arms of Francis the First," which belongs to the year
1778. In 1773 she was appointed by the Academy with others
to decorate St Paul's, and it was she who, with Biagio Rebecca,
painted the Academy's old lecture room at Somerset House. It
is probable that her popularity declined a little in consequence of
her unfortunate marriage; but in 1781, after her first husband's
death (she had been long separated from him), she married
Antonio Zucchi (1728-1795), a Venetian artist then resident in
England. Shortly afterwards she retired to Rome, where she
lived for twenty-five years with much of her old prestige. In
1782 she lost her father; and in 1795 — the year in which she
painted the picture of Lady Hamilton — her husband. She
continued at intervals to contribute to the Academy, her last
exhibit being m 1797. After this she produced little, and in
November 1807 she died, being honoured by a splendid funeral
under the direction of Canova. The entire Academy of St Luke,
with numerous ecclesiastics and virtuosi, followed her to her
tomb in S. Andrea delle Fratte, and, as at the burial of Raphael,
two of her best pictures were carried in procession.
The works of Angelica Kauffmann have not retained their reputa-
tion. She had a certain gift of grace, and considerable skill in
composition. But her drawing is weak and faulty; her figures lack
variety and expression; and her men are masculine women. Her
colouring, however, is fairly enough defined by Waagen's term
" cheerful." Rooms decorated by her brush are still to be seen in
various quarters. At Hampton Court is a portrait of the duchess
of Brunswick; in the National Portrait Gallery, a portrait of herself.
There are other pictures by her at Paris, at Dresden, in the Hermitage
at St Petersburg, and in the Alte Pinakothek at Munich. The
Munich example is another portrait of herself; and there is a third
in the Uffizi at Florence. A few of her works in private collections
have been exhibited among the " Old Masters " at Burlington House.
.But she is perhaps best known by the numerous engravings from her
designs by Schiavonetti, Bartolozzi and others. Those by Bartolozzi
especially still find considerable favour with collectors. Her life
was written in 1810 by Giovanni de Rossi. It has also been used
as the basis of a romance by L6on de Wailly, 1838; and it prompted
the charming novel contributed by Mrs Richmond Ritchie to the
Cornhill Magazine in 1875 under the title of " Miss Angel. "
(A. D.)
KAUFMANN, CONSTANTINE PETROVICH (1818-1882),
Russian general, was born at Maidani on the 3rd of March 1818.
He entered the engineer branch in 1838, served in the campaigns
in the Caucasus, rose to be colonel, and commanded the sappers
and miners at the siege of Kars in 1855. On the capitulation of
Kars he was deputed to settle the terms with General Sir W.
Fenwick Williams. In 1861 he became director-general of
engineers at the War Office, assisting General Milutin in the
reorganization of the army. Promoted lieut. -general in 1864,
he was nominated aide-de-camp-general and governor of the
military conscription of Vilna. In 1867 he became governor
of Turkestan, and held the post until his death, making himself
a name in the expansion of the empire in central Asia. He
accomplished a successful campaign in 1868 against Bokhara,
capturing Samarkand and gradually subjugating the whole
country. In 1873 he attacked Khiva, took the capital, and
forced the khan to become a vassal of Russia. Then followed
in 1875 the campaign against Khokand, in which Kaufmann
defeated the khan, Nasr-ed-din. Khokand north of the Syr-
daria was annexed to Russia, and the independence of the rest
of the country became merely nominal. This rapid absorption
of the khanates brought Russia into close proximity to Afghani-
stan, and the reception of Kaufmann's emissaries by the Amir
was a main cause of the British war with Afghanistan in 1878.
Although Kaufmann was unable to induce his government to
support all his ambitious schemes of further conquest, he sent
Skobeleff in 1880 and 1881 against the Akhal Tekkes, and was
arranging to add Merv to his annexations when he died suddenly
at Tashkend on the isth of May 1882.
KAUKAUNA, a city of Outagamie county, Wisconsin, U.S.A.,
on the Fox river 7 m. N.E. of Appletou and about zoo m. N. of
Milwaukee. Pop. (1900), 5115, of whom 1044 were foreign-
born (1905) 4991; (1910) 4717. Kaukauna is served by the
Chicago & North-Western railway (which has car-shops here),
by inter-urban electric railway lines connecting with other cities
in the Fox river, valley, and by river steamboats. It has a
Carnegie library, a hospital and manufactories of pulp, paper,
lumber and woodenware. Dams on the Fox River furnish a
good water-power. The city owns its water-works. A small
settlement of Indian traders was made here as early as 1820; in
1830 a Presbyterian mission was established, but the growth of
the place was slow, and the city was not chartered until 1885.
KAULBACH, WILHELM VON (1805-1874), German painter,
was born in Westphalia on the i5th of October 1805. His father,
who was poor, combined painting with the goldsmith's trade,
but- means were found to place Wilhelm, a youth of seventeen,
in the art academy of Diisseldorf, then becoming renowned under
the directorship of Peter von Cornelius. Young Kaulbach con-
tended against hardships, even hunger. But his courage never
failed; and, uniting genius with industry, he was ere long fore-
most among the young national party which sought to revive
the arts of Germany. The ambitious work by which Louis I.
sought to transform Munich into a German Athens afforded the
young painter an appropriate sphere. Cornelius had been com-
missioned to execute the enormous frescoes in the Glyptothek,
and his custom was in the winters, with the aid of Kaulbach and
others, to complete the cartoons at Diisseldorf, and in the sum-
mers, accompanied by his best scholars, to carry out the designs
in colour on the museum walls in Munich. But in 1824 Cornelius
became director of the Bavarian academy. Kaulbach, not yet
twenty, followed, took up his permanent residence in Munich,
laboured hard on the public works, executed independent com-
missions, and in 1849, when Cornelius left for Berlin, succeeded
to the directorship of the academy, an office which he held till
his death on the 7th of April 1874. His son Hermann (1846-
1909) also became a distinguished painter.
Kaulbach matured, after the example of the masters of the
Middle Ages, the practice of mural or monumental decoration;
he once more conjoined painting with architecture, and displayed
a creative fertility and readiness of resource scarcely found since
the era of Raphael and Michelangelo. Early in the series of his
multitudinous works came the famous Narrenhaus, the appalling
memories of a certain madhouse near Diisseldorf; the composi-
tion all the more deserves mention for points of contact with
Hogarth. Somewhat to the same category belong the illustra-
tions to Reineke Fuchs. These, together with occasional figures
or passages in complex pictorial dramas, show how dominant
and irrepressible were the artist's sense of satire and enjoyment
of fun; character in its breadth and sharpness is depicted with
keenest relish, and at times the sardonic smile bursts into the
loudest laugh. Thus occasionally the grotesque degenerates
into the vulgar, the grand into the ridiculous, as in the satire on
" the Pigtail Age " in a fresco outside the New Pinakothek. Yet
these exceptional extravagances came not of weakness but from
excess of power. Kaulbach tried hard to become Grecian and
Italian; but he never reached Phidias or Raphael; in short the
blood of Diirer, Holbein and Martin Schongauer ran strong in
his veins. The art products in Munich during the middle of the
1 9th century were of a quantity to preclude first-rate quality,
and Kaulbach contracted a fatal facility in covering wall and
canvas by the acre. He painted in the Hofgarten, the Odeon,
the Palace and on the external walls of the New Pinakothek.
His perspicuous and showy manner also gained him abundant
occupation as a book illustrator: in the pages of the poets his
fancy revelled; he was glad to take inspiration from Wieland,
Goethe, even Klopstock; among his engraved designs are the
Shakespeare gallery, the Goethe gallery and a folio edition of
the Gospels. With regard to these examples of " the Munich
school," it was asserted that Kaulbach had been unfortunate
alike in having found Cornelius for a master and King Louis for
a patron, that he attempted" subjects far beyond him, believing
KAUNITZ-RIETBURG
699
that his admiration for them was the same as inspiration";
and supplied the lack of real imagination by " a compound of
intellect and fancy."
Nevertheless in such compositions as the Destruction of
Jerusalem and the Battle of the Huns Kaulbach shows creative
imagination. As a dramatic poet he tells the story, depicts
character, seizes on action and situation, and thus as it were
takes the spectator by storm. The manner may be occasionally
noisy and ranting, but the effect after its kind is tremendous.
The cartoon, which, as usual in modern German art, is superior
to the ultimate picture, was executed in the artist's prime at the
age of thirty. At this period, as here seen, the knowledge was
little short of absolute; subtle is the sense of beauty; playful,
delicate, firm the touch; the whole treatment artistic.
Ten or more years were devoted to what the Germans term a
" cyclus " — a series of pictures depicting the Tower of Babel,
the Age of Homer, the Destruction of Jerusalem, the Battle of
the Huns, the Crusades and the Reformation. These major
tableaux, severally 30 ft. long, and each comprising over one
hundred figures above life-size, are surrounded by minor com-
positions making more than twenty in all. The idea is to
congregate around the world's historic dramas the prime agents
of civilization; thus here are assembled allegoric figures of Archi-
tecture and other arts, of Science and other kingdoms of know-
ledge, together with lawgivers from the time of Moses, not for-
getting Frederick the Great. The chosen situation for this
imposing didactic and theatric display is the Treppenhaus or
grand staircase in the new museum, Berlin; the surface is a
granulated, absorbent wall, specially prepared; the technical
method is that known as " water-glass," or " liquid flint," the
infusion of silica securing permanence. The same medium was
adopted in the later wall-pictures in the Houses of Parliament,
Westminster.
The painter's last period brings no new departure; his ultimate
works stand conspicuous by exaggerations of early character-
istics. The series of designs illustrative of Goethe, which had
an immense success, were melodramatic and pandered to popular
taste. The vast canvas, more than 30 ft. long, the Sea Fight
at Salamis, painted for the Maximilianeum, Munich, evinces
wonted imagination and facility in composition; the handling
also retains its largeness and vigour; but in this astounding scenic
uproar moderation and the simplicity of nature are thrown to
the winds, and the whole atmosphere is hot and feverish.
Kaulbach's was a beauty-loving art. He is not supreme as a
colourist; he belongs in fact to a school that holds colour in sub-
ordination; but he laid, in common with the great masters, the sure
foundation of his art in form and composition. Indeed, the science
of composition has seldom if ever been so clearly understood or worked
out with equal complexity and exactitude; the constituent lines, the
relation of the parts to the whole, are brought into absolute agree-
ment ; in modern Germany painting and music have trodden parallel
paths, and Kaulbach is musical in the melody and harmony of his
compositions. His narrative too is lucid, and moves as a stately
march or royal triumph ; the sequence of the figures is unbroken ; the
arrangement of the groups accords with even literary form; the
picture falls into incident, episode, dialogue, action, plot, as a drama.
The style is eclectic ; in the Age of Homer the types and the treat-
ment are derived from Greek marbles and vases ; then in the Tower
of Babel the severity of the antique gives place to the suavity of the
Italian renaissance ; while in the Crusades the composition is let loose
into modern romanticism, and so the manner descends into the midst
of the igth century. And yet this scholastically compounded art
is so nicely adjusted and smoothly blended that it casts off all incon-
gruity and becomes homogeneous as the issue of one mind. But a
fickle public craved for change; and so the great master in later years
waned in favour, and had to witness, not without inquietude, the
rise of an opposing party of naturalism and realism. (J. B. A.)
KAUNITZ-RIETBURG, WENZEL ANTON, PRINCE VON (1711-
1794), Austrian chancellor and diplomatist, was born at Vienna
on the 2nd of February 1711. His father, Max Ulrich,was the
third count of Kaunitz, and married an heiress, Maria Ernestine
Franziska von Rietburg. The family was ancient, and was
believed to have been of Slavonic origin in Moravia. Wenzel
Anton, being a second son, was designed for the church, but on
the death of his elder brother he was trained for the law and for
diplomacy, at Vienna, Leipzig and Leiden, and by travel. His
family had served the Habsburgs with some distinction, and
Kaunitz had no difficulty in obtaining employment. In 1735
he was a Reichshofralh. When the Emperor Charles VI. died
in 1740, he is said to have hesitated before deciding to support
Maria Theresa. If so, his hesitation did not last long, and left
no trace on his loyalty. From 1742 to 1744 he was minister at
Turin, and in the latter year was sent as minister with the Arch-
duke Charles of Lorraine, the governor of Belgium. He was
therefore an eye-witness of the campaigns in which Marshal Saxe
overran Belgium. At this time he was extremely discouraged,
and sought for his recall. But he had earned the approval of
Maria Theresa, who sent him as representative of Austria to the
peace congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. His tenacity and
dexterity established his reputation as a diplomatist. He con-
firmed his hold on the regard and confidence of the empress by
the line he took after the conclusion of the peace. In 1749 Maria
Theresa appealed to all her counsellors for advice as to the policy
Austria ought to pursue in view of the changed conditions pro-
duced by the rise of Prussia. The great majority of them,
including her husband Francis I., were of opinion that the old
alliance with the sea Powers, England and Holland, should be
maintained. Kaunitz, either because he was really persuaded
that the old policy must be given up, or because he saw that the
dominating idea in the mind of Maria Theresa was the recovery
of Silesia, gave it as his opinion that Frederick was now the
"most wicked and dangerous enemy of Austria," that it was
hopeless to expect the support of Protestant nations against
him, and that the only way of recovering Silesia was by an
alliance with Russia and France. The empress eagerly accepted
views which were already her own, and entrusted the adviser
with the execution of his own plans. An ambassador to France
from 1750 to 1752, and after 1753 as " house, court and state
chancellor," Kaunitz laboured successfully to bring about the
alliance which led to the Seven Years' War. It was considered
a great feat of diplomacy, and established Kaunitz as the recog-
nized master of the art. His triumph was won in spite of per-
sonal defects and absurdities which would have ruined most
men. Kaunitz had manias rarely found in company with
absolute sanity. He would not hear of death, nor approach a
sick man. He refused to visit his dying master Joseph II. for
two whole years. He would not breathe fresh air. On the
warmest summer day he kept a handkerchief over his mouth
when out of doors, and his only exercise was riding under glass,
which he did every morning for exactly the same number of
minutes. He relaxed from his work in the company of a small
dependent society of sycophants and buffoons. He was con-
sumed by a solemn, garrulous and pedantic vanity. When in
1770 he met Frederick the Great at Mahrisch-Neustadt, he came
with a summary of political principles, which he called a cate-
chism, in his pocket, and assured the king that he must be allowed
to speak without interruption. When Frederick, whose interest
it was to humour him, promised to listen quietly, Kaunitz rolled
his mind out for two hours, and went away with the firm con-
viction that he had at last enlightened the inferior intellect of
the king of Prussia as to what politics really were. Within a
very short time Frederick had completely deceived and out-
manoeuvred him. With all his pomposity and conceit, Kaunitz
was astute, he was laborious and orderly; when his advice was
not taken he would carry out the wishes of his masters, while no
defeat ever damped his pertinacity.
To tell his history from 1750 till his retirement in 1792 would
be to tell part of the internal history of Austria, and all the inter-
national politics of eastern and central Europe. His governing
principle was to forward the interests of " the august house of
Austria," a phrase sometimes repeated at every few lines of his
despatches. In internal affairs he in 1758 recommended, and
helped to promote, a simplification of the confused and sub-
divided Austrian administration. But his main concern was
always with diplomacy and foreign policy. Here he strove with
untiring energy, and no small measure of success, to extend the
Austrian dominions. After the Seven Years' War he endea-
voured to avoid great risks, and sought to secure his ends by
700
KAUP— KAVADH
alliances, exchanges and claims professing to have a legal basis,
and justified at enormous length by arguments both pedantic
and hypocritical. The French Revolution had begun to alter
all the relations of the Powers before his retirement. He never
understood its full meaning. Yet the circular despatch which
he addressed to the ambassadors of the emperor on the lyth of
July 1794 contains the first outlines of Metternich's policy of
" legitimacy," and the first proposal for the combined action of
the powers, based on the full recognition of one another's rights,
to defend themselves against subversive principles. Kaunitz
died at his house, the Garten Palast, near Vienna, on the 27th
of June 1794. He married on the 6th of May 1736, Maria
Ernestine von Starhemberg, who died on the 6th of September
1754. Four sons were born of the marriage.
See Hormayr, Oesterreichischer Plutarch (Vienna, 1823), for a
biographical sketch based on personal knowledge. Also see Brunner,
Joseph II.: Correspondence avec Gobcnzl et Kaunitz (Mayence, 1871) ;
A. Beer, Joseph II., Leopold II. und Kaunitz (Vienna, 1873).
KAUP, JOHANN JAKOB (1803-1873), German naturalist,
was born at Darmstadt on the roth of April 1803. After study-
ing at Gottingen and Heidelberg he spent two years at Leiden,
where his attention was specially devoted to the amphibians
and fishes. He then returned to Darmstadt as an assistant in
the grand ducal museum, of which in 1840 he became inspector.
In 1829 he published Skizze zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der
europaischen Thierwclt, in which he regarded the animal world
as developed from lower to higher forms, from the amphibians
through the birds to the beasts of prey; but subsequently he
repudiated this work as a youthful indiscretion, and on the
publication of Darwin's Origin of Species he declared himself
against its doctrines. The extensive fossil deposits in the neigh-
bourhood of Darmstadt gave him ample opportunities for
palaeontological inquiries, and he gained considerable reputation
by his Beitrdge zur ndheren Kenntniss der unueltlichen Sdugethiere
(1855-1862). He also wrote Classification der Sdugethiere und
Vogel (1844), and, with H. G. Brown (1800-1862) of Heidelberg,
Die Gavial-artigen Reste aus dem Lias (1842-1844). He died at
Darmstadt on the 4th of July 1873.
KAURI PINE, in botany, Agathis auslralis, a conifer native
of New Zealand where it is abundant in forests in the North
Island between the North Cape and 38° south latitude. The
forests are rapidly disappearing owing to use as timber and to
destruction by fires. It is a tall resiniferous tree, usually ranging
from 80 to 100 ft. in height, with a trunk 4 to 10 ft. in diameter,
but reaching 1 50 ft., with a diameter of 1 5 to 22 ft. ; it has a straight
columnar trunk and a rounded bushy head. The thick resini-
ferous bark falls off in large flat flakes. The leaves, which per-
sist for several years, are very thick and leathery; on young trees
they are lance-shaped 2 to 4 in. long and 4 to J in. broad, becom-
ing on mature trees linear-oblong or obovate-oblong and J to ij
in. long. The ripe cones are almost spherical, erect, and 2 to 3
in. in diameter; the broad, flat, rather thin cone-scales fall from
the axis when ripe. Each scale bears a single compressed seed
with a membranous wing. The timber is remarkable for its
strength, durability and the ease with which it is worked. The
resin, kauri- gum, is an amber-like deposit dug in large quantities
from the sites of previous forests, in lumps generally vary-
ing in size from that of a hen's egg to that of a man's head.
The colour is of a rich brown or amber yellow, or it may be
almost colourless and translucent. It is of value for varnish-
making.
KAVA (CAVA or AVA), an intoxicating, but non-alcoholic
beverage, produced principally in the islands of the South
Pacific, from the roots or leaves of a variety of the pepper plant
(Piper methysticum) . The method of preparation is somewhat
peculiar. The roots or leaves are first chewed by young girls or
boys, care being taken that only those possessing sound teeth
and excellent general health shall take part in this operation.
The chewed material is then placed in a bowl, and water or
coco-nut milk is poured over it, the whole is well stirred, and
subsequently the woody matter is removed by an ingenious but
simple mechanical manipulation. The resulting liquid, which
has a muddy or cafe-au-lait appearance, or is of a greenish hue if
made from leaves, is now ready for consumption. The taste of
the liquid is at first sweet, and then pungent and acrid. The
usual dose corresponds to about two mouthfuls of the root.
Intoxication (but this apparently only applies to those not
inured to the use of the liquor) follows in about twenty minutes.
The drunkenness produced by kava is of a melancholy, silent and
drowsy character. Excessive drinking is said to lead t'o skin
and other diseases, but per contra many medicinal virtues are
ascribed to the preparation. There appears to be little doubt
that the active principle in this beverage is a poison of an alka-
loidal nature. It seems likely that this substance is not present
as such (i.e. as a free alkaloid) in the plant, but that it exists in
the form of a glucoside, and that by the process of chewing this
glucoside is split up by one of the ferments in the saliva into the
free alkaloid and sugar.
See Pharm. Journ. iii. 474; iv. 85; ix. 219; vii. 149; Comptes
Rendus, 1. 436, 598; Iii. 206; Journ. de Pharm. (1860) 20; (1862) 218;
Seeman, Flora Vitiensis, 260; Beachy, Voyage of the " Blossom,"
ii. 120.
KAVADH (KABADES, KAUADES), a Persian name which occurs
first in the mythical history of the old Iranian kingdom as Kai
Kobadh (Kaikobad). It was borne by two kings of the Sassanid
dynasty.
(i) KAVADH I., son of Peroz, crowned by the nobles in 488
in place of his uncle Balash, who was deposed and blinded. At
this time the empire was utterly disorganized by the invasion of
the Ephthalites or White Huns from the east. After one of
their victories against Peroz, Kavadh had been a hostage among
them during two years, pending the payment of a heavy ran-
som. In 484 Peroz had been defeated and slain with his whole
army. Balash was not able to restore the royal authority.
The hopes of the magnates and high priests that Kavadh would
suit their purpose were soon disappointed. Kavadh gave his
support to the communistic sect founded by Mazdak, son of
Bamdad, who demanded that the rich should divide their wives
and their wealth with the poor. His intention evidently was,
by adopting the doctrine of the Mazdakites, to break the influ-
ence of the magnates. But in 496 he was deposed and incar-
cerated in the " Castle of Oblivion (Lethe) " in Susiana, and his
brother Jamasp (Zamaspes) was raised to the throne. Kavadh,
however, escaped and found refuge with the Ephthalites, whose
king gave him his daughter in marriage and aided him to return
to Persia. In 499 he became king again and punished his oppo-
nents. He had to pay a tribute to the Ephthalites and applied
for subsidies to Rome, which had before supported the Persians.
But now the emperor Anastasius refused subsidies, expecting
that the two rival powers of the East would exhaust one another
in war. At the same time he intervened in the affairs of the
Persian part of Armenia. So Kavadh joined the Ephthalites
and began war against the Romans. In 502 he took Theodosio-
polis in Armenia, in 503 Amida (Diarbekr) on the Tigris. In 505
an invasion of Armenia by the western Huns from the Caucasus
led to an armistice, during which the Romans paid subsidies to
the Persians for the maintenance of the fortifications on the
Caucasus. When Justin I. (518-527) came to the throne the
conflict began anew. The Persian vassal, Mondhir of Hira,
laid waste Mesopotamia and slaughtered the monks and
nuns. In 531 Belisarius was beaten at Callinicum. Shortly
afterwards Kavadh died, at the age of eighty-two, in September
531. During his last years his favourite son Chosroes had had
great influence over him and had been proclaimed successor.
He also induced Kavadh to break with the Mazdakites, whose
doctrine had spread widely and caused great social confusion
throughout Persia. In 529 they were refuted in a theological
discussion held before the throne of the king by the orthodox
Magians, and were slaughtered and persecuted everywhere;
Mazdak himself was hanged. Kavadh evidently was, as Pro-
copius (Pers. i. 6) calls him, an unusually clear-sighted and ener-
getic ruler. Although he could not free himself from the yoke
of the Ephthalites, he succeeded in restoring order in the interior
and fought with success against the Romans. He built some
KAVALA— KAVIRONDO
701
towns which were named after him, and began to regulate the
taxation.
(2) KAVADH II. SHEROE (Siroes), son of Chosroes II., was raised
to the throne in opposition to his father in February 628, after
the great victories of the emperor Heraclius. He put his father
and eighteen brothers to death, began negotiations with Hera-
clius, but died after a reign of a few months. (Eo. M.)
KAVALA, or CAVALLA, a walled town and seaport of European
Turkey in the vilayet of Salonica, on the Bay of Kavala, an inlet
of the Aegean Sea. Pop. (1905), about 5000. Kavala is built
on a promontory stretching south into the bay, and opposite the
island of Thasos. There is a harbour on each side of the pro-
montory. The resident population is increased in summer by an
influx of peasantry, of whom during the season 5000 to 6000 are
employed in curing tobacco and preparing it for export. The
finest Turkish tobacco is grown in the district, and shipped to
all parts of Europe and America, to the annual value of about
£1,250,000. Mehemet Ali was born here in 1769, and founded a
Turkish school which still exists. His birthplace, an unpreten-
tious little house in one of the tortuous older streets, can be dis-
tinguished by the tablet which the municipal authorities have
affixed to its front wall. Numerous Roman remains have been
found in the neighbourhood, of which the chief is the large
aqueduct on two tiers of arches which still serves to supply the
town and dilapidated citadel with water from Mount Pangeus.
Kavala has been identified with Neapolis, at which St Paul landed
on his way from Samothrace to Philippi (Acts xvi. ll). Neapolis
was the port of Philippi, as Kavala now is of Seres; in the bay
on which it stands the fleet of Brutus and Cassius was stationed
during the battle of Philippi. Some authorities identify Neapolis
with Datum (Airoc), mentioned by Herodotus as famous for its
gold mines.
KAVANAGH, ARTHUR MACMORROUGH (1831-1889), Irish
politician, son of Thomas Kavanagh, M.P., who traced his
descent to the ancient kings of Leinster, was born in Co. Carlow,
Ireland, on the 2Sth of March 1831. He had only the rudiments
of arms and legs, but in spite of these physical defects had a
remarkable career. He learnt to ride in the most fearless way,
strapped to a special saddle, and managing the horse with the
stumps of his arms; and also fished, shot, drew and wrote,
various mechanical contrivances being devised to supplement
his limited physical capacities. He travelled extensively in
Egypt, Asia Minor, Persia and India between 1846 and 1853,
and after succeeding to the family estates in the latter year, he
marriedin 1855 his cousin, Miss Frances Mary Leathley. Assisted
by his wife, he was a most philanthropic landlord, and was an
active county magistrate and chairman of the board of guardians.
A Conservative and a Protestant, he sat in Parliament for Co.
Wexford from 1866 to 1868, and for Co. Carlow from 1868 to
1880. He was opposed to the disestablishment of the Irish
Church, but supported the Land Act of 1870, and sat on the
Bessborough Commission. In 1886 he was made a member of
the Privy Council in Ireland. He died of pneumonia on the
25th of December 1889, in London. It is supposed that his
extraordinary career suggested the idea of " Lucas Malet's "
novel, The History of Sir Richard Calmady.
KAVANAGH, JULIA (1824-1877), British novelist, was born
at Thurles in Tipperary, Ireland, in 1824. She was the daughter
of Morgan Peter Kavanagh (d. 1874), author of various worthless
philological works and some poems. Julia spent several years
of her early life with her parents in Normandy, laying there the
foundation of a mastery of the French language and insight into
French modes of thought, which was perfected by her later
frequent and long residences in France. Miss Kavanagh's
literary career began with her arrival in London about 1844, and
her uneventful life affords few incidents to the biographer. Her
first book was Three Paths (1847), a story for the young; but her
first work to attract notice was Madeleine, a Tale of Auvergne
(1848). Other books followed: A Summer and Winter in the
Two Sicilies (1858); French Women of Letters (1862); English
Women of Letters (1862); Woman in France during the i8lh
Century (1850); and Women of Christianity (1852). The scenes
of her stories are almost always laid in France, and she handles
her French themes with fidelity and skill. Her style is simple
and pleasing rather than striking; and her characters are
interesting without being strongly individualized. Her most
popular novels were perhaps Adele (1857), Queen Mab (1863),
and John Dorrien (1875). On the outbreak of the Franco-
German War Julia Kavanagh removed with her mother from
Paris to Rouen. She died at Nice on the 28th of October 1877.
KAVASS, or CAVASS (adapted from the Turkish qaivwas, a
bow-maker; Arabic qaws, a bow), a Turkish name for an armed
police-officer; also for a courier such as it is usual to engage when
travelling in Turkey.
KAVIRONDO, a people of British East Africa, who dwell in
the valley of the Nzoia River, on the western slopes of Mount
Elgon, and along the north-east coast of Victoria Nyanza.
Kavirondo is the general name of two distinct groups of tribes,
one Bantu and the other Nilotic. Both groups are immigrants,
the Bantu from the south, the Nilotic from the north. The
Bantu appear to have been the first comers. The Nilotic tribes,
probably an offshoot of the Acholi (q.v.), appear to have crossed
the lake to reach their present home, the country around
Kavirondo Gulf. Of the two groups the Bantu now occupy a
more northerly position than their neighbours, and " are
practically the most northerly representatives of that race "
(Hobley). Their further progress north was stopped by the
southward movement of the Nilotic tribes, while the Nilotic
Kavirondo in their turn had their wanderings arrested by an
irruption of Elgumi people from the east. The Elgumi are
themselves probably of Nilotic origin. Both groups of Kavi-
rondo are physically fine, the Nilotic stock appearing more
virile than the Bantu. The Bantu Kavirondo are divided into
three principal types — the Awa-Rimi, the Awa-Ware and the
Awa-Kisii. By the Nilotic Kavirondo their Bantu neighbours
are known as Ja-Mwa. The generic name for the Nilotic tribes
is Ja-Luo. The Bantu Kavirondo call them Awa-Nyoro. The
two groups have many characteristics in common. A charac-
teristic feature of the people is their nakedness. Among the
Nilotic Kavirondo married men who are fathers wear a small
piece of goat-skin, which though practically useless as a covering
must be worn according to tribal etiquette. Even among men
who have adopted European clothing this goat-skin must still
be worn underneath. Contact with whites has led to the
adoption of European clothing by numbers of the men, but the
women, more conservative, prefer nudity or the scanty covering
which they wore before the advent of Europeans. Among the
Bantu Kavirondo married women wear a short fringe of black
string in front and a tassel of banana fibre suspended from a
girdle behind, this tassel having at a distance the appearance
of a tail. Hence the report of early travellers as to a tailed race
in Africa. The Nilotic Kavirondo women wear the tail, but
dispense with the fringe in front. For " dandy " they wear a
goat-skin slung over the shoulders. Some of the Bantu tribes
practise circumcision, the Nilotic tribes do not. Patterns are
tattooed on chest and stomach for ornament. Men, even
husbands, are forbidden to touch the women's tails, which must
be worn even should any other clothing be wrapped round the
body. The Kavirondo are noted for their independent and
pugnacious nature, their honesty and their sexual morality,
traits particularly marked among the Bantu tribes. There are
more women than men, and thus the Kavirondo are naturally
inclined towards polygamy. Among the Bantu tribes a man has
the refusal of all the younger sisters of his wife as they attain
puberty. Practically no woman lives unmarried all her life,
for if no suitor seeks her, she singles out a man and offers herself
to him at a " reduced price," an offer usually accepted, as the
women are excellent agricultural labourers. The Nilotic
Kavirondo incline to exogamy, endeavouring always to marry
outside their clan. Girls are betrothed at six or seven, and the
husband-elect continually makes small presents co his father-
in-law-elect till the bride reaches womanhood. It is regarded
as shameful if the girl be not found a virgin on her wedding day.
She is sent back to her parents, who have to return the marriage
702
KAW— KAY
price, and pay a fine. The wife's adultery was formerly
punished with death, and the capital penalty was also inflicted
on young men and girls guilty of unchastity. Among the Bantu
Kavirondo the usual minimum price for a wife is forty hoes,
twenty goats and one cow, paid in instalments. The Nilotic
Kavirondo pay twenty sheep and two to six cows; the husband-
elect can claim his bride when he has made half payment. If
a woman dies without bearing children, the amount of her pur-
chase is returnable by her father, unless the widower consents
to replace her by another sister. The women are prolific and
the birth of twins is common. This is considered a lucky event,
and is celebrated by feasting and dances. Among the Bantu
Kavirondo the mother of twins must remain in her hut for seven
days. Among the Nilotic Kavirondo the parents and the
infants must stay in the hut for a whole month. If a Bantu
mother has lost two children in succession the next child born
is taken out at dawn and placed on the road, where it is left till
a neighbour, usually a woman friend who has gone that way on
purpose, picks it up. She takes it to its mother who gives a
goat in return. A somewhat similar custom prevails among the
Nilotic tribes. Names are not male and female, and a daughter
often bears her father's name.
The Kavirondo bury their dead. Among one of the Bantu tribes,
the Awa-Kisesa, a chief is buried in the floor of his own hut in a
sitting position, but at such a depth that the head protrudes. Over
the head an earthenware pot is placed, and his principal wives have
to remain in the hut till the flesh is eaten by ants or decomposes,
when the skull is removed and buried close to the hut. Later the
skeleton is unearthed, and reburied with much ceremony in _the
sacred burial place of the tribe. Married women of the Bantu tribes
are buried in their hut lying on their right side with legs doubled
up, the hut being then deserted. Among the Nilotic tribes the
grave is dug beneath the verandah of the nut. Men of the Bantu
tribes are buried in an open space in the midst of their huts; in the
Nilotic tribes, if the first wife of the deceased be alive he is buried
in her hut, if not, beneath the verandah of the hut in which he died.
A child is buried near the door of its mother's hut. A sign of mourn-
ing is a cord of banana fibre worn round the neck and waist. A chief
chooses, sometimes years before his death, one of his sons to succeed
him, often giving a brass bracelet as insignia. A man's property is
divided equally among his children.
The Kavirondo are essentially an agricultural people: both men
and women work in the fields with large iron hoes. In addition to
sorghum, Eleusine and maize, tobacco and hemp are both cultivated
and smoked. Both sexes smoke, but the use of hemp is restricted
to men and unmarried women, as it is thought to injure child-bearing
women. Hemp is smoked in a hubble-bubble. The Kavirondo
cultivate sesamum and make an oil from its seeds which they burn
in little clay lamps. These lamps are of the ancient saucer type,
the pattern being, in Hobley's opinion, introduced into the country
by the coast people. While some tribes live in isolated huts, those
in the north have strongly walled villages. The walls are of mud
and formerly, among the Nilotic tribes, occasionally of stone. Since
the advent of the British the security of the country has induced the
Kavirondo to let the walls fall into disrepair. Their huts are circular
with conical thatched roof, and fairly broad verandah all round. A
portion of the hut is partitioned off as a sleeping-place for goats, and
the fowls sleep indoors in a large basket. Skins form the only bed-
steads. In each hut are two fireplaces, about which a rigid etiquette
prevails. Strangers or distant relatives are not allowed to pass
beyond the first, which is near the door, and is used for cooking.
At the second, which is nearly in the middle of the hut, sit the hut
owner, his wives, children, brothers and sisters. Around this fire-
place the family sleep. Cooking pots, water pots and earthenware
grain jars are the only other furniture. The food is served in small
baskets. Every full grown man has a hut to himself, and one for
each wife. The huts of the Masaba Kavirondo of west Elgon have
the apex of the roof surmounted by a carved pole which Sir H. H.
Johnston says is obviously a phallus. Among the Bantu Kavirondo
a father does not eat with his sons, nor do brothers eat together.
Among the Nilotic tribes father and sons eat together, usually in a
separate hut with open sides. Women eat apart *nd only after the
men have finished. The Kavirondo keep cattle, sheep, goats, fowls
and a few dogs. Women do not eat sheep, fowls or eggs, and are
not allowed to drink milk except when mixed with other things. The
flesh of the wild cat and leopard is esteemed by most of the tribes.
From Eleusine a. beer is made. The Kavirondo are plucky hunters,
capturing the hippopotamus with ropes and traps, and attacking
with spears the largest elephants. Fish, of which they are very fond,
are caught by line and rod or in traps. Bee-keeping is common, and
where trees are scarce the hives are placed on the roof of the hut.
Among the Bantu Kavirondo goats and sheep are suffocated, the
snout being held until the animal dies. Though a peaceful people the
Kavirondo fight well. Their weapons are spears with rather long
Sat blades without blood-courses, and broad-bladed swords. Some
use slings, and most carry shields. Bows and arrows are also used ;
firearms are however displacing other weapons. Kavirondo warfare
was mainly defensive and intertribal, this last a form of vendetta.
When a man had killed his enemy in battle he shaved his head on
his return and he was rubbed with " medicine " (generally goat's
dung), to defend him from the spirit of the dead man. This custom
the Awa-Wanga abandoned when they obtained firearms. The
young warriors were made to stab the bodies of their slain enemies.
Kavirondo industries are salt-making, effected by burning reeds and
water-plants and passing water through the ashes; the smelting of
iron ore (confined to the Bantu tribes) ; pottery and basket-work.
The Kavirondo have many tribes, divided, Sir H. H. Johnston
suspects, totemically. Their religion appears to be a vague ancestor-
worship, but the northern tribes have two gods, Awafwa and Ishis-
hemi, the spirits of good and evil. To the former cattle and goats
are sacrificed. The Kavirondo have great faith in divination from
the entrails of a sheep. Nearly everybody and everything is to the
Kavirondo ominous of good or evil. They have few myths or
traditions; the ant-bear is the chief figure in their beast-legends.
They believe in witchcraft and practise trial by ordeal. As a race
the Kavirondo are on the increase. This is due to their fecundity
and morality. Those who live in the low-lying lands suffer from a
mild malaria, while abroad they are subject to dysentery and pneu-
monia. Epidemics of small-pox have occurred. Native medicine
is of the simplest. They dress wounds with butter and leaves, and
for inflammation of the lungs or pleurisy pierce a hole in the chest.
There are no medicine-men — the women are the doctors. Certain
of the incisor teeth are pulled out. If a man retains these he will,
it is thought, be killed in warfare. Among certain tribes the women
also have incisor teeth extracted, otherwise misfortune would befall
their husbands. For the same reason the wife scars the skin of her
forehead or stomach. A Kavirondo husband, before starting on a
perilous journey, cuts scars on his wife's body to ensure him good
fuck. Of dances the Kavirondo have four — the birth dance, the
death dance, that at initiation and one of a propitiatory kind in
seasons of drought. Their music is plaintive and sometimes pretty,
produced by a large lyre-shaped instrument. They use also various
drums.
The Ja-Luo women use for ear ornaments small beads attached
to pieces of brass. Like the aggry beads of West Africa these beads
are not of local manufacture nor of recent introduction. They are
ancient, in colour generally blue, occasionally yellow or green, and
are picked up in certain districts after heavy rain. By the natives
they are supposed to come down with the rain. They are identical
in shape and colour with ancient Egyptian beads and other beads
obtained from ancient cities in Baluchistan.
See C. W. Hobley, Eastern Uganda, an Ethnological Survey
(Anthrop. Inst., Occasional Papers, No. I, London, 1902); Sir H. H.
Johnston, Uganda Protectorate (1902); J. F. Cunningham, Uganda
, The Victoria Nyanza (1899).
(T. A. J.)
and its Peoples (1905) ; Paul Kollmann, The Victoria Nyanza (il
KAW, or KANSA, a tribe of North American Indians of
Siouan stock. They were originally an offshoot of the Osages.
Their early home was in Missouri, whence they were driven to
Kansas by the Dakotas. They were moved from one reservation
to another, till in 1873 they were settled in Indian Territory;
they have since steadily decreased, and now number some 200.
KAWARDHA, a feudatory state of India, within the Central
Provinces; area, 798 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 57,474, showing a
decrease of 3 7 % in the decade, due to famine; estimated revenue,
£7000. Half the state consists of hill and forest. The residence
of the chief, who is a Raj Gond, is at Kawardha (pop. 4772),
which is also the headquarters of the Kabirpanthi sect (see
KABIR).
KAY, JOHN (1742-1826), Scottish caricaturist, was born near
Dalkeith, where his father was a mason. At thirteen he was
apprenticed to a barber, whom he served for six years. He
then went to Edinburgh, where in 1771 he obtained the freedom
of the city by joining the corporation of barber-surgeons. In
1785, induced by the favour which greeted certain attempts of
his to etch in aquafortis, he took down his barber's pole and
opened a small print shop in Parliament Square. There he
continued to flourish, painting miniatures, and publishing at
short intervals his sketches and caricatures of local celebrities
and oddities, who abounded at that period in Edinburgh society.
He died on the 2ist of February 1826.
Kay's portraits were collected by Hugh Paton and published
under the title A series of original portraits and caricature etchings
by the late John Kay, with biographical sketches and illustrative
anecdotes (Edin., 2 vols. 4to, 1838; 8vo ed., 4 vols., 1842; new 4to
ed., with additional plates, 2 vols., 1877), forming a unique record
KAY— KAZAN
703
of the social life and popular habits of Edinburgh at its most interest-
ing epoch.
KAY, JOSEPH (1821-1878), English economist, was born at
Salford, Lancashire, on the 27th of February 1821. Educated
privately and at Trinity College, Cambridge, he was called to
the bar at the Inner Temple in 1848. He was appointed judge
of the Salford Hundred court of record in 1862 and in 1869 was
made a queen's counsel. He is best known for a series of works
on the social condition of the poor in France, Switzerland,
Holland, Germany and Austria, the materials for which he
gathered on a four years' tour as travelling bachelor of his
university. They were The Education of the Poor in England
and Europe (London, 1846); The Social Condition of the People
in England and Europe (London, 1850, 2 vols.); The Condition
and Education of Poor Children in English and in German Towns
(Manchester, 1853). He was also the author of The Law relating
to Shipmasters and Seamen (London, 1875) and Free Trade in
Land (1879, with a memoir). He died at Dorking, Surrey, on
the 9th of October 1878.
KAYAK, or CAYAK, an Eskimo word for a fishing boat, in
common use from Greenland to Alaska. It has been erroneously
derived from the Arabic caique, supposed to have been applied
to the native boats by early explorers. The boat is made by
covering a light wooden framework with sealskin. A hole is
pierced in the centre of the top of the boat, and the kayaker (also
dressed in sealskin) laces himself up securely when seated to
prevent the entrance of water. The kayak is propelled like a
canoe by a double-bladed paddle. The name kayak is properly
only applied to the boat used by an Eskimo man — that used by
a woman is called an umiak.
KAYASTH, the writer caste of Northern India, especially
numerous and influential in Bengal. In 1901 their total
number in all India was more than two millions. Their claim
to be Kshattriyas who have taken to clerical work is not admitted
by the Brahmans. Under Mahommedan rule they learnt
Persian, and filled many important offices. They are now
eager students of English, and have supplied not only several
judges to the high court but also the first Hindu to be a member
of the governor-general's council. In Bombay their place is
taken by the Prabhus, and in Assam by the Kalitas (Kolitas) ;
in Southern India there is no distinct clerical caste.
KAYE, SIR JOHN WILLIAM (1814-1876), English military
historian, was the son of Charles Kaye, a solicitor, and was
educated at Eton and the Royal Military College, Addiscombe.
From 1832 to 1841 he was an officer in the Bengal Artillery,
afterwards spending some years in literary pursuits both in
India and in England. In 1856 he entered the civil service of
the East India Company, and when the government of India
was transferred to the British crown succeeded John Stuart
Mill as secretary of the political and secret department of the
India office. In 1871 he was made a K. C.S.I. He died in
London on the 24th of July 1876. Kaye's numerous writings
include History of the Sepoy War in India (London, 1864-1876),
which was revised and continued by Colonel G. B. Malleson and
published in six volumes in 1888-1889; History of the War in
Afghanistan (London, 1851), republished in 1858 and 1874;
Administration of the East India Company (London, 1853); The
Life and Correspondence of Charles, Lord Metcalfe (London, 1 854) ;
The Life and Correspondence of Henry St George Tucker (London,
1854); Life and Correspondence of Sir John Malcolm (London,
1856); Christianity in India (London, 1859); Lives of Indian
Officers (London, 1867); and two novels, Peregrine Pultney and
Long engagements. He also edited several works dealing with
Indian affairs; wrote Essays of an Optimist (London, 1870); and
was a frequent contributor to periodicals.
KAYSER, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH EMANUEL (1845- ),
German geologist and palaeontologist, was born at Konigsberg,
on the 26th of March 1845. He was educated at Berlin where he
took his degree of Ph.D. in 1870. In 1882 he became professor
of geology in the university at Marburg. He investigated
fossils of various ages and from all parts of the world, but more
especially from the Palaeozoic formations, including those of
South Africa, the Polar regions, and notably the Devonian
fossils of Germany, Bohemia and other parts of Europe.
Among his separate works are Lehrbuch der Geologic (2 vols., ii.),
Geologische Formationskunde 1891 (2nd ed., 1902), and i. Allgemeine
Geologic (1893), vol. ii. (the volume first issued) was translated and
edited by P. Lake, 1893, under the title Textbook of Comparative
Geology. Another work is Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Fauna der
Siegenschen Grauwacke (1892).
KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH, SIR JAMES PHILLIPS, BART.
(1804-1877), English politician and educationalist, was born at
Rochdale, Lancashire, on the 2oth of July 1804, the son of
Robert Kay. At first engaged in a Rochdale bank, in 1824 he
became a medical student at Edinburgh University. Settling
in Manchester about 1827, he worked for the Ancoats anfl
Ardwick Dispensary, and the experience which he thus gained
of the conditions of the poor in the Lancashire factory districts,
together with his interest in economic science, led to his appoint-
ment in 1835 as poor law commissioner in Norfolk and Suffolk
and later in the London districts. In 1839 he was appointed
first secretary of the committee formed by the Privy Council
to administer the Government grant for the public education
in Great Britain. He is remembered as having founded at
Battersea, London, in conjunction with E. Carleton Tufnell, the
first training college for school teachers (1839-1840); and the
system of national school education of the present day, with its
public inspection, trained teachers and its support by state as
well as local funds, is largely due to his initiative. In 1842 he
married Lady Janet Shuttleworth, assuming by royal licence his
bride's name and arms. A breakdown in his health led him to
resign his post on the committee in 1849, but subsequent
recovery enabled him to take an active part in the working of
the central relief committee instituted under Lord Derby,
during the Lancashire cotton famine of 1861-1865. He was
created a baronet in 1849. Until the end of his life he interested
himself in the movements of the Liberal party in Lancashire,
and the progress of education. He died in London on the 26th
of May 1877. His Physiology, Pathology and Treatment of
Asphyxia became a standard textbook, and he also wrote
numerous papers on public education.
His son, Sir Ughtred James Kay-Shuttleworth (b. 1844),
became a well-known Liberal politician, sitting in parliament
for Hastings from 1869 to 1880 and for the Clitheroe division of
Lancashire from 1885 till 1902, when he was created Baron
Shuttleworth. He was chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster
in 1886, and secretary to the Admiralty in 1892-1895.
KAZALA, or KAZALINSK, a fort and town in the Russian
province of Syr-darya in West Turkestan, at the point where
the Kazala River falls into the Syr-darya, about 50 m. from its
mouth in Lake Aral, in 45° 45' N. and 62° f E., " at the junc-
tion," to quote Schuyler, " of all the trade routes in Central
Asia, as the road from Orenburg meets here with the Khiva,
Bokhara and Tashkent roads." Besides carrying on an active
trade with the Kirghiz of the surrounding country, it is of
growing importance in the general current of commerce. Pop.
(1897), 7600. The floods in the river make it an island in
spring; in summer it is parched by the sun and hot winds, and
hardly a tree can be got to grow. The streets are wide, but the
houses, as well as the fairly strong fort, are built of mud bricks.
KAZAN, a government of middle Russia, surrounded by the
governments of Vyatka, Ufa, Samara, Simbirsk, Nizhniy-
Novgorod and Kostroma. Area 24,601 sq. m. It belongs to
the basins of the Volga and its tributary the Kama, and by these
streams the government is divided into three regions; the first,
to the right of the main river, is traversed by deep ravines
sloping to the north-east, towards the Volga, and by two ranges
of hills, one of which (300 to 500 ft.) skirts the river; the second
region, between the left bank of the Volga and the left bank of
the Kama, is an open steppe; and the third, between the left
bank of the Volga and the right bank of the Kama, resembles in
its eastern part the first region, and in its western part is covered
with forest. Marls, limestones and sandstones, of Permian or
Triassic age, are the principal rocks; the Jurassic formation
704
KAZAN— KAZINCZY
appears in a small part of the Tetytishi district in the south; and
Tertiary rocks stretch along the left bank of the Volga. Mineral
springs (iron, sulphur and petroleum) exist in several places.
The Volga is navigable throughout its course of 200 m. through
Kazan, as well as the Kama (120 m.); and the Vyatka, Kazanka,
Rutka, Tsivyl, Greater Kokshaga, Ilet, Vetluga and Mesha, are
not without value as waterways. About four hundred small
lakes are enumerated within the government; the upper and
lower Kaban supply the city of Kazan with water.
The climate is severe, the annual mean temperature being
37-8° F. The rainfall amounts to 16 in. Agriculture is the
chief occupation, and 82% of the population are peasants. Out
of 7,672,600 acres of arable land, 4,516,500 are under crops —
chiefly rye and oats, with some wheat, barley, buckwheat,
lentils, flax, hemp and potatoes. But there generally results
great scarcity, and even famine, in bad years. Live stock are
numerous. Forests cover 35% of the total area. Bee-keeping
is an important industry. Factories employ about 10,000
persons and include flour-mills, distilleries, factories for soap,
candles and tallow, and tanneries. A great variety of petty
trades, especially those connected with wood, are carried on in
the villages, partly for export. The fairs are well attended.
There is considerable shipping on the Volga, Kama, Vyatka and
their tributaries. Kazan is divided into twelve districts. The
chief town is Kazan (q.v.). The district capitals, with their
populations in 1897 are: Cheboksary (4568), Chistopol (20,161),
Kozmodemyansk (5212), Laishev (5439), Mamadyzh (4213),
Spask (2779), Sviyazhsk (2363), Tetyushi (4754), Tsarevokok-
shaisk (1654), Tsivylsk (2337) and Yadrin (2467). Population
(1879), 1,872,437; (1897), 2,190,185, of whom i,ii3,5SS were
women, and 176,396 lived in towns. The estimated population
in 1906 was 2,504,400. It consists principally of Russians
and Tatars, with a variety of Finno-Turkish tribes: Chuvashes,
Cheremisses, Mordvinians, Votyaks, Mescheryaks, and some
Jews and Poles. The Russians belong to the Orthodox Greek
Church or are Nonconformists; the Tatars are Mussulmans; and
the Finno-Turkish tribes are either pagans or belong officially to
the Orthodox Greek Church, the respective proportions being
(in 1897): Orthodox Greek, 69-4% of the whole; Noncon-
formists, i %; Mussulmans, 28-8 %. (P. A. K. ; J. T. BE.)
KAZAf) (called by the' Cheremisses Ozon), a town of eastern
Russia, capital of the government of the same name, situated
in 55° 48' N. and 49° 26" E., on the river Kazanka, 3 m. from the
Volga, which however reaches the city when it overflows its
banks every spring. Kazan lies 650 m. E. from Moscow by rail
and 253 E. of Nizhniy-Novgorod by the Volga. Pop. (1883),
140,726; (1900), 143,707, all Russians except for some 20,000
Tatars. The most striking feature of the city is the kreml or
citadel, founded in 1437, which crowns a low hill on the N.W.
Within its wall, capped with five towers, it contains several
churches, amongst them the cathedral of the Annunciation,
founded in 1562 by Gury, the first archbishop of Kazan, Kazan
being an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church.
Other buildings in the kreml are a magnificent monastery, built
in 1556; an arsenal; the modern castle in which the governor
resides; and the red brick Suyumbeka tower, 246 ft. high, which
is an object of great veneration to the Tatars as the reputed
burial-place of one of their saints. A little E. of the kreml is
the Bogoroditski convent, built in 1579 for the reception of the
Black Virgin of Kazan, a miracle-working image transferred to
Moscow in 1612, and in St Petersburg since 1710. Kazan is the
intellectual capital of eastern Russia, and an important seat of
Oriental scholarship. Its university, founded in 1804, is attended
by nearly 1000 students. Attached to it are an excellent
library of 220,000 vols., an astronomical observatory, a botanical
garden and various museums. The ecclesiastical academy,
founded in 1846, contains the old library of the Solovetsk
(Solovki) monastery, which is of importance for the history of
Russian religious sects. The city is adorned with bronze
statues of Tsar Alexander II., set up facing the kreml in 1895,
and of the poet G. R. Derzhavin (1743-1816); also with a
monument commemorating the capture of Kazan by Ivan the
Terrible. The central parts of the city consist principally of
small one-storeyed houses, surrounded by gardens, and are
inhabited chiefly by Russians, while some 20,000 Tatars dwell
in the suburbs. Kazan is, further, the intellectual centre of
the Russian Mahommedans, who have here their more important
schools and their printing-presses. Between the city and the
Volga is the Admiralty suburb, where Peter the Great had his
Caspian fleet built for his campaigns against Persia. The more
important manufactures are leather goods, soap, wax candles,
sacred images, cloth, cottons, spirits and bells. A considerable
trade is carried on with eastern Russia, and with Turkestan and
Persia. Previous to the i3th century, the present government
of Kazan formed part of the territory of the Bulgarians, the ruins
of whose ancient capital, Bolgari or Bolgary, lie 60 m. S. of Kazan.
The city of Kazan itself stood, down to the i3th century, 30 m.
to the N.E., where traces of it can still be seen. In 1438 Ulugh
Mahommed (or Ulu Makhmet), khan of the Golden Hord« of
the Mongols, founded, on the ruins of the Bulgarian state, the
kingdom of Kazan, which in its turn was destroyed by Ivan the
Terrible of Russia in 1552 and its territory annexed to Russia.
In 1774 the city was laid waste by the rebel Pugachev. It has
suffered repeatedly from fires, especially in 1815 and 1825. The
Kazan Tatars, from having lived so long amongst Russians and
Finnish tribes, have lost a good many of the characteristic
features of their Tatar (Mongol) ancestry, and bear now the .
stamp of a distinct ethnographic type. They are found also in
the neighbouring governments of Vyatka, Ufa, Orenburg,
Samara, Saratov, Simbirsk, Tambov and Nizhniy-Novgorod.
They are intelligent and enterprising, and are engaged princi-
pally in trade.
See Pineghin's Kazan Old and New (in Russian); Velyaminov-
Zernov's Kasimov Tsars (3 vols., St Petersburg, 1863- 1866) ; Zarinsky's
Sketches of Old Kazan (Kazan, 1877) ; Trofimov's Siege of Kazan in
1552 (Kazafi, 1890); Firsov's books on the history of the native
population (Kazafl, 1864 and 1869) ; and Shpilevski, on the antiqui-
ties of the town and government, in Izvestia i Zapiski of the Kazan
University (1877). A bibliography of the Oriental books published
in the city is printed in Bulletins of the St Petersburg Academy
(1867). Compare also L. Leger's " Kazafi et les tartares," in Bibl.
Univ. de Geneve (1874). (P- A. K.; J. T. BE.)
KAZERUN. a district and town of the province of Fars in
Persia. The district is situated between Shiraz and Bushire.
In its centre is the Kazerun Valley with a direction N.W. to
S.E., a fertile plain 30 m. long and 7 to 8 m. broad, bounded S.E.
by the Parishan Lake (8 m. long, 3 m. broad) N.W. by the
Boshavir River, with the ruins of the old city of Beh-Shahpur
(Beshaver, Boshavir, also, short, Shapur) and Sassanian bas-
reliefs on its banks. There also, in a cave, is a statue of Shapur.
The remainder of the district is mostly hilly country intersected
by numerous streams, plains and hills being covered with
zizyphus, wild almond and oak. The district is divided into
two divisions: town and villages, the latter being called Kuh i
Marreh and again subdivided into (i) Pusht i Kuh; (2) Yarruk;
(3) Shakan. It has forty-six villages and a population of about
15,000; it produces rice of excellent quality, cotton, tobacco and
opium, but very little corn, and bread rrjade of the flour of acorns
is a staple of food in many villages. Wild almonds are exported.
Kazerun, the chief place of the district, is an unwalled town
situated in the midst of the central plain, in 29° 37' N., 51° 43' E.
at an elevation of 2800 ft., 70 m. from Shiraz, and 96 m. from
Bushire. It has a population of about 8000, and is divided
into four quarters separated by open spaces. Adjoining it on
the W. is the famous Nazar garden, with noble avenues of orange
trees planted by a former governor, Hajji Ali Kuli Khan, in
1767. A couple of miles N. of the city behind a low range of
hills are the imposing ruins of a marble building said to stand
over the grave of Sheik Amin ed din Mahommed b. Zia ed
din Mas'ud, who died A.H. 740 (A.D. 1339). S.E. of the city
on a hugh mound are ruins of buildings with underground
chambers, popularly known as Kal'eh i Gabr, " castle of the
fire-worshippers."
KAZINCZY, FERENCZ (1759-1831), Hungarian author, the
most indefatigable agent in the regeneration of the Magyar
KAZVIN— KEAN, EDMUND
705
language and literature at the end of the i8th and beginning of
the ipth century, was born on the 27th of October 1759, at
fir-Semlyen, in the county of Bihar, Hungary. He studied law
at Kassa and Eperies, and in Pest, where he also obtained a
thorough knowledge of French and German literature, and made
the acquaintance of Gideon Raday, who allowed him the use of
his library. In 1784 Kazinczy became subnotary for the county
of Abauj; and in 1786 he was nominated inspector of schools at
Kassa. There he began to devote himself to the restoration of
the Magyar language and literature by translations from classical
foreign works, and by the augmentation of the native vocabulary
from ancient Magyar sources. In 1788, with the assistance of
Baroti Szabo and John Bacsanyi, he started at Kassa the first
Magyar literary magazine, Magyar Muzeum; the Orpheus, which
succeeded it in 1790, was his own creation. Although, upon
the accession of Leopold II., Kazinczy, as a non-Catholic, was
obliged to resign his post at Kassa, his literary activity in no
way decreased. He not only assisted Gideon Raday in the
establishment and direction of the first Magyar dramatic society,
but enriched the repertoire with several translations from foreign
authors. His Hamlet, which first appeared at Kassa in 1790, is
a rendering from the German version of Schroder. Implicated
in the democratic conspiracy of the abbot Martinovics, Kazinczy
was arrested on the i4th of December 1794, and condemned to
death; but the sentence was commuted to imprisonment. He
was released in 1801, and shortly afterwards married Sophia
Toro'k, daughter of his former patron, and retired to his small
estate at Szephalom or " Fairhill," near Sator-Ujhely, in the
county of Zemplen. In 1828 he took an active part in the
conferences held for the establishment of the Hungarian academy
in the historical section of which he became the first correspond-
ing member. He died of Asiatic cholera, at Szephalom, on the
22nd of August 1831.
Kazinczy, although possessing great beauty of style, cannot be
regarded as a powerful and original thinker; his fame is chiefly due
to the felicity of his translations from the masterpieces of Lessing,
Goethe, Wieland, Klopstock, Ossian, La Rochefoucauld, Marmontel,
Moliere, Metastasio, Shakespeare, Sterne, Cicero, Sallust, Anacreon,
and many others. He also edited the works of Baroczy (Pest, 1812,
8 vols.) and of the poet Zrinyi (1817, 2 vols.), and the poems of
Dayka (1813, 3 vols.) and of John Kis, (1815, 3 vols.). A collective
edition of his works (Sz6p Literatura), consisting for the most part of
translations, was published at Pest, 1814-1816, in 9 vols. His origi-
nal productions (Eredeti Mukdi), largely made up of letters, were
edited by Joseph Bajza and Francis Toldy at Pest, 1836-1845, in
5 vols. Editions of his poems appeared in 1858 and in 1863.
KAZVIN, a province and town of Persia. The province is
situated N.W. of Teheran and S. of Gilan. On the W. it is
bounded by Khamseh. It pays a yearly revenue of about
£22,000, and contains many rich villages which produce much
grain and fruit, great quantities of the latter being dried and
exported.
Kazvin, the capital of the province, is situated at an elevation
of 4165 ft., in 36° 15' N. and 50° E., and 92 m. by road from
Teheran. The city is said to have been founded in the 4th
century by the Sassanian king Shapur II (309-379). It has been
repeatedly damaged by earthquakes. Many of its streets and
most of the magnificent buildings seen there by Chardin in 1674
and other travellers during the i7th century are in ruins. The
most remarkable remains are the palace of the Safawid shahs and
the mosque with its large blue-dome. In the i6th century Shah
Tahmasp I. (1524-1576) made Kazvin his capital, and it re-
mained so till Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629) transferred the seat
of government to Isfahan. The town still bears the title Dar es
Salteneh, " the seat of government." Kazvin has many baths
and cisterns fed by underground canals. The system of irriga-
tion formerly carried on by these canals rendered the plain of
Kazvin one of the most fertile regions in Persia; now most of the
canals are choked up. The city has a population of about
50,000 and a thriving transit trade, particularly since 1899 when
the carriage road between Resht and Teheran with Kazvin as a
half-way stage was opened under the auspices of the Russian
" Enzeli-Teheran Road Company." Great quantities of rice,
xv. 23
fish and silk are brought to it from Gilan for distribution in
Persia and export to Turkey.
KEAN, EDMUND (1787-1833), was born in London on the
1 7th of March1 1787. His father was probably Edmund Kean,
an architect's clerk; and his mother was an actress, Ann Carey,
grand-daughter of Henry Carey. When in his fourth year
Kean made his first appearance on the stage as Cupid in Noverre's
ballet of Cymon. As a child his vivacity and cleverness, and
his ready affection for those who treated him with kindness,
made him a universal favourite, but the harsh circumstances
of his lot, and the want of proper restraint, while they developed
strong self-reliance, fostered wayward tendencies. About 1794
a few benevolent persons provided the means of sending him to
school, where he mastered his tasks with remarkable ease and
rapidity; but finding the restraint intolerable, he shipped as a
cabin boy at Portsmouth. Discovering that he had only escaped
to a more rigorous bondage, he counterfeited both deafness and
lameness with a histrionic mastery which deceived even the
physicians at Madeira. On his return to England he sought the
protection of his uncle Moses Kean, mimic, ventriloquist and
general entertainer, who, besides continuing his pantomimic
studies, introduced him to the study of Shakespeare. At the
same time Miss Tidswell, an actress who had been specially kind
to him from infancy, taught him the principles of acting. On
the death of his uncle he was taken charge of by Miss Tidswell,
and under her direction he began the systematic study of the
principal Shakespearian characters, displaying the peculiar
originality of his genius by interpretations entirely different
from those of Kemble. His talents and interesting countenance
induced a Mrs Clarke to adopt him, but the slight of a visitor so
wounded his pride that he suddenly left her house and went back
to his old surroundings. In his fourteenth year he obtained an
engagement to play leading characters for twenty nights in
York Theatre, appearing as Hamlet, Hastings and Cato. Shortly
afterwards, while he was in the strolling troupe belonging to
Richardson's show, the rumour of his abilities reached George
III., who commanded him to recite at Windsor. He subse-
quently joined Saunders's circus, where in the performance of an
equestrian feat he fell and broke his legs — the accident leaving
traces of swelling in his insteps throughout his life. About
this time he picked up music from Charles Incledon, dancing
from D'Egville, and fencing from Angelo. In 1807 he played
leading parts in the Belfast theatre with Mrs Siddons, who began
by calling him " a horrid little man " and on further experience
of his ability said that he " played very, very well," but that
" there was too little of him to make a great actor." An engage-
ment in 1808 to play leading characters in Beverley's provincial
troupe was brought to an abrupt close by his marriage
(July 17) with Miss Mary Chambers of Waterford, the leading
actress. For several years his prospects were very gloomy, but
in 1814 the committee of Drury Lane theatre, the fortunes of
which were then so low that bankruptcy seemed inevitable,
resolved to give him a chance among the " experiments " they
were making to win a return of popularity. When the expecta-
tion of his first appearance in London was close upon him he was
so feverish that he exclaimed " If I succeed I shall go mad."
His opening at Drury Lane on the 26th of January 1814 as Shy-
lock roused the audience to almost uncontrollable enthusiasm.
Successive appearances in Richard III., Hamlet, Othello, Mac-
beth and Lear served to demonstrate his complete mastery of
the whole range of tragic emotion. His triumph was so great
that he himself said on one occasion, " I could not feel the stage
under me." On the 2gth of November 1820 Kean appeared
for the first time in New York as Richard III. The success of his
visit to America was unequivocal, although he fell into a vexa-
tious dispute with the press. On the 4th of June 1821 he
returned to England.
'This date is apparently settled by a letter from Kean in 1829,
to Ur Gibson (see Rothesay Express for the 28th of June 1893,
where the letter is printed and vouched for), inviting him to dinner
on the 1 7th of March to celebrate Kean's birthday; various other
dates have been given in books of reference, the 4th of November
having been formerly accepted by this Encyclopaedia.
yo6
KEANE
Probably his irregular habits were prejudicial to the refinement
of his taste, and latterly they tended to exaggerate his special
defects and mannerisms. The adverse decision in the divorce
case of Cox v. Kean on the xyth of January 1825 caused his wife
to leave him, and aroused against him such bitter feeling, shown
by the almost riotous conduct of the audiences before which he
appeared about this time, as nearly to compel him to retire per-
manently into private life. A second visit to America in 1825
was largely a repetition of the persecution which, in the name of
morality, he had suffered in England. Some cities showed him
a spirit of charity; many audiences submitted him to the grossest
insults and endangered his life by the violence of their disapproval.
In Quebec he was much impressed with the kindness of some
Huron Indians who attended his performances, and he was made
chief of the tribe, receiving the name Alanienouidet. Kean's last
appearance in New York was on the 5th of December 1826 in
Richard III., the role in which he was first seen in America. He
returned to England and was ultimately received with all the old
favour, but the contest had made him so dependent on the use of
stimulants that the gradual deterioration of his gifts was inevit-
able. Still, even in their decay his great powers triumphed during
the moments of his inspiration over the absolute wreck of his
physical faculties, and compelled admiration after his gait had
degenerated into a weak hobble, and the lightning brilliancy of his
eyes had become dull and bloodshot, and the tones of his match-
less voice marred by rough and grating hoarseness. His appear-
ance in Paris was a failure owing to a fit of drunkenness. His
last appearance on the stage was at Covent Garden, on the zsth
of March 1833 when he played Othello to the lago of his son
Charles. At the words " Villain, be sure," in scene 3 of act iii.,
he suddenly broke down, and crying in a faltering voice " O
God, I am dying. Speak to them, Charles," fell insensible into
his son's arms. He died at Richmond on the isth of May
1833-
It was in the impersonation of the great creations of Shake-
speare's genius that the varied beauty and grandeur of the acting
of Kean were displayed in their highest form, although probably
his most powerful character was Sir Giles Overreach in Massinger's
A New Way to Pay Old Debts, the effect of his first impersonation
of which was such that the pit rose en masse, and even the actors
and actresses themselves were overcome by the terrific dramatic
illusion. His only personal disadvantage as an actor was his
small stature. His countenance was strikingly interesting and
unusually mobile; he had a matchless command of facial expres-
sion; his fine eyes scintillated with the slightest shades of emo-
tion and thought; his voice, though weak and harsh in the upper
register, possessed in its lower range tones of penetrating and
resistless power, and a thrilling sweetness like the witchery of the
finest music; above all, in the grander moments of his passion,
his intellect and soul seemed to rise beyond material barriers
and to glorify physical defects with their own greatness. Kean
specially excelled as the exponent of passion. In Othello, lago,
Shylock and Richard III., characters utterly different from each
other, but in which the predominant element is some form of
passion, his identification with the personality, as he had con-
ceived it, was as nearly as possible perfect, and each isolated
phase and aspect of the plot was elaborated with the minutest
attention to details, and yet with an absolute subordination of
these to the distinct individuality he was endeavouring to portray.
Coleridge said, " Seeing him act was like reading Shakespeare
by flashes of lightning." If the range of character in which
Kean attained supreme excellence was narrow, no one except
Garrick has been so successful in so many great impersonations.
Unlike Garrick, he had no true talent for comedy, but in the ex-
pression of biting and saturnine wit, of grim and ghostly gaiety,
he was unsurpassed. His eccentricities at the height of his fame
were numerous. Sometimes he would ride recklessly on his horse
Shylock throughout the night. He was presented with a tame
lion with which he might be found playing in his drawing-room.
The prizefighters Mendoza and Richmond the Black were among
his visitors. Grattan was his devoted friend. In his earlier days
Talma said of him, " He is a magnificent uncut gem; polish and
round him off and he will be a perfect tragedian." Macready,
who was much impressed by Kean's Richard III. and met the
actor at supper, speaks of his " unassuming manner . . . par-
taking in some degree of shyness " and of the " touching grace "
of his singing. Kean's delivery of the three words " I answer —
NO!" in the part of Sir Edward Mortimer in The Iron Chesl,
cast Macready into an abyss of despair at rivalling him in this
role. So full of dramatic interest is the life of Edmund Kean
that it formed the subject for a play by the elder Dumas, entitled
Kean on desordre et genie, in which Frederick-Lemaitre achieved
one of his greatest triumphs.
See Francis Phippen, Authentic Memoirs of Edmund Kean (1814);
B. W. Procter (Barry Cornwall), The Life of Edmund Kean (1835);
F. W. Hawkins, The Life of Edmund Kean (1869); J. Fitzgerald
Molloy, The Life and Adventures of Edmund Kean (1888) ; Edward
Stirling, Old Drury Lane (1887).
His son, CHARLES JOHN KEAN (1811-1868), was born at Water-
ford, Ireland, on the i8th of January 1811. After preparatory
education at Worplesdon an d at Greenford, near Harrow, he was
sent to Eton College, where he remained three years. In 1827
he was offered a cadetship in the East India Company's service,
which he was prepared to accept if his father would settle an
income of £400 on his mother. The elder Kean refused to do
this, and his son determined to become an actor. He made his
first appearance at Drury Lane on the ist of October 1827 as
Norval in Home's Douglas, but his continued failure to achieve
popularity led him to leave London in the spring of 1828 for the
provinces. At Glasgow, on the ist of October in this year,
father and son acted together in Arnold Payne's Brutus, the
elder Kean in the title-part and his son as Titus. After a visit
to America in 1830, where he was received with much favour, he
appeared in 1833 at Covent Garden as Sir Edmund Mortimer in
Colman's The Iron Chest, but his success was not pronounced
enough to encourage him to remain in London, especially as he
had already won a high position in the provinces. In January
1838, however, he returned to Drury Lane, and played Hamlet
with a success which gave him a place among the principal
tragedians of his time. He was married to the actress Ellen
Tree (1805-1880) on the 2pth of January 1842, and paid a
second visit to America with her from 1845 to 1847. Returning
to England, he entered on a successful engagement at the
Haymarket, and in 1850, with Robert Keeley, became lessee
of the Princess Theatre. The most noteworthy feature of his
management was a series of gorgeous Shakespearian revivals.
Charles Kean was not a great tragic actor. He did all that
could be done by the persevering cultivation of his powers,
and in many ways manifested the possession of high intelligence
and refined taste, but his defects of person and voice made it
impossible for him to give a representation at all adequate of
the varying and subtle emotions of pure tragedy. But in
melodramatic parts such as the king in Boucicault's adaptation
of Casimir Delavigne's Louis XL, and Louis and Fabian dei
Franchi in Boucicault's adaptation of Dumas's The Corsican
Brothers, his success was complete. From his " tour round the
world " Kean returned in 1866 in broken health, and died in
London on the 22nd of January 1868.
See The Life and Theatrical Times of Charles Kean, by John
William Cole (1859).
KEANE, JOHN JOSEPH (1830- ), American Roman
Catholic archbishop, was born in Ballyshannon, Co. Donegal,
Ireland, on the i2th of September 1839. His family settled in
America when he was seven years old. He was educated at
Saint Charles's College, Ellicott City, Maryland, and at Saint
Mary's Seminary, Baltimore, and in 1866 was ordained a priest
and made curate of St Patrick's, Washington, D.C. On the
25th of August 1878 he was consecrated Bishop of Richmond,
to succeed James Gibbons, and he had established the Con-
fraternity of the Holy Ghost in that diocese, and founded schools
and churches for negroes before his appointment as rector of the
Catholic University, Washington, D.C., in 1886, and his appoint-
ment in 1888 to the see of Ajasso. He did much to upbuild
the Catholic University, but his democratic and liberal policy
KEARNEY— KEATE
707
made him enemies at Rome, whence there came in 1896 a request
for his resignation of the rectorate, and where he spent the years
1897-1900 as canon of St John Lateran, assistant bishop at the
pontifical throne, and counsellor to the Propaganda. In 1900 he
was consecrated archbishop of Dubuque, Iowa. He took a
prominent part in the Catholic Young Men's National Union and
in the Total Abstinence Union of North America; and was in
general charge of the Catholic delegation to the World's Parlia-
ment of Religions held at the Columbian Exposition in 1893.
He lectured widely on temperance, education and American
institutions, and in 1890 was Dudleian lecturer at Harvard
University.
A selection from his writings and addresses was edited by Maurice
Francis Egan under the title Onward and Upward: A Year Book
(Baltimore, 1902).
KEARNEY, a city and the county-seat of Buffalo county,
Nebraska, U.S.A., about 130 m. W. of Lincoln. Pop. (1890),
8074; (1900), 5634 (650 foreign-born); (IQIO), 6202. It is on
the main overland line of the Union Pacific, and on a branch of
the Burlington & Missouri River railroad. The city is situated
in the broad, flat bottom-lands a short distance N. of the Platte
River. Lake Kearney, in the city, has an area of 40 acres. The
surrounding region is rich farming land, devoted especially to
the growing of alfalfa and Indian corn. At Kearney are a
State Industrial School for boys, a State Normal School, the
Kearney Military Academy, and a Carnegie library. Good
water-power is provided by a canal from the Platte River
about 17 m. above Kearney, and the city's manufactures include
foundry and machine-shop products, flour and bricks. Kearney
Junction, as Kearney was called from 1872 to 1875, was settled
a year before the two railways actually formed their junction
here or the city was platted. Kearney became a town in 1873,
a city of the second class and the county seat in 1874, and a city
of the first class in 1901. It is to be distinguished from an older
and once famous prairie city, popularly known as " Dobey Town "
(i.e. Adobe), founded in the early 'fifties on the edge of the reser-
vation of old Fort Kearney (removed in 1848 from Nebraska
City), in Kearney county, on the S. shore of the Platte about
6 m. S.E. of the present Kearney; here in 1861 the post office of
Kearney City was established. In the days of the prairie freight-
ing caravans Dobey Town was one of the most important towns
between Independence, Missouri, and the Pacific coast, and it had
a rough, wild, picturesque history; but it lost its immense
freighting interests after the Union Pacific had been extended
through it in 1866. The site of Dobey Town, together with the
Fort, was abandoned in 1871. Fort Kearney and the city too
were named in honour of General Stephen W. Kearny, and the
name was at first correctly spelt without a second " e."
KEARNY, PHILIP (1815-1862), American soldier, was born
in New York on the 2nd of June 1815, and was originally in-
tended for the legal profession. He graduated at Columbia Uni-
versity (1833), but his bent was decidedly towards soldiering,
and in 1837 he obtained a commission in the cavalry regiment of
which his uncle, (General) Stephen Watts Kearny (1794-1848),
was colonel and Lieutenant Jefferson Davis adjutant. Two years
later he was sent to France to study the methods of cavalry
training in vogue there. Before his return to the United States
in 1840 he had served, on leave, in Algeria. He had
inherited a large fortune, but he remained in the service, and his
wide experience of cavalry work caused him to be employed on
the headquarters staff of the army. After six more years' service
Kearny left the avmy, but almost immediately afterwards he
rejoined, bringing with him a company of cavalry, which he had
raised and equipped chiefly at his own expense, to take part in
the Mexican war. In December 1846 he was promoted captain.
In leading a brilliant cavalry charge at Churubusco he lost his
left arm, but he remained at the front, and won the brevet of
major for his gallantry at Contreras and Churubusco. In 1851
he again resigned, to travel round the world. He saw further
active service with his old comrades of the French cavalry in
the Italian war of 1859, and received the cross of the Legion of
Honour for his conduct at Solferino. Up to the outbreak of
the American Civil War he lived in Paris, but early in 1861 he
hastened home to join the Federal army. At first as a brigade
commander and later as a divisional commander of infantry in
the Army of the Potomac, he infused into his men his own cavalry
spirit of dash and bravery. At Williamsburg, Seven Pines,
and Second Bull Run, he displayed his usual romantic courage,
but at Chantilly (Sept. i, 1862), after repulsing an attack of
the enemy, he rode out in the dark too far to the front, and mis-
taking the Confederates for his own men was shot dead. His
body was sent to the Federal lines with a message from General
Lee, and was buried in Trinity Churchyard, New York. His
commission as major-general of volunteers was dated July 4,
1862, but he never received it.
See J. W. de Peyster, Personal and Military History of Philip
Kearny (New York, 1869).
KEARNY, a town of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
between the Passaic and Hackensack rivers, adjoining Harrison,
and connected with Newark by bridges over the Passaic. Pop.
(1900), 10,896, of whom 3597 were foreign-born; (1910 census),
18,659. The New Yo k & Greenwood Lake division of the Erie
railroad has a station at Arlington, the principal village (in the
N.W. part), which contains attractive residences of Newark,
Jersey City and New York City business men. The town covers
an area of about 7 sq. m., including a large tract of marsh-land.
In Kearny are railway repair shops of the Pennsylvania system,
and a large abattoir; and there are numerous manufactures.
The value of the town's factory products increased from
$1,607,002 in 1900 to $4,427,904 in 1905, or 175-5%. Among
its institutions are the State Soldiers' Home, removed here
from Newark in 1880, a Carnegie library, two Italian homes for
orphans, and a Catholic Industrial School for boys.
The neck of land between the Passaic and the Hackensack
rivers, for 7 m. N. from where they unite, was purchased from
the proprietors of East Jersey and from the Indians by Captain
William Sandford in 1668 and through Nathaniel Kingsland,
sergeant-major of Barbadoes, received the name " New Bar-
badoes." After the town under this name had been extended
considerably to the northward, the town of Lodi was formed out
of the S. portion in 1825, the town of Harrison was founded out
of the S. portion of Lodi in 1840, and in 1867 a portion of Harrison
was set apart as a township and named in honour of General
Philip Kearny, a former resident. Kearny was incorporated as
a town in 1895.
KEARY, ANNIE (1825-1879), English novelist, was born near
Wetherby, Yorkshire, on the 3rd of March 1825, the daughter
of an Irish clergyman. She was the author of several children's
books and novels, of which the best known is Castle Daly, an
Irish story. She also wrote an Early Egyptian History (1861)
and The Nation Around (1870). She died at Eastbourne on the
3rd of March 1879.
KEATE, JOHN (1773-1852), English schoolmaster, was born
at Wells, Somersetshire, in 1773, the son of Prebendary William
Keate. He was educated at Eton and King's College, Cam-
bridge, where he had a brilliant career as a scholar; taking holy
orders, he became, about 1797, an assistant master at Eton
College. In 1809 he was elected headmaster. The discipline
of the school was then in a most unsatisfactory condition, and
Dr Keate (who took the degree of D.D. in 1810) took stern
measures to improve it. His partiality for the birch became a
by-word, but he succeeded in restoring order and strengthening
the weakened authority of the masters. Beneath an outwardly
rough manner the little man concealed a really kind heart, and
when he retired in 1834, the boys, who admired his courage,
presented him with a handsome testimonial. A couple of years
before he had publicly flogged eighty boys on one day. Keate
was made a canon of Windsor in 1820. He died on the sth
of March 1852 at Hartley Westpall, Hampshire, of which parish
he had been rector since 1824.
See Maxwell Lyte, History of Eton College (3rd ed., 1899) ; Collins,
Etoniana; Harwood, Alumni Etonienses; Annual Register (1852);
Gentleman's Magazine (1852).
708
KEATS
KEATS, JOHN (1795-1821), English poet, was born on the
29th or 3ist of October 1795 at the sign of the Swan and Hoop,
24 The Pavement, Moorfields, London. He published his first
volume of verse in 1817, his second in the following year, his
third in 1820, and died of consumption at Rome on the 2$rd of
February 1821 in the fourth month of his twenty-sixth year.
(For the biographical facts see the later section of this article.)
In Keats's first book there was little foretaste of anything
greatly or even genuinely good; but between the marshy and
sandy flats of sterile or futile verse there were undoubtedly
some few purple patches of floral promise. The style was fre-
quently detestable — a mixture of sham Spenserian and mock
Wordsworthian, alternately florid and arid. His second book,
Endymion, rises in its best passages to the highest level of Barn-
field and of Lodge, the two previous poets with whom, had he
published nothing more, he might most properly have been
classed; and this, among minor minstrels, is no unenviable place.
His third book raised him at once to a foremost rank in the high-
est class of English poets. Shelley, up to twenty, had written
little or nothing that would have done credit to a boy of ten; and
of Keats also it may be said that the merit of his work at twenty-
five was hardly by comparison more wonderful than its demerit
at twenty-two. His first book fell as flat as it deserved to fall;
the reception of his second, though less considerate than on the
whole it deserved, was not more contemptuous than that of
immeasurably better books published about the same time
by Coleridge, Landor and Shelley. A critic of exceptional
carefulness and candour might have noted in the first book so
singular an example of a stork among the cranes as the famous
and notable sonnet on Chapman's Homer; a just judge would
have indicated, a partial advocate might have exaggerated, the
value of such golden grajn amid a garish harvest of tares as the
hymn to Pan and the translation into verse of Titian's Baccha-
nal which glorify the weedy wilderness of Endymion. But the
hardest thing said of that poem by the Quarterly reviewer was
unconsciously echoed by the future author of Adonais — that
it was all but absolutely impossible to read through; and the
obscener insolence of the " Blackguard's Magazine," as Landor
afterwards very justly labelled it, is explicable though certainly
not excusable if we glance back at such a passage as that where
Endymion exchanges fulsome and liquorish endearments with
the " known unknown from whom his being sips such darling (!)
essence." Such nauseous and pitiful phrases as these, and cer-
tain passages in his correspondence, make us understand the
source of the most offensive imputations or insinuations levelled
against the writer's manhood; and, while admitting that neither
his love-letters, nor the last piteous outcries of his wailing and
shrieking agony, would ever have been made public by merciful
or respectful editors, we must also admit that, if they ought
never to have been published, it is no less certain that they
ought never to have been written; that a manful kind of man or
even a manly sort of boy, in his love-making or in his suffering,
will not howl and snivel after such a lamentable fashion. One
thing hitherto inexplicable a very slight and rapid glance at his
amatory correspondence will amply suffice to explain: how it
came to pass that the woman so passionately beloved by so great
a poet should have thought it the hopeless attempt of a mistaken
kindness to revive the memory of a man for whom the best that
could be wished was complete and compassionate oblivion.
For the side of the man's nature presented to her inspection, this
probably was all that charity or reason could have desired. But
that there was a finer side to the man, even if considered apart
from the poet, his correspondence with his friends and their
general evidence to his character give more sufficient proof than
perhaps we might have derived from the general impression left
on us by his works; though indeed the preface to Endymion
itself, however illogical in its obviously implied suggestion that
the poem published was undeniably unworthy of publication,
gave proof or hint at least that after all its author was something
of a man. And the eighteenth of his letters to Miss Brawne
stands out in bright and brave contrast with such as seem in-
compatible with the traditions of his character on its manlier
side. But if it must be said that he lived long enough only to
give promise of being a man, it must also be said that he lived
long enough to give assurance of being a poet who was not born
to come short of the first rank. Not even a hint of such a prob-
ability could have been gathered from his first or even from his
second appearance; after the publication of his third volume it
was no longer a matter of possible debate among judges of
tolerable competence that this improbability had become a
certainty. Two or three phrases cancelled, two or three lines
erased, would have left us in Lamia one of the most faultless as
surely as one of the most glorious jewels in the crown of English
poetry. Isabella, feeble and awkward in narrative to a degree
almost incredible in a student of Dryden and a pupil of Leigh
Hunt, is overcharged with episodical effects of splendid and
pathetic expression beyond the reach of either. The Eve of
St Agnes, aiming at no doubtful success, succeeds in evading
all casual difficulty in the line of narrative; with no shadow of
pretence to such interest as^may be derived from stress of inci-
dent or depth of sentiment, it stands out among all other famous
poems as a perfect and unsurpassable study in pure colour and
clear melody — a study in which the figure of Madeline brings
back upon the mind's eye, if only as moonlight recalls a sense of
sunshine, the nuptial picture of Marlowe's Hero and the sleeping
presence of Shakespeare's Imogen. Beside this poem should
always be placed the less famous but not less precious Eve of St
Mark, a fragment unexcelled for the simple perfection of its
perfect simplicity, exquisite alike in suggestion and in accom-
plishment. The triumph of Hyperion is as nearly complete as
the failure of Endymion; yet Keats never gave such proof of a
manly devotion and rational sense of duty to his art as in his
resolution to leave this great poem unfinished; riot, as we may
gather from his correspondence on the subject, for the pitiful
reason assigned by his publishers, that of discouragement at the
reception given to his former work, but on the solid and reason-
able ground that a Miltonic study had something in its very
scheme and nature too artificial, too studious of a foreign influ-
ence, to be carried on and carried out at such length as was implied
by his original design. Fortified and purified as it had been on
a first revision, when much introductory allegory and much
tentative effusion of sonorous and superfluous verse had been
rigorously clipped down or pruned away, it could not long have
retained spirit enough to support or inform the shadowy body of
a subject so little charged with tangible significance. The faculty
of assimilation as distinguished from imitation, than which there
can be no surer or stronger sign of strong and sure original
genius, is not more evident in the most Miltonic passages of the
revised Hyperion than in the more Shakespearian passages of the
unrevised tragedy which no radical correction could have lef tother
than radically incorrigible. It is no conventional exaggeration, no
hyperbolical phrase of flattery with more sound than sense in it,
to say that in this chaotic and puerile play of Olho the Great there
are such verses as Shakespeare might not without pride have
signed at the age when he wrote and even at the age when he
rewrote the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet. The dramatic frag-
ment of King Stephen shows far more power of hand and gives
far more promise of success than does that of Shelley's Charles
the First. Yet we cannot say with any confidence that even this
far from extravagant promise would certainly or probably have
been kept; it is certain only that Keats in these attempts did at
least succeed in showing a possibility of future excellence as a
tragic or at least a romantic dramatist. In every other line of
high and serious poetry his triumph was actual and consummate;
here only was it no more than potential or incomplete. As a
ballad of the more lyrical order, La Belle dame sans merci is not
less absolutely excellent, less triumphantly perfect in force and
clearness of impression, that as a narrative poem is Lamia. In
his lines on Robin Hood, and in one or two other less noticeable
studies of the kind, he has shown thorough and easy mastery of
the beautiful metre inherited by Fletcher from Barnfield and
by Milton from Fletcher. The simpk force of spirit and style
which distinguishes the genuine ballad manner from all spurious
attempts at an artificial simplicity was once more at least
KEATS
709
achieved in his verses on the crowning creation of Scott's
humaner and manlier genius — Meg Merrilies. No little injustice
has been done to Keats by such devotees as fix their mind's eye
only on the more salient and distinctive notes of a genius which
in fact was very much more various and tentative, less limited
and peculiar, than would be inferred from an exclusive study of
his more specially characteristic work. But within the limits
of that work must we look of course for the genuine credentials
of his fame; and highest among them we must rate his un-
equalled and unrivalled odes. Of these perhaps the two nearest
to absolute perfection, to the triumphant achievement and
accomplishment of the very utmost beauty possible to human
words, may be that to Autumn and that on a Grecian Urn; the
most radiant, fervent and musical is that to a Nightingale; the
most pictorial and perhaps the tenderest in its ardour of passion-
ate fancy is that to Psyche; the subtlest in sweetness of thought
and feeling is that on Melancholy. Greater lyrical poetry the
world may have seen than any that is in these; lovelier it
surely has never seen, nor ever can it possibly see. From the
divine fragment of an unfinished ode to Maia we can but guess
that if completed it would have been worthy of a place beside
the highest. His remaining lyrics have many beauties about
them, but none perhaps can be called thoroughly beautiful. He
has certainly left us one perfect sonnet of the first rank and as
certainly he has left us but one.
Keats has been promoted by modern criticism to a place beside
Shakespeare. The faultless force and the profound subtlety of
his deep and cunning instinct for the absolute expression of
absolute natural beauty can hardly be questioned or overlooked;
and this is doubtless the one main distinctive gift or power
which denotes him as a poet among all his equals, and gives him
a right to rank for ever beside Coleridge and Shelley. As a man,
the two admirers who did best service to his memory were Lord
Houghton and Matthew Arnold. These alone, among all of
their day who have written of him without the disadvantage or
advantage of a personal acquaintance, have clearly seen and
shown us the manhood of the man. That ridiculous and degrad-
ing legend which imposed so strangely on the generous tender-
ness of Shelley, while evoking the very natural and allowable
laughter of Byron, fell to dust at once for ever on the appearance
of Lord Houghton's biography, which gave perfect proof to all
time that " men have died and worms have eaten them " but
not for fear of critics or through suffering inflicted by reviews.
Somewhat too sensually sensitive Keats may have been in either
capacity, but the nature of the man was as far as was the quality
of the poet above the pitiful level of a creature whose soul could
" let itself be snuffed out by an article "; and, in fact, owing
doubtless to the accident of a death which followed so fast on
his early appearance and his dubious reception as a poet, the
insolence and injustice of his reviewers in general have been com-
paratively and even considerably exaggerated. Except from
the chief fountain-head of professional ribaldry then open in the
world of literary journalism, no reek of personal insult arose to
offend his nostrils; and the tactics of such unwashed malignants
were inevitably suicidal; the references to his brief experiment
of apprenticeship to a surgeon which are quoted from Blackwood,
in the shorter as well as in the longer memoir by Lord Houghton,
could leave no bad odour behind them save what might hang
about men's yet briefer recollection of his assailant's unmemor-
able existence. The false Keats, therefore, whom Shelley pitied
and Byron despised would have been, had he ever existed, a
thing beneath compassion or contempt. That such a man could
have had such a genius is almost evidently impossible; and yet
more evident is the proof which remains on everlasting record
that none was ever further from the chance of decline to such
degradation than the real and actual man who made that name
immortal. (A. C. S.)
Subjoined are the chief particulars of Keats's life.
He was the eldest son of Thomas Keats and his wife Frances
Jennings, and was baptized at St Botolph's, Bishopsgate, on
the i8th of December 1795. The entry of his baptism is supple-
mented by a marginal note stating that he was born on the 3ist
of October. Thomas Keats was employed in the Swan and
Hoop livery stables, Finsbury Pavement, London. He had
married his master's daughter, and managed the business on
the retirement of his father-in-law. In April 1804 Thomas
Keats was killed by a fall from his horse, and within a year of
this event Mrs Keats married William Rawlings, a stable-
keeper. The marriage proved an unhappy one, and in 1806 Mrs
Rawlings, with her children John, George, Thomas and Frances
Mary (afterwards Mrs Llanos, d. 1889), went to live at Edmonton
with her mother, who had inherited a considerable competence
from her husband. There is evidence that Keats's parents were
by no means of the commonplace type that might be hastily
inferred from these associations. They had desired to send their
sons to Harrow, but John Keats and his two brothers were even-
tually sent to a school kept by John Clarke at Enfield, where
he became intimate with his master's son, Charles Cowden
Clarke. His vivacity of temperament showed itself at school in
a love of fighting, but in the last year of his school life he
developed a great appetite for reading of all sorts. In 1810 he
left school to be apprenticed to Mr Thomas Hammond, a surgeon
in Edmonton. He was still within easy reach of his old school,
where he frequently borrowed books, especially the works of
Spenser and the Elizabethans. With Hammond he quarrelled
before the termination of his apprenticeship, and in 1814 the
connexion was broken by mutual consent. His mother had died
in 1810, and in 1814 Mrs Jennings. The children were left in the
care of two guardians, one of whom, Richard Abbey, seems to
have made himself solely responsible. John Keats went to
London to study at Guy's and St Thomas's hospitals, living at
first alone at 8 Dean Street, Borough, and later with two fellow
students in St Thomas's Street. It does not appear that he
neglected his medical studies, but his chief interest was turned to
poetry. In March 1816 he became a dresser at Guy's, but about
the same time his poetic gifts were stimulated by an acquaintance
formed with Leigh Hunt. His friendship with Benjamin
Haydon, the painter, dates from later in the same year. Hunt
introduced him to Shelley, who showed the younger poet a
constant kindness. In 1816 Keats moved to the Poultry to be
with his brothers George and Tom, the former of whom was then
employed in his guardian's counting-house, but much of the
poet's time was spent at Leigh Hunt's cottage at Hampstead.
In the winter of 1816-1817 he definitely abandoned medicine, and
in the spring appeared Poems by John Keats dedicated to Leigh
Hunt, and published by Charles and James Oilier. On the i4th
of April he left London to find quiet for work. He spent some
time at Shanklin, Isle of Wight, then at Margate and Canterbury,
where he was joined by his brother Tom. In the summer the
three brothers took lodgings in Well Walk, Hampstead, where
Keats formed a fast friendship with Charles Wentworth Dilke and
Charles Armitage Brown. In September of the same year (1817)
he paid a visit to his friend, Benjamin Bailey, at Oxford, and in
November he finished Endymion at Burford Bridge, near Dorking.
Bis youngest brother had developed consumption, and in March
John went to Teignmouth to nurse him in place of his brother
George, who had decided to sail for America with his newly
married wife, Georgiana Wylie. In May (1818) Keats returned
to London, and soon after appeared Endymion: A Poetic
Romance (1818), bearing on the title-page as motto "The stretched
metre of an antique song." Late in June Keats and his friend
Armitage Brown started on a walking tour in Scotland, vividly
described in the poet's letters. The fatigue and hardship
involved proved too great a strain for Keats, who was forbidden
by an Inverness doctor to continue his tour. He returned to
London by boat, arriving on the i8th of August. The autumn
was spent in constant attendance on his brother Tom, who died
at the beginning of December. There is no doubt that he
resented the attacks on him in Blackwood' s Magazine (August
1818), and the Quarterly Review (April 1818, published only in
September), but his chief preoccupations were elsewhere. After
his brother's death he went to live with his friend Brown. He
had already made the acquaintance of Fanny Brawne, a girl of
seventeen, who lived with her mother close by. For her Keats
yio
KEBLE
quickly developed a consuming passion. He was in indifferent
health, and, owing partly to Mr Abbey's mismanagement, in
difficulties for money. Nevertheless his best work belongs to this
period. In July 1819 he went to Shanklin, living with James Rice.
They were soon joined by Brown. The next two months Keats
spent with Brown at Winchester, enjoying an interval of calm-
ness due to his absence from Fanny Brawne. At Winchester
he completed Lamia and Otho the Great, which he had begun in
conjunction with Brown, and began his historical tragedy of
King Stephen. Before Christmas he had returned to London
and his bondage to Fanny. In January 1820 his brother George
paid a short visit to London, but received no confidence from
him. The fatal nature of Keats's illness showed itself on the 3rd
of February, but in March he recovered sufficiently to be present
at the private view of Haydon's picture of " Christ's Entry into
Jerusalem." In May he removed to a lodging in Wesleyan
Place, Kentish Town, to be near Leigh Hunt who eventually took
him into his house. In July appeared his third and last book,
Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St Agnes and other Poems (1820).
Keats left the Hunts abruptly in August in consequence of a
delay in receiving one of Fanny Brawne's letters which had been
broken open by a servant. He went to Wentworth Place, where
he was taken in by the Brawnes. The suggestion that he should
spend the winter in Italy was followed up by an invitation from
Shelley to Pisa. This, however, he refused. But on the i8th of
September 1820 he set out for Naples in company with Joseph
Severn, the artist, who had long been his friend. The travellers
settled in the Piazza de Spagna, Rome. Keats was devotedly
tended by Dr (afterwards Sir) James Clarke and Severn,
and died on the 23rd of February 1821. He was buried on
the 27th in the old Protestant cemetery, near the pyramid of
Cestius.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Keats's friends provided the material for the
authoritative biography of the poet by Richard Monckton M lines
(afterwards Lord Houghton) entitled Life, Letters and Literary
Remains of John Keats (1848; revised ed., 1867). The Poetical
Works of John Keats were issued with a memoir by R. M. Milnes in
1854, 1863, 1865, 1866, 1867, and in the Aldine edition, 1876. The
standard edition of Keats is The Poetical Works and other Writings
of John Keats now first brought together, including Poems and numerous
Letters not before published, edited with notes and appendices by Harry
Buxton Forman (4 vols., 1883; re-issue with corrections and addi-
tions, 1880). Of the many other editions of Keats's poems may be
mentioned that in the Muses' Library, The Poems of John Keats
(1896), edited by G. Thorn Drury with an introduction by Robert
Bridges, and another by E. de Sdlmcourt, 1905. The Letters of John
Keats to Fanny Brawne (1889) were edited with introduction and
notes by H. Buxton Forman, and the Letters of John Keats to his
Family and Friends (1891) by Sidney Colvin, who is also the author
of the monograph, Keats (1887), in the English Men of Letters Series.
See also The Papers of a Critic. Selected from the Writings of the late
Charles Wentworth Dilke (1875), and for further bibliographical
information and particulars of MS. sources the " Editor's Preface,"
&c. to a reprint edited by H. Buxton Forman (Glasgow, 1900).
A facsimile of Keats's autograph MS. of " Hyperion," purchased by
the British Museum in 1904, was published by E. de Sfilincourt
(Oxford, 1905). (M. BR.)
KEBLE, JOHN (1792-1866), English poet and divine, the
author of the Christian Year, was born on St Mark's Day
(April 25), 1792, at Fairford, Gloucestershire. He was the second
child of the Rev. John Keble and his wife Sarah Maule. De-
scended from a family which had attained some legal eminence
in the time of the Commonwealth, John Keble, the father of the
poet, was vicar of Coin St Aldwyn, but lived at Fairford, about
3 m. distant from his cure. He was a clergyman of the old
High Church school, whose adherents, untouched by the influ-
ence of the Wesleys, had moulded their piety on the doctrines
on the non-jurors and the old Anglican divines. Himself a good
scholar, he did not send his son to any school, but educated him
and his brother at home so well that both obtained scholarships
at Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. John was elected scholar of
Corpus in his fifteenth, and fellow of Oriel in his nineteenth year,
April 1811. In Easter term 1810 he had obtained double first
class honours, a distinction which had been obtained only once
before, by Sir Rebert Peel. After his election to the Oriel
fellowship Keble gained the University prizes, both for the
English essay and also for the Latin essay. But he was more
remarkable for the rare beauty of his character than even for
academic distinctions. Sir John Taylor Coleridge, his fellow
scholar at Corpus and his life-long friend, says of him, after their
friendship of five and fifty years had closed, " It was the singular
happiness of his nature, remarkable even in his undergraduate
days, that love for him was always sanctified by reverence —
reverence that did not make the love less tender, and love that
did but add intensity to the reverence." Oriel College was, at
the time when Keble became a fellow, the centre of all the finest
ability in Oxford. Copleston, Davison, Whately, were among
the fellows who elected Keble; Arnold, Pusey, Newman, were
soon after added to the society. In 1815 Keble was ordained
deacon, and priest in 1816. His real bent and choice were
towards a pastoral cure in a country parish; but he remained in
Oxford, acting first as a public examiner in the schools, then as a
tutor in Oriel, till 1823. In summer he sometimes took clerical
work, sometimes made tours on foot through various English
counties, during which he was composing poems, which after-
wards took their place in the Christian Year. He had a rare
power of attracting to himself the finest spirits, a power which
lay not so much in his ability or his genius as in his character, so
simple, so humble, so pure, so unworldly, yet wanting not that
severity which can stand by principle and maintain what he holds
to be the truth. In 1823 he returned to Fairford, there to assist his
father, and with his brother to serve one or two small and poorly
endowed curacies in the neighbourhood of Coin. He had made
a quiet but deep impression on all who came within his influence
in Oxford, and during his five yezirs of college tutorship had won
the affection of his pupils. But it was to pastoral work, and not
to academic duty, that he thenceforth devoted himself, associ-
ating with it, and scarcely placing on a lower level, the affection-
ate discharge of his duties as a son and brother. Filial piety
influenced in a quite unusual degree his feelings and his action all
life through. It was in 1827, a few years after he settled at
Fairford, that he published the Christian Year. The poems
which make up that book had been the silent gathering of years.
Keble had purposed in his own mind to keep them beside him,
correcting and improving them, as long as he lived, and to leave .
them to be published only " when he was fairly out of the way."
This resolution was at length overcome by the importunities of
his friends, and above all by the strong desire of his father to see
his son's poems in print before he died. Accordingly they were
printed in two small volumes in Oxford, and given to the world
in June 1827, but with no name on the title-page. The book
continued to be published anonymously, but the name of the
author soon transpired.
Between 1827 and 1872 one hundred and fifty-eight editions
had issued from the press, and it has been largely reprinted since.
The author, so far from taking pride in his widespread reputation,
seemed all his life long to wish to disconnect his name with the
book, and " as if he would rather it had been the work of some
one else than himself." This feeling arose from no false modesty.
It was because he knew that in these poems he had painted his
own heart, the best part of it; and he doubted whether it was
right thus to exhibit himself, and by the revelation of only his
better self, to win the good opinion of the world.
Towards the close of 1831 Keble was elected to fill the chair
of the poetry professorship in Oxford, as successor to his friend
and admirer, Dean Milman. This chair he occupied for ten
eventful years. He delivered a series of lectures, clothed in
excellent idiomatic Latin (as was the rule), in which he expounded
a theory of poetry which was original and suggestive. He looked
on poetry as a vent for overcharged feeling, or a full imagina-
tion, or some imaginative regret, which had not found their
natural outlet in life and action. This suggested to him a dis-
tinction between what he called primary and secondary poets —
the first employing poetry to relieve their own hearts, the second,
poetic artists, composing poetry from some other and less im-
pulsive motive. Of the former k<nd were Homer, Lucretius,
Burns, Scott; of the latter were Euripides, Dryden, Milton.
This view was set forth in an article contributed to the British
KECSKEMET— KEDGEREE
711
Critic in 1838 on the life of Scott, and was more fully developed
in two volumes of Praelectiones Academicae.
His regular visits to Oxford kept him in intercourse with his
old friends in Oriel common room, and made him familiar with
the currents of feeling which swayed the university. Catholic
emancipation and the Reform Bill had deeply stirred, not only
the political spirit of Oxford, but also the church feeling which
had long been stagnant. Cardinal Newman writes, " On Sunday
July 14, 1833, Mr Keble preached the assize sermon in the
University pulpit. It was published under the title of National
Apostasy. I have ever considered and kept the day as the start
of the religious movement of 1833." The occasion of this
sermon was the suppression, by Earl Grey's Reform ministry, of
ten Irish bishoprics. Against the spirit which would treat
the church as the mere creature of the state Keble had long
chafed inwardly, and now he made his outward protest, asserting
the claim of the church to a heavenly origin and a divine preroga-
tive. About the same time, and partly stimulated by Keble's
sermon, some leading spirits in Oxford and elsewhere began a
concerted and systematic course of action to revive High Church
principles and the ancient patristic theology, and by these means
both to defend the church against the assaults of its enemies,
and also to raise to a higher tone the standard of Christian life
in England. This design embodied itself in the Tractarian
movement, a name it received from the famous Tracts for the
Times, which were the vehicle for promulgating the new doctrines.
If Keble is to be reckoned, as Newman would have it, as the
primary author of the movement, it was from Pusey that it
received one of its best known names, and in Newman that it
soon found its genuine leader. To the tracts Keble made only
four contributions: — No. 4, containing an argument, in the
manner of Bishop Butler, to show that adherence to apostolical
succession is the safest course; No. 13, which explains the prin-
ciple on which the Sunday lessons in the church service are
selected; No. 40, on marriage with one who is unbaptized; No. 89,
on the mysticism attributed to the early fathers of the church.
Besides these contributions from his own pen, he did much for
the series by suggesting subjects, by reviewing tracts written by
others, and by lending to their circulation the weight of his
personal influence.
In 1835 Keble's father died at the age of ninety, and soon after
this his son married Miss Clarke, left Fairford, and settled at
Hursley vicarage in Hampshire, a living to which he had been
presented by his friend and attached pupil, Sir William Heath-
cote, and which continued to be Keble's home and cure for the
remainder of his life.
In 1841 the tracts were brought to an abrupt termination by
the publication of Newman's tract No. 90. All the Protestantism
of England was in arms against the author of the obnoxious
tract. Keble came forward at the time, desirous to share the
responsibility and the blame, if there was any; for he had seen
the tract before it was published, and approved it. The same
year in which burst this ecclesiastical storm saw the close of
Keble's tenure of the professorship of poetry, and thenceforward
he was seen hut rarely in Oxford. No other public event ever
affected Keble so deeply as the secession of Newman to the Church
of Rome in 1845. It was to him both a public and a private
sorrow, which nothing could repair. But he did not lose heart;
at once he threw himself into the double duty, which now
devolved on himself and Pusey, of counselling the many who
had hitherto followed the movement, and who, now in their per-
plexity, might be tempted to follow their leader's example, and
at the same time of maintaining the rights of the church against
what he held to be the encroachments of the state, as seen in
such acts as the Gorham judgment, and the decision on Essays
and Reviews. In all the ecclesiastical contests of the twenty
years which followed 1845, Keble took a part, not loud or obtru-
sive, but firm and resolute, in maintaining those High Anglican
principles with which his life had been identified. These absorb-
ing duties, added to his parochial work, left little time for
literature. But in 1846 he published the Lyra Innocentium;
and in 1863 he completed a life of Bishop Wilson.
In the late autumn of the latter year, Keble left Hursley for
the sake of his wife's health, and sought the milder climate of
Bournemouth. There he had an attack of paralysis, from which
he died on the 2gth of March 1866. He was buried in his own
churchyard at Hursley; and in little more than a month his
wife was laid by her husband's side.
Keble also published A Metrical Version of the Psalter (1839),
Lyra Innocentium (1846), and a volume of poems was published post-
humously. But it is by the Christian Year that he won the ear of
the religious world. It was a happy thought that dictated the plan
of the book, to furnish a meditative religious lyric for each Sunday of
the year, and for each saint's day and festival of the English Church.
The subject of each poem is generally suggested by some part of the
lessons or the gospel or the epistle for the day. One thing which
gives these poems their strangely unique power is the sentiment to
which they appeal, and the saintly character of the poet who makes
the appeal, illumining more or less every poem.
The intimacy with the Bible which is manifest in the pages of
the Christian Year; and the unobtrusive felicity with which Biblical
sentiments and language are introduced have done much to endear
these poems to all Bible readers. " The exactness of the descrip-
tions of Palestine, which Keble had never visited, have been noted,
and verified on the spot," by Dean Stanley. He points to features
of the lake of Gennesareth, which were first touched in the Chris-
tian Year; and he observes that throughout the book " the Biblical
scenery is treated graphically as real scenery, and the Biblical history
and poetry as real history and poetry."
As to its style, the Christian Year is calm and grave in tone, and
subdued in colour, as beseems its subjects and sentiments. The
contemporary poets whom Keble most admired were Scott, Words-
worth and Southey; and of their influence traces are visible in his
diction. Yet he has a style of language and a cadence of his own,
which steal into the heart with strangely soothing power. Some of
the poems are faultless, after their kind, flowing from the first stage
to the last, lucid in thought, vivid in diction, harmonious in their
pensive melody. In others there are imperfections in rhythm,
conventionalities of language, obscurities or over-subtleties of
thought, which mar the reader's enjoyment. Yet even the most
defective poems commonly have, at least, a single verse, expressing
some profound thought or tender shade of feeling, for which the
sympathetic reader willingly pardons artistic imperfections in the
rest.
Keble's life was written by his life-long friend Mr Justice J. T.
Coleridge. The following is a complete list of his writings: —
I. Works published in Keble's lifetime: Christian Year (1827);
Psalter (1839); Praelectiones Academicae (1844); Lyra Innocentium
(1846); Sermons Academical (1848); Argument against Repeal of
Marriage Law, and Sequel (1857); Eucharistical Adoration (1857);
Life of Bishop Wilson (1863); Sermons Occasional and Parochial
(1867). 2. Posthumous publications: Village Sermons on the
Baptismal Service (1868); Miscellaneous Poems (1869); Letters of
Spiritual Counsel (1870); Sermons for the Christian Year, &c. (ll
vols., 1875-1880) ; Occasional Papers and Reviews (1877) ; Studia Sacra
(1877) ; Outlines of Instruction or Meditation (1880).
KECSKEMET, a town of Hungary, in the county of Pest-
Pilis-Solt-Kiskun, 65 m. S.S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop.
(1900), 56,786. Kecskemet is a poorly built and straggling town,
situated in the extensive Kecskemet plain. It contains monas-
teries belonging to the Piarist and Franciscan orders, a Catholic
(founded in 1714), a Calvinistic and a Lutheran school. The
manufacture of soap and leather are the principal industries.
Besides the raising of cereals, fruit is extensively cultivated in
the surrounding district; its apples and apricots are largely
exported, large quantities of wine are produced, and cattle-
rearing constitutes another great source of revenue. Kecskemet
was the birthplace of the Hungarian dramatist Jozsef Katona
(1792-1830), author of the historical drama, Bdnk-Bdn
(1815).
KEDDAH (from Hindu Khedna, to chase), the term used
in India for the enclosure constructed to entrap elephants.
In Ceylon the word employed in the same meaning is corral.
KEDGEREE (Hindostani, khichri), an Indian dish, composed
of boiled rice and various highly-flavoured ingredients. Kedgeree
is of two kinds, white and yellow. The white is made with
grain, onions, ghee (clarified butter), cloves, pepper and salt.
Yellow kedgeree includes eggs, and is coloured by turmeric.
Kedgeree is a favourite and universal dish in India; among the
poorer classes it is frequently made of rice and pulse only, or
rice and beans. In European cookery kedgeree is a similar dish
usually made with fish.
KEEL— KEENE, C. S.
KEEL, the bottom timber or combination of plates of a ship
or boat, extending longitudinally from bow to stern, and sup-
porting the framework (see SHIP-BUILDING). The origin of the
word has been obscured by confusion of two words, the Old
Norwegian kjole (cf. Swedish kol) and a Dutch and German kiel.
The first had the meaning of the English " keel," the other of
ship, boat. The modern usage in Dutch and German has
approximated to the English. The word kid is represented in
old English by ceol, a word applied to the long war galleys of
the Vikings, in which sense " keel " or " keele " is still used by
archaeologists. On the Tyne " keel " is the name given to a
flat-bottomed vessel used to carry coals to the colliers. There
is another word " keel, " meaning to cool, familiar in Shakespeare
(Love's Labour Lost, v. ii. 930), " while greasy Joan doth keel
the pot," i.e. prevents a pot from boiling over by pouring in
cold water, &c., stirring or skimming. This is from the Old
English celan, to cool, a common Teutonic word, cf. German
ktihlen.
KEELEY, MARY ANNE (1806-1899), English actress, was born
at Ipswich on the 22nd of November 1805 or 1806. Her maiden
name was Goward, her father being a brazier and tinman. After
some experience in the provinces, she first appeared on the stage
in London on the 2nd of July 1825, in the opera Rosina. It was
not long before she gave up " singing parts " in favour of the
drama proper, where her powers of character-acting could have
scope. In June 1829 she married Robert Keeley (1793-1869),
an admirable comedian, with whom she had often appeared.
Between 1832 and 1842 they acted at Covent Garden, at the
Adelphi with Buckstone, at the Olympic with Charles Mathews,
and at Drury Lane with Macready. In 1836 they visited America.
In 1838 she made her first great success as Nydia, the blind girl,
in a dramatized version of Bulwer Lytton's The Last Days of
Pompeii, and followed this with an equally striking impersona-
tion of Smike in Nicholas Nickleby. In 1839 came her decisive
triumph with her picturesque and spirited acting as the hero of a
play founded upon Harrison Ainsworth's Jack Sheppard. So
dangerous was considered the popularity of the play, with its
glorification of the prison-breaking felon, that the lord chamber-
lain ultimately forbade the performance of any piece upon the
subject. It is perhaps mainly as Jack Sheppard that Mrs Keeley
lived in the memory of playgoers, despite her long subsequent
career in plays more worthy of her remarkable gifts. Under
Macready's management she played Nerissa in The Merchant
of Venice, and Audrey in As You Like It. She managed the
Lyceum with her husband from 1844 to 1847; acted with Webster
and Kean at the Haymarket; returned for five years to the
Adelphi; and made her last regular public appearance at the
Lyceum in 1859. A public reception was given her at this
theatre on her 9oth birthday. She died on the i2th of March
1899.
See Walter Goodman, The Keeleys on the Stage and off (London,
1895).
KEELING ISLANDS (often called Cocos and COCOS-KEELING
ISLANDS), a group of coral islands in the Indian Ocean, Let ween
12° 4' and 12° 13' S., and 96° 49'~S7' E., but including a smaller
island in 1 1° 50' N. and 96° 50' E. The group furnished Charles
Darwin with the typical example of an atoll or lagoon bland.
There are altogether twenty-three small islands, 9^ m. being the
greatest width of the whole atoll. The lagoon is very shallow
and the passages between many of the islands are fordable on
foot. An opening on the northern side of the reef permits the
entrance of vessels into the northern part of the lagoon, which
forms a good harbour known as Port Refuge or Port Albion. The
coco-nut (as the name Cocos Islands indicates) is the character-
istic product and is cultivated on all the islands. The flora is
scanty in species. One of the commonest living creatures is a
monstrous crab which lives on the coco-nuts; and in some places
also there are great colonies of the pomegranate crab. The group
was visited by Dr H. O. Forbes in 1878, and later, at the expense
of Sir John Murray, by Dr Guppy, Mr Ridley and Dr Andrews.
The object of their visits was the investigation of the fauna and
flora of the atoll, more especially of the formation of the coral
reefs. Dr Guppy was fortunate in reaching North Keeling Island,
where a landing is only possible during the calmest weather.
The island he found to be about a mile long, with a shallow
enclosed lagoon, less than 3 ft. deep at ordinary low water, with
a single opening on its east or weather side. A dense vegetation
of iron-wood (Cordia) and other trees and shrubs, together with
a forest of coco-nut palms, covers its surface. It is tenanted by
myriads of sea-fowl, frigate-birds, boobies, and terns (Gygis
Candida), which find here an excellent nesting-place, for the
island is uninhabited, and is visited only once or twice a year.
The excrement from this large colony has changed the carbonate
of lime in the soil and the coral nodules on the surface into
phosphates, to the extent in some cases of 60-70%, thus forming
a valuable deposit, beneficial to the vegetation of the island
itself and promising commercial value. The lagoon is slowly
filling up and becoming cultivable land, but the rate of recovery
from the sea has been specially marked since the eruption of
Krakatoa, the pumice from which was washed on to it in
enormous quantity, so that the lagoon advanced its shores
from 20 to 30 yards. Forbes's and Guppy's investigations go
to show that, contrary to Darwin's belief, there is no evidence
of upheaval or of subsidence in either of the Keeling groups.
The atoll has an exceedingly healthy climate, and might well
be used as a sanatorium for phthisical patients, the temperature
never reaching extremes. The highest annual reading of the
thermometer hardly ever exceeds 89° F. or falls beneath 70°.
The mean temperature for the year is 78-5° F., and as the rainfall
rarely exceeds 40 in. the atmosphere never becomes unpleasantly
moist. The south-east trade blows almost ceaselessly for ten
months of the year. Terrific storms sometimes break over the
island; and it has been more than once visited by earthquakes.
A profitable trade is done in coco-nuts, but there are few other
exports. The imports are almost entirely foodstuffs and other
necessaries for the inhabitants, who form a patriarchal colony
under a private proprietor.
The islands were discovered in 1609 by Captain William Keeling
on his voyage from Batavia to the Cape. In 1823 Alexander
Hare, an English adventurer, settled on the southernmost island
with a number of slaves. Some two or three years after, a
Scotchman, J. Ross, who had commanded a brig during the
English occupation of Java, settled with his family (who continued
in the ownership) on Direction Island, and his little colony
was soon strengthened by Hare's runaway slaves. The Dutch
Government had in an informal way claimed the possession of the
islands since 1829; but they refused to allow Ross to hoist the
Dutch flag, and accordingly the group was taken under British
protection in 1856. In 1878 it was attached to the government
of Ceylon, and in 1882 placed under the authority of the governor
of the Straits Settlements. The ownership and superintendency
continued in the Ross family, of whom George Clunies Ross
died in 1910, and was succeeded by his son Sydney.
See C. Darwin, Journal of the Voyage of the " Beagle," and Geolo-
gical Observations on Coral Reefs ; also Henry O. Forbes, A Naturalist's
Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago (London, 1884) ; H. B. Guppy,
" The Cocos-Keeling Islands," Scottish Geographical Magazine (vol. v.,
1889).
KEEL-MOULDING, in architecture, a round on which there is
a small fillet, somewhat like the keel of a ship. It is common in
the Early English and Decorated styles.
KEENE, CHARLES SAMUEL (1823-1891), English black-and-
white artist, the son of Samuel Browne Keene, a solicitor, was
born at Hornsey on the loth of August 1823. Educated at the
Ipswich Grammar School until his sixteenth year, he early showed
artistic leanings. Two years after the death of his father he was
articled to a London solicitor, but, the occupation proving uncon-
genial, he was removed to the office of an architect, Mr Pilking-
ton. His spare time was now spent in drawing historical and
nautical subjects in water-colour. For these trifles his mother,
to whose energy and common sense he was greatly indebted, soon
found a purchaser, through whom he was brought to the notice
of the Whympers, the wood-engravers. This led to his being
bound to them as apprentice for five years. His earliest known
KEENE, L.— KEEP
design is the frontispiece, signed " Chas. Keene," to The Adven-
tures of Dick Boldhero in Search of his Uncle, &c. (Barton & Co.,
1842). His term of apprenticeship over, he hired as studio an
attic in the block of buildings standing, up to 1900, between the
Strand and Holywell Street, and was soon hard at work for the
Illustrated London News. At this time he was a member of the
" Artists' Society " in Clipstone Street, afterwards removed to the
Langham studios. In December 1851 he made his first appear-
ance in Punch and, after nine years of steady work, was called
to a seat at the famous table. It was during this period of pro-
bation that he first gave evidence of those transcendent qualities
which make his work at once the joy and despair of his brother
craftsmen. On the starting of Once a Week, in 1859, Keene's
services were requisitioned, his most notable series in this
periodical being the illustrations to Charles Reade's A Good
Fight (afterwards rechristened The Cloister and the Hearth) and to
George Meredith's Evan Harrington. There is a quality of conven-
tionality in the earlier of these which completely disappears in
the later. In 1858 Keene, who was endowed with a fine voice
and was an enthusiastic admirer of old-fashioned music, joined
the " Jermyn Band," afterwards better known as the " Moray
Minstrels." He was also for many years a member of Leslie's
Choir, the Sacred Harmonic Society, the Catch, Glee and Canpn
Club, and the Bach Choir. He was also an industrious performer
on the bagpipes, of which instrument he brought together a con-
siderable collection of specimens. About 1863 the Arts Club in
Hanover Square was started, with Keene as one of the original
members. In 1864 John Leech died, and Keene's work in Punch
thenceforward found wider opportunities. It was about this time
that the greatest of all modern artistsof his class,Menzel,discovered
Keene's existence, and became a subscriber to Punch solely for
the sake of enjoying week by week the work of his brother crafts-
man. In 1872 Keene, who, though fully possessed of the humor-
ous sense, was not within measurable distance of Leech as a jester,
and whose drawings were consequently not sufficiently " funny "
to appeal to the laughter-loving public, was fortunate enough
to make the acquaintance of Mr Joseph Crawhall, who had been
in the habit for many years of jotting down any humorous
incidents he might hear of or observe, illustrating them at leisure
for his own amusement. These were placed unreservedly at
Keene's disposal, and to their inspiration we owe at least 250 of
his most successful drawings in the last twenty years of his con-
nexion with Punch. A list of more than 200 of these subjects is
given at the end of The Life and Letters of Charles Keene of
" Punch." In 1879 Keene removed to 239 King's Road, Chelsea,
which he occupied until his last illness, walking daily to and from
his house, 112 Hammersmith Road. In 1881 a volume of his
Punch drawings was published by Messrs Bradbury & Agnew,
with the title Our People. In 1 883 Keene, who had hitherto been
a strong man, developed symptoms of dyspepsia and rheumatism.
By 1889 these had increased to an alarming degree, and the last
two years of his life were passed in acute suffering borne with the
greatest courage. He died unmarried, after a singularly un-
eventful life, on the 4th of January 1891, and his body lies in
Hammersmith cemetery.
Keene, who never had any regular art training, was essentially
an artists' artist. He holds the foremost place amongst English
craftsmen in black and white, though his work has never been appre-
ciated at its real value by the general public. No doubt the main
reason for this lack of public recognition was his unconventionally.
He drew his models exactly as he saw them, not as he knew the world
wanted to see them. He found enough beauty and romance in all
that was around him, and, in his Punch work, enough subtle humour
in nature seized at her most humorous moments to satisfy nlnl- He
never required his models to grin through a horse collar, as^illray
did, or to put on their company manners, as was du Maurier s wont.
But Keene was not only a brilliant worker in pen and ink. As an
etcher he has also to be reckoned with, notwithstanding the fact that
his plates numbered not more than fifty at the outside. Impres-
sions of them are exceedingly rare, and hardly half a dozen of the
plates are now known to.be in existence. He himself regarded them
only as experiments in a difficult but fascinating medium. But
in the opinion of the expert they suffice to place him among the best
etchers of the igth century. Apart from the etched frontispieces
to some of the Punch pocket-books, only three, and these by no
means the best, have been published. Writing in L' Artiste lor May
1891 of a few which he had seen, Bracquemond says: By the
freedom, the largeness of their drawing and execution, these plates
must be classed amongst modern etchings of the first rank. A lew
impressions are in the British Museum, but in the main they were
given away to friends and lie hidden in the albums of the collector.
AUTHORITIES.— G. S. Layard, Life and Letters of Charles Keene of
" Punch "• The Work of Charles Keene, with an introduction and
notes by Joseph Pennell, and a bibliography by W. H. Chesson;
M. H. Spielmann, The History of " Punch "; M. Charpentier, La Vie
Moderne, No. 14 (1880); M. H. Spielmann, Magazine 0} Art (March
1891)- M. Bracquemond, L' Artiste (May 1891); G. S. Layard,
Scribner's (April 1892) ; Joseph Pennell, Century (Oct. 1897) ; George
du Maurier, Harper's (March 1898). (G. b. L.)
KEENE, LAURA (c. 1820-1873), Anglo-American actress
and manager, whose real name was Mary Moss, was born in
England. In 1851, in London, she was playing Pauline in The
Lady of Lyons. She made her first appearance in New York
on the 2oth of September 1852, on her way to Australia. She
returned in 1855 and till 1863 managed Laura Keene's theatre,
in which was produced, in 1858, Our American Cousin. It was
her company that was playing at Ford's theatre, Washington,
on the night of Lincoln's assassination. Miss Keene was a
successful melodramatic actress, and an admirable manager.
She died at Montclair, New Jersey, on the 4th of November
i873-
See John Creahan's Life of Laura Keene (1897).
KEENE, a city and the county-seat of Cheshire county, New
Hampshire, U.S.A., on the Ashuelot river, about 45 m. S.W. of
Concord, N.H., and about 92 m. W.N.W. of Boston. Pop.
(1900), 9165, of whom 1255 were foreign-born; (1910 census),
10,068. Area, 36-5 sq. m. It is served by the Boston &
Maine railroad and by the Fitchburg railroad (leased by the
Boston & Maine). The site is level, but is surrounded by
ranges of lofty hills — Monadnock Mountain'is about 10 m. S.E.
Most of the streets are pleasantly shaded. There are three
parks, with a total area of about 219 acres; and in Central
Square stands a soldiers' and sailors' monument designed by
Martin Milmore and erected in 1871. The principal buildings
are the city hall, the county buildings and the city hospital.
The Public Library had in 1908 about 16,300 volumes. There
are repair shops of the Boston & Maine railroad here, and
manufactures of boots and shoes, woollen goods, furniture
(especially chairs), pottery, &c. The value of the factory
product in 1905 was $2,690,967. The site of Keene was one of
the Massachusetts grants made in 1733, but Canadian Indians
made it untenable and it was abandoned from 1746 until 1750.
In 1753 it was incorporated and was named Keene, in honour
of Sir Benjamin Keene (1697-1757), the English diplomatist,
who as agent for the South Sea Company and Minister in
Madrid, and as responsible for the commerical treaty between
England and Spain in 1750, was in high reputation at the time;
it was chartered as a city in 1874.
KEEP, ROBERT PORTER (1844-1904), American scholar,
was born in Farmington, Connecticut, on the 26th of April 1844.
He graduated at Yale in 1865, was instructor there for two
years, Was United States consul at the Piraeus in Greece in
1869-1871, taught Greek in Williston Seminary, Easthampton,
Massachusetts, in 1876-1885, and was principal of Norwich Free
Academy, Norwich, Conn., from 1885 to 1903, the school
owing its prosperity to him hardly less than to its founders. In
1903 he took charge of Miss Porter's school for girls at Farming-
ton, Conn., founded in 1844 and long controlled by his aunt,
Sarah Porter. He died in Farmington on the 3rd of June
1904.
KEEP (corresponding to the French donjon), in architecture
the inmost and strongest part of a medieval castle, answering
to the citadel of modern times. The arrangement is said to
have originated with Gundulf, bishop of Rochester (d. 1108),
architect of the White Tower. The Norman keep is generally
a very massive square tower. There is generally a well in a
medieval keep, ingeniously concealed in the thickness of a wall
or in a pillar. The most celebrated keeps of Norman times in
England are the White Tower in London, those at Rochester
714
KEEWATIN— KEI ISLANDS
Arundel and Newcastle, Castle Hedingham, &c. When the
keep was circular, as at Conisborough and Windsor, it was
caUed a " shell-keep " (see CASTLE). The verb " to keep,"
from which the noun with its particular meaning here treated
was formed, appears in O.E. as ctpan, of which the deriva-
tion is unknown; no words related to it are found in cognate
languages. The earliest meaning (c. 1000) appears to have
been to lay hold of, to seize, from which its common uses of
to guard, observe, retain possession of, have developed.
KEEWATIN, a district of Canada, bounded E. by Committee
Bay, Fox Channel, and Hudson and James bays, S. and S.W. by
the Albany and English rivers, Manitoba, Lake Winnipeg, and
Nelson river, W. by the looth meridian, and N. by Simpson and
Rae straits and gulf and peninsula of Boothia; thus including
an area of 445,000 sq. m. Its surface is in general barren and
rocky, studded with innumerable lakes with intervening eleva-
tions, forest-clad below 60° N., but usually bare or covered
with moss or lichens, forming the so-called " barren lands " of
the north. With the exception of a strip of Silurian and
Devonian rocks, 40 to 80 m. wide, extending from the vicinity of
the Severn river to the Churchill, and several isolated areas of
Cambrian and Huronian, the district is occupied by Laurentian
rocks. The principal river is the Nelson, which, with its great
tributary, the Saskatchewan, is 1450 m. long; other tributaries
are the Berens, English, Winnipeg, Red and Assiniboine. The
Hayes, Severn and Winisk also flow from the south-west into
Hudson Bay, and the Ekwan, Attawapiskat and Albany, 500 m.
long, into James Bay. The Churchill, 925 m., Thlewliaza,
Maguse, and Ferguson rivers discharge into Hudson Bay on the
west side; the Kazan, 500 m., and Dubawnt, 660 m., into
Chesterfield Inlet; and Back's river, rising near Aylmer Lake,
flows north-eastwards 560 m. to the Arctic Ocean. The principal
lakes are St Joseph and Seul on the southern boundary; north-
ern part of Lake Winnipeg, 710 ft. above the sea; Island;
South Indian; Etawney; Nueltin; Yathkyed, at an altitude
of 300 ft.; Maguse; Kaminuriak; Baker, 30 ft.; Aberdeen,
130 ft.; and Garry. The principal islands are Southampton,
area 17,800 sq. m.; Marble Island, the usual wintering place
for whaling vessels; and Bell and Coats Islands, in Hudson
Bay; and Akimiski, in James Bay.
A few small communities at the posts of the Hudson Bay
Company constitute practically the whole of the white popula-
tion. In 1897 there were 852 Indians in the Churchill and Nelson
rivers district, but no figures are available for the district as a
whole. The principal posts in Keewatin are Norway House,
near the outlet of Lake Winnipeg; Oxford House, on the lake
of the same name; York Factory, at the mouth of Hayes river;
and Forts Severn and Churchill, at the mouths of the Severn
and Churchill rivers respectively. In 1905 the district of
Keewatin was included in the North- West Territories and the
whole placed under an administrator cr acting governor. The
derivation of the name is from the Cree — the " north wind."
KEF, more correctly El-Kef (the Rock), a town of Tunisia,
125 m. by rail S.S.W. of the capital, and 75 m. S.E. of Bona
in Algeria. It occupies the site of the Roman colony of Sicca
Veneria, and is built on the steep slope of a rock in a moun-
tainous region through which flows the Mellegue, an affluent of
the Mejerda. Situated at the intersection of main routes from
the west and south, Kef occupies a position of strategic import-
ance. Though distant some 22 m. from the Algerian frontier
it was practically a border post, and its walls and citadel were
kept in a state of defence by the Tunisians. The town with its
half-dozen mosques and tortuous, dirty streets, is still partly
walled. The southern part of the wall has however been
destroyed by the French, and the remainder is being left to
decay. Beyond the part of the wall destroyed is the French
quarter. The kasbah, or citadel, occupies a rocky eminence
on the west side of the town. It was built, or rebuilt, by the
Turks, the material being Roman. It has been restored by
the French, who maintain a garrison here.
The Roman remains include fragments of a large temple
dedicated to Hercules, and of the baths. The ancient cisterns
remain, but are empty, being used as part of the barracks. The
town is however supplied by water from the same spring which
filled the cisterns. The Christian cemetery is on the site of a
basilica. There are ruins of another Christian basilica, excavated
by the French, the apse being intact and the narthex serving as a
church. Many stones with Roman inscriptions are built into
the walls of Arab houses. The modern town is much smaller
than the Roman colony. Pop. about 6000, including about
100 Europeans (chiefly Maltese).
The Roman colony of Sicca Veneria appears from the character
of its worshipof Venus (Val. Max. ii. 6,§ 15)10 have been a Phoenician
settlement. It was afterwards a Numidian stronghold, and under
the Caesars became a fashionable residential city and one of the
chief centres of Christianity in North Africa. The Christian apolo-
gist Arnobius the Elder lived here.
See H. Barth, Die Kustenlander des Mittelmeeres (1849); Corpus
Inscript. Lat. , vol. viii. ; Sombrun in Bull, de la soc. de gfog. de Bordeaux
(1878). Also Cardinal Newman's Callista: a Sketch of the Third
Century (1856), for a " reconstruction " of the manner of lite of the
early Christians and their oppressors.
KEHL, a town in the grand-duchy of Baden, on the right bank
of the Rhine, opposite Strassburg, with which it is connected
by a railway bridge and a bridge of boats. Pop. 4000. It has
a considerable river trade in timber, tobacco and coal, which has
been developed by the formation of a harbour with two basins.
The chief importance of Kehl is its connexion with the military
defence of Strassburg, to the strategic area of which it belongs. It
is encircled by the strong forts Bose, Blumenthal and Kirchbach
of that system. In 1678 Kehl was taken from the imperialists by
the French, and in 1683 a new fortress, built by Vauban, was
begun. In 1697 it was restored to the Empire and was given to
Baden, but in 1703 and again in 1733 it was taken by the French,
who did not however retain it for very long. In 1793 the French
again took the town, which was retaken by the Austrians and
was restored to Baden in 1803. In 1808 the French, again in
possession, restored the fortifications, but these were dismantled
in 1815, when Kehl was again restored to Baden. In August
1870, during the Franco-German War, the French shelled the
defenceless town.
KEIGHLEY (locally KEITHLEY), a municipal borough in
the Keighley parliamentary division of the West Riding of
Yorkshire, England, 17 m. W.N.W. of Leeds, on branches of
the Great Northern and Midland railways. Pop. (1901), 41,564.
It is beautifully situated in a deep valley near the junction of
the Worth with the Aire. A canal between Liverpool and Hull
affords it water communication with both west and east coasts.
The principal buildings are the parish church of St Andrew
(dating from the time of Henry I., modernized in 1710, rebuilt
with the exception of the tower in 1805, and again rebuilt in
1878), and the handsome Gothic mechanics' institute and
technical school (1870). A grammar school was founded in
1713, the operations of which have been extended so as to
embrace a trade school (1871) for boys, and a grammar school
for girls. The principal industries are manufactures of woollen
goods, spinning, sewing and washing machines, and tools. The
town was incorporated in 1882, and the corporation consists
of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
KEI ISLANDS [Ke, Key, Kii, &c.; native, Ewab], a group
in the Dutch East Indies, in the residency of Amboyna, between
5° and 6° 5' S. and 131° 50' and 133° 15' E., and consisting of
four parts: Nuhu-Iut or Great Kei, Roa or Little Kei, the
Tayanda, and the Kur group. Great Kei differs physically in
every respect from the other groups. It is of Tertiary forma-
tion (Miocene), and has a chain of volcanic elevations along the
axis, reaching a height of 2600 ft. Its area is 290 sq. m., the
total land area of the group being 572 sq. m. All the other
islands are of post-Tertiary formation and of level surface. The
group has submarine connexion, under relatively shallow sea,
with the Timorlaut group to the south-west and the chain of
islands extending north-west towards Ceram; deep water
separates it on the east from the Aru Islands and on the west
from the inner islands of the Banda Sea. Among the products
are coco-nuts, sago, fish, trepang, timber, copra, maize, yams
KEIM— KEITH
and tobacco. The population is about 23,000, of whom 14,900
are pagans, and 8300 Mahommedans.
The inhabitants are of three types. There is the true Kei
Islander, a Polynesian by his height and black or brown wavy
hair, with a complexion between the Papuan black and the
Malay yellow. There is the pure Papuan, who has been largely
merged in the Kei type. Thirdly, there are the immigrant
Malays. These (distinguished by the use of a special language
and by the profession of Mohammedanism) are descendants of
natives of the Banda islands who fled eastward before the
encroachments of the Dutch. The pagans have rude statues of
deities and places of sacrifice indicated by flat-topped cairns. The
Kei Islanders are skilful in carving and celebrated boat-builders.
See C. M. Kan, " Onze geographische kennis der Keij-Epanden,"
in Tijdschrift Aardrijkskundig Genoolschap (1887); Martin, "Die
Kei-inseln u. ihr Verhaltniss zur Australisch-Asiatischen Grenzlinie,"
ibid, part vii. (1890); W. R. van Hoevell, " De Kei-Eilanden," in
Tijdschr. Batavian. Gen. (1889) ; " Verslagen van de wetenschappelijke
opnemingen en onderzoekingen op de Keij-Eilanden " (1889—1890),
by Planten and Wertheim (1893), with map and ethnographical atlas
of the south-western and south-eastern islands by Pleyte; Langen,
Die Key- oder Kii-Inseln (Vienna, 1902).
KEIM, KARL THEODOR (1825-1878), German Protestant
theologian, was born at Stuttgart on the I7th of December 1825.
His father, Johann Christian Keim, was headmaster of a gym-
nasium. Here Karl Theodor received his early education, and
then proceeded to the Stuttgart Obergymnasium. In 1843 he
went to the university of Tubingen, where he studied philosophy
under J. F. Reiff, a follower of Hegel, and Oriental languages
under Heinrich Ewald and Heinrich Meier. F. C. Baur, the
leader of the new Tubingen school, was lecturing on the New
Testament and on the history of the church and of dogma, and
by him in particular Keim was greatly impressed. The special
bent of Keim's mind is seen in his prize essay, Verhallniss der
Christen in den ersten drei Jakrkunderten bis Konstantin zum
rdmischen Reicke (1847). His first published work was Die
Reformation der Reichstadt Ulm (1851). In 1850 he visited the
university of Bonn, where he attended some of the lectures of
Friedrich Bleek, Richard Rothe, C. M. Arndt and Isaak Dorner.
He taught at Tubingen from June 1851 until 1856, when, having
become a pastor, he was made deacon at Esslingen, Wurttemberg.
In 1859 he was appointed archdeacon; but a few months later
he was called to the university of Zurich as professor of theology
(1859-1873), where he produced his important works. Before
this he had written on church history (e.g. Sckwabische Refor-
mationsgeschichte bis zum Augsburger Reichstag, 1855). His
inaugural address at Zurich on the human development of Jesus,
Die menschliche EntwicUung Jesu Christi (1861), and his Die
geschichtliche Wiirde Jesu (1864) were preparatory to his chief
work, Die Geschichte Jesu von Nazara in threr Verkettung mil dem
GcsamUeben seines Volkes (3 vols., 1867-1872; Eng. trans., Jesus
of Nazareth, and the National Life of Israel, 6 vols.), 1873-1882.
In 1873 Keim was appointed professor of theology at Giessen.
This post he resigned, through fll-health, shortly before his
death on the i7th of November 1878. He belonged to the
" mediation " school of theology.
Chief works, besides the above: ReformationsblaUer der 'Reichs-
itadt Esslingen (1860); Ambrosius Blarer,derScku>dbische Reformator
(1860); Der Obertritt Konstantins d. Gr. zum Ckrislentkum (1862);
his sermons, Freundesworte tur Gemtinde (2 vols., 1861-1862); and
Celsus" wahres Wort (1873)- I" 188' H- Ziegler published one of
Keim's earliest works, Rom und das Christenthum, with a biographical
sketch. See also Ziegler's article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie.
KEITH, the name of an old Scottish family which derived
its name from the barony of Keith in East Lothian, said to have
been granted by Malcolm IL, king of Scotland, to a member
of the house for services against the Danes. The office of
great marishal of Scotland, afterwards hereditary in the Keith
family, may have been conferred at the same time; for it was
confirmed, together with possession of the lands of Keith, to
Sir Robert Keith by a charter of King Robert Bruce, and
appears to have been held as annexed to the land by the tenure
of grand serjeanty. Sir Robert Keith commanded the Scottish
horse at Bannockburn, and was killed at the battle of Neville's
Cross in 1346. At the close of the I4th century Sir William
Keith, by exchange of lands with Lord Lindsay, obtained the
crag of Dunnottar in Kincardineshire, where he built the castle
of Dunnottar, which became the stronghold of his descendants.
He died about 1407. In 1430 a later Sir William Keith was
created Lord Keith, and a few years afterwards earl marishal,
and these titles remained in the family till 1716. William,
fourth earl marishal (d. 1581), was one of the guardians of Mary
queen of Scots during her minority, and was a member of her
privy council on her return to Scotland. While refraining
from extreme partisanship, he was an adherent of the Refor-
mation; he retired into private life at Dunnottar Castle about
1567, thereby gaming the sobriquet " William of the Tower."
He was reputed to be the wealthiest man in Scotland. His
eldest daughter Anne married the regent Murray. His grand-
son George, 5th earl marishal (c. 1553-1623), was one of the most
cultured men of his time. He was educated at King's College,
Aberdeen, where he became a proficient classical scholar, after-
wards studying divinity under Theodore Beza at Geneva. He
was a firm Protestant, and took an active part in the affairs of
the kirk. His high character and abilities procured him the
appointment of special ambassador to Denmark to arrange the
marriage of James VI. with the Princess Anne. He was sub-
sequently employed on a number of important commissions;
but he preferred literature to public affairs, and about 1620 he
retired to Dunnottar, where he died in 1623. He is chiefly
remembered as the founder in 1593 of the Marischal College in
the university of Aberdeen, which he richly endowed. From an
uncle he inherited the title of Lord Altrie about 1 590. William,
7th earl marishal (c. 1617-1661), took a prominent part in the
Civil War, being at first a leader of the covenanting party in
north-east Scotland, and the most powerful opponent of the
marquess of Huntly. He co-operated with Montrose in Aber-
deenshire and neighbouring counties against the Gordons. With
Montrose he signed the Bond of Cumbernauld in August 1640,
but took no active steps against the popular party till 1648,
when he joined the duke of Hamilton in his invasion of England,
escaping from the rout at Preston. In 1650 Charles II. was
entertained by the marishal at Dunnottar; and in 1651 the
Scottish regalia were left for safe keeping in his castle. Taken
prisoner in the same year, he was committed to the Tower and
was excluded from Cromwell's Act of Grace. He was made a
privy councillor at the Restoration and died in 1661. Sir John
Keith (d. 1714), brother of the /th earl marishal, was, at the
Restoration, given the hereditary office of knight marishal of
Scotland, and in 1677 was created earl of Kintore, and Lord
Keith of Inverurie and Keith-Hall, a reward for his share in
preserving the regalia of Scotland, which were secretly conveyed
from Dunnottar to another hiding-place, when the castle was
besieged by Cromwell's troops, and which Sir John, perilously
to himself, swore he had carried abroad and delivered to
Charles II., thus preventing further search. From him are
descended the earls of Kintore.
GEORGE, xoth earl marishal (c. 1693-1778), served under Marl-
borough, and like his brother Francis, Marshal Keith (?.».), was a
zealous Jacobite, taking part in the rising of 1715, after which
he es aped to the continent. In the following year he was
attainted, his estates and titles being forfeited to the Crown. He
lived for many years in Spain, where he concerned himself with
Jacobite intrigues, but he took no part in the rebellion of 1745,
proceeding about that year to Prussia, where he became, like
his brother, intimate with Frederick the Great. Frederick
employed him in several diplomatic posts, and he is said to have
conveyed valuable information to the earl of Chatham, as a
reward for which he received a pardon from George II., and
returned to Scotland in 1759. His heir male, on whom, but for
the attainder of 1716, his titles would have devolved, was
apparently his cousin Alexander Keith of Ravelston, to whom
the attainted earl had sold the castle and lands of Dunnottar
in 1766. From Alexander Keith was descended, through the
female line, Sir Patrick Keith Murray of Ochtertyre, who sold
the estates of Dunnottar and Ravelston. After the attainder
KEITH, F. E. J.— KEITH, VISCOUNT
of 1716 the right of the Keiths of Ravelston to be recognized as
the representatives of the earls marishal was disputed by Robert
Keith (1681-1757), bishop of Fife, a member of another collateral
branch of the family. The bishop was a writer of some repute,
his chief work, The History of the Affairs of the Church and State
of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1734), being of considerable value for
the reigns of James V., James VI., and Mary Queen of Scots. He
also published a Catalogue of the Bishops of Scotland (Edinburgh,
1755), and other less important historical and theological
works.
ROBERT KEITH (d. 1774), descended from a younger son of the
and earl marishal, was British minister in Vienna in 1748, and
subsequently held other important diplomatic appointments,
being known to his numerous friends, among whom were the
leading men of letters of his time, as " Ambassador Keith."
His son, Sir Robert Murray Keith (1730-1795), was on Lord
George Sackville's staff at the battle of Minden. He became
colonel of a regiment (the 87th foot) known as Keith's High-
landers, who won distinction in the continental wars, but were
disbanded in 1763; he was then employed in the diplomatic
service, in which he achieved considerable success by his
honesty, courage, and knowledge of languages. In 1781 he
became lieutenant-general; in 1789 he was made a privy
councillor.
From the Keith family through the female line was de-
scended George Keith Elphinstone, Baron Keith of Stonehaven,
Marishal and afterwards Viscount Keith (?.».), whose titles
became extinct at the death of his daughter Margaret, Baroness
Keith, in 1867.
See Calendar of Documents relating to Scotland, edited by J.
Bain (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1881-1888); Peter Buchzn, An Account of the
Ancient and Noble Family of Keith (Edinburgh, 1828); Memoirs and
Correspondence of Sir Robert Murray Keith, edited by Mrs. Gillespie
Smyth (London, 1849); John Spalding, Memorialls of the Trubles in
Scotland, 1624-1645 (2 vols., Spalding Club Publ. 21, 23, Aberdeen,
1 850-1 85 1 ) ; Sir Robert Douglas, The Peerage of Scotland (Edinburgh,
1813) ; G.E.C., Complete Peerage, vol. iv. (London, 1892). (R. J. M.)
KEITH; FRANCIS EDWARD JAMES (1696-1758), Scottish
soldier and Prussian field marshal, was the second son of William,
9th earl marishal of Scotland, and was born on the nth of June
1696 at the castle of Inverugie near Peterhead. Through his
careful education under Robert Keith, bishop of Fife, and sub-
sequently at Edinburgh University in preparation for the legal
profession, he acquired that taste for literature which afterwards
secured him the esteem of the most distinguished savants of
Europe; but at an early period his preference for a soldier's career
was decided. The rebellion of 1715, in which he displayed
qualities that gave some augury of his future eminence, com-
pelled him to seek safety on the Continent. After spending two
years in Paris, chiefly at the university, he in 1719 took part in
the ill-starred expedition of the Pretender to the Highlands of
Scotland. He then passed some time at Paris and Madrid in
obscurity and poverty, but eventually obtained a colonelcy in
the Spanish army, and, it is said, took part in the siege of Gibraltar
(1726-27). Finding his Protestantism a barrier to promotion,
he obtained from the king of Spain a recommendation to Peter
II. of Russia, from whom he received (1728) the command of a
regiment of the guards. He displayed in numerous campaigns
the calm, intelligent and watchful valour which was his chief
characteristic, obtaining the rank of general of infantry and the
reputation of being one of the ablest officers in the Russian
service as well as a capable and liberal civil administrator.
Judging, however, that his rewards were not commensurate
with his merits, he in 1747 offered his services to Frederick II.
of Prussia, who at once gave him the rank of field marshal, in 1 749
made him governor of Berlin, and soon came to cherish towards
him, as towards his brother, the loth earl marishal, a strong
personal regard. In 1756 the Seven Years' War broke out.
Keith was employed in high command from the first, and added
to his Russian reputation on every occasion by resolution and
promptitude of action, not less than by care and skill. In 1756
he commanded the troops covering the investment of Pirna,
and distinguished himself at Lobositz. In 1757 he commanded
at the siege of Prague; later in this same campaign he defended
Leipzig against a greatly superior force, was present at Rossbach,
and, while the king was fighting the campaign of Leuthen, con-
ducted a foray into Bohemia. In 1758 he took a prominent
part in the unsuccessful Moravian campaign, after which he
withdrew from the army to recruit his broken health. He
returned in time for the autumn campaign in the Lausitz, and
was killed on the i4th of October 1758 at the battle of Hoch-
kirch. His body was honourably buried on the field by Marshal
Daun and General Lacy, the son of his old commander in Russia,
and was shortly afterwards transferred by Frederick to the
garrison church of Berlin. Many memorials were erected to
him by the king, Prince Henry, and others. Keith died un-
married, but had several children by his mistress, Eva Mertens,
a Swedish prisoner captured by him in the war of 1741-43.
In 1889 the ist Silesian infantry regiment No. 22 of the
German army received his name.
See K. A. Varnhagen von Ense, Biographische Denkmale, part 7
(1844) ; Fragment of a Memoir of Field-Marshal James Keith, written
by himself (1714—1734; edited by Thomas Constable for the SpaldiYig
Club, 1843); T. Carlyle, Frederick the Great, passim; V. Paczynaski-
Tenczyn.Leben des G. F. M. Jakob Keith (Berlin, 1889) ; Peter Buchan,
Account of the Family of Keith (Edinburgh, 1878); Anon., Memoir
of Marshal Keith (Peterhead, 1869); Pauli, Leben grosser Helden,
part iv.
KEITH, GEORGE (c. 1639-1716), British divine, was born at
Aberdeen about 1639 and was educated for the Presbyterian
ministry at Marischal College in his native city. In 1662 he
became a Quaker and worked with Robert Barclay (q.v.). After
being imprisoned for preaching in 1676 he went to Holland and
Germany on an evangelistic tour with George Fox and William
Penn. Two further terms of imprisonment in England induced
him (1684) to emigrate to America, where he was surveyor-general
in East New Jersey and then a schoolmaster at Philadelphia. He
travelled in New England defending Quakerism against the
attacks of Increase and Cotton Mather, but after a time fell out
with his own folk on the subject of the atonement, accused them
of deistic views, and started a community of his own called
" Christian Quakers " or " Keithians." He endeavoured to
advance his views in London, but the Yearly Meeting of 1694
disowned him, and he established a society at Turner's Hall in
Philpot Lane, where he so far departed from Quaker usage as to
administer the two sacraments. In 1700 he conformed to the
Anglican Church, and from 1702 to 1704 was an agent of the
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in America. He died
on the 27th of March 1716 at Edburton in Sussex, of which parish
he was rector. Among his writings were The Deism of William
Penn and his Brethren (1699); The Standard of the Quakers
examined; or, an Answer to the Apology of Robert Barclay (1702);
A Journal of 'Travels (1706). Gilbert Burnet, bishop of Salisbury,
a fellow-Aberdonian, speaks of him as " the most learned man
that ever was in that sect, and well versed in the Oriental tongues,
philosophy and mathematics."
KEITH, GEORGE KEITH ELPHINSTONE, VISCOUNT (1746-
1823), British admiral, fifth son of the loth Lord Elphinstone,
was born in Elphinstone Tower, near Stirling, on the 7th of
January 1746. Two of his brothers went to sea, and he followed
their example by entering the navy in 1761, in the " Gosport,"
then commanded by Captain Jervis, afterwards Earl St Vincent.
In 1767 he made a voyage to the East Indies in the Company's
service, and put £2000 lent him by an uncle to such good purpose
in a private trading venture that he laid the foundation of a
handsome fortune. He became lieutenant in 1770, commander
in 1772, and post captain in 1775. During the war in America
he was employed against the privateers, and with a naval brigade
at the occupation of Charleston, S.C. In January 1781, when
in command of the " Warwick " (50), he captured a Dutch 50-
gun ship which had beaten off an English vessel of equal strength
a few days before. After peace was signed he remained on shore
for ten years, serving in Parliament as member first for Dum-
bartonshire, and then for Stirlingshire. When war broke out
again in 1793 he was appointed to the " Robust " (74), in which
he took part in the occupation of Toulon by lord Hood. He
KEITH— KEKULE
717
particularly distinguished himself by beating a body of the
French ashore at the head of a naval brigade of English and
Spaniards. He was entrusted with the duty of embarking the
fugitives when the town was evacuated. In 1794 he was pro-
moted rear-admiral, and in 1795 he was sent to occupy the Dutch
colonies at the Cape of Good Hope and in India. He had a
large share in the capture of the Cape in 1795, and in August 1796
captured a whole Dutch squadron in Saldanha Bay. In the
interval he had gone on to India, where his health suffered, and
the capture at Saldanha was effected on his way home. When
the Mutiny at the Nore broke out in 1797 he was appointed to
the command, and was soon able to restore order. He was
equally successful at Plymouth, where the squadron was also
in a state of effervescence. At the close of 1798 he was sent as
second in command to St Vincent. It was for a long time a
thankless post, for St Vincent was at once half incapacitated
by ill-health and very arbitrary, while Nelson, who considered
that Keith's appointment was a personal slight to himself, was
peevish and insubordinate. The escape of a French squadron
which entered the Mediterranean from Brest in May 1799 was
mainly due to jarrings among the British naval commanders.
Keith followed the enemy to Brest on their retreat, but was
unable to bring them to action. He returned to the Mediter-
ranean in November as commander-in-chief. He co-operated
with the Austrians in the siege of Genoa, which surrendered on
the 4th of June 1800. It was however immediately afterwards
lost in consequence of the battle of Marengo, and the French
made their re-entry so rapidly that the admiral had considerable
difficulty in getting his ships out of the harbour. The close of
1801 and the beginning of the following year were spent in
transporting the army sent to recover Egypt from the French.
As the naval force of the enemy was completely driven into port,
the British admiral had no opportunity of an action at sea, but
his management of the convoy carrying the troops, and of the
landing at Aboukir, was greatly admired. He was made a baron
of the United Kingdom — an Irish barony having been conferred
on him in 1797. On the renewal of the war in 1803 he was
appointed commander-in-chief in the North Sea, which post he
held till 1807. In February 1812 he was appointed commander-
in-chief in the Channel, and in 1814 he was raised to a viscounty.
During his last two commands he was engaged first in over-
looking the measures taken to meet a threatened invasion, and
then in directing tne movements of the numerous small squadrons
and private ships employed on the coasts of Spain and Portugal,
and in protecting trade. He was at Plymouth when Napoleon
surrendered and was brought to England in the " Bellerophon "
by Captain Maitland (1777-1839). The decisions of the British
government were expressed through him to the fallen Emperor.
Lord Keith refused to be led into disputes, and confined himself
to declaring steadily that he had his orders to obey. He was
not much impressed by the appearance of his illustrious charge,
and thought that the airs of Napoleon and his suite were ridicu-
lous. Lord Keith died on the roth of March 1823 at Tullyallan,
his property in Scotland, and was buried in the parish church.
A portrait of him by Owen is in the Painted Hall in Greenwich.
He was twice married: in 1787 to Jane Mercer, daughter of
Colonel William Mercer of Aldie; and in 1808 to Hester Maria
Thrale, who is spoken of as " Queenie " in Boswell's Life of
Johnson and Mme. D'Arblay's Diary. He had a daughter by
each marriage, but no son. Thus the viscounty became extinct
on his death, but the English and Irish baronies descended to
his elder daughter Margaret (i 788-1867), who married the Comte
de Flahault de la Billarderie, only to become extinct on her death.
There is a panegyrical Life of Lord Keith by Alex. Allardyce
(Edinburgh, 1882); and biographical notices will be found in John
Marshall's Royal Naval Biography, i. 43 (1823-1835), and the Naval
Chronicle, x. i. (D. H.)
KEITH, a police burgh of Banffshire, Scotland, on the Isla,
53! m. N.W. of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland rail-
way. Pop. (1901), 4753. A branch of the Highland railway also
gives access to Elgin, and there is a line to Buckie and Portessie on
the Moray Firth. The burgh includes Old Keith and New Keith
on the east bank of the Isla, and Fife-Keith on the west bank.
Though Old Keith has a charter dating from William the Lion
it fell into gradual decay; New Keith, founded in the i8th century
by the second earl of Seafield, being better situated for the growth
of a town. Fife-Keith has sprung up since 1816. The principal
public buildings include the Turner memorial hospital, the Long-
more hall, and the Institute. In the Roman Catholic church
there is a painting of the " Incredulity of St Thomas," presented
by Charles X. of France. The industries include manufactures of
tweeds, blankets, agricultural implements, and boots and shoes;
there are also distilleries, breweries, flour mills, and lime and
manure works. But the main importance of Keith lies in the
fact that it is the centre of the agricultural trade of the shire.
The " Summer Eve Fair " held in September is the largest cattle
and horse fair in the north of Scotland; the town is also the head-
quarters of the dressed-meat trade in the north.
KEJ, or KECH, the chief place in a district of the province of
Makran in Baluchistan, which has given its name to Kej-Makran,
as distinguished from Persian Makran. There is no town, but
a number of small villages dominated by a fort built upon a rock,
on the eastern bank of the Kej River. This fort, like many others
similarly placed throughout the country, is supposed to be im-
pregnable, but is of no strength except against the matchlocks
of the surrounding tribes. Kej (or Kiz) was an important trade
centre in the days of Arab supremacy in Sind, and the rulers of
Kalat at various times marched armies into the province with a
view to maintaining their authority. At the beginning of the
1 9th century it had the reputation of a commercial centre, trading
through Panjgur with Kandahar, with Karachi via Bela, and
with Muscat and the Persian Gulf by the seaport of Gwadar,
distant about 80 m. The present Khan of Kalat exercises but
a feeble sway over this portion of his dominion, although he
appoints a governor to the province. The principal tribe residing
around Kej is that of the Gichki, who claim to be of Rajput origin,
and to have settled in Makran during the i7th century, having
been driven out of Rajputana. The climate during summer is
too hot for Europeans. During winter, however, it is temperate.
The principal exports consist of dates, which are considered of the
finest quality. A local revolt against Kalat rendered an expedi-
tion against Kej necessary in 1898. Colonel Mayne reduced the
fortress and restored order in the surrounding districts.
KEKUL6, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1829-1896), German
chemist, was born at Darmstadt on the 7th of September 1829.
While studying architecture at Giessen he came under the in-
fluence of Liebig and was induced to take up chemistry. From
Giessen he went to Paris, and then, after a short sojourn in
Switzerland, he visited England. Both in Paris and in England
he enjoyed personal intercourse with the leading chemists of the
period. On his return to Germany he started a small chemical
laboratory at Heidelberg, where, with a very slender equipment,
he carried out several important researches. In 1858 he was
appointed professor of chemistry at Ghent, and in 1 865 was called
to Bonn to fill a similar position, which he held till his death in
that town on the i3th of June 1896. Kekule's main importance
lies in the far-reaching contributions which he made to chemical
theory, especially in regard to the constitution of the carbon com-
pounds. The doctrine of atomicity had already been enunciated
by E. Frankland, when in 1858 Kekule published a paper in which,
after giving reasons for regarding carbon as a tetravalent element,
he set forth the essential features of his famous doctrine of the
linking of atoms. He explained that in substances containing
several carbon atoms it must be assumed that some of the affinities
of each carbon atom are bound by the affinities of the atoms of
other elements contained in the substance, and some by an equal
number of the affinities of the other carbon atoms. The simplest
case is when two carbon atoms are combined so that one affinity
of the one is tied to one affinity of the other; two, therefore, of the
affinities of the two atoms are occupied in keeping the two atoms
together, and only the remaining six are available for atoms of
other elements. The next simplest case consists in the mutual
interchange of two affinity units, and so on. This conception led
Kekule to his " closed-chain " or " ring " theory of the constitution
yi8
KELLER, A.— KELLERMANN
of benzene which has been called the " most brilliant piece of
prediction to be found in the whole range of organic chemistry,"
and this in turn led in particular to the elucidation of the consti-
tution of the " aromatic compounds," and in general to new
methods of chemical synthesis and decomposition, and to a
deeper insight into the composition of numberless organic
bodies and their mutual relations. Professor F. R. Japp, in
the Kekule memorial lecture he delivered before the London
Chemical Society on the isth of December 1897, declared that
three-fourths of modern organic chemistry is directly or indirectly
the product of Kekule's benzene theory, and that without its
guidance and inspiration the industries of the coal-tar colours
and artificial therapeutic agents in their present form and
extension would have been inconceivable.
Many of KekulS's papers appeared in the Annalen der Chemie,
of which he was editor, and he also published an important work,
Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie, of which the first three volumes are
dated 1861 , 1866 and 1882, while of the fourth only one small section
was issued in 1887.
KELLER, ALBERT (1845- ), German painter, was born at
Gais, in Switzerland; he studied at the Munich Academy under
Lenbach and Ramberg, and must be counted among the leading
colourists of the modern German school. Travels in Italy,
France, England and Holland, and a prolonged sojourn in Paris,
helped to develop his style, which is marked by a sense of elegance
and refinement all too rare in German art. His scenes of society
life, such as the famous " Dinner " (1890), are painted with
thoroughly Parisian esprit, and his portraits are marked by the
same elegant distinction. He is particularly successful in the
rendering of rustling silk and satin dresses and draperies. His
historical and imaginative works are as modern in spirit and as
unacademical as his portraits. At the Munich Pinakothek is
his painting " Jairi Tochterlein " (1886), whilst the Konigsberg
Museum -contains his " Roman Bath," and the Liebieg collection
in Reichenberg the " Audience with Louis XV.," the first picture
that drew attention to his talent. Among other important works
he painted " Faustina in the Temple of Juno at Praeneste,"
" The Witches' Sleep " (1888) " The Judgment of Paris," " The
Happy Sister," " Temptation " (1892), " Autumn " (1893), " An
Adventure " (1896), and " The Crucifixion."
KELLER, GOTTFRIED (1819-1890), German poet and nove-
list, was born at Zurich on the igth of July 1819. His father, a
master joiner, dying' while Gottfried was young, his early educa-
tion was neglected; he, however, was in 1835 apprenticed to a
landscape painter, and subsequently spent two years •(1840-1842)
in Munich learning to paint. Interest in politics drew him into
literature, and his talents were first disclosed in a volume of short
poems, GedicUe (1846). This obtained him recognition from the
government of his native canton, and he was in 1848 enabled to
take a short course of philosophical study at the university of
Heidelberg. From 185010 1855 he lived in Berlin, where he wrote
his most important novel, Der griine Heinrich (1851-1853; revised
edition 1870-1880), remarkable for its delicate autographic por-
traiture and the beautiful episodes interwoven with the action.
This was followed by Die Leule von Seldwyla (1856), studies of
Swiss provincial life, including in Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe
one of the most powerful short stories in the German language,
and in Die drei gerechten Kammmacher, almost as great a master-
piece of humorous writing. Returning to his native city with a
considerable reputation, he received in 1861 the appointment of
secretary to the canton. For a time his creative faculty seemed
paralysed by his public duties, but in 1872 appeared Sieben
Legenden, and in 1874 a second series of Die Leute von Seldwyla,
in both of which books he displayed no abatement of power and
originality. He retired from the public service in 1876 and
employed his leisure in the production of Zuricher Novellen
(1878), Das Sinngedicht, a collection of short stories (1881), and
a novel, Martin Salander (Berlin, 1886). He died on the isth of
July 1890 at Hottingen. Keller's place among German novelists
is very high. Few have united such fancy and imagination to
such uncompromising realism, or such tragic earnestness to such
abounding humour. As a lyric poet, his genius is no less original ;
he takes rank with the best German poets of this class in the
second half of the igth century.
Keller's Gesammelte Werke were published in 10 vols. (1889-1890),
to which was added another volume, Nachgelassene Schriften und
Dichtungen, containing the fragment of a tragedy (1893). In English
appeared, G. Keller: A Selection of his Tales translated with a Memoir
by Kate Freiligrath-Kroeker (1891). For a further estimate of
Keller's life and works cf. O. Brahm (1883); E. Brenning, G. Keller
nach seinem Leben und Dichten (1892); F. Baldensperger, G. Keller;
sa vie et ses oeuvres (1893) ; A. Frey, Erinnerungen an Gottfried Keller
(1893); J- Baechtold, Kellers Leben. Seine Briefe und Tagebiicher
(Berlin, 1894-1897); A. Koster, G. Keller (1900; and ed., 1907); and
for his work as a painter, H. E. von Berlepsch, Gottfried Keller als
Maler (1895).
KELLER, HELEN ADAMS (1880- ), American blind deaf-
mute, was born at Tuscumbia, Alabama, in 1880. When barely
two years old she was deprived of sight, smell and hearing, by an
attack of scarlet fever. At the request of her parents, who were
acquainted with the success attained in the case of Laura Bridg-
man (q.v.), one of the graduates of the Perkins Institution at
Boston, Miss Anne M. Sullivan, who was familiar with the teach-
ings of Dr S. G. Howe (q.v.), was sent to instruct her at home.
Unfortunately an exact record of the steps in her education was
not kept; but from 1888 onwards, at the Perkins Institution,
Boston, and under Miss Sarah Fuller at the Horace Mann school
in New York, and at the Wright Humason school, she not only
learnt to read, write, and talk, but became proficient, to an ex-
ceptional degree, in the ordinary educational curriculum. In
1900 she entered Radcliffe College, and successfully passed the
examinations in mathematics, &c. for her degree of A. B. in 1904.
Miss Sullivan, whose ability as a teacher must be considered
almost as marvellous as the talent of her pupil, was throughout
her devoted companion. The case of Helen Keller is the most
extraordinary ever known in the education of blind deaf-mutes
(see DEAF AND DUMB ad fin.), her acquirements including several
languages and her general culture being exceptionally wide. She
wrote The Story of My Life (1902), and volumes on Optimism
(1903), and The World I Live in (1908), which both in literary
style and in outlook on life are a striking revelation of the results
of modern methods of educating those who have been so handi-
capped by natural disabilities.
KELLERMANN, FRANCOIS CHRISTOPHE DE (1735-1820),
duke of Valmy and marshal of France, came of a Saxon family,
long settled in Strassburg and ennobled, and was born there on
the 28th of May 1735. He entered the French army as a volun-
teer, and served in the Seven Years' War and in Louis XV. 's
Polish expedition of 1771, on returning from which he was made
a lieutenant-colonel. He became brigadier in 1784, and in the
following year martchal-de-camp. In 1789 Kellermann enthusi-
astically embraced the cause of the Revolution, and in 1791
became general of the army in Alsace. In April 1792 he was
made a lieutenant-general, and in August of the same year there
came to him the opportunity of his lifetime. He rose to the
occasion, and his victory of Valmy (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY
WARS) over the Prussians, in Goethe's words, " opened a new
era in the history of the world." Transferred to the army on the
Moselle, Kellermann was accused by General Custine of neglect-
ing to support his operations on the Rhine; but he was acquitted
at the bar of the Convention in Paris, and placed at the head of
the army of the Alps and of Italy, in which position he showed
himself a careful commander and excellent administrator.
Shortly afterwards he received instructions to reduce Lyons,
then in revolt against the Convention, but shortly after the sur-
render he was imprisoned in Paris for thirteen months. Once
more honourably acquitted, he was reinstated in his command,
and did good service in maintaining the south-eastern border
against the Austrians until his army was merged into that of
General Bonaparte in Italy. He was then sixty-two years of
age, still physically equal to his work, but the young generals
who had come to the front in these two years represented the
new spirit and the new art of war, and Kellermann's active
career came to an end. But the hero of Valmy was never for-
gotten. When Napoleon came to power Kellermann was named
KELLGREN— KELLS
719
successively senator (1800), honorary marshal of France (1803),
and duke of Valmy (1808). He was frequently employed in the
administration of the army, the control of the line of communi-
cations, and the command of reserve troops, and his long and
wide experience made him one of Napoleon's most valuable
assistants. In 1814 he voted for the deposition of the emperor
and became a peer under the royal government. After the
" Hundred Days " he sat in the Chamber of Peers and voted
with the Liberals. He died at Paris on the 23rd of September
1820.
See J. G. P. de Salve, Fragments histpriques sur M. le marechal de
Kellermann (Paris, 1807), and De Botidoux, Esquisse de la carriere
militaire de F. C. Kellermann, due de Valmy (Paris, 1817).
His son, FRANQOIS ETIENNE DE KELLERMANN, duke of Valmy
(1770-1835), French cavalry general, was born at Metz and served
for a short time in his father's regiment of Hussars previous to
entering the diplomatic service in 1791. In 1793 he again joined
the army, serving chiefly under his father's command in the Alps,
and rising in 1 796 to the rank of chef de brigade. In the latter
part of Bonaparte's celebrated Italian campaign of 1796-97 the
younger Kellermann attracted the future emperor's notice by his
brilliant conduct at the forcing of the Tagliamento. He was
made general of brigade at once, and continued in Italy after the
peace of Campo Formio, being employed successively in the
armies of Rome and Naples under Macdonald and Championnet.
In the campaign of 1800 he commanded a cavalry brigade under
the First Consul, and at Marengo (q.v.) he initiated and carried
out one of the most famous cavalry charges of history, which, with
Desaix's infantry attack, regained the lost battle and decided the
issue of the war. He was promoted general of division at once,
but as early as the evening of the battle he resented what he
thought to be an attempt to belittle his exploit. A heated con-
troversy followed as to the influence of Kellermann's charge on
the course of the battle, and in this controversy he displayed
neither tact nor forbearance. However, his merits were too
great for his career to be ruined either by his conduct in the dispute
or by the frequent scandals, and even by the frauds, of his private
life. Unlike his father's, his title to fame did not rest on one
fortunate opportunity. Though not the most famous, he was
perhaps the ablest of all Napoleon's cavalry leaders, and dis-
tinguished himself at Austerlitz (q.v.), in Portugal under Junot
(on this occasion as a skilful diplomatist), at the brilliant cavalry
combat of Tormes (Nov. 28, 1809), and on many other
occasions in the Peninsular War. His rapacity was more than
ever notorious in Spain, yet Napoleon met his unconvincing
excuses with the words, " General, whenever your name is
brought before me, I think of nothing but Marengo." He was
on sick leave during the Russian expedition of 1812, but in 1813
and 1814 his skill and leading were as conspicuous as ever. He
retained his rank under the first Restoration, but joinedNapoleon
during the Hundred Days, and commanded a cavalry corps in
the Waterloo campaign. At Quatre Bras he personally led his
squadrons in the famous cavalry charge, and almost lost his life
in the melee, and at Waterloo he was again wounded. He was
disgraced at the second Restoration, and, on succeeding to his
father's title and seat in the Chamber of Peers in 1820, at once
took up and maintained till the fall of Charles X. in 1830 an
attitude of determined opposition to the Bourbons. He died on
the 2nd of June 1835.
His son FRANCOIS CHRISTOPHE EDMOND DE KELLERMANN,
duke of Valmy (1802-1868), was a distinguished statesman,
political historian, and diplomatist under the July Monarchy.
KELLGREN, JOHAN HENRIK (1751-1795), Swedish poet and
critic, was born at Floby in West Gothland, on the ist of Decem-
ber 1751. He studied at the university of Abo, and had already
some reputation as a poet when in 1774 he there became a
" decent " in aesthetics. Three years later he removed to Stock-
holm, where in conjunction with Assessor Carl Lenngren he
began in 1778 the publication of the journal Stockholmsposten, of
which he was sole editor from 1788 onwards. Kellgren was
librarian to Gustavus III. from 1780, and from 1785 his private
secreUry. On the institution of the Swedish Academy in 1786
he was appointed one of its first members. He died at Stock-
holm on the 20th of April 1795. His strong satiric tendency led
him into numerous controversies, the chief that with the critic
Thomas Thorild, against whom he directed his satire Nyt forsok
till orimmad vers, where he sneers at the " raving of Shakespeare "
and " the convulsions of Goethe," His lack of humour detracts
from the interest of his polemical writings. His poetical works
are partly lyrical, partly dramatic; of the plays the versification
belongs to him, the plots being due to Gustavus III. The songs
interspersed in the four operas which they produced in common,
viz., Gustaf Vasa, Gustaf Adolf och Ebba Brake, Aeneas i Karlago,
and Drotlning Kristina, are wholly the work of Kellgren. From
about the year 1788 a higher and graver feeling pervades Kell-
gren's verses, partly owing to the influence of the works of Lessing
and Goethe, but probably more directly due to his controversy
with Thorild. Of his minor poems written before that date the
most important are the charming spring-song Vinterns valde
lyktar, and the satrical Mina lojen and Man eger ej snille for del
man ar galen. The best productions of what is called his later
period are the satire Ljusets fiender, the comic poem Dumboms
lefverne, the warmly patriotic Kantat d. I. Jan. 1789, the ode Till
Kristina, the fragment Sigwart och Hilma, and the beautiful song
Nya skapelsen, both in thought and form the finest of his works.
Among his lyrics are the choicest fruits of the Gustavian age of
Swedish letters. His earlier efforts, indeed, express the superficial
doubt and pert frivolousness characteristic of his time; but in
the works of his riper years he is no mere " poet of pleasure," as
Thorild contemptuously styled him, but a worthy exponent of
earnest moral feeling and wise human sympathies in felicitous
and melodius verse.
His Samlade skrifter (3 vols., 1796; a later edition, 1884-1885) were
revised by himself. His correspondence with Rosenstein and with
Clewberg was edited by H. Schuck (l886-l887and 1894). See Wiesel-
gren, Sveriges skona litteratur (1833-1849); Atterbom, Svenska stare
och skalder (1841—1855) ; C. W. Bottiger m Transactions of the Swedish
Academy, xlv. 107 seq. (1870); and Gustaf Ljunggren's Kellgren,
Leopold, och Thorild, and his Svenska vitterhetens hdfder (1873-1877).
KELLOGG, CLARA LOUISE (1842- ), American singer,
was born at Sumterville, South Carolina, in July 1842, and was
educated in New York for the musical profession, singing first
in opera there in 1861. Her fine soprano voice and artistic
gifts soon made her famous. She appeared as prima donna in
Italian opera in London, and at concerts, in 1867 and 1868; and
from that time till 1887 was one of the leading public singers.
She appeared at intervals in London, but was principally engaged
in America. In 1874 she organized an opera company which was
widely known in the United States, and her enterprise and energy
in directing it were remarkable. In 1887 she married Carl
Strakosch, and retired from the profession.
KELLS, a market town of county Meath, Ireland, on the Black-
water, 9! m. N.W. of Navan on a branch of the Great Northern
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 2428. The prosperity
of the town depends chiefly upon its antiquarian remains. The
most notable is St Columbkille's house, orginally an oratory,
but afterwards converted into a church, the chancel of which
was in existence in 1752. The present church is modern, with
the exception of the bell-tower, rebuilt in 1578. Near the church
there is a fine though imperfect specimen of the ancient round
tower, 99 ft. in height; and there are several ancient crosses, the
finest being that now erected in the market-place. Kells was
originally a royal residence, whence its ancient name Ceanannus,
meaning the dun or circular northern fort, in which the king
resided, and the intermediate name Kenlis, meaning head fort.
Here Conn of the Hundred Fights resided in the 2nd century;
and here was a palace of Dermot, king of Ireland, in 544-565. The
other places in Ireland named Kells are probably derived from
Cealla, signifying church. In the 6th century Kells, it is said,
was granted to St Columbkille. Of the monastery which he is
reported to have founded there are no remains, and the town
owes its chief ecclesiastical importance to the bishopric founded
about 807, and united to Meath in the i3th century. The
ecclesiastical establishment was noted as a seat of learning, and a
monument of this remains in the Book of Kells an illuminated
720
KELLY, E.— KELP
copy of the Gospels in Latin, containing also local records, dating
from the 8th century, and preserved in the library of Trinity
College, Dublin. The illumination is executed with extraordinary
delicacy, and the work is asserted to be the finest extant example
of early Christian art of this kind. Neighbouring antiquities
are the church of Dulane, with a fine doorway, and the dun or
fortification of Dimor, the principal erection of a series of defences
on the hills about 6 m. W. of Kells. Among several seats in the
vicinity is that of the Marquess of Headfort. * Kells returned two
members to the Irish parliament before the Union.
KELLY, EDWARD (1854-1880), Australian bushranger, was
born at Wallan .Wallan, Victoria. His father was a transported
Belfast convict, and his mother's family included several thieves.
As boys he and his brothers were constantly in trouble for horse -
stealing, and " Ned " served three years' imprisonment for this
offence. In April 1878, an attempt was made to arrest his brother
Daniel on a similar charge. The whole Kelly family resisted this
and Ned wounded one of the constables. Mrs Kelly and some of
the others were captured, but Ned and Daniel escaped to the hills,
where they were joined by two other desperadoes, Byrne and
Hart. For two years, despite a reward of £8000 offered jointly
by the governments of Victoria and New South Wales for their
arrest, the gang under the leadership of Kelly terrorized the
country on the borderland of Victoria and New South Wales,
" holding up " towns and plundering banks. Their intimate
knowledge of the district, full of convenient hiding-places, and
their elaborate system of well-paid spies, ensured the direct
pecuniary interest of many persons and contributed to their
long immunity from capture. They never ill-treated a woman,
nor preyed upon the poor, thus surrounding themselves with an
attractive atmosphere of romance. In June 1880, however,
they were at last tracked to a wooden shanty at Glenrowan,
near Benalla, which the police surrounded, riddled with bullets,
and finally set on fire. Kelly himself, who was outside, could, he
claimed, easily have escaped had he not refused to desert his
companions, all of whom were killed. He was severely wounded,
captured and taken to Beechworth, where he was tried, con-
victed and hanged in October 1880. The total cost of the
capture of the Kelly gang was reckoned at £115,000.
See F. A. Hare, The Last of the Bushrangers (London, 1892).
KELLY, SIR FITZROY (1796-1880), English judge, was born
in London in October 1796, the son of a captain in the Royal
Navy. In 1824 he was called to the bar, where he gained a
reputation as a skilled pleader. In 1834 he was made a king's
counsel. A strong Tory, he was returned as member of parlia-
ment for Ipswich in 1835, but was unseated on petition. In 1837
however he again became member for that town. In 1843 he sat
for Cambridge, and in 1852 was elected member for Harwich,
but, a vacancy suddenly occurring in East Suffolk, he preferred
to contest that seat and was elected. He was solicitor-general in
1845 (when he was knighted), and again in 1852. In 1858-1859
he was attorney-general in Lord Derby's second administration.
In 1866 he was raised to the bench as chief baron of the exchequer
and made a member of the Privy Council. He died at Brighton
on the 1 8th of September 1880.
See E. Foss, Lives of the Judges (1870).
KELLY, HUGH (1739-1777), Irish dramatist and poet, son of
a Dublin publican, was born in 1739 at Killarney. He was
apprenticed to a stay maker, and in 1760 went to London. Here
he worked at his trade for some time, and then became an
attorney's clerk. He contributed to various newspapers, and
wrote pamphlets for the booksellers. In 1767 he published
Memoirs of a Magdalen, or the History of Louisa Mildmay ( 2 vols . ) ,
a novel which obtained considerable success. In 1 766 he published
anonymously Thespis; or, A Critical Examination into the Merits
of All the Principal Performers belonging to Drury Lane Theatre,
a poem in the heroic couplet containing violent attacks on the
principal contemporary actors and actresses. The poem opens
with a panegyric on David Garrick, however, and bestows
foolish praise on friends of the writer. This satire was partly
inspired by Churchill's Rosciad, but its criticism is obviously
dictated chiefly by personal prejudice. In 1767 he produced a
second part, less scurrilous in tone, dealing with the Covent
Garden actors. His first comedy, False Delicacy, written in
prose, was produced by Garrick at Drury Lane on the 23rd of
January 1768, with the intention of rivalling Oliver Goldsmith's
Good-Natured Man. It is a moral and sentimental comedy,
described by Garrick in the prologue as a sermon preached in acts.
Although Samuel Johnson described it as " totally void of char-
acter," it was very popular and had a great sale. In French and
Portuguese versions it drew crowded houses in Paris and Lisbon.
Kelly was a journalist in the pay of Lord North, and therefore
hated by the party of John Wilkes, especially as being the editor
of the Public Ledger. His Thespis had also made him many
enemies; and Mrs Clive refused to act in his pieces. The pro-'
duction of his second comedy, A Word to the Wise (Drury Lane,
3rd of March 1770), occasioned a riot in the theatre, repeated at
the second performance, and the piece had to be abandoned. His
other plays are: Clementina (Covent Garden, 23rd of February
1771), ablank verse tragedy,given out to be the work of a " young
American Clergyman " in order to escape the opposition of the
Wilkites; The School for Wives (Drury Lane, nth of December
!773)> a prose comedy given out as the work of Major (afterwards
Sir William) Addington; a two-act piece, The Romance of an Hour
(Covent Garden, 2nd of December 1774), borrowed from Mar-
montel's tale L'Amilii a I'epreuve; and an unsuccessful comedy,
The Man of Reason (Covent Garden, gth of February 1776).
He was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1774, and
determined to give up literature. He failed in his new profession
and died in poverty on the 3rd of February 1777.
See The Works of Hugh Kelly, to which is prefixed the Life of the
Author (1778) ; Genest, History of the Stage (v. 163, 263-269, 308, 399,
45?T 517)- Pamphlets in reply to Thespis are: " Anti-Thespis . . ."
(1767); " The Kellyad . . . (1767'), by Louis Stamma; and " The
Rescue or Thespian Scourge ..." (1767), by John Brown-Smith.
KELLY, MICHAEL (1762-1826), British actor, singer and
composer, was the son of a Dublin wine-merchant and dancing-
master. He had a musical education at home and in Italy, and
for four years from 1 783 was engaged to sing at the Court Theatre
at Vienna, where he became a friend of Mozart. In 1 786 he sang
in the first performance of the Nozze di Figaro. Appearing in
London, at Drury Lane in 1787, he had a great success, and
thenceforth was the principal English tenor at that theatre. In
1793 he became acting-manager of the King's Theatre, and he
was in great request at concerts. He wrote a number of songs
(including " The Woodpecker"), and the music for many dramatic
pieces, now fallen into oblivion. In 1826 he published his enter-
taining Reminiscences, in writing which he was helped by Theodore
Hook. He combined his professional work with conducting
a music-shop and a wine-shop, but with disastrous financial
results. He died at Margate on the gth of October 1826.
KELP (in M.E. culp or culpe, of unknown origin; the Fr.
equivalent is varech), the ash produced by the incineration of
various kinds of sea- weed (Algae) obtainable in great abundance
on the west coasts of Ireland and Scotland, and the coast of
Brittany. It is prepared from the deep-sea tangle (Laminaria
digitata), sugar wrack (L. saccharina), knobbed wrack (Fucus
nodosus) , black wrack (F. serratus) , and bladder wrack (F. vesicu-
losus). The Laminarias yield what is termed " drift-weed kelp,"
obtainable only when cast up on the coasts by storms or other
causes. The species of Fucus growing within the tidal range
are cut from the rocks at low water, and are therefore known as
" cut-weeds." The weeds are first dried in the sun and are then
collected into shallow pits and burned till they form a fused
mass, which while still hot is sprinkled with water to break it up
into convenient pieces. A ton of kelp is obtained from 20 to 22
tons of wet sea-weed. The average composition may vary as
follows: potassium sulphate, 10 to 12%; potassium chloride,
20 to 25%; sodium carbonate, 5%; other sodium and mag-
nesium salts, 15 to 20%; and insoluble ash from 40 to 50%.
The relative richness in iodine of different samples varies
largely, good drift kelp yielding as much as 10 to 15 Ib per ton
of 22J cwts., whilst cut-weed kelp will not give more than 3 to
KELSO— KELVIN
721
4 lb. The use of kelp in soap and glass manufacture has been
rendered obsolete by the modern process of obtaining carbonate
of soda cheaply from common salt (see IODINE).
KELSO, a police burgh and market town of Roxburghshire,
Scotland, on the left bank of the Tweed, 52 m. (43 m. by road)
S.E. of Edinburgh and ioj m. N.E. of Jedburgh by the North
British railway. Pop. (1901), 4008. The name has been derived
from the Old Welsh calch, or Anglo-Saxon cealc, " chalk", and
the Scots how, " hollow," a derivation more evident in the
earlier forms Calkon and Calchon, and illustrated in Chalkheugh,
the name of a locality in the town. The ruined abbey, dedicated
to the Virgin and St John the Evangelist, was founded in 1128
by David I. for monks from Tiron in Picardy, whom he trans-
ferred hither from Selkirk, where they had been installed fifteen
years before. The abbey, the building of which was completed
towards the middle of the i3th century, became one of the
richest and most powerful establishments in Scotland, claiming
precedence over the other monasteries and disputing for a time
the supremacy with St Andrews. It suffered damage in numerous
English forays, was pillaged by the 4th earl of Shrewsbury in
1522, and was reduced to ruins in 1545 by the earl of Hertford
(afterwards the Protector Somerset). In 1602 the abbey lands
passed into the hands of Sir Robert Ker of Cessford, ist earl of
Roxburghe. The ruins were disfigured by an attempt to render
part of them available for public worship, and one vault was long
utilized as the town gaol. All excrescences, however, were
cleared away at the beginning of the igth century, by the efforts
of the Duke of Roxburghe. The late Norman and Early Pointed
cruciform church has an unusual ground-plan, the west end of the
cross forming the nave and being shorter than the chancel. The
nave and transepts extend only 23 ft. from the central tower.
The remains include most of the tower, nearly the whole of the
walls of the south transept, less than half of the west front with a
fragment of the richly moulded and deeply-set doorway, the
north and west sides of the north transept, and a remnant of the
chancel. The chancel alone had aisles, while its main circular
arches were surmounted by two tiers of triforium galleries. The
predominant feature is the great central tower, which, as seen
from a distance, suggests the keep of a Norman castle. It rested
on four Early Pointed arches, each 45 ft. high (of which the south
and west yet exist) supported by piers of clustered columns.
Over the Norman porch in the north transept is a small chamber
with an interlaced arcade surmounted by a network gable.
The Tweed is crossed at Kelso by a bridge of five arches con-
structed in 1803 by John Rennie. The public buildings include
a court house, the town hall, corn exchange, high school and
grammar school (occupying the site of the school which Sir
Walter Scott attended in 1 783) . The public park lies in the east
of the town, and the race-course to the north of it. The leading
industries are the making of fishing tackle, agricultural machinery
and implements, and chemical manures, besides coach-building,
cabinet-making and upholstery, corn and saw mills, iron found-
ing, &c. James and John Ballantyne, friends of Scott, set up a
press about the end of the i8th century, from which there issued,
in 1802, the first two volumes of the Minstrelsy of the Scottish
Border; but when the brothers transferred their business to
Edinburgh printing languished. The Kelso Mail, founded by
James Ballantyne in 1797, is now the oldest of the Border news-
papers. The town is an important agricultural centre, there
being weekly corn and fortnightly cattle markets, and, every
September, a great sale of Border rams.
Kelso became a burgh of barony in 1634 and five years later
received the Covenanters, under Sir Alexander Leslie, on their way
to the encampment on Duns Law. On the 24th of October 1715 the
Old Pretender was proclaimed James VIII. in the market square,
but in 1745 Prince Charles Edward found no active adherents in the
town.
About I m. W. of Kelso is Floors or Fleurs Castle, the principal
seat of the duke of Roxburghe. The mansion as originally designed
by Sir John Vanbrugh in 1718 was severely plain, but in 1849
William Henry Playfair converted it into a magnificent structure in
the Tudor style.
On the peninsula formed by the junction of the Teviot and the
Tweed stood the formidable castle and flourishing town of Roxburgh,
from which the shire took its name. No trace exists of the town,
and of the castle all that is left are a few ruins shaded by ancient ash
trees. The castle was built by the Northumbrians, who called it
Marchidum, or Marchmound, its present name apparently meaning
Rawic's burgh, after some forgotten chief. After the consolidation
of the kingdom of Scotland it became a favoured royal residence,
and a town gradually sprang up beneath its protection, which
reached its palmiest days under David I., and formed a member of
the Court of Four Burghs with Edinburgh, Stirling and Berwick.
It possessed a church, court of justice, mint, mills, and, what was
remarkable for the I2th century, grammar school. Alexander II.
was married and Alexander III. was born in the castle. During the
long period of Border warfare, the town was repeatedly burned and
the castle captured. After the defeat of Wallace at Falkirk the
castle fell into the hands of the English, from whom it was delivered
in 1314 by Sir James Douglas. Ceded to Edward III. in 1333, it
was regained in 1342 by Sir Alexander Ramsay of Dalhousie, only
to be lost again four years later. The castle was finally retaken and
razed to the ground in 1460. It was at the siege that the king,
James II., was killed by the explosion of a huge gun called " the
Lion." On the fall of the castle the town languished and was finally
abandoned in favour of the rising burgh of Kelso. The town, whose
patron-saint was St James, is still commemorated by St James's
Fair, which is held on the 5th of every August on the vacant site, and
is the most popular of Border festivals.
Sandyknowe or Smailholm Tower, 6 m. W. of Kelso, dating from
the 1 5th century, is considered the best example of a Border Peel
and the most perfect relic of a feudal structure in the South of
Scotland. Two m. N. by E. of Kelso is the pretty village of Ednam
(Edenham, " The Village on the Eden "), the birthplace of the poet
James Thomson, to whose memory an obelisk, 52 ft. high, was
erected on Ferney Hill in 1820.
KELVIN, WILLIAM THOMSON, BARON (1824-1907),
British physicist, the second son of James Thomson, LL.D.,
professor of mathematics in the university of Glasgow, was born
at Belfast, Ireland, on the 26th of June 1824, his father being then
teacher of mathematics in the Royal Academical Institution.
In 1832 James Thomson accepted the chair of mathematics at
Glasgow, and migrated thither with his two sons, James and
William, who in 1834 matriculated in that university, William
being then little more than ten years of age, and having acquired
all his early education through his father's instruction. In 1841
William Thomson entered Peterhouse, Cambridge, and in 1845
took his degree as second wrangler, to which honour he added
that of the first Smith's Prize. The senior wrangler in his year
was Stephen Parkinson, a man of a very different type of mind,
yet one who was a prominent figure in Cambridge for many years.
In the same year Thomson was elected fellow of Peterhouse. At
that time there were few facilities for the study of experimental
science in Great Britain. At the Royal Institution Faraday
held a unique position, and was feeling his way almost alone. In
Cambridge science had progressed little since the days of Newton.
Thomson therefore had recourse to Paris, and for a year worked
in the laboratory of Regnault, who was then engaged in his
classical researches on the thermal properties of steam. In
1846, when only twenty-two years of age, he accepted the chair
of natural philosophy in the university of Glasgow, which he
filled for fifty-three years, attaining universal recognition as one
of the greatest physicists of his time. The Glasgow chair was
a source of inspiration to scientific men for more than half a
century, and many of the most advanced researches of other
physicists grew out of the suggestions which Thomson scattered
as sparks from his anvil. One of his earliest papers dealt with
the age of the earth, and brought him into collision with the
geologists of the Uniformitarian school, who were claiming
thousands of millions of years for the formation of the stratified
portions of the earth's crust. Thomson's calculations on the
conduction of heat showed that at some time between twenty
millions and four hundred millions, probably about one hundred
millions, of years ago, the physical conditions of the earth must
have been entirely different from those which now obtain. This
led to a long controversy, in which the physical principles
held their ground. In 1847 Thomson first met James Prescott
Joule at the Oxford meeting of the British Association. A
fortnight later they again met in Switzerland, and together
measured the rise of the temperature of the water in a mountain
torrent due to its fall. Joule's views of the nature of heat
strongly influenced Thomson's mind, with the result that in 1848.
722
KELVIN
Thomson proposed his absolute scale of temperature, which is
independent of the properties of any particular thermometric
substance, and in 1851 he presented to the Royal Society of
Edinburgh a paper on the dynamical theory of heat, which
reconciled the work of N. L. Sadi Carnot with the conclusions
of Count Rumford, Sir H. Davy, J. R. Mayer and Joule, and
placed the dynamical theory of heat and the fundamental
principle of the conservation of energy in a position to command
universal acceptance. It was in this paper that the principle of
the dissipation of energy, briefly summarized in the second law
of thermodynamics, was first stated.
Although his contributions to thermodynamics may properly
be regarded as his most important scientific work, it is in the field
of electricity, especially in its application to submarine telegraphy,
that Lord Kelvin is best known to the world at large. From
1854 he is most prominent among telegraphists. The stranded
form of conductor was due to his suggestion; but it was in the
letters which he addressed in November and December of that
year to Sir G. G. Stokes, and which were published in the Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Society for 1855, that he discussed the mathe-
matical theory of signalling through submarine cables, and
enunciated the conclusion that in long cables the retardation due
to capacity must render the speed of signalling inversely propor-
tional to the square of the cable's length. Some held that if this
were true ocean telegraphy would be impossible, and sought in
consequence to disprove Thomson's conclusion. Thomson, on
the other hand, set to work to overcome the difficulty by improve-
ment in the manufacture of cables, and first of all in the pro-
duction of copper of high conductivity and the construction of
apparatus which would readily respond to the slightest variation
of the current in the cable. The mirror galvanometer and the
siphon recorder, which was patented in 1867, were the outcome
of these researches; but the scientific value of the mirror galvano-
meter is independent of its use in telegraphy, and the siphon
recorder is the direct precursor of one form of galvanometer
(d'Arsonval's ) now commonly used in electrical laboratories. A
mind like that of Thomson could not be content to deal with any
physical quantity, however successfully from a practical point
of view, without subjecting it to measurement. Thomson's
work in connexion with telegraphy led to the production in rapid
succession of instruments adapted to the requirements of the
time for the measurement of every electrical quantity, and when
electric lighting came to the front a new set of instruments was
produced to meet the needs of the electrical engineer. Some
account of Thomson's electrometer is given in the article on that
subject, while every modern work of importance on electric
lighting describes the instruments which he has specially de-
signed for central station work; and it may be said that there is
no quantity which the electrical engineer is ordinarily called upon
to measure for which Lord Kelvin did not construct the suitable
instrument. Currents from the ten-thousandth of an ampere to
ten thousand amperes, electrical pressures from a minute fraction
of a volt to 100,000 volts, come within the range of his instru-
ments, while the private consumer of electric energy is provided
with a meter recording Board of Trade units.
When W. Weber in 1851 proposed the extension of C. F. Gauss's
system of absolute units to electromagnetism, Thomson took up
the question, and, applying the principles of energy, calculated
the absolute electromotive force of a Daniell cell, and determined
the absolute measure of the resistance of a wire from the heat
produced in it by a known current. In 1861 it was Thomson who
induced the British Association to appoint its first famous com-
mittee for the determination of electrical standards, and it was
he who suggested much of the work carried out by J. Clerk
Maxwell, Balfour Stewart and Fleeming Jenkin as members
of that committee. The oscillatory character of the discharge
of the Leyden jar, the foundation of the work of H. R. Hertz
and of wireless telegraphy were investigated by him in
1853-
It was in 1873 that he undertook to write a series of articles for
Good Words on the mariner's compass. He wrote the first, but
so many questions arose in his mind that it was five years before
the second appeared. In the meanwhile the compass went
through a process of complete reconstruction in his hands,
a process which enabled both the permanent and the temporary
magnetism of the ship to be readily compensated, while the
weight of the loin, card was reduced to one-seventeenth of that
of the standard card previously in use, although the time of swing
was increased. Second only to the compass in its value to the
sailor is Thomson's sounding apparatus, whereby soundings can
be taken in 100 fathoms by a ship steaming at 16 knots; and by
the employment of piano- wire of a breaking strength of 140 tons
per square inch and an iron sinker weighing only 34 Ib, with a self-
registering pressure gauge, soundings can be rapidly taken in
deep ocean. Thomson's tide gauge, tidal harmonic analyser and
tide predicter are famous, and among his work in the interest of
navigation must be mentioned his tables for the simplification
of Sumner's method for determining the position of a ship
at sea.
It is impossible within brief limits to convey more than a
general idea of the work of a philosopher who published more than
three hundred original papers bearing upon nearly every branch
of physical science; who one day was working out the mathe-
matics of a vortex theory of matter on hydrodynamical principles
or discovering the limitations of the capabilities of the vortex
atom, on another was applying the theory of elasticity to tides
in the solid earth, or was calculating the size of water molecules,
and later was designing an electricity meter, a dynamo or a
domestic water-tap. It is only by reference to his published
papers that any approximate conception can be formed of his
life's work; but the student who had read all these knew com-
paratively little of Lord Kelvin if he had not talked with him face
to face. Extreme modesty, almost amounting to diffidence, was
combined with the utmost kindliness in Lord Kelvin's bearing
to the most elementary student, and nothing seemed to give him
so much pleasure as an opportunity to acknowledge the efforts
of the humblest scientific worker. The progress of physical dis-
covery during the last half of the ipth century was perhaps as
much due to the kindly encouragement which he gave to his
students and to others who came in contact with him as to his
own researches and inventions; and it would be difficult to speak
of his influence as a teacher in stronger terms than this.
One of his former pupils, Professor J. D. Cormack, wrote of him:
" It is perhaps at the lecture table that Lord Kelvin displays
most of his characteristics. . . . His master mind, soaring high,
sees one vast connected whole, and, alive with enthusiasm, with
smiling face and sparkling eye, he shows the panorama to his
pupils, pointing out the similarities and differences of its parts,
the boundaries of our knowledge, and the regions of doubt
and speculation. To follow him in his flights is real mental
exhilaration."
In 1852 Thomson married Margaret, daughter of Walter Crum
of Thornliebank, who died in 1870; and in 1874 he married Frances
Anna, daughter of Charles R. Blandy of Madeira. In 1866,
perhaps chiefly in acknowledgment of his services to trans-
Atlantic telegraphy, Thomson received the honour of knighthood,
and in 1892 he was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron
Kelvin of Largs. The Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
was conferred on him in 1896, the year of the jubilee of his pro-
fessoriate. In 1890 he became president of the Royal Society,
and he received the Order of Merit on its institution in 1902.
A list of the degrees and other honours which he received during
the fifty-three years he held his Glasgow chair would occupy as
much space as this article; but any biographical sketch would be
conspicuously incomplete if it failed to notice the celebration in
1896 of the jubilee of his professorship. Never before had such
a gathering of rank and science assembled as that which filled
the halls in the university of Glasgow on the i5th, i6th and I7th
of June in that year. The city authorities joined with the
university in honouring their most distinguished citizen. About
2500 guests were received in the university buildings, the library
of which was devoted to an exhibition of the instruments invented
by Lord Kelvin, together with his certificates, diplomas and
medals. The Eastern, the Anglo-American and the Commercial
KEMBLE
723
Cable companies united to celebrate the event, and from the
university library a message was sent through Newfoundland,
New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Los Angeles, New Orleans,
Florida and Washington, and was received by Lord Kelvin seven
and a half minutes after it had been despatched, having travelled
about 20,000 miles and twice crossed the Atlantic during the
interval. It was at the banquet in connexion with the jubilee
celebration that the Lord Provost of Glasgow thus summarized
Lord Kelvin's character: " His industry is unwearied; and he
seems to take rest by turning from one difficulty to another —
difficulties that would appal most men and be taken as enjoy-
ment by no one else. . . . This life of unwearied industry, of
universal honour, has left Lord Kelvin with a lovable nature that
charms all with whom he comes in contact."
Three years after this celebration Lord Kelvin resigned his
chair at Glasgow, though by formally matriculating as a student
he maintained his connexion with the university, of which in 1904
he was elected chancellor. But his retirement did not mean
cessation of active work or any slackening of interest in the
scientific thought of the day. Much of his time was given to
writing and revising the lectures on the wave theory of light which
he had delivered at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, in
1884, but which were not finally published till 1904. He con-
tinued to take part in the proceedings of various learned societies;
and only a few months before his death, at the Leicester meeting
of the British Association, he attested the keenness with which
he followed the current developments of scientific speculation
by delivering a long and searching address on the electronic
theory of matter. He died on the 1 7th of December 1907 at his
residence, Netherhall, near Largs, Scotland; there was no heir
to his title, which became extinct.
In addition to the Baltimore lectures, he published with Professor
P. G. Tait a standard but unfinished Treatise on Natural Philosophy
(1867). A number of his scientific papers were collected in his
Reprint of Papers on Electricity and Magnetism (1872), and in his
Mathematical and Physical Papers (1882, 1883 and 1890), and three
volumesof his Popular Lectures andAddresses appeared in 1889-1894.
He was also the author of the articles on " Heat " and " Elasticity
in the gth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
See Andrew Gray, Lord Kelvin (1908); S. P. Thompson, Life
of Lord Kelvin (1910), which contains a full bibliography of his
writings. (W. G. ; H. M. R.)
KEMBLE, the name of a family of English actors, of whom
the most famous were Mrs Siddons (q.v.) and her brother John
Philip Kemble, the eldest of the twelve children of ROGER
KEMBLE (1721-1802), a strolling player and manager, who in
1753 married an actress, Sarah Wood.
JOHN PHILIP KEMBLE (1757-1823), the second child, was
born at Prescot, Lancashire, on the ist of February 1757. His
mother was a Roman Catholic, and he was educated at Sedgeley
Park Catholic seminary, near Wolverhampton, and the English
college at Douai, with the view of becoming a priest. But at
the conclusion of the four years' course he discovered that he
had no vocation for the priesthood, and returning to England he
joined the theatrical company of Crump & Chamberlain, his
first appearance being as Theodosius in Lee's tragedy of that
name at Wolverhampton on the 8th of January 1776. In 1778
he joined the York company of Tate Wilkinson, appearing at
Wakefield as Captain Plume in Farquhar's The Recruiting
Officer; in Hull for the first time as Macbeth on the 3oth of
October, and in York as Orestes in Ambrose Philips's Distressed
Mother. In 1781 he obtained a " star " engagement at Dublin,
making his first appearance there on the 2nd of November as
Hamlet. He also achieved great success as Raymond in The
Count of Narbonne, a play taken from Horace Walpole's Castle
of Otranto. Gradually he woli for himself a high reputation as
a careful and finished actor, and this, combined with the greater
fame of his sister, led to an engagement at Drury Lane, where he
made his first appearance on the 3Oth of September 1783 as
Hamlet. In this role he awakened interest and discussion
among the critics rather than the enthusiastic approval of the
public. But as Macbeth on the 3ist of March 1785 he shared
in the enthusiasm aroused by Mrs Siddons, and established a
reputation among living actors second only to hers. Brother and
sister had first appeared together at Drury Lane on the 22nd of
November 1783, as Beverley and Mrs Beverley in Moore's
The Gamester, and as King John and Constance in Shakespeare's
tragedy. In the following year they played Montgomerie and
Matilda in Cumberland's The Carmelite, and in 1785 Adorni
and Camiola in Kemble's adaptation of Massinger's A Maid
of Honour, and Othello and Desdemona. Between 1785 and
1787 Kemble appeared in a variety of roles, his Mentevole in
Jephson's Julia producing an overwhelming impression. On the
8th of December 1787 he married Priscilla Hopkins Brereton
(1756-1845), the widow of an actor and herself an actress.
Kemble's appointment as manager of Drury Lane in 1788 gave
him full opportunity to dress the characters less according to
tradition than in harmony with his own conception of what was
suitable. He was also able to experiment with whatever parts
might strike his fancy, and of this privilege he took advantage
with greater courage than discretion. His activity was prodi-
gious, the list of his parts including a large number of Shake-
spearian characters and also a great many in plays now forgotten.
In his own version of Coriolanus, which was revived during his
first season, the character of the " noble Roman " was so exactly
suited to his powers that he not only played it with a perfection
that has never been approached, but, it is said, unconsciously
allowed its influence to colour his private manner and modes of
speech. His tall and imposing person, noble countenance, and
solemn and grave demeanour were uniquely adapted for the
Roman characters in Shakespeare's plays; and, when in addition
he had to depict the gradual growth and development of one
absorbing passion, his representation gathered a momentum
and majestic force that were irresistible. His defect was in
flexibility, variety, rapidity; the characteristic of his style was
method, regularity, precision, elaboration even of the minutest
details, founded on a thorough psychological study of the special
personality he had to represent. His elocutionary art, his fine
sense of rhythm and emphasis, enabled him to excel in declama-
tion, but physically he was incapable of giving expression to
impetuous vehemence and searching pathos. In Coriolanus and
Cato he was beyond praise, and possibly he may have been
superior to both Garrick and Kean in Macbeth, although it must
be remembered that in it part of his inspiration must have been
caught from Mrs Siddons. In all the other great Shakespearian
characters he was, according to the best critics, inferior to them,
least so in Lear, Hamlet and Wolsey, and most so in Shylock and
Richard III. On account of the eccentricities of Sheridan, the
proprietor of Drury Lane, Kemble withdrew from the manage-
ment, and, although he resumed his duties at the beginning of the
season 1800-1801, he at the close of 1802 finally resigned con-
nexion with it. In 1803 he became manager of Co vent Garden,
in which he had acquired a sixth share for £23,000. The theatre
was burned down on the 2oth of September 1808, and the
raising of the prices after the opening of the new theatre, in 1809,
led to riots, which practically suspended the performances for
three months. Kemble had been nearly ruined by the fire, and
was only saved by a generous loan, afterwards converted into a
gift, of £10,000 from the duke of Northumberland. Kemble
took his final leave of the stage in the part of Coriolanus on the
23rd of June 1817. His retirement was probably hastened by
the rising popularity of Edmund Kean. The remaining years
of his life were spent chiefly abroad, and he died at Lausanne on
the 26th of February 1823.
See Boaden, Life of John Philip Kemble (1825); Fitzgerald, The
Kembles (1871).
STEPHEN KEMBLE (1758-1822), the second son of Roger, was
rather an indifferent actor, ever eclipsed by his wife and fellow
player, Elizabeth Satchell Kemble (c. 1763-1841), and a man
of such portly proportions that he played Falstaff without
padding. He managed theatres in Edinburgh and elsewhere.
CHARLES KEMBLE (1775-1854), a younger brother of John
Philip and Stephen, was born at Brecon, South Wales, on the
25th of November 1775. He, too, was educated at Douai.
724
After returning to England in 1792, he obtained a situation in
the post-office, but this he soon resigned for the stage, making
his first recorded appearance at Sheffield as Orlando in As You
Like It in that year. During the early period of his career as
an actor he made his way slowly to public favour. For a con-
siderable time he played with his brother and sister, chiefly in
secondary parts, and this with a grace and finish which received
scant justice from the critics. His first London appearance was
on the 2ist of April 1794, as Malcolm to his brother's Macbeth.
Ultimately he won independent fame, especially in such char-
acters as Archer in George Farquhar's Beaux' Stratagem, Dorin-
court in Mrs Cowley's Belle's Stratagem, Charles Surface and
Ranger in Dr Benjamin Hoadley's Suspicious Husband. His
Laertes and Macduff were hardly less interesting than his brother's
Hamlet and Macbeth. In comedy he was ably supported by his
wife, Marie Therese De Camp (1774-1838), whom he married on
the 2nd of July 1806. His visit, with his daughter Fanny, to
America during 1832 and 1834, aroused much enthusiasm. The
later period of his career was clouded by money embarrassments
in connexion with his joint proprietorship in Covent Garden
theatre. He formally retired from the stage in December 1836,
but his final appearance was on the loth of April 1840. For
some time he held the office of examiner of plays. In 1844-
1845 he gave readings from Shakespeare at Willis's Rooms.
He died on the I2th of November 1854. Macready regarded
his Cassio as incomparable, and summed him up as " a first-rate
actor of second-rate parts."
See Gentleman's Magazine, January 1855; Records of a Girlhood,
by Frances Anne Kemble.
ELIZABETH WHTTLOCK (1761-1836), who was a daughter of
Roger Kemble, made her first appearance on the stage in 1783
at Drury Lane as Portia. In 1785 she married Charles E.
Whitlock, went with him to America and played with much
success there. She had the honour of appearing before President
Washington. She seems to have retired about 1807, and she
died on the 27th of February 1836. Her reputation as a tragic
actress might have been greater had she not been Mrs Siddons's
sister.
FRANCES ANNE KEMBLE (Fanny Kemble) (1809-1893), the
actress and author, was Charles Kemble's elder daughter; she
was born in London on the 27th of November 1809, and educated
chiefly in France. She first appeared on the stage on the 2Sth
of October 1829 as Juliet at Covent Garden. Her attractive
personality at once made her a great favourite, her popularity
enabling her father to recoup his losses as a manager. She played
all the principal women's parts, notably Portia, Beatrice and
Lady Teazle, but Julia in Sheridan Knowles's The Hunchback,
especially written for her, was perhaps her greatest success. In
1832 she went with her father to America, and in 1834 she
married there a Southern planter, Pierce Butler. They were
divorced in 1849. In 1847 she returned to the stage, from which
she had retired on her marriage, and later, following her father's
example, appeared with much success as a Shakespearian reader.
In 1877 she returned to England, where she lived — using her
maiden name — till her death in London on the isth of January
1893. During this period Fanny Kemble was a prominent and
popular figure in the social life of London. Besides her plays,
Francis the First, unsuccessfully produced in 1832, The Star of
Seville (1837), a volume of Poems (1844), and a book of Italian
travel, A Year of Consolation (1847), she published a volume of
her Journal in 1835, and in 1863 another (dealing with life on
the Georgia plantation), and also a volume of Plays, including
translations from Dumas and Schiller. These were followed by
Records of a Girlhood (1878), Records of Later Life (1882), Notes
on some of Shakespeare's Plays (1882), Far Away and Long Ago
(1889), and Further Records (1891). Her various volumes of
reminiscences contain much valuable material for the social and
dramatic history of the period.
ADELAIDE KEMBLE (1814-1879), Charles Kemble's second
daughter, was an opera singer of great promise, whose first
London appearance was made in Norma on the 2nd of November
1841. In 1843 she married Edward John Sartoris, a rich Italian,
KEMBLE, J. M.— KEMENY
and retired after a brief but brilliant career. She wrote A Week
in a French Country House (1867), a bright and humorous story,
and of a literary quality not shared by other tales that followed.
Her son, Algernon Charles Sartoris, married General U. S. Grant's
daughter.
Among more recent members of the Kemble family, mention
may also be made of Charles Kemble's grandson, HENRY KEMBLE
(1848-1907), a sterling and popular London actor.
KEMBLE, JOHN MITCHELL (1807-1857), English scholar
and historian, eldest son of Charles Kemble the actor, was born
in 1807. He received his education partly from Dr Richardson,
author of the Dictionary of the English Language, and partly at
the grammar school of Bury St Edmunds, where he obtained
in 1826 an exhibition to Trinity College, Cambridge. At the
university his historical essays gained him high reputation. The
bent of his studies was turned more especially towards the Anglo-
Saxon period through the influence of the brothers Grimm, under
whom he studied at Gottingen (1831). His thorough knowledge
of the Teutonic languages and his critical faculty were shown
in his Beowulf (1833-1837), Uber die Stammtafcl der Westsachsen
(1836), Codex Diplomaticus Aevi Saxonici (1839-1848), and in
many contributions to reviews; while his History of the Saxons
in England (1849; new ed. 1876), though it must now be read
with caution, was the first attempt at a thorough examination
of the original sources of the early period of English history. He
was editor of the British and Foreign Review from 1835 to 1844;
and from 1840 to his death was examiner of plays. In 1857 he
published State Papers and Correspondence illustrative of the
Social and Political State of Europe from the Revolution to the
Accession of the House of Hanover. He died at Dublin on the
26th of March 1857. His HoraeFerales, or Studies in the Archae-
ology of Northern Nations, was completed by Dr R. G. Latham,
and published in 1864. He married the daughter of Professor
Amadeus Wendt of Gottingen in 1836; and had two daughters
and a son; the elder daughter was the wife of Sir Charles Santley,
the singer.
KEMENY, ZSIGMOND, BARON (1816-1875), Hungarian author,
came of a noble but reduced family. In 1837 he studied juris-
prudence at Marosvasarhely, but soon devoted himself entirely
to journalism and literature. His first unfinished work, On the
Causes of the Disaster of M ohacs (1840), attracted much attention.
In the same year he studied natural history and anatomy at
Vienna University. In 1841, along with Lajos Kovacs, he edited
the Transylvanian newspaper Erdelyi HiradS. He also took an
active part in provincial politics and warmly supported the
principles of Count Stephen Szechenyi. In 1846 he moved to
Pest, where his pamphlet, Korteskedes 6s ellenszerei (Partisanship
and its Antidote), had already made him famous. Here he
consorted with the most eminent of the moderate reformers, and
for a time was on the staff of the Pesti Hirlap. The same year
he brought out his first great novel, Pal Gyulay. He was elected
a member of the revolutionary diet of 1848 and accompanied
it through all its vicissitudes. After a brief exile he accepted
the amnesty and returned to Hungary. Careless of his unpopu-
larity, he took up his pen to defend the cause of justice and
moderation, and in his two pamphlets, Forradalom ut&n (After
the Revolution) and Meg egysz 6 a forradalom ut&n (One word
more after the Revolution), he defended the point of view which
was realized by Deak in 1867. He subsequently edited the Pesti
NapU, which became virtually Deak's political organ. Kemeny
also published several political essays (e.g. The Two Wesselenyis,
and Stephen Szechenyi) which are among the best of their kind
in any literature. His novels published during these years, such
as Ferj es no (Husband and Wife), Szivonenyei (The Heart's
Secrets), &c., also won for him a foremost rank among con-
temporary novelists. During the 'sixties Kem6ny took an active
part in the political labours of Deak, whose right hand he con-
tinued to be, and popularized the Composition of 1867 which
he had done so much to bring about. He was elected to the diet
of 1867 for one of the divisions of Pest, but took no part in the
debates. The last years of his life were passed in complete
seclusion in Transylvania. To the works of Kem6ny already
KEMP— KEMPT
725
mentioned should be added the fine historical novel Rajongok
(The Fanatics) (Pest, 1858-1859), and Collected Speeches
(Hung.) (Pest, 1889).
See L. Nogrady, Baron Sigismund Kemeny's Life and Writings
(Hung.) (Budapest, 1902) ; G. Beksics, Sigismund Kemtny, the Revolu-
tion and the Composition (Hung.) (Budapest, 1888). (R. N. B.)
KEMP, WILLIAM (fl. 1600), English actor and dancer. He
probably began his career as a member of the earl of Leicester's
company, but his name first appears after the death of Leicester
in a list of players authorized by an order of the privy council
in 1593 to play 7 m. out of London. Ferdinand Stanley,
Lord Strange, was the patron of the company of which Kemp
was the leading member until 1598, and in 1594 was summoned
with Burbage and Shakespeare to act before the queen at Green-
wich. He was the successor, both in parts and reputation, of
Richard Tarlton. But it was as a dancer of jigs that he won his
greatest popularity, one or two actors dancing and singing with
him, and the words doubtless often being improvised. Examples
of the music may be seen in the MS. collection of John Dowland
now in the Cambridge University library. At the same time
Kemp was given parts like Dogberry, and Peter in Romeo and
Juliet; indeed his name appears by accident in place of those of
the characters in early copies. Kemp seems to have exhibited
his dancing on the Continent, but in 1602 he was a member of the
earl of Worcester's players, and Philip Henslowe's diary shows
several payments made to him in that year.
KEMPE, JOHN (c. 1380-1454), English cardinal, archbishop
of Canterbury, and chancellor, was son of Thomas Kempe, a
gentleman of Ollantigh, in the parish of Wye near Ashford, Kent.
He was born about 1380 and educated at Merton College, Oxford.
He practised as an ecclesiastical lawyer, was an assessor at the
trial of Oldcastle, and in 1415 was made dean of the Court of
Arches. Then he passed into the royal service, and being em-
ployed in the administration of Normandy was eventually made
chancellor of the duchy. Early in 1419 he was elected bishop
of Rochester, and was consecrated at Rouen on the 3rd of
December. In February 1421 he was translated to Chichester,
and in November following to London. During the minority
of Henry VI. Kempe had a prominent position in the English
council as a supporter of Henry Beaufort, whom he succeeded
as chancellor in March 1426. In this same year he was promoted
to the archbishopric of York. Kempe held office as chancellor
for six years; his main task in government was to keep Humphrey
of Gloucester in check. His resignation on the 28th of February
1432 was a concession to Gloucester. He still enjoyed Beau-
fort's favour, and retaining his place in the council was employed
on important missions, especially at the congress of Arras in
1435, and the conference at Calais in 1438. In December 1439
he was created cardinal, and during the next few years took less
share in politics. He supported Suffolk over the king's marriage
with Margaret of Anjou; but afterwards there arose some differ-
ence between them, due in part to a dispute about the nomination
of the cardinal's nephew, Thomas Kempe, to the bishopric of
London. At the time of Suffolk's fall in January 1450 Kempe
once more became chancellor. His appointment may have been
due to the fact that he was not committed entirely to either party.
In spite of his age and infirmity he showed some vigour in dealing
with Cade's rebellion, and by his official experience and skill did
what he could for four years to sustain the king's authority. He
was rewarded by his translation to Canterbury in July 1452,
when Pope Nicholas added as a special honour the title of
cardinal-bishop of Santa Rufina. As Richard of York gained
influence, Kempe became unpopular; men called him " the
cursed cardinal," and his fall seemed imminent when he died
suddenly on the 22nd of March 1454. He was buried at Canter-
bury, in the choir. Kempe was a politician first, and hardly at
all a bishop; and he was accused with some justice of neglecting
his dioceses, especially at York. Still he was a capable official,
and a faithful servant to Henry VI., who called him " one of the
wisest lords of the land " (Paston Letters, i. 315). He founded
a college at his native place at Wye, which was suppressed at the
Reformation.
For contemporary authorities see under HENRY VI. See also
J. Raine's Historians of the Church of York, vol. ii. ; W. Dugdale's
Monasticon, iii. 254, vi. 1430-1432; and W. F. Hook's Lives of Arch-
bishops of Canterbury, v. 188-267. (c- L- K-)
KEMPEN, a town in the Prussian Rhine Province, 40 m.
N. of Cologne by the railway to Zevenaar. Pop. (1900), 6319.
It has a monument to Thomas a Kempis, who was born there.
The industries are considerable, and include silk-weaving, glass-
making and the manufacture of electrical plant. Kempen
belonged in the middle ages to the archbishopric of Cologne and
received civic rights in 1294. It is memorable as the scene of a
victory gained, on the I7th of January 1642, by the French and
Hessians over the Imperialists.
See Terwelp, Die Stadt Kempen (Kempen, 1894), and Niessen,
Heimatkunde des Kreises Kempen (Crefeld, 1895).
KEMPENFELT, RICHARD (1718-1782), British rear-admiral,
was born at Westminster in 1718. His father, a Swede, is said
to have been in the service of James II., and subsequently to
have entered the British army. Richard Kempenfelt went into
the navy, and saw his first service in the West Indies, taking part
in the capture of Portobello. In 1746 he returned to England,
and from that date to 1780, when he was made rear-admiral, saw
active service in the East Indies with Sir George Pocock and in
various quarters of the world. In 1781 he gained, with a vastly
inferior force, a brilliant victory, fifty leagues south-west of
Ushant, over the French fleet under De Guichen, capturing
twenty prizes. In 1782 he hoisted his flag on the " Royal
George," which formed part of the fleet under Lord Howe. In
August this fleet was ordered to refit at top speed at Portsmouth,
and proceed to the relief of Gibraltar. A leak having been located
below the waterline of the " Royal George," the vessel was
careened to allow of the defect being repaired. According to the
version of the disaster favoured by the Admiralty, she was over-
turned by a breeze. But the general opinion of the navy was
that the shifting of her weights was more than the old and rotten
timbers of the " Royal George " could stand. A large piece of
her bottom fell out, and she went down at once. It is estimated
that not fewer than 800 persons went down with her, for besides
the crew there were a large number of tradesmen, women and
children on board. Kempenfelt, who was in his cabin, perished
with the rest. Cowper's poem, the " Loss of the Royal George,"
commemorates this disaster. Kempenfelt effected radical altera-
tions and improvements in the signalling system then existing
in the British navy. A painting of the loss of the " Royal
George " is in the Royal United Service Institution, London.
See Charnock's Biog. Nov., vi. 246, and Ralfe's Naval Biographies,
i. 215.
KEMPT, SIR JAMES (1764-1854), British soldier, was gazetted
to the toist Foot in India in 1783, but on its disbandment two
years later was placed on half-pay. It is said that he took a
clerkship in Greenwood's, the army agents (afterwards Cox & Co.).
He attracted the notice of the Duke of York, through whom
he obtained a captaincy (very soon followed by a majority) in
the newly raised ii3th Foot. But it was not long before his
regiment experienced the fate of the old loist; this time how-
ever Kempt was retained on full pay in the recruiting service.
In 1799 he accompanied Sir Ralph Abercromby to Holland, and
later to Egypt as an aide-de-camp. After Abercromby's death
Kempt remained on his successor's staff until the end of the
campaign in Egypt. In April 1803 he joined the staff of Sir
David Dundas, but next month returned to regimental duty, and
a little later received a lieutenant-colonelcy in the 8ist Foot.
With his new regiment he went, under Craig, to the Mediter-
ranean theatre of operations, and at Maida the light brigade
led by him bore the heaviest share of the battle. Employed
from 1807 to 1811 on the staff in North America, Brevet-Colonel
Kempt at the end of 1811 joined Wellington's army in Spain
with the local rank of major-general, which was, on the ist of
January 1812, made substantive. As one of Picton's brigadiers,
Kempt took part in the great assault on Badajoz and was severely
wounded. On rejoining for duty, he was posted to the command
of a brigade of the Light Division (43rd, 52nd and 95th Rifles),
726
KEMPTEN— KEN, THOMAS
which he led at Vera, the Nivelle (where he was again wounded),
Bayonne, Orthez and Toulouse. Early in 1815 he was made
K.C.B., and in July for his services at Waterloo, G.C.B. At
that battle he commanded the 28th, 3 and and 79th as a
brigadier under his old chief, Picton, and on Picton's death
succeeded to the command of his division. From 1828 to 1830
he was Governor-General of Canada, and at a critical time dis-
played firmness and moderation. He was afterwards Master-
General of the Ordnance. At the time of his death in 1854 he
had been for some years a full General.
KEMPTEN, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria on the Iller,
81 m. S.W. of Munich by rail. Pop. (1905), 20,663. The town
is well built, has many spacious squares and attractive public
grounds, and contains a castle, a handsome town-hall, a gym-
nasium, &c. The old palace of the abbots of Kempten, dating
from trie end of the lyth century, is now partly used as barracks,
and near to it is the fine abbey church. The industries include
wool-spinning and weaving and the manufacture of paper, beer,
machines, hosiery and matches. As the commercial centre of
the Algau, Kempten carries on active trade in timber and dairy
produce. Numerous remains have been discovered on the
Lindenberg, a hill in the vicinity.
Kempten, identified with the Roman Cambodunum, consisted
in early times of two towns, the old and the new. The continual
hostility that existed between these was intensified by the wel-
come given by the old town, a free imperial city since 1 289, to
the Reformed doctrines, the new town keeping to the older
faith. The Benedictine abbey of Kempten, said to have been
founded in 773 by Hildegarde, the wife of Charlemagne, was an
important house. In 1360 its abbot was promoted to the dignity
of a prince of the Empire by the emperor Charles IV. ; the town
and abbey passed to Bavaria in 1803. Here the Austrians
defeated the French on the i7th of September 1796.
See Forderreuther, Die Stadt Kempten und ihre Umgebung
(Kempten, 1901); Haggenmuller, Geschichte der Stadt und der
geiursieten Grafschaft Kempten, vol. i. (Kempten, 1840); and
Meirhofer, Geschichttiche Darstettung der dinkwurdigsten Schicksale
der Stadt Kempten (Kempten, 1856).
KEN, THOMAS (1637-1711), the most eminent of the English
non-juring bishops, and one of the fathers of modern English
hymnology, was born at Little Berkhampstead, Herts, in 1637.
He was the son of Thomas Ken of Furnival's Inn, who belonged
to an ancient stock, — that of the Kens of Ken Place, in Somerset-
shire; his mother was a daughter of the now forgotten poet, John
Chalkhill, who is called by Walton an " acquaintant and friend
of Edmund Spenser." Ken's step-sister, Anne, was married to
Izaak Walton in 1646, a connexion which brought Ken from his
boyhood under the refining influence of this gentle and devout
man. In 1652 Ken entered Winchester College, and in 1656
became a student of Hart Hall, Oxford. He gained a fellowship
at New College in 1657, and proceeded B.A. in 1661 and M.A. in
1664. He was for some time tutor of his college; but the most
characteristic reminiscence of his university life is the mention
made by Anthony Wood that in the musical gatherings of the
time " Thomas Ken of New College, a junior, would be sometimes
among them, and sing his part." Ordained in 1662, he succes-
sively held the livings of Little Easton in Essex, Brighstone
(sometimes called Brixton) in the Isle of Wight, and East Wood-
hay in Hampshire; in 1672 he resigned the last of these, and
returned to Winchester, being by this time a prebendary of the
cathedral, and chaplain to the bishop, as well as a fellow of
Winchester College. He remained there for several years, acting
as curate in one of the lowest districts, preparing his Manual
of Prayers for the use of the Scholars of Winchester College (first
published in 1674), and composing hymns. It was at this time
that he wrote, primarily for the same body as his prayers, his
morning, evening and midnight hymns, the first two of which,
beginning " Awake, my soul, and with the sun " and " Glory to
Thee, my God, this night," are now household words wherever
the English tongue is spoken. The latter is often made to begin
with the line " All praise to Thee, my God, this night," but in
the earlier editions over which Ken had control, the line is as
first given.1 In 1674 Ken paid a visit to Rome in company with
young Izaak Walton, and this journey seems mainly to have
resulted in confirming his regard for the Anglican communion.
In 1679 he was appointed by Charles II. chaplain to the Princess
Mary, wife of William of Orange. While with the court at the
Hague, he incurred the displeasure of William by insisting that
a promise of marriage, made to an English lady of high birth by
a relative of the prince, should be kept; and he therefore gladly
returned to England in 1680, when he was immediately appointed
one of the king's chaplains. He was once more residing at
Winchester in 1683 when Charles came to the city with his doubt-
fully composed court, and his residence was chosen as the home
of Nell Gwynne; but Ken stoutly objected to this arrangement,
and succeeded in making the favourite find quarters elsewhere.
In August of this same year he accompanied Loid Dartmouth
to Tangier as chaplain to the fleet, and Pepys, who was one of
the company, has left on record some quaint and kindly remini-
scences of him and of his services on board. The fleet returned
in April 1684, and a few months after, upon a vacancy occurring
in the see of Bath and Wells, Ken, now Dr Ken, was appointed
bishop. It is said that, upon the occurrence of the vacancy,
Charles, mindful of the spirit he had shown at Winchester,
exclaimed, " Where is the good little man that refused his lodging
to poor Nell? " and determined that no other should be bishop.
The consecration took place at Lambeth on the 25th of January
1685; and one of Ken's first duties was to attend the death-bed
of Charles, where his wise and faithful ministrations won the
admiration of everybody except Bishop Burnet. In this year
he published his Exposition on the Church Catechism, perhaps
better known by its sub-title, The Practice of Divine Love. In
1688, when James reisstied his " Declaration of Indulgence,"
Ken was one of the " seven bishops " who refused to publish it.
He was probably influenced by two considerations: first, by
his profound aversion from Roman Catholicism, to which he felt
he would be giving some episcopal recognition by compliance;
but, second and more especially, by the feeling that James was
compromising the spiritual freedom of the church. Along with
his six brethren, Ken was committed to the Tower on the 8th of
June 1688, on a charge of high misdemeanour; the trial, which
took place on the 29th and 3Oth of the month, and which resulted
in a verdict of acquittal, is matter of history. With the revolu-
tion which speedily followed this impolitic trial, new troubles
encountered Ken; for, having sworn allegiance to James, he
thought himself thereby precluded from taking the oath to
William of Orange. Accordingly, he took his place among the
non-jurors, and, as he stood firm to his refusal, he was, in August
1691, superseded in his bishopric by Dr Kidder, dean of Peter-
borough. From this time he lived mostly in retirement, finding
a congenial home with Lord Weymouth, his friend from college
days, at Longleat in Wiltshire; and though pressed to resume
his diocese in 1703, upon the death of Bishop Kidder, he declined,
partly on the ground of growing weakness, but partly no doubt
from his love for the quiet life of devotion which he was able to
lead at Longleat. His death took place there on the igth of
March 1711.
Although Ken wrote much poetry, besides his hymns, he cannot
be called a great poet ; but he had that fine combination of spiritual
insight and feeling with poetic taste which marks all great hymn-
writers. As a hymn-writer he has had few equals in England ; it
can scarcely be said that even Keble, though possessed of much
rarer poetic gifts, surpassed him in his own sphere (see HYMNS).
In his own day he took high rank as a pulpit orator, and even royalty
had to beg for a seat amongst his audiences ; but his sermons are now
forgotten. He lives in history, apart from his three hymns, mainly
as a man of unstained purity and invincible fidelity to conscience,
weak only in a certain narrowness of view which is a frequent at-
tribute of the intense character which he possessed. As an ecclesiastic
he was a High Churchman of the old school.
Ken's poetical works were published in collected form in four
volumes by W. Hawkins, his relative and executor, in 1721 ; his prose
1 The fact, however, that in 1712 — only a year after Ken's death —
his publisher, Brome, published the hymn with the opening words
" All praise," has been deemed by such a high authority as the 1st
earl of Selborne sufficient evidence that the alteration had Ken's
authority.
KEN— KENDAL
727
works were issued in 1838 in one volume, under the editorship of
T. T. Round. A brief memoir was prefixed by Hawkins to a selection
from Ken's works which he published in 1713; and a life, in two
volumes, by the Rev. W. L. Bowles, appeared in 1830. But the
standard biographies of Ken are those of J. Lavicount Anderdon
(The Life of Thomas Ken, Bishop of Bath and Wells, by a Layman,
1851 ; 2nd ed., 1854) and of Dean Plumptre (2 vols., 1888; revised,
1890). See also the Rev. W. Hunt's article in the Diet. Nat. Biog.
KEN, a river of Northern India, tributary to the Jumna on
its right bank, flowing through Bundelkhand. An important
reservoir in its upper basin, which impounds about 180 million
cubic feet of water, irrigates about 374,000 acres in a region
specially liable to drought.
KEN A, or KENEH (sometimes written Qina), a town of Upper
Egypt on a canal about a mile E. of the Nile and 380 m. S.S.E.
of Cairo by rail. Pop. (1907), 20,069. Kena, the capital of a
province of the same name, was called by the Greeks Caene or
Caenepolis (probably the Nej TroXw of Herodotus; see AKHMIM)
in distinction from Coptos (<?.».), 15 m. S., to whose trade it
eventually succeeded. It is a remarkable fact that its modern
name should be derived from a purely Greek word, like Iskenderia
from Alexandria, and Nekrash from Naucratis; in the absence
of any known Egyptian name it seems to point to Kena having
originated in a foreign settlement in connexion with the Red Sea
trade. It is a flourishing town, specially noted for the manufac-
ture of the porous water jars and bottles used throughout Egypt.
The clay for making them is obtained from a valley north of
Kena. The pottery is sent down the Nile in specially constructed
boats. Kena is also known for the excellence of the dates sold
in its bazaars and for the large colony of dancing girls who live
there. It carries on a trade in grain and dates with Arabia, via
Kosseir on the Red Sea, 100 m. E. in a direct line. This incon-
siderable traffic is all that is left of the extensive commerce
formerly maintained — chiefly via Berenice and Coptos — between
Upper Egypt and India and Arabia. The road to Kosseir is
one of great antiquity. It leads through the valley of Hamma-
mat, celebrated for its ancient breccia quarries and deserted
gold mines. During the British operations in Egypt in 1801
Sir David Baird and his force marched along this road to Kena,
taking sixteen days on the journey from Kosseir.
KENDAL, DUKEDOM OF. The English title of duke of
Kendal was first bestowed in May 1667 upon Charles (d. 1667),
the infant son of the duke of York, afterwards James II.
Several persons have been created earl of Kendal, among them
being John, duke of Bedford, son of Henry IV.; John Beaufort,
duke of Somerset (d. 1444); and Queen Anne's husband, George,
prince of Denmark.
In 1719 Ehrengarde Melusina (1667-1743), mistress of the
English king George I., was created duchess of Kendal. This
lady was the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, count of Schulen-
burg (d. 1691), and was born at Emden on the 25th of December
1667. Her father held important positions under the elector
of Brandenburg; her brother Matthias John (1661-1747) won
great fame as a soldier in Germany and was afterwards com-
mander-in-chief of the army of the republic of Venice. Having
entered the household of Sophia, electress of Hanover, Melusina
attracted the notice of her son, the future king, whose mistress
she became about 1690. When George crossed over to England
in 1714, the " Schulenburgin," as Sophia called her, followed him
and soon supplanted her principal rival, Charlotte Sophia,
Baroness von Kilmannsegge (c. 1673-1725), afterwards countess
of Darlington, as his first favourite. In 1716 she was created
duchess of Munster; then duchess of Kendal; and in 1723 the
emperor Charles VI. made her a princess of the Empire. The
duchess was very avaricious and obtained large sums of money
by selling public offices and titles; she also sold patent rights,
one of these being the privilege of supplying Ireland with a new
copper coinage. This she sold to a Wolverhampton iron mer-
chant named William Wood (1671-1730), who flooded the country
with coins known as " Wood's halfpence," thus giving occasion
for the publication of Swift's famous Drapier's Letters. In poli-
tical matters she had much influence with the king, and she
received £10,000 for procuring the recall of Bolingbroke from
exile. After George's death in 1727 she lived at Kendal House,
Isleworth, Middlesex, until her death on the loth of May 1743.
The duchess was by no means a beautiful woman, and her thin
figure caused the populace to refer to her as the " maypole."
By the king she had two daughters: Petronilla Melusina
(c. 1693-1778), who was created countess of Walsingham in 1722,
and who married the great earl of Chesterfield; and Margaret
Gertrude, countess of Lippe (1703-1773).
KENDAL, WILLIAM HUNTER (1843- ), English actor,
whose family name was Grimston, was born in London on the
i6th of December 1843, the son of a painter. He made his first
stage appearance at Glasgow in 1862 as Louis XIV., in A Life's
Revenge, billed as " Mr Kendall." After some experience at
Birmingham and elsewhere, he joined the Haymarket company
in London in 1866, acting everything from burlesque to Romeo.
In 1869 he married Margaret (Madge) Shafto Robertson (b. 1849),
sister of the dramatist, T. W. Robertson. As " Mr and Mrs
Kendal " their professional careers then became inseparable.
Mrs Kendal's first stage appearance was as Marie, " a child,"
in The Orphan of the Frozen Sea in 1854 in London. She soon
showed such talent both as actress and singer that she secured
numerous engagements, and by 1865 was playing Ophelia and
Desdemona. She was Mary Meredith in Our American Cousin
with Sothern, and Pauline to his Claud Melnotte. But her real
triumphs were at the Haymarket in Shakespearian revivals
and the old English comedies. While Mr Kendal played
Orlando, Charles Surface, Jack Absolute and Young Marlowe,
his wife made the combination perfect with her Rosalind, Lady
Teazle, Lydia Languish and Kate Hardcastle; and she created
Galatea in Gilbert's Pygmalion and Galatea (1871). Short
seasons followed at the Court theatre and at the Prince of
Wales's, at the latter of which they joined the Bancrofts in
Diplomacy and other plays. Then in 1879 began a long associa-
tion with Mr (afterwards Sir John) Hare as joint-managers of
the St James's theatre, some of their notable successes being in
The Squire, Impulse, The Ironmaster and A Scrap of Paper. In
1888, however, the Hare and Kendal regime came to an end.
From that time Mr and Mrs Kendal chiefly toured in the pro-
vinces and in America, with an occasional season at rare intervals
in London.
KENDAL, a market town and municipal borough in the
Kendal parliamentary division of Westmorland, England, 251 m.
N.N.W. from London on the Windermere branch of the London
& North-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 14,183. The town, the
full name of which is Kirkby-Kendal or Kirkby-in-Kendal, is
the largest in the county. It is picturesquely placed on the river
Kent, and is irregularly built. The white-walled houses with
their blue-slated roofs, and the numerous trees, give it an attrac-
tive appearance. To the S.W. rises an abrupt limestone emi-
nence, Scout Scar, which commands an extensive view towards
Windermere and the southern mountains of the Lake District.
The church of the Holy Trinity, the oldest part of which dates
from about 1 200, is a Gothic building with five aisles and a square
tower. In it is the helmet of Major Robert Philipson, who rode
into the church during service in search of one of Cromwell's
officers, Colonel Briggs, to do vengeance on him. This major
was notorious as " Robin the Devil," and his story is told in
Scott's Rokeby. Among the public buildings are the town hall,
classic in style; the market house, and literary and scientific
institution, with a museum containing a fossil collection from the
limestone of the locality. Educational establishments include a
free grammar school, in modern buildings, founded in 1525 and
well endowed; a blue-coat school, science and art school, and
green-coat Sunday school (1813). Onan eminence east of the town
are the ruins of Kendal castle, attributed to the first barons of
Kendal. It was the birthplace of Catherine Parr, Henry VIII. 's
last queen. On the Castlebrow Hill, an artificial mound prob-
ably1 of pre-Norman origin, an obelisk was raised in 1788 in
memory of the revolution of 1688. The woollen manufactures
of Kendal have been noted since 1331, when Edward III. is said
to have granted letters of protection to John Kemp, a Flemish
weaver who settled in the town; and, although the coarse cloth
728
KENDALL— KENG TUNG
known to Shakespeare as " Kendal green " is no longer made, its
place is more than supplied by active manufactures of tweeds,
railway rugs, horse clothing, knitted woollen caps and jackets,
worsted and woollen yarns, and similar goods. Other manu-
factures of Kendal are machine-made boots and shoes, cards for
wool and cotton, agricultural and other machinery, paper, and,
in the neighbourhood, gunpowder. There is a large weekly
market for grain, and annual horse and cattle fairs. The
town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area, 2622 acres.
The outline of a Roman fort is traceable at Watercrook near
Kendal. The barony and castle of Kendal or Kirkby-in-Kendal,
held by Turold before the Conquest, were granted by William I.
to Ivo de Taillebois, but the barony was divided into three parts
in the reign of Richard II., one part with the castle passing to
Sir William Parr, knight, ancestor of Catherine Parr. After
the death of her brother William Parr, marquess of Northampton,
his share of the barony called Marquis Fee reverted to Queen
Elizabeth. The castle, being evidently deserted, was in ruins in
1586. Kendal was plundered by the Scots in 1210, and was
visited by the rebels in 1713 and again in 1745 when the Pre-
tender was proclaimed king there. Burgesses in Kendal are men-
tioned in 1345, and the borough with " court housez " and the
fee-farm of free tenants is included in a confirmation charter to
Sir William Parr in 1472. Richard III. in 1484 granted the
inhabitants of the barony freedom from toll, passage and pont-
age, and the town was incorporated in 1576 by Queen Elizabeth
under the title of an alderman and 12 burgesses, but Charles I. in
1635 appointed a mayor, 12 aldermen and 20 capital burgesses.
Under the Municipal Reform Act of 1835 the corporation was
again altered. From 1832 to 1885 Kendal sent one member to
parliament, but since the last date its representation has been
merged in that of the southern division of the county. A weekly
market on Saturday granted by Richard I. to Roger Fitz Rein-
fred was purchased by the corporation from the earl of Lonsdale
and Captain Bagot, lords of the manor, in 1885 and 1886. Of
the five fairs which are now held three are ancient, that now held
on the ZQth of April being granted to Marmaduke de Tweng and
William de Ros in 1307, and those on the 8th and gth of November
to Christiana, widow of Ingelram de Gynes, in 1333.
See Victoria County History, Westmorland; Cornelius Nicholson,
The Annals of Kendal (1861).
KENDALL, HENRY CLARENCE (1841-1882), Australian
poet, son of a missionary, was born in New South Wales on the
i8th of April 1841. He received only a slight education, and
in 1860 he entered a lawyer's office in Sydney. He had always
had literary tastes, and sent some of his verses in 1862 to London
to be published in the Athenaeum. Next year he obtained a
clerkship in the Lands Department at Sydney, being afterwards
transferred to the Colonial Secretary's office; and he combined
this work with the writing of poetry and with journalism. His
principal volumes of verse were Leaves from an Australian
Forest (1869) and Songs from the Mountains (1880), his feeling
for nature, as embodied in Australian landscape and bush-life,
being very true and full of charm. In 1869 he resigned his post
in the public service, and for some little while was in business
with his brothers. Sir Henry Parkes took an interest in him,
and eventually appointed him to an inspectorship of forests.
He died on the ist of August 1882. In 1886 a memorial edition
of his poems was published at Melbourne.
KENEALY, EDWARD VAUGHAN HYDE (1819-1880),
Irish barrister and author, was born at Cork on the 2nd of July
1819, the son of a local merchant. He was educated at Trinity
College, Dublin; was called to the Irish bar in 1840 and to the
English bar in 1847; and obtained a fair practice in criminal
cases. In 1868 he became a Q.C. and a bencher of Gray's Inn.
It was not, however, till 1873, when he became leading counsel
for the Tichborne claimant, that he came into any great promi-
nence. His violent conduct of the case became a public scandal,
and after the verdict against his client he started a paper to
plead his cause and to attack the judges. His behaviour was so
extreme that in 1874 he was disbenched and disbarred by his Inn.
He then started an agitation throughout the country to ventilate
his grievances, and in 1875 was elected to parliament for Stoke;
but no member would introduce him when he took his seat.
Dr Kenealy, as he was always called, gradually ceased to
attract attention, and on the i6th of April 1880 he died in
London. He published a great quantity of verse, and also of
somewhat mystical theology. His second daughter, Dr Arabella
Kenealy, besides practising as a physician, wrote some clever
novels.
KENG TUNG, the most extensive of the Shan States in the
province of Burma. It is in the southern Shan States' charge
and lies almost entirely east of the Salween river. The area of
the state is rather over 12,000 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the
states of Mang Lon, Mong Lem and Keng Hung (Hsip Hsawng
Panna), the two latter under Chinese control; E. by the Mekong
river, on the farther side of which is French Lao territory; S. by
the Siamese Shan States, and W. in a general way by the Salween
river, though it overlaps it in some places. The state is known
to the Chinese as Meng Keng, and was frequently called by the
Burmese " the 32 cities of the Gon " (Hkon). Keng Tung has
expanded very considerably since the establishment of British
control, by the inclusion of the districts of Hsen Yawt, Hsen
Mawng, Mong Hsat, Mong Pu, and the cis-Mekong portions of
Keng Cheng, which in Burmese times were separate charges.
The " classical " name of the state is Khemarata or Khemarata
Tungkapuri. About 63% of the area lies in the basin of the
Mekong river and 37% in the Salween drainage area. The
watershed is a high and generally continuous range. Some of
its peaks rise to over 7000 ft., and the elevation is nowhere much
below 5000 ft. Parallel to this successive hill ranges run north
and south. Mountainous country so greatly predominates
that the scattered valleys are but as islands in a sea of rugged
hills. The chief rivers, tributaries of the Salween, are the Nam
Hka, the Hwe L6ng, Nam Pu, and the Nam Hslm. The first
and last are very considerable rivers. The Nam Hka rises in
the Wa or Vtt states, the Nam Hslm on the watershed range in
the centre of the state. Rocks and rapids make both unnavi-
gable, but much timber goes down the Nam Hslm. The lower
part of both rivers forms the boundary of Keng Tung state.
The chief tributaries of the Mekong are the Nam Nga, the Nam
Lwe, the Nam Yawng, Nam Lin, Nam H6k and Nam K6k. Of
these the chief is the Nam Lwe, which is navigable in the interior
of the state, but enters the Mekong by a gorge broken up by
rocks. The Nam Lin and the Nam K6k are also considerable
streams. The lower course of the latter passes by Chieng Rai
in Siamese territory. The lower Nam H6k or Mg Huak forms
the boundary with Siam.
The existence of minerals was reported by the sawbwa, or chief,
to Francis Gamier in 1867, but none is worked or located. Gold
is washed in most of the streams. Teak forests exist in Mong Pu
and Mong Hsat, and the sawbwa works them as government con-
tracts. One-third of the price realized from the sale of the logs at
Moulmein is retained as the government royalty. There are teak
forests also in the Mekong drainage area in the south of the state, but
there is only a local market for the timber. Rice, as elsewhere in
the Shan States, is the chief crop. Next to it is sugar-cane, grown
both as a field crop and in gardens. Earth-nuts and tobacco are the
only other field crops in the valleys. On the hills, besides rice, cotton,
poppy and tea are the chief crops. The tea is carelessly grown, badly
prepared, and only consumed locally. A great deal of garden pro-
duce is raised in the valleys, especially near the capital. The state
is rich in cattle, and exports them to the country west of the Salween.
Cotton and opium are exported in large quantities, the former en-
tirely to China, a good deal of the latter to northern Siam, which also
takes shoes and sandals. Tea is carried through westwards from
K5ng Hung, and silk from the Siamese Shan States. Cotton and
silk weaving are dying out as industries. Large quantities of shoes
and sandals are made of buffalo and bullock hide, with Chinese felt
uppers and soft iron hobnails. There is a good deal of pottery work.
The chief work in iron is the manufacture of guns, wnich has been
carried on for many years in certain villages of the Sam Tao district.
The gun barrels and springs are rude but effective, though not very
durable. The revenue of the state is collected as the Burmese
thathameda, a rude system of income-tax. From 1890, when the state
made its submission, the annual tributary offerings made in Burmese
times were continued to the British government, but in 1894 these
offerings were converted into tribute. For the quinquennial period
1903-1908 the state paid Rs. 30,000 (£2000) annually.
KENIL WORTH— KENM URE
729
The population of the state was enumerated for the first time in
1901, giving a total of 190,698. According to an estimate made by
Mr G. C. Stirling, the political officer in charge of the state, in 1897-
1898, of the. various tribes of Shans, the Hktln and Lti contribute
about 36,000 each, the western Shans 32,000, the Lem and Lao Shans
about 7000, and the Chinese Shans about 5000. Of the hill tribes, the
Kaw or Aka are the most homogeneous with 22,000, but probably
the Wa (or Vii), disguised under various tribal names, are at least
equally numerous. Nominal Buddhists make up a total of 133,400,
and the remainder are classed as animists. Spirit-worship is, how-
ever, very conspicuously prevalent amongst all classes even of the
Shans. The present sawbwa or chief received his patent from the
British government on the gth of February 1897. The early history
of Keng Tung is very obscure, but Burmese influence seems to have
been maintained since the latter half, at any rate, of the l6th century.
The Chinese made several attempts to subdue the state, and appear
to have taken the capital in 1765-66, but were driven out by the
united Shan and Burmese troops. The same fate seems to have
attended the first Siamese invasion of 1804. The second and third
Siamese invasions, in 1852 and 1854, resulted in great disaster to the
invaders, though the capital was invested for a time.
Kertg Tung, the capital, is situated towards the southern end of a
valley about 12 m. long and with an average breadth of 7 m. The
town is surrounded by a brick wall and moat about 5 m. round.
Only the central and northern portions are much built over. Pop.
(1901), 5695. It is the most considerable town in the British Shan
States. In the dry season crowds attend the market held according
to Shan custom every five days, and numerous caravans come from
China. The military post formerly was 7 m. west of the town, at
the foot of the watershed range. At first the headquarters of a
regiment was stationed there; this was reduced to a wing, and
recently to military police. The site was badly chosen and proved
very unhealthy, and the headquarters both military and civil have
been transferred to Loi Ngwe Long, a ridge 6500 ft. above sea-level
12 m. south of the capital. The rainfall probably averages between
50 and 60 in. for the year. The temperature seems to rise to nearly
100° F. during the hot weather, falling 30° or more during the night.
I n the cold weather a temperature of 40° or a few degrees more or
less appears to be the lowest experienced. The plain in which the
capital stands has an altitude of 3000 ft. (J. G. Sc.)
KENILWORTH, a market town in the Rugby parliamentary
division of Warwickshire, England; pleasantly situated on a
tributary of the Avon, on a branch of the London & North-
Western railway, 99 m. N.W. from London. Pop. of urban
district (1901), 4544. The town is only of importance from its
antiquarian interest and the magnificent ruins of its old castle.
The walls originally enclosed an area of 7 acres. The principal
portions of the building remaining are the gatehouse, now used
as a dwelling-house; Caesar's tower, the only portion built by
Geoffrey de Clinton now extant, with massive walls 16 ft. thick;
the Merwyn's tower of Scott's •Kenilworth; the great hall built
by John of Gaunt with windows of very beautiful design; and
the Leicester buildings, which are in a very ruinous condition.
Not far from the castle are the remains of an Augustinian
monastery founded in 1122, and afterwards made an abbey.
Adjoining the abbey is the parish church of St Nicholas, restored
in 1865, a structure of mixed architecture, containing a fine
Norman doorway, which is supposed to have been the entrance
of the former abbey church.
Kenilworth (Chinewrde, Kenillewurda, Kinelingivorthe, Keni-
lord, Killing-worth) is said to have been a member of Stone-
leigh before the Norman Conquest and a possession of the Saxon
kings, whose royal residence there was destroyed in the wars
between Edward and Canute. The town was granted by
Henry I. to Geoffrey de Clinton, a Norman who built the castle
round which the whole history of Kenilworth centres. He also
founded a monastery here about 1122. Geoffrey's grandson
released his right to King John, and the castle remained with
the crown until Henry III. granted it to Simon de Montfort,
earl of Leicester. The famous " Dictum de Kenilworth " was
proclaimed here in 1 266. After the battle of Evesham the rebel
forces rallied at the castle, which, after a siege of six months, was
surrendered by Henry de Hastings, the governor, on account of
the scarceness of food and of the " pestilent disease " which
raged there. The king then granted it to his son Edmund.
Through John of Gaunt it came to Henry IV. and was granted
by Elizabeth in 1562 to Robert Dudley, afterwards earl of
Leicester, but on his death in 1588 again merged in the posses-
sions of the Crown. The earl spent large sums on restoring the
castle and grounds, and here in July 1575 he entertained Queen
Elizabeth at ." excessive cost," as described in Scott's Kenil-
worth. On the queen's first entry " a small floating island
illuminated by a great variety of torches . . . made its appear-
ance upon the lake," upon which, clad in silks, were the Lady of
the Lake and two nymphs waiting on her, and for the several
days of her stay " rare shews and sports were there exercised."
During the civil wars the castle was dismantled by the soldiers of
.Cromwell and was from that time abandoned to decay. The only
mention of Kenilworth as a borough occurs in a charter of
Henry I. to Geoffrey de Clinton and in the charters of Henry I.
and Henry II. to the church of St Mary of Kenilworth confirming
the grant of lands made by Geoffrey to this church, and mention-
ing that he kept the land in which his castle was situated and
also land for making his borough, park and fishpond. The
town possesses large tanneries.
KENITES, in the Bible a tribe or clan of the south of
Palestine, closely associated with the Amalekites, whose hostility
towards Israel, however, it did not share. On this account Saul
spared them when bidden by Yahweh to destroy Amalek;
David, too, whilst living in Judah, .appears to have been on
friendly terms with them (i Sam. xv. 6; xxx. 29). Moses himself
married into a Kenite family (Judges i. 16), and the variant
tradition would seem to show that the Kenites were only a
branch of the Midianites (see JETHRO, MIDIAN). Jael, the
slayer of Sisera (see DEBORAH), was the wife of Heber the
Kenite, who lived near Kadesh in Naphtali; and the appear-
ance of the clan in this locality may be explained from the
nomadic habits of the tribe, or else as a result of the northward
movement in which at least one other clan or tribe took part (see
DAN). There is an obscure allusion to their destruction in an
appendage to the oracles of Balaam (Num. xxiv. 21 seq., see
G. B. Gray, Intern. Crit. Comm. p. 376); and with this, the only
unfavourable reference to them, may perhaps be associated the
curse of Cain. Although some connexion with the name of
Cain is probable, it is difficult, however, to explain the curse
(for one view, see LEVITES). More important is the prominent
part played by the Kenite (or Midianite) father-in-law of Moses,
whose help and counsel are related in Exod. xviii.; and if, as
seems probable, the Rechabites (q.v.) were likewise of Kenite
origin (i Chron. ii. 55), this obscure tribe had evidently an
important part in shaping the religion of Israel.
See on this question, HEBREW RELIGION, and Budde, Religion of
Israel to the Exile, vol. i. ; G. A. Barton, Semitic Origins, pp. 272
sqq.; L. B. Paton, Biblical World (1906, July and August). On
the migration of the Kenites into Palestine (cf. Num. x. 29^ with
Judges i. 16), see CALEB, GENESIS, JERAHMEEL, JUDAH. (S. A. C.)
KENMORE, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, 6 m.
W. of Aberfeldy. Pop. of parish (1901), 1271. It is situated
at the foot of Loch Tay, near the point where the river Tay
leaves the lake. Taymouth Castle, the seat of the Marquess
of Breadalbane, stands near the base of Drummond Hill in a
princely park through which flows the Tay. It is a stately four-
storeyed edifice with corner towers and a central pavilion, and
was built in 1801 (the west wing being added in 1842) on the site
of the mansion erected in 1580 for Sir Colin Campbell of Glen-
orchy. The old house was called Balloch (Gaelic, bealach, " the
outlet of a lake "). Two miles S.W. of Kenmore are the Falls of
the Acharn, 80 ft. high. When Wordsworth and his sister
visited them in 1803 the grotto at the cascade was fitted up to
represent a " hermit's mossy cell." At the village of Fortingall,
on the north side of Loch Tay, are the shell of a yew conjectured
to be 3000 years old and the remains of a Roman camp. Glen-
lyon House was the home of Campbell of Glenlyon, chief agent
in the massacre of Glencoe. At Garth, 25 m. N.E., are the
ruins of an ancient castle, said to have been a stronghold of
Alexander Stewart, the Wolf of Badenoch (1343-1405), in close
proximity to the modern mansion built for Sir Donald Currie.
KENMURE, WILLIAM GORDON, 6th viscount (d. 1716),
Jacobite leader, son of Alexander, 5th viscount (d. 1698), was
descended from the same family as Sir John Gordon of Loch-
invar (d. 1604), whose grandson, Sir John Gordon (d. 1634), was
730
KENNEDY— KENNEDY, B. H.
created Viscount Kenmure in 1633. The family had generally
adhered to the Presbyterian cause, but Robert, the 4th viscount,
had been excepted from the amnesty granted to the Scottish
royalists in 1654, and the sth viscount, who had succeeded his
kinsman Robert in 1663, after some vacillation, had joined the
court of the exiled Stuarts. The 6th viscount's adherence to the
Pretender in 1715 is said to have been due to his wife Mary
Dalzell (d. 1776), sister of Robert, 6th earl of Carnwath. He
raised the royal standard of Scotland at Lochmaben on the izth
of October 1715, and was joined by about two hundred gentle-
men, with Carnwath, William Maxwell, sth earl of Nithsdale,
and George Seton, 5th earl of Wintoun. This small force
received some additions before Kenmure reached Hawick,
where he learnt the news of the English rising. He effected
a junction with Thomas Forster and James Radclyffe, 3rd earl
of Derwentwater, at Rothbury. Their united forces of some
fourteen hundred men, after a series of rather aimless marches,
halted at Kelso, where they were reinforced by a brigade under
William Mackintosh. Threatened by an English army under
General George Carpenter, they eventually crossed the English
border to join the Lancashire Jacobites, and the command was
taken over by Forster. Kenmure was taken prisoner at Preston
on the i3th of November, and was sent to the Tower. In the
following January he was tried with other Jacobite noblemen
before the House of Lords, when he pleaded guilty, and appealed
to the king's mercy. Immediately before his execution on
Tower Hill on the 24th of February he reiterated his belief in the
claims of the Pretender. His estates and titles were forfeited,
but in 1824 an act of parliament repealed the forfeiture, and his
direct descendant, John Gordon (1750-1840), became Viscount
Kenmure. On the death of the succeeding peer, Adam, Sth
viscount, without issue in 1847, the title became dormant.
KENNEDY, the name of a famous and powerful Scottish
family long settled in Ayrshire, derived probably from the name
Kenneth. Its chief seat is at Culzean, or Colzean, near Maybole
in Ayrshire.
A certain Duncan who became earl of Carrick early in the
I3th century is possibly an ancestor of the Kennedys, but a
more certain ancestor is John Kennedy of Dunure, who obtained
Cassillis and other lands in Ayrshire about 1350. John's
descendant. Sir James Kennedy, married Mary, a daughter of
King Robert III. and their son, Sir Gilbert Kennedy, was
created Lord Kennedy before 1458. Another son was James
Kennedy (c. 1406-1465), bishop of St Andrews from 1441 until
his death in July 1465. The bishop founded and endowed St
Salvator's college at St Andrews and built a large and famous
ship called the " St Salvator." Andrew Lang (History of
Scotland, vol. i.) says of him, " The chapel which he built for
his college is still thronged by the scarlet gowns of his students;
his arms endure on the oaken doors; the beautiful silver mace
of his gift, wrought in Paris, and representing all orders of
spirits in the universe, is one of the few remaining relics of
ancient Scottish plate." Before the bishop had begun to assist
in ruling Scotland, a kinsman, Sir Hugh Kennedy, had helped
Joan of Arc to drive the English from France.
One of Gilbert Kennedy's sons was the poet, Walter Kennedy
(q.v.), and his grandson David, third Lord Kennedy (killed at
Flodden, 1513), was created earl of Cassillis before 1510; David's
sister Janet Kennedy was one of the mistresses of James IV.
The earl was succeeded by his son Gilbert, a prominent figure in
the history of Scotland from 1513 until he was killed at Prestwick
on the 22nd of December 1527. His son Gilbert, the 3rd earl
(c. 1517-1558), was educated by George Buchanan, and was a
prisoner in England after the rout of Solway Moss in 1542.
He was soon released and was lord high treasurer of Scotland
from 1554 to 1558, although he had been intriguing with the
English and had offered to kill Cardinal Beaton in the interests
of Henry VIII. He died somewhat mysteriously at Dieppe
late in 1558 when returning from Paris, where he had attended
the marriage of Mary Queen of Scots, and the dauphin of France.
He was the father of the " king of Carrick " and the brother of
Quintin Kennedy (1520-1564), abbot of Crossraguel. The
abbot wrote several works defending the doctrines of the Roman
Cathoh'c Church, and in 1562 had a public discussion on these
questions with John Knox, which took place at Maybole and
lasted for three days. He died on the 22nd of August 1564.
Gilbert Kennedy, 4th earl of Cassillis (c. 1541-1576), called
the " king of Carrick," became a protestant, but fought for
Queen Mary at Langside in 1568. He is better known through
his cruel treatment of Allan Stewart, the commendator abbot
of Crossraguel, Stewart being badly burned by the earl's orders
at Dunure in 1570 in order to compel him to renounce his title
to the abbey lands which had been seized by Cassillis. This
" ane werry greedy man " died at Edinburgh in December
1576. His son John (c. 1567-1615), who became the 5th earl,
was lord high treasurer of Scotland in 1599 and his lifetime wit-
nessed the culmination of a great feud between the senior and a
younger branch of the Kennedy family. He was succeeded as
6th earl by his nephew John (c. 1595-1668), called " the grave
and solemn earl." A strong presbyterian, John was one of the
leaders of the Scots in their resistance to Charles I. In 1643 he
went to the Westminster Assembly of Divines and several times
he was sent on missions to Charles I. and to Charles II.; for a time
he was lord justice general and he was a member of Cromwell's
House of Lords. His son, John, became the 7th earl, and one of
his daughters, Margaret, married Gilbert Burnet, afterwards
bishop of Salisbury. His first wife, Jean (1607-1642), daughter
of Thomas Hamilton, ist earl of Haddington, has been regarded
as the heroine of the ballad " The Gypsie Laddie," but this
identity is now completely disproved. John, the 7th earl, " the
heir," says Burnet, " to his father's stiffness, but not to his other
virtues," supported the revolution of 1688 and died on the 23rd
of July 1701; his grandson John, the Sth earl, died without sons
in August 1759.
The titles and estates of the Kennedys were now claimed by
William Douglas, afterwards duke of Queensberry, a great-grand-
son in the female line of the 7th earl and also by Sir Thomas
Kennedy, Bart., of Culzean, a descendant of the 3rd earl, i.e. by
the heir general and the heir male. In January 1762 the House
of Lords decided in favour of the heir male, and Sir Thomas
became the gth earl of Cassillis. He died unmarried on the 3Oth
of November 1775, and his brother David, the loth earl, also died
unmarried on the iSth of December 1792, when the baronetcy
became extinct. The earldom of Cassillis now passed to a cousin,
Archibald Kennedy, a captain in the royal navy, whose father,
Archibald Kennedy (d. 1763), had migrated to America in 1722
and had become collector of customs in New York. His son,
the nth earl, had estates in New Jersey and married an American
heiress; in 1765 he was said to own more houses in New York
than any one else. He died in London on the 3oth of December
1794, and was succeeded by his son Archibald (1770-1846), who
was created Baron Ailsa in 1806 and marquess of Ailsa in 1831.
His great-grandson Archibald (b. 1847) became 3rd marquess.
See the article in vol. ii. of Sir R. Douglas's Peerage of Scotland,
edited by Sir I. B. Paul (1905). This is written by Lord Ailsa's
son and heir, Archibald Kennedy, earl of Cassillis (b. 1872).
KENNEDY, BENJAMIN HALL (1804-1889), English scholar,
was born at Summer Hill, near Birmingham, on the 6th of
November 1804, the eldest son of Rann Kennedy (1772-1851),
who came of a branch of the Ayrshire family which had settled
in Staffordshire. Rann Kennedy was a scholar and man of
letters, several of whose sons rose to distinction. B. H.
Kennedy was educated at Birmingham and Shrewsbury
schools, and St John's College, Cambridge. After a brilliant
university career he was elected fellow and classical lecturer of
St John's College in 1828. Two years later he became an assis-
tant master at Harrow, whence he went to Shrewsbury as head-
master in 1836. He retained this post until 1866, the thirty
years of his rule being marked by a long series of successes won
by his pupils, chiefly in classics. When he retired from Shrews-
bury a large sum was collected as a testimonial to him, and was
devoted partly to the new school buildings and partly to the
founding of a Latin professorship at Cambridge. The first two
occupants of the chair were both Kennedy's old pupils, H. A. J.
KENNEDY, T. F.— KENNETH
Munro and J. E. B. Mayor. In 1867 he was elected regius pro-
fessor of Greek at Cambridge and canon of Ely. From 1870 to
1880 he was a member of the committee for the revision of the
New Testament. He was an enthusiastic advocate for the
admission of women to a university education, and took a promi-
nent part in the establishment of Newnham and Girton colleges.
He was also a keen politician of liberal sympathies. He died
near Torquay on the 6th of April 1889. Among a number of
classical school-books published by him are two, a Public School
Latin Primer and Public School Latin Grammar, which were for
long in use in nearly all English schools.
His other chief works are: Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus (2nd
ed., 1885), Aristophanes, Birds (1874); Aeschylus, Agamemnon
(znd ed., 1882), with introduction, metrical translation and
notes; a commentary on Virgil (3rd ed., 1881) ; and a translation
of Plato, Theaetetus (1881). He contributed largely to the collec-
tion known as Sabrinae Corolla, and published a collection of
verse in Greek, Latin and English under the title of Between
Whiles (2nd ed., 1882), with many autobiographical details.
His brother, CHARLES RANN KENNEDY (1808-1867), was
educated at Shrewsbury school and Trinity College, Cambridge,
where he graduated as senior classic (1831). He then became
a barrister. From 1849-1856 he was professor of law at
Queen's College, Birmingham. As adviser to Mrs Swinfen,
the plaintiff in the celebrated will case Swinfen v. Swinfen
(1856), he brought an action for remuneration for professional
services, but the verdict given in his favour at Warwick
assizes was set aside by the court of Common Pleas, on the
ground that a barrister could not sue for the recovery of his fees.
The excellence of Kennedy's scholarship is abundantly proved
by his translation of the orations of Demosthenes (1852-1863, in
Bohn's Classical Library), and his blank verse translation of the
works of Virgil (1861). He was also the author of New Rules
for Pleading (2nd ed., 1841) and A Treatise on Annuities (1846).
He died in Birmingham on the I7th of December 1867.
Another brother, Rev. WILLIAM JAMES KENNEDY (1814-1891),
was a prominent educationalist, and the father of Lord Justice
Sir William Rann Kennedy (b. 1846), himself a distinguished
Cambridge scholar.
KENNEDY, THOMAS FRANCIS (1788-1879), Scottish politi-
cian, was born near Ayr in 1788. He studied for the bar and
became advocate in 1811. Having been elected M.P. for the
Ayr burghs in 1818, he devoted the greater part of his life
to the promotion of Liberal reforms. In 1820 he married the
only daughter of Sir Samuel Romilly. He was greatly assisted
by Lord Cockburn, then Mr Henry Cockburn, and a volume of
correspondence published by Kennedy in 1874 forms a curious
and interesting record of the consultations of the two friends on
measures which they regarded as requisite for the political
regeneration of their native country. One of the first measures
to which he directed his attention was the withdrawal of the
power of nominating juries from the judges, and the imparting
of a right of peremptory challenge to prisoners. Among other
subjects were the improvement of the parish schools, of pauper
administration, and of several of the corrupt forms of legal pro-
cedure which then prevailed. In the construction of the Scottish
Reform Act Kennedy took a prominent part; indeed he and
Lord Cockburn may almost be regarded as its authors. After
the accession of the Whigs to office in 1832 he held various impor-
tant offices in the ministry, and most of the measures of reform
for Scotland, such as burgh reform, the improvements in the
law of entail, and the reform of the sheriff courts, owed much to
his sagacity and energy. In 1837 he went to Ireland as pay-
master of civil services, and set himself to the promotion of
various measures of reform. Kennedy retired from office
in 1854, but continued to take keen interest in political affairs,
and up to his death in 1879 took a great part in both county
and parish business. He had a stern love of justice, and
a determined hatred of everything savouring of jobbery or
dishonesty.
KENNEDY, WALTER (c. 1460-6. 1508), Scottish poet, was
the third son of Gilbert, ist Lord Kennedy. He matriculated
at Glasgow University in 1475 and took his M.A. degree in 1478.
In 1481 he was one of four examiners in his university, and in
1492 he acted as depute for his nephew, the hereditary bailie of
Carrick. He is best known for his share in the Flyting with
Dunbar (q.v.). In this coarse combat of wits Dunbar taunts his
rival with his Highland speech (the poem is an expression of
Gaelic and " Inglis," i.e. English, antagonism) ; and implies that
he had been involved in treason, and had disguised himself
as a beggar in Galloway. With the exception of this share in
the Flyting Kennedy's poems are chiefly religious in character.
They include The Praise of Aige, Ane A git Manis Invective
against Mouth Thankless, Ane Ballat in Praise of Our Lady, The
Passion of Christ and Pious Counsale. They are printed in the
rare supplement to David Laing's edition of William Dunbar
(1834), and they have been re-edited by Dr J. Schipper in the
proceedings of the Kais. Akad. der Wissenschaften (Vienna).
See also the prolegomena in the Scottish Text Society's edition
of Dunbar; and (for the life) Pitcairn's edition of the Historic of the
Kennedies (1830).
KENNEL, a small hut or shelter for a dog, also extended to a
group of buildings for a pack of hounds (see DOG). The word is
apparently from a Norman-French kenil (this form does not
occur, but is seen in the Norman kinet, a little dog), modern
French chenil, from popular Latin canile, place for a dog, canis,
cf. ovtte, sheep-cote. The word " kennel," a gutter, a drain in
a street or road, is a corruption of the Middle English cancl,
cannel, in modern English " channel," from Latin canalis,
canal.
KENNETH, the name of two kings of the Scots.
KENNETH I., MacAlpin (d. c. 860), often described as the first
king of Scotland (kingdom of Scone), was the son of the Alpin,
called king of the Scots, who had been slain by the Picts in 832
or 834, whilst endeavouring to assert his claim to the Pictish
throne. On the death of his father, Kenneth is said to have
succeeded him in the kingdom of the Scots. The region of his
rule is matter of conjecture, though Galloway seems the most
probable suggestion, in which case he probably led a piratic host
against the Picts. On the father's side he was descended from the
Conall Gabhrain of the old Dalriadic Scottish kingdom, and the
claims of father and son to the Pictish throne were probably
through female descent. Their chief support seems to have
been found in Fife. In the seventh year of his reign
(839 or 841) he took advantage of the effects of a Danish
invasion of the Pictish kingdom to attack the remaining
Picts, whom he finally subdued in 844 or 846. In 846 or 848
he transported the relics of St Columba to a church which he
had constructed at Scone. He is said also to have carried out
six invasions of Northumbria, in the course of which he burnt
Dunbar and took Melrose. According to the Scalacronica of
Sir Thomas Gray he drove the Angles and Britons overthe Tweed,
reduced the land as far as that river, and first called his kingdom
Scotland. In his reign there appears to have been a serious
invasion by Danish pirates, in which Cluny and Dunkeld were
burnt. He died in 860 or 862, after a reign of twenty-eight
years, at Forteviot and was buried at lona. The double dates
are due to a contest of authorities. Twenty-eight years is the
accepted length of his reign, and according to the chronicle oi
Henry of Huntingdon it began in 832. The Pictish Chronicle,
however, gives Tuesday, the i3th of February as the day, and
this suits 862 only, in which case his reign would begin
in 834.
KENNETH II. (d. 995), son of Malcolm I., king of Alban,
succeeded Cuilean, son of Indulph, who had been slain by the
Britons of Strathclyde in 971 in Lothian. Kenneth began his
reign by ravaging the British kingdom, but he lost a large part
of his force on the river Cornag. Soon afterwards he attacked
Eadulf, earl of the northern half of Northumbria, and ravaged
the whole of his territory. He fortified the fords of the Forth as
a defence against the Britons and again invaded Northumbria,
carrying off the earl's son. About this time he gave the city of
Brechin to the church. In 977 he is said to have slain Amlaiph
or Olaf, son of Indulph, king of Alban, perhaps a rival claimant
732
KENNETT— KENNICOTT
to the throne. According to the English chroniclers, Kenneth
paid homage to King Edgar for the cession of Lothian, but these
statements are probably due to the controversy as to the posi-
tion of Scotland. The mormaers, or chiefs, of Kenneth were
engaged throughout his reign in a contest with Sigurd the Nor-
wegian, earl of Orkney, for the possession of Caithness and the
northern district of Scotland as far south as the Spey. In this
struggle the Scots attained no permanent success. In 995
Kenneth, whose strength like that of the other kings of his
branch of the house of Kenneth MacAlpin lay chiefly north of
the Tay, was slain treacherously by his own subjects, according
to the later chroniclers at Fettercairn in the Mearns through an
intrigue of Einvela, daughter of the earl of Angus. He was
buried at lona.
See Chronicles of the Picts and Scots, ed. W. F. Skene (Edinburgh,
1867), and W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (Edinburgh, 1876).
KENNETT, WHITE (1660-1728), English bishop and anti-
quary, was born at Dover in August 1660. He was educated
at Westminster school and at St Edmund's Hall, Oxford, where,
while an undergraduate, he published several translations of
Latin works, including Erasmus In Praise of Folly. In 1685
he became vicar of Ambrosden, Oxfordshire. A few years after-
wards he returned to Oxford as tutor and vice-principal of St
Edmund's Hall, where he gave considerable impetus to the study
of antiquities. George Hickes gave him lessons in Old English.
In 1695 he published Parochial Antiquities. In 1700 he became
rector of St Botolph's, Aldgate, London, and in 1701 archdeacon
of Huntingdon. For a eulogistic sermon on the first duke of
Devonshire he was in 1707 recommended to the deanery of
Peterborough. He afterwards joined the Low Church party,
strenuously opposed the Sacheverel movement, and in the
Bangorian controversy supported with great zeal and consider-
able bitterness the side of Bishop Hoadly. His intimacy with
Charles Trimnell, bishop of Norwich, who was high in favour
with the king, secured for him in 1718 the bishopric of Peter-
borough. He died at Westminster in December 1728.
Kennett published in 1698 an edition of Sir Henry Spelman's
History of Sacrilege, and he was the author of fifty-seven printed
works, chiefly tracts and sermons. He wrote the third volume
(Charles I. -Anne) of the composite Compleat History of England
(1706), and a more detailed and valuable Register and Chronicle of
the Restoration. He was much interested in the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel.
The Life of Bishop White Kennett, by the Rev. William Newton
(anonymous), appeared in 1730. See also Nichols's Literary
Anecdotes, and I. Disraeli's Calamities of Authors.
KENNEY, JAMES (1780-1849), English dramatist, was the
son of James Kenney, one of the founders of Boodles' Club in
London. His first play, a farce called Raising the Wind (1803),
was a success owing to the popularity of the character of
" Jeremy Diddler." Kenney produced more than forty dramas
and operas between 1803 and 1845, and many of his pieces, in
which Mrs Siddons, Madame Vestris, Foote, Lewis, Liston and
other leading players appeared from time to time, enjoyed a
considerable vogue. His most popular play was Sweethearts and
Wives, produced at the Haymarket theatre in 1823, and several
times afterwards revived; and among the most successful of his
other works were : False Alarms (1807), a comic opera with music
by Braham; Love, Law and Physic (1812); Spring and Autumn
(1827); The Illustrious Stranger, or Married and Buried (1827);
Masaniello (1829); The Sicilian Vespers, a tragedy (1840).
Kenney, who numbered Charles Lamb and Samuel Rogers among
his friends, died in London on the 2$th of July 1849. He married
the widow of the dramatist Thomas Holcroft, by whom he had
two sons and two daughters.
His second son, CHARLES LAMB KENNEY (1823-1881), made
a name as a journalist, dramatist and miscellaneous writer.
Commencing life as a clerk in the General Post Office in London,
he joined the staff of The Times, to which paper he contributed
dramatic criticism. In 1856, having been called to the bar, he
became secretary to Ferdinand de Lesseps, and in 1857 he pub-
lished The Gales of the East in support of the projected construc-
tion of the Suez Canal. Kenney wrote the words for a number
of light operas, and was the author of several popular songs,
the best known of which were " Soft and Low " (1865) and
" The Vagabond " (1871). He also published a Memoir of
M. W. Balfe (1875), and translated the Correspondence of Balzac.
He included Thackeray and Dickens among his friends in a
literary coterie in which he enjoyed the reputation of a wit and
an accomplished writer of vers de societe. He died in London on
the 25th of August 1881.
See John Genest, Some Account of the English Stage, 1660-1830,
vols. yii. and viii. (10 vols., London, 1832); P. W. Clayden, Rogers
and his Contemporaries (2 vols., London, 1889) ; Diet. National Biog.
KENNGOTT, GUSTAV ADOLPH (1818-1897), German
mineralogist, was born at Breslau on the 6th of January 1818.
After being employed in the Hofmineralien Cabinet at Vienna,
he became professor of mineralogy in the university of Zurich.
He was distinguished for his researches on mineralogy, crystallo-
graphy and petrology. He died at Lugano, on the 7th of
March 1897.
PUBLICATIONS. — Lehrbuch der reinen Kryslallographie (1846);
Lehrbuch der Mineralogie (1852 and 1857; 5th ed., 1880); Ubersicht
der Resultate mineralogischer Forschungen in den Jahren 1844—1865
(7 vols., 1852-1868); Die Minerale der Schweiz (1866); Elemente der
Petrographie (1868).
KENNICOTT, BENJAMIN (1718-1783), English divine and
Hebrew scholar, was born at Totnes, Devonshire, on the 4th of
April 1718. He succeeded his father as master of a charity
school, but by the liberality of friends he was enabled to go to
Wadham College, Oxford, in 1744, where he distinguished him-
self in Hebrew and divinity. While an undergraduate he
published two dissertations, On the Tree of Life in Paradise, with
some Observations on the Fall of Man, and On the Oblations of Cain
and Abel (2nd ed., 1747), which procured him the honour of a
bachelor's degree before the statutory time. In 1747 he was
elected fellow of Exeter College, and in 1750 he took his degree
of M.A. In 1764 he was made a fellow of the Royal Society,
and in 1767 keeper of the Radcliffe Library. He was also
canon of Christ Church (1770) and rector of Culham (1753), in
Oxfordshire, and was subsequently presented to the living of
Menheniot, Cornwall, which he was unable to visit and resigned
two years before his death. He died at Oxford, on the i8th of
September 1783.
His chief work is the Vetus Testamentum hebraicum cum variis
lectionibus (2 vols. fol., Oxford, 1776-1780). Before this appeared
he had written two dissertations entitled The State of the Printed
Hebrew Text of the Old Testament considered, published respectively
in 1753 and 1759, which were designed to combat the then current
ideas as to the absolute integrity " of the received Hebrew text.
The first contains " a comparison of I Chron. xi. with 2 Sam. v. and
xxiii. and observations on seventy MSS., with an extract of mistakes
and various readings " ; the second defends the claims of the Samari-
tan Pentateuch, assails the correctness of the printed copies of the
Chaldee paraphrase, gives an account of Hebrew MSS. of the Bible
known to be extant, and catalogues one hundred MSS. preserved in
the British Museum and in the libraries of Oxford and Cambridge.
In 1760 he issued his proposals for collating all Hebrew MSS. of date
prior to the invention of printing. Subscriptions to the amount
of nearly £10,000 were obtained, and many learned men addressed
themselves to the work of collation, Bruns of Helmstadt making
himself specially useful as regarded MSS. in Germany, Switzerland
and Italy. Between 1760 and 1769 ten " annual accounts " of the
progress of the work were given; in its course 615 Hebrew MSS. and
52 printed editions of the Bible were either wholly or partially
collated, and use was also made (but often very perfunctorily) of
the quotations in the Talmud. The materials thus collected, when
properly arranged and made ready for the press, extended to 30 vols.
fol. The text finally followed in printing was that of van der
Hooght — unpointed however, the points having been disregarded
in collation — and the various readings were printed at the foot of
the page. The Samaritan Pentateuch stands alongside the Hebrew
in parallel columns. The Dissertatio generalis, appended to the
second volume, contains an account of the MSS. and other authori-
ties collated, and also a review of the Hebrew text, divided into
periods, and beginning with the formation of the Hebrew canon after
the return of the Jews from the exile. Kennicott's great work was
in one sense a failure. It yielded no materials of value for the
emendation of the received text, and by disregarding the vowel
points overlooked the one thing in which some result (grammatical
if not critical) might have been derived from collation of Massoretic
MSS. But the negative result of the publication and of the Varia
KENNINGTON— KENSINGTON
733
lectiones of De Rossi, published some years later, was important.
It showed that the Hebrew text can be emended only by the use of
the versions aided by conjecture.
Kennicott's work was perpetuated by his widow, who founded
two university scholarships at Oxford for the study of Hebrew.
The fund yields an income of £200 per annum.
KENNINGTON, a district in the south of London, England,
within the municipal borough of Lambeth. There was a royal
palace here until the reign of Henry VII. Kennington Common,
now represented by Kennington Park, was the site of a gallows
until the end of the i8th century, and was the meeting-place
appointed for the great Chartist demonstration of the loth of
April 1848. Kennington Oval is the ground of the Surrey
County Cricket Club. (See LAMBETH.)
KENORA (formerly RAT PORTAGE), a town and port of entry
in Ontario, Canada, and the chief town of Rainy River district,
situated at an altitude of 1087 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1891),
1806; (1901) 5222. It is 133 m. by rail east of Winnipeg, on
the Canadian Pacific railway, and at the outlet of the Lake of
the Woods. The Winnipeg river has at this point a fall of 16 ft.,
which, with the lake as a reservoir, furnishes an abundant and
unfailing water- power. The industrial establishments comprise
reduction works, saw-mills and flour-mills, one of the latter
being the largest in Canada. It is the distributing point for the
gold mines of the district, and during the summer months
steamboat communication is maintained on the lake. There is
important sturgeon fishing.
KENOSHA, a city and the county-seat of Kenosha county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the S.W. shore of Lake Michigan, 35 m.S.
of Milwaukee and 50 m. N. of Chicago. Pop. (1900), 11,606,
of whom 3333 were foreign-born; (1910), 21,371. It is
served by the Chicago & North-Western railway, by inter-
urban electric lines connecting with Chicago and Milwaukee,
and by freight and passenger steamship lines on Lake Michigan.
It has a good harbour and a considerable lake commerce. The
city is finely situated on high bluffs above the lake, and is widely
known for its healthiness. At Kenosha is the Gilbert M.
Simmons library, with 19,300 volumes in 1908. Just south
of the city is Kemper Hall, a Protestant Episcopal school for
girls, under the charge of the Sisters of St Mary, opened in
1870 as a memorial to Jackson Kemper (1789-1870), the first
missionary bishop (1835-1859), and the first bishop of Wis-
consin (1854-1870) of the Protestant Episcopal Church. Among
Kenosha's manufactures are brass and iron beds (the Simmons
Manufacturing Co.), mattresses, typewriters, leather and brass
goods, wagons, and automobiles — the " Rambler " automobile
being made at Kenosha by Thomas B. Jeffery and Co. There
is an extensive sole-leather tannery. The total value of the
factory product in 1905 was $12,362,600, the city ranking third
in product value among the cities of the state. Kenosha,
originally known as Southport, was settled about 1832, organized
as the village of Southport in 1842, and chartered in 1850 as a
city under its present name.
KENSETT, JOHN FREDERICK (1818-1872), American
artist, was born in Cheshire, Connecticut, on the 22nd of March
1818. After studying engraving he went abroad, took up
painting, and exhibited at the Royal Academy, London, in
1845. In 1849 he was elected to the National Academy of
Design, New York, and in 1859 he was appointed a member of
the committee to superintend the decoration of the United
States Capitol at Washington, B.C. After his death the con-
tents of his studio realized at public auction over $150,000.
He painted landscapes more or less in the manner of the Hudson
River School.
KENSINGTON, a western metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N.E. by Paddington, and the city of West-
minster, S.E. by Chelsea, S.W. by Fulham, N.W. by Hammers-
smith, and extending N. to the boundary of the county of
London. Pop. (1901), 176,628. It includes the districts of
Kensal Green (partly) in the north, Netting Hill in the north-
central portion, Earl's Court in the south-west, and Brompton
in the south-east. A considerable but indefinite area adjoining
Brompton is commonly called South Kensington; but the
area known as West Kensington is within the borough of
Fulham.
The name appears in early forms as Chenesitun and Kenesitune.
Its origin is obscure, and has been variously connected with a
Saxon royal residence (King's town), a family of the name of
Chenesi, and the word caen, meaning wood, from the forest
which originally covered the district and was still traceable
in Tudor times. The most probable derivation, however, finds
in the name a connection with the Saxon tribe or family of
Kensings. The history of the manor is traceable from the time
of Edward the Confessor, and after the Conquest it was held
of the Bishop of Coutances by Aubrey de Vere. Soon after this
it became the absolute property of the de Veres, who were
subsequently created Earls of Oxford. The place of the manorial
courts is preserved in the name of the modern district of Earl's
Court. With a few short intervals the manor continued in the
direct line until Tudor times. There were also three sub-
manors, one given by the first Aubrey de Vere early in the
1 2th century to the Abbot of Abingdon, whence the present
parish church is called St Mary Abbots; while in another,
Knotting Barnes, the origin of the name Netting Hill is found.
The brilliant period of history for which Kensington is famous
may be dated from the settlement of the Court here by William
III. The village, as it was then, had a reputation for healthiness
through its gravel soil and pure atmosphere. A mansion stand-
ing on the western flank of the present Kensington Gardens had
been the seat of Heneage Finch, Lord Chancellor and afterwards
Earl of Nottingham. It was known as Nottingham House, but
when bought from the second earl by William, who was desirous
of avoiding residence in London as he suffered from asthma, it
became known as Kensington Palace. The extensive additions
and alterations made by Wren according to the taste of the
King resulted in a severely plain edifice of brick; the orangery,
added in Queen Anne's time, is a better example of the same
architect's work. In the palace died Mary, William's consort,
William himself, Anne and George II., whose wife Caroline did
much to beautify Kensington Gardens, and formed the beautiful
lake called the Serpentine (1733). But a higher interest attaches
to the palace as the birthplace of Queen Victoria in 1819; and
here her accession was announced to her. By her order,
towards the close of her life, the palace became open to the
public.
Modern influences, one of the most marked of which is the
widespread erection of vast blocks of residential flats, have swept
away much that was reminiscent of the historical connexions
of the " old court suburb." Kensington Square, however, lying
south of High Street in the vicinity of St Mary Abbots church,
still preserves some of its picturesque houses, nearly all of which
were formerly inhabited by those attached to the court; it
numbered among its residents Addison, Talleyrand, John Stuart
Mill, and Green the historian. In Young Street, opening from
the Square, Thackeray lived for many years. His house here,
still standing, is most commonly associated with his work, though
he subsequently moved to Onslow Square and to Palace Green.
Another link with the past is found in Holland House, hidden
in its beautiful park north of Kensington Road. It was built
by Sir Walter Cope, lord of the manor, in 1607, and obtained its
present name on coming into the possession of Henry Rich, earl
of Holland, through his marriage with Cope's daughter. He
extended and beautified the mansion. General Fairfax and
General Lambert are mentioned as occupants after his death, and
later the property was let, William Penn of Pennsylvania being
among those who leased it. Addison, marrying the widow of
the 6th earl, lived here until his death in 1719. During the
tenancy of Henry Fox, third Lord Holland (1773-1840), the
house gained a European reputation as a meeting-place of states-
men and men of letters. The formal gardens of Holland House
are finely laid out, and the rooms of the house are both beautiful
in themselves and enriched with collections of pictures, china
and tapestries. Famous houses no longer standing were Camp-
den House, in the district north-west of the parish church,
formerly known as the Gravel Pits; and Gore House, on the site
734
of the present Albert Hall, the residence of William Wilberforce,
and later of the countess of Blessington.
The parish church of St Mary Abbots, High Street, occupies
an ancient site, but was built from the designs of Sir Gilbert
Scott in 1869. It is in Decorated style, and has one of the loftiest
spires in England. In the north the borough includes the
cemetery of Kensal Green (with the exception of the Roman
Catholic portion, which is in the borough of Hammersmith); it
was opened in 1838, and great numbers of eminent persons are
buried here. The Roman Catholic church of Our Lady of
Victories lies close to Kensington Road, and in Brompton Road
is the Oratory of St Philip Neri, a fine building with richly
decorated interior, noted for the beauty of its musical services,
as is the Carmelite Church in Church Street. St Charles's Roman
Catholic College (for boys), near the north end of Ladbroke
Grove, was founded by Cardinal Manning in 1863; the buildings
are now used as a training centre for Catholic school mistresses.
Of secular institutions the principal are the museums in South
Kensington. The Victoria and Albert, commonly called the
South Kensington, Museum contains various exhibits divided
into sections, and includes the buildings of the Royal College of
Science. Close by is the Natural History Museum, in a great
building by Alfred Waterhouse, opened as a branch of the
British Museum in 1880. Near this stood Cromwell House,
erroneously considered to have been the residence of Oliver
Cromwell, the name of which survives in the adjacent Cromwell
Road. In Kensington Gardens, near the upper end of Exhibi-
tion Road, which separates the two museums, was held the Great
Exhibition of 1851, the hall of which is preserved as the Crystal
Palace at Sydenham. The greater part of the gardens, however,
with the Albert Memorial, erected by Queen Victoria in memory
of Albert, prince consort, the Albert Hall, opposite to it, one of
the principal concert-halls in London, and the Imperial Institute
to the south, are actually within the city of Westminster, though
commonly connected with Kensington. The gardens (275 acres)
were laid out in the time of Queen Anne, and have always been
a popular and fashionable place of recreation. Extensive
grounds at Earl's Court are open from time to time for various
exhibitions. Further notable buildings in Kensington are the
town-hall and free library in High Street, which is also much
frequented for its excellent shops, and the Brompton Consump-
tion Hospital, Fulham Road. In Holland Park Road is the
house of Lord Leighton (d. 1896), given to the nation, and open,
with its art collection, to the public.
Kensington is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of London.
The parliamentary borough of Kensington has north and south
divisions, each returning one member. The borough council
consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. Area,
2291-1 acres.
KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The first holder of the
English earldom of Kent was probably Odo, bishop of Bayeux,
and the second a certain William de Ypres (d. 1162), both of
whom were deprived of the dignity. The regent Hubert de
Burgh obtained this honour in 1227, and in 1321 it was granted
to Edmund Plantagenet, the youngest brother of Edward II.
Edmund (1301-1330), who was born at Woodstock on the sth
of August 1301, received many marks of favour from his brother
the king, whom he steadily supported until the last act in
Edward's life opened in 1326. He fought in Scotland and then
in France, and was a member of the council when Edward III.
became king in 1327. Soon at variance with Queen Isabella and
her lover, Roger Mortimer, Edmund was involved in a conspiracy
to restore Edward II., who he was led to believe was still alive;
he was arrested, and beheaded on the igth of March 1330.
Although he had been condemned as a traitor his elder son
Edmund (c. 1327-1333) was recognized as earl of Kent, the title
passing on his death to his brother John (c. 1330-1352).
After John's childless death the earldom appears to have been
held by his sister Joan, " the fair maid of Kent," and in 1360
Joan's husband, Sir Thomas de Holand, or Holland, was sum-
moned to parliament as earl of Kent. Holand, who was a soldier
of some repute, died in Normandy on the 28th of December
KENT, EARLS OF
1360, and his widow married Edward the Black Prince, by whom
she was the mother of Richard II. The next earl was Holand's
eldest son Thomas (1350-1397), who was marshal of England
from 1380 to 1385, and was in high favour with his half-brother,
Richard II. The 3rd earl of Kent of the Holand family was his
son Thomas (1374-1400). In September 1397, a few months
after becoming earl of Kent, Thomas was made duke of Surrey
as a reward for assisting Richard II. against the lords appellant ;
but he was degraded from his dukedom in 1399, and was
beheaded in January of the following year for conspiring against
Henry IV. However, his brother Edmund (1384-1408) was
allowed to succeed to the earldom, which became extinct on his
death in Brittany in September 1408.
In the same century the title was revived in favour of William,
a younger son of Ralph Neville, ist earl of Westmorland, and
through his mother Joan Beaufort a grandson of John of Gaunt,
duke of Lancaster. William (c. 1405-1463), who held the barony
of Fauconberg in right of his wife, Joan, gained fame during the
wars in France and fought for the Yorkists during the Wars of
the Roses. His prowess is said to have been chiefly responsible
for the victory of Edward IV. at Towton in March 1461, and soon
after this event he was created earl of Kent and admiral of
England. He died in January 1463, and, as his only legitimate
issue were three daughters, the title of earl of Kent again became
extinct. Neville's natural son Thomas, " the bastard of Faucon-
berg " (d. 1471), was a follower of Warwick, the " Kingmaker."
The long connexion of the family of Grey with this title began
in 1465, when Edmund, Lord Grey of Ruthin, was created earl
of Kent. Edmund (c. 1420-1489) was the eldest son of Sir John
Grey, while his mother, Constance, was a daughter of John
Holand, duke of Exeter. During the earlier part of the Wars
of the Roses Grey fought for Henry VI.; but by deserting the
Lancastrians during the battle of Northampton in 1460 he gave
the victory to the Yorkists. He was treasurer of England and
held other high offices under Edward IV. and Richard III. His
son and successor, George, 2nd earl of Kent (c. 1455-1503), also
a soldier, married Anne Woodville, a sister of Edward IV. 's
queen, Elizabeth, and was succeeded by his son Richard (1481-
1524). After Richard's death without issue, his half-brother and
heir, Henry (c. 1495-1562), did not assume the title of earl of
Kent on account of his poverty; but in 1572 Henry's grandson
Reginald (d. 1573), who had been member of parliament for
Weymouth, was recognized as earl; he was followed by his
brother Henry (1541-161 5), and then by another brother, Charles
(c. 1545-1623). Charles's son, Henry, the Sth earl (c. 1583-
1639), married Elizabeth (158 1-1651), daughter of Gilbert Talbot,
7th earl of Shrewsbury. This lady, who was an authoress,
took for her second husband the jurist John Selden. Henry
died without children in November 1639, when the earldom of
Kent, separated from the barony of Ruthin, passed to his cousin
Anthony (1557-1643), a clergyman, who was succeeded by his
son Henry (1594-1651), Lord Grey of Ruthin. Henry had been
a member of parliament from 1640 to 1643, and as a supporter
of the popular party was speaker of the House of Lords until its
abolition. The nth earl was his son Anthony (1645-1702),
whose son Henry became I2th earl in August 1702, lord chamber-
lain of the royal household from 1704 to 1710, and in 1706 was
created earl of Harold and marquess of Kent, becoming duke of
Kent four years later. All his sons predeceased their father, and
when the duke died in June 1740, his titles of earl, marquess and
duke of Kent became extinct.
In 1799 Edward Augustus, fourth son of George III., was
created duke of Kent and Strathearn by his father. Born on
the 2nd of November 1767, Edward served in the British army
in North America and elsewhere, becoming a field marshal in
1805. To quote Sir Spencer Walpole, Kent, a stern disciplin-
arian, " was unpopular among his troops; and the storm which
was created by hte well-intentioned effort at Gibraltar to check
the licentiousness and drunkenness of the garrison compelled
him finally to retire from the governorship of this colony."
Owing to pecuniary difficulties his later years were mainly passed
on the continent of Europe. He died at Sidmouth on the 23rd
KENT, J.— KENT
735
of January 1820. In 1818 the duke married Maria Louisa
Victoria (1786-1861), widow of Emich Charles, prince of Lein-
ingen (d. 1814), and sister of Leopold I., king of the Belgians;
and his only child was Queen Victoria (<?.».) .
KENT, JAMES (1763-1847), American jurist, was born at
Philippi in New York State on the 3ist of July 1763. He
graduated at Yale College in 1781, and began to practise law at
Poughkeepsie, in 1785 as an attorney, and in 1787 at the bar.
In 1791 and 1792-93 Kent was a representative of Dutchess
county in the state Assembly. In 1 793 he removed to New York,
where Governor Jay, to whom the young lawyer's Federalist sym-
pathies were a strong recommendation, appointed him a master
in chancery for the city. He was professor of law in Columbia
College in 1 793-98 and again servedin the Assembly in 1 796-97 . In
1797 he became recorder of New York, in 1798 judge of the
supreme court of the state, in 1804 chief justice, and in 1814
chancellor of New York. In 1822 he became a member of the
convention to revise the state constitution. Next year, Chan-
cellor Kent resigned his office and was re-elected to his former
chair. Out of the lectures he now delivered grew the Com-
mentaries on American Law (4 vols., 1826-1830), which by their
learning, range and lucidity of style won for him a high and
permanent place in the estimation of both English and American
jurists. Kent rendered most essential service to American
jurisprudence while serving as chancellor. Chancery law had
been very unpopular during the colonial period, and had received
little development, and no decisions had been published. His
judgments of this class (see Johnson's Chancery Reports, 7 vols.,
1816-1824) cover a wide range of topics, and are so thoroughly
considered and developed as unquestionably to form the basis
of American equity jurisprudence. Kent was a man of great
purity of character and of singular simplicity and guilelessness.
He died in New York on the i2th of December 1847.
To Kent we owe several other works (including a Commentary on
International Law) of less importance than the Commentaries. See
J. Duer's Discourse on the Life, Character and Public Services of James
Kent (1848) ; The National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans,
vol. ii. (1852); W. Kent, Memoirs and Letters of Chancellor Kent
(Boston, 1898).
KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748), English "painter, architect,
and the father of modern gardening," as Horace Walpole in
his Anecdotes of Painting describes him, was born in Yorkshire
in 1685. Apprenticed to a coach-painter, his ambition soon led
him to London, where he began life as a portrait and historical
painter. He found patrons, who sent him in 1710 to study in
Italy; and at Rome he made other friends, among them Lord
Burlington, with whom he returned to England in 1719. Under
that nobleman's roof Kent chiefly resided till his death on the
i2th of April 1748 — obtaining abundant commissions in all
departments of his art, as well as various court appointments
which brought him an income of £600 a year. Walpole says
that Kent was below mediocrity in painting. He had some little
taste and skill in architecture, of which Holkham palace is
perhaps the most favourable example. The mediocre statue of
Shakespeare in Westminster Abbey sufficiently stamps his
powers as a sculptor. His merit in landscape gardening is greater.
In Walpole's language, Kent " was painter enough to taste the
charms of landscape, bold and opinionative enough to dare and
to dictate, and born with a genius to strike out a great system
from the twilight of imperfect essays." In short, he was the first
in English gardening to vindicate the natural against the artificial.
Banishing all the clipped monstrosities of the topiary art in yew,
box or holly, releasing the streams from the conventional canal
and marble basin, and rejecting the mathematical symmetry
of ground plan then in vogue for gardens, Kent endeavoured to
imitate the variety of nature, with due regard to the principles
of light and shade and perspective. Sometimes he carried his
imitation too far, as when he planted dead trees in Kensington
gardens to give a greater air of truth to the scene, though he
himself was one of the first to detect the folly of such an extreme.
Kent's plans were designed rather with a view to immediate
effect over a comparatively small area than with regard to any
broader or subsequent results.
KENT, one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon Britain, the
dimensions of which seem to have corresponded with those of
the present county (see below). According to tradition it was
the first part of the country occupied by the invaders, its founders,
Hengest and Horsa, having been employed by the British king
Vortigern against the Picts and Scots. Their landing, according
to English tradition, took place between 450-455, though in
the Welsh accounts the Saxons are said to have arrived in 428
(cf . Hist. Brill. 66) . According to The A nglo-Saxon Chronicle, which
probably used some lost list of Kentish kings, Hengest reigned
455-488, and was succeeded by his son Aesc (Disc), who reigned
till 512; but little value can be attached to these dates. Docu-
mentary history begins with Aethelberht, the great-grandson
of Aesc, who reigned probably 560-616. He married Berhta,
daughter of the Frankish king Haribert, or Charibert, an event
which no doubt was partly responsible for the success of the
mission of Augustine, who landed in 597. Aethelberht was at
this time supreme over all the English kings south of the Humber.
On his death in 616 he was succeeded by his son Eadbald, who
renounced Christianity and married his stepmother, but was
shortly afterwards converted by Laurentius, the successor of
Augustine. Eadbald was succeeded in 640 by his son Ercon-
berht, who enforced the acceptance of Christianity throughout
his kingdom, and was succeeded in 664 by his son Ecgbert, the
latter again by his brother Hlothhere in 673. The early part of
Hlothhere's reign was disturbed by an invasion of Aethelred of
Mercia. He issued a code of laws, which is still extant, together
with his nephew Eadric, the son of Ecgbert, but in 685 a quarrel
broke out between them in which Eadric called in the South
Saxons. Hlothhere died of his wounds, and was succeeded by
Eadric, who, however, reigned under two years.
The death of Eadric was followed by a disturbed period, in
which Kent was under kings whom Bede calls " dubii vel externi."
An unsuccessful attempt at conquest seems to have been made
by the West Saxons, one of whose princes, Mul, brother of Cead-
walla, is said to have been killed in 687. There is some evidence
for a successful invasion by the East Saxon king Sigehere during
the same year. A king named Oswine, who apparently belonged
to the native dynasty, seems to have obtained part of the king-
dom in 688. The other part came in 689 into the hands of
Swefheard, probably a son of the East Saxon king Sebbe.
Wihtred, a son of Ecgbert, succeeded Oswine about 690, and
obtained possession of the whole kingdom before 694. From
him also we have a code of laws. At Wihtred 's death in 725 the
kingdom was divided between his sons Aethelberht, Eadberht
and Alric, the last of whom appears to have died soon afterwards.
Aethelberht reigned till 762 ; Eadberht, according to the Chronicle,
died in 748, but some doubtful charters speak of him as alive in
761-762. Eadberht was succeeded by his son Eardwulf, and he
again by Eanmund, while Aethelberht was succeeded by a king
named Sigered. From 764-779 we find a king named Ecgbert,
who in the early part of his reign had a colleague named Hea-
berht. At this period Kentish history is very obscure. Another
king named Aethelberht appears in 781, and a king Ealhmund
in 784, but there is some reason for suspecting that Offa annexed
Kent about this time. On his death (796) Eadberht Praen made
himself king, but in 798 he was defeated and captured by Coen-
wulf, who made his own brother Cuthred king in his place. On
Cuthred's death in 807 Coenwulf seems to have kept Kent in his
own possession. His successors Ceolwulf and Beornwulf like-
wise appear to have held Kent, but in 825 we hear of a king
Baldred who was expelled by Ecgbert king of Wessex. Under
the West Saxon dynasty Kent, together with Essex, Sussex and
Surrey, was sometimes given as a dependent kingdom to one
of the royal family. During Ecgbert's reign it was entrusted to
his son Aethelwulf, on whose accession to the throne of Wessex,
in 839, it was given to Aethelstan, probably his son, who lived
at least till 851. From 855 to 860 it was governed by Aethel-
berht son of Aethelwulf. During the last years of Alfred's reign
it seems to have been entrusted by him to his son Edward.
Throughout the 9th century we hear also of two earls, whose
spheres of authority may have corresponded to those of the two
736
KENT
kings whom we find in the 8th century. The last earls of
whom we have any record were the two brothers Sigehelm and
Sigewulf, who fell at the Holm in 905 when the Kentish
army was cut off by the Danes, on Edward the Elder's return
from his expedition into East Anglia. At a later period Kent
appears to have been held, together with Sussex, by a single
earl.
The internal organization of the kingdom of Kent seems to have
been somewhat peculiar. Besides the division into West Kent and
East Kent, which probably corresponds with the kingdoms of the
8th century, we find a number of lathes, apparently administrative
districts under reeves, attached to royal villages. In East Kent
there were four of these, namely, Canterbury, Eastry, Wye and
Lymne, which can be traced back to the ptn century or earlier.
In the nth century we hear of two lathes in West Kent, those of
Sutton and Aylesford.
The social organization of the Kentish nation was wholly different
from that of Mercia and Wessex. Instead of two " noble " classes
we find only one, called at first eorlcund, later as in Wessex, gesith-
cund. Again below the ordinary freeman we find three varieties
of persons called laetas, probably freedmen, to whom we have nothing
analogous in the other kingdoms. Moreover the wergeld of the
ceorl, or ordinary freeman, was two or three times as great as that
of the same class in Wessex and Mercia, and the same difference of
treatment is found in all the compensations and fines relating to
them. It is not unlikely that the peculiarities of Kentish custom
observable in later times, especially with reference to the tenure
of land, are connected with these characteristics. An explanation
is probably to be obtained from a statement of Bede — that the
settlers in Kent belonged to a different nationality from those who
founded the other kingdoms, namely the Jutes (<?.».).
See Bede, Historiae ecclesiasticae, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford,
1896) ; Two of the Saxon Chronicles, edited by J. Earle and C. Plummer
(Oxford, 1892-1899); W. de G. Birch, Cartularium Saxonicum
(London, 1885-1889); B. Seebohm, Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon
Law (London, 1902); H. M. Chadwick, Studies on Anglo-Saxon
Institutions (Cambridge, 1905) ; and T. W. Shore, Origin of the Anglo-
Saxon Race (London, 1906). (F. G. M. B.)
KENT, a south-eastern county of England, bounded N. by the
Thames estuary, E. and S.E. by the English Channel, S.W. by
Sussex, and W. by Surrey. In the north-west the administrative
county of London encroaches upon the ancient county of Kent,
the area of which is 1554-7 sq. m. The county is roughly tri-
angular in form, London lying at the apex of the western angle,
the North Foreland at that of the eastern and Dungeness at that
of the southern. The county is divided centrally, from west to
east, by the well-marked range of hills known as the North
Downs, entering Kent from Surrey. In the west above Wester-
ham these hills exceed 800 ft.; to the east the height is much
less, but even in Kent (for in Surrey they are higher) the North
Downs form a more striking physical feature than their height
would indicate. They are intersected, especially on the north,
by many deep valleys, well wooded. At three points such valleys
cut completely through the main line of the hills. In the west
the Darent, flowing north to the Thames below Dartford, pierces
the hills north of Sevenoaks, but its waters are collected chiefly
from a subsidiary ridge of the Downs running parallel to the main
line and south of it, and known as the Ragstone Ridge, from
600 to 800 ft. in height. The Medway, however, cuts through
the entire hill system, rising in the Forest Ridges of Sussex,
flowing N.E. and E. past Tonbridge, collecting feeders from south
and east (the Teise, Beult and others) near Yalding, and then
flowing N.E. and N. through the hills, past Maidstone, joining
the Thames at its mouth through a broad estuary. The rich
lowlands, between the Downs and the Forest Ridges to the south
(which themselves extend into Kent), watered by the upper
Medway and its feeders, are called the Vale of Kent, and fall
within the district well known under the name of the Weald.
The easternmost penetration of the Downs is that effected by the
Stour (Great Stour) which rises on their southern face, flows S.E.
to Ashford, where it receives the East Stour, then turns N.E.
past Wye and Canterbury, to meander through the lowlands
representing the former channel which isolated the Isle of Thanet.
from the mainland. The channel was called the Wantsume, and
its extent may be gathered from the position of the village of
Fordwich near Canterbury, which had formerly a tidal harbour,
and is a member of the Cinque Port of Sandwich. The Little
Stour joins the Great Stour in these lowlands from a deep vale
among the Downs.
About two-thirds of the boundary line of Kent is formed by
tidal water. The estuary of the Thames may be said to stretch
from London Bridge to Sheerness in the Isle of Sheppey, which
is divided from the mainland by the narrow channel (bridged at
Queensbridge) of the Swale. Sheerness lies at the mouth of the
Medway, a narrow branch of which cuts off a tongue of land
termed the Isle of Grain lying opposite Sheerness. Along the
banks of the Thames the coast is generally low and marshy,
embankments being in several places necessary to prevent
inundation. At a few points, however, as at Gravesend, spurs
of the North Downs descend directly upon the shore. In the
estuary of the Medway there are a number of low marshy islands,
but Sheppey presents to the sea a range of slight cliffs from 80
to 90 ft. in height. The marshes extend along the Swale to
Whitstable, whence stretches a low line of clay and sandstone
cliffs towards the Isle of Thanet, when they become lofty and
grand, extending round the Foreland southward to Pegwell Bay
The coast from Sheppey round to the South Foreland is skirted
by numerous flats and sands, the most extensive of which are
the Goodwin Sands off Deal. From Pegwell Bay south to a
point near Deal the coast is flat, and the drained marshes or levels
of the lower Stour extend to the west; but thence the coast rises
again into chalk cliffs, the eastward termination of the North
Downs, the famous white cliffs which form the nearest point of
England to continental Europe, overlooking the Strait of Dover.
These cliffs continue round the South Foreland to Folkestone,
where they fall away, and are succeeded west of Sandgate by a
flat shingly shore. To the south of Hythe this shore borders
the wide expanse of Romney Marsh, which, immediately west
of Hythe, is overlooked by a line of abrupt hills, but for the rest
is divided on the north from the drainage system of the Stour
only by a slight uplift. The marsh, drained by many channels,
seldom rises over a dozen feet above sea-level. At its south-
eastern extremity, and at the extreme south of the county, is
the shingly promontory of Dungeness. Within historic times
much of this marsh was covered by the sea, and the valley of the
river Rother, which forms part of the boundary of Kent with
Sussex, entering the sea at Rye harbour, was represented by a
tidal estuary for a considerable distance inland.
Geology. — The northern part of the county lies on the southern
rim of the London basin; here the beds are dipping northwards.
The southern part of the county is occupied by a portion of the
Wealden anticline. The London Clay occupies the tongue of land
between the estuaries of the Thames and Medway, as well as Sheppey
and a district about 8 m. wide stretching southwards from Whit-
stable to Canterbury, and extending eastwards to the Isle of Thanet.
It reappears at Pegwell Bay, and m the neighbourhood of London
it rises above the plastic clay into the elevation of Shooter's Hill,
with a height of about 450 ft. and a number of smaller eminences.
The thickness of the formation near London is about 400 ft., and at
Sheppey it reaches 480 ft. At Sheppey it is rich in various kinds
of fossil fish and shells. The plastic clay, which rests chiefly on
chalk, occupies the remainder of the estuary of the Thames, but at
several places it is broken through by outcrops of chalk, which in
some instances run northwards to the banks of the river. The
Lower Tertiaries are represented by thrpe different formations known
as the Thanet beds, the Woolwich and Reading beds, and the Old-
haven and Blackheath beds. The Thanet beds resting on chalk
form a narrow outcrop rising into cliffs at Pegwell Bay and Reculver,
and consist (i) of a constant base bed of clayey greenish sand, seldom
more than 5 ft. in thickness; (2) of a thin and local bed composed of
alternations of brown clay and loam ; (3) of a bed of fine light buff
sand, which in west Kent attains a thickness of more than 60 ft. ;
(4) of bluish grey sandy marl containing fossils, and almost entirely
confined to cast Kent, the thickness of the formation being more than
60 ft. ; and (5) of fine light grey sand of an equal thickness, also fossil-
ifcrous. The middle series of the Lower Tertiaries, known as the Wool-
wich and Reading beds, rests either on the Thanet beds or on chalk,
and consists chiefly of irregular alternations of clay and sand of
very various colours, the former often containing estuarine and oyster
shells and the latter flint pebbles. The thickness of the formation
varies from 15 to 80 ft., but most commonly it is from 25 to 40 ft.
The highest and most local series of the Lower Tertiaries is the
Oldhaven and Blackheath beds lying between the London Clay and
the Woolwich beds. They consist chiefly of flint pebbles or of light-
coloured quartzose sand, the thickness being from 20 to 30 ft, and.
are best seen at Oldhaven and Blackheath. To the south the London
KENT
737
basin is succeeded by the North Downs, an elevated ridge of country
consisting of an outcrop of chalk which extends from Westerham to
Folkestone with an irregular breadth generally of 3 to 6 miles, but
expanding to nearly 12 miles at Dartford and Gravesend and also to
the north of Folkestone. After dipping below the London Clay at
Canterbury, it sends out an outcrop which forms the greater part
of Thanet. Below the chalk is a thin crop of Upper Greensand
between Otford and Westerham. To the south of the Downs there
is a narrow valley formed by the Gault, a fossiliferous blue clay.
This is succeeded by an outcrop of the Lower Greensand — including
the Folkestone, Sandgate and Hythe beds with the thin Atherfield
Cjay at the base — which extends across the country from west to east
with a breadth of from 2 to 7 m., and rises into the picturesque
elevations of the Ragstone hills. The remains of Iguanodon occur
in the Hythe beds. The valley, which extends from the borders of
Sussex to Hythe, is occupied chiefly by the Weald clays, which con-
tain a considerable number of marine and freshwater fossils. Along
the borders of Sussex there is a narrow strip of country consisting
of picturesque sandy hills, formed by the Hastings beds, whose
highest elevation is nearly 400 ft. and the south-west corner of the
county is occupied by Romney Marsh, which within a comparatively
recent period has been recovered from the sea. Valley gravels
border the Thames, and Pleistocene mammalia have been found
in fissures in the Hythe beds at Ightham, where ancient stone imple-
ments are common. Remains of crag deposits lie in pipes in the
chalk near Lenham. Coal-measures, as will be seen, have been found
near Dover.
The London Clay is much used for bricks, coarse pottery and
Roman cement. Lime is obtained from the Chalk and Greensand
formations. Ironstone is found in the Wadhurst Clay, a subdivision
of the Hastings beds, clays and calcareous ironstone in the Ashdown
sand, but the industry has long been discontinued. The last Weal-
den furnace was put out in 1828.
Climate and Agriculture. — The unhealthiness of certain portions
of the county caused by the marshes is practically removed by drain-
ing. In the north-eastern districts the climate is somewhat uncer-
tain, and damage is often done to early fruit-blossoms and vegetation
by cold easterly winds and late frosts. In the large portion of the
county sheltered by the Downs the climate is milder and more
equable, and vegetation is somewhat earlier. The average tempera-
ture for January is 37'9° F. at Canterbury, and 39*8° at Dover;
for July 63°3° and 6i'6° respectively, and the mean annual 50° and
5O'2° respectively. Rainfall is light, the mean annual being 27*72 in.
at Dover, and 23-3i at Margate, compared with 23*16 at Green-
wich. The soil is varied in character, but on the whole rich and
under high cultivation. The methods of culture and the kinds
of crop produced are perhaps more widely diversified than those of
any other county in England. Upon the London Clay the land is
generally heavy and stiff, but very fruitful when properly manured
and cultivated. The marsh lands along the banks of the Thames,
Medway, Stour and Swale consist chiefly of rich chalk alluvium.
In the Isle of Thanet a light mould predominates, which has been
much enriched by fish manure. The valley of the Medway, espe-
cially the district round Maidstone, is the most fertile part of the
county, the soil being a deep loam with a subsoil of brick-earth.
On the ragstone the soil is occasionajly thin and much mixed with
small portions of sand and stone ; but in some situations the ragstone
has a thick covering of clay loam, which is most suitable for the
production of hops and fruits. In the district of the Weald marl
prevails, with a substratum of clay. The soil of Romney Marsh
is a clay alluvium.
No part of England surpasses the more fertile portions of this
county in the peculiar richness of its rural scenery. About three-
quarters of the total area is under cultivation. Oats and wheat are
grown in almost equal quantities, barley being of rather less import-
ance. A considerable acreage is under beans, and in Thanet mustard,
spinach, canary seed and a variety of other seeds are raised. But
the county is specially noted for the cultivation of fruit and hops.
Market gardens are very numerous in the neighbourhood of London.
The principal orchard districts are the valleys of the Darent and
Medway, and the tertiary soilsoverlyingthechalk, between Rochester
and Canterbury. The county is specially famed for cherries and fil-
berts, but apples, pears, plums, gooseberries, strawberries, raspberries
and currants are also largely cultivated. In some cases apples, cherries,
filberts and hops are grown in alternate rows. The principal hop
districts are the country between Canterbury and Faversham, the
valley of the Medway in mid Kent, and the district of the Weald.
Much of the Weald, which originally was occupied by a forest, is
still densely wooded, and woods are specially extensive in the valley
of the Medway. Fine oaks and beeches are numerous, and yew
trees of great size and age are seen in some Kentish churchyards,
as at Stansted, while the fine oak at Headcorn is also famous.
A large extent of woodland consists of ash and chestnut plantations,
maintained for the growth of hop poles. Cattle are grazed in con-
siderable numbers on the marsh lands, and dairy farms are numerous
in the neighbourhood of London. For the rearing of sheep Kent is
one of the chief counties in England. A breed peculiar to the dis-
trict, known as Kents, is grazed on Romney Marsh, but Southdowns
are the principal breed raised on the uplands. Bee-keeping is
extensively practised. Dairy schools are maintained by the
XV. 24.
technical education committee of the county council. The South-
eastern Agricultural College at Wye is under the control of the
county councils of Kent and Surrey.
Other Industries. — There were formerly extensive ironworks in
the Weald. Another industry now practically extinct was the
manufacture of woollen cloth. The neighbourhood of Lamberhurst
and Cranbrook was the special seat of these trades. Among the
principal modern industries are paper-making, carried on on the
banks of the Darent, Medway, Cray and neighbouring streams;
engineering, chemical and other works along the Thames; manu-
factures of bricks, tiles, pottery and cement, especially by the lower
Medway and the Swale. A variety of industries is connected with
the Government establishments at Chatham and Sheerness. Ship-
building is prosecuted here and at Gravesend, Dover and other ports.
Gunpowder is manufactured near Erith and Faversham and else-
where.
Deep-sea fishing is largely prosecuted all round the coast. Shrimps,
soles and flounders are taken in great numbers in the estuaries of
the Thames and Medway, along the north coast and off Ramsgate.
The history of the Kentish oyster fisheries goes back to the time of
the Roman occupation, when the fame of the oyster beds off Rutupiae
(Richborough) extended even to Rome. The principal beds are
near Whitstable, Faversham, Milton, Queenborough and Rochester,
some being worked by ancient companies or gilds of fishermen.
After the cessation in 1882 of works in connexion with the Channel
tunnel, to connect England and France, coal-boring was attempted
in the disused shaft, west of the Shakespeare Cliff railway tunnel near
Dover. In 1890 coal was struck at a depth of IIQO ft., and further
seams were discovered later. The company which took up the
mining was unsuccessful, and boring ceased in 1901, but the work
was resumed by the Consolidated Kent Collieries Corporation, and
an extension of borings revealed in 1905 the probability of a success-
ful development of the mining industry in Kent.
Communications. — Railway communications are practically mono-
polized by the South Eastern & Chatham Company, a monopoly
which has not infrequently been the cause of complaint on the part
of farmers, traders and others. This system includes some of the
principal channels of communication with the continent, through
the ports of Dover, Folkestone and Queenborough. The county
contains four of the Cinque Ports, namely, Dover, Hythe, New Rom-
ney and Sandwich. Seaside resorts are numerous and populous —
on the north coast are Minster (Sheppey), Whitstable and Herne
Bay; there is a ring of watering-places round the Isle of Thanet —
Birchington, Westgate, Margate, Broadstairs, Ramsgate; while
to the south are Sandwich, Deal, Walmer, St Margaret's-at-Cliffe,
Dover, Folkestone, Sandgate and Hythe. Tunbndge Wells is a
favourite inland watering-place. The influence of London in con-
verting villages into outer residential suburbs is to be observed at
many points, whether seaside, along the Thames or inland. The
county is practically without inland water communications, excluoV
ing the Thames. The Royal military canal which runs along the
inland border of Romney Marsh, and connects the Rother with
Hythe, was constructed in 1807 as part of a scheme of defence in
connexion with the martello towers or small forts along the coast.
Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient
county is 995,014 acres, with a population in 1901 of 1,348,841.
In 1801 the population was 308,667. Excluding the portion
which falls within the administrative county of London the area
is 974,950 acres, with a population in 1891 of 807,269 and in
1901 of 935,855. The area of the administrative county is
976,881 acres. The county contains 5 lathes, a partition pecu-
liar to the county. The municipal boroughs are Bromley (pop.
27,354), Canterbury, a city and county borough (24,889),
Chatham (37,057), Deal (10,581), Dover (41,794), Faversham
(11,290), Folkestone (30,650), Gillingham (42,530), Gravesend
(27,196), Hythe (5557), Lydd (2675), Maidstone (33,516),
Margate (23,118), New Romney (1328), Queenborough (1544),
Ramsgate (27,733), Rochester, a city (30,590), Sandwich (3170),
Tenterden (3243), Tunbridge Wells (33,373). The urban dis-
tricts are Ashford (12,808), Beckenham (26,331), Bexley (12,918),
Broadstairs and St Peter's (6466), Cheriton (7091), Chislehurst
(7429), Dartford (18,644), Erith (25,296), Foots Cray (5817),
Herne Bay (6726), Milton (7086), Northfleet (12,906), Penge
(22,465), Sandgate (2294), Sevenoaks (8106), Sheerness (18,179),
Sittingbourne (8943), Southborough (6977), Tonbridge (12,736),
Walmer (5614), Whitstable (7086), Wrotham (3571). Other
small towns are Rainham (3693) near Chatham, Aylesford (2678),
East Mailing (2391) and West Mailing (2312) in the Maidstone
district; Edenbridge (2546) and Westerham (2905) on the
western border of the county; Cranbrook (3949), Goudhurst
(2725) and Hawkhurst (3136) in the south-west. Among
villages which have grown into residential towns through their
5
738
KENT
proximity to London, beyond those included among the boroughs
and urban districts, there should be mentioned Orpington (4259).
The county is in the south-eastern circuit, and assizes are held
at Maidstone. It has two courts of quarter sessions, and is
divided into 17 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs having
separate commissions of the peace and courts of quarter sessions
are Canterbury, Deal, Dover, Faversham, Folkestone, Gravesend,
Hythe, Maidstone, Margate, Rochester, Sandwich and Tenterden ;
while those of Lydd, New Romney, Ramsgate and Tunbridge
Wells have separate commissions of the peace. The liberty of
Romney Marsh has petty and general sessions. The justices
of the Cinque Ports exercise certain jurisdiction, the non-corpor-
ate members of the Cinque Ports of Dover and Sandwich having
separate commissions of the peace and courts of quarter sessions.
The central criminal court has jurisdiction over certain parishes
adjacent to London. All those civil parishes within the county
of Kent of which any part is within twelve miles of, or of which
no part is more than fifteen miles from, Charing Cross are within
the metropolitan police district. The total number of civil
parishes is 427. Kent is mainly in the diocese of Canterbury,
but has parts in those of Rochester, Southwark and Chichester.
It contains 476 ecclesiastical p'arishes or districts, wholly or in
part. The county (extra-metropolitan) is divided into 8 parlia-
mentary divisions, namely, North-western or Dartford, Western
or Sevenoaks, South-western or Tunbridge, Mid or Medway,
North-eastern or Faversham, Southern or Ashford, Eastern or St
Augustine's and the Isle of Thanet, each returning one member;
while the boroughs of Canterbury, Chatham, Dover, Gravesend,
Hythe, Maidstone and Rochester each return one member.
History. — For the ancient kingdom of Kent see the preceding
article. The shire organization of Kent dates from the time of
Aethelstan, the name as well as the boundary being that of the
ancient kingdom, though at first probably with the addition of
the suffix " shire," the form " Kentshire " occurring in a record
of the folkmoot at this date. The inland shire-boundary has
varied with the altered course of the Rother. In 1888 the
county was diminished by the formation of the county of
London.
At the time of the Domesday Survey Kent comprised sixty
hundreds, and there was a further division into six lests, probably
representing the shires of the ancient kingdom, of which two,
Sutton and Aylesford, correspond with the present-day lathes.
The remaining four, Borowast Lest, Estre Lest, Limowast Lest
and Wiwart Lest, existed at least as early as the gth century, and
were apparently named from their administrative centres,
Burgwara (the burg being Canterbury), Eastre,Lymne and Wye,
all of which were meeting places of the Kentish Council. The
five modern lathes (Aylesford, St Augustine, Scray, Sheppey and
Sutton-at-Hone) all existed in the time of Edward I., with the
additional lathe of Hedeling, which was absorbed before the next
reign in that of St Augustine. The Nomina Villarum of the
reign of Edward II. mentions all the sixty-six modern hundreds,
more than two-thirds of which were at that date in the hands of
the church.
Sheriffs of Kent are mentioned in the time of /Ethelred II.,
and in Saxon times the shiremoot met three times a year on
Penenden Heath near Maidstone. After the Conquest the great
ecclesiastical landholders claimed exemption from the jurisdic-
tion of the shire, and in 1279 the abbot of Battle claimed to have
his own coroner in the hundred of Wye. In the I3th century
twelve liberties in Kent claimed to have separate bailiffs. The
assizes for the county were held in the reign of Henry III. at
Canterbury and Rochester, and also at the Lowey of Tonbridge
under a mandate from the Crown as a distinct liberty; after-
wards at different intervals at East Greenwich, Dartford, Maid-
stone, Milton-next-Gravesend and Sevenoaks; from the Restora-
tion to the present day they have been held at Maidstone. The
liberty of Romney Marsh has petty and quarter sessions under
its charters.
Kent is remarkable as the only English county which com-
prises two entire bishoprics, Canterbury, the see for East Kent,
having been founded in 597, and Rochester, the see for West
Kent, in 600. In 1291 the archdeaconry of Canterbury was co-
extensive with that diocese and included the deaneries of West-
bere, Bridge, Sandwich, Dover, Elham, Lympne, Charing,
Sutton, Sittingbourne, Ospringe and Canterbury; the arch-
deaconry of Rochester, also co-extensive with its diocese, in-
cluded the deaneries of Rochester, Dartford, Mailing and Shore-
ham. In 1845 the deaneries of Charing, Sittingbourne and
Sutton were comprised in the new archdeaconry of Maidstone,
which in 1846 received in addition the deaneries of Dartford,
Mailing and Shoreham from the archdeaconry of Rochester. In
1853 the deaneries of Mailing and Charing were subdivided into
North and South Mailing and East and West Charing. Lympne
was subdivided into North and South Lympne in 1857 and Dart-
ford into East and West Dartford in 1864. Gravesend and
Cobham deaneries were created in 1862 and Greenwich and
Woolwich in 1868, all in the archdeaconry of Rochester. In
1873 East and West Bridge deaneries were created in the arch-
deaconry of Canterbury, and Croydon in the archdeaconry of
Maidstone. In 1889 Tunbridge deanery was created in the
archdeaconry of Maidstone. In 1906 the deaneries of East and
West Dartford, North and South Mailing, Greenwich and Wool-
wich were abolished, and Shoreham and Tunbridge were trans-
ferred from Maidstone to Rochester archdeaconry.
Between the Conquest and the i4th century the earldom of
Kent was held successively by Odo, bishop of Bayeux, William
of Ypres and Hubert de Burgh (sheriff of the county in the reign
of Henry III.), none of whom, however, transmitted the honour,
which was bestowed by Edward I. on his youngest son Edmund
of Woodstock, and subsequently passed to the families of Holland
and Neville (see KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF). In the Domes-
day Survey only five lay tenants-in-chief are mentioned, all the
chief estates being held by the church, and the fact that the
Kentish gentry are less ancient than in some remoter shires is
further explained by the constant implantation of new stocks
from London. Greenwich is illustrious as the birthplace of
Henry VIII., Mary and Elizabeth. Sir Philip Sidney was born
at Penshurst, being descended from William de Sidney, chamber-
lain to Henry II. Bocton Malherbe was the seat of the Wottons,
from whom descended Nicholas Wotton, privy councillor to
Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary and Elizabeth. The family
of Leiborne of Leiborne Castle, of whom Sir Roger Leiborne took
an active part in the barons' wars, became extinct in the i4th
century. Sir Francis Walsingham was born at Chislehurst,
where his family had long flourished; Hever Castle was the seat
of the Boleyns and the scene of the courtship of Anne Boleyn
by Henry VIII. Allington Castle was the birthplace of Sir
Thomas Wyat.
Kent, from its proximity to London, has been intimately
concerned in every great historical movement which has agitated
the country, while its busy industrial population has steadily
resisted any infringement of its rights and liberties. The chief
events connected with the county under the Norman kings were
the capture of Rochester by William Rufus during the rebellion
of Odo of Bayeux; the capture of Dover and Leeds castles by
Stephen; the murder of Thomas a Becket at Canterbury in
1170; the submission of John to the pope's legate at Dover in
1213, and the capture of Rochester Castle by the king in the same
year. Rochester Castle was in 1216 captured by the dauphin of
France, to whom nearly all Kent submitted, and during the wars
of Henry III. with his barons was captured by Gilbert de Clare.
In the peasants' rising of 1381 the rebels plundered the arch-
bishop's palace at Canterbury, and 100,000 Kentishmen gathered
round Wat Tyler of Essex. In 1450 Kent took a leading part
in Jack Cade's rebellion; and in 1554 the insurrection of Sir
Thomas Wyat began at Maidstone. On the outbreak of the
Great Rebellion feeling was much divided, but after capturing
Dover Castle the parliament soon subdued the whole county.
In 1648, however, a widespread insurrection was organized on
behalf of Charles, and was suppressed by Fairfax. The county
was among the first to welcome back Charles II. In 1667 the
Dutch fleet under De Ruyter advanced up the Medway, levelling
the fort at Sheerness and burning the ships at Chatham. In
KENTIGERN
739
the Kentish petition of 1701 drawn up at Maidstone the county
protested against the peace policy of the Tory party.
Among the earliest industries of Kent were the iron-mining
in the Weald, traceable at least to Roman times, and the salt
industry, which flourished along the coast in the loth century.
The Domesday Survey, besides testifying to the agricultural
activity of the country, mentions over one hundred salt-works
and numerous valuable fisheries, vines at Chart Sutton and
Leeds, and cheese at, Milton. The Hundred Rolls of the reign of
Edward I. frequently refer to wool, and Flemish weavers settled
in the Weald in the time of Edward III. Tiles were manu-
factured at Wye in the i4th century. Valuable timber was
afforded by the vast forest of the Weald, but the restrictions
imposed on the felling of wood for fuel did serious detriment to
the iron-trade, and after the statute of 1558 forbidding the felling
of timber for iron-smelting within fourteen miles of the coast the
industry steadily declined. The discovery of coal in the northern
counties dealt the final blow to its prosperity. Cherries are said
to have been imported from Flanders and first planted in Kent
by Henry VIII., and from this period the culture of fruits
(especially apples and cherries) and of hops spread rapidly over
the county. Thread-making at Maidstone and silk-weaving at
Canterbury existed in the i6th century, and before 1590 one of
the first paper-mills in England was set up at Dartford. The
statute of 1630 forbidding the exportation of wool, followed by
the Plague of 1665, led to a serious trade depression, while the
former enactment resulted in the vast smuggling trade which
spread along the coast, 40,000 packs of wool being smuggled to
Calais from Kent and Sussex in two years.
In 1290 Kent returned two members to parliament for the
county, and in 1295 Canterbury, Rochester and Tunbridge were
also represented; Tunbridge however made no returns after this
date. In 1552 Maidstone acquired representation, and in 1572
Queenbo rough. Under the act of 1832 the county returned four
members in two divisions, Chatham was represented by one
member and Greenwich by two, while Queenborough was dis-
franchised. Under the act of 1868 the county returned six
members in three divisions and Gravesend returned one member.
By the act of 1885 the county returned eight members in eight
divisions, and the representation of Canterbury, Maidstone and
Rochester was reduced to one member each. By the London
Government Act of 1892 the borough of Greenwich was taken
out of Kent and made one of the twenty-eight metropolitan
boroughs of the county of London.
Antiquities. — As was to be expected from its connexion with
the early history of England, and from its beauty and fertility,
Kent possessed a larger than average number of monastic founda-
tions. The earliest were the priory of Christ's Church and the abbey
of St Peter and St Paul, now called St Augustine's, both at Canter-
bury, founded by Augustine and the monks who accompanied him
to England. Other Saxon foundations were the nunneries at
Folkestone (630), Lyminge (633; nunnery and monastery), Reculver
(669), Minster-in-Thanet (670), Minster-in-Sheppey (675), and the
priory of St Martin at Dover (696), all belonging to the Benedictine
order. Some of these were refounded, and the principal monastic
remains now existing are those of the Benedictine priories at Roches-
ter (1089), Folkestone (1095), Dover (1140); the Benedictine nun-
neries at Mailing (time of William Rufus), Minster-in-Sheppey (1130),
Higham (founded by King Stephen), and Davington (1153); the
Cistercian Abbey at Boxley {i 146) ; the Cluniac abbey at Faversham
(1147) and priory at Monks Horton (time of Henry II.), the precep-
tory of Knights Templars at Swingfield (time of Henry II.); the
Premonstratensian abbey of St Radigund's, near Dover (1191);
the first house of Dominicans in England at Canterbury (1221);
the first Carmelite house in England, at Aylesford (1240); and the
priory of Augustinian nuns at Dartford (1355). Other houses of
which there are slight remains are Lesnes abbey, near Erith, and
Bilsington priory near Ashford, established in 1178 and 1253 respec-
tively, and both belonging to the Augustinian canons; and the house
of Franciscans at Canterbury (1225). But no remains exist of the
priories of Augustinian canons at Canterbury (St Gregory's; 1084),
Leeds, near Maidstone (1119), Tunbridge (middle of I2th century),
Combwell, near Cranbrook (time of Henry II.); the nunnery of St
Sepulchre at Canterbury (about noo) and Langdon abbey, near
Walmer (1192), both belonging to the Benedictines; the Trinitarian
priory of Mottenden near Headcorn, the first house of Crutched
Friars in England (1224), where miracle plays were presented in the
church by the friars on Trinity Sunday; the Carmelite priories at
Sandwich (1272) and Losenham near Tenterden (1241); and the
preceptory of Knights of St John of Jerusalem at West Peckham,
near Tunbridge (1408).
Even apart from the cathedral churches of Canterbury and
Rochester, the county is unsurpassed in the number of churches it
possesses of the highest interest. For remains of a date before the
Conquest the church of Lyminge is of first importance. Here,
apart from the monastic remains, there may be seen portions of the
church founded by /Ethelburga, wife of Edwin, king of Northumber-
land, and rebuilt, with considerable use of Roman material, in
965 by St Dunstan. There is similar early work in the church of
Paddlesworth, not far distant. Among numerous Norman examples
the first in interest is the small church at Barfreston, one of the most
perfect specimens of its kind in England, with a profusion of orna-
ment, especially round the south doorway and east window. The
churches of St Margaret-at-Cliff, Patrixbourne and Darenth are
hardly less noteworthy, while the tower of New Romney church
should also be mentioned. Among several remarkable Early
English examples none is finer than Hythe church, but the churches
of SS. Mary and Eanswith, Folkestone, Minster-in-Thanet, Chalk,
with its curious porch, Faversham and Westwell, with fine contem-
porary glass, are also worthy of notice. Stone church, near Dart-
ford, a late example of this style, transitional to Decorated, is very
fine; and among Decorated buildings Chartham church exhibits in
some of its windows the peculiar tracery known as Kentish Decorated.
Perpendicular churches, though numerous, are less remarkable, but
the fine glass of this period in Nettlestead church may be noticed.
The church of Cobham contains one of the richest collections of
ancient brasses in England.
Kent is also rich in examples of ancient architecture other than
ecclesiastical. The castles of Rochester and Dover are famous;
those of Canterbury and Chilham are notable among others. Ancient
mansions are very numerous; among these are the castellated
Leeds Castle in the Maidstone district, Penshurst Place, Hever Castle
near Edenbridge, Saltwood and Westenhanger near Hythe, the
Mote House at Ightham near Wrotham, Knole House near Seven-
oaks, and Cobham Hall. Minor examples of early domestic archi-
tecture abound throughout the county.
AUTHORITIES. — A full bibliography of the many earlier works on
the county and its towns is given in J. R. Smith's Bibliotheca Can-
liana (London, 1837). There may be mentioned here W. Lambarde,
Perambulation of Kent (London, 1576, 1826); R. Kilburne, Topo-
graphic or Survey of the County of Kent (London, 1659) ; J. and T.
Philipot, Villare Cantianum (London, 1659, 1776); J. Harris,
History of Kent (London, 1719) ; E. Hasted, History and Topo-
graphical Survey of Kent (4 vols. folio, Canterbury, 1778-1799; 2nd
ed., 12 vols. 8vo, Canterbury, 1797-1801); W. H. Ireland, History
of the County of Kent (London, 1828-1830) ; C. Sandys, Consuetudines
Kantiae (London, 1851); A. Hussey, Notes on the Churches of Kent
(London, 1852); L. B. Larking, The Domesday Book of Kent (1869);
R. Furley, History of the Weald of Kent (Ashford, 1871-1874) ;W. A.
Scott Robertson, Kentish Archaeology (London, 1876-1884) ; Sir S. R.
Glynne, Notes on Churches of Kent, ed. W. H. Gladstone (London,
1877); J. Hutchinson, Men of Kent and Kentish Men (London,
1892); Victoria County History," Kent." SeeahoArchaeologia Canti-
ana (translations of the Kent Archaeological Society, London,
from 1858).
KENTIGERN, ST, or MUNGO (" dear friend," a name given to
him, according to Jocelyn, by St Servanus), a Briton of Strath-
clyde, called by the Goidels In Glaschu, " the Grey Hound," was,
according to the legends preserved in the lives which remain, of
royal' descent. His mother when with child was thrown down
from a hill called Dunpelder (Traprain Law, Haddingtonshire),
but survived the fall and escaped by sea to Culross on the farther
side of the Firth of Forth, where Kentigern was born. It is
possible that she may have been a nun, as a convent had been
founded in earlier times on Traprain Law. The life then
describes the training of the boy by Servanus, but the date of
the latter renders this impossible. Returning to Strathclyde
Kentigern lived for some time at Glasgow, near a cemetery
ascribed to St Ninian, and was eventually made bishop of that
region by the king and clergy. This story is partially attested
by Welsh documents, in which Kentigern appears as the bishop
of Garthmwl, apparently the ruler of the region about Glasgow.
Subsequently he was opposed by a pagan king called Morken,
whose relatives after his death succeeded in forcing the saint to
retire from Strathclyde. He thereupon took refuge with St
David at Menevia (St David's), and eventually founded a monas-
tery at Llanelwy (St Asaph's), for which purpose he received
grants from Maelgwn, prince of Gwynedd. After the battle of
Ardderyd in 573 in which King Rhydderch, leader of the Chris-
tian party in Strathclyde, was victorious, Kentigern was recalled.
He fixed his see first at Hoddam in Dumfriesshire, but afterwards
740
KENTON— KENTUCKY
returned to Glasgow. He is credited with missionary work in
Galloway and north of the Firth of Forth, but most of the
dedications to him which survive are north of the Mounth in the
upper valley of the Dee. The meeting of Kentigern and Columba
probably took place soon after 584, when the latter began to
preach in the neighbourhood of the Tay.
AUTHORITIES. — Lives of St Kentigern; Fragment used by John
of Fordun, and complete " Life " by Jocelyn of Furness in Forbes's
Historians of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1874), vol. v. ; Four Ancient Books
of Wales (Edinburgh, ed. W. F. Skene, 1868), ii. 457; Myvynan
Archaeology (London, 1801), ii. 34; D. R. Thomas, History of Diocese
ofSt Asaph (London, 1874), p. 5 ; Index of Llyfr Coch Asaph, Archae-
ologia Cambrensis, 3rd series, 1868, vol. xiv. p. 151 ; W. F. Skene,
Celtic Scotland (Edinburgh, 1877), ii. 179 ff.; John Rhys, Celtic
Britain (London, 1904), pp. 145, 146, 174, 199, 250.
KENTON, a city and the county seat of Hardin county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on the Scioto river, 60 m. N.W. of Columbus.
Pop. (1000), 6852, including 493 foreign-born and 271 negroes;
(1910), 7185. It is served by the Erie, the Cleveland, Cincinnati,
Chicago & St Louis, and the Ohio Central railways. It is
built on the water-parting between Lake Erie and the Gulf of
Mexico, here about 1,000 ft. above sea-level. There are shops
of the Ohio Central railway here, and manufactories of hard-
ware. The municipality owns and operates its waterworks.
Kenton was named in honour of Simon Kenton (1755-1836) a
famous scout and Indian fighter, who took part in the border
warfare, particularly in Kentucky and Ohio, during the War of
American Independence and afterwards. It was platted and be-
came the county seat in 1833, and was chartered as a city in 1885.
RENTS CAVEftN, or KENT'S HOLE, the largest of English
bone caves, famous as affording evidence of the existence of
Man in Devon (England) contemporaneously with animals now
extinct or no longer indigenous. It is about a mile east of
Torquay harbour and is of a sinuous nature, running deeply
into a hill of Devonian limestone. Although long known locally,
it was not until 1825 that it was scientifically examined by Rev.
J. McEnery, who found worked flints in intimate association with
the bones of extinct mammals. He recognized the fact that
they proved the existence of man in Devonshire while those
animals were alive, but the idea was too novel to be accepted
by his contemporaries. His discoveries were afterwards
verified by Godwin Austen, and ultimately by the Committee
of the British Association, whose explorations were carried on
under the guidance of Wm. Pengelly from 1865 to 1880. There
are four distinct strata in the cave, (i) The surface is com-
posed of dark earth and contains medieval remains, Roman
pottery and articles which prove that it was in use during
the Iron, Bronze and Neolithic Ages. (2) Below this is a
stalagmite floor, varying in thickness from i to 3 ft., and cover-
ing (3) the red earth which contained bones of the hyaena,
lion, mammoth, rhinoceros and other animals, in association with
flint implements and an engraved antler, which proved man to
have been an inhabitant of the cavern during its deposition.
Above this and below the stalagmite there is in one part of the
cave a black band from 2 to 6 in. thick, formed of soil like No. 2,
containing charcoal, numerous flint implements, arid the bones
and teeth of animals, the latter occasionally perforated as if
used for ornament. (4) Filling the bottom of the cave was
a hard breccia, with the remains of bears and flint implements,
the latter in the main ruder than those found above; in some
places it was no less than 12 ft. thick. The most remarkable
animal remains found in Kent's Cavern are those of the Sabre-
toothed tiger, Machairodus latidens of Sir Richard Owen. While
the value of McEnery's discoveries was in dispute the exploration
of the cave of Brixham near Torquay in 1858 proved that man
was coeval with the extinct mammalia, and in the following year
additional proof was offered by the implements that were found
in Wookey Hole, Somerset. Similar remains have been met
with in the caves of Wales, and in England as far north as
Derbyshire (Cresswell), proving that over the whole of southern
and middle England men, in precisely the same stage of rude
civilization, hunted the rhinoceros, the mammoth and other
extinct animals.
See Sir John Evans, Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain
(London, 1897); Lord Avebury's Prehistoric Times (1900); W.
Pengelly, Address to the British Association (1883) and Life of him
by his daughter (1897) ; Godwin Austen, Proc. Geo. Soc. London, in.
286; Pengelly, " Literature of Kent's Cavern " in Trans. Devonshire
Association (1868); William Boyd Dawkins, Cave-hunting and
Early Man in Britain.
KENTUCKY, a South Central State of the United States of
America, situated between 36° 30' and 39° 6' N., and 82° and
89° 38' W. It is bounded N. , N. W. , and N.E. by Illinois, Indiana
and Ohio; E. by the Big Sandy river and its E. fork, the Tug,
which separates it from West Virginia, and by Virginia; S.E.
and S. by Virginia and Tennessee; and W. by the Mississippi
river, which separates it from Missouri. It has an area of
40,598 sq. m.; of this, 417 sq. m., including the entire breadth of
the Ohio river, over which it has jurisdiction, are water surface.
Physiography. — From mountain heights along its eastern border
the surface of Kentucky is a north-western slope across two much
dissected plateaus to a gracefully undulating lowland in the north
central part and a longer western slope across the same plateaus to
a lower and more level lowland at the western extremity. The
narrow mountain belt is part of the western edge of the Appalachian
Mountain Province in which parallel ridges of folded mountains,
the Cumberland and the Pine, have crests 2000-3000 ft. high, and
the Big Black Mountain rises to <j.ooo ft. The highest point in the
state is The Double on the Virginia state line, in the eastern part of
Harlan county with an altitude of over 4100 ft. The entire eastern
quarter of the state, coterminous with the Eastern Kentucky coal-
field, is commonly known as the region of the " mountains," but
with the exception of the narrow area just described it properly
belongs to the Alleghany Plateau Province. This plateau belt is
exceedingly rugged with sharp ridges alternating with narrow
valleys which have steep sides but are seldom more than 1500 ft.
above the sea. The remainder of the state which lies east of the
Tennessee river is divided into the Highland Rim Plateau and a
lowland basin, eroded in the Highland Rim Plateau and known as
the Blue Grass Region ; this region is separated from the Highland Rim
Plateau by a semicircular escarpment extending from Portsmouth,
Ohio, at the mouth of the Scioto river, to the mouth of the Salt
river below Louisville; it is bounded north by the Ohio river.
The Highland Rim Plateau, lying to the south, east and west of
the escarpment, embraces fully one-half of the state, slopes from
elevations of 1000-1200 ft. or more in the east to about 500 ft. in
the north-west, and is generally much less rugged than the Alle-
ghany Plateau ; a peculiar feature of the southern portion of it is the
numerous circular depressions (sink holes) in the surface and the
cavernous region beneath. Kentucky is noted for its caves, the best-
known of which are Mammoth Cave and Colossal Cavern (qq.v.).
The caves are cut in the beds of limestone (lying immediately below
the coal-bearing series) by streams that pass beneath the surface in
the " sink holes," and according to Professor N. S. Shaler there are
altogether " doubtless a hundred thousand miles of ways large
enough to permit the easy passage of man." Down the steep slopes
of the escarpment the Highland Rim Plateau drops 200 ft. or more
to the famous Blue Grass Region, in which erosion has developed
on limestone a gracefully undulating surface. This Blue Grass
Region is like a beautiful park, without ragged cliffs, precipitous
slopes, or flat marshy bottoms, but marked by rounded hills and
dales. Especially within a radius of 20 m. around Lexington, the
country is clothed with an unusually luxuriant vegetation. During
spring, autumn, and winter in particular, the blue-grass (Poo com-
pressa and Poa pratensis) spreads a mat, green, thick, fine and soft,
over much of the country, and it is a good winter pasture; about the
middle of June it blooms, and, owing to the hue of its seed vessels,
gives the landscape a bluish hue. Another lowland area embraces
that small part of the state in the extreme south-east which lies west
of the Tennessee river; this belongs to that part of the Coastal Plain
Region which extends north along the Mississippi river; it has in
Kentucky an average elevation of less than 500 ft. Most of the larger
rivers of the state have their sources among the mountains or on the
Alleghany Plateau and flow more or less circuitously in a general
north-western direction into the Ohio. Although deep river channels
are common, falls or impassable rapids are rare west of the Alleghany
Plateau, and the state has an extensive mileage of navigable waters.
The Licking, Kentucky, Green and Tradewater are the principal
rivers wholly within the state. The Cumberland, after flowing for a
considerable distance in the south-east and south central part of the
state, passes into Tennessee at a point nearly south of Louisville, and
in the extreme south-west the Cumberland and the Tennessee, with
only a short distance between them, cross Kentucky and enter the
Mississippi at Smithland and Paducah respectively. The drainage
of the region under which the caverns lie is mostly underground.
Fauna and Flora. — The first white settlers found great numbers
of buffaloes, deer, elks, geese, ducks, turkeys and partridges, also
many bears, panthers, lynx, wolves, foxes, beavers, otters, minks,
musk-rats, rabbits, squirrels, raccoons, woodchucks, opossums and
KENTUCKY
skunks, and the streams were inhabited by trout, perch, buffalo-fish,
sun-fish, mullet, eels, and suckers. Of the larger game there remain
only a few deer, bears and lynx in the mountain districts, and the
numbers of small game and fish have been greatly reduced. In its
primeval state Kentucky was generally well timbered, but most of
the middle section has been cleared and here the blue grass is now
the dominant feature of the flora. Extensive forest areas still remain
both in the east and the west, In the east oak, maple, beech,
chestnut, elm, tulip-tree (locally " yellow poplar "), walnut, pine
and cedar trees are the most numerous; in the west the forests are
composed largely of cypress, ash, oak, hickory, chestnut, walnut,
beech, tulip-tree, gum and sycamore trees. Locust, pawpaw,
cucumber, buck-eye, black mulberry and wild cherry trees also
abound, and the grape, raspberry and strawberry are native fruits.
Climate. — The climate is somewhat more mild and even than that of
the neighbouring states. Themean annual temperature, about 50° F.
on the mountains in the S. E., and 60° W. of the Tennessee, is about
55° F. for the entire state ; the thermometer seldom registers as high
as 100° or as low as — 10°. Themean annual precipitation ranges
from about 38 in. in the north-east to 50 in. in the south, and is about
46 in. for the entire state; it is usually distributed evenly throughout
the year and very little is in the form of snow. The prevailing winds
blow from the west or south-west ; rain-bearing winds blow mostly
from the south ; and the cold waves come from thejnorth or north-west.
Soil. — The best soils are the alluvium in the bottom-lands along
some of the larger rivers and that of the Blue Grass Region, which
is derived from a limestone rich in organic matter (containing phos-
phorus) and rapidly decomposing. The soil within a radius of
some 20 m. around Lexington is especially rich ; outside of this area
the Blue Grass soil is less rich in phosphorus and contains a larger
mixture of sand. The soils of the Highland Rim Plateau as well
as of the lowland west of the Tennessee river vary greatly, but the
most common are a clay, containing more or less carbonate of lime,
and a sandy loam. On the escarpment around the Blue Grass
Region the soils are for the most part either cherty or stiff with
clay and of inferior quality. On the mountains and on the Alleghany
Plateau, also, much of the soil is very light and thin.
Agriculture. — Kentucky is chiefly an agricultural state. Of the
752i53 I of its inhabitants who, in 1900, were engaged in some gainful
occupation, 408,185 or 54'2 %, were agriculturists, and of its total
land surface 21,979,422 acres, or 85-9%, were included in farms.
The percentage of improved farm land increased from 35^2 in 1850
to 49'9 in 1880 and to 62*5 in 1900. The number of farms increased
from 74,777 in 1850 to 166,453 in 1880 and to 234,667 in 1900; and
their average size decreased from 2267 acres in 1850 to 129'! acres
in 1880 and to 937 acres in 1900, these changes being largely due
to the breaking up of slave estates, the introduction of a considerable
number of negro farmers, and the increased cultivation of tobacco
and market-garden produce. In the best stock-raising country,
e.g. in Fayette county, the opposite tendency prevailed during the
latter part of this period and old farms of a few hundred acres were
combined to form some vast estates of from 2000 to 4000 acres.
Of the 234,667 farms in 1900, 155,189 contained less than 100 acres,
76,450 contained between 100 and 500 acres, and 558 contained more
than looo acres; 152,216 or 64*86%, were operated by owners or
part owners, of whom 5320 were negroes; 16,776 by cash tenants,
of whom 789 were negroes; and 60,289 DV share tenants, of whom
4984 were negroes. In 1900 the value of farm land and improve-
ments was $291,117,430; of buildings on farms, $90,887,460; of live-
stock, $73,739,106. In the year 1899 the value of all farm products
was $123,266,785 (of which $21,128,530 was the value of products
fed to livestock), including the following items: crops, $74,783,365;
animal products, §44,303,940; and forest products, $4,179,840.
The total acreage of all crops in 1899 was 6,582,696. Indian corn
is the largest and most valuable crop. As late as 1849, when it
produced 58,672,591 bu., Kentucky was the second largest Indian-
corn producing state in the Union. In 1899 the crop had increased
to 73.974.220 bu. and the acreage was 3,319,257 (more than half the
acreage of all crops in the state), but the rank had fallen to ninth in
product and eleventh in acreage; in 1909 (according to the Yearbook
of the United States Department of Agriculture) the crop was
103,472,000 bu. (ninth among the states of the United States), and
the acreage was 3,568,000 (twelfth among the states). Among the
cereals wheat is the next largest crop; it increased from 2,142,822 bu.
in 1849 to 11,356,113 bu. in 1879, and to 14,264,500 bu. in 1899; in
1909 it was only 7,906,000 bu. The crop of each of the other cereals
is small and in each case was less in 1899 than in 1849. The culture
of tobacco, which is the second most valuable crop in the state, was
begun in the north part about 1780 and in the west and south early
in the 1 9th century, but it was late in that century before it was intro-
duced to any considerable extent in the Blue Grass Region, where
it was then in a measure substituted for the culture of hemp. By
1849 Kentucky ranked second only to Virginia in the production of
tobacco, and in 1899 it was far ahead of any other state in both
acreage and yield, there being in that year 384,805 acres, which was
34'9 % of the total acreage in the continental United States, yielding
314,288,050 Ib. As compared with the state's Indian corn crop of
that year, the acreage was only a little more than one-ninth, but the
value ($18,541,982) was about 63%. In 1909 the tobacco acreage
in Kentucky was 420,000, the crop was 350,700,000 Ib, valued at
$37.174.200 ; the average price per pound had increased from 5'9 cents
in 1899 to IO'6 cents in 1909. The two most important tobacco-
growing districts are: the Black Patch, in the extreme south-west
corner of the state, which with the adjacent counties in Tennessee
grows a black heavy leaf bought almost entirely by the agents of
foreign governments (especially Austria, Spain and Italy) and called
" regie " tobacco; and the Blue Grass Region, as far east as Mays-
ville, and the hill country south and east, whose product, the red
and white Burley, is a fine-fibred light leaf, peculiarly absorbent of
licorice and other adulterants used in the manufacture of sweet
chewing tobacco, and hencea peculiarly valuable crop, which formerly
averaged 22 cents a pound for all grades.1 The high price received by
the hill growers of the Burley induced farmers in the Blue Grass
to plant Burley tobacco there, where the crop proved a great success,
more than twice as much (sometimes 2000 ID) being grown to the
acre in the Blue Grass as in the hills and twice as large patches being
easily managed. In the hill country the share tenant could usually
plant and cultivate only four acres of tobacco, had to spend 120 days
working the crop, and could use the same land for tobacco only once
in six years. So, although a price of 6*5 cents a pound covered
expenses of the planter of Burley in the Blue Grass, who could use
the same land for tobacco once in four years, this price did not repay
the hill planter. The additional production of the Blue Grass
Region sent the price of Burley tobacco down to this figure and below
it. The planters in the Black Patch had met a combination of the
buyers by forming a pool, the Planters' Protective Association, into
which 40,000 growers were forced by " night-riding " and other
forms of coercion and persuasion, and had thus secured an advance
to II cents a pound from the " regie " buyers and had shown the
efficacy of pooling methods in securing better prices for the tobacco
crop. Following their example, the planters of the Burley formed
the Burley Tobacco Society, a Burley pool, with headquarters at
Winchester and associated with the American Society of Equity,
which promoted in general the pooling of different crops throughout
the country. The tobacco planters secured legislation favourable to
the formation of crop pools. The Burley Tobacco Society attempted
to pool the entire crop and thus force the buyers of the American
Tobacco Company of New Jersey (which usually bought more than
three-fourths of the crop of Burley) to pay a much higher price for
it. In 1906 and in 1907 the crop was very large; the pool sold its
lower grades of the 1906 crop at 16 cents a pound to the. American
Tobacco Company and forced the independent buyers out of business ;
and the Burley Society decided in 1907 to grow no more tobacco
until the 1906 and 1907 crops were sold, making the price high enough
to pay for this period of idleness. Members of the pool had used
force to bring planters into the pool ; and now some tobacco growers,
especially in the hills, planted new crops in the hope of immediate
return, and a new " night-riding " war was begun on them. Bands
of masked men rode about the country both in the Black Patch and
in the Burley, burning tobacco houses of the independent planters,
scraping their newly-planted tobacco patches, demanding that
planters join their organization or leave the country, and whipping
or shooting the recalcitrants. Governor Willson, immediately after
his inauguration, took measures to suppress disorder. In general
the Planters' Protective Association in the Black Patch was more
successful in its pool than the Burley Tobacco Society in its, and
there was more violence in the " regie " than in the " Burley "
district. In November 1908 the lawlessness subsided in the Burley
after the agreement of the American Tobacco Company to purchase
the remainder of the 1906 crop at a " round " price of 2Oj cents
and a part of the 1907 crop at an average price of 17 cents, thus
making it profitable to raise a full crop in 1909.
Kentucky is the principal hemp-growing state of the Union ; the
crop of 1899, which was grown on 14,107 acres and amounted to
10,303,560 ft, valued at $468,454, was 877% of the hemp crop
of the whole country. But the competition of cheaper labour in
other countries reduced the profits on this plant and the product of
1899 was a decrease from 78,818,000 ft in 1859. Hay and forage,
the fourth in value of the state's crops in 1899, were grown on
683,139 acres and amounted to 776,534 tons, valued at $6,100,647;
in 1909 the acreage of hay was 480,000 and the crop of 653,000 tons
was valued at $7,771,000. In 1899 the total value of fruit grown
in Kentucky was $2,491,457 (making the state rank thirteenth among
the states of the Union in the value of this product), of which
$1,943,645 was the value of orchard fruits and $435,462 that of small
fruits. Among fruits, apples are produced in greatest abundance,
6,053,717 bu. in 1899, an amount exceeded in only nine states; in
1889 the crop had been 10,679,389 bu. and was exceeded only by the
crop of Ohio and by that of Michigan. Kentucky also grows con-
siderable quantities of cherries, pears, plums and peaches, and, for its
size, ranks high in its crops of strawberries, blackberries and rasp-
berries. Indian corn is grown in all parts of the state but most largely
in the western portion. Wheat is grown both in the Blue Grass
Region and farther west ; and the best country for fruit is along the
Ohio river between Cincinnati and Louisville and in the hilly land sur-
rounding the Blue Grass Region. In the eastern part of the state
1 North of the Black Patch is a district in which is grown a heavy-leaf
tobacco, a large part of which is shipped to Great Britain ; and farther
north and east a dark tobacco is grown for the American market. ;
742
KENTUCKY
where crops are generally light, Indian corn, oats and potatoes are
the principal products, but tobacco, flax and cotton are grown. The
thoroughbred Kentucky horse has long had a world-wide reputation
for speed ; and the Blue Grass Region, especially Fayette, Bourbon
and Woodford counties, is probably the finest horse-breeding region
in America and has large breeding farms. In Fayette county, in
1900, the average value of colts between the ages of one and two
years was $377-78. In the Blue Grass Region many thorough-
bred shorthorn cattle and fine mules are raised. The numbers of
horses, mules, cattle and sheep increased quite steadily from 1850
to 1900, but the number of swine in 1880 and in 1900 was nearly
one-third less than in 1850. In 1900 the state had 497,245 horses,
198, 1 10 mules,364,O25 dairy cows, 755,714 other neat cattle, 1 ,300,832
sheep and 2,008,989 swine; in 1910 there were in Kentucky 407,000
horses, 207,000 mules, 394,000 milch cows, 665,000 other neat cattle,
1,060,000 sheep and 989,000 swine. The principal sheep-raising
counties in 1905 were Bourbon, Scott and Harrison, and^the prin-
cipal hog-raising counties were Graves, Hardin, Ohio, Union and
Hickman.
Forests and Timber. — More than one-half of the state (about
22,200 sq. m.) was in 1900 still wooded. In 1900 of the total cut of
777,218 M. ft., B.M., 392,804 were white oak and 279,740 M. ft. were
tulip-tree. Logging is the principal industry of several localities,
especially in the east, and the lumber product of the state increased
in value from $1,502,434 in 1850 to $4,064,361 in 1880, and to
$13,774,911 in 1900. The factory product in 1900 was valued at
$13,338,533 and in 1905 at $14,539,000. In 1905 of a total of
586,371 M. ft., B.M., of sawed lumber, 295,776 M. ft. were oak and
153,057 M. ft. were " poplar."
The planing mill industry is increasing rapidly, as it is found
cheaper to erect mills near the forests; between 1900 and 1905 the
capital of planing mills in the state increased U7'2% and the value
of products increased 142*8 %.
Manufactures.— Kentucky's manufactures are principally those
for which the products of her farms and forests furnish the raw
material. The most distinctive of these is probably distilled liquors,
the state's whisky being famous. A colony of Roman Catholic
immigrants from Maryland settled in 1787 along the Salt river about
50 m. S.S.E. of Louisville and with the surplus of their Indian corn
crop made whisky, a part of which they sold at settlements on the
Ohio and the Mississippi. The industry was rapidly developed by
distillers, who immediately after the suppression of the Whisky
Insurrection, in 1794, removed from Pennsylvania and settled in
what is now Mason county and was then a part of Bourbon county —
the product is still known as '' Bourbon " whisky. During the first
half of the igth century the industry became of considerable local
importance in all parts of the state, but since the Civil War the heavy
tax imposed has caused its concentration in large establishments.
In 1900 nearly 40% and in 1905 more than one-third of the state's
product was distilled in Louisville. Good whisky is made in Mary-
land and in parts of Pennsylvania from rye, but all efforts in other
states to produce from Indian corn a whisky equal to the Bourbon
have failed, and it is probable that the quality of the Bourbon is
largely due to tke character of the Kentucky lime water and the
Kentucky yeast germs. The average annual product of the state
from 1880 to 1900 was about 20,000,000 gallons; in 1900 the product
was valued at $9,786,527; in 1905 at $11,204,649. In 1900 and in
1905 Kentucky ranked fourth among the states in the value of
distilled liquors.
The total value of all manufactured products of the state increased
from $126,719,857 in 1800 to $154,166,365 in 1000, or 21-7% and
from 1900 to 1905 the value of factory-made products alone increased
from $126,508,660 to $159,753.968, or 26-3%.1 Measured by the
value of the product, flour and grist mill products rose from third in
rank in 1900 to first in rank in 1905, from $13,017,043 to $18,007,786,
or 38-3%; and chewing and smokine tobacco and snuff fell during
the same period from first to third in rank, from $14,948,192 to
$13,117,000, or 12-3%; in 1900 Kentucky was second, in 1905 third,
among the states in the value of this product. Lumber and timber
products held second rank both in 1900 ($13,338,533) and in 1905
($14,539,000). Distilled liquors were fourth in rank in 1900 and
in 1905. Men's clothing rose from tenth in rank in 1900 to fifth in
rank in 1905, from $3,420,365 to $6,279,078, or 83-6 %. Other im-
portant manufactures, with their product values in 1900 and in 1905,
are iron and steel ($5,004,572 in 1900; $6,167,542 in 1905); railway
cars ($4,248,029 in 1900; $5,739,071 in 1905); packed meats
($5,177,167 in 1900; $5,693,731 in 1905); foundry and machine shop
products ($4,434,610 in 1900; $4,699,559 in 1905); planing mill
products, including sash, doors and blinds ($1,891,517 in 1900;
$4,593,251 in igos-^-ap iijcrease already remarked); carriages and
wagons ($2,849,713 in 1900; $4,059,438 in 1905) ; tanned and curried
leather ($3,757,016 in 1900; $3,952,277 in 1905); and malt liquors
($3,186,627 in 1900; $3,673,678 in 1905). Other important manu-
factures (each with a product value in 1905 of more than one million
dollars) were cotton-seed oil and cake (in 1900 Kentucky was fifth
and in 1905 sixth among the states in the value of cotton-seed oil and
cake), cooperage, agricultural implements, boots and shoes, cigars
1 In the census of 1905 statistics for other than factory-made
products, such as those of the hand trades, were not included.
and cigarettes, saddlery and harness, patent medicines and com-
pounds, cotton goods, furniture, confectionery, carriage and wagon
materials, wooden packing boxes, woollen goods, pottery and terra
:otta ware, structural iron-work, and turned and carved wood.
Louisville is the great manufacturing centre, the value of its products
amounting in 1905 to $83,204,125, 52-1 % of the product of the entire
state, and showing an increase of 25-9 % over the value of the city's
factory products in 1900. Ashland is the principal centre of the
iron industry.
Minerals. — The mineral resources of Kentucky are important and
valuable, though very little developed. The value of all manu-
factures in 1900 was $154,166,365, and the value of manufactures
based upon products of mines or quarries in the same year was
$25,204,788; the total value of mineral products was $19,294,341 in
1907. Bituminous coal is the principal mineral, and in 1907 Kentucky
ranked eighth among the coal-producing states of the Union; the
output in 1907 amounted to 10,753,124 short tons, and in 1902 to
6,766,984 short tons as compared with 2,399,755 tons produced in
1889. In 1902 the amount was about equally divided between the
eastern coalfield, which is for the most part in Greenup, Boyd,
Carter, Lawrence, Johnson, Lee, Breathitt, Rockcastle, Pulaski,
Laurel, Knox, Bell and Whitley counties, and has an area of about
11,180 sq. m., and the western coalfield, which is in Henderson,
Union, Webster, Daviess, Hancock, McLean, Ohio, Hopkins, Butler,
Muhlenberg and Christian counties, and has an area of 5800 sq. m.
In 1907 the output of the western district was 6,295,397 tons; that
of the eastern, 4,457,727. The largest coal-producing counties in
1907 were Hopkins (2,064,154 short tons) and Muhlenberg (1,882,913
short tons) in the western coalfield, and Bell (1,437,886 short tens) and
Whitley (762,923 short tons) in the south-western part of the eastern
coalfield. All Kentucky coal is either bituminous or semi-bituminous,
but of several varieties. Of cannel coal Kentucky is the largest
producer in the Union, its output for 1902 being 65,317 short tons,
and, according to state reports, for 1903, 72,856 tons (of which
4.6,314 tons were from Morgan county), and for 1904, 68,400 tons
(of which 52,492 tons were from Morgan county) ; according to the
Mineral Resources of the United States for 1907 (published by the
United States Geological Survey) the production of Kentucky in
1907 of cannel coal (including 4650 tons of semi-cannel coal) was
77,733 tons, and exclusive of semi-cannel coal the output of Kentucky
was much larger than that of any other state. Seme of the coal
mined in eastern Kentucky is an excellent steam producer, especially
the Jellico coal of Whitley county, Kentucky, and of Campbell
county, Tennessee. . But with the exception of that mined in Hop-
kins and Bell counties, very little is fit for making coke; in 1880
the product was 4250 tons of coke (value $12,250), in 1890, 12,343
tons ($22,191) ; in 1900, 95,532 tons ($235,505) ; in 1902, 126,879 tons
($317,875), the maximum product up to 1906; and in 1907, 67,068
tons ($157,288). Coal was first mined in Kentucky in Laurel or
Pulaski county in 1827; between 1829 and 1835 the annual output
was from 2000 to 6000 tons; in 1840 it was 23,527 tons and in 1860
it was 285,760 tons.
Petroleum was discovered on Little Rennick's Creek, near Burkes-
ville, in Cumberland county, in 1829, when a flowing oil well (the
" American well," whose product was sold as " American oil " to
heal rheumatism, burns, &c.) was struck by men boring for a "salt
well," and after a second discovery in the 'sixties at the mouth of
Crocus Creek a small but steady amount of oil was got each year.
Great pipe lines from Parkersburg, West Virginia, to Somerset,
Pulaski county, and with branches to the Ragland, Barbourville
and Prestonburg fields, had in 1902 a mileage of 275 m. The
principal fields are in the " southern tier," from Wayne to Allen
county, including Barren county; farther east, Knox county, and
Floyd and Knott counties; to the north-east the Ragland field in Bath
and Rowan counties on the Licking river. In 1902 the petroleum pro-
duced in the state amounted to 248,950 barrels, valued at $172,837,
a gain in quantity of 81-4% over 1901. Kentucky is the S.W.
extreme of the natural gas region of the west flank of the Appalachian
system; the greatest amount is found in Martin county in the east, and
Breckinridge county in the north-west. The value of the state's
natural gas output increased from $38,993 in 1891 to $99,000 in
1896, $286,243 in 1900, $365,611 in 1902, and $380,176 in 1907.
Iron ore has been found in several counties, and an iron furnace
was built in Bath county, in the N. E. part of the state, as early as
1791, but since 1860 this mineral has received little attention. In
1902 it was mined only in Bath, Lyon and Trigg counties, of which
the total product was 71,006 long tons, valued at only $86,169; 'n
1904 only 35,000 tons were mined, valued at the mines at $35,000.
In 1898 there began an increased activity in the mining of fluor-
spar, and Crittenden, Fayette and Livingston counties produced
in 1902, 29,030 tons (valued at $143,410) of this mineral, in 1903
30,835 tons (valued at $153,960) and in 1904 19,096 tons (valued
at $111,499), amounts (and values) exceeding those produced in
any other state for these years; but in 1907 the quantity (21,058
tons) was less than the output of Illinois. Lead and zinc are mined
in small quantities near Marion in Crittenden county and elsewhere
in connexion with mining for fluorspar; in 1907 the output was
75 tons of lead valued at $7950 and 358 tons of zinc valued at
$42,24.4. Jefferson, Jessamine, Warren, Grayson and Caldwell
counties have valuable quarries of an excellent light-coloured
KENTUCKY
743
oolitic limestone, resembling the Bedford limestone of Indiana, and
best known under the name of the finest variety, the " Bowling
Green stone " of Warren county; and sandstones good for structural
purposes are found in both coal regions, and especially in Rowan
county. In 1907 the total value of limestone quarried in the state
was $891,500, and of all stone, $1,002,450. Fire and pottery clay
and cement rock also abound within the state. The value of clay
products was $2,406,350 in 1905 (when Kentucky was tenth among
the states) and was $2,611,364 in 1907 (when Kentucky was eleventh
among the states). The manufacture of cement was begun in 1829
at Shippingport, a suburb of Louisville, whence the natural cement
of Kentucky and Indiana, produced within a radius of 15 m. from
Louisville, is called " Louisville cement." In 1905 the value of
natural cement manufactured in the state (according to the United
States Geological Survey) was only $83,000. The manufacture of
Portland cement is of greater importance.
There are mineral springs, especially salt springs, in various parts
of the state, particularly in the Blue Grass Region ; these are now of
comparatively little economic importance; no salt was reported among
the state's manufactures for 1905, and in 1907 only 736,920 gallons
of mineral waters were bottled for sale. Historically and geologi-
cally, however, these springs are of considerable interest. According
to Professor N. S. Shaler, state geologist in 1873-1880, " When.the
rocks whence they flow were formed on the Silurian sea-floors, a good
deal of the sea-water was imprisoned in the strata, between the grains
of sand or mud and in the cavities of the shells that make up a large
part of these rocks. This confined sea-water is gradually being
displaced by the downward sinking of the rain-water through the
rifts of the strata, and thus finds its way to the surface: so that
these springs offer to us a share of the ancient seas, in which perhaps
a hundred million of years ago the rocks of Kentucky were laid
down." To these springs in prehistoric and historic times came
annually great numbers of animals for salt, and in the marshes and
swamps around some of them, especially Big Bone Lick (in Boone
county, about 20 m. S.W. of Cincinnati) have been found many
bones of extinct mammals, such as the mastodon and the long-
legged bison.1 The early settlers and the Indians came to the
springs to shoot large game for food, and by boiling the waters the
settlers obtained valuable supplies of salt. Several of the Kentucky
springs have been somewhat frequented as summer resorts; among
these are the Blue Lick in Nicholas county (about 48 m. N.E. of
Lexington), Harrodsburg, Crab Orchard in Lincoln county (about
115 m. S.E. of Louisville), Rock Castle springs in Pulaski county
(about 23 m. E. of Somerset) and Paroquet Springs (near Shepherds-
ville, Bullitt county), which was a well-known resort before the
Civil War, and near which, at Bullitt Lick, the first salt works in
Kentucky are said to have been erected.
Pearls are found in the state, especially in the Cumberland River,
and it is supposed that there are diamonds in the kimberlite deposits
in Elliott county.
Transportation. — Kentucky in 1909 had 3,503.98 m. of railway.
Railway building was begun in the state in 1830, and in 1835 the
first train drawn by a steam locomotive ran from Lexington to
Franklin, a distance of 27 m. Not untij 1851 was the line completed
to Louisville. Kentucky's trade during the greater part of the
igth century was very largely with the South, and with the facilities
which river navigation afforded for this the development of a
railway system was retarded. Up to 1880 the railway mileage had
increased to only 1,530; but during the next ten years it increased
to 2,942, and railways were in considerable measure substituted for
water craft. The principal lines are the Louisville & Nashville,
the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Illinois Central, and the Cincinnati
Southern (Queen & Crescent route). Most of the lines run south or
south-west from Cincinnati and Louisville, and the east border of the
state still has a small railway mileage and practically no wagon roads,
most of the travel being on horseback. The wagon roads of the
Blue Grass Region are excellent, because of the plentiful and cheap
supply of stone for road building. The assessment of railway
property, and in some measure the regulation of railway rates, are
entrusted to a state railway commission.
Population. — The population of Kentucky in i88o2 was
1,648,690; in 1890, 1,858,635, an increase within the decade of
12-7%; in IQOO it was 2,147,174; and in 1910 it had reached
2,289,905. Of the total population of 1900, 284,865 were
coloured and 50,249 were foreign-born; of the coloured, 284,706
were negroes, 102 were Indians, and 57 were Chinese; of the
foreign-born, 27,555 were natives of Germany, 9874 were natives
of Ireland, and 3256 were natives of England. Of the foreign-
born, 21,427, or 42-6%, were inhabitants of the city of Louis-
ville, leaving a population outside of this city of which 98-4%
1 For a full account of the " licks," see vol. i. pt. ii. of the Memoirs
of the Kentucky Geological Survey (1876).
* The population of the state at the previous censuses was: 73,677
in 1790; 220,955 in 1800; 406,511 in 1810; 564,317 in 1820; 687,917
in 1830; 779,828 in 1840; 982,405 in 1850; 1,155,684 in 1860 and
1,321,011 in 1870.
were native born. The rugged east section of the state, a
part of Appalachian America, is inhabited by a people of marked
.characteristics, portrayed in the fiction of Miss Murfree (" Charles
Egbert Craddock ") and John Fox, Jr. They are nearly all of
British — English and Scotch-Irish — descent, with a trace of
Huguenot. They have good native ability, but through lack
of communication with the outside world their progress has been
retarded. Before the Civil War they were owners of land, but
for the most part not owners of slaves, so that a social and
political barrier, as well as the barriers of nature, separated them
from the other inhabitants of the state. In their speech several
hundred words persist which elsewhere have been obsolete for
three centuries or occur only in dialects in England. Their
life is still in many respects very primitive; their houses are
generally built of logs, their clothes are often of homespun, Indian
corn and ham form a large part of their diet, and their means
of transportation are the saddle-horse and sleds and wheeled
carts drawn by oxen or mules. In instincts and in character,
also, the typical " mountaineers " are to a marked degree
primitive; they are, for the most part, very ignorant; they
are primitively hospitable and are warm-hearted to friends and
strangers, but are implacable in their enmities and are prone
to vendettas and family feuds, which often result in the killing
in open fight or from ambush of members of one faction by
members of another; and their relative seclusion and isolation
has brought them, especially in some districts, to a disregard
for law, or to a belief that they must execute justice with their
own hands. This appears particularly in their attitude toward
revenue officers sent to discover and close illicit stills for the
distilling from Indian corn of so-called " moon-shine " whisky
(consisting largely of pure alcohol). The taking of life and
" moon-shining," however, have become less and less frequent
among them, and Berea College, at Berea, the Lincoln Memorial
University, and other schools in Kentucky and adjoining states
have done much to educate them and bring them more in
harmony with the outside community.
The population of Kentucky is largely rural. However, in the
decade between 1890 and 1900 the percentage of urban population
(i.e. population of places of 4000 inhabitants or more) to the total
population increased from 17^5 to 197 and the percentage of semi-
urban (i.e. population of incorporated places with a population of
less than 4000) to the total increased from 8'86 to 9'86%; but
48*3 % of the urban population of 1900 was in the city of Louisville.
In 1910 the following cities each had a population of more than
5000. Louisville (223,928), Covington (53,270), Lexington (35,099),
Newport (30,309), Paducah (22,760), Owensboro (16,011), Hender-
son (11,452), Frankfort, the capital (10,465), Hopkinsville (9419),
Bowling Green (9173), Ashland (8688), Middlesboro (7305), Win-
chester (7156), Dayton (6979), Bellevue (6683), Maysville (6141),
Mayfield (5916), Paris (5859), Danville (5420), Richmond (5340).
Of historical interest are Harrodsburg (q.v.), the first perma-
nent settlement in the state, and Bardstown (pop. in 1900,
1711), the county-seat of Nelson county. Bardstown was settled
about 1775, largely by Roman Catholics from Maryland. It was the
see of a Roman Catholic bishop from 1810 to 1841, and the seat
of St Joseph's College (Roman Catholic) from i82A to 1890; and
was for some time the home of John Fitch (1743-1798), the inventor,
who built his first boat here. The Nazareth Literary and Benevolent
Institution, at Nazareth (2 m. N. of Bardstown), was founded in
1829 and is a well-known Roman Catholic school for girls. Boones-
borough, founded by Daniel Boone in 1775, in what is now Madison
county, long ago ceased to exist, though a railway station named
Boone, on the Louisville & Nashville railroad, is near the site of the
old settlement.
In 1906 there v/ere 858,324 communicants of different religious
denominations in the state, including 311,583 Baptists, 165,908
Roman Catholics, 156,007 Methodists, 136,110 Disciples of Christ,
47,822 Presbyterians and 8091 Protestant Episcopalians.
Administration. — Kentucky is governed under a constitution
adopted in 1891. 3 A convention to revise the constitution or to
draft a new one meets on the call of two successive legislatures,
ratified by a majority of the popular vote, provided that, majority
be at least one-fourth of the total number of votes cast at the
preceding general election. Ordinary amendments are proposed
by a three-fifths majority in each house, and are also subject
to popular approval. With the usual exceptions of criminals,
'There were three previous constitutions — those of 1702 1700
and 1850.
744
KENTUCKY.
idiots and insane persons, all male citizens of the United States,
who are at least 21 years of age, and have lived in the
state one year, in the county six months, and in the voting
precinct sixty days next preceding the election, are entitled to
vote. Che legislature provides by law for registration in cities
of the first, second, third and fourth classes — the minimum
population for a city of the fourth class being 3000. Corpora-
tions are forbidden to contribute money for campaign purposes
on penalty of forfeiting their charters, or, if not chartered in the
state, their right to carry on business in the state. The executive
is composed of a governor, a lieutenant-governor, a treasurer, an
auditor of public accounts, a register of the land office, a com-
missioner of agriculture, labour, and statistics, a secretary of
state, an attorney-general and a superintendent of public
instruction. All are chosen by popular vote for four years and
are ineligible for immediate re-election, and each must be at
least 30 years of age and must have been a resident citizen of the
state for two years next preceding his election. If a vacancy
occurs in the office of governor during the first two years a new
election is held; if it occurs during the last two years the
lieutenant-governor serves out the term. Lieutenant-governor
Beckham, elected in 1900 to fill out the unexpired term of
Governor Goebel (assassinated in 1900), was re-elected in 1903,
the leading lawyers of the state holding that the constitutional
inhibition on successive terms did not apply in such a case.
The governor is commander-in-chief of the militia when it is not
called into the service of the United States; he may remit fines and
forfeitures, commute sentences, and grant reprieves and pardons,
except in cases of impeachment; and he calls extraordinary sessions
of the legislature. His control, of patronage, however, is not exten-
sive and his veto power is very weak. He may veto any measure,
including items in appropriation bills, but the legislature can repass
such a measure by a simple majority of the total membership in
each house. Among the various state administrative boards are
the board of equalization of five members, the board of health of
nine members, a board of control of state institutions with four
members (bipartisan), and the railroad commission, the prison
commission, the state election commission and the sinking fund
commission of three members each. Legislative power is vested
in a General Assembly, which consists of a Senate and a House of
Representatives. Senators are elected for four years, one-half
retiring every two years; representatives are elected for two years.
The minimum age for a representative is 24 years, for a senator
30 years. There are thirty-eight senators and one hundred repre-
sentatives. The Senate sits as a court for the trial of impeachment
cases. A majority of either house constitutes a quorum, but as
regards ordinary bills, on the third reading, not only must they
receive a majority of the quorum, but that majority must be at
least two-fifths of the total membership of the house. For the enact-
ment of appropriation bills and bills creating a debt a majority of
the total membership in each house is required. All revenue
measures must originate in the House of Representatives, but the
Senate may introduce amendments. There are many detailed
restrictions on local and special legislation. The constitution
provides for local option elections on the liquor question in counties,
cities, towns and precincts ; in 1907, out of 1 19 counties 87 had voted
for prohibition.
The judiciary consists of a court of appeals, circuit courts, quarterly
courts, county courts, justice of the peace courts, police courts
and fiscal courts. The court of appeals is composed of from five to
seven judges (seven in 1909), elected, one from each appellate
district, for a term of eight years. The senior judge presides as
chief justice and in case two or more have served the same length
of time one of them is chosen by lot. The governor may for any
reasonable cause remove judges on the address of two-thirds of each
house of the legislature. The counties are grouped into judicial
circuits, those containing a population of more than 150,000 consti-
tuting separate districts; each district has a judge and a common-
wealth's attorney. The county officials are the judge, clerk, attor-
ney, sheriff, jailor, coroner, surveyor and assessor, elected for four
years. Each county contains from three to eight justice of the
peace districts. The financial board of the county is composed of
the county judge and the justices of the peace, or of the county
judge and three commissioners elected on a general ticket.
The municipalities are divided into six classes according to
population, a classification which permits considerable special
local legislation in spite of the constitutional inhibition. Marriages
between whites and persons ol negro descent are prohibited by law,
and a marriage of insane persons is legally void. Among causes for
absolute divorce are adultery, desertion for one year, habitual
drunkenness for one year, cruelty, ungovernable temper, physical
incapacity at time of marriage, and the joining by either party of
any religious sect which regards marriage as unlawful. A home-
stead law declares exempt from execution an unmortgaged dwelling-
house (with appurtenances) not to exceed $1000 in value, and cer-
tain property, such as tools of one's trade, libraries (to the value of
$500) of ministers and lawyers, and provisions for one year for each
member of a family. Child labour is regulated by an act passed by
the General Assembly in 1908; this act prohibits the employment
of children less than 14 years of age in any gainful occupation during
the session of school or in stores, factories, mines, offices, hotels or
messenger service during vacations, and prohibits the employment
of children between 14 and 16 unless they have employment certifi-
cates issued by a superintendent of schools or some other properly
authorized person, showing the child's ability to read and write
English, giving information as to the child's age (based upon a birth
certificate if possible), and identifying the child by giving height
and weight and colour of eyes and hair. These certificates must
be kept on file and lists of children employed must be posted by
employers; labour inspectors receive monthly lists from local school
boards of children receiving certificates; and children under 16 are
not to work more than 10 hours a day or 60 hours a week, or between
7 p.m. and 7 a.m.
Charitable and Penal Institutions. — The charitable and penal
institutions are managed by separate boards of trustees appointed
by the governor. There are a deaf and dumb institution at Danville
(1823), an institution for the blind at Louisville (1842), and an
institution for the education of feeble-minded children at Frankfort
(1860). The Eastern Lunatic Asylum at Lexington, established
in 1815 as a private institution, came under the control of the state
in 1824. The Central Lunatic Asylum at Anchorage, founded in
1869 as a house of refuge for young criminals, became an
asylum in 1873. The Western Lunatic Asylum at Hopkinsville
was founded in 1848. The main penitentiary at Frankfort was
completed in 1799 and a branch was established at Eddyville in
1891. Under an act of 1898 two houses of reform for juvenile
offenders, one for boys, the other for girls, were established near
Lexington.
Education. — The early history of the schools of Kentucky shows
that the rural school conditions have been very unsatisfactory. A
system of five trustees, with a sixty-day term of school, was replaced
by a three trustee system, first with a one-hundred-day term of
school, and subsequently with a one-hundred-and-twenty-day term
of school annually. The state fund has not been supplemented
locally for the payment of teachers, who have consequently been
underpaid. The rural teachers, however, have been paid from the
state fund, so that the poorer districts receive aid from the richer
districts of the commonwealth. The rural schools are supervised
by a superintendent in each county. Throughout the state white
and negro children are taught in separate schools. The state makes
provision for revenue for school purposes as follows: (l) the interest
on the Bond of the Commonwealth for $1,327,000 oo; (2) dividends
on 798 shares of the capital stock of the Bank of Kentucky — repre-
senting a par value of $79,800.00; (3) the interest at 6% on the
Bond of the Commonwealth for $381,986.08, which is a perpetual
obligation in favour of the several counties; (4) the interest at 6%
on $606,641.03, which was received from the United States; (5) the
annual tax of 26$ cents on each $ipo of value of all real and
personal estate and corporate franchises directed to be assessed
for taxation; (6) a certain portion of fines, forfeitures and licences
realized by the state; and (7) a portion of the dog taxes of each
county. The present school system of Kentucky may be summarized
under three heads: the rural schools, the graded schools, and the
high schools (which are further classified as city and county high
schools). The 1908 session of the General Assembly passed an act
providing: that each county of the state be the unit for taxation;
that the county tax be mandatory; that there be a local subdistrict
tax; and that each county be divided into four, six or eight educa-
tional divisions, that one trustee be elected for each subdistrict,
that the trustees of the subdistricts form division Boards of Educa-
tion, and that the chairmen of these various division boards form a
County Board of Education together with the county superintendent,
who is ex officio chairman. This fystem of taxation and supervision
is a great advance in the administration of public schools. Any
subdistrict, town or city of the fifth or sixth class may provide for a
graded school by voting for an ad valorem and poll tax which is
limited as to amount. There were in 1909 135 districts which had
complied with this act, and were known as Graded Common School
districts. By special charters the General Assembly has also
established 25 special graded schools. Statutes provide that all
children between the ages of 7 and 14 years living in such districts
must attend school annually for at least eight consecutive weeks.
In each city of the first, second and third class there must be, and of
the fourth class there may be, maintained under control of a city
Board of Education a system of public schools, in which all children
between the ages of 6 and 20 residing in the city may be taught at
public expense. There were in 1909 62 city public high schools
whose graduates are admitted to the State University without
examination. A truancy act (1908) provides that every child
between the ages of 7 and 14 years living in a city of the first, second,
third or fourth class must attend school regularly for the full term
of said school. It was provided by statute that before June 1910,
KENTUCKY
745
there should have been established in each county of the state at
least one County High School to which all common school graduates
of the county should be admitted without charge. Separate insti-
tutes for white and coloured teachers are conducted annually in each
county. These institutes are held for a five or ten day session and
attendance is required of every teacher. The state provides for the
issuance of three kinds of certificates. A state diploma issued by the
State Board of Examiners is good for life. A state certificate issued by
the State Board of Examiners is good for eight years with one renewal.
County certificates issued by the County Board of Examiners are of
three classes, valid for one, two and four years respectively.
According to a school census there was in 1908-1909 a school
population of 739,352, of which 587,051 were reported from the
rural districts. In the school year 1907-1908 the school population
was 734,617, the actual enrolment in public schools was 441,377, the
average attendance was 260,843; there were approximately 3392
male and 5257 female white teachers and 1274 negro teachers; and
the total revenue for school purposes was $3,805,997, of which sum
$2,437,942.56 came from the state treasury.
What was formerly the State Agricultural and Mechanical College
at Lexington became the State University by legislative enactment
(1908); there is no tuition fee except in the School of Law. The
State University has a Department of Education. The state main-
tains for the whites two State Normal Schools, which were established
in 1906 — one, for the eastern district, at Richmond, and the other,
for the western district, at Bowling Green. Under the law estab-
lishing State Normal Schools, each county is entitled to one or more
appointments of scholarships, one annually for every 500 white
school children listed in the last school census. A Kentucky
Normal and Industrial School (1886) for negroes is maintained at
Frankfort. Among the private and denominational colleges in
Kentucky are Central University (Presbyterian), at Danville; Tran-
sylvania University, at Lexington; Georgetown College (Baptist) at
Georgetown; Kentucky Wesleyan College (M.E. South), at Win-
chester; and Berea College( non-sectarian) at Berea.
Finance. — Kentucky, in common with other states in this part
of the country, suffered from over-speculation in land and railways
during 1830-1850. The funded debt of the state amounted to
four and one-half millions of dollars in 1850, when the new constitu-
tion limited the power of the legislature to contract further obliga-
tions or to decrease or misapply the sinking funds. From 1850
to 1880 there was a gradual reduction except during the years of
the war. The system of classifying the revenue into separate funds
has frequently produced annual deficits, which are, as a rule only
nominal, since the total receipts exceed the total expenditures. In
1902 the net bonded debt, exclusive of about two millions of dollars
held for educational purposes, was $1,171,394, but this debt was
paid in full in the years immediately following. The sinking fund
commission is composed of the governor, attorney-general, secretary
of state, auditor and treasurer. The first banking currency in
Kentucky was issued in 1802 by a co-operative insurance company
established by Mississippi Valley traders. The Bank of Kentucky,
established at Frankfort in 1806, had a monopoly for several years.
In 1818-1819 the legislature chartered 46 banks, nearly all of which
went into liquidation during the panic of 1819. The Bank of the
Commonwealth was chartered in 1820 as a state institution and the
charter of the Bank of Kentucky was revoked in 1822. A court
decision denying the legal tender quality of the notes issued by the
Bank of the Commonwealth gave rise to a bitter controversy which
had considerable influence upon the political history of the state.
This bank failed in 1829. In 1834 the legislature chartered the
Bank of Kentucky, the Bank of Louisville and the Northern Bank
of Kentucky. These institutions survived the panic of 1837 and
soon came to be recognized as among the most prosperous and the
most conservative banks west of the Alleghanies. The state banking
laws are stringent and most of the business is still controlled by
banks operating under state charters.
History. — The settlement and the development of that part of
the United States west of the Alleghany Mountains has probably
been the most notable feature of American history since the close
of the Seven Years' War (1763). Kentucky was the first settle-
ment in this movement, the first state west of the Alleghany
Mountains admitted into the Union. In 1763 the Kentucky
country was claimed by the Cherokees as a part of their hunting
grounds, by the Six Nations (Iroquois) as a part of their western
conquests, and by Virginia as a part of the territory granted to
her by her charter of 1609, although it was actually inhabited
only by a few Chickasaws near the Mississippi river and by a
small tribe of Shawnees in the north, opposite what is now Ports-
mouth, Ohio. The early settlers were often attacked by Indian
raiders from what is now Tennessee or from the country north of
the Ohio, but the work of colonization would have been far more
difficult if those Indians had lived in the Kentucky region itself.
Dr Thomas Walker (1715-1794), as an agent and surveyor of
the Loyal Land Company, made an exploration in 1750 into the
present state from the Cumberland Gap, in search of a suitable
place for settlement but did not get beyond the mountain region.
In the next year Christopher Gist, while on a similar mission for
the Ohio Company, explored the country westward from the
mouth of the Scioto river. In 1752 John Finley, an Indian
trader, descended the Ohio river in a canoe to the site of Louis-
ville. It was Finley's descriptions that attracted Daniel Boone,
and soon after Boone's first visit, in 1767, travellers through
the Kentucky region became numerous. The first permanent
English settlement was established at Harrodsburg in 1774 by
James Harrod, and in October of the same year the Ohio Indians,
having been defeated by Virginia troops in the battle of Point
Pleasant (in what is now West Virginia) , signed a treaty by which
they surrendered their claims south of the Ohio river. In March
1775 Richard Henderson and some North Carolina land specula-
tors met about 1200 Cherokee Indians in council on the Watauga
river and concluded a treaty with them for the purchase of all
the territory south of the Ohio river and between the Kentucky
and Cumberland rivers. The purchase was named Transyl-
vania, and within less than a month after the treaty was signed,
Boone, under its auspices, founded a settlement at Boones-
borough which became the headquarters of the colony. The
title was declared void by the Virginia government in 1778, but
Henderson and his associates received 200,000 acres in com-
pensation, and all sales made to actual settlers were confirmed.
During the War of Independence the colonists were almost
entirely neglected by Virginia and were compelled to defend them-
selves against the Indians who were often under British leader-
ship. Boonesborough was attacked in April and in July 1777
and in August 1778. Bryant's (or Bryan's) Station, near Lex-
ington, was besieged in August 1782 by about 600 Indians under
the notorious Simon Girty, who after raising the siege drew the
defenders, numbering fewer than 200, into an ambush and in the
battle of Blue Licks which ensued the Kentuckians lost about
67 killed and 7 prisoners. Kentucky county, practically coter-
minous with the present state of Kentucky and embracing
all the territory claimed by Virginia south of the Ohio river and
west of Big Sandy Creek and the ridge of the Cumberland
Mountains, was one of three counties which was formed out of
Fincastle county in 1776. Four years later, this in turn was
divided into three counties, Jefferson, Lincoln and Fayette, but
the name Kentucky was revived in 1782 and was given to the
judicial district which was then organized for these three counties.
The War of Independence was followed by an extensive immigra-
tion from Virginia, Maryland and North Carolina1 of a popu-
lation of which fully 95%, excluding negro slaves, were of
pure English, Scotch or Scotch-Irish descent. The manners,
customs and institutions of Virginia were transplanted beyond
the mountains. There was the same political rivalry between
the slave-holding farmers of the Blue Grass Region and the
"poor whites" of the mountain districts that there was in
Virginia between the tide-water planters and the mountaineers.
Between these extremes were the small farmersof the" Barrens"2
in Kentucky and of the Piedmont Region in Virginia. The
aristocratic influences in both states have always been on the
Southern and Democratic side, but while they were strong enough
in Virginia to lead the state into secession they were unable to do
so in Kentucky.
1 Most of the early settlers of Kentucky made their way thither
either by the Ohio river (from Fort Pitt) or — the far larger number —
by way of the Cumberland Gap and the " Wilderness Road." This
latter route began at Inglis's Ferry, on the New river, Jn what is now
West^Virguiia, and proceeded west by south to the Cumberland Gap.
The " Wilderness Road," as marked by Daniel Boone in 1775, was a
mere trail, running from the Watauga settlement in east Tennessee
to the Cumberland Gap, and thence by way of what are now Crab
Orchard, Danville and Bardstown, to the Falls of the Ohio, and
was passable only for men and horses until 1795, when the state
made it a wagon road. Consult Thomas Speed, The Wilderness
Road (Louisville, Ky., 1886), and Archer B. Hulbert, Boone's
Wilderness Road (Cleveland, O., 1903).
2 The " Barrens " were in the north part of the state west of the
Blue Grass Region, and were so called merely because the Indians had
burned most of the forests here in order to provide better pasturage
for buffaloes and other game.
74-6
KENTUCKY
At the close of the War of Independence the Kentuckians
complained because the mother state did not protect them
against their enemies and did not give them an adequate system
of local government. Nine conventions were held at Danville
from 1784 to 1790 to demand separation from Virginia. The
Virginia authorities expressed a willingness to grant the demand
provided Congress would admit the new district into the Union
as a state. The delay, together with the proposal of John Jay,
the Secretary for Foreign Affairs and commissioner to negotiate
a commercial treaty with the Spanish envoy, to surrender
navigation rights on the lower Mississippi for twenty-five years
in order to remove the one obstacle to the negotiations, aroused
so much feeling that General James Wilkinson and a few other
leaders began to intrigue not only for a separation from Virginia,
but also from the United States, and for the formation of a close
alliance with the Spanish at New Orleans. Although most of
the settlers were too loyal to be led into any such plot they gen-
erally agreed that it might have a good effect by bringing pressure
to bear upon the Federal government. Congress passed a pre-
liminary act in February 1791, and the state was formally
admitted into the Union on the ist of June 1792. In the Act of
1776 for dividing Fincastle county, Virginia, the ridge of the
Cumberland Mountains was named as a part of the east boundary
of Kentucky; and now that this ridge had become a part of the
boundary between the states of Virginia and Kentucky they, in
1799, appointed a joint commission to run the boundary line on
this ridge. A dispute with Tennessee over the southern boundary
was settled in a similar manner in 1820.* The constitution of
1792 provided for manhood suffrage and for the election of the
governor and of senators by an electoral college. General Isaac
Shelby was the first governor. The people still continued to
have troubles with the Indians and with the Spanish at New
Orleans. The Federal government was slow to act, but its action
when taken was effective. The power of the Indians was over-
thrown by General Anthony Wayne's victory in the battle of
Fallen Timbers, fought the 2oth of August 1794 near the rapids
of the Maumee river a few miles above the site of Toledo, Ohio;
and the Mississippi question was settled temporarily by the
treaty of 1795 and permanently by the purchase of Louisiana
in 1803. In 1798-1799 the legislature passed the famous
Kentucky Resolutions in protest against the alien and sedition
acts.
For several years the Anti-Federalists or Republicans had
contended that the administration at Washington had been
exercising powers not warranted by the constitution, and when
Congress had passed the alien and sedition laws the leaders of
that party seized upon the event as a proper occasion for a
spirited public protest which took shape principally in resolu-
tions passed by the legislatures of Kentucky and Virginia. The
original draft of the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 was prepared
by Vice-President Thomas Jefferson, although the fact that he
was the author of them was kept from the public until he acknow-
ledged it in 1821. They were introduced in the House of Repre-
sentatives by John Breckinridge on the 8th of November, were
passed by that body with some amendments but with only one
dissenting vote on the loth, were unanimously concurred in by
the Senate on the I3th, and were approved by Governor James
Garrard on the i6th. The first resolution was a statement of
the ultra states'-rights view of the relation of the states to the
Federal government2 and subsequent resolutions declare the
•The southern boundary to the Tennessee river was surveyed in
1779-1780 by commissioners representing Virginia and North
Carolina, and was supposed to be run along the parallel of latitude
36° 30', but by mistake was actually run north of that parallel. By a
treaty of 1819 the Indian title to the territory west of the Tennessee
was extinguished, and commissioners then ran a line along the
parallel of 36° 30' from the Mississippi to the Tennessee. In 1820
commissioners representing Kentucky and Tennessee formally
adopted the line of 1779-1780 and the line of 1819 as the boundary
between the two states.
1 This resolution read as follows: Resolved, that the several states
composing the United States of America are not united on the
principle of unlimited submission to their general government; but
that by compact under the style of a Constitution for the United
alien and sedition laws unconstitutional and therefore " void and
of no force," principally on the ground that they provided for
an exercise of powers which were reserved to the state. The
resolutions further declare that "this Commonwealth is deter-
mined, as it doubts not its co-states are, tamely to submit to
undelegated and therefore unlimited powers in no man or body
of men on earth," and that "these and successive acts of the
same character, unless arrested on the threshold, may tend to
drive these states into revolution and blood." Copies of the
resolutions were sent to the governors of the various states, to
be laid before the different state legislatures, and replies were
received from Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, New
Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont and Virginia,
but all except that from Virginia were unfavourable. Neverthe-
less the Kentucky legislature on the 22nd of November 1799
reaffirmed in a new resolution the principles it had laid down in
the first series, asserting in this new resolution that the state
" does now unequivocally declare its attachment to the Union,
and to that compact [the Constitution], agreeably to its obvious
and real intention, and will be among the last to seek its dissolu-
tion," but that " the principle alfd construction contended for
by sundry of the state legislatures, that the General Government
is the exclusive judge of the extent of the powers delegated to
it, stop nothing [short] of despotism — since the discretion of
those who administer the government, and not the Constitution,
would be the measure of their powers," " that the several states
who formed that instrument, being sovereign and independent,
have the unquestionable right to judge of the infraction," and
" that a nullification by those sovereignties of all unauthorized acts
done under color of that instrument is the rightful remedy." These
measures show that the state was Democratic-Republican in its
politics and pro-French in its sympathies, and that it was in-
clined to follow the leadership of that state from which most of
its people had come.
The constitution of 1799 adopted the system of choosing the
governor and senators by popular vote and deprived the supreme
court of its original jurisdiction in land cases. The Burr con-
spiracy (1804-1806) aroused some excitement in the state. Many
would have followed Burr in a filibustering attack upon the
Spanish in the South-West, but scarcely any would have
approved of a separation of Kentucky from the Federal Union.
No battles were fought in Kentucky during the War of 1812,
but her troops constituted the greater part of the forces under
General William Henry Harrison. They took part in the opera-
tions at Fort Wayne, Fort Meigs, the river Raisin and the
Thames.
The Democratic-Republicans controlled the politics of the state
without any serious opposition until the conflict in 1820-1826,
arising from the demands for a more adequate system of currency
and other measures for the relief of delinquent debtors divided
the state into what were known as the relief and anti-relief
parties. After nearly all the forty-six banks chartered by the
legislature in 1818 had been wrecked in the financial panic of
1819, the legislature in 1820 passed a series of laws designed for
the benefit of the debtor class, among them one making state
bank notes a legal tender for all debts. A decision of the Clark
county district court declaring this measure unconstitutional
was affirmed by the court of appeals. The legislature in 1824
repealed all of the laws creating the existing court of appeals and
then established a new one. This precipitated a bitter campaign
States and of amendments thereto, they constituted a general
government for special purposes, delegated to that government
certain definite powers, reserving each state to itself the residuary
mass of right to their own self-government; and that whensoever
the general government assumes undelegated powers its acts are
unauthoritative, void, and of no force : That to this compact each
state acceded as a state, and is an integral party, its co-states
forming, as to itself, the other party : That the government created
by this compact was not made the exclusive or final judge of the
extent of the powers delegated to itself, since that would have made
its discretion, and not the Constitution, the measure of its powers;
but that, as in all other cases of compact among parties haying no
common judge, each party has an equal right to judge for itself as
well of infractions as of the mode and measure of redress.
KENTUCKY
747
between the anti-relief or " old court " party and the relief or
" new court " party, in which the former was successful. The
old court party followed the lead of Henry Clay and John Quincy
Adams in national politics, and became National Republicans
and later Whigs. The new court party followed Andrew Jackson
and Martin Van Buren and became Democrats. The electoral
vote of the state was cast for Jackson in 1828 and for Clay in
1832. During the next thirty years Clay's conservative influ-
ence dominated the politics of the state.1 Kentucky voted the
Whig ticket in every presidential election from 1832 until the
party made its last campaign in 1852. When the Whigs were
destroyed by the slavery issue some of them immediately be-
came Democrats, but the majority became Americans, or Know-
Nothings. They elected the governor in 1855 and almost
succeeded in carrying the state for their presidential ticket in
1856. In 1860 the people of Kentucky were drawn toward the
South by their interest in slavery and by their social relations, and
toward the North by business ties and by a national sentiment
which was fostered by the Clay traditions. They naturally
assumed the leadership in the Constitutional Union movement
of 1860, casting the vote of the state for Bell and Everett.
After the election of President Lincoln they also led in the move-
ment to secure the adoption of the Crittenden Compromise or
some other peaceful solution of the difficulties between the North
and the South.
A large majority of the state legislature, however, were Demo-
crats, and in his message to this body, in January 1861, Governor
Magoffin, also a Democrat, proposed that a convention be called
to determine " the future of Federal and inter-state relations
of Kentucky;" later too, in reply to the president's call for
volunteers, he declared, " Kentucky will furnish no troops for
the wicked purpose of subduing her sister Southern States."
Under these conditions the Unionists asked only for the main-
tenance of neutrality, and a resolution to this effect was carried
by a bare majority — 48 to 47. Some of the secessionists took
this as a defeat and left the state immediately to join the Con-
federate ranks. In the next month there was an election of
congressmen, and an anti-secession candidate was chosen in nine
out of ten districts. An election in August of one-half the Senate
and all of the House of Representatives resulted in a Unionist
majority in the new legislature of 103 to 35, and in September,
after Confederate troops had begun to invade the state, Ken-
tucky formally declared its allegiance to the Union. From
September 1861 to the fall of Fort Donelson in February 1862
that part of Kentucky which is south and west of the Green River
was occupied by the Confederate army under General A. S.John-
ston, and at Russellville in that district a so-called " sovereignty
convention " assembled on the i8th of November. This body,
composed mostly of Kentucky men who had joined the Con-
federate army, passed an ordinance of secession, elected state
officers, and sent commissioners to the Confederate Congress,
which body voted on the oth of December to admit Kentucky
into the Confederacy. Throughout the war Kentucky was repre-
sented in the Confederate Congress — representatives and senators
being elected by Confederate soldiers from the state. The
officers of this " provisional government," headed by G. W.
Johnson, who had been elected " governor," left the state when
General A. S. Johnston withdrew; Johnson himself was killed
at Shiloh, but an attempt was subsequently made by General
Bragg to install this government at Frankfort. General Felix
K. Zollicoffer (1812-1862) had entered the south-east part of
the state through Cumberland Gap in September, and later with
a Confederate force of about 7000 men attempted the invasion
of central Kentucky, but in October 1861 he met with a slight
repulse at Wild Cat Mountain, near London, Laurel county,
and on the ipth of January 1862, in an engagement near Mill
Springs, Wayne county, with about an equal force under
General George H. Thomas, he was killed and his force was
utterly routed. In 1862 General Braxton Bragg in command of
the Confederates in eastern Tennessee, eluded General Don
1 He died in 1852, but the traditions which he represented
survived.
Carlos Buell, in command of the Federal Army of the Ohio
stationed there, and entering Kentucky in August 1862 pro-
ceeded slowly toward Louisville, hoping to win the state to the
Confederate cause and gain recruits for the Confederacy in the
state. His main army was preceded by a division of about 1 5,000
men under General Edmund Kirby Smith, who on the 3Oth of
August defeated a Federal force under General Wm. Nelson near
Richmond and threatened Cincinnati. Bragg met with little
opposition on his march, but Buell, also marching from eastern
Tennessee, reached Louisville first (Sept. 24), turned on Bragg,
and forced him to withdraw. On his retreat, Bragg attempted
to set up a Confederate government at Frankfort, and Richard
J. Hawes, who had been chosen as G. W. Johnson's successor, was
actually " inaugurated," but naturally this state " government "
immediately collapsed. On the 8th of October Buell and Bragg
fought an engagement at Perryville which, though tactically
indecisive, was a strategic victory for Buell; and thereafter
Bragg withdrew entirely from the state into Tennessee. This
was the last serious attempt on a large scale by the Confederates
to win Kentucky; but in February 1863 one of General John H.
Morgan's brigades made a raid on Mount Sterling and captured
it; in March General Pegram made a raid into Pulaski county;
in March 1864 General N. B. Forrest assaulted Fort Anderson
at Paducah but failed to capture it; and in June General Morgan
made an unsuccessful attempt to take Lexington.
Although the majority of the people sympathized with the
Union, the emancipation of the slaves without compensation
even to loyal owners, the arming of negro troops, the arbitrary
imprisonment of citizens and the interference of Federal military
officials in purely civil affairs aroused so much feeling that the
state became strongly Democratic, and has remained so almost
uniformly since the war. Owing to the panic of 1893, distrust
of the free silver movement and the expenditure of large cam-
paign funds, the Republicans were successful in the guber-
national election of 1895 and the presidential election of 1896.
The election of 1899 was disputed. William S. Taylor, Republi-
can, was inaugurated governor on the I2th of December, but
the legislative committee on contests decided in favour of the
Democrats. Governor-elect Goebel was shot by an assassin on
the 3oth of January 1900, was sworn into office on his death-
bed, and died on the 3rd of February. Taylor fled the state to
escape trial on the charge of murder. Lieutenant-Governor
Beckham filled out the unexpired term and was re-elected in
1903. In 1907 the Republicans again elected their candidate
for governor.
GOVERNORS OF KENTUCKY
Democratic- Republican
Isaac Shelby
James Garrard
Christopher Greenup
Charles Scott
Isaac Shelby
George Madison*
Gabriel Slaughter (acting)
John Adair
Joseph Desha
Thomas Metcalfe National
John Breathitt*
James T. Morehead (acting)
James Clark*
Charles A. Wickliffe (acting)
Robert P. Letcher
William Owsley
John J. Crittendenf
John L. Helmf
Lazarus W. Powell
Charles S. Morehead
Beriah Magoffin
James F. Robinson
Thomas E. Bramlette
John L. Helm*
John W. Stevensonf
Preston H. Leslie!
James B. McCreary
Luke P. Blackburn
J. Proctor Knott
Simon B. Buckner
John Y. Brown
Democrat
Whig
Democrat
American
Democrat
1792-1796
1796-1804
1804-1808
1808-1812
1812-1816
1816
1816-1820
1820-1824
1824-1828
1828-1832
1832-1834
1834-1836
1836
1836-1840
1840-1844
1844-1848
1848-1850
1850-1851
1851-1855
1855-1859
1859-1862
1862-1863
1863-1867
1867
1867-1871
1871-1875
1875-1879
1879-1883
1883-1887
1887-1891
1891-1895
748
KENYA— KENYON
GOVERNORS OF KENTUCKY — continued
1895-1899
1899-1900
1900
1900-1907
1907-
William O. Bradley Republican
William S. Taylor § „
William Goebel* Democrat
J. C. W. Beckham
Augustus E. Willson Republican
* Died in office.
t Governor Crittenden resigned on the 3 1st of July to become
Attorney-General of the United States and John L. Helm served
out the unexpired term.
J Governor Stevenson resigned on the I3th of February 1871 to
become U.S. Senator from Kentucky . P. H. Leslie filled out the
remainder of the term and was elected in 1871 for a full term.
§ Taylor's election was contested by Goebel, who received the
certificate of election.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Fordescriptionsof physicalfeaturesand accounts
of natural resources see Reports of the Kentucky Geological Survey,
the Biennial Reports of the Bureau of Agriculture, Labor and Statistics,
the Reports of the United States Census and various publications of
the U.S. Geological Survey, and other publications listed in Bulletin
301 (Bibliography and Index of North American Geology for 1901-1905)
and other bibliographies of the Survey. For an early description,
see Gilbert Imlay, A Topographical Description of the Western
Territory of North America (London, 3rd ed., 1797), m which John
Filson's " Discovery, Settlement and Present State of Kentucke "
(1784) is reprinted. For a brief description of the Blue Grass Region,
see James Lane Allen's The Blue Grass Region of Kentucky and other
Kentucky Articles (New York, 1900). An account of the social and
industrial life of the people in the " mountain " districts is given in
William H. Haney's The Mountain People of Kentucky (Cincinnati,
1906). For administration, see the Official Manual for the Use of
the Courts, State and County Officials and General Assembly of the
State of Kentucky (Lexington), which contains, the Constitution of
1891 ; The Report of the Debates and Proceedings of the Convention . . .
of 1849 (Frankfort, 1849) ; The Official Report of the Proceedings and
Debates of the Constitutional Convention of 1890 (4 vols., Frankfort,
1890); B. H. Young, History and Texts of Three Constitutions of
Kentucky (Louisville, 1 890) ; J . F. Bullitt and John Feland, TheGeneral
Statutes of Kentucky (Frankfort and Louisville, 1877, revised editions,
1881 , 1887) ; and the Annual Reports of state officers and boards. For
history see R. M. McElroy's Kentucky in the Nation's History (New
York, 1909, with bibliography) ; or (more briefly) N. S. Shaler's
Kentucky (Boston, 1885), in the American Commonwealths Series.
John M. Brown's The Political Beginnings of Kentucky (Louisville,
1889) is a good monograph dealing with the period before 1792; it
should be compared with Thomas M . Green's The Spanish Conspiracy:
A Review of Early Spanish Movements in the Southwest (Cincinnati,
1891), written in reply to it. Among older histories are Humphrey
Marshall, The History of Kentucky . . . and the Present State of the
Country (2 vols., Frankfort, 1812, 1824), extremely Federalistic in
tone; Mann Butler, History of Kentucky from its Exploration and
Settlement by the Whites to the close of the Southwestern Campaign of
1813 (Louisville, 1834; 2nd ed., Cincinnati, 1836), and Lewis Collins,
The History of Kentucky (2 vols., revised edition, Covington, Ky.,
1874), a valuable store-house of facts, the basis of Shaler's work.
E. D. Warfield's The Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 (New York, 2nd ed.,
1887) is an excellent monograph. For the Civil War history see
" Campaigns in Kentucky and Tennessee," in the 7th volume of
Papers of the Military Historical Society of Massachusetts (Boston,
1908) ; Thomas Speed, The Union Cause in Kentucky (New York,
1907) ; Basil W. Duke, History of Morgan's Cavalry (Cincinnati, 1 867),
and general works on the history of the war. See alsoAlvin F. Lewis,
History of Higher Education in Kentucky, in Circulars of Informa-
tion of the U.S. Bureau of Education (Washington, 1899), and
R. G. Thwaites, Daniel Boone (New York, 1902). There is much
valuable material in the Register (Frankfort, 1903 seq.) of the Ken-
tucky State Historical Society, and especially in the publications of
the Filson Club of Louisville. Among the latter are R. T. Durrett's
John Filson, the first Historian of Kentucky (1884) ; ThomasSpeed, The
Wilderness Road (1886) ; W. H. Perrin, The Pioneer Press of Kentucky
(1888) ; G. W. Ranck, Boonesborough : Its Founding, Pioneer Struggles,
Indian Experiences, Transylvania Days and Revolutionary Annals
(IQOI), and The Centenary of Kentucky (1892), containing an address,
" The State of Kentucky : Its Discovery, Settlement, Autonomy and
Progress in a Hundred Years," by Reuben T. Durrett.
KENYA, a great volcanic mountain in British East Africa,
situated just south of the equator in 37° 20' E. It is one of the
highest mountains of Africa, its highest peak reaching an altitude
of 17,007 ft. (with a possible error of 30 ft. either way). The
central core, which consists of several steep pyramids, is that of
a very denuded old volcano, which when its crater was complete
may have reached 2000 ft. above the present summit. Lavas
dip in all directions from the central crystalline core, pointing
to the conclusion that the main portion of the mountain repre-
sents a single volcanic mass. From the central peaks, of which
the axis runs from W.N.W. to S.S.E., ridges radiate outwards,
separated by broad valleys, ending upwards in vast cirques.
The most important ridges centre in the peak Lenana (16,300 ft.)
at the eastern end of the central group, and through it runs the
chief water-parting of the mountain, in a generally north to south
direction. Three main valleys, known respectively as Hinde,
Gorges and Hobley valleys, run down from this to the east, and
four — Mackinder, Hausberg, Teleki and Hohnel — to the west.
From the central peaks fifteen glaciers, all lying west of the main
divide, descend to the north and south, the two largest being the
Lewis and Gregory glaciers, each about i m. long, which, with
the smaller Kolb glacier, lie immediately west of the main divide.
Most of the glaciers terminate at an altitude of 14,800-14,900 ft.,
but the small Cesar glacier, drained to the Hausberg valley,
reaches to 14,450. Glaciation was formerly much more extensive,
old moraines being observed down to 12,000 ft. In the upper
parts of the valleys a number of lakes occur, occupying hollows
and rock basins in the agglomerates and ashes, fed by springs,
and feeding many of the streams that drain the mountain slopes.
The largest of these are Lake Hjjhnel, lying at an altitude of
14,000 ft., at the head of the valley of the same name, and
measuring 600 by 400 yds.; and Lake Michaelson (12,700 ft.?) in
the Gorges Valley. At a distance from the central core the radiat-
ing ridges become less abrupt and descend with a gentle gradient,
finally passing somewhat abruptly, at a height of some 7000 ft.,
into the level plateau. These outer slopes are clothed with dense
forest and jungle, composed chiefly of junipers and Podocarpus,
and between 8000 and 9800 ft. of huge bamboos. The forest
zone extends to about 10,500 ft., above which is the steeper alpine
zone, in which pasturages alternate with rocks and crags. This
extends to a general height of about 15,000 ft., but in damp,
sheltered valleys the pasturages extend some distance higher.
The only trees or shrubs in this zone are the giant Senecio (ground-
sel) and Lobelia, and tree-heaths, the Senecio forming groves in
the upper valleys. Of the fauna of the lower slopes, tracks of
elephant, leopard and buffalo have been seen, between 11,500
and 14,500 ft. That of the alpine zone includes two species of
dassy (Procavia) , a coney (Hyrax) , and a rat (Otomys) . The bird
fauna is of considerable interest, the finest species of the upper
zone being an eagle-owl, met with at 14,000 ft. At 11,000 ft.
was found a brown chat, with a good deal of white in the tail.
Both the fauna and flora of the higher levels present close affini-
ties with those of Mount Elgon, of other mountains of East Africa
and of Cameroon Mountain. The true native names of the moun-
tain are said to be Kilinyaga, Doenyo Ebor (white mountain)
and Doenyo Egeri (spotted mountain). It was first seen, from a
distance, by the missionary Ludwig Krapf in 1849; approached
from the west by Joseph Thomson in 1883 ; partially ascended by
Count S. Teleki (1889), J. W. Gregory (1893) and Georg Kolb
(1896); and its summit reached by H. J. Mackinder in 1899.
See J. W. Gregory, The Great Rift-Valley (London, 1896); H. I.
Mackinder, " Journey to the Summit of Mount Kenya," Geoe. Jnl.,
May 1900. (E. HE.)
KENYON, LLOYD KENYON, IST BARON (1732-1802), lord
chief-justice of England, was descended by his father's side from
an old Lancashire family; his mother was the daughter of a small
proprietor in Wales. He was born at Gredington, Flintshire,
on the sth of October 1732. Educated at Ruthin grammar
school, he was in his fifteenth year articled to an attorney at
.Nantwich, Cheshire. In 1750 he entered at Lincoln's Inn,
London, and in 1756 was called to the bar. As for several years
he was almost unemployed, he utilized his leisure in taking notes
of the cases argued in the court of King's Bench, which he after-
wards published. Through answering the cases of his friend
John Dunning, afterwards Lord Ashburton, he gradually became
known to the attorneys, after which his success was so rapid that
in 1780 he was made king's counsel. He showed conspicuous
ability in the cross-examination of the witnesses at the trial of
Lord George Gordon, but his speech was so tactless that the
verdict of acquittal was really due to the brilliant effort of
Erskine, the junior counsel. This want of tact, indeed, often
betrayed Kenyon into striking blunders; as an advocate he was,
KEOKUK— KEPLER
749
moreover, deficient in ability of statement; and his position was
achieved chiefly by hard work, a good knowledge of law and
several lucky friendships. Through the influence of Lord
Thurlow, Kenyon in 1780 entered the House of Commons as
member for Hindon, and in 1782 he was, through the same friend-
ship, appointed attorney-general in Lord Buckingham's adminis-
tration, an office which he continued to hold under Pitt. In
1784 he received the mastership of the rolls, and was created a
baronet. In 1 788 he was appointed lord chief justice as successor
to Lord Mansfield, and the same year was raised to the peerage
as Baron Kenyon of Gredington. As he had made many enemies,
his elevation was by no means popular with the bar; but on the
bench, in spite of his capricious and choleric temper, he proved
himself not only an able lawyer, but a judge of rare and
inflexible impartiality. He died at Bath, on the 4th of April
1802. Kenyon was succeeded as 2nd baron by his son George
(1776-1855), whose great-grandson, Lloyd (b. 1864), became the
4th baron in 1869.
See Life by Hon. G. T. Kenyon, 1873.
KEOKUK, a city of Lee county, Iowa, U.S.A., on the Missis-
sippi river, at the mouth of the Des Moines, in the S.E. corner of
the state, about 200 m. above St Louis. Pop. (1900), 14,641;
(1905), 14,604, including 1534 foreign-born; (1910), 14,008.
It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago,
Rock Island & Pacific, the Wabash, and the Toledo, Peoria
& Western railways. There is a bridge (about 2200 ft. long)
across the Mississippi, and another (about 1200 ft. long) across
the Des Moines. The city has a public library and St Joseph
and Graham hospitals, and is the seat of the Keokuk Medical
College (1849). There is a national cemetery here. Muchofthe
city is built on bluffs along the Mississippi. Keokuk is at the
foot of the Des Moines Rapids, round which the Federal Govern-
ment has constructed a navigable canal (opened 1877) about 9 m.
long, with a draft at extreme low water of 5 ft.; at the foot a
great dam, ij m. long and 38 ft. high, has been constructed.
Keokuk has various manufactures; its factory product in 1905
was valued at $4,225,915, 38-6% more than in 1900. The city
was named after Keokuk, a chief of theSauk and Foxes (1780-
1848), whose name meant " the watchful " or " he who moves
alertly." In spite of Black Hawk's war policy in 1832 Keokuk
was passive and neutral, and with a portion of his nation re-
mained peaceful while Black Hawk and his warriors fought. His
grave, surmounted by a monument, is in Rand Park. The first
house on the site of the city was built about 1820, but further
settlement did not begin until 1836. Keokuk was laid out as a
town in 1837, was chartered as a city in 1848, and in 1907 was one
of five cities of the state governed by a special charter.
KEONJHAR, a tributary state of India, within the Orissa
division of Bengal; area, 3096 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 285,758;
estimated revenue, £20,000. The state is an oflshoot from
Mayurbhanj. Part of it consists of rugged hills, rising to more
than 3000 ft. above sea-level. The residence of the raja is at
Keonjhar (pop. 4532).
KEONTHAL, a petty hill state in the Punjab, India, with an
area of 116 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 22,499; estimated revenue,
£4400. The chief, a Rajput, received the title of raja in 1857.
After the Gurkha War in 1815, a portion of Keonthal, which had
been occupied by the Gurkhas, was sold to the maharaja of
Patiala, the remainder being restored to its hereditary chief.
In 1823 the district of Punar was added to the Keonthal state.
The raja exercises rights of lordship over the petty states of
Kothi, Theog, Madhan and Ratesh.
KEPLER, JOHANN (1571-1630), German astronomer, was
born on the 27th of December 1571, at Weil, in the duchy of
Wiirttemberg, of which town his grandfather was burgomaster.
He was the eldest child of an ill-assorted union. His father,
Henry Kepler, was a reckless soldier of fortune; his mother,
Catherine Guldenmann, the daughter of the burgomaster of
Eltingen, was undisciplined and ill-educated. Her husband
found campaigning in Flanders under Alva a welcome relief from
domestic life; and, after having lost all he possessed by a forfeited
security and tried without success the trade of tavern-keeping in
the village of Elmendingen, he finally, in 1 589, deserted his family.
The misfortune and misconduct of his parents were not the only
troubles of Kepler's childhood. He recovered from small-pox
in his fourth year with crippled hands and eyesight permanently
impaired; and a constitution enfeebled by premature birth had
to withstand successive shocks of severe illness. His schooling
began at Leonberg in 1577 — the year, as he himself tells us, of
a great comet; but domestic bankruptcy occasioned his trans-
ference to field-work, in which he was exclusively employed for
several years. Bodily infirmity, combined with mental aptitude,
were eventually considered to indicate a theological vocation;
he was, in 1584, placed at the seminary of Adelberg, and thence
removed, two years later, to that of Maulbronn. A brilliant
examination for the degree of bachelor procured him, in 1588,
admittance on the foundation to the university of Tubingen,
where belaid up a copious store of classical erudition, and imbibed
Copernican principles from the private instructions of his teacher
and life-long friend, Michael Maestlin. As yet, however, he
had little knowledge of, and less inclination for, astronomy;
and it was with extreme reluctance that he turned aside from the
more promising career of the ministry to accept, early in 1594,
the vacant chair of that science at Gratz, placed at the disposal
of the Tubingen professors by the Lutheran states of Styria.
The best recognized function of German astronomers in that
day was the construction of prophesying alrnanacs, greedily
bought by a credulous public. Kepler thus found that the first
duties required of him were of an astrological nature, and set
himself with characteristic alacrity to master the rules of the art
as laid down by Ptolemy and Cardan. He, moreover, sought in
the events of his own life a verification of the theory of planetary
influences; and it is to this practice that we owe the summary
record of each year's occurrences which, continued almost to his
death, affords for his biography a slight but sure foundation.
But his thoughts were already working in a higher sphere. He
early attained to the settled conviction that for the actual dis-
position of the solar system some abstract intelligible reason
must exist, and this, after much meditation, he believed himself
to have found in an imaginary relation between the " five regular
solids " and the number and distances of the planets. He notes
with exultation the gth of July 1595, as the date of the pseudo-
discovery, the publication of which in Prodromus Dissertationum
Cosmographicarum sen Mysterium Cosmographicum (Tubingen,
1596) procured him much fame, and a friendly correspondence
with the two most eminent astronomers of the time, Tycho Brahe
and Galileo.
Soon after his arrival at Gratz, Kepler contracted an engage-
ment with Barbara von Muhleck, a wealthy Styrian heiress, who,
at the age of twenty-three, had already survived one husband
and been divorced from another. Before her relatives could be
brought to countenance his pretensions, Kepler was obliged to
undertake a journey to Wurttemberg to obtain documentary
evidence of the somewhat obscure nobility of his family, and it
was thus not until the 27th of April 1597 that the marriage was
celebrated. In the following year the archduke Ferdinand, on
assuming the government of his hereditary dominions, issued an
edict of banishment against Protestant preachers and professors.
Kepler immediately fled to the Hungarian frontier, but, by the
favour of the Jesuits, was recalled and reinstated in his post.
The gymnasium, however, was deserted; the nobles of Styria
began to murmur at subsidizing a teacher without pupils; and he
found it prudent to look elsewhere for employment. His refusal
to subscribe unconditionally to the rigid formula of belief adopted
by the theologians of Tubingen permanently closed against him
the gates of his alma mater. His embarrassment was relieved
however by an offer from Tycho Brahe of the position of assistant
in his observatory near Prague, which, after a preliminary visit
of four months, he accepted. The arrangement was made just
in time; for in August 1600 he received definitive notice to leave
Gratz, and, having leased his wife's property, he departed with
his family for Prague.
By Tycho's unexpected death (Oct. 24, 1601) a brilliant career
seemed to be thrown open to Kepler. The emperor Rudolph II.
750
KEPLER
immediately appointed him to succeed his patron as imperial
mathematician, although at a reduced salary of 500 florins; the
invaluable treasure of Tycho's observations was placed at his
disposal; and the laborious but congenial task was entrusted to
him of completing the tables to which the grateful Dane had
already affixed the title of Rudolphine. The first works executed
by him at Prague were, nevertheless, a homage to the astrological
proclivities of the emperor. In De fundamentis astrologiae
certioribus (Prague, 1602) he declared his purpose of preserving
and purifying the grain of truth which he believed the science to
contain. Indeed, the doctrine of "aspects" and "influences"
fitted excellently with his mystical conception of the universe,
and enabled him to discharge with a semblance of sincerity the
most lucrative part of his professional duties. Although he
strictly limited his prophetic pretensions to the estimate of
tendencies and probabilities, his forecasts were none the less in
demand. Shrewd sense and considerable knowledge of the world
came to the aid of stellar lore in the preparation of " prognostics "
which, not unfrequently hitting off the event, earned him as much
credit with the vulgar as his cosmical speculations with the
learned. He drew the horoscopes of the emperor and Wallenstein,
as well as of a host of lesser magnates; but, though keenly alive
to the unworthy character of such a trade, he made necessity
his excuse for a compromise with superstition. " Nature," he
wrote, " which has conferred upon every animal the means of
subsistence, has given astrology as an adjunct and ally to astro-
nomy." He dedicated to the emperor in 1603 a treatise on the
" great conjunction " of that year (Judicium de trigono igneo);
and he published his observations on a brilliant star which
appeared suddenly (Sept. 30, 1604), and remained visible for
seventeen months, in De Stella nova in pede Serpenlarii (Prague,
1606). While sharing the opinion of Tycho as to the origin of
such bodies by condensation of nebulous matter from the Milky
Way, he attached a mystical signification to the coincidence in
time and place of the sidereal apparition with a triple conjunction
of Mars, Jupiter and Saturn.
The main task of his life was not meanwhile neglected. This
was nothing less than the foundation of a new astronomy, in
which physical cause should replace arbitrary hypothesis. A
preliminary study of optics led to the publication, in 1604, of his
Aslronomiae pars optica, containing important discoveries in the
theory of vision, and a notable approximation towards the true
law of refraction. But it was not until 1609 that, the " great
Martian labour " being at length completed, he was able, in his
own figurative language, to lead the captive planet to the foot
of the imperial throne. From the time of his first introduction
to Tycho he had devoted himself to the investigation of the orbit
of Mars, which, on account of its relatively large eccentricity,
had always been especially recalcitrant to theory, and the results
appeared in Astronomia nova o.lno\oyi}r6^, sen, Physica coelestis
Iradita commentariis de motibus stellae Martis (Prague, 1609).
In this, the most memorable of Kepler's multifarious writings,
two of the cardinal principles of modern astronomy — the laws of
elliptical orbits and of equal areas — were established (see ASTRO-
NOMY: History); important truths relating to gravity were
enunciated, and the tides ascribed to the influence of lunar
attraction; while an attempt to explain the planetary revolutions
in the then backward condition of mechanical knowledge pro-
duced a theory of vortices closely resembling that afterwards
adopted by Descartes. Having been provided, in August 1610,
by Ernest, archbishop of Cologne, with one of the new Galilean
instruments, Kepler began, with unspeakable delight, to observe
the wonders revealed by it. He had welcomed with a little essay
called Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo Galileo's first announce-
ment of celestial novelties; he now, in his Dioptrice (Augsburg,
161 1) , expounded the theory of refraction by lenses, and suggested
the principle of the " astronomical " or inverting telescope.
Indeed the work may be said to have founded the branch of science
to which it gave its name.
The year 1611 was marked by Kepler as the most disastrous of
his life. The death by small-pox of his favourite child was followed
by that of his wife, who; long a prey to melancholy, was on the
3rd of July carried off by typhus. Public calamity was added
to private bereavement. On the 23rd of May 1611 Matthias,
brother of the emperor, assumed the Bohemian crown in Prague,
compelling Rudolph to take refuge in the citadel, where he died
on the 2oth of January following. Kepler's fidelity in remaining
with him to the last did not deprive him of the favour of his
successor. Payments of arrears, now amounting to upwards of
4000 florins, was not, however, in the desperate condition of the
imperial finances, to be hoped for; and he was glad, while
retaining his position as court astronomer, to accept (in 1612)
the office of mathematician to the states of Upper Austria. His
residence at Linz was troubled by the harsh conduct of the pastor
Hitzler, in excluding him from the rites of his church on the
ground of supposed Calvinistic leanings — a decision confirmed,
with the addition of an insulting reprimand, on his appeal to
Wiirttemberg. In 1613 he appeared with the emperor Matthias
before the diet of Ratisbon as the advocate of the introduction
into Germany of the Gregorian calendar; but the attempt was
for the time frustrated by anti-papal prejudice. The attention
devoted by him to chronologica^ subjects is evidenced by the
publication about this period of several essays in which he
sought to prove that the birth of Christ took place five years
earlier than the commonly accepted date.
Kepler's second courtship forms the subject of a highly char-
acteristic letter addressed by him to Baron Stralendorf, in which
he reviews the qualifications of eleven candidates for his hand,
and explains the reasons which decided his choice in favour of
a portionless orphan girl named Susanna Reutlinger. The
marriage was celebrated at Linz, on the 3oth of October 1613, and
seems to have proved a happy and suitable one. The abundant
vintage of that year drew his attention to the defective methods
in use for estimating the cubical contents of vessels, and his
essay on the subject (Nova Stcreomelria Doliorum, Linz, 1615)
entitles him to rank among those who prepared the discovery
of the infinitesimal calculus. His observations on the three comets
of 1618 were published in De Cornells, contemporaneously with
De Harmonice Mundi (Augsburg, 1619), of which the first linea-
ments had been traced twenty years previously at Gratz. This
extraordinary production is memorable as having announced
the discovery of the" third law " — that of the sesquiplicate ratio
between the planetary periods and distances. But the main
purport of the treatise was the exposition of an elaborate system
of celestial harmonies depending on the various and varying
velocities of the several planets, of which the sentient soul
animating the sun was the solitary auditor. The work exhibiting
this fantastic emulation of extravagance with genius was dedi-
cated to James I. of England, and the compliment was acknow-
ledged with an invitation to that island, conveyed through Sir
Henry Wotton. Notwithstanding the distracted state of his
own country, he refused to abandon it, as he had previously, in
1617, declined the post of successor to G. A. Magini in the mathe-
matical chair of Bologna.
The insurmountable difficulties presented by the lunar theory
forced Kepler, after an enormous amount of fruitless labour, to
abandon his design of comprehending the whole scheme of the
heavens in one great work to be called Hipparchus, and he then
threw a portion of his materials into the form of a dialogue
intended for the instruction of general readers. The Epitome
Astronomiae Copernicanae (Linz and Frankfort, 1618-1621), a
lucid and attractive textbook of Copernican science,was remark-
able for the prominence given to " physical astronomy," as well
as for the extension to the Jovian system of the laws recently
discovered to regulate the motions of the planets. The first
of a series of ephemerides, calculated on these principles, was
published by him at Linz in 1617; and in that for 1620, dedicated
to Baron Napier, he for the first time employed logarithms. This
important invention was eagerly welcomed by him, and its theory
formed the subject of a treatise entitled Chilias Logarithmorum,
printed in 1624, but circulated in manuscript three years earlier,
which largely contributed to bring the new method into general
use in Germany.
His studies were interrupted by family trouble. The restless
KEPPEL, VISCOUNT
disposition and unbridled tongue of Catherine Kepler, his mother,
created for her numerous enemies in the little town of Leonberg;
while her unguarded conduct exposed her to a species of calumny
at that time readily circulated and believed. As early as 1615
suspicions of sorcery began to be spread against her, which she,
with more spirit than prudence, met with an action for libel.
The suit was purposely protracted, and at length, in 1620, the un-
happy woman, then in her seventy-fourth year, was arrested on
a formal charge of witchcraft. Kepler immediately hastened
to Wurttemberg, and owing to his indefatigable exertions she was
acquitted after having suffered thirteen month's imprisonment,
and endured with undaunted courage the formidable ordeal of
" territion," or examination under the imminent threat of torture.
She survived her release only a few months, dying on the I3th of
April 1622.
Kepler's whole attention was now devoted to the production
of the new tables. " Germany," he wrote, " does not long for
peace more anxiously than I do for their publication." But
financial difficulties, combined with civil and religious convul-
sions, long delayed the accomplishment of his desires. From
the 24th of June to the 29th of August 1626, Linz was besieged,
and its inhabitants reduced to the utmost straits by bands of in-
surgent peasants. The pursuit of science needed a more tranquil
shelter; and on the raising of the blockade, Kepler obtained per-
mission to transfer his types to Ulm, where, in September 1627, the
Rudolphine Tables were at length given to the world. Although
by no means free from errors, their value appears from the fact
that they ranked for a century as the best aid to astronomy.
Appended were tables of logarithms and of refraction, together
with Tycho's catalogue of 777 stars, enlarged by Kepler to 1005.
Kepler's claims upon the insolvent imperial exchequer
amounted by this time to 12,000 florins. The emperor Ferdi-
nand II., too happy to transfer the burden, countenanced an
arrangement by which Kepler entered the service of the duke of
Friedland (Wallenstein), who assumed the full responsibility of
the debt. In July 1628 Kepler accordingly arrived with his family
at Sagan in Silesia, where he applied himself to the printing of his
ephemerides up to the year 1636, and whence he issued, in 1629,
a Notice to the Curious in Things Celestial, warning astronomers of
approaching transits. That of Mercury was actually seen by
Gassendi in Paris on the 7th of November 1631 (being the first
passage of a planet across the sun ever observed) ; that of Venus,
predicted for the 6th of December following, was invisible in
western Europe. Wallenstein's promises to Kepler were but
imperfectly fulfilled. In lieu of the sums due, he offered him a
professorship at Rostock, which Kepler declined. An expedition
to Ratisbon, undertaken for the purpose of representing his case
to the diet, terminated his life. Shaken by the journey, which
he had performed entirely on horseback, he was attacked with
fever, and died at Ratisbon, on the isth of November (N.S.),
1630, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. An inventory of his
effects showed him to have been possessed of no inconsiderable
property at the time of his death. By his first wife he had five,
and by his second seven children, of whom only two, a son and a
daughter, reached maturity.
The character of Kepler's genius is especially difficult to estimate.
His tendency towards mystical speculation formed a not less funda-
mental quality of his mind than its strong grasp of positive scientific
truth. Without assigning to each element its due value, no sound
comprehension of his modes of thought can be attained. His idea
of the universe was essentially Pythagorean and Platonic. He
started with the conviction that the arrangement of its parts must
correspond with certain abstract conceptions of the beautiful and
harmonious. His imagination, thus kindled, animated him to those
severe labours of which his great discoveries were the fruit. His
demonstration that the planes of all the planetary orbits pass through
the centre of the sun, coupled with his clear recognition of the sun as
the moving power of the system, entitles him to rank as the founder
of physical astronomy. But the fantastic relations imagined by him
of planetary movements and distances to musical intervals and
geometrical constructions seemed to himself discoveries no less
admirable than the achievements which have secured his lasting
fame. Outside the boundaries of the solar system, the metaphysical
side of his genius, no longer held in check by experience, fully
asserted itself. The Keplerian like the Pythagorean cosmos was
threefold, consisting of the centre, or sun, the surface, represented by
the sphere of the fixed stars, and the intermediate space, filled with
ethereal matter. It is a mistake to suppose that he regarded the
stars as so many suns. He quotes indeed the opinion of Giordano
Bruno to that effect, but with dissent. Among his happy conjectures
may be mentioned that of the sun's axial rotation, postulated by
him as the physical cause of the revolutions of the planets, and soon
after confirmed by the discovery of sun-spots; the suggestion of a
periodical variation in the obliquity of the ecliptic ; and the explana-
tion as a solar atmospheric effect of the radiance observed to surround
the totally eclipsed sun.
It is impossible to consider without surprise the colossal amount
of work accomplished by Kepler under numerous disadvantages.
But his iron industry counted no obstacles, and secured for him the
highest triumph of genius, that of having given to mankind the
best that was in him. In private character he was amiable and
affectionate; his generosity in recognizing the merits of others
secured him against the worst shafts of envy; and a life marked by
numerous disquietudes was cheered and ennobled by sentiments of
sincere piety.
Kepler's extensive literary remains, purchased by the empress
Catherine II. in 1724 from some Frankfort merchants, and long
inaccessibly deposited in the observatory of Pulkowa, were fully
brought to light, under the able editorship of Dr Ch. Frisch, in
the first complete edition of his works. This important publication
(Joannis Kepleri opera omnia, Frankfort, 1858-1871, 8 vols. 8vo)
contains, besides the works already enumerated and several minor
treatises, a posthumous scientific satire entitled Joh. Keppleri
Somnium (first printed in 1634) and a vast mass of his corre-
spondence. A careful biography is appended, founded mainly on his
private notes and other authentic documents. His correspondence
with Herwart von Hohenburg, unearthed by C. Anschiitz at Munich,
was printed at Prague in 1886.
AUTHORITIES — C. G. Reuschle, Kepler und die Astronomic (Frank-
fort, 1871); Karl Goebel, Ober Keplers astronomische Anschauungen
(Halle, 1871) ; E. F. Apelt, Johann Keplers astronomische Weltansicht
(Leipzig, 1849); J. L. C. Breitschwert, Johann Keplers Leben und
Wirken (Stuttgart, 1831); W. Forster, Johann Kepler und die Har-
monie der Sphdren (Berlin, 1862) ; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astrpnomie
(Munich, 1877) ; J. von Hasner, Tycho Brake und J. Kepler in Prag
(1872); H. Brocard, Essai sur la Meteorologie de Kepler (Grenoble,
1879, 1881) ; Siegmund Gunther, Johannes Kepler und der tellurisch-
kosmische Magnetismus (Wien, 1888); N. Herz, Keplers Astrologie
(1895) ; Ludwig Gunther, Keplers Traum vom Mond (1898 ; an anno-
tated translation of the Somnium) ; A. Miiller, Johann Keppler, der
Gesetzgeber der neueren Astronomie (1903); Allgemeine Deutsche
Biographie, Bd. XV. (1882). (A. M. C.)
KEPPEL, AUGUSTUS KEPPEL, VISCOUNT (1725-1786),
British admiral, second son of the second earl of Albemarle,
was born on the 25th of April 1725. He went to sea at the age
of ten, and had already five years of service to his credit when he
was appointed to the " Centurion," and was sent with Anson
round the world in 1740. He had a narrow escape of being
killed in the capture of Paita (Nov. 13, 1741), and was named
acting lieutenant in 1742. In 1744 he was promoted to be com-
mander and post captain. Until the peace of 1748 he was
actively employed. In 1747 he ran his ship the " Maidstone "
(50) ashore near Belleisle while chasing a French vessel, but
was honourably acquitted by a court martial, and reappointed
to another command. After peace had been signed he was sent
into the Mediterranean to persuade the dey of Algiers to restrain
the piratical operations of his subjects. The dey is said to have
complained that the king of England should have sent a beard-
less boy to treat with him, and to have been told that if the beard
was the necessary qualification for an ambassador it would
have been easy to send a " Billy goat." After trying the effect
of bullying without success, the dey made a treaty, and Keppel
returned in 1751. During the Seven Years' War he saw constant
service. He was in North America in 1755, on the coast of
France in 1756, was detached on a cruise to reduce the French
settlements on the west coast of Africa in 1758, and his ship the
" Torbay " (74) was the first to get into action in the battle of
Quiberon in 1759. In 1757 he had formed part of the court
martial which had condemned Admiral Byng, and had been active
among those who had endeavoured to secure a pardon for him;
but neither he nor those who had acted with him could produce
any serious reason why the sentence should not be carried out.
When Spain joined France in 1762 he was sent as second in
command with Sir George Pocock in the expedition which took
Havannah. His health suffered from the fever which carried
off an immense proportion of the soldiers and sailors, but the
752
KEPPEL, SIR H.— KER
£25,000 of prize money which he received freed him from the
unpleasant position of younger son of a family ruined by the
extravagance of his father. He became rear-admiral in October
1762, was one of the Admiralty Board from July 1765 to Novem-
ber 1766, and was promoted vice-admiral on the 24th of October
1 7 70. When the Falkland Island dispute occurred ini77ohewas
to have commanded the fleet to be sent against Spain, but a
settlement was reached, and he had no occasion to hoist his flag.
The most important and the most debated period of his life
belongs to the opening years of the war of American Indepen-
dence. Keppel was by family connexion and personal preference
a strong supporter of the Whig connexion, led by the Marquess of
Rockingham and the Duke of Richmond. He shared in all the
passions of his party, then excluded from power by the resolute
will of George III. As a member of Parh'ament, in which he had
a seat for Windsor from 1761 till 1780, and then for Surrey, he
was a steady partisan, and was in constant hostility with the
" King's Friends." In common with them he was prepared to
believe that the king's ministers, and in particular Lord Sand-
wich, then First Lord of the Admiralty, were capable of any
villany. When therefore he was appointed to command the
Western Squadron, the main fleet prepared against France
in 1778, he went to sea predisposed to think that the First Lord
would be glad to cause him to be defeated. It was a further
misfortune that when Keppel hoisted his flag one of his subordi-
nate admirals should have been Sir Hugh Palliser (1723-1796),
who was a member of the Admiralty Board, a member of parlia-
ment, and in Keppel's opinion, which was generally shared,
jointly responsible with his colleagues for the bad state of the
navy. When, therefore, the battle which Keppel fought with
the French on the 27th of July 1778 ended in a highly unsatis-
factory manner, owing mainly to his own unintelligent manage-
ment, but partly through the failure of Sir Hugh Palliser to obey
orders, he became convinced that he had been deliberately
betrayed. Though he praised Sir Hugh in his public despatch
he attacked him in private, and the Whig press, with the
unquestionable aid of Keppel's friends, began a campaign of
calumny to which the ministerial papers answered in the same
style, each side accusing the other of deliberate treason. The re-
sult was a scandalous series of scenes in parliament and of courts
martial. Keppel was first tried and acquitted in 1779, and then
Palliser was also tried and acquitted. Keppel was ordered to
strike his flag in March 1779. Until the fall of Lord North's
ministry he acted as an opposition member of parliament. When
it fell in 1782 be became First Lord, and was created Viscount
Keppel and Baron Elden. His career in office was not dis-
tinguished, and he broke with his old political associates by
resigning as a protest against the Peace of Paris. He finally
discredited himself by joining the Coalition ministry formed by
North and Fox, and with its fall disappeared from public life.
He died unmarried on the 2nd of October 1786. Burke, who
regarded him with great affection, said that he had " something
high " in his nature, and that it was " a wild stock of pride on
which the tenderest of all hearts had grafted the milder virtues."
His popularity disappeared entirely in his later years. His
portrait was six times painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds. The
copy which belonged originally to Burke is now in the National
Gallery.
There is a full Life of Keppel (1842), by his grand-nephew, the
Rev. Thomas Keppel. (D. H.)
KEPPEL, SIR HENRY (1800-1904), British admiral, son of
the 4th earl of Albemarle and of his wife Elizabeth, daughter
of Lord de Clifford, was born on the I4th of June 1809, and
entered the navy from the old naval academy of Portsmouth in
1822. His family connexions secured him rapid promotion,
at a time when the rise of less fortunate officers was very slow.
He became lieutenant in 1829 and commander in 1833. His
first command in the " Childers " brig (16) was largely passed on
the coast of Spain, which was then in the midst of the convulsions
of the Carlist war. Captain Keppel had already made himself
known as a good seaman. He was engaged with the squadron
stationed on the west coast of Africa to suppress the slave trade.
In 1837 he was promoted post captain, and appointed in 1841
to the " Dido " for service in China and against the Malay
pirates, a service which he repeated in 1847, when in command of
H.M.S. " Maeander." The story of his two commands was told
by himself in two publications, The Expedition to Borneo of
H.M.S. " Dido " for the Suppression of Piracy (1846), and in
A Visit to the Indian Archipelago in H .M .S . " Maeander " (1853).
The substance of these books was afterwards incorporated into
his autobiography, which was published in 1899 under the title
A Sailor's Life under four Sovereigns. In 1853 he was appointed
to the command of the " St Jean d'Acre " of 101 guns for service
in the Crimean War. But he had no opportunity to distinguish
himself at sea in that struggle. As commander of the naval
brigade landed to co-operate in the siege of Sevastopol, he was
more fortunate, and he had an honourable share in the latter
days of the siege and reduction of the fortress. After the Crimean
War he was again sent out to China, this time in command of the
" Raleigh," as commodore to serve under Sir M. Seymour. The
" Raleigh " was lost on an uncharted rock near Hong-Kong,
but three small vessels were named to act as her tenders, and
Commodore Keppel commanded in them, and with the crew
of the " Raleigh," in the action with the Chinese at Fatshan
Creek (June i, 1857). He was honourably acquitted for the loss
of the " Raleigh," and was named to the command of the
" Alligator," which he held till his promotion to rear-admiral.
For his share in the action at Fatshan Creek he was made K.C.B.
The prevalence of peace gave Sir Henry Keppel no further
chance of active service, but he held successive commands till
his retirement from the active list in 1879, two years after he
attained the rank of Admiral of the Fleet. He died at the age
of 95 on the I7th of January 1904.
KER, JOHN (1673-1726), Scottish spy, was born in Ayrshire
on the 8th of August 1673. His true name was Crawfurd, his
father being Alexander Crawfurd of Crawfurdland; but having
married Anna, younger daughter of Robert Ker, of Kersland,
Ayrshire, whose only son Daniel Ker was killed at the battle
of Steinkirk in 1692, he assumed the name and arms of Ker in
1697, after buying the family estates from his wife's elder sister.
Having become a leader among the extreme Covenanters, he
made use of his influence to relieve his pecuniary embarrass-
ments, selling his support at one time to the Jacobites, at another
to the government, and whenever possible to both parties at the
same time. He held a licence from the government in 1707
permitting him to associate with those whose disloyalty was
known or suspected, proving that he was at that date the
government's paid spy; and in his Memoirs Ker asserts that
he had a number of other spies and agents working under his
orders in different parts of the country. He entered into corre-
spondence with Catholic priests and Jacobite conspirators,
whose schemes, «so far as he could make himself cognisant of
them, he betrayed to the government. But he was known to
be a man of the worst character, and it is improbable that he
succeeded in gaining the confidence of people of any importance.
The duchess of Gordon was for a time, it is true, one of his
correspondents, but in 1707 she had discovered him to be
" a knave." He went to London in 1709, where he seems to
have extracted considerable sums of money from politicians
of both parties by promising or threatening, as the case might
be, to expose Godolphin's relations with the Jacobites. In
1713, if his own story is to be believed, business of a semi-
diplomatic nature took Ker to Vienna, where, although he
failed in the principal object of his errand, the emperor made
him a present of his portrait set in jewels. Ker also occupied
his time in Vienna, he says, by gathering information which he
forwarded to the electress Sophia; and in the following year
on his way home he stopped at Hanover to give some advice
to the future king of England as to the best way to govern the
English. Although in his own opinion Ker materially assisted
in placing George I. on the English throne, his services were
unrewarded, owing, he would have us believe, to the incor-
ruptibility of his character. Similar ingratitude was the
recompense for his revelations of the Jacobite intentions in 1715;
KERAK— KERBELA
753
and as he was no more successful in making money out of the
East India Company, nor in certain commercial schemes which
engaged his ingenuity during the next few years, he died in a
debtors' prison, on the 8th of July 1726. While in the King's
Bench he sold to Edmund Curll the bookseller, a fellow-prisoner,
who was serving a sentence of five months for publishing obscene
books, the manuscript of (or possibly only the materials on
which were based) the Memoirs of John Ker of Kersland, which
Curll published in 1726 in three parts, the last of which appeared
after Ker's death. For issuing the first part of the Memoirs,
which purported to make disclosures damaging to the govern-
ment, but which Curll in self-justification described as " vindi-
cating the memory of Queen Anne," the publisher was sentenced
to the pillory at Charing Cross; and he added to the third part
of the Memoirs the indictment on which he had been convicted.
See the above-mentioned Memoirs (London, 1726-1727), and in
particular the " preface " to part i. ; George Lockhart, The Lockhart
Papers (2 vols., London, 1817); Nathaniel Hooke, Correspondence,
edited by W. D. Macray (Roxburghe Club, 2 vols., London, 1870),
in which Ker is referred to under several pseudonyms, such as
" Wicks," " Trustie," " The Cameronian Mealmonger," &c.
KERAK, a town in eastern Palestine, 10 m. E. of the southern
angle of the Lisan promontory of the Dead Sea, on the top of a
rocky hill about 3000 ft. above sea-level. It stands on a platform
forming an irregular triangle with sides about 3000 ft. in length,
and separated by deep ravines from the ranges around on all
sides but one. The population is estimated at 6000 Moslems
and 1800 Orthodox Greek Christians. Kerak is identified with
the Moabite town of Kir-Hareseth (destroyed by the Hebrew-
Edomite coalition, 2 Kings iii. 25), and denounced by Isaiah
under the name Kir of Moab (xv. i), Kir-Hareseth (xvi. 7)
or Kir-Heres (xvi. n): Jeremiah also refers to it by the
last name (xxxix. 31, 36). The modern name, in the form
Xdpa£, appears in 2 Mace. xii. 17. Later, Kerak was the
seat of the archbishop of Petra. The Latin kings of Jerusalem,
recognizing its importance as the key of the E. Jordan
region, fortified it in 1142: from 1183 it was attacked
desperately by Saladin, to whom at last it yielded in 1188.
The Arabian Ayyubite princes fortified the town, as did the
Egyptian Mameluke sultans. The fortifications were repaired
by Bibars in the i3th century. For a long time after the
Turkish occupation of Palestine and Egypt it enjoyed a semi-
independence, but in 1893 a Turkish governor with a strong
garrison was established there, which has greatly contributed
to secure the safety of travellers and the general quiet of the
district. The town is an irregular congeries of flat mud-roofed
houses. In the Christian quarter is the church of Sf George;
the mosque also is a building of Christian origin. The town is
surrounded by a wall with five towers; entrance now is obtained
through breaches in the wall, but formerly it was accessible
only by means of tunnels cut in the rocky substratum. The
castle, now used as the headquarters of the garrison and closed
to visitors, is a remarkably fine example of a crusaders' fortress.
(R. A. S. M.)
KERALA, or CHERA, the name of one of the three ancient
Dravidian kingdoms of the Tamil country of southern India,
the other two being the Chola and the Pandya. Its original
territory comprised the country now contained in the Malabar
district, with Travancore and Cochin, and later the country
included in the Coimbatore district and a part of Salem. The
boundaries, however, naturally varied much from time to
time. The earliest references to this kingdom appear in the
edicts of Asoka, where it is called Keralaputra (i.e. son of Kerala) ,
a name which in a slightly corrupt form is known to Pliny and
the author of the Periplus. There is evidence of a lively trade
carried on by sea with the Roman empire in the early centuries
of the Christian era, but of the political history of the Kerala
kingdom nothing is known beyond a list of rajas compiled from
inscriptions, until in the loth century the struggle began with
the Cholas, by whom it was conquered and held till their over-
throw by the Mahommedans in 1310. These in their turn were
driven out by a Hindu confederation headed by the chiefs of
Vijayanagar, and Kerala was absorbed in the Vijayanagar empire
until its destruction by the Mahommedans in 1565. For about
80 years it seems to have preserved a precarious independence
under the naiks of Madura, but in 1640 was conquered by the
Adil Shah dynasty of Bijapur and in 1652 seized by the king of
Mysore.
See V. A. Smith, Early Hist, of India, chap. xvi. (2nd ed., Oxford,
1908).
KERASUND (anc. Choerades, Pharnacia, Cerasus), a town
on the N. coast of Asia Minor, in the Trebizond vilayet, and the
port — an exposed roadstead — of Kara-Hissar Sharki, with which
it is connected by a carriage road. Pop. just under 10,000,
Moslems being in a slight minority. The town is situated on a
rocky promontory, crowned by a Byzantine fortress, and has a
growing trade. It exports filberts (for which product it is the
centre), walnuts, hides and timber. Cerasus was the place from
which the wild cherry was introduced into Italy by Lucullus and
so to Europe (hence Fr. cerise, " cherry ").
KERATRY, AUGUSTE HILARION, COMTE DE (1760-1859),
French writer and politician, was born at Rennes on the 28th of
December 1769. Coming to Paris in 1790, he associated himself
with Bernardin de St Pierre. After being twice imprisoned
during the Terror he retired to Brittany, where he devoted him-
self to literature till 1814. In 1818 he returned to Paris as
deputy for Finistere, and sat in the Chamber till 1824, becoming
one of the recognized liberal leaders. He was re-elected in
1827, took an active part in the establishment of the July
monarchy, was appointed^ a councillor of state (1830), and in
1837 was made a peer of France. After the coup d'etat of 1851
he retired from public life. Among his publications were
Contes el Idylles (1791); Lysus et Cydippe, a poem (1801);
Inductions morales et physiologiques (1817); Documents pour
servir a I'histoire de France (1820); Du Beau dans les arts
d'imitation (1822); Le Dernier des Beaumanoir (1824). His
last work, Clarisse (1854), a novel, was written when he was
eighty-five. He died at Port-Marly on the 7th of November 1859.
His son, comte Emile de Keratry (1832- ), became deputy
for Finistere in 1869, and strongly supported the war with
Germany in 1870. He was in Paris during part of the siege,
but escaped in a balloon, and joined Gambetta. In 1871 Thiers
appointed him to the prefecture, first of the Haute-Garonne,
and subsequently of the Bouches-du-Rhone, but he resigned
in the following year. He is the author of La Contre-gueritta
fran$aise au Mexique (1868) ; L' Elevation et la chute de I'empereur
Maximilien (1867); Le Quatre-septembre et le gouiiernement de la
defense nationale (1872); Mourad V. (1878), and some volumes
of memories.
KERBELA, or MESHED-HOSAIN, a town of Asiatic Turkey,
the capital of a sanjak of the Bagdad vilayet, situated on the
extreme western edge of the alluvial river plain, about 60 m.
S.S.W. of Bagdad and 20 m. W. of the Euphrates, from which
a canal extends almost to the town. The surrounding territory
is fertile and well cultivated, especially in fruit gardens and palm-
groves. The newer parts of the city are built with broad streets
and sidewalks, presenting an almost European appearance.
The inner town, surrounded by a dilapidated brick wall, at the
gates of which octroi duties are still levied, is a dirty Oriental
city, with the usual narrow streets. Kerbela owes its existence
to the fact that Hosain, a son of 'Ali, the fourth caliph, was slain
here by the soldiers of Yazid, the rival aspirant to the caliphate,
on the toth of October A.D. 680 (see CALIPHATE, sec. B, § 2). The
most important feature of the town is the great shrine of Hosain,
containing the tomb of the martyr, with its golden dome and
triple minarets, two of which are gilded. Kerbela is a place
of pilgrimage of the Shi'ite Moslems, and is only less sacred ta
them than Meshed 'Ah' and Mecca. Some 200,000 pilgrims from
the Shi'ite portions of Islam are said to journey annually to
Kerbela, many of them carrying the bones of their relatives to
be buried in its sacred soil, or bringing their sick and aged to
die there in the odour of sanctity. The mullahs, who fix the
burial fees, derive an enormous revenue from the faithful.
Formerly Kerbela was a self-governing hierarchy and constituted
an inviolable sanctuary for criminals; but in 1843 the Turkish
754
KERCH— KERGUELEN ISLAND
government undertook to deprive the city of some of these
liberties and to enforce conscription. The Kerbelese resisted,
and Kerbela was bombarded (hence the ruined condition of the
old walls) and reduced with great slaughter. Since then it has
formed an integral part of the Turkish administration of Irak.
The enormous influx of pilgrims naturally creates a brisk trade
in Kerbela and the towns along the route from Persia to that
place and beyond to Nejef. The population of Kerbela, neces-
sarily fluctuating, is estimated at something over 60,000, of
whom the principal part are Shi'ites, chiefly Persians, with a
goodly mixture of British Indians. No Jews or Christians are
allowed to reside there.
See Chodzko, Theatre persan (Paris, 1878); J. P. Peters, Nippur
(1897). 0- P. PE.)
KERCH, or KERTCH, a seaport of S. Russia, in the govern-
ment of Taurida, on the Strait of Kerch or Yenikale, 60 m.
E.N.E. of Theodosia, in 45° 21' N. and 36° 30' E. Pop. (1897),
31,702. It stands on the site of the ancient Panticapaeum,
and, like most towns built by the ancient Greek colonists in
this part of the world, occupies a beautiful situation, clustering
round the foot and climbing up the sides of the hill (called after
Mithradates) on which stood the ancient citadel or acropolis.
The church of St John the Baptist, founded in 717, is a good
example of the early Byzantine style. That of Alexander
Nevsky was formerly the Kerch museum of antiquities, founded
in 1825. The more valuable objects were subsequently removed
to the Hermitage at St Petersburg, while those that remained
at Kerch were scattered during the English occupation in the
Crimean War. The existing museum is a small collection in a
private house. Among the products of local industry are
leather, tobacco, cement, beer, aerated waters, lime, candles
and soap. Fishing is carried on, and there are steam saw-mills
and flour-mills. A rich deposit of iron ore was discovered close
to Kerch in 1895, and since then mining and blasting have been
actively prosecuted. The mineral mud-baths, one of which is
in the town itself and the other beside Lake Chokrak (9 m.
distant), are much frequented. Notwithstanding the deepen-
ing of the strait, so that ships are now able to enter the Sea of
Azov, Kerch retains its importance for the export trade in
wheat, brought thither by coasting vessels. Grain, fish, linseed,
rapeseed, wool and hides are also exported. About 6 m. N.E.
are the town and old Turkish fortress of Yenikale, adminis-
tratively united with Kerch. Two and a half miles to the
south are strong fortified works defending the entrance to the
Sea of Azov.
The Greek colony of Panticapaeum was founded about the
middle of the 6th century B.C., by the town of Miletus. From
about 438 B.C. till the conquest of this region by Mithradates
the Great, king of Pontus, about 100 B.C., the town and territory
formed the kingdom of the Bosporus, ruled over by an inde-
pendent dynasty. Phanaces, the son of Mithradates, became
the founder of a new line under the protection of the Romans,
which continued to exist till the middle of the 4th century A.D.,
and extended its power over the maritime parts of Tauris.
After that the town — whicn had already begun to be known
as Bospora — passed successively into the hands of the Eastern
empire, of the Khazars, and of various barbarian tribes. In
1318, the Tatars, who had come into possession in the previous
century, ceded the town to the Genoese, who soon raised it
into new importance as a commercial centre. They usually
called the place Cerchio, a corruption of the Russian name
K'rtchev (whence Kerch), which appears in the nth century
inscription of Tmutarakan (a Russian principality at the north
foot of the Caucasus). Under the Turks, whose rule dates from
the end of the isth century, Kerch was a military port; and as
such it plays a part in the Russo-Turkish wars. Captured by
the Russians under Dolgorukov in 1771, it was ceded to them
along with Yenikale by the peace of Kuchuk-Kainarji, and it
became a centre of Russian naval activity. Its importance was
greatly impaired by the rise of Odessa and Taganrog; and in
1820 the fortress was dismantled. Kerch suffered severely
during the Crimean War.
Archaeologically Kerch is of particular interest, the kurgans or
sepulchral mounds of the town and vicinity having yielded a rich
variety of the most beautiful works of art. Since 1825 a large
number of tombs have been opened. In the Altun or Zolotai-oba
[Golden Mound) was found a great stone vault similar in style to
an Egyptian pyramid; and within, among many objects of minor
note, were golden dishes adorned with griffins and beautiful arab-
esques. In the Kul-oba, or Mound of Cinders (opened in 1830-1831),
was a similar tomb, in which were found what would appear to be
the remains of one of the kings of Bosporus, of his queen, his horse
and his groom. The ornaments and furniture were of the most
costly kind ; the king's bow and buckler were of gold ; his very whip
intertwined with gold ; the queen had golden diadems, necklace and
oreast-jewels, and at her feet lay a golden vase. In the Pavlovskoi
kurgan (opened in 1858) was the tomb of a Greek lady, containing
among other articles of dress and decoration a pair of fine leather
boots (a unique discovery) and a beautiful vase on which is painted
the return of Persephone from Hades and the setting out of Tri-
ptolemus for Attica. In a neighbouring tomb was what is believed
to be " the oldest Greek mural painting which has come down to us,"
dating probably from the 4th century B.C. Among the minor
objects discovered in the kurgans perhaps the most noteworthy are
the fragments of engraved boxwood, the only examples known of
the art taught by the Sicyonian painter Pamphilus.
Very important finds of old Greek art continue to be made in the
neighbourhood, as well as at Taman, on the east side of the Strait
of Kerch. The catacombs on the northern slope of Mithradates
Hill, of which nearly 200 have been explored since 1859, possess
considerable interest, not only for the relics of old Greek art which
some of them contain (although most were plundered in earlier
times), but especially as material for the history and ethnography
of the Cimmerian Bosporus. In 1890 the first Christian catacomb
bearing a distinct date (491) was discovered. Its walls were covered
with Greek inscriptions and crosses.
See H. D. Seymour's Russia on the Black Sea and Sea of Azof
London, 1855); J. B. Telfcr, The Crimea (London, 1876) ; P. Bruhn,
Tchernomore, 1852-1877 (Odessa, 1 878) ; Gilles, A ntiquMs du Bosphore
Cimmerien (1854); D. Macpherson, Antiquities of Kertch (London,
1857) ; Compte rendu de la Commission Imp. Archeologique (St Peters-
burg); L. Stephani, Die Alterthumer vom Kertsch (St Petersburg,
1880) ; C. T. Newton, Essays on Art and Archaeology (London, 1880);
Reports of the [Russian] Imp. Archaeological Commission; Izvestia
(Bulletin) of the Archives Commission for Taurida; Anliquites du
Bosphore Cimmerien, conservees au Musee Imperial de I'Ermitage
(St Petersburg, 1854); Inscriptiones antiquae orae septentrionalis
Ponti Euxini graecae et lalinae, with a preface by V. V. Latyshev
(St Petersburg, 1890); Materials for the Archaeology of Russia,
published by the Imp. Arch. Commission (No. 6, St Petersburg,
1891). (P. A. K.;J. T. BE.)
KERCKHOVEN, JAN POLYANDER VAN DEN (1568-1646),
Dutch Protestant divine, was born at Metz, in 1568. He became
French preacher at Dort in 1591, and afterwards succeeded
Franz Gomarus as professor of theology at Leiden. He was
invited by the States General of Holland to revise the Dutch
translation of the Bible, and it was he who edited the canons
of the synod of Dort (1618-1619).
His many published works include Responsio ad sophismata A.
Cocheletii doctoris surbonnistae (1610), Dispute centre I'adoration des
reliques des Saincts trespasses (1611), Explicatio somae prophetae
(1625).
KERGUELEN ISLAND, KERGUELEN'S LAND, or DESOLATION
ISLAND, an island in the Southern Ocean, to the S.E. of the
Cape of Good Hope, and S.W. of Australia, and nearly half-way
between them. Kerguelen lies between 48° 39' and 49° 44' S.
and 68° 42' and 70° 35' E. Its extreme length is about 85 m.,
but the area is only about 1400 sq. m. The island is throughout
mountainous, presenting from the sea in some directions the
appearance of a series of jagged peaks. The various ridges and
mountain masses are separated by steep-sided valleys, which
run down to the sea, forming deep fjords, so that no part of the
interior is more than 12 m. from the sea. The chief summits
are Mounts Ross (6120 ft.), Richards (4000), Crozier (3251),
Wyville Thomson (3160), Hooker (26oo),Moseley (2400). The
coast-line is extremely irregular, and the fjords, at least on the
north, east and south, form a series of well-sheltered harbours.
As the prevailing winds are westerly, the safest anchorage is
on the north-east. Christmas Harbour on the north and Royal
Sound on the south are noble harbours, the latter with a
labyrinth of islets interspersed over upwards of 20 m. of land-
locked waters. The scenery is generally magnificent. A dis-
trict of considerable extent in the centre of the island is occupied
KERGUELEN'S LAND CABBAGE— KERMAN
755
by snowfields, whence glaciers descend east and west to the sea.
The whole island, exclusive of the snowfields, abounds in fresh-
water lakes and pools in the hills and lower ground. Hidden
deep mudholes are frequent.
Kerguelen Island is of undoubted volcanic origin, the prevailing
rock being basaltic lavas, intersected occasionally by dikes, and an
active volcano and hot springs are said to exist in the south-west of
the island. Judging from the abundant fossil remains of trees, the
island must have been thickly clothed with woods and other vegeta-
tion of which it has no doubt been denuded by volcanic action and
submergence, and possibly by changes of climate. It presents
evidences of having been subjected to powerful glaciation, and to
subsequent immersion and immense denudation. The soundings
made by the " Challenger " and " Gazelle " and the affinities which
in certain respects exist between the islands, seem to point to the
existence at one time of an extensive land area in this quarter, of
which Kerguelen, Prince Edward's Islands, the Crozets, St Paul and
Amsterdam are the remains. The Kerguelen plateau rises in many
parts to within 1500 fathoms of the surface of the sea. Beds of coal
and of red earth are found in some places. The summits of the flat-
topped hills about Betsy Cove, in the south-east of the island, are
formed of caps of basalt.
According to Sir J. D. Hooker the vegetation of Kerguelen Island
is of great antiquity; and may have originally reached it from the
American continent; it has no affinities with Africa. The present
climate is not favourable to permanent vegetation; the island lies
within the belt of rain at all seasons of the year, and is reached by
no drying winds; its temperature is kept down by the surrounding
vast expanse of sea, and it lies within the line of the cold Antarctic
drift. The temperature, however, is equable. The mean annual
temperature is about 39° F., while the summer temperature has been
observed to approach 70°. Tempests and squalls are frequent, and
the weather is rarely calm. On the lower slopes of the mountains
a rank vegetation exists, which, from the conditions mentioned, is con-
stantly saturated with moisture. A rank grass, Festuca Cookii,
grows thickly in places up to 300 ft., with Azorella, Cotula plumosa,
&c. Sir J. D. Hooker enumerated twenty-one species of flowering
plants, and seven of ferns, lycopods, and Characeae; at least seventy-
four species of mosses, twenty-five of Hepaticae, and sixty-one of
lichens are known, and there are probably many more. Several of
the marine and many species of freshwater algae are peculiar to the
island. The characteristic feature of the vegetation, the Kerguelen's
Land cabbage, was formerly abundant, but has been greatly reduced
by rabbits introduced on to the island. Fur-seals are still found in
Kerguelen, though their numbers have been reduced by reckless
slaughter. The sea-elephant and sea-leopard are characteristic.
Penguins of various kinds are abundant ; a teal (Querquedula Eatoni)
peculiar to Kerguelen and the Crozets is also found in consider-
able numbers, and petrels, especially the giant petrel (Ossifraga
gigantea), skuas, gulls, sheath-bills (Chioms minor), albatross, terns,
cormorants and Cape pigeons frequent the island. There is a con-
siderable variety of insects, many of them with remarkable pecu-
liarities of structure, and with a predominance of forms incapable
of flying.
The island was discovered by the French navigator, Yves
Joseph de Kerguelen-Tremarec, a Breton noble (1745-1797), on
the i3th of February 1772, and partly surveyed by him in the
following year. He was one of those explorers who had been
attracted by the belief in a rich southern land, and this island,
the South France of his first discovery, was afterwards called
by him Desolation Land in his disappointment. Captain Cook
visited the island in 1776, and, among other expeditions, the
" Challenger " spent some time here, and its staff visited and
surveyed various parts of it in January 1874. It was occupied
from October 1874 to February 1875 by the expeditions sent
from England, Germany and the United States to observe the
transit of Venus. The German South Polar expedition in 1901-
1902 established a meteorological and magnetic station at Royal
Sound, under Dr Enzensperger, who died there. In January
1893 Kerguelen was annexed by France, and its commercial
exploitation was assigned to a private company.
See Y. J. de Kerguelen-Tremarec, Relation de deux voyages dans
les mers australes (Paris, 1782) ; Narratives of the Voyages of Captain
Cook and the "Challenger" Expedition; Phil. Trans., vol. 168,
containing account of the collections made in Kerguelen by the
British transit of Venus expedition in 1874-1875 ;Lieutard," Mission
aux iles Kerguelen," &c., Annales hydrographiques (Paris, 1893).
KERGUELEN'S LAND CABBAGE, in botany, Pringlea anti-
scorbutica (natural order Cruciferae), a plant resembling in habit,
and belonging to the same family as, the common cabbage
(Brassica oleracea). The cabbage-like heads of leaves abound in
a pale yellow highly pungent essential oil, which gives the plant
a peculiar flavour but renders it extremely wholesome. It was
discovered by Captain Cook during his first voyage, but the first
account of it was published by (Sir) Joseph Hooker in The
Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of the "Erebus" and " Terror "
in 1830-1843. During the stay of the latter expedition on the
island, daily use was made of this vegetable either cooked by
itself or boiled with the ship's beef, pork or pea-soup. Hooker
observes of it, " This is perhaps the most interesting plant pro-
cured during the whole of the voyage performed in the Antarctic
Sea, growing as it does upon an island the remotest of any from
a continent, and yielding, besides this esculent, only seventeen
other flowering plants."
KERKUK, or QERQUQ, the chief town of a sanjak in the Mosul
vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated among the foot hills of the
Kurdistan Mountains at an elevation of about 1 100 ft. on both
banks of the Khassa Chai, a tributary of the Tigris, known in its
lower course as Adhem. Pop. estimated at 12,000 to 15,000,
chiefly Mahommedan Kurds. Owing to its position at the junc-
tion of several routes, Kerkuk has a brisk transit trade in hides,
Persian silks and cottons, colouring materials, fruit and timber;
but it owes its principal importance to its petroleum and naphtha
springs. There are also natural warm springs at Kerkuk, used
to supply baths and reputed to have valuable medical properties.
In the neighbourhood of the city is a burning mountain, locally
famous for many centuries. Kerkuk is evidently an ancient
site, the citadel standing upon an artificial mound 130 ft. high.
It was a metropolitan see of the Chaldean Christians. There is a
Jewish quarter beneath the citadel, and the reputed sarcophagi
of Daniel and the Hebrew children are shown in one of the
mosques. (J. P. PE.)
KERMADEC, a small group of hilly islands in the Pacific,
about 30° S., 178° W., named from D'Entrecasteaux's captain,
Huon Kermadec, in 1791. They are British possessions. The
largest of the group is Raoul cr Sunday Island, 20 m. in circum-
ference, 1600 ft. high, and thickly wooded. The flora and fauna
belong for the most part to those of New Zealand, on which
colony the islands are also politically dependent, having been
annexed in 1887.
KERMAN (the ancient Karmania), a province of Persia,
bounded E. by Seistan and Baluchistan, S. by Baluchistan and
Fars, W. by Pars, and N. by Yezd and Khorasan. It is of very
irregular shape, expanding in the north to Khorasan and gradu-
ally contracting in the south to a narrow wedge between Fars
and Baluchistan; the extreme length between Seistan and Fars
(E. and W.) is about 400 m., the greatest breadth (N. and S.)
from south of Yezd to the neighbourhood of Bander Abbasi
about 300 m., and the area is estimated at about 60,000 sq. m.
Kerman is generally described as consisting of two parts, an unin-
habitable desert region in the north and a habitable mountainous
region in the south, but recent explorations require this view to
be considerably modified. There are mountains and desert
tracts in all parts, while much of what appears on maps as
forming the western portion of the great Kerman desert consists
of the fertile uplands of Kuhbanan, Raver and others stretching
along the eastern base of the lofty range which runs from Yezd
south-east to Khabis. West of and parallel to this range are
two others, one culminating north-west of Bam in the Kuh
Hazar (14,700 ft.), the other continued at about the same
elevation under the name of the Jamal Bariz (also Jebel Bariz)
south-eastward to Makran. These chains traverse fertile dis-
tricts dividing them into several longitudinal valleys of consider-
able length, but not averaging more than 12 m. in width. Snow
lies on them for a considerable part of the year, feeding the
springs and canals by means of which large tracts in this almost
rainless region in summer are kept under cultivation. Still
farther west the Kuh Dina range is continued from Fars, also in
a south-easterly direction to Bashakird beyond Bander Abbasi.
Between the south-western highlands and the Jamal Bariz there
is some arid and unproductive land, but the true desert of
Kerman lies mainly in the north and north-east, where it merges
northwards in the great desert " Lut," which stretches into
756
KERMAN— KERMES
Khorasan.1 These southern deserts differ from the kavir of
central Persia mainly in three respects: they are far less saline,
are more sandy and drier, and present in some places tracts of
80 to 100 miles almost absolutely destitute of vegetation. Yet
they are crossed by well-known tracks running from Kerman
eastwards and north-eastwards to Seistan and Khorasan and
frequently traversed by caravans. It appears that these sandy
wastes are continually encroaching on the fertile districts, and
this is the case even in Narmashir, which is being invaded by the
sands of the desolate plains extending thence north-westwards
to Bam. There are also some kefeh or salt swamps answering
to the kavir in the north, but occurring only in isolated
depressions and nowhere of any great extent. The desert of
Kerman lies about 1000 ft., or less, above the sea, apparently
on nearly the same level as the.Lut, from which it cannot
be geographically separated. The climate, which varies
much with the relief of the land, has the reputation of being
unhealthy, because the cool air from the hills is usually attended
by chills and agues. Still many of the upland valleys enjoy a
genial and healthy climate. The chief products are cotton,
gums, dates of unrivalled flavour from the southern parts, and
wool, noted for its extreme softness, and the soft underhair of
goats (kurk), which latter are used in the manufacture of the
Kerman shawls, which in delicacy of texture yield only to those
of Kashmir, while often surpassing them in design, colour and
finish. Besides woollen goods (shawls, carpets, &c.) Kerman
exports mainly cotton, grain and dates, receiving in return from
India cotton goods, tea, indigo, china, glass, sugar, &c. Wheat
and barley are scarce. Bander Abbasi is the natural outport;
but, since shipping has shown a preference for Bushire farther
west, the trade of Kerman has greatly fallen off.
For administrative purposes the province is divided into nine-
teen districts, one being the capital of the same name with its
immediate neighbourhood (humeh); the others are Akta and
Urzu; Anar; Bam and Narmashir; Bardsir; Jiruft; Khabis;
Khinaman; Kubenan (Kuhbanan); Kuhpayeh; Pariz; Rafsin-
jan; Rahbur; Raver; Rayin; Rudbar and Bashakird; Sardu;
Sirjan; Zerend. The inhabitants number about 700,000, nearly
one-third being nomads. (A. H.-S.)
KERMAN, capital of the above province, situated in 30° 17' N.,
56° 59' E., at an elevation of 6100 ft. Its population is
estimated at 60,000, including about 2000 Zoroastrians, 100
Jews, and a few Shikarpuri Indians. Kerman has post and
telegraph offices (Indo-European Telegraph Department),
British and Russian consulates, and an agency of the Imperial
bank of Persia. The neighbouring districts produce little grain
and have to get their supplies for four or five months of the year
from districts far away. A traveller has stated that it was
easier to get a mann (6j Ib) of saffron at Kerman than a mann
of barley for his horse, and in 1879 Sir A. Houtum-Schindler was
ordered by the authorities to curtail his excursions in the province
" because his horses and mules ate up all the stock." Kerman
manufactures great quantities of carpets and felts, and its carpets
are almost unsurpassed for richness of texture and durability.
The old name of the city was Guvashir. Adjoining the city on
hills rising 400 to 500 ft. above the plain in the east are the ruins
of two ancient forts with walls built of sun-dried bricks on stone
foundations. Some of the walls are in perfect condition. Among
the mosques in the city two deserve special notice, one the Masjid
i Jama, a foundation of the Muzaffarid ruler Mubariz ed din
Mahommed dating from A.H. 1349, the other the Masjid i Malik
built by Malik Kaverd Seljuk (1041-1072).
KERMANSHAH, or KERMANSHAHAN, an important province
of Persia, situated W. of Hamadan, N. of Luristan, and S. of
Kurdistan, and extending in the west to the Turkish frontier.
Its population is about 400,000, and it pays a yearly revenue of
over £20,000. Many of its inhabitants are nomadic Kurds and
Lurs who pay little taxes. The plains are well watered and very
fertile, while the hills are covered with rich pastures which sup-
1 The word lul means bare, void of vegetation, arid, waterless,
and has nothing in common with the Lot of Holy Writ, as many have
supposed.
port large flocks of sheep and goats. The sheep provide a great
part of the meat supply of Teheran. The province also produces
much wheat and barley, and could supply great quantities for
export if the means of transport were better.
KERMANSHAH (Kermisin of Arab geographers), the capital of
the province, is situated at an elevation of 5100 ft., in 34° 19' N.,
and 46° 59' E., about 220 m. from Bagdad, and 250 m. from
Teheran. Although surrounded by fortifications with five gates
and three miles in circuit, it is now practically an open town, for
the walls are in ruins and the moat is choked with rubbish. It
has a population of about 40,000. The town is situated on the
high road between Teheran and Bagdad, and carries on a transit
trade estimated in value at £750,000 per annum.
KERMES (Arab, qirmiz; see CRIMSON), a crimson dye-stuff,
now superseded by cochineal, obtained from Kermes ilicis
( = Coccus ilicis, Lat. = C. vermilio, G. Planchon). The genus
Kermes belongs to the Coccidae or Scale-insects, and its species
are common on oaks wherever they grow. The species from
which kermes is obtained is common in Spain, Italy and the
South of France and the Mediterranean basin generally, where
it feeds on Quercus cocci/era, a small shrub. As in the case of
other scale-insects, the males are relatively small and are capable
of flight, while the females are wingless. The females of the
genus Kermes are remarkable for their gall-like form, and it was
not until 1714 that their animal nature was discovered.
In the month of May, when full grown, the females are globose,
6 to 7 millim. in diameter, of a reddish-brown colour, and covered
with an ash-coloured powder. They are found attached to the twigs
or buds by a circular lower surface 2 millim. in diameter, and sur-
rounded by a narrow zone of white cottony down. At this time there
are concealed under a cavity, formed by the approach of the
abdominal wall of the insect to the dorsal one, thousands of eggs of a
red colour, and smaller than poppy seed, which are protruded and
ranged regularly beneath the insect. At the end of May or the
beginning of June the young escape by a small orifice, near the point
of attachment of the parent. They are then of a fine red colour,
elliptic and convex in shape, but rounded at the two extremities,
and bear two threads half as long as their body at their posterior
extremity. At this period they are extremely active, and swarm
with extraordinary rapidity all over the food plant, and in two or
three days attach themselves to fissures in the bark or buds, but
rarely to the leaves. In warm and dry summers the insects breed
again in the months of August and September, according to EmeVic,
and then they are more frequently found attached to the leaves.
Usually they remain immovable and apparently unaltered until the
end of the succeeding March, when their bodies become gradually
distended and lose all trace of abdominal rings. They then appear
full of a reddish juice resembling discoloured blood. In this state,
or when the eggs are ready to be extruded, the insects are collected.
In some cases the insects from which the young are ready to escape
are dried in the sun on linen cloths — care being taken to prevent the
escape of the young from the cloths until they are dead. The young
insects are then sifted from the shells, made into a paste with vinegar,
and dried on skins exposed to the sun, and the paste packed in skins
is then ready for exportation to the East under the name of " pate
d'6carlate."
In the pharmacopoeia of the ancients kermes triturated with
vinegar was used as an outward application, especially in wounds of
the nerves. From the gth to the i6th century this insect formed an
ingredient in the " confectio alkermes," a well known medicine, at
one time official in the London pharmacopoeia as an astringent in
doses of 20 to 60 grains or more. Syr"up of kermes was also prepared.
Both these preparations have fallen into disuse.
Mineral kermes is trisulphide of antimony, containing a
variable portion of trioxide of antimony both free and combined
with alkali. It was known as poudre des Chartreux because in
1714 it is said to have saved the life of a Carthusian monk who
had been given up by the Paris faculty; but the monk Simon who
administered it on that occasion called it Alkermes mineral. Its
reputation became so great that in 1720 the French government
bought the recipe for its preparation. It still appears in the
pharmacopoeias of many European countries and in that of the
United States. The product varies somewhat according to the
mode of preparation adopted. According to the French direc-
tions the official substance is obtained by adding 60 grammes
of powdered antimony trisulphide to a boiling solution of 1280
grammes of crystallized sodium carbonate in 12,800 grammes of
distilled water and boiling for one hour. The liquid is then
filtered hot, and on being allowed to cool slowly deposits the
KERMESSE— KERRY
757
kermes, which is washed and dried at 100° C.; prepared in this
way it is a brown-red velvety powder, insoluble in water.
See G. Planchon, Le Kermes du chine (Montpellier, 1864); Lewis,
Materia Medica (1784), pp. 71, 365; Memorias sabre la grana Kermes
de Espana (Madrid, 1788); Adams, Paulus Aegineta, iii. 180; Beck-
inanu, History of Inventions.
KERMESSE (also KERMIS and KJRMESS), originally the mass
said on the anniversary of the foundation of a church and in
honour of the patron, the word being equivalent to " Kirkmass."
Such celebrations were regularly held in the Low Countries and
also in northern France, and were accompanied by feasting,
dancing and sports of all kinds. They still survive, but are now
practically nothing more than country fairs and the old alle-
gorical representations are uncommon. The Brussels Kermesse
is, however, still marked by a procession in which the effigies of
the Mannikin and medieval heroes are carried. At Mons the
Kermesse occurs annually on Trinity Sunday and is called the
procession of Lumecon (Walloon for limaQon, a snail) : the hero
is Gilles de Chin, who slays a terrible monster, captor of a
princess, in the Grand Place. This is the story 6f George and
the Dragon. At Hasselt the Kermesse (now only septennial)
not only commemorates the Christian story of the foundation
of the town, but even preserves traces of a pagan festival. The
word Kermesse (generally in the form " Kirmess ") is applied
in the United States to any entertainment, especially one organ-
ized in the interest of charity.
See Demetrius C. Boulger, Belgian Life in Town and Country
(1904).
KERN, JAN HENDRIK (1833- ), Dutch Orientalist, was
born in Java of Dutch parents on the 6th of April 1833. He
studied at Utrecht, Leiden and Berlin, where he was a pupil of
the Sanskrit scholar, Albrecht Weber. After some years spent
as professor of Greek at Maastricht, he became professor of
Sanskrit at Benares in 1863, and in 1865 at Leiden. His studies
included the Malay languages as well as Sanskrit. His chief
work is Geschiedenis van het Buddhisme in Indie (Haarlem, 2 vols.,
1881-1883); in English he wrote a translation (Oxford, 1884) of
the Saddharma Pundartka and a Manual of Indian Buddhism
(Strassburg, 1896) for Biihler Kielhorn's Grundriss der indo-
arischen Philologie.
KERNEL (O.E. cyrnel, a diminutive of " corn," seed, grain),
the soft and frequently edible part contained within the hard
outer husk of a nut or the stone of a fruit; also used in botany
of the nucleus of a seed, the body within its several integuments
or coats, and generally of the nucleus or core of any structure;
hence, figuratively, the pith or gist of any matter.
KERNER, JUSTINUS ANDREAS CHRISTIAN (1786-1862),
German poet and medical writer, was born on the i8th of Sep-
tember 1786 at Ludwigsburg in Wurttemberg. After attending
the classical schools of Ludwigsburg and Maulbronn, he was
apprenticed in a cloth factory, but, in 1804, owing to the good
services of Professor Karl Philipp Conz (1762-1827) of Tubingen,
was enabled to enter the university there; he studied medicine
but had also time for literary pursuits in the company of Uhland,
Gustav Schwab and others. 'He took his doctor's degree in
1808, spent some time in travel, and then settled as a practising
physician in Wildbad. Here he completed his Reiseschatten von
dem Schattenspieler Luchs (1811), in which his own experiences
are described with caustic humour. He next co-operated with
Uhland and Schwab in producing the Poetischer Almanack fur
181-2, which was followed by the Deutscher Dichterwald (1813),
and in these some of Kerner's best poems were published. In
1815 he obtained the official appointment of district medical
officer (Oberamtsarzi) in Gaildorf, and in 1818 was transferred in
a like capacity to Weinsberg, where he spent the rest of his life.
His house, the site of which at the foot of the historical Schloss
Weibertreu was presented by the municipality to their revered
physician, became the Mecca of literary pilgrims. Hospitable
welcome was extended to all, from the journeyman artisan to
crowned heads. Gustavus IV. of Sweden came thither with a
knapsack on his back. The poets Count Christian Friedrich
Alexander von Wurttemberg (1801-1844) and Lenau (q.v.) were
constant guests, and thither came also in 1826 Friederike Hauffe
(1801-1829), the daughter of a forester in Prevorst, a somnambu-
list and clairvoyante, who forms the subject of Kerner's famous
work Die Seherin von Prevorst, Eroffnungen iiber das innere
Leben des Menschen und iiber das Hineinragen einer Geisterwell
in die unsere (1829; 6th ed., 1892). In 1826 he published a
collection of Gedichte which were later supplemented by Der
letzte Blutenstrauss (1852) and Winlerbliiten (1859). Among
others of his well-known poems are the charming ballad Der
reichste Furst; a drinking song, Wohlauf, noch getrunken, and the
pensive Wanderer in der Sdgemuhle.
In addition to his literary productions, Kerner wrote some
popular medical books of great merit, dealing with animal
magnetism, a treatise on the influence of sebacic acid on animal
organisms, Das Fettgift oder die Feltsaure und ihre Wirkungen
auf den tierischen Organismus (1822); a description of Wildbad
and its healing waters, Das Wildbad im Konigreich Wurttemberg
(1813); while he gave a pretty and vivid account of his youthful
years in Bilderbuch aus meiner Knabenzeit (1839); and in Die
Bestiirmung der wurttembergischen Stadt Weinsberg im Jahre
1525 (1820), showed considerable skill in historical narrative.
In 1851 he was compelled, owing to increasing blindness, to retire
from his medical practice, but he lived, carefully tended by his
daughters, at Weinsberg until his death on the 2ist of February
1862. He was buried beside his wife, who had predeceased him
in 1854, in the churchyard of Weinsberg, and the grave is marked
by a stone slab with an inscription he himself had chosen:
Friederike Kerner und ihr Justinus. Kerner was one of the most
inspired poets of the Swabian school. His poems, which largely
deal with natural phenomena, are characterized by a deep
melancholy and a leaning towards the supernatural, which,
however, is balanced by a quaint humour, reminiscent of the
Volkslied.
Kerner's Ausgewdhlte poetische Werke appeared in 2 vols. (1878);
Samtliche poetische Werke, ed. by J. Gaismaier, 4 vols. (1905) ; a
selection of his poems will also be found in Reclam's Universal-
bibliothek (1898). His correspondence was edited by his son in 1897.
See also D. F. Strauss, Kleine Schriften (1866); A. Reinhard, /.
Kerner und das Kernerhaus zu Weinsberg (1862; 2nd ed., 1886);
G. Rilmelin, Reden und Aufsatze, vol. iii. (1894); M. Niethammer
(Kerner's daughter), /. Kerners Jugendliebe und mein Vaterhaus
(1877); A. Watts, Life and Works of Kerner (London, 1884); T.
Kerner, Das Kernerhaus und seine Caste (1894).
KERRY, a county of Ireland in the province of Munster,
bounded W. by the Atlantic Ocean, N. by the estuary of the
Shannon, which separates it from Clare, E. by Limerick and Cork,
and S.E. by Cork. The area is 1,159,356 acres, or 1811 sq. m.,
the county being the fifth of the Irish counties in extent. Kerry,
with its combination of mountain, sea and plain, possesses
some of the finest scenery of the British Islands. The portion
of the county south of Dingle Bay consists of mountain masses
intersected by narrow valleys. Formerly the mountains were
covered by a great forest of fir, birch and yew, which was nearly
all cut down to be used in smelting iron, and the constant pas-
turage of cattle prevents the growth of young trees. In the
north-east towards Killarney the hills rise abruptly into the
ragged range of Macgillicuddy's Reeks, the highest summit of
which, Carntual (Carrantuohill), has a height of 3414 ft. The
next highest summit is Caper (3200 ft.), and several others are
over 2500 ft. Lying between the precipitous sides of the Tomies,
the Purple Mountains and the Reeks is the famous Gap of Dunloe.
In the Dingle promontory Brandon Mountain attains a height
of 3127 ft. The sea-coast, for the most part wild and mountain-
ous, is much indented by inlets, the largest of which, Tralee Bay,
Dingle Bay and Kenmare River, lie in synclinal troughs, the
anticlinal folds of the rocks forming extensive promontories.
Between Kenmare River and Diijgle Bay the land is separated
by mountain ridges into three valleys. The extremity of the
peninsula between Dingle Bay and Tralee Bay is very precipi-
tous, and Mount Brandon, rising abruptly from the ocean, is
skirted at its base (in part) by a road from which magnificent
views are obtained. From near the village of Ballybunion to
Kilconey Point near the Shannon there is a remarkable succession
KERRY
of caves, excavated by the sea. One of these caves inspired
Tennyson with some lines in " Merlin and Vivien," which he
wrote on the spot. The principal islands are the picturesque
Skelligs, Valencia Island and the Blasquet Islands.
The principal rivers are the Blackwater, which, rising in the
Dunkerran Mountains, forms for a few miles the boundary line
between Kerry and Cork, and then passes into the latter county;
the Ruaughty, which with a course resembling the arc of a circle
falls into the head of the Kenmare River; the Inny and Ferta,
which flow westward, the one into Ballinskellig Bay and the
other into Valencia harbour; the Flesk, which flows northward
through the lower Lake of Killarney, after which it takes the name
of Laune, and flows north-westward to Dingle Bay; the Caragh,
which rises in the mountains of Dunkerran, after forming several
lakes falls into Castlemaine harbour; the Maine, which flows
from Castle Island and south-westward to the sea at Castlemaine
harbour, receiving the northern Flesk, which rises in the moun-
tains that divide Cork from Kerry ; and the Feale, Gale and Brick,
the junction of which forms the Cashin, a short tidal river which
flows into the estuary of the Shannon. The lakes of Kerry are
not numerous, and none is of great size, but those of Killarney
(q.v.) form one of the most important features in the striking and
picturesque mountain scenery amidst which they are situated.
The other principal lakes are Lough Currane (Waterville Lake)
near Ballinskellig, and Lough Caragh near Castlemaine harbour.
Salmon and trout fishing with the rod is extensively prosecuted
in all these waters. Near the summit of Mangerton Mountain
•an accumulation of water in a deep hollow forms what is known
as the Devil's Punchbowl, the surplus water, after making a
succession of cataracts, flowing into Muckross Lake at the foot
of the mountain. There are chalybeate mineral springs near
Killarney, near Valencia Island, and near the mouth of the
Inny; sulphurous chalybeate springs near Dingle, Castlemaine
and Tralee; and a saline spring at Magherybeg in Corkaguiney,
which bursts out of clear white sand a little below high-water
mark. Killarney is an inland centre widely celebrated and much
visited on account of its scenic attractions; there are also several
well-known coast resorts, among them Derrynane, at the mouth
of Kenmare Bay, the residence of Daniel O'Connell the " libera-
tor "; Glenbeigh on Dingle Bay, Parknasilla on Kenmare Bay,
Waterville (an Atlantic telegraph station) between Ballinskellig
Bay and Lough Currane, and Tarbert, a small coast town on the
Shannon estuary. Others of the smaller villages have grown
into watering-places, such as Ballybunion, Castlegregory and
Portmagee.
Geology. — Kerry includes on the north and east a considerable
area of Carboniferous shales and sandstones, reaching the coal-
measures, with unproductive coals, east of Listowel and on the
Glanruddery Mountains. The Carboniferous Limestone forms a
fringe to these beds, and is cut off by the sea at Knockaneen Bay,
Tralee and Castlemaine. In all the great promontories, Old Red
Sandstone, including JukesV'Glengariff Grits," forms the mountains,
while synclinal hollows of Carboniferous Limestone have become
submerged to form marine inlets between them. The Upper Lake
of Killarney lies in a hollow of the Old Red Sandstone, which here
rises to its greatest height in Macgillicuddy's Reeks; Lough Leane
however, with its low shores, rests on Carboniferous Limestone.
In the Dingle promontory the Old Red Sandstone is strikingly
unconfprmable on the Dingle beds and the Upper Silurian series; the
latter include volcanic rocks of Wenlock age. The evidences of
local glaciation in this county, especially on the wild slopes of the
mountains, are as striking as in North Wales. A copper-mine was
formerly worked at Muckross, near Killarney, in which cobalt ores
also occurred. Slate is quarried in Valencia Island.
Fauna. — Foxes are numerous, and otters and badgers are not un-
common. The alpine hare is very abundant. The red deer inhabits
the mountains round Killarney. The golden eagle, once frequently
seen in the higher mountain regions, is now rarely met. The sea
eagle haunts the lofty marine cliffs, the mountains and the rocky
islets. The osprey is occasionally seen, and also the peregrine falcon.
The merlin is common. The common owl is indigenous, the long-
eared owl resident, and the short -eared owl a regular winter visitor.
Rock pigeons breed on the sea-cliffs, and the turtle-dove is an
occasional visitant. The great grey seal is found in Brandon and
Dingle bays.
Climate and Agriculture. — Owing to the vicinity of the sea and the
height of the mountains, the climate is very moist and unsuitable
for the growth of cereals, but it is so mild even in winter that arbutus
and other trees indigenous to warm climates grow in the open air,
and several flowering plants are found which are unknown in England.
In the northern parts the land is generally coarse and poor, except
in the valleys, where a rich soil has been formed by rocky deposits.
In the Old Red Sandstone valleys there are many very fertile regions,
and several extensive districts now covered by bog admit of easy
reclamation so as to form very fruitful soil, but other tracts of boggy
land scarcely promise a profitable return for labour expended on
their reclamation. Over one-third of the total area is quite barren.
The numbers of live stock of every kind are generally increased or
sustained. Dairy-farming is very largely followed. The Kerry
breed of cattle — small finely-shaped animals, black or red in colour,
with small upturned horns — are famed for the quality both of their
flesh and milk, and are in considerable demand for the parks sur-
rounding mansion-houses. The " Dexter," a cross between the
Kerry and an unknown breed, is larger but without its fine qualities.
Little regard is paid to the breed of sheep, but those in most common
use have been crossed with a merino breed from Spain. Goats share
with sheep the sweet pasturage of the higher mountain ridges, while
cattle occupy the lower slopes.
Other Industries. — In former times there was a considerable linen
trade in Kerry, but this is now nearly extinct, the chief manufacture
being that of coarse woollens and linens for home use. At Killarney
a variety of articles are made from the wood of the arbutus. A
considerable trade in agricultural produce is carried on at Tralee,
Dingle and Kenmare, and in slate and stone at Valencia. The deep-
sea and coast fisheries are prosperous, and there are many small
fishing settlements along the coast, but the centres of the two
fishery districts are Valencia and Dingle. Salmon fishing is also an
industry, for which the district centres are Kenmare and Killarney.
Communications. — The Great Southern & Western railway
almost monopolizes the lines in the county. The principal line
traverses the centre of the county, touching Killarney, Tralee and
Listowel, and passing ultimately to Limerick. Branches are from
Headford to Kenmare; Farranfore to Killorglin, Cahersiveen and
Valencia harbour, Tralee to Fenit and to Castlegregory; and the
Listowel and Ballybunion railway. All these are lines to the coast.
The Tralee and Dingle railway connects these two towns. The only
inland branch is from Tralee to Castleisland.
Population and Administration. — The population (179,136 in
1891; 165,726 in 1901) decreases to an extent about equal to the
average of the Irish counties, but the emigration returns are among
the heaviest. The chief towns are Tralee (the county town, pop.
9867); Killarney (5656), Listowel (3605) and Cahersiveen or
Cahirciveen (2013), while Dingle, Kenmare, Killorglin and Castle-
island are smaller towns. The county comprises 9 baronies, and
contains 85 civil parishes. Assizes are held at Tralee, and quarter
sessions at Cahersiveen, Dingle, Kenmare, Killarney, Listowel and
Tralee. The headquarters of the constabulary force is at Tralee.
Previous to the Union the county returned eight members to the
Irish parliament, two for the county, and two for each of the boroughs
of Tralee, Dingle and Ardfert. At the Union the number was reduced
to three, two for the county and one for the borough of Tralee; but
the divisions now number four: north, south, east and west, each
returning one member. The county is in the Protestant diocese
of Limerick and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Kerry and Limerick.
History. — The county is said to have derived its name
from Ciar, who with his tribe, the Ciarraidhe, is stated to have
inhabited about the beginning of the Christian era the territory
lying between Tralee and the Shannon. That portion lying south
of the Maine was at a later period included in the kingdom of
Desmond (q.v.). Kerry suffered frequently from invasions of
the Danes in the pth and loth centuries, until they were finally
overthrown at the battle of Clontarf in 1014. In 1172 Dermot
MacCarthy, king of Cork and Desmond, made submission to
Henry II. on certain conditions, but was nevertheless gradually
compelled to retire within the limits of Kerry, which is one of the
areas generally considered to have been made shire ground by
King John. An English adventurer, Raymond le Gros, received
from this MacCarthy a large portion of the county round Lix-
naw. In 1570-1580 attempts were made by the Spaniards to
invade Ireland, landing at Limerick harbour, near Dingle, and
a fortress was erected here, but was destroyed by the English in
1 580. The Irish took advantage of the disturbed state of Eng-
land at the time of the Puritan revolution to attempt the over-
throw of the English rule in Kerry, and ultimately obtained
possession of Tralee, but in 1652 the rebellion was com-
pletely subdued, and a large number of estates were afterwards
confiscated.
There are remains of a round tower at Aghadoe, near Killarney,
and another, one of the finest and most perfect specimens in
Ireland, 92 ft. high, at Rattoe, not far from Ballybunion. On
KERSAINT— KESHUB CHUNDER SEN
759
the summit of a hill to the north of Kenmare River is the remark-
able stone fortress known as Staigue Fort. There are severa.
stone cells in the principal Skellig island, where penance, involv-
ing the scaling of dangerous rocks, was done by pilgrims, and
where there were formerly monastic remains which have been
swept away by the sea. The principal groups of sepulchral
stones are those on the summits of the Tomie Mountains, a
remarkable stone fort at Cahersiveen, a circle of stones with
cromlech in the parish of Tuosist, and others with inscriptions
near Dingle. The remote peninsula west of a line from Dingle to
Smerwick harbour is full of remains of various dates. The most
notable monastic ruins are those of Innisfallen, founded by
St Finian, a disciple of St Columba, and the fine remains of
Muckross Abbey, founded by the Franciscans, but there are also
monastic remains at Ardfert, Castlemaine, Derrynane, Kilcoleman
and O'Dorney. Among ruined churches of interest are those of
Aghadoe, Kilcrohane, Lough Currane, Derrynane and Muckross.
The cathedral of Ardfert, founded probably in 1253, was partly
destroyed during the Cromwellian wars, but was restored in 1831.
Some interesting portions remain (see TRALEE). There is a
large number of feudal castles.
KERSAINT, ARMAND GUY SIMON DE COETNEMPREN,
COMTE DE (1742-1793), French sailor and politician, was born
at Paris on the 2Qth of July 1742. He came of an old family,
his father, Guy Francois de Coetnempren, comte de Kersaint,
being a distinguished naval officer. He entered the navy in
1755, and in 1757, while serving on his father's ship, was pro-
moted to the rank of ensign for his bravery in action. By 1782
he was a captain, and in this year took part in an expedition to'
Guiana. At that time the officers of the French navy were
divided into two parties — the reds or nobles, and the blues or
roturiers. At the outbreak of the Revolution, Kersaint, in spite
of his high birth, took the side of the latter. He adopted the new
ideas, and in a pamphlet entitled Le Bon Sens attacked feudal
privileges; he also submitted to the Constituent Assembly a
scheme for the reorganization of the navy, but it was not
accepted. On the 4th of January 1791 Kersaint was appointed
administrator of the department of the Seine by the electoral
assembly of Paris. He was also elected as a depute suppleant
to the Legislative Assembly, and was called upon to sit in it in
place of a deputy who had resigned. From this time onward his
chief aim was the realization of the navy scheme which he had
vainly submitted to the Constituent Assembly. He soon saw
that this would be impossible unless there were a general reform
of all institutions, and therefore gave his support to the policy
of the advanced party in the Assembly, denouncing the conduct of
Louis XVI., and on the loth of August 1792 voting in favour
of his deposition. Shortly after, he was sent on a mission to
the armee du Centre, visiting in this way Soissons, Reims, Sedan
and the Ardennes. While thus occupied he was arrested by the
municipality of Sedan; he was set free after a few days' detention.
He took an active part in one of the last debates of the Legisla-
tive Assembly, in which it was decided to publish a Bulletin
officiel, a report continued by the next Assembly, and known by
the name of the Bulletin de la Convention Nationale. Kersaint
was sent as a deputy to the Convention by the department of
Seine-et-Oise in September 1792, and on the ist of January 1793
was appointed vice-admiral. He continued to devote himself
to questions concerning the navy and national defence, prepared
a report on the English political system and the navy, and caused
a decree to be passed for the formation of a committee of general
defence, which after many modifications was to become the
famous Committee of Public Safety. He had also had a decree
passed concerning the navy on the nth of January 1793. He
had, however, entered the ranks of the Girondins, and had voted
in the trial of the king against the death penalty and in favour
of the appeal to the people. He resigned his seat in the Conven-
tion on the 2oth of January. After the death of the king his
opposition became more marked; he denounced the September
massacres, but when called upon to justify his attitude confined
himself to attacking Marat, who was at the time all-powerful.
His friends tried in vain to obtain his appointment as minister
of the marine; and he failed to obtain even a post as officer. He
was arrested on the 23rd of September at Ville d'Avray, near
Paris, and taken before the Revolutionary Tribunal, where he
was accused of having conspired for the restoration of the
monarchy, and of having insulted national representation by
resigning his position in the legislature. He was executed on
the 4th of December 1793.
His brother, Guy PIERRE (1747-1822), also served in the navy,
and took part in the American war of independence. He did
not accept the principles of the Revolution, but emigrated.
He was restored to his rank in the navy in 1803, and died in
1822, after having been prefet maritime of Antwerp, and prefect
of the department of Meurthe.
See Kersaint 's own works, Le Bon Sens (1789); the Rubicon (1789);
Considerations sur la force publique et I' institution des gardes nationales
(1789); Lettre a Mirabeau (1791); Moyens presentes a I'Assemblee
nationale pour retablir la paix et I'ordre dans les colonies; also E.
Chevalier, Histoire de la Marine franc, aise sous la premiere Republique ;
E. Charavay, L'Assemblee electorate de Paris en 1790 et 1791 (Paris,
1890) ; and Ag^nor Bardoux, La Duchesse de Duras (Paris, 1898), the
beginning of which deals with Kersaint, whose daughter married
Amdde'e de Duras. (R. A.*)
KERVYN DE LETTENHOVE, CONSTANTINE BRUNO,
BARON, (1817-1891), Belgian historian, was born at Saint-
Michel-les-Bruges in 1817. He was a member of the Catholic
Constitutional party and sat in the Chamber as member for
Eecloo. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the cabinet
of Anethan as minister of the interior. But his official career
was short. The cabinet appointed as governor of Lille one
Decker, who had been entangled in the financial speculations
of Langand-Dumonceau by which the whole clerical party had
been discredited, and which provoked riots. The cabinet was
forced to resign, and Kervyn de Lettenhove devoted himself
entirely to literature and history. He had already become known
as the author of a book on Froissart (Brussels, 1855), which was
crowned by the French Academy. He edited a series of chron-
icles— Chroniques relatives a I'histoire de la Belgique sous la
domination des dues de Bourgogne (Brussels, 1870-1873), and
Relations politiques des Pays Bas et de I'Angleterre sous le regne
de Philippe II. (Brussels, 1882-1892). He wrote a history of
Les Hugenots et les Gueux (Bruges, 1883-1885) in the spirit of a
violent Roman Catholic partisan, but with much industry and
learning. He died at Saint-Michel-les-Bruges in 1891.
See Notices biographiques et bibliographiques de I'academie de
Belgique for 1887.
KESHUB CHUNDER SEN (KESHAVA CHANDRA SENA) (1838-
1884), Indian religious reformer, was born of a high-caste family
at Calcutta in 1838. He was educated at one of the Calcutta
colleges, where he became proficient in English literature and
history. For a short time he was a clerk in the Bank of Bengal,
but resigned his post to devote himself exclusively to literature
and philosophy. At that time Sir William Hamilton, Hugh
Blair, Victor Cousin, J. H. Newman and R. W. Emerson were
among his favourite authors. Their works made the deepest
impression on him, for, as he expressed it, " Philosophy first
:aught me insight and reflection, and turned my eyes inward
:rom the things of the external world, so that I began to reflect
on my position, character and destiny." Like many othei
educated Hindus, Keshub Chunder Sen had gradually dissociated
limself from the popular forms of the native religion, without
abandoning what he believed to be its spirit. As early as 1857
le joined the Brahma Samaj, a religious association aiming at
the reformation of Hinduism. Keshub Chunder Sen threw hiffk
self with enthusiasm into the work of this society and in 1862
limself undertook the ministry of one of its branches. In the
same year he helped to found the Albert College and started the
Indian Mirror, a weekly journal in which social and moral sub-
lets were discussed. In 1863 he wrote The Brahma Samaj
Vindicated. He also travelled about the country lecturing and
Breaching. The steady development of his reforming zeal led
;o a split in the society, which broke into two sections, Chunder
Sen putting himself at the head of the reform movement, which
took the name " Brahma Samaj of India," and tried to propagate
760
KESMARK— KESTREL
its doctrines by missionary enterprise. Its tenets at this time
were the following: (i) The wide universe is the temple of
God. (2) Wisdom is the pure land of pilgrimage. (3) Truth
is the everlasting scripture. (4) Faith is the root of all religions.
(5) Love is the true spiritual culture. (6) The destruction of
selfishness is the true asceticism. In 1866 he delivered an
address on '' Jesus Christ, Europe and Asia," which led to the
false impression that he was about to embrace Christianity.
This helped to call attention to him in Europe, and in 18.70 he
paid a visit to England. The Hindu preacher was warmly
welcomed by almost all denominations, particularly by the
Unitarians, with whose creed the new Brahma Samaj had most in
common, and it was the committee of the British and Foreign
Unitarian Association that organized the welcome soiree at
Hanover Square Rooms on the izth of April. Ministers of ten
different denominations were on the platform, and among those
who officially bade him welcome were Lord Lawrence and Dean
Stanley. He remained for six months in England, visiting most
of the chief towns. His eloquence, delivery and command of
the language won universal admiration. His own impression
of England was somewhat disappointing. Christianity in Eng-
land appeared to him too sectarian and narrow, too " muscular
and hard," and Christian life in England more materialistic
and outward than spiritual and inward. " I came here an
Indian, I go back -a confirmed Indian; I came here a Theist,
I go back a confirmed Theist. I have learnt to love my own
country more and more." These words spoken at the fare-
well soiree may furnish the key to the change in him which so
greatly puzzled many of his English friends. He developed a
tendency towards mysticism and a greater leaning to the spiritual
teaching of the Indian philosophies, as well as a somewhat
despotic attitude towards the Samaj. He gave his child
daughter in marriage to the raja of Kuch Behar; he revived
the performance of mystical plays, and himself took part in
one. These changes alienated many followers, who deserted his
standard and founded the Sadharana (General) Brahma Samaj
(1878). Chunder Sen did what he could to reinvigorate his
own section by a new infusion of Christian ideas and phrases,
e.g. " the New Dispensation," " the Holy Spirit." He also in-
stituted a sacramental meal of rice and water. Two lectures
delivered between 1881 and 1883 throw a good deal of light
on his latest doctrines. They were " The Marvellous Mystery,
the Trinity," and " Asia's Message to Europe." This latter is
an eloquent plea against the Europeanizing of Asia, as well as
a protest against Western sectarianism. During the intervals
of his last illness he wrote The New Samhita, or the Sacred Laws
of the Aryans of the New Dispensation. He died in January 1884,
leaving many bitter enemies and many warm friends.
See the article BRAHMA SAMAJ ; also P. Mozoomdar, Life and
Teachings of Keshub Chunder Sen (1888).
KESMARK (Ger. Kasmark), a town of Hungary, in the county
of Szepes, 240 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 5560.
It is situated on the Poprad, at an altitude of 1950 ft., and is
surrounded on all sides by mountains. Among its buildings are
the Roman Catholic parish church, a Gothic edifice of the i $th
century with fine carved altars; a wooden Protestant church of
the lyth century; and an old town-hall. About 12 m. W. of
Kesmark lies the famous watering-place Tatrafiired (Ger.
Schmecks), at the foot of the Schlagendorfer peak in the Tatra
Mountains. Kesmark is one of the oldest and most important
Saxon settlements in the north of Hungary, and became a royal
free town at the end of the I3th century, In 1440 it became the
seat of the counts of Szepes (Ger., Zips), and in 1464 it was
granted.new privileges by King Matthias Corvinus. During the
1 6th century, together with the other Saxon towns in the
Szepes county, it began to lose both its political and commercial
importance. It remained a royal free town until 1876.
KESTREL (Fr. Cresserelle or Creferelle, O. Fr. Quercerelle and
Quercelle, in Burgundy Cristel), the English name1 for one of
the smaller falcons. This bird, though in the form of its bill and
1 Other English names are windhover and standgale (the last often
corrupted into stonegale and stannell).
length of its wings one of the true falcons, and by many ornithO'
legists placed among them under its Linnaean name of Falco
tinnunculus, is by others referred to a distinct genus Tinnunculus
as T. alaudarius — the last being an epithet wholly inappropriate.
We have here a case in which the propriety of the custom which
requires the establishment of a genus on structural characters
may seem open to question. The differences of structure which
separate Tinnunculus from Falco are of the slightest, and, if
insisted upon, must lead to including in the former birds which
obviously differ from kestrels in all but a few characters arbi-
trarily chosen; and yet, if structural characters be set aside, the
kestrels form an assemblage readily distinguishable by several
peculiarities from all other Falconidae, and an assemblage
separable from the true Falcons of the genus Falco, with its
subsidiary groups Aesalon, Hypotriorchis, and the rest (see FAL-
CON). Scarcely any one outside the walls of an ornithological
museum or library would doubt for a moment whether any bird
shown to him was a kestrel or not; and Gurney has stated his
belief (Ibis, 1881, p. 277) that the aggregation of species placed
by Bowdler Sharpe (Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. i. 423-448) under
the generic designation of Cerchneis (which should properly
be Tinnunculus) includes " three natural groups sufficiently
distinct to be treated as at least separate subgenera, bearing the
name of Dissodectes, Tinnunculus and Erythropus." Of these
the first and last are not kestrels, but are perhaps rather related
to the hobbies (Hypotriorchis).
The ordinary kestrel of Europe, Falco tinnunculus or Tinnun-
culus alaudarius, is by far the commonest bird of prey in the
British Islands. It is almost entirely a summer migrant,
coming from the south in early spring and departing in autumn,
though examples (which are nearly always found to be birds of
the. year) occasionally occur in winter, some arriving on the
eastern coast in autumn. It is most often observed while hang-
ing in the air for a minute or two in the same spot, by means of
short and rapid beats of its wings, as, with head pointing to
windward and expanded tail, it is looking out for prey — which
consists chiefly of mice, but it will at times take a small bird,
and the remains of frogs, insects and even earthworms have been,
found in its crop. It generally breeds in the deserted nest of a
crow or pie, but frequently in rocks, ruins, or even in hollow
trees — laying four or five eggs, mottled all over with dark
brownish-red, sometimes tinged with orange and at other times
with purple. Though it may occasionally snatch up a young par-
tridge or pheasant, the kestrel is the most harmless bird of prey,
if it be not, from its destruction of mice and cockchafers, a bene-
ficial species. Its range extends over nearly the whole of Europe
from 68° N. lat., and the greater part of Asia — though the form
which inhabits Japan and is abundant in north-eastern China
has been by some writers deemed distinct and called T.japonicus
— it is also found over a great part of Africa, being, however,
unknown beyond Guinea on the west and Mombasa on the east
coast (Ibis, 1881, p. 457). The southern countries of Europe
have also another and smaller species of kestrel, T. tinnunculoides
(the T. cenchris and T. naumanni of some writers), which is
widely spread in Africa and Asia, though specimens from India
and China are distinguished as T. pekinensis.
Three other species are found in Africa — T. rupicola, T. rupi-
coloides and T. alopex — the first a common bird in the Cape,
while the others occur in the interior. Some of the islands of
the Ethiopian region have peculiar species of kestrel, as the
T. newloni of Madagascar, T. punctalus of Mauritius and
T. gracilis of the Seychelles; while, on the opposite side, the
kestrel of the Cape Verde Islands has been separated as
T. negleclus.
The T. sparverius, commonly known in Canada and the
United States as the " sparrow-hawk," is a beautiful little bird.
Various attempts have been made to recognize several species,
more or less in accordance with locality, but the majority of
ornithologists seem unable to accept the distinctions which have
been elaborated chiefly by Bowdler Sharpe in his Catalogue and
R. Ridgway (North American Birds, iii. 150-175), the former of
whom recognizes six species, while the latter admits but three —
KESWICK— KETENES
761
T. sparverius, T. leucophrys and T. sparverioides — with five geo-
graphical races of the first, viz. the typical T. sparverius from
the continent of North America except the coast of the Gulf of
Mexico; T. australis from the continent of South America
except the North Atlantic and Caribbean coasts; T. isabel-
linus, inhabiting continental America from Florida to Fr.Guiana;
T. dominicensis from the Lesser Antilles as far northwards as
St Thomas; and lastly T. cinnamominus from Chile and western
Brazil. T. leucophrys is said to be from Haiti and Cuba;
and T. sparverioides peculiar to Cuba only. This last has been
generally allowed to be a good species, though Dr Gundlach,
the best authority on the birds of that island, in his Contribution
d la Ornitologia Cubana (1876), will not allow its validity. More
recently it was found (Ibis, 1881, pp. 547-564) that T. australis
and T. cinnamominus cannot be separated, that Ridgway's
T. leucophrys should properly be called T. dominicensis, and his
T. dominicensis T. antillarum; while Ridgway has recorded the
supposed occurrence of T. sparverioides in Florida. Of other
kestrels T. moluccensis is widely spread throughout the islands
of the Malay Archipelago, while T. cenchroides seems to inhabit
the whole of Australia, and has occurred in Tasmania (Proc.
Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1875, pp. 7, 8). No kestrel is found in New
Zealand, but an approach to the form is made by the very
peculiar Hieracidea(or Harpe)novae-zelandiae(oi which a second
race or species has been described, H. brunnea or H.ferox), the
" sparrow-hawk," " quail-hawk " and " bush-hawk " of the colo-
nists— a bird of much higher courage than any kestrel, and per-
haps exhibiting the more generalized and ancestral type from
which both kestrels and falcons may have descended. (A. N.)
KESWICK, a market town in the Penrith parliamentary
division of Cumberland, England, served by the joint line of the
Cockermouth Keswick & Penrith, and London & North-Western
railways. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4451. It lies in the
northern part of the Lake District, in an open valley on the
banks of the river Greta, with the mountain of Skiddaw to the
north and the lovely lake of Derwentwater to the south. It is
much frequented by visitors as a centre for this famous district
— for boating on Derwentwater and for the easy ascent of
Skiddaw. Many residences are seen in the neighbourhood, and
the town as a whole is modern. Fitz Park, opened in 1887, is
a pleasant recreation ground. The town-hall contains a museum
of local geology, natural history, &c. In the parish church of
Crosthwaite, J m. distant, there is a monument to the poet
Southey. His residence, Greta Hall, stands at the end of the
main street, close by the river. Keswick is noted for its
manufacture of lead pencils; and the plumbago (locally wad)
used to be supplied from mines in Borrowdale. Char, caught in
the neighbouring lakes, are potted at Keswick in large quantities
and exported.
KESWICK CONVENTION, an annual summer reunion held
at the above town for the main purpose of " promoting practical
holiness " by meetings for prayer, discussion and personal
intercourse. It has no denominational limits, and is largely
supported by the " Evangelical " section of the Church of
England. The convention, started in a private manner by
Canon Harford-Battersby, then vicar of Keswick, and Mr
Robert Wilson in 1874, met first in 1875, and rapidly grew after
the first few years, both in numbers and influence, in spite of
attacks on the alleged "_ perfectionism " of some of its leaders
and on the novelty of its methods. Its members take a deep
interest in foreign missions.
In the History of the C.M.S., vol. iii. (by Eugene Stock), the
missionary influence of the " Keswick men " in Cambridge and else-
where may be readily traced. See also The Keswick Convention : its
Message, its Method and its Men, edited by C. F. Harford (1906).
KET (or KETT), ROBERT (d. 1549), English rebel, is usually
called a tanner, but he certainly held the manor of Wymondham
in Norfolk. With his brother William he led the men of
Wymondham in their quarrel with a certain Flowerden, and
having thus come into prominence, he headed the men of Norfolk
when they rose in rebellion in 1 549 owing to the hardships inflicted
by the extensive enclosures of common lands and by the general
policy of the protector Somerset. A feast held at Wymondham
in July 1549 developed into a riot and gave the signal for the
outbreak. Leading his followers to Norwich, Ket formed a
camp on Mousehold Heath, where he is said to have commanded
16,000 men, introduced a regular system of discipline, adminis-
tered justice and blockaded the city. He refused the royal
offer of an amnesty on the ground that innocent and just men
had no need of pardon, and on the ist of August 1549 attacked
and took possession of Norwich. John Dudley, earl of Warwick,
marched against the rebels, and after his offer of pardon had
been rejected he forced his way into the city, driving its defenders
before him. Then, strengthened by the arrival of some foreign
mercenaries, he attacked the main body of the rebels at Dussin-
dale on the 27th of August. Ket's men were easily routed by
the trained soldiery, and Robert and William Ket were seized
and taken to London, where they were condemned to death for
treason. On the 7th of December 1549 Robert was executed at
Norwich, and his body was hanged on the top of the castle,
while that of William was hanged on the church tower at
Wymondham.
See F. W. Russell, Kelt's Rebellion (1859), and J. A. Froude,
History of England, vol. iv. (London, 1898).
KETCH, JOHN (d. 1686), English executioner, who as " Jack
Ketch " gave the nickname for nearly two centuries to his
successors, is believed to have been appointed public hangman
in the year 1663. The first recorded mention of him is in The
Plotters Ballad, being Jack Ketch's incomparable Receipt for the
Cure of Traytorous Recusants and Wholesome Physick for a
Popish Contagion, a broadside published in December 1672.
The execution of William, Lord Russell, on the 2ist of July
1683 was carried out by him in a clumsy way, and a pamphlet
is extant which contains his " Apologie," in which he alleges
that the prisoner did not "dispose himself as was most suitable"
and that he was interrupted while taking aim. On the scaffold,
on the isth of July 1685, the duke of Monmouth, addressing
Ketch, referred to his treatment of Lord Russell, the result
being that Ketch was quite unmanned and had to deal at least
five strokes with his axe, and finally use a knife, to sever Mon-
mouth's head from his shoulders. In 1686 Ketch was deposed
and imprisoned at Bridewell, but when his successor, Pascha
Rose, a butcher, was, after four months in the office, hanged at
Tyburn, Ketch was reappointed. He died towards the close of
1686.
KETCHUP, also written catsup and katchup (said to be from
the Chinese koe-chiap or ke-tsiap, brine of pickled fish), a sauce
or relish prepared principally from the juice of mushrooms and
of many other species of edible fungi, salted for preservation and
variously spiced. The juices of various fruits, such as cucum-
bers,.tomatoes, and especially green walnuts, are used as a basis
of ketchup, and shell-fish ketchup, from oysters, mussels and
cockles, is also made; but in general the term is restricted to
sauces having the juice of edible fungi as their basis.
KETENES, in chemistry, a group of organic compounds which
may be considered as internal anhydrides of acetic acid and its
substitution derivatives. Two classes may be distinguished:
the aldo-ketenes, including ketene itself, together with its mono-
alkyl derivatives and carbon suboxide, and the keto-ketenes
which comprise the dialkyl ketenes. The aldo-ketenes are
colourless compounds which are not capable of autoxidation,
are polymerized by pyridine or quinoline, and are inert towards
compounds containing the groupings C:N and C:O. The keto-
ketenes are coloured compounds, which undergo autoxidation
readily, form ketene bases on the addition of pyridine and quino-
line, and yield addition compounds with substances containing
the C:N and C:0 groupings. The ketenes are usually obtained
by the action of zinc on ethereal or ethyl acetate solutions of
halogen substituted acid chlorides or bromides. They are
characterized by their additive reactions: combining with water
to form acids, with alcohols to form esters, and with primary
amines to form amides.
Ketene, CH2:CO, was discovered by N. T. M. Wilsmore (Jour.
Chem.Soc., 1907, vol. 91, p. 1938) among the gaseous products formed
762
KETI— KETONES
when a platinum wire is electrically heated under the surface of
acetic anhydride. It is also obtained by the action of zinc on
bromacetyl bromide (H. Staudinger, Ber. 1908, 41, p. 594). At
ordinary temperatures, it is a gas, but it may be condensed to a
liquid and finally solidified, the solid melting at -151° C. It is
characterized by its penetrating smell. On standing for some
time a brown-coloured liquid is obtained, from which a colourless
liquid boiling at 126-127 C., has been isolated (Wilsmore, ibid.,
1908, 93, p. 946). Although originally described as acetylketen, it
has proved to be a cyclic compound (Ber., 1909, 42, p. 4908). It
is soluble in water, the solution showing an acid reaction, owing
to the formation of aceto-acetic acid, and with alkalis it yields
acetates. It differs from the simple ketenes in that it is apparently
unacted upon by phenols and alcohols. Dimethyl ketene, (CHs^C :CO,
obtained by the action of zinc on o-brom-isobutyryl bromide, is a
yellowish coloured liquid. At ordinary temperatures it rapidly
polymerizes (probably to a tetramethylcylobutanedione). It boils
hydride (Staudinger, ibid.). Diphenyl ketene, (CtHi^tC :CO, obtained
by the action of zinc on diphenyl-chloracetyl chloride, is an orange-
red liquid which boils at 146° C. (12 mm.). It does not polymerize.
Magnesium phenyl bromide gives triphenyl vinyl alcohol.
KETI, a sea-port of British India, in Karachi district, Sind,
situated on the Hajamro branch of the Indus. Pop. (1901),
2127. It is an important seat of trade, where sea-borne goods
are transferred to and from river boats.
KETONES, in chemistry, organic compounds of the type
R-CO-R', where R, R' = alkyl or aryl groups. If the groups
R and R' are identical, the ketone is called a simple ketone,
if unlike, a mixed ketone. They may be prepared by the
oxidation of secondary alcohols; by the addition of the
elements of water to hydrocarbons of the acetylene type
RC CH ; by oxidation of primary alcohols of the type
RR'-CH-CH2OH:RR'-CH-CH2OH -> R-COR'+HjO+HeCO*;
by distillation of the calcium salts of the fatty acids, CnH2nO2;
by heating the sodium salts of these acids CnH:>nO2 with the
corresponding acid anhydride to 190° C. (W. H. Perkin, Jour.
Chem. Soc., 1886, 49, p. 322); by the action of anhydrous
ferric chloride on acid chlorides (J. Hamonet, Bull, de la soc.
Mm., 1888, 50, p. 357),
2C2H5COCl-> C2H6-CO-CH(CH3)-COC1
-»C2Hs-CO-CH(CH3)-aXH-»C2H6-CO-CH2-CH3;
and by the action of zinc alkyls on acid chlorides (M. Freund, A nn. ,
1861, 118, p. i), 2CH3COCl+ZnCH3)2-=ZnCl2-f-2CH3-CO-CH3.
In the last reaction complex addition products are formed,
and must be quickly decomposed by water, otherwise tertiary
alcohols are produced (A. M. Butlerow, Jahresb., 1864, p. 496;
Ann. 1867, 144, p. i). They may also be prepared by the decom-
position of ketone chlorides with water; by the oxidation of
the tertiary hydroxyacids; by the hydrolysis of the ketonic
acids or their esters with dilute alkalis or baryta water (see
ACETO-ACETIC ESTER); by the hydrolysis of alkyl derivatives
of acetone dicarboxylic acid, HO2C-CH2-CO-CHR-CO2H; and
by the action of the Grignard reagent on nitriles (E. Blaise,
Comptes rendus, 1901, 132, p. 38),
R-CN + R'Mgl -» RR'C:N-MgI -» R-CO-R' + NH3+MgI-OH.
The ketones are of neutral reaction, the lower members of the
series being colourless, volatile, pleasant-smelling liquids. They
do not reduce silver solutions, and are not so readily oxidized
as the aldehydes. On oxidation, the molecule is split at the
carbonyl group and a mixture of acids is obtained. Sodium
amalgam reduces them to secondary alcohols; phosphorus
pentachloride replaces the carbonyl oxygen by chlorine, forming
the ketone chlorides. Only those ketones which contain a
methyl group are capable of forming crystalline addition com-
pounds with the alkaline bisulphites (F. Grimm, Ann., 1871,
157, p. 262). They combine with hydrocyanic acid to form
nitriles, which on hydrolysis furnish hydroxyacids,
(CH,)2CO H> (CH,)2C-OH-CN -> (CH3)2-C-OH-CO2H;
with phenylhydrazine they yield hydrazones; with hydrazine
they yield in addition ketazines RR'-C:N-N:C-RR' (T. Curtius),
and with hydroxylamine ketoximes. The latter readily under-
go the " Beckmann " transformation on treatment with acid
chlorides, yielding substituted acid amides,
RR'-C:NOH H» RC(NR')-OH -> R-CO-NHR'
(see OXIMES, also A. Hantzsch, .Ber., 189 1,24, p. 13). The ketones
react with mercaptan to form mercaptols (E. Baumann, Ber.,
1885, 18, p. 883), and with concentrated nitric acid they yield
dinitroparaffins (G. Chancel, Bull, de la soc. Mm., 1879, 31,
p. 503). With nitrous acid (obtained from amyl nitrite and
gaseous hydrochloric acid, the ketone being dissolved in acetic
acid) they form isonitroso-ketones, R-CO-CH:NOH (L. Claisen,
Ber., 1887, 20, pp. 656, 2194). With ammonia they yield
complex condensation products; acetone forming di- and tri-
acetonamines (W. Heintz, Ann. 1875, 178, p. 305; 1877, 189,
p. 214. They also condense with aldehydes, under the influence
of alkalis or sodium ethylate (L. Claisen, Ann., 1883, 218, pp. 121,
129, 145; 1884, 223, p. 137; S. Kostanecki and G. Rossbach,
Ber., 1896, 29, pp. 1488, 1495, 1893, &c.). On treatment with
the Grignard reagent, in absolute ether solution, they yield
addition products which are decomposed by water with pro-
duction of tertiary alcohols (V. Grignard, Comptes rendus, 1900,
130, p. 1322 et seq.),
RR'CO-* RR'-C(OMgI)-R*-> RR'R'-C(OH) + Mgl-OH.
Ketones do not polymerize in the same way as aldehydes, but
under the influence of acids and bases yield condensation
products; thus acetone gives mesityl oxide, phorone and
mesitylene (see below).
For dimethyl ketone or acetone, see ACETONE. Diethyl ketone,
(C2Hj)2-CO, is a pleasant-smelling liquid boiling at 102-7° C. With
concentrated nitric acid it forms dinitroethane, and it is oxidized
by chromic acid to acetic and propionic acids. Methylnonylketone,
CHj-CO-CjHi9, is the chief constituent of oil of rue, which also con-
tains methylheptylketone, CH8-CO-C7His, a liquid of boiling-point
85-90° C. (7 mm.), which yields normal caprylic acid on oxidation
with hypobrpmites.
Mesityl oxide, (CH3)2C:CH-CO-CH3, is an aromatic smelling liquid
of boiling point 129-5-130° C. It is insoluble in water, but readily
dissolves in alcohol. On heating with dilute sulphuric acid it yields
acetone, but with the concentrated acid it gives mesitylene, C»Hi2.
Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to acetic acid and hydroxyiso-
butyric acid (A. Pinner, Ber., 1882, 15, p. 591). It forms hydroxy-
hydrocollidine when heated with acetamide and anhydrous zinc
chloride (F. Canzoneri and G. Spica, Gazz. chim. Hal., 1884, 14,
p-349). PA0rone,(CH,)2C:CH-CO-CH:C(CHj)2,formsycllowcrystals
which melt at 28° C. and boil at 197-2° C. When heated with
phosphorus pentoxide it yields acetone, water and some pseudo-
cumene. Dilute nitric acid oxidizes it to aceticand oxalic acids, while
potassium permanganate oxidizes it to acetone, carbon dioxide and
oxalic acid.
DIKETONES. — The diketones contain two carbonyl groups,
and are distinguished as a or 1-2 diketones, ft or 1-3 diketones,
7 or 1-4 diketones, &c., according as they contain the groupings
-CO-CO-, -CO-CH2-CO-,-CO-CH2-CH2-CO-, &c.
The o-diketones may be prepared by boiling the product of the
action of alkaline bisulphites on isonitrosoketones with 15 % sul-
phuric acid (H. v. Pechmann, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 31 12 ; 1889, 22, p. 21 15),
CH,-CO-C:(N-OH)-CH,^CH,-CO-C:(NHSO3)-CH37^CH3-CO-
CO-CHs; or by the action of isoamyl nitrite on the isonitrosoke-
tones (O. Manasse.Ber., i888,2i,p.2i77),C2H6-CO-C:(NOH)-CH3-
H11
O = C2H.-CO-CO-CH,+C6H11OH+N,O. They condense
with orthodiamines to form quinoxalines(O. Hinsberg, Ann., 1887,237,
p. 327) , and with ammoniaand aldehydes to form imidazoles. Diacetyl,
CHi-CO-CO-CH3, isa yellowish green liquid.which boilsat 87-88°C.,
and possesses a pungent smell. Jt combines with sodium bisulphite
and with hydrocyanic acid. Dilute alkalis convert it into para-
xyloquinone.
The 0-diketones form characteristic copper salts, and in alcoholic
solution they combine with semicarbazida to form products which on
boiling with ammoniacal silver nitrate solution give pyrazoles
(T. Posner, Ber., 1901, 34, p. 3975); with hydroxylamine they form
isoxazoles, and with phenylhydrazine pyrazoles. Acetyl acetone,
CH|-CO-CH2-CO-CH8, may be prepared by the action of aluminium
chloride on acetyl chloride, or by condensing ethyl acetate with
acetone in the presence of sodium (L. Claisen). It is a liquid of
boiling point IJ6°_C. It condenses readily with aniline to give
o-y-dimethyl quinoline.
The |y-diketones are characterized by the readiness with which
they yield furfurane, pyrrol and thiophene derivatives, the fur-
furane derivatives being formed by heating the ketones with a de-
hydrating agent, the thiophenes by heating with phosphorus penta-
sulphide, and the pyrrols by the action of alcoholic ammonia or
amines. Acetonylaeetone,CHi-CO-CH}-C}irCO-CH>,a liquid boiling
at 194° C., may be obtained by condensing sodium aceto-acetate
with mono-chloracetone (C. Paal, Ber., 1885, 18, p. 59),
KETTELER— KETTLEDRUM
763
CH,COCH2Cl+Na.CH-COCH3(COOR)
->CH3CO-CH2-CH-COCH3(COOR)
-^CH3CO-CH2-CH2-COCH,;
or by the hydrolysis of diaceto-succinic ester, prepared by the
action of iodine on sodium aceto-acetate (L. Knorr, Ber., 1880
22, pp. 169, 2100).
1-5 diketones have been prepared by L. Claisen by condensing
ethoxymethylene aceto-acetic esters and similar compounds with
0-ketonic esters and with 1-3 diketones. The ethoxymethylen
aceto-acetic esters are prepared by condensing aceto-acetic ester
with ortho-formic ester in the presence of acetic anhydride (German
patents 77354, 79087, 79863). The 1-5 diketones of this type, when
heated with aqueous ammonia, form pyridine derivatives. Those
in which the keto groups are in combination with phenyl residues
give pyridine derivatives on treatment with hydroxylamine, thus
benzamarone, CcHsCHICHtCeHsVCOCeHe], gives pentaphenylpyri-
dine, NC5(C6H6)6. On the general reactions of the 1-5 diketones
see E. Knoevenagel (Ann., 1894, 281, p. 25 et seq.) and H. Stobbe
(Ber., 1902, 35, p. 1445).
Many cyclic ketones are known, and in most respects they resemble
the ordinary aliphatic ketones (see POLYMETHYLENES; TERPENES)
KETTELER, WILHELM EMMANUEL, BARON VON (1811-
1877), German theologian and politician, was bornatHarkotten,
in Bavaria, on the 25th of December 1811. He studied theology
at Gottingen, Berlin, Heidelberg and Munich, and was ordained
priest in 1844. He resolved to consecrate his life to maintaining
the cause of the freedom of the Church from the control of the
State. This brought him into collision with the civil power, an
attitude which he maintained throughout a stormy and eventful
life. Ketteler was rather a man of action than a scholar, and he
first distinguished himself as one of the deputies of the Frankfort
National Assembly, a position to which he was elected in 1848,
and in which he soon became noted for his decision, foresight,
energy and eloquence. In 1850 he was made bishop of Mainz,
by order of the Vatican, in preference to the celebrated Professor
Leopold Schmidt, of Giessen, whose Liberal sentiments were not
agreeable to the Papal party. When elected, Ketteler refused
to allow the students of theology in his diocese to attend lectures
at Giessen, and ultimately founded an opposition seminary in the
diocese of Mainz itself. He also founded orders of School
Brothers and School Sisters, to work in the various educational
agencies he had called into existence, and he laboured to institute
orphanages and rescue homes. In 1858 he threw down the
gauntlet against the State in his pamphlet on the rights of the
Catholic Church in Germany. In 1863 he adopted Lassalle's
Socialistic views, and published his Die Arbeit/rage und das
Christenthum. When the question of papal infallibility arose,
he opposed the promulgation of the dogma on the ground that
such promulgation was inopportune. But he was not resolute
in his opposition. The opponents of the dogma complained
at the very outset that he was wavering, half converted by his
hosts, the members of the German College at Rome, and further
influenced by his own misgivings. He soon deserted his anti-
Infallibilist colleagues, and submitted to the decrees in August
1870. He was the warmest opponent of the State in the Kultur-
kampf provoked by Prince Bismarck after the publication of the
Vatican decrees, and was largely instrumental in compelling
that statesman to retract the pledge he had rashly given, never
to " go to Canossa." To such an extent did Bishop von Ketteler
carry his opposition, that in 1874 he forbade his clergy to take
part in celebrating the anniversary of the battle of Sedan, and
declared the Rhine to be a " Catholic river." He died at Burg-
hausen, Upper Bavaria, on the i3th of July 1877.
(J. J- L.*)
KETTERING, a market town in the eastern parliamentary
division of Northamptonshire, England, 72 m. N.N.W. from
London by the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district
(1891), 19,454; (1901), 28,653. The church of SS Peter and
Paul, mainly Perpendicular, has a lofty and ornate tower and
spire. The chief manufactures are boots, shoes, brushes, stays,
clothing and agricultural implements. There are iron-works in
the immediate neighbourhood. The privilege of market was
granted in 1227 by a charter of Henry III.
KETTLE, SIR RUPERT ALFRED (1817-1894), English
county court judge, was born at Birmingham on the gth of
January 1817. His family had for some time been connected
with the glass-staining business. In 1845 he was called to the
bar, and in 1859 he was made judge of the Worcestershire county
courts, becoming also a bencher of the Middle Temple (1882).
He acted as arbitrator in several important strikes, and besides
being the first president of the Midland iron trade wages board,
he was largely responsible for the formation of similar boards in
other staple trades. His name thus became identified with the
organization of a system of arbitration between employers and
employed, and in 1880 he was knighted for his services in this
capacity. In 1851 he married; one of his sons subsequently
became a London police magistrate. Kettle died on the 6th
of October 1894 at Wolverhampton.
KETTLEDRUM1 (Fr. timbales; Ger. Pauken; Ital. timpani;
Sp. timbat), the only kind of drum (<?.».) having a definite
musical pitch. The kettledrum consists of a hemispherical
pan of copper, brass or silver, over which a piece of vellum is
stretched tightly by means of screws working on an iron ring,
which fits closely round the head of the drum. In the bottom
of the pan is a small vent-hole, which prevents the head being
rent by the concussion of air. The vellum head may thus be
slackened or tightened at will to produce any one of the notes
within its compass of half an octave. Each kettledrum gives
but one note at a time, and as it takes some little time to alter
all the screws, two or three kettledrums, sometimes more, each
tuned to a different note, are used in an orchestra or band.
For centuries kettledrums have been made and used in Europe
in pairs, one large and one small; the relative proportions of the
two instruments being well defined and invariable. Even when
eight pairs of drums, all tuned to different notes, are used, as
by Berlioz in his " Grand Requiem," there are still but the two
sizes of drums to produce all the notes. Various mechanisms
have been tried with the object of facilitating the change of
pitch, but the simple old-fashioned model is still the most
frequently used in England. Two sticks, of which there are
several kinds, are employed to play the kettledrum; the best
of these are made of whalebone for elasticity, and have a small
wooden knob at one end, covered with a thin piece of fine sponge.
Others have the button covered with felt or india-rubber.
The kettledrum is struck at about a quarter of the diameter
'rom the ring.
The compass of kettledrums collectively is not much more than
the larger instruments,
an octave, between pgj:==j: — ,nj — f
which it is inadvisable to tune below F, take any one of the following
notes : —
and the smaller are tuned to one of the notes completing the
chromatic and enharmonic scale from
^iEtoEirtEE-- These
imits comprise all the notes of artistic value that can be obtained
rom kettledrums. When there are but two drums — the term
' drum " used by musicians always denotes the kettledrum — they
\re generally tuned to the tonic and dominant or to the tonic and
.ubdominant, these nott-s entering into the composition of most of
he harmonies of the key. Formerly the kettledrums used to be
reated as transposing instruments, the notation, as for the horn,
)cing in C, the key to which the kettledrums were to be tuned being
ndicated in the score. Now composers write the real notes.
The tone of a good kettledrum is sonorous, rich, and of great power.
Vhen noise rather than music is required uncovered sticks are used.
The drums may be muffled or covered by placing a piece of cloth or
ilk over the vellum to damp the sound, a device which produces a
ugubrious, mysterious effect and is indicated in the score by the
words timpani coperti, timpani con sordini, timbales couvertes,
edampfte Pauken. Besides the beautiful effects obtained by means
if delicate gradations of tone, numerous rhythmical figures may be
xecuted on one, two or more notes. German drummers who were
1 From "drum" and " kettle," a covered metal vessel for boiling
vater or other liquid; the O. E. word is cetel, cf. Du. ketel, Ger.
Vessel, borrowed from Lat. catillus, dim. of catinus, bowl.
764
KETTLEDRUM
renowned during the lyth and i8th centuries, borrowing the terms
from the trumpets with which the kettledrums were long associated,
recognized the following beats: —
Single tonguing
(Einfache Zungen)
Double tonguing
(Doppel oder gerissene Zungen)
Legato tonguing
(Tragende Zungen)
leteir
Whole double-tonguing
(Ganze Doppel- Zungen)
Double cross-beat l
(Doppel Kreuzschlage)
The roll
(Wirbel)
The double roll
(Doppel Wirbel)
It is generally stated that Beethoven was the first to treat the
kettledrum as a solo instrument, but in Dido, an opera by C. Graupner
performed at the Hamburg Opera House in 1707, there is a short
solo for the kettledrum.*
The tuning of the kettledrum is an operation requiring time, even
when the screw-heads, as is now usual, are T-shaped; to expedite
the change, therefore, efforts have been made in all countries to
invent some mechanism which would enable the performer to tune
the drum to a fixed note by a single movement. The first mechanical
kettledrums date from the beginning of the igth century. In
Holland a system was invented by I. C. N. Stumpff *; in France by
Labbaye in 1827; in Germany Einbigler patented a system in
1 This rhythmical use of kettledrums was characteristic of the
military instrument of percussion, rather than the musical member
of the orchestra. During the middle ages and until the end of the
1 8th century, the two different notes obtainable from the pair of
kettledrums were probably used more as a means of marking and
varying the rhythm than as musical notes entering into the com-
position of the harmonies. The kettledrums, in fact, approximated
to the side drums in technique. The contrast between the purely
rhythmical use of kettledrums, given above, and the more modern
musical use is well exemplified by the well-known solo for four
kettledrums in Meyerbeer's Robert le Diable, beginning thus —
PP
m
1 See Wilhelm Kleefeld, Das Orchester der Hamburger Oper (1678-
1738); Internationale Musikgesellschaft, Sammelband i. 2 p 278
(Leipzig, 1899).
1 Sec J. Georges Kastner, Methode complete el raisonnee de limbales
(Pans), p. 19, where several of the early mechanical kettledrums are
described and illustrated.
Frankfort-on-Main in 1836*; in England Cornelius Ward in 1837;
in Italy C. A. Boracchi of Monza in 1839.*
The drawback in most of these systems is the complicated nature
of the mechanism, which soon gets out of order, and, being very
cumbersome and heavy, it renders the instrument more or less of a
fixture. Potter's kettledrum with instantaneous system of tuning,
the best known at the present day in England, and used in some
military bands with entire success, is a complete contrast to the
above. There is practically no mechanism; the system is simple,
ingenious, and neither adds to the weight nor to the bulk of the
instrument. There are no screws round the head of Potter's kettle-
drum ; an invisible system of cords in the interior, regulated by screws
and rods in the form of a Maltese cross, is worked from the outside
by a small handle connected to a dial, on the face of which are
twenty-eight numbered notches. By means of these the performer
is able to tune the drum instantly to any note within the compass
by remembering the numbers which correspond to each note and
pointing the indicator to it on the face of the dial. Should the cords
become slightly stretched, flattening the pitch, causing the represen-
tative numbers to change, the performer need only give his indicator
an extra turn to bring his instrument back to pitch, each note having
several notches at its service. The internal mechanism, being of an
elastic nature, has no detrimental effect on the tone but tends to
increase its volume and improve its quality.
The origin of the kettledrum is remote and must be sought
in the East. Its distinctive characteristic is a hemispherical or
convex vessel, closed by means of a single parchment or skin
drawn tightly over the aperture, whereas other drums consist
of a cylinder, having one end or both covered by the parchment,
as in the side-drum and tambourine respectively. The Romans
were acquainted with the kettledrum, including it among the
tympana; the tympanum leoe, like a sieve, was the tambourine
used in the rites of Bacchus and Cybele.6 The comparatively
heavy tympanum of bronze mentioned by Catullus was probably
the small kettledrum which appears in pairs on monuments of
the middle ages.7 Pliny8 states that half pearls having
one side round and the other flat were called tympania. If
the name tympania (Gr. TV^KOVOV, from rinrrfiv, to strike) was
given to pearls of a certain shape because they resembled the
kettledrum, this argues that the instrument was well known
among the Romans. It is doubtful, however, if it was
adopted by them as a military instrument, since it is not
mentioned by Vegetius,* who defines very clearly the duties of
the service instruments buccina, tuba, cornu and lituus.
The Greeks also knew the kettledrum, but as a warlike
instrument of barbarians. Plutarch10 mentions that the
Parthians, in order to frighten their enemies, in offering battle
used not the horn or tuba, but hollow vessels covered with a
skin, on which they beat, making a terrifying noise with these
tympana. Whether the kettledrum penetrated into western
Europe before the fall of the Roman Empire and continued
to be included during the middle ages among the tympana has
not been definitely ascertained. Isidore of Seville gives a some-
what vague description of tympanum, conveying the impression
that his information has been obtained second-hand: "Tym-
panum est pellis vel corium ligno ex una parte extentum.
Est enim pars media symphoniae in similitudinem cribri.
Tympanum autem dictum quod medium est. Unde, et mar-
garitum medium tympanum dicitur, et ipsum ut symphonia ad
virgulam percutitur." " It is clear that in this passage Isidore
is referring to Pliny.
The names given during the middle ages to the kettledrum are
derived from the East. We have attambal or altabal in Spain,
4 See Gustav Schilling's Encyklopadie der gesammten musikal.
Wissenschaften (Stuttgart, 1840), vol. v., art. " Pauke."
6 See Manuale pel Timpanista (Milan, 1842), where Boracchi
describes and illustrates his invention.
"Catullus, Ixiii. 8-10; Claud. De cons. Sttiich. iii. 365; Lucret. ii.
618; Virg. Aen. ix. 619, &c.
7 John Carter, Specimens of Ancient Sculpture, bas-relief from seats
of choir of Worcester cathedral and of collegiate church of St Kath-
enne near the Tower of London (plates, vol. i. following p. 53 and
vol. ii. following p. 22).
» Nat. Hist. ix. 35, 23.
* De re militari, ii. 32 ; iii. 5, &c.
10 Crassus, xxiii. 10. See also Justin xli. 2, and Polydorus, lib. I,
cap. xv.
11 See Isidore of Seville, Etymologiarum, lib. iii. cap. 21, 141 ; Migne,
fair. curs, completus, Ixxxii. 167.
KETTLEDRUM
765
from the Persian tambal, whence is derived the modern French
timbales; nacaire, naquaire or nakeres (English spelling), from
the Arabic nakkarah or noqqarich (Bengali, nagard), and the
German Pauke, M.H.G. Btike or P&ke, which is probably derived
from byk, the Assyrian name of the instrument.
A line in the chronicles of Joinville definitely establishes the
identity of the nakeres as a kind of drum: "Lor il fist sonner
(Geo. Potter & Co. of AJdershot.)
FIG. I. — Mechanical Kettledrum, showing the system
of cords inside the head.
This regiment is now the 2 1st (Empress of India) Lancers.
les labours que Ton appelle nacaires." The nacaire is among
the instruments mentioned by Froissart as having been used
on the occasion of Edward III.'s triumphal entry into Calais
in 1347: " trompes, tambours, nacaires, chalemies, muses."1
Chaucer mentions them in the description of the tournament
in the Knight's Tale (line 2514): —
" Pipes, trompes, nakeres and clarionnes
That in the bataille blowen blody sonnes."
The earliest European illustration showing kettledrums is the
scene depicting Pharaoh's banquet in the fine illuminated MS.
book of Genesis of the 5th or 6th century, preserved in Vienna.
There are two pairs of shallow metal bowls on a table, on which
a woman is performing with two sticks, as an accompaniment
to the double pipes.2 As a companion illumination may be
cited the picture of an Eastern banquet given in a i4th century
MS. at the British Museum (Add. MS. 27,695), illuminated by a
skilled Genoese. The potentate is enjoying the music of various
instruments, among which are two kettledrums strapped to the
back of a Nubian slave. This was the earlier manner of using
1 PantMon litteraire (Paris, 1837), J. A. Buchon, vol. i. cap. 322,
p. 273.
2 Reproduced by Franz Wickhoff, " Die Wiener Genesis," supple-
ment to the I5th and l6th volumes of the Jahrb. d. kunsthistorischen
Sammlungen d. allerhochsten Kaiserhauses (Vienna, 1895) ; see frontis-
piece in colours and plate illustration XXXIV.
the instrument before it became inseparably associated with the
trumpet, sharing its position as the service instrument of the
cavalry. Jost Amman 3 gives a picture of a pair of kettledrums
with banners being played by an armed knight on horseback.
(From Hartel u. Wickhoff's "Die Wiener Genesis," Jahrbuch der kunsthistorischat
Sammlungen des allerhochsten Kaiserhauses.)
Fig. 2. — Kettledrums in an early Christian MS.
As in the case of the trumpet, the use of the kettledrum was
placed under great restrictions in Germany and France and
to some extent in England, but it was used in churches with
the trumpet.4 No French or German regiment was allowed
Fig. 3. — Medieval Kettledrums, I4th century. (Brit. Museum.)
kettledrums unless they had been captured from the enemy,
and the timbalier or the Heerpauker on parade, in reviews
and marches generally, rode at the head of the squadron; in
battle his position was in the wings. In England, before the
Restoration, only the Guards were allowed kettledrums, but
after the accession of James II. every regiment of horse was
provided with them.6 Before the Royal Regiment of Artillery
was established, the master-general of ordnance was responsible
for the raising of trains of artillery. Among his retinue in time
of war were a trumpeter and kettledrummer. The kettledrums
were mounted on a chariot drawn by six white horses. They
appeared in the field for the first time in a train of artillery
during the Irish rebellion of 1689, and the charges for ordnance
* Artliche u. kunstreiche Figuren zu der Reutterey (Frankfort-on-
Main, 1584).
4 See Michael Praetorius, Syntagma Musicum and Monatshefte f.
Musikgeschichte, Jahrgang x. 51.
5 See Georges Kastner, op. cit., pp. 10 and n ; Johann Ernst Alten-
burg, Versuch einer Anleitung z. heroisch-musikalischen Trompeter u.
Paukerkunst (Halle, 1795), p. 128; and H. G. Farmer, Memoirs of
the Royal Artillery Band, p. 23, note I (London, 1904).
y66
KEUPER— KEW
include the item, " large kettledrums mounted on a carriage
with cloaths marked I.R. and cost £158, 95." ' A model
of the kettledrums with their carriage which accompanied the
duke of Marlborough to Holland in 1702 is preserved in the
Rotunda Museum at Woolwich. The kettledrums accompanied
the Royal Artillery train in the Vigo expedition and during the
campaign in Flanders in 1748. Macbean2 states that they
were mounted on a triumphal car ornamented and gilt, bearing
the ordnance flag and drawn by six white horses. The position
of the car on march was in front of the flag gun, and in camp in
front of the quarters of the dukeof Cumberland with the artillery
guns packed round them. The kettledrummer had by order
" to mount the kettledrum carriage every night half an hour
before the sun sett and beat till gun fireing." In 1759 the
kettledrums ceased to form part of the establishment of the
Royal Artillery, and they were deposited, together with their
carriage, in the Tower, at the same time as a pair captured at
Malplaquet in 1709. These Tower drums were frequently
borrowed by Handel for performances of his oratorios.
The kettledrums still form part of the bands of the Life Guards
and other cavalry regiments. (K. S.)
KEUPER, in geology the third or uppermost subdivision of
the Triassic system. The name is a local miners' term of German
origin; it corresponds to the French marnes irisees. The forma-
tion is well exposed in Swabia, Franconia, Alsace and Lorraine
and Luxemburg; it extends from Basel on the east side of the
Rhine into Hanover, and northwards it spreads into Sweden and
through England into Scotland and north-east Ireland; it
appears flanking the central plateau of France and in the Pyrenees
and Sardinia. In the German region it is usual to divide the
Keuper into three groups, the Rhaetic or upper Keuper, the
middle, Hauptkeuper or gypskeuper, and the lower, Kohlenkeuper
or Lettenkolde. In Germany the lower division consists mainly
of grey clays and schieferlelten with white, grey and brightly
coloured sandstone and dolomitic limestone. The upper part
of this division is often a grey dolomite known as the Grenz
dolomite; the impure coal beds — LettenkoUe — are aggregated
towards the base. The middle division is thicker than either
of the others (at Gottingen, 450 metres) ; it consists of a marly
series below, grey, red and green marls with gypsum and dolo-
mite— this is the gypskeuper in its restricted sense. The higher
part of the series is sandy, hence called the Steinmergel; it is
comparatively free from gypsum. To this division belong the
Myophoria beds (M. Raibliana) with galena in places; the
Estheria beds (E. laxitesta); the Schelfsandstein, used as a
building-stone; the Lehrberg and Berg-gyps beds; Semionotus
beds (S. Bergeri) with building-stone of Coburg; and the Burg-
and Stubensandstein. The salt.which is associated with gypsum,
is exploited in south Germany at Dreuze, Pettoncourt, Vie in
Lorraine and Wimpfen on the Neckar. A $-metre coal is found
on this horizon in the Erzgebirge, and another, 2 metres thick,
has been mined in Upper Silesia. The upper Keuper, Rhaetic
or Avicula contorta zone in Germany is mainly sandy with dark
grey shales and marls; it is seldom more than 25 metres thick.
The sandstones are used for building purposes at Bayreuth,
Culmbach and Bamberg. In Swabia and the Wesergebirge are
several " bone-beds," thicker than those in the middle Keuper,
which contain a rich assemblage of fossil remains of fish, reptiles
and the mammalian teeth of Microlestes antiquus and Triglyptus
Fraasi. The name Rhaetic is derived from the Rhaetic Alps
where the beds are well developed; they occur also in central
France, the Pyrenees and England. In S.Tirol and the Judic-
arian Mountains the Rhaetic is represented by the Kossener
beds. In the Alpine region the presence of coral beds gives rise
to the so-called " Lithodendron Kalk."
In Great Britain the Keuper contains the following sub-
divisions: Rhaetic or Penarth beds, grey, red and green marls,
black shales and so-called " white lias " (10-150 ft.). Upper
Keuper marl, red and grey marls and shales with gypsum and
'Miller's Artillery Regimental History; see also H. G. Farmer,
op. cil., p. 22; illustration 1702, p. 26.
1 Memoirs of the Royal A rtillery.
rock salt (800-3000 ft.). Lower Keuper sandstone, marls and
thin sandstones at the top, red and white sandstones (including
the so-called " waterstones ") below, with breccias and con-
glomerates at the base (150-250 ft.). The basal or " dolomitic
conglomerate " is a shore or scree breccia derived from local
materials; it is well developed in the Mendip district. The rock-
salt beds vary from i in. to 100 ft. in thickness; they are exten-
sively worked (mined and pumped) in Cheshire, Middlesbrough
and Antrim. The Keuper covers a large area in the midlands
and around the flanks of the Pennine range; it reaches southward
to the Devonshire coast, eastward into Yorkshire and north-
westward into north Ireland and south Scotland. As in Germany,
there are one or more " bone beds " in the English Rhaetic with
a similar assemblage of fossils. In the " white lias " the upper
hard limestone is known as the " sun bed " or " Jew stone ";
at the base is the Gotham or landscape marble.
Representatives of the Rhaetic are found in south Sweden,
where the lower portion contains workable coals, in the Hima-
layas, Japan, Tibet, Burma, eastern Siberia and in Spitzbergen.
The upper portion of the Karroo beds of South Africa and part
of the Otapiri series of New Zealand are probably of Rhaetic
age.
The Keuper is not rich in fossils; the principal plants are cypress-
like conifers (Walchia, Voltzia) and a few catamites with such forms
as Equisetum arenaceum and Pterophyllum Jaegeri, Avicula
contorta, Protocardium rhaeticum, Terebratula gregaria, Myophoria
costata, M. Goldfassi and Lingula tenuessima, Anoplophoria leltica
may be mentioned among the invertebrates. Fishes include
Ceratodus, Hybodus and Lepidotus. Labyrinthodonts represented
by the footprints of Cheirotherium and the bones of Labyrinthodon,
Mastodonsaurus and Capitosaurus. Among the reptiles are Hy-
perodapedon, Palaeosaurus, Zanclodon, Nothosaurus and Belodon.
Microlestes, the earliest known mammalian genus, has already been
mentioned.
See also the article TRIASSIC SYSTEM. (J. A. H.)
KEW, a township in the Kingston parliamentary division of
Surrey, England, situated on the south bank of the Thames,
6 m. W.S.W. of Hyde Park Corner, London. Pop. (1901), 2699.
A stone bridge of seven arches, erected in 1789, connecting Kew
with Brentford on the other side of the river, was replaced by
a bridge of three arches opened by Edward VII. in 1903 and
named after him. Kew has increased greatly as a residential
suburb of London; the old village consisted chiefly of a row of
houses with gardens attached, situated on the north side of a
green, to the south of which is the church and churchyard and
at the west the principal entrance to Kew Gardens. From
remains found in the bed of the river near Kew bridge it has been
conjectured that the village marks the site of an old British
settlement. The name first occurs in a document of the reign
of Henry VII., where it is spelt Kayhough. The church of
St Anne (1714) has a mausoleum containing the tomb of the duke
of Cambridge (d. 1850) son of George III., and is also the burial-
place of Thomas Gainsborough the artist, Jeremiah Meyer the
painter of miniatures ^.1789), John Zoffany the artist (d. 1810),
Joshua Kirby the architect (d. 1774), and William Aiton the
botanist and director of Kew Gardens (d. 1793).
The free school originally endowed by Lady Capel in 1721
received special benefactions from George IV., and the title of
" the king's free school."
The estate of Kew House about the end of the I7th century
came into the possession of Lord Capel of Tewkesbury, and in
1721 of Samuel Molyneux, secretary to the prince of Wales,
afterwards George II. After his death it was leased by Frederick
prince of Wales, son of George II., and was purchased about 1789
by George III., who devoted his leisure to its improvement. The
old house was pulled down in 1802, and a new mansion was begun
from the designs of James Wyatt, but the king's death prevented
its completion, and in 1827 the portion built was removed.
Dutch House, close to Kew House, was sold by Robert Dudley,
earl of Leicester, to Sir Hugh Portman, a Dutch merchant, late
in the i6th century, and in 1781 was purchased by George III.
as a nursery for the royal children. It is a plain brick structure,
now known as Kew Palace.
KEWANEE— KEY
767
The Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew originated in the exotic
garden formed by Lord Capel and greatly extended by the
princess dowager, widow of Frederick, prince of Wales, and by
George III., aided by the skill of William Aiton and of Sir
Joseph Banks. In 1840 the gardens were adopted as a national
establishment, and transferred to the department of woods
and forests. The gardens proper, which originally contained
only about n acres, were subsequently increased to 75 acres,
and the pleasure grounds or arboretum adjoining extend to
270 acres. There are extensive conservatories, botanical
museums, including the magnificent herbarium and a library.
A lofty Chinese pagoda was erected in 1761. A flagstaff 159 ft.
high is made out of the fine single trunk of a Douglas pine.
In the neighbouring Richmond Old Park is the important Kew
Observatory.
KEWANEE, a city of Henry county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the
N. W. part of the state, about 55 m. N. by W. of Peoria.
Pop. (1900), 8382, of whom 2006 were foreign-born; (1910
census), 9307. It is served by the Chicago Burlington &
Quincy railroad and by the Galesburg & Kewanee Electric
railway. Among its manufactures are foundry and machine-
shop products, boilers, carriages and wagons, agricultural
implements, pipe and fittings, working-men's gloves, &c. In
1905 the total factory product was valued at $6,729,381,
or 6i'5% more than in 1900. Kewanee was settled in 1836
by people from Wethersfield, Connecticut, and was first chartered
as a city in 1897.
KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888), English admiral,
was born in London in 1821, and entered the navy in 1833.
His father was Charles Aston Key (1793-1849), a well-known
surgeon, the pupil of Sir Astley Cooper, and his mother was
the latter's niece. After distinguishing himself in active
service abroad, on the South American station (1844-1846), in
the Baltic during the Crimean War (C.B. 1855) and China (1857),
Key was appointed in 1858 a member of the royal commission
on national defence, in 1860 captain of the steam reserve at
Devonport, and in 1863 captain of H.M.S. " Excellent " and
superintendent of the Royal Naval College. He had a con-
siderable share in advising as to the reorganization of adminis-
tration, and in 1866, having become rear-admiral, was made
director of naval ordnance. Between 1869 and 1872 he held
the offices of superintendent of Portsmouth dockyard, super-
intendent of Malta dockyard, and second in command in the
Mediterranean. In 1872 he was made president of the projected
Royal Naval College at Greenwich, which was organized by him,
and after its opening in 1873 he was made a K.C.B. and a vice-
admiral. In 1876 he was appointed commander-in-chief on the
North American and West Indian station. Having become full
admiral in 1878, he was appointed in 1879 principal A.D.C., and
soon afterwards first naval lord of the admiralty, retaining
this post till 1885. In 1882 he was made G.C.B. He died at
Maidenhead on the 3rd of March, 1888.
See Memoirs of Sir Astley Cooper Key, by Vice- Admiral Colomb
(1898).
KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875), English classical
scholar, was born in London on the 2oth of March, 1799. He
was educated at St John's and Trinity Colleges, Cambridge,
and graduated igth wrangler in 1821. From 1825 to 1827 he
was professor of mathematics in the university of Virginia, and
after his return to England was appointed (1828) professor of
Latin in the newly founded university of London. In 1832
he became joint headmaster of the school founded in connexion
with that institution; in 1842 he resigned the professorship
of Latin, and took up that of comparative grammar together
with the undivided headmastership of the school. These two
posts he held till his death on the 2gth of November 1875.
Key is best known for his introduction of the crude-form (the
uninflected form or stem of words) system, in general use among
Sanskrit grammarians,intothe teaching of the classical languages.
This system was embodied in his Latin Grammar (1846). In
Language, its Origin and Development (1874), he upholds the
onomatopoeic theory. Key was prejudiced against the German
" Sanskritists," and the etymological portion of his Latin
Dictionary, published in 1888, was severely criticized on this
account. He was a member of the Royal Society and president
of the Philological Society, to the Transactions of which he
contributed largely.
See Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xxiv. (1876) ; R. Ellis
in the Academy (Dec. 4, 1875); J. P. Hicks, T. Hewitt Key (1893),
where a full list of his works and contributions is given.
KEY (in O. Eng. cafg; the ultimate origin of the word is
unknown: it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic
languages; until the end of the i7th century the pronunciation
was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf.
daeg, day; claeg, clay; the New English Dictionary takes the
change to kee to be due to northern influence), an instrument of
metal used for the opening and closing of a lock (see LOCK).
Until the I4th century bronze and not iron was most commonly
used. The terminals of the stem of the keys were frequently
decorated, the " bow " or loop taking the form sometimes of a
trefoil, with figures inscribed within it; this decoration increased
in the i6th century, the terminals being made in the shape of
animals and other figures. Still more elaborate ceremonial
keys were used by court officials; a series of chamberlains' keys
used during the i8th and igth centuries in several courts in
Europe is in the British Museum. The terminals are decorated
with crowns, royal monograms and ciphers. The word " key "
is by analogy applied to things regarded as means for the opening
or closing of anything, for the making clear that which is hidden.
Thus it is used of an interpretation as to the arrangement of the
letters or words of a cipher, of a solution of mathematical or other
problems, or of a translation of exercises or books, &c., from a
foreign language. The term is also used figuratively of a place
of commanding strategic position. Thus Gibraltar, the " Key
of the Mediterranean," was granted in 1462 by Henry IV. of
Castile, the arms, gules, a castle proper, with key pendant to
the gate, or; these arms form the badge of the soth regiment
of foot (now 2nd Batt. Essex Regiment) in the British army, in
memory of the part which it took in the siege of 1782. The
word is also frequently applied to many mechanical contrivances
for unfastening or loosening a valve, nut, bolt, &c., such as a
spanner or wrench,'and to the instruments used in tuning a piano-
forte or harp or in winding clocks or watches. A farther
extension of the word is to appliances or devices which serve to
lock or fasten together distinct parts of a structure, as the
" key-stone " of an arch, the wedge or piece of wood, metal, &c.,
which fixes a joint, or a small metal instrument, shaped like
a U, used to secure the bands in the process of sewing in book-
binding.
In musical instruments the term " key " is applied in certain
wind instruments, particularly of the wood-wind type, to the
levers which open and close valves in order to produce various
notes, and in keyboard instruments, such as the organ or the
pianoforte, to the exterior white or black parts of the levers
which either open or shut the valves to admit the wind from
the bellows to the pipes or to release the hammers against the
strings (see KEYBOARD). It is from this application of the word
to these levers in musical instruments that the term is also
used of the parts pressed by the finger in typewriters and in
telegraphic instruments.
A key is the insignia of the office of chamberlain in a royal
household (see CHAMBERLAIN and LORD CHAMBERLAIN). The
" power of the keys " (clavium potestas) in ecclesiastical usage
represents the authority given by Christ to Peter by the words,
" I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven "
(Matt. xvi. 19). This is claimed by the Roman Church to have
been transmitted to the popes as the successors of St Peter.
" Key " was formerly the common spelling of " quay," a
wharf, and is still found in America for "cay," an island reef
or sandbank off the coast of Florida (see QUAY).
The origin of the name Keys or House of Keys, the lower branch
of the legislature, the court of Tynwald, of the Isle of Man, has been
much discussed, but it is generally accepted that it is a particular
application of the word " key " by English- and not Manx-speaking
768
KEYBOARD
people. According to A. W. Moore, History of the Isle of Man,
i. 160 sqq. (1900), in the Manx statutes and records the name of the
house was in 1417 Claves Manniae el Claves legis. Keys of Man and
Keys of the Law; but the popular and also the documentary name till
1585 seems to have been "the 24," in Manx Kiare as feed. From
1585 to 1734 the name was in the statutes, &c., "the 24 Keys," or
simply "the Keys." Moore suggests that the name was possibly
originally due to an English "clerk of the rolls," the members of the
house being called in to " unlock or solve the difficulties of the law."
There is no evidence for the suggestion that Keys is an English cor-
ruption of Kiare-as, the first part of Kiare as feed. Another sugges-
tion is that it is from a Scandinavian word keise, chosen.
KEYBOARD, or MANUAL (Fr. clavier; Ger. Klaviatur; Ital.
tastatura), a succession of keys for unlocking sound in stringed,
wind or percussion musical instruments, together with the case
or board on which they are arranged. The two principal types
of keyboard instruments are the organ and the piano; their
keyboards, although similarly constructed, differ widely in
scope and capabilities. The keyboard of the organ, a purely
mechanical contrivance, is the external means of communicating
with the valves or pallets that open and close the entrances to
the pipes. As its action is incapable of variation at the will
of the performer, the keyboard of the organ remains without
influence on the quality and intensity of the sound. The key-
board of the piano, on the contrary, besides its purely mechanical
function, also forms a sympathetic vehicle of transmission for
the performer's rhythmical and emotional feeling, in consequence
of the faithfulness with which it passes on the impulses communi-
cated by the fingers. The keyboard proper does not, in instru-
ments of the organ and piano types, contain the complete
mechanical apparatus for directly unlocking the sound, but
only that external part of it which is accessible to the performer.
The first instrument provided with a keyboard was the organ;
we must therefore seek for the prototype of the modern keyboard
in connexion with the primitive instrument which marks the transi-
tion between the mere syrinx provided with bellows, in which all the
pipes sounded at once unless stopped by the fingers, and the first
organ in which sound was elicited from a pipe only when unlocked
by means of some mechanical contrivance. The earliest contri-
vance was the simple slider, unprovided with a key or touchpiece and
working in a groove like the lid of a box, which was merely pushed
in or drawn out to open or close the hole that formed the communica-
tion between the wind chest and the hole in the foot of the pipe.
These sliders fulfilled in a simple manner the function of the modern
keys, and preceded the groove and pallet system of the modern
organ. _ We have no clear or trustworthy information concerning
the primitive organ with sliders. Athanasius Kircher1 gives a
drawing of a small mouth-blown instrument under the name of
Magraketha (Mashroqitha',Dan.in. 5) , and Ugolini describesa similar
one, but with a pair of bellows, as the magrephah of the treatise
'Arakhm.' By analogy with the evolution of the organ in central
and western Europe from the 8th to the isth century, of which we
are able to study the various stages, we may conclude that in
principle both drawings were probably fairly representative, even
if nothing better than efforts of the imagination to illustrate a text.
The invention of the keyboard with balanced keys has been placed
by some writers as late as the I3th or I4th century, in spite of its
having been described by both Hero of Alexandria and Vitruvius
and mentioned by poets and writers. The misconception probably
arose from the easy assumption that the organ was the product of
Western skill and that the primitive instruments with sliders found
in nth century documents4 represent the sum of the progress made
in the evolution ; in reality they were the result of a laborious effort
to reconquer a lost an. The earliest trace of a balanced keyboard
we possess is contained in Hero's description of the hydraulic organ
Baid to have been invented by Ctesibius of Alexandria in the 2nd
century B.C. After describing the other parts (see ORGAN), Hero
passes on to the sliders with perforations corresponding with the open
feet of the speaking pipes which, when drawn forward, traverse and
block the pipes. He describes the following contrivances: attached
to the slider is a three-limbed, pivoted elbow-key, which, when
depressed, pushes the slider inwards; in order to provide for its
automatic return when the finger is lifted from the key, a slip of
horn is attached by a gut string to each elbow-key. When the key
is depressed and the slider pushed home, the gut string pulls the slip
of horn and straightens it. As soon as the key is released, the piece
1 See Musurgia, bk. fl., iv. $ 3.
1 Thes. Antiq. Sacra. (Venice, 1744-1769), xxxii. 477.-
1 II. 3 and fpl. 10, 2. 'Ar&khln (" Valuations ") is a treatise
in the Babylonian Talmud. The word Magrephah occurs in the
Mishna, the description of the instrument in the gemara.
4 See the Cividale Prayer Book of St Elizabeth in Arthur Hase-
loff's Bine Sachs.-lhuring. Malerschule, pi. 26, No. 57, also Bible of
St Etienne Harding at Dijon (see ORGAN: History).
of horn, regaining its natural bent by its own elasticity, pulls the
slider out so that the perforation of the slider overlaps and the pipe
is silenced.6 The description of the keyboard by Vitruvius Pollio,
a variant of that of Hero, is less accurate and less complete.' From
evidence discussed in the article ORGAN, it is clear that the principle
of a balanced keyboard was well understood both in the 2nd and in
the 5th century A. p. After this all trace of this important develop-
ment disappears, sliders of all kinds with and without handles doing
duty for keys until the I2th or I3th century, when we find the small
portative organs furnished with narrow keys which appear to be
balanced; the single bellows were manipulated by one hand while
the other fingered the keys. As this little instrument was mainly
used to accompany the voice in simple chaunts, it needed few keys,
at most nine or twelve. The pipes were flue-pipes. A similar
little instrument, having tiny invisible pipes furnished with beating
reeds and a pair of bellows (therefore requiring two performers)
was known as the regal. There are representations of these medieval
balanced keyboards with keys of various shapes, the most common
being the rectangular with or without rounded corners and the
T-shaped. Until the I4th century all the keys were in one row and
of the same level, and although the B flat was used for modulation,
it was merely placed between A and B natural in the sequence of
notes. During the I4th century small square additional keys made
their appearance, one or two to the octave, inserted between the
others in the position of our black keys but not raised. An example
of this keyboard is reproduced by J. F. Rianp7 from a fresco in the
Cistercian monastery of Nuestra Senora de Piedra in Aragon, dated
1390.
So far the history of the keyboard is that of the organ. The only
stringed instruments with keys before this date were the organistrum
and the hurdy-gurdy, in which little tongues of wood manipulated by
handles or keys performed the function of the fingers in stopping
the strings on the neck of the instruments, but they did not influence
the development of the keyboard. The advent of the immediate
precursors of the pianoforte was at hand. In the Wunderbuch*
(1440), preserved in the Grand Ducal Library at Weimar, are repre-
sented a number of musical instruments, all named. Among them
are a clavichordium and a clavicymbalum with narrow additional keys
let in between the wider ones, one to every group of two large keys.
The same arrangement prevailed in a clavicymbalum figured in an
anonymous MS. attributed to the 1 4th century, preserved in the
public library at Ghent9 ; from the lettering over the jacksand strings,
of which there are but eight, it would seem as though the draughts-
man had left the accidentals out of the scheme of notation. These are
the earliest known representations of instruments with keyboards.
The exact date at which our chromatic keyboard came into use has
not been discovered, but it existed in the I5th century and may be
studied in the picture of St Cecilia playing the organ on the Ghent
altarpiece painted by the brothers Hubert and Jan van Eyck.
Praetorius distinctly states that the large Halberstadt organ had the
keyboard which he figures (plates xxiv. and xxv.) from the outset,
and reproduces the inscription asser^itag that the organ was built
in 1361 by the priest Nicolas Fabri zSRT was renovated in 1495 by
Gregorius Kleng. The keyboard of this organ has the arrangement
of the present day with raised black notes; it is not improbable
that Praetorius's statement was correct, for Germany and the Nether-
lands led the van in organ-building during the middle ages.
At the beginning of the i6th century, to facilitate the playing of
contrapuntal music having a drone bass or point d'orgue, the arrange-
ment of the pipes of organs and of the strings of spinets and harp-
sichords was altered, with the result that the lowest octave of the
keyboard was made in what is known as short measure, or mi, r6, ut,
i.e. a diatonic with B flat included, but grouped in the space of a
sixth instead of appearing as a full octave. In order to carry out
this device, the note below F was C, instead of E, the missing D and
E and the B flat being substituted for the three sharps of F, G and
A, and appearing as black notes, thus: —
D E Bb
C F G A B C,
or if the lowest note appeared to be B, it sounded as G and the
arrangement was as follows: —
A B
G C D E F G.
This was the most common scheme for the short octave during the
1 6th and 1 7th centuries, although others are occasionally found.
Praetorius also gives examples in which the black notes of the short
octave were divided into two halves, or separate keys, the forward
"See the original Greek with translation by Charles Maclean in
The Principle of the Hydraulic Organ," Intern. Musikges. vi. 2,
219-220 (Leipzig 1905).
6 See C16ment Loret's account in Revue arch&oloeique, pp. 76-102
(Paris, 1890).
7 Early Hist, of Spanish Music (London, 1807).
8 Reproduced by Dr Alwin Schulz in Deutsches Leben im XIV. u.
V.^Jhdt., figs. 522 seq. (Vienna, 1892).
' " De diversis monocordis, pentacordis, etc., ex quibus diversa
formantur instrumenta musica," reproduced by Earn, van der
Straeten in Hist, de la musique aux Pays-Bas, i. 278.
KEYSTONE— KHAIRPUR
769
half for the drone note, the back half for the chromatic semitone,
thus:—
I* !*
DEB),
C F G A B C
This arrangement, which accomplishes its object without sacrifice,
was to be found early in the I7th century in the organs of the
monasteries of Riddageshausen and of Bayreuth in Vogtland.
See A. J. Hipkins, History of the Pianoforte (London, 1896), and
the older works of Girolamo Diruta (1597), Praetorius (1618), and
Mersenne (1636). (K. S.)
KEYSTONE, the central voussoir of an arch (q.v.). The
Etruscans and the Romans emphasized its importance by
decorating it with figures and busts, and, in their triumphal
arches, projected it forward and utilized it as an additional
support to the architrave above. Throughout the Italian
period it forms an important element in the design, and serves
to connect the arch with the horizontal mouldings running
above it. In Gothic architecture there is no keystone, but
the junction of pointed ribs at their summit is sometimes
decorated with a boss to mask the intersection.
KEY WEST (from the Spanish Cayo Hueso, " Bone Reef "), a
city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Monroe county,
Florida, U.S.A., situated on a small coral island (4|m. long
and about i m. wide) of the same name, 60 m. S. W. of Cape Sable,
the most southerly point of the mainland. It is connected by
lines of steamers with Miami and Port Tampa, with Galveston,
Texas, with Mobile, Alabama, with Philadelphia and New York
City, and with West Indian ports, and by regular schooner lines
with New York City, the Bahamas, British Honduras, &c. There
is now an extension of the Florida East Coast railway from
Miami to Key West (155 m.). Pop. (1880), 9890; (1890), 18,080;
(1900), 17,114, of whom 7266 were foreign-born and 5562 were
negroes; (1910 census), 19,945. The island is notable for its
tropical vegetation and climate. The jasmine, almond, banana,
cork and coco-nut palm are among the trees. The oleander
grows here to be a tree, and there is a banyan tree, said to be the
only one growing out of doors in the United States. There are
many species of plants in Key West not found elsewhere in North
America. The mean annual temperature is 76° F., and the mean
of the hottest months is 82-2° F.; that of the coldest months is
69° F.; thus the mean range of temperature is only 13°. The
precipitation is 35 in.; most of the rain falls in the " rainy season"
from May to November, and is preserved in cisterns by the in-
habitants as the only supply of drinking water. The number of
cloudy days per annum averages 60. The city occupies the
highest portion of the island. The harbour accommodates
vessels drawing 27 ft.; vessels of 27-30 ft. draft can enter by
either the " Main Ship " channel or the south-west channel; the
south-east channel admits vessels of 25 ft. draft or less; and
four other channels may be used by vessels of 15-19 ft. draft.
The harbour is defended by Fort Taylor, built on the island of
Key West in 1846, and greatly improved and modernized after
the Spanish-American War of 1898. Among the buildings are
the United States custom house, the city hall, a convent, and a
public library.
In 1869 the insignificant population of Key West was greatly
increased by Cubans who left their native island after an attempt
at revolution; they engaged in the manufacture of tobacco, and
Key West cigars were soon widely known. Towards the close of
the i gth century this industry suffered from labour troubles,
from the competition of Tampa, Florida, and from the commercial
improvement of Havana, Cuba; but soon after 1900 the tobacco
business of Key West began to recover. Immigrants from the
Bahama Islands form another important element in the popu-
lation. They are known as " Conchs," and engage in sponge
fishing. In 1905 the value of factory products was $4,254,024
(an increase of 37-7% over the value in 1900); the exports
in 1907 were valued at $852,457; the imports were valued at
$994,472, the excess over the exports being due to the fact that
the food supply of the city is derived from other Florida ports
and from the West Indies.
According to tradition the native Indian tribes of Key West,
xv. 25
after being almost annihilated by the Caloosas, fled to Cuba.
There are relics of early European occupation of the island which
suggest that it was once the resort of pirates. The city was settled
about 1822. The Seminole War and the war of the United
States with Mexico gave it some military importance. In 1861
Confederate forces attempted to seize Fort Taylor, but they were
successfully resisted by General William H. French.
KHABAROVSK (known as KHABAROVKA until 1895), a town
of Asiatic Russia, capital of the Amur region and of the Maritime
Province. Pop. (1897), 14,932. It was founded in 1858 and
is situated on a high cliff on the right bank of the Amur, at its
confluence with the Usuri, in 48° 28' N. and 135° 6' E. It is
connected by rail with Vladivostok (480 m.), and is an important
entrepot for goods coming down the Usuri and its tributary the
Sungacha, as well as a centre of trade, especially in sables. The
town is built of wood, and has a large cathedral, a monument
(1891) to Count Muraviev-Amurskiy, a cadet corps (new building
1904), a branch of the Russian Geographical Society, with
museum, and a technical railway school.
KHAIRA6ARH, a feudatory state in the Central Provinces,
India. Area, 931 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 137,554, showing a decrease
of 24% in the decade due to the effects of famine; estimated
revenue, £20,000; tribute £4600. The chief, who is descended
from the old Gond royal family, received the title of raja as an
hereditary distinction in 1898. The state includes a fertile plain,
yielding rice and cotton. Its prosperity has been promoted by
the Bengal-Nagpur railway, which has a station at Dongargarh,
the largest town (pop. 5856), connected by road with Khairagarh
town, the residence of the raja.
KHAIREDDIN (Khair-ed-Din = "Joy of Religion") (d.
1890), Turkish statesman, was of Circassian race, but nothing is
known about his birth and parentage. In early boyhood he was
in the hands of a Tunisian slave-dealer, by whom he was sold to
Hamuda Pasha, then bey of Tunis, who gave him his freedom and
a French education. When Khaireddin left school the bey made
him steward of his estates, and from this position he rose to be
minister of finance. When the prime minister, Mahmud ben
Ayad, absconded to France with the treasure-chest of the beylic,
Hamuda despatched Khaireddin to obtain the extradition of the
fugitive. The mission failed; but the six years it occupied enabled
Khaireddin to make himself widely known in France, to become
acquainted with French political ideas and administrative
methods, and, on his return to Tunisia, to render himself more
than ever useful to his government. Hamuda died while Khair-
eddin was in France, but he was highly appreciated by the three
beys — Ahmet (1837), Mohammed (1855), and Sadok (1859) —
who in turn followed Hamuda, and to his influence was due the
sequence of liberal measures which distinguished their successive
reigns. Khaireddin also secured for the reigning family the con-
firmation from the sultan of Turkey of their right of succession
to the beylic. But although Khaireddin's protracted residence
in France had imbued him with liberal ideas, it had not made him
a French partisan, and he strenuously opposed the French scheme
of establishing a protectorate over Tunisia upon which France
embarked in the early 'seventies. This rendered him obnoxious
to Sadok's prime minister — an apostate Jew named Mustapha
ben Ismael — who succeeded in completely undermining the bey's
confidence in him. His position thus became untenable in
Tunisia, and shortly after the accession of Abdul Hamid he
acquainted the sultan with his desire to enter the Turkish service.
In 1877 the sultan bade him come to Constantinople, and on his
arrival gave him a seat on the Reform Commission then sitting
atTophane. Early in 1879 the sultan appointed himgrand vizier,
and shortly afterwards he prepared a scheme of constitutional
government, but Abdul Hamid refused to have anything to do
with it. .Thereupon Khaireddin resigned office, on the 28th of
July 1879. More than once the sultan offered him anew the
grand vizierate, but Khaireddin persistently refused it, and thus
incurred disfavour. He died on the 3oth of January 1890,
practically a prisoner in his own house.
KHAIRPUR, or KHYRPOOR, a native state of India, in the
Sind province of Bombay. Area, 6050 sq. m.; pop. (IQOI),
770
KHAJRAHO— KHAMSIN
199,313, showing an apparent increase of 55 % in the decade;
estimated revenue, £90,000. Like other parts of Sind, Khairpur
consists of a great alluvial plain, very rich and fertile in the
neighbourhood of the Indus and the irrigation canals, the remain-
ing area being a continuous series of sand-hill ridges covered
with a stunted brushwood, where cultivation is altogether
impossible. A small ridge of limestone hills passes through the
northern part of the state, being a continuation of a ridge known
as the Ghar, running southwards from Rohri. The state is
watered by five canals drawn off from the Indus, besides the
Eastern Nara, a canal which follows an old bed of the Indus.
In the desert tracts are pits of natron.
KHAIRPUR town is situated on a canal 15 m. E. of the Indus,
with a railway station, 20 m. S. of Sukkur, on the Kotri-Rohri
branch of the North-Western railway, which here crosses a
corner of the state. Pop. (1901), 14,014. There are manu-
factures of cloth, carpets, goldsmiths' work and arms, and an
export trade in indigo, grain and oilseeds.
The chief, or mir, of Khairpur belongs to a Baluch family, known
as the Talpur, which rose on the fall of the Kalhora dynasty of Sind.
About 1813, during the troubles in Kabul incidental to the establish-
ment of the Barakzai dynasty, the mirs were able to withhold the
tribute which up to that date had been somewhat irregularly paid
to the rulers of Afghanistan. In 1832 the individuality of the Khair-
pur state was recognized by the British government in a treaty
under which the use of the river Indus and the roads of Sind were
secured. When the first Kabul expedition was decided on, the mir
of Khairpur, AH Murad, cordially supported the British policy;
and the result was that, after the battles of Meeanee and Daba had
put the whole of Sind at the disposal of the British, Khairpur was
the only state allowed to retain its political existence under the pro-
tection of the paramount power. The chief mir, Faiz Mahommed
Khan, G.C.I.E., who was an enlightened rujer, died in 1909, shortly
after returning from a pilgrimage to the Shiite shrine of Kerbela.
KHAJRAHO, a village of Central India, in the state of
Chhatarpur, famous for its old temples; pop. (1901), 1242. It
is believed to have been the capital of the ancient kingdom of
Ji'jhoti, corresponding with modern Bundelkhand. The temples
consist of three groups: Saiva, Vaishnav and Jain, almost all
built in the loth and nth centuries. They are covered outside
and inside with elaborate sculptures, and also bear valuable
inscriptions.
KHAKI (from Urdu khak, dust), originally a dust-coloured
fabric, of the character of canvas, drill or holland, used by the
British and native armies in India. . It seems to have been first
worn by the Guides, a mixed regiment of frontier troops, in 1848,
and to have spread to other regiments during the following years.
Some at any rate of the British troops had uniforms of khaki
during the Indian Mutiny (1857-58), and thereafter drill or
holland (generally called " khaki " whatever its colour) became
the almost universal dress of British and native troops in Asia
and Africa. During the South African War of 1899-1902, drill
of a sandy shade of brown was worn by all troops sent out
from Great Britain and the Colonies. Khaki drill, however,
proved unsuitable material for the cold weather in the uplands
of South Africa, and after a time the troops were supplied with
dust-coloured serge uniforms. Since 1900 all drab and green-
grey uniforms have been, unofficially at any rate, designated
khaki.
KHALIFA, THE. ABDULLAH ET TAAISHA (Seyyid Abdullah
ibn Seyyid Mahommed) (1846-1899), successor of the mahdi
Mahommed Ahmed, born in 1846 in the south-western portion
of Darfur, was a member of the Taaisha section of the Baggara
or cattle-owning Arabs. His father, Mahommed et Taki, had
determined to emigrate to Mecca with his family; but the
unsettled state of the country long prevented him, and he died
in Africa after a Ivising his eldest son, Abdullah, to take refuge
with some religious sheikh on the Nile, and to proceed to Mecca
on a favourable opportunity. Abdullah, who had already had
much connexion with slave-hunters, and had fought against the
Egyptian conquest of Darfur, departed for the Nile valley with
this purpose; hearing on the way of the disputes of Mahommed
Ahmed, who had not yet claimed a sacred character, with the
Egyptian officials, he went to him in spite of great difficulties,
and, according to his own statement, at once recognized in him
the mahdi (" guide ") divinely appointed to regenerate Islam in
the latter days. His advice to Mahommed to stir up revolt in
Darfur and Kordofan being justified by the result, he became
his most trusted counsellor, and was soon declared principal
khalifa or vicegerent of the mahdi, all of whose acts were to
be regarded as the mahdi's own. The mahdi on his deathbed
(1885) solemnly named him his successor; and for thirteen years
Abdullah ruled over what had been the Egyptian Sudan.
Khartum was deserted by his orders, and Omdurman, at first
intended as a temporary camp, was made his capital. At length
the progress of Sir Herbert (afterwards Lord) Kitchener's
expedition compelled him to give battle to the Anglo-Egyptian
forces near Omdurman, where on the 2nd of September 1898 his
army, fighting with desperate courage, was almost annihilated.
The khalifa, who had not left Omdurman since the death of
the mahdi, fled to Kordofan with the remnant of his host. On
the 25th of November 1899 he gave battle to a force under
Colonel (afterwards General Sir) F. R. Wingate, and was
slain at Om Debreikat. He met death with great fortitude,
refusing to fly, and his principal amirs voluntarily perished with
him.
The khalifa was a man of iron will and great energy, and
possessed some military skill. By nature tyrannical, he was
impatient of all opposition and appeared to delight in cruelty.
It must be remembered, however, that he had to meet the secret
or open hostility of all the tribes of the Nile valley and that his
authority was dependent on his ability to overawe his opponents.
He maintained in public the divine character of the power he
inherited from the mahdi and inspired his followers to perform
prodigies of valour. Although he treated many of his European
captives with terrible severity he never had any of them executed.
It is said that their presence in Omdurman ministered to his
vanity — one of the most marked features of his character. In
private life he showed much affection for his family.
Personal sketches of the khalifa are given in Slatin Pasha's Fire
and Sword in the Sudan (London, 1896), and in Father Ohrwalder's
Ten Years in the Mahdi's Camp (London, 1892). See also Sir F. R.
Wingate 's Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan (London, 1891).
KHALIL IBN AHMAD [ABU 'ABDURRAHMAN UL-KHALIL IBN
AHMAD IBN 'AMR IBN TAMIM] (718-791), Arabian philologist, was
a native of Oman. He was distinguished for having written the
first Arabic dictionary and for having first classified the Arabic
metres and laid down their rules. He was also a poet, and lived
the ascetic life of a poor student. His grammatical work was
carried on by his pupil Sibawaihi. The dictionary known as the
Kitab-id-'Ain is ascribed, at least in its inception, to Khalil. It
was probably finished by one of his pupils and was not known in
Bagdad until 862. The words were not arranged in alphabetical
order but according to physiological principles, beginning with
'Ain and ending with Ya. The work seems to have been in
existence as late as the i4th century, but is now only known
from extracts in manuscript.
Various grammatical works are ascribed to Khalil, but their
authenticity seems doubtful; cf. C. Brockelmann, Cesch. der
arabischen Literatur, i. loo (Weimar, 1898). (G. W. T.)
KHAMGAON. a town of India, in the Buldana district of
Berar, 340 m. N.E. of Bombay. Pop. (1901), 18,341. It is an
important centre of the cotton trade. The cotton market, the
second in the province, was established about 1820. Khamgaon
was connected in 1870 with the Great Indian Peninsula railway
by a short branch line.
KHAMSEH, a small but important province of Persia, between
Kazvin and Tabriz. It consisted formerly of five districts,
whence its name Khamseh, " the five," but is now subdivided
into seventeen districts. The language of the inhabitants is
Turkish. The province pays a revenue of about £20,000 per
annum, and its capital is Zen Jan.
KHAMSIN (Arabic for " fifty "), a hot oppressive wind arising
in the Sahara. It blows in Egypt at intervals for about fifty
days during March, April and May, and fills the air with sand.
In Guinea the wind from the Sahara is known as harmattan (q.v.).
KHAMTIS— KHARGA
771
KHAMTIS, a tribe of the north-east frontier of India,
dwelling in the hills bordering the Lakhimpur district of Assam.
They are of Shan origin, and appear to have settled in their
present abode in the middle of the i8th century. In 1839 they
raided the British outpost of Sadiya, but they have since given
no trouble. Their headquarters are in a valley 200 m. from
Sadiya, which can be reached only over high passes and through
dense jungle. In 1901 the number of speakers of Khamti was
returned as only 1490, mostly in Burma.
KHAN (from the TurkI, hence Persian and Arabic Khan), a
title of respect in Mahommedan countries. It is a contracted
form of khaqan (khakan), a word equivalent to sovereign or
emperor, used among the Mongol and Turki-nomad hordes.
The title khan was assumed by Jenghis when he became supreme
ruler of the Mongols; his successors became known in Europe
as the Great Khans (sometimes as the Chams, &c.) of Tatary or
Cathay. Khan is still applied to semi-independent rulers, such
as the khans of Russian Turkestan, or the khan of Kalat in
Baluchistan, and is also used immediately after the name of
rulers such as the sultan of Turkey; the meaning of the term has
also extended downwards, until in Persia and Afghanistan it has
become an affix to the name of any Mahommedan gentleman,
like Esquire, and in India it has become a part of many Mahom-
medan names, especially when Pathan descent is claimed.
The title of Khan Bahadur is conferred by the British govern-
ment on Mahommedans and also on Parsis.
KHANDESH, EAST and WEST, two districts of British
India, in the central division of Bombay. They were formed
in 1906 by the division of the old single district of Khandesh.
Their areas are respectively 4544 sq. m. and 5497 sq. m., and
the population on these areas in 1901 was 957,728 and 469,654.
The headquarters of East Khandesh are at Jalgaon, and those
of West Khandesh at Dhulia.
The principal natural feature is the Tapti river, which flows
through both districts from east to west and divides each into two
unequal parts. Of these the larger lie towards the south, and
are drained by the rivers Girna, Bori and Panjhra. Northwards
beyond the alluvial plain, which contains some of the richest
tracts in Khandesh, the land rises towards the Satpura hills.
In the centre and east the country is level, save for some low
ranges of barren hills, and has in general an arid, unfertile
appearance. Towards the north and west, the plain rises into a
difficult and rugged country, thickly wooded, and inhabited by
wild tribes of Bhils, who chiefly support themselves on the fruits
of the forests and by wood-cutting. The drainage of the district
centres in the Tapti, which receives thirteen principal tributaries
in its course through Khandesh. None of the rivers is navigable,
and the Tapti flows in too deep a bed to be useful for irrigation.
The district on the whole, however, is fairly well supplied with
surface water. Khandesh is not rich in minerals. A large area
is under forest; but the jungles have been denuded of most of
their valuable timber. Wild beasts are numerous. In 1901 the
population of the old single district was 1,427,382, showing an
increase of less than i% in the decade. Of the aboriginal
tribes the Bhils are the most important. They number 167,000,
and formerly were a wild and lawless robber tribe. Since the
introduction of British rule, the efforts made by kindly treatment,
and by the offer of suitable employment, to win the Bhils from
their disorderly life have been most successful. Many of them
are now employed in police duties and as village watchmen. The
principal crops are millets, cotton, pulse, wheat and oilseeds.
There are many factories for ginning and pressing cotton, and a
cotton-mill at Jalgaon. The eastern district is traversed by
the Great Indian Peninsula railway, which branches at Bhusawal
(an important centre of trade) towards Jubbulpore and Nagpur.
Both districts are crossed by the Tapti Valley line from Surat.
Khandesh suffered somewhat from famine in 1896-1897, and
more severely in 1899-1900.
KHANDWA, a town of British India, in the Nimar district of
the Central Provinces, of which it is the headquarters, 353 m.
N.E. of Bombay by rail. Pop. (1901), 19,401. Khandwa is an
ancient town, with Jain and other temples. As a centre of
trade, it has superseded the old capital of Burhanpur. It is an
important railway junction, where the Malwa line from Indore
meets the main line of the Great Indian Peninsula. There are
factories for ginning and pressing cotton, and raw cotton is
exported.
KHANSA (Tumadir bint 'Amr, known as al-Khansa) (d.
c. 645), Arabian poetess of the tribe Sulaim, a branch of Qais,
was born in the later years of the 6th century and brought up in
such wealth and luxury as the desert could give. Refusing the
offer of Duraid ibn us-Simma, a poet and prince, she married
Mirdas and had by him three sons. Afterwards she married again.
Before the time of Islam she lost her brothers Sakhr and Moawiya
in battle. Her elegies, written on these brothers and on her
father made her the most famous poetess of her time. At the
fair of 'Ukaz Nabigha Dhubyani is said to have placed A'sha first
among the poets then present and Khansa second above Hassan
ibn Thabit. Khansa with her tribe accepted Islam somewhat
late, but persisted in wearing the heathen sign of mourning,
against the precepts of Islam. Her four sons fought in the armies
of Islam and were slain in the battle of Kadislya. Omar wrote
her a letter congratulating her on their heroic end and assigned
her a pension. She died in her tent c. 645. Her daughter
'Amra also wrote poetry. Opinion was divided among later
critics as to whether Khansa or Laila (see ARABIC LITERATURE:
§ Poetry) was the greater.
Her diwan has been edited by L. Cheikho (Beirut, 1895) and trans-
lated into French by De Coppier (Beirut, 1889). Cf. T. Noldeke's
Beitrdge zur Kenntniss der Poesie der alien Araber (Hanover,
1864). Stories of her life are contained in the Kitab ul-Aghdni,
xiii. 136-147. (G. W. T.)
KHAR, a small but very fertile province of Persia, known
by the ancients as Choara and Choarene; pop. about 10,000.
The governor of the province resides at Kishlak Khar, a large
village situated 62 m. S.E. of Teheran, or at Aradan, a village
10 m. farther E. The province has an abundant water-supply
from the Hableh-rud, and produces great quantities of wheat,
barley and rice. Of the £6000 which it pays to the state, more
than £4000 is paid in kind — wheat, barley, straw and rice.
KHARAGHODA, a village of British India, in the Ahmedabad
district of Bombay, situated on the Little Runn of Cutch, and
the terminus of a branch railway; pop. (1901), 2108. Here is
the government factory of salt, known as Baragra salt, producing
nearly 2,000,000 cwt. a year, most of which is exported to
other provinces in Central and Northern India.
KHARGA (WAH EL-KHARGA, the outer oasis), the largest
of the Egyptian oases, and hence frequently called the Great
Oasis. It lies in the Libyan desert between 24° and 26° N. and
30° and 31° E., the chief town, also called Kharga, being 435 m.
by rail S. by W. of Cairo. It is reached by a narrow-gauge line
(opened in 1908) from Kharga junction, a station on the Nile
valley line near Farshut. The oasis consists of a depression in
the desert some 1200 sq. m. in extent, and is about 100 m. long
N. to S. and from 12 to 50 broad E. to W. Formerly, and into
historic times, a lake occupied a considerable part of the depres-
sion, and the thick deposits of clay and sand then laid down now
form the bulk of the cultivated lands of the oasis. It includes,
however, a good deal of desert land. The inhabitants numbered
(1907 census) 8348. They are of Berber stock. Administra-
tively the oasis forms part of the mudiria of Assiut. It is
practically rainless, and there is not now a single natural flowing
spring. There are, however, numerous wells, water being ob-
tained freely from the porous sandstone which underlies a great
part of the Libyan desert. Some very ancient wells are 400 ft.
deep. In water-bearing sandstones near the surface there are
underground aqueducts dating from Roman times. The oasis
contains many groves of date palms, there being over 60,000
adult trees in 1907. The dom palm, tamarisk, acacia and wild
senna are also found. Rice, barley and wheat are the chief
cereals cultivated, and lucerne for fodder. Besides agriculture
the only industry is basket and mat making — from palm leaves
and fibre. Since 1906 extensive boring and land reclamation
works have been undertaken in the oasis.
772
KHARKOV— KHARPUT
The name of the oasis appears in hieroglyphics as Kenem, and
that of its capital as Hebi (the plough). In Pharaonic times it
supported a large population, but the numerous ruins are mostly
of later date. The principal ruin, a temple of Ammon, built
under Darius, is of sandstone, 142 ft. long by 63 ft. broad and
30 ft. in height. South-east is another temple, a square stone
building with the name of Antoninus Pius over one of the en-
trances. On the eastern escarpment of the oasis on the way to
Girga are the remains of a large Roman fort with twelve bastions.
On the road to Assiut is a fine Roman columbarium or dove-cote.
Next to the great temple the most interesting ruin in the oasis is,
however, the necropolis, a burial-place of the early Christians,
placed on a hill 3 m. N. of the town of Kharga. There are some
two hundred rectangular tomb buildings in unburnt brick with
ornamented fronts. In most of the tombs is a chamber in which
the mummy was placed, the Egyptian Christians at first con-
tinuing this method of preserving the bodies of their dead. In
several of the tombs and in the chapel of the cemetery is painted
the Egyptian sign of life, which was confounded with the Chris-
tian cross. The chapel is basilican; in it and in another building
in the necropolis are crude frescoes of biblical subjects.
Kharga town (pop. 1907 census, 5362) is picturesquely situated
amid palm groves. The houses are of sun-dried bricks, the streets
narrow and winding and for the most part roofed over, the roofs
carrying upper storeys. Some of the streets are cut through the
solid rock. South of the town are the villages of Genna, Guehda
(with a temple dedicated to Ammon, Mut and Khonsu), Bulak
(pop. 1012), Dakakin, Beris (pop. 1564), Dush (with remains of
a fine temple bearing the names of Domitian and Hadrian), &c.
Kharga is usually identified with the city of Oasis mentioned
by Herodotus as being seven days' journey from Thebes and
called in Greek the Island of the Blessed. The oasis was tra-
versed by the army of Cambyses when on its way to the oasis of
Ammon (Siwa), the army perishing in the desert before reaching
its destination. During the Roman period, as it had also been
in Pharaonic times, Kharga was used as a place of banishment,
the most notable exile being Nestorius, sent thither after his
condemnation by the council of Ephesus. Later it became a
halting-place for the caravans of slaves brought from Darfur to
Egypt.
About 100 m. W. of Kharga is the oasis of Dakhla, the inner
or receding oasis, so named in contrast to Kharga as being farther
from the Nile. Dakhla has a population (1907) of 18,368. Its
chief town, El Kasr, has 3602 inhabitants. The principal ruin, of
Roman origin and now called Deir el Hagar (the stone convent),
is of considerable size. The Theban triad were the chief deities
worshipped here. Some 120 m. N.W. of Dakhla is the oasis of
Farafra, population about 1000, said to be the first of the oases
conquered by the Moslems from the Christians. It is noted for
the fine quality of its olives. The Baharia, or Little Oasis
(pop. about 6000), lies 80 m. N.N.E. of Farafra. Many of its
inhabitants, who are of Berber race, are Senussites. Baharia is
about 250 m. E.S.E. of the oasis of Siwa (see EGYPT: The Oases;
and SIWA).
See H. Brugsch, Reise nach dem grossen Oase el-Khargeh in der
Libyschen Wiiste (Leipzig, 1878); H. J. L. Beadnell, An Egyptian
Oasis (London, 1909); Murray's Handbook for Egypt, nth ed.
(London, 1907); Geological and Topographical Report on Kharga
Oasis (1899), on Farafra Oasis (1899), on Dakhla Oasis (1900), on
Baharia Oasis (1903), all issued by the Public Works Department,
Cairo. (F. R. C.)
KHARKOV, a government of Little Russia, surrounded by
those of Kursk, Poltava, Ekaterinoslav, territory of the Don
Cossacks, and Voronezh, and belonging partly to the basin of
the Don and partly to that of the Dnieper. The area is 21,035
sq. m. In general the government is a table-land, with an eleva-
tion of 300 to 450 ft., traversed by deep-cut river valleys. The
soil is for the most part of high fertility, about 57 % of the surface
being arable land and 24% natural pasture; and though the
winter is rather severe, the summer heat is sufficient for the
ripening of grapes and melons in the open air. The bulk of
the population is engaged in agricultural pursuits and the
breeding of sheep, cattle and horses, though various manufactur-
ing industries have developed rapidly, more especially since the
middle of the igth century. Horses are bred for the army, and
the yield of wool is of special importance. The ordinary cereals,
maize, buckwheat, millet, hemp, flax, tobacco, poppies, potatoes
and beetroot are all grown, and bee-keeping and silkworm-rearing
are of considerable importance. Sixty-three per cent, of the land
is owned by the peasants, 25% by the nobility, 6% by owners
of other classes, and 6% by the crown and public institutions.
Beetroot sugar factories, cotton-mills, distilleries, flour-mills,
tobacco factories, brickworks, breweries, woollen factories, iron-
works, pottery-kilns and tanneries are the leading industrial
establishments. Gardening is actively prosecuted. Salt is
extracted at Slavyansk. The mass of the people are Little
Russians, but there are also Great Russians, Kalmucks, Germans,
Jews and Gypsies. In 1867 the total population was 1,681,486,
and in 1897 2,507,277, of whom 1,242,892 were women and
367,602 lived in towns. The estimated population in 1906 was
2,983,900. The government is divided into eleven districts.
The chief town is Kharkov (q.ii.). The other district towns,
with their populations in 1897, are Akhtyrka (25,965 in 1900),
Bogodukhov (11,928), Izyum (12,559), Kupyansk (7256),
Lebedin (16,684), Starobyelsk (13,128), Sumy (28,519 in 1900),
Valki (8842), Volchansk (11,322), and Zmiyev (4652).
KHARKOV, a town of southern Russia, capital of the above
government, in 56° 37' N. and 25° 5' E., in the valley of the
Donets, 152 m. by rail S.S.E. of Kursk. Oak forests bound it
on two sides. Pop. (1867), 59,968; (1900), 197,405. Kharkov is
an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church, and the
headquarters of the X. army corps. The four annual fairs are
among the busiest in Russia, more especially the Kreshchen-
skaya or Epiphany fair, which is opened on the 6th (i9th) of
January, and the Pokrovsky fair in the autumn. The turnover
at the former is estimated at £3,000,000 to £4,000,000. Thou-
sands of horses are bought and sold. At the Trinity (Troitsa)
fair in June an extensive business (£800,000) is done in wool. A
great variety of manufactured goods are produced in the town —
linen, felt, beetroot sugar, tobacco, brandy, soap, candles, cast-
iron. Kharkov is an educational centre for the higher and
middle classes. Besides a flourishing university, instituted in
1805, and attended by from 1600 to 1700 students, it possesses a
technological institute (400 students), a railway engineering
school, an observatory, a veterinary college, a botanical garden,
a theological seminary, and a commercial school. The univer-
sity building was formerly a royal palace. The library contains
170,000 volumes; and the zoological collections are especially
rich in the birds and fishes of southern Russia. Public gardens
occupy the site of the ancient military works; and the govern-
ment has a model farm in the neighbourhood. Of the Orthodox
churches one has the rank of cathedral (1781). Among the
public institutions are a people's palace (1903) and an industrial
museum.
The foundation of Kharkov is assigned to 1650, but there is
archaeological evidence of a much earlier occupation of the district,
if not of the site. The Cossacks of Kharkov remained faithful to the
tsar during the rebellions of the latter part of the ijth century,
in return they received numerous privileges, and continued to be a
strong advance-guard of the Russian power, till the final subjugation
of all the southern region. With other military settlements Kharkov
was placed on a new footing in 1765 ; and at the same time it became
the administrative centre of the Ukraine.
KHARPUT, the most important town in the Kharput (or
Mamuret el-Aziz) vilayet of Asia Minor, situated at an altitude of
4350 ft., a few miles south of the Murad Su or Eastern Euphrates,
and almost as near the source of the Tigris, on the Samsun-
Sivas-Diarbekr road. Pop. about 20,000. The town is built on
a hill terrace about 1000 ft. above a well-watered plain of excep-
tional fertility which lies to the south and supports a large popu-
lation. Kharput probably stands on or near the site of Carcathio-
cerla in Sophene, reached by Corbulo in A.D. 65. The early
Moslem geographers knew it as Hisn Ziyad, but the Armenian
name was Khartabirt or Kharbirt, whence Kharput. Ccdrenus
(nth century) writes XapTrore. There is a story that in 1122
KHARSAWAN— KHASI
773
Joscelin (Jocelyn) of Courtenay, and Baldwin II., king of Jeru-
salem, both prisoners of the Amir Balak in its castle, were mur-
dered by being cast from its cliffs after an attempted rescue.
The story is told by William of Tyre, who calls the place Quart
Piert or Pierre, but it is a mere romance. Kharput is an impor-
tant station of the American missionaries, who have built a
college, a theological seminary, and boys' and girls' schools.
In November 1895 Kurds looted and burned the Armenian
villages on the plain; and in the same month Kharput was at-
tacked and the American schools were burned down. A large
number of the Gregorian and Protestant Armenian clergy and
people were massacred, and churches, monasteries and houses
were looted. The vilayet Kharput was founded in 1888, being
the result of a provincial rearrangement, designed to ensure
better control over the disturbed districts of Kurdistan. It has
much mineral wealth, a healthy climate and a fertile soil. The
seat of government is Mezere, on the plain 3 m. S. of Kharput.
(D. G. H.)
KHARSAWAN, a feudatory state of India, within the Chota
Nagpur division of Bengal; area 153 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 36,540;
estimated revenue £2600. Since the opening of the main line
of the Bengal-Nagpur railway through the state trade has been
stimulated, and it is believed that both iron and copper can be
worked profitably.
KHARTUM, the capital of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, on the
left bank of the Blue Nile immediately above its junction with
the White Nile in 15° 36' N., 32° 32' E., and 1252 ft. above the
sea. It is 432 m. by rail S.W. of Port Sudan, on the Red Sea,
and 1345 m. S. of Cairo by rail and steamer. Pop. (1907) with
suburbs, but excluding Omdurman, 69,349.
The city, laid out on a plan drawn up by Lord Kitchener in
1898, has a picturesque aspect with its numerous handsome
stone and brick buildings surrounded by gardens and its groves
of palms and other trees. The river esplanade, 2 m. long, con-
tains the chief buildings. Parallel with it is Khedive Avenue,
of equal length. The rest of the city is in squares, the streets
forming the design of the union jack. In the centre of the
esplanade is the governor-general's palace, occupying the site
of the palace destroyed by the Mahdists in 1885. It is a three-
storeyed building with arcaded verandas and a fine staircase
leading to a loggia on the first floor. Here a tablet indicates
the spot in the old palace where General Gordon fell. In the
gardens, which cover six acres, is a colossal stone " lamb "
brought from the ruins of Soba, an ancient Christian city on the
Blue Nile. The " lamb " is in reality a ram of Ammon, and
has an inscription in Ethiopian hieroglyphs. In front of the
southern facade, which looks on to Khedive Avenue, is a bronze
statue of General Gordon seated on a camel, a copy of the
statue by Onslow Ford at Chatham, England. Government
offices and private villas are on either side of the palace, and
beyond, on the east, are the Sudan Club, the military hospital,
and the Gordon Memorial College. The college, the chief
educational centre in the Sudan, is a large, many-windowed
building with accommodation for several hundred scholars
and research laboratories and an economic museum. At the
western end of the esplanade are the zoological gardens, the
chief hotel, the Coptic church and the Mudiria House
(residence of the governor of Khartum). Running south from
Khedive Avenue at the spot where the Gordon statue stands, is
Victoria Avenue, leading to Abbas Square, in the centre of
which is the great mosque with two minarets. On the north-
east side of the square are the public markets. The Anglican
church, dedicated to All Saints, the principal banks and business
houses, are in Khedive Avenue. There are Maronite and Greek
churches, an Austrian Roman Catholic mission, a large and
well-equipped civil hospital and a museum for Sudan archaeo-
logy. Outside the city are a number of model villages (each
of the principal tribes of the Sudan having its own settlement)
in which the dwellings are built after the tribal fashion. Adja-
cent are the parade ground and racecourse and the golf-links.
A line of fortifications extends south of the city from the Blue to
the White Nile. The buildings are used as barracks. Barracks
for British troops occupy the end of the line facing the Blue
Nile.
On the right (northern) bank of the Blue Nile is the suburb of
Khartum North, formerly called Halfaya,1 where is the principal
railway station. It is joined to the city by a bridge (completed
1910) containing a roadway and the railway, Khartum itself
being served by steam trams and rickshaws. The steamers for
the White and the Blue Nile start from the quay along the
esplanade. West of the zoological gardens is the point of
junction of the Blue and White Niles and here is a ferry across
to Omdurman (q.v.) on the west bank of the White Nile a mile
or two below Khartum. In the river immediately below
Khartum is Tuti Island, on which is an old fort and an Arab
village.
From its geographical position Khartum is admirably adapted
as a commercial and political centre. It is the great entrepdt
for the trade of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. By the Nile water-
ways there is easy transport from the southern and western
equatorial provinces and from Sennar and other eastern dis-
tricts. Through Omdurman come the exports of Kordofan
and Darfur, while by the Red Sea railway there is ready access
to the markets of the world. The only important manufacture
is the making of bricks.
The population is heterogeneous. The official class is com-
posed chiefly of British and Egyptians; the traders are mostly
Greeks, Syrians and Copts, while nearly all the tribes of the Sudan
are represented in the negro and Arab inhabitants.
At the time of the occupation of the Sudan by the Egyptians a
small fishing village existed on the site of the present city. In 1822
the Egyptians established a permanent camp here and out of this
grew the city, which in 1830 was chosen as the capital of the Sudanese
possessions of Egypt. It got its name from the resemblance of the
promontory at the confluence of the two Niles to an elephant's
trunk, the meaning of khartum in the dialect of Arabic spoken in
the locality. The city rapidly acquired importance as the Sudan
was opened up by travellers and traders, becoming, besides the seat
of much legitimate commerce, a great slave mart. It was chosen
as the headquarters of Protestant and Roman Catholic missions,
and had a population of 50,000 or more. Despite its size it contained
few buildings of any architectural merit; the most important were
the palace of the governor-general and the church of the Austrian
mission. The history of the city is intimately bound up with that
of the Sudan generally, but it may be recalled here that in 1884,
at the time of the Mahdist rising, General Gordon was sent to Khar-
tum to arrange for the evacuation by the Egyptians of the Sudan.
At Khartum he was besieged by the Mahdists, whose headquarters
were at Omdurman. Khartum was captured and Gordon killed
on the 26th of January 1885, two days before the arrival off the town
of a small British relief force, which withdrew on seeing the city
in the hands of the enemy. Nearly every building in Khartum was
destroyed by the Mahdists and the city abandoned in favour of
Omdurman, which place remained the headquarters of the mahdi's
successor, the khalifa Abdullah, till September 1898, when it was
taken by the Anglo- Egyptian forces under General (afterwards Lord)
Kitchener, and the seat of government again transferred to Khartum.
It speedily arose from its ruins, being rebuilt on a much finer scale
than the original city. In 1899 the railway from Wadi Haifa was
completed to Khartum, and in 1906 through communication by rail
was established with the Red Sea.
KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS, a district of British India, in
the Hills division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It occupies
the central plateau between the valleys of the Brahmaputra
andtheSurma. Area, 6027 sq.m.; pop. (1901), 202,250, showing
an increase of 2% in the decade.
The district consists of a succession of steep ridges running
east and west, with elevated table-lands between. On the
southern side, towards Sylhet, the mountains rise precipitously
from the valley of the Barak or Surma. The first plateau is
about 4000 ft. above sea-level. Farther north is another
plateau, on which is situated the station of Shillong, 4900 ft.
above the sea; behind lies the Shillong range, of which the
highest peak rises to 6450 ft. On the north side, towards
Kamrup, are two similar plateaus of lower elevation. The
1 The village of Halfaya, a place of some importance before the
foundation of Khartum, is 4 m. to the N., on the eastern bank of the
Nile. From the 1 5th century up to 1 82 1 it was the capital of a small
state, tributary to Sennar, regarded as a continuation of the Christian
kingdom of Aloa (see DONGOLA).
774
KHASKOY— KHAZARS
general appearance of all these table-lands is that of undulating
downs, covered with grass, but destitute of large timber. At
3000 ft. elevation the indigenous pine predominates over all
other vegetation, and forms almost pure pine forests. The highest
ridges are clothed with magnificent clumps of timber trees,
which superstition has preserved from the axe of the wood-cutter.
The characteristic trees in these sacred groves chiefly consist of
oaks, chestnuts, magnolias, &c. Beneath the shade grow rare
orchids, rhododendrons and wild cinnamon. The streams are
merely mountain torrents; many of them pass through narrow
gorges of wild beauty. From time immemorial, Lower Bengal
has drawn its supply of lime from the Khasi Hills, and the
quarries along their southern slope are inexhaustible. Coal of
fair quality crops out at several places, and there are a few
small coal-mines.
The Khasi Hills were conquered by the British in 1833. They
are inhabited by a tribe of the same name, who still live in
primitive communities under elective chiefs in political subordi-
nation to the British government. There are 25 of these chiefs
called Siems, who exercise independent jurisdiction and pay no
tribute. According to the census of 1901 the Khasis numbered
107,500. They are a peculiar race, speaking a language that
belongs to the Mon-Anam family, following the rule of matri-
archal succession, and erecting monolithic monuments over
their dead. The Jaintia Hills used to form a petty Hindu
principality which was annexed in 1835. The inhabitants,
called Syntengs, a cognate tribe to the Khasis, were subjected
to a moderate income tax, an innovation against which they
rebelled in 1860 and 1862. The revolt was stamped out by the
Khasi and Jaintia Expedition of 1862-63. The headquarters
of the district were transferred in 1864 from Cherrapunji to
Shillong, which was afterwards made the capital of the province
of Assam. A good cart-road runs north from Cherrapunji
through Shillong to Gauhati on the Brahmaputra; total length,
97 m. The district was the focus of the great earthquake of
the 1 2th of June 1897, which not only destroyed every permanent
building, but broke up the roads and caused many landslips.
The loss of life was put at only 916, but hundreds died subse-
quently of a malignant fever. In 1901 the district had 17,321
Christians, chiefly converts of the Welsh Calvinistic Mission.
See District Gazetteer (1906) ; Major P. R. T. Gurdon, The Khasis
(1907).
KHASKOY (also Chaskoi, Haskoi, Khaskioi, Chaskow, Has-
kovo, and in Bulgarian Khaskovo), the capital of the department
of Khaskoy in the eastern Rumelia, Bulgaria; 45 m. E.S.E. of
Philippopolis. Pop. (1900), 14,928. The town has a station
7 m. N. on the Philippopolis-Adrianople section of the Belgrade-
Constantinople railway. Carpets and woollen goods are manu-
factured, and in the surrounding country tobacco and silk are
produced.
KHATTAK, an important Pathan tribe in the North-West
Frontier Province of India, inhabiting the south-eastern portion
of the Peshawar district and the south-eastern and eastern
portions of Kohat. They number 24,000, and have always been
quiet and loyal subjects of the British government. They furnish
many recruits to the Indian army, and make most excellent
soldiers.
KHAZARS (known also as Chozars, as 'AK&rf tpoi or Xdf apoi in
Byzantine writers, as Khazirs in Armenian and Khwalisses in
Russian chronicles, and Ugri Bielii in Nestor), an ancient people
who occupied a prominent place amongst the secondary powers
of the Byzantine state-system. In the epic of Firdousi Khazar
is the representative name for all the northern foes of Persia,
and legendary invasions long before the Christian era are vaguely
attributed to them. But the Khazars are an historic figure
upon the borderland of Europe and Asia for at least 900 years
(A.D. 190-1100). The epoch of their greatness is from A.D. 600
to 950. Their home was in the spurs of the Caucasus and along
the shores of the Caspian — called by medieval Moslem geographers
Bahr-al-Khazar (" sea of the Khazars ") ; their cities, all populous
and civilized commercial centres, were Itil, the capital, upon the
delta of the Volga, the " river of the Khazars," Semender
(Tarkhu), the older capital, Khamlidje or Khalendsch, Belend-
scher, the outpost towards Armenia, and Sarkel on the Don.
They were the Venetians of the Caspian and the Euxine, the
organizers of the transit between the two basins, the universal
carriers between East and West; and Itil was the meeting-place
of the commerce of Persia, Byzantium, Armenia, Russia and the
Bulgarians of the middle Volga. The tide of their dominion ebbed
and flowed repeatedly, but the normal Khazari may be taken as
the territory between the Caucasus, the Volga and the Don,
with the outlying province of the Crimea, or Little Khazaria.
The southern boundary never greatly altered; it did at times
reach the Kur and the Aras, but on that side the Khazars were
confronted by Byzantium and Persia, and were for the most part
restrained within the passes of the Caucasus by the fortifications
of Dariel. Amongst the nomadic Ugrians and agricultural Slavs
of the north their frontier fluctuated widely, and in its zenith
Khazaria extended from the Dnieper to Bolgari upon the middle
Volga, and along the eastern shore of the Caspian to Astarabad.
Ethnology. — The origin of the Khazars has been much disputed,
and they have been variously regarded as akin to the Georgians,
Finno-Ugrians and Turks. This last view is perhaps the most
probable. Their king Joseph, in answer to the inquiry of Hasdai
Ibn Shaprut of Cordova (c. 958), stated that his people sprang
from Thogarmah, grandson of Japhet, and the supposed ancestor
of the other peoples of the Caucasus. The Arab geographers who
knew the Khazars best connect them either with the Georgians
(Ibn Athir) or with the Armenians (Dimishqi, ed. Mehren, p. 263) ;
whilst A|jmad ibn Fad'an, who passed through Khazaria on a
mission from the caliph Moqtadir (A.D. 921), positively asserts that
the Khazar tongue differed not only from the Turkish, but from
that of the bordering nations, which were Ugrian.
Nevertheless there are many points connected with the Khazars
which indicate a close connexion with Ugrian or Turkish peoples.
The official titles recorded by Ibn Facjlan are those in use amongst
the Tatar nations of that age, whether Huns, Bulgarians, Turks or
Mongols. The names of their cities can be explained only by refer-
ence to Turkish or Ugrian dialects (Klaproth, Mem. sur les Khazars;
Howorth, Khazars). Some too amongst the medieval authorities
(Ibn Hauqal and Isfakhri) note a resemblance between the speech
in use amongst the Khazars and the Bulgarians; and the modern
Magyar — a Ugrian language — can be traced back to a tribe which
in the gth century formed part of the Khazar kingdom. These
characteristics, however, are accounted for by the fact that the
Khazars were at one time subject to the Huns (A.D. 448 et seq.),
at another to the Turks (c. 580), which would sufficiently explain
the signs of Tatar influence in their polity, and also by the testimony
of all observers, Greeks, Arabs and Russians, that there was a double
strain within the Khazar nation. There were Khazars and Kara
(black) Khazars. The Khazars were fair-skinned, black-haired and
of a remarkable beauty and stature; their women indeed were
sought as wives equally at Byzantium and Bagdad ; while the Kara
Khazars were ugly, short, and were reported by the Arabs almost
as dark as Indians. The latter were indubitably the Ugrian nomads
of the steppe, akin to the Tatar invaders of Europe, who filled the
armies and convoyed the caravans of the ruling caste. But the
Khazars proper were a civic commercial people, the founders of
cities, remarkable for somewhat elaborate political institutions, for
persistence and for good faith — all qualities foreign to the Hunnic
character.
They have been identified with the 'AxArfipoi (perhaps Ak-
Khazari, or White Khazars) who appear upon the lower Volga in
the Byzantine annals, and thence they have been deduced, though
with less convincing proof, either from the 'Ay&ffvpaoi. (Agathyrsi)
or the Karinpoi of Herodotus, iv. 104. There was throughout
historic times a close connexion which eventually amounted to
political identity between the Khazars and the Barsilecns (the
Passils of Moses of Chorenc) who occupied the delta of the Volga;
and the Barsileens can be traced through the pages of Ptolemy
(Geog. v. 9), of Pliny (iv. 26), of Strabo (vii. 306), and of Pomponius
Mela (ii. c. I, p. 119) to the so-called Royal Scyths, 2*6001 /3affiX»j«,
who were known to the Greek colonies upon the Euxine, and whose
political superiority and commercial enterprise led to this rendering
of their name. Such points, however, need not here be further
pursued than to establish the presence of this white race around the
Caspian a:nd the Euxine throughout historic times. They appear
in European history as White Huns (Ephthalites), White Ugrians
(Sar-ogours), White Bulgarians. Owing to climatic causes the
tract they occupied was slowly drying up. They were the outposts
of civilization towards the encroaching desert, and the Tatar
nomadism that advanced with it. They held in precarious subjec-
tion the hordes whom the conditions of the climate and the soil
made it impossible to supplant. They bore the brunt of each of
the great waves of Tatar conquests, and were eventually over-
whelmed.
KHAZARS
775
History. — Amidst this white race of the steppe the Khazars can
be first historically distinguished at the end of the 2nd century A.D.
They burst into Armenia with the Barsileens, A.D. 198. They were
repulsed and attacked in turn. The pressure of the nomads of the
steppe, the quest of plunder or revenge, these seem the only motives
of these early expeditions; but in the long struggle between the
Roman and Persian empires, of which Armenia was often the
battlefield, and eventually the prize, the attitude of the Khazars
assumed political importance. Armenia inclined to the civilization
and ere long to the Christianity 'of Rome, whilst her Arsacid princes
maintained an inveterate feud with the Sassanids of Persia. It
became therefore the policy of the Persian kings to call in the
Khazars in every collision with the empire (200-350). During the
4th century however, the growing power of Persia culminated in
the annexation of eastern Armenia. The Khazars, endangered by
so powerful a neighbour, passed from under Persian influence into
that remote alliance with Byzantium which thenceforth charac-
terized their policy, and they aided Julian in his invasion of Persia
(363)- Simultaneously with the approach of Persia to the Caucasus
the terrible empire of the Huns sprang up among the Ugrians of the
northern steppes. The Khazars, straitened on every side, remained
passive till the danger culminated in the accession of Attila (434).
The emperor Theodosius sent envoys to bribe the Khazars ('AxaTfipoi)
to divert the Huns from the empire by an attack upon their flank.
But there was a Hunnic party amongst the Khazar chiefs. The
design was betrayed to Attila ; and he extinguished the independence
of the nation in a moment. Khazaria became the apanage of his
eldest son, and the centre of government amongst the eastern
subjects of the Hun (448). Even the iron rule of Attila was prefer-
able to the time of anarchy that succeeded it. Upon his death (454)
the wild immigration which he had arrested revived. The Khazars
and the Sarogours (i.e. White Ogors, possibly the Barsileens of the
Volga delta) were swept along in a flood of mixed Tatar peoples
which the conquests of the Avars had set in motion. The Khazars
and their companions broke through the Persian defences of the
Caucasus. They appropriated the territory up to the Kur and the
Aras, and roamed at large through Iberia, Georgia and Armenia.
The Persian king implored the emperor Leo I. to help him defend
Asia Minor at the Caucasus (457), but Rome was herself too hard
pressed, nor was it for fifty years that the Khazars were driven back
and the pass of Derbent fortified against them (c. 507).
Throughout the 6th century Khazaria was the mere highway for
the wild hordes to whom the Huns had opened the passage into
Europe, and the Khazars took refuge (like the Venetians from
Attila) amongst the seventy mouths of the Volga. The pressure of
the Turks in Asia precipitated the Avars upon the West. The
conquering Turks followed in their footsteps (560-580). They beat
down all opposition, wrested even Bosporus in the Crimea from the
empire, and by the annihilation of the Ephthalites completed the
ruin of the White Race of the plains from the Oxus to the Don.
The empires of Turks and Avars, however, ran swiftly their barbaric
course, and the Khazars arose out of the chaos to more than their
ancient renown. They issued from the land of Barsilia.and extended
their rule over the Bulgarian hordes left masterless by the Turks,
compelling the more stubborn to migrate to the Danube (641).
The agricultural Slavs of the Dnieper and the Oka were reduced to
tribute, and before the end of the 7th century the Khazars had
annexed the Crimea, had won complete command of the Sea of
Azov, and, seizing upon the narrow neck which separates the Volga
from the Don, tiad organized the portage which has continued since
an important link in the traffic between Asia and Europe. The
alliance with Byzantium was revived. Simultaneously, and no
doubt in concert, with the Byzantine campaign against Persia (589),
the Khazars had reappeared in Armenia, though it was not till 625
that they appear as Khazars in the Byzantine annals. They are
then described as " Turks from the East," a powerful nation which
held the coasts of the Caspian and the Euxine, and took tribute of
the Viatitsh, the Severians and the Polyane. The khakan, enticed
by the promise of an imperial princess, furnished Heraclius with
40,000 men for his Persian war, who shared in the victory over
Chosroes at Nineveh.
Meanwhile the Moslem empire had arisen. The Persian empire
was struck down (637). and the Moslems poured into Armenia. The
khakan, who had defied the summons sent him by the invaders,
now aided the Byzantine patrician \n the defence of Armenia. The
allies were defeated, and the Moslems undertook the subjugation
of Khazaria (651). Eighty years of warfare followed, but in the
end the Moslems prevailed. The khakan and his chieftains were
captured and compelled to embrace Islam (737), and till the decay
of the Mahommedan empire Khazaria with all the other countries
of the Caucasus paid an annual tribute of children and of corn (737-
861). Nevertheless, though overpowered in the end, the Khazars
had protected the plains of Europe from the Mahommedans, and
made the Caucasus the limit of their conquests.
In the interval between the decline of the Mahommedan empire
and the rise of Russia the Khazars reached the zenith of their power.
The merchants of Byzantium, Armenia and Bagdad met in the
markets of Itil (whither since the raids of the Mahommedans the
capital had been transferred from Semender), and traded for the
wax, furs, leather and honey that came down the Volga. So
important was this traffic held at Constantinople that, when the
portage to the Don was endangered by the irruption of a fresh
horde of Turks (the Petchenegs), the emperor Theophilus himself
despatched the materials and the workmen to build for the Khazars
a fortress impregnable to their forays (834). Famous as the one
stone structure is in that stoneless region, the post became known
far and wide amongst the hordes of the steppe as Sar-kel or the
White Abode. Merchants from every nation found protection and
good faith in the Khazar cities. The Jews, expelled from Constanti-
nople, sought a home amongst them, developed the Khazar trade,
and contended with Mahommedans and Christians for the theological
allegiance of the Pagan people. The dynasty accepted Judaism
(c. 740), but there was equal tolerance for all, and each man was
held amenable to the authorized code and to the official judges of
his own faith. At the Byzantine court the khakan was held in high
honour. The emperor Justinian Rhinotmetus took refuge with
him during his exile and married his daughter (702). Justinian's
rival Vardanes in turn sought an asylum in Khazaria, and in Leo IV.
(775) the grandson of a Khazar sovereign ascended the Byzantine
throne. Kha«zar troops were amongst the bodyguard of the imperial
court; they fought for Leo VI. against Simeon of Bulgaria; and the
khakan was honoured in diplomatic intercourse with the seal of
three solid!, which marked him as a potentate of the first rank,
above even the pope and the Carolingian monarchs. Indeed his
dominion became an object of uneasiness to the jealous statecraft of
Byzantium, and Constantine Porphyrogenitus, writing for his son's
instruction in the government, carefully enumerates the Alans, the
Petchenegs, the Uzes and the Bulgarians as the forces he must rely
on to restrain it.
It was, however, from a power that Constantine did not consider
that the overthrow of the Khazars came. The arrival of the
Varangians amidst the scattered Slavs (862) had united them into
a nation. The advance of the Petchenegs from the East gave the
Russians their opportunity. Before the onset of those fierce invaders
the precarious suzerainty of the khakan broke up. By calling in
the_Uzes, the Khazars did indeed dislodge the Petchenegs from the
position they had seized in the heart of the kingdom between the
Volga and the Don, but only to drive them inwards to the Dnieper.
The Hungarians, severed from their kindred and their rulers, migrated
to the Carpathians, whilst Oleg, the Russ prince of Kiev, passed
through the Slav tribes of the Dnieper basin with the cry " Pay
nothing to the Khazars " (884). The kingdom dwindled rapidly to
its ancient limits between the Caucasus, the Volga and the Don,
whilst the Russian traders of Novgorod and Kiev supplanted the
Khazars as the carriers between Constantinople and the North.
When Ibn Fadlan visited Khazaria forty years later, Itil was even
yet a great city, with baths and market-places and thirty mosques.
But there was no domestic product nor manufacture; the kingdom
depended solely upon the now precarious transit dues, and adminis-
tration was in the hands of a major domus also called khakan. At
the assault of Swiatoslav of Kiev the rotten fabric crumbled into
dust. His troops were equally at home on land and water. Sarkel,
Itil and Semender surrendered to him (965-969). He pushed his
conquests to the Caucasus, and established Russian colonies upon
the Sea of Azov. The principality of Tmutarakan, founded by his
grandson Mstislav (988), replaced the kingdom of Khazaria, the last
trace of which was extinguished by a joint expedition of Russians
and Byzantines (1016). The last of the khakans, George, Tzula,
was taken prisoner. A remnant of the nation took refuge in an
island of the Caspian (Siahcouye); others retired to the Caucasus;
part emigrated to the district of Kasakhi in Georgia, and appear for
the last time joining with Georgia in her successful effort to throw
off the yoke of the Seljuk Turks (1089). But the name is thought
to survive in Kadzaria, the Georgian title for Mingrelia, and in
Kadzaro, the Turkish word for the Lazis. Till the I3th century the
Crimea was known to European travellers as Gazaria; the " ram-
parts of the Khazars " are still distinguished in the Ukraine; and
the record of their dominion survives in the names of Kazarek,
Kazaritshi, Kazarinovod, Kozar-owka, Kozari, and perhaps in
Kazan.
AUTHORITIES. — Khazar: The letter of King Joseph to R. Hasdai
Ibn Shaprut, first published by J. Akrish, Kol Mebasser (Constanti-
nople, 1577), and often reprinted in editions of Jehuda hal-Levy's
Kuzari. German translations by Zedner (Berlin, 1840) and Cassel
Magyar. Alterth. (Berlin, 1848); French by Carmoly, Rev. Or. (1841)!
Cf. Harkavy, Russische Revue, iv. 69; Graetz, Geschichte, v. 364,
and Carmoly, Itineraires de la Terre Sainle (Brussels, 1847). Arme-
nian: Moses of Chorene; cf. Saint-Martin, Memoires historiques
et geographiques sur I'Armenie (Paris, 1818). A rabic: The account
of Ibn Fadlan (921) is preserved by Yakut, ii. 436 seq. See also
Is^akhry (ed. de Geoje, pp. 220 seq.), Mas'udy, ch. xvii. pp. 406 seq.
of Sprenger's translation; Ibn Haufral (ed. de Goeje, pp. 279 seq.)
and the histories of Ibn el Athir and Tabary. Much of the Arabic
material has been collected and translated by Fraehn, " Veteres
Memoriae Chasarorum " in Mem. de St Pet. (1822) ; Dorn (from the
Persian Tabary), Mem. de St Pet. (1844); Dufremery, Journ. As.
(1849). See also D'Ohsson's imaginary Voyage d'Abul Cassim, based
on these sources. Byzantine Historians: The relative passages are
collected in Stritter's Memoriae populorum (St Petersburg, 1778).
Russian : The Chronicle ascribed to Nestor.
776
KHEDIVE— KHEVENHULLER
Modern: Klaproth, " Mem. sur les Khazars," in Journ. As.
1st series, vol. lii. ; id., Tableaux hist, de I'Asie (Paris, 1823); id.,
Tabl. hist, de Caucases (1827) ; memoirs on the Khazars by Harkavy
and by Howorth (Congres intern, des Orientalistes, vol. ii.) ; Latham,
Russian and Turk, pp. 209-217; Vivien St Martin, £tudes de geog.
ancienne (Paris, 1850); id., Recherches sur les populations du
Caucase (1847); id., "Sur les Khazars," in Nouvelles ann. des
voyages (1857); D'Ohsson, Peuples du Caucase (Paris, 1828);
S. Krauss, " Zur Geschichte der Chazaren," in Revue orientale pour
les etudes Ourals-altaiques (1900). (P. L. G. ; C. EL.)
KHEDIVE, a Persian word meaning prince or sovereign,
granted as a title by the sultan of Turkey in 1867 to his viceroy
in Egypt, Ismail, in place of that of " vali."
KHERI, a district of British India, in the Lucknow division
of the United Provinces, which takes its name from a small town
with a railway station 81 m. N.W. of Lucknow. The area of the
district is 2963 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 905,138.
It consists of a series of fairly elevated plateaus, separated by
rivers flowing from the north-west, each bordered by alluvial
land. North of the river Ul, the country is considered very un-
healthy. Through this tract, probably the bed of a lake, flow
two rivers, the Kauriala and Chauka, changing their courses
constantly, so that the surface is seamed with deserted river beds
much below the level of the surrounding country. The vegeta-
tion is very dense, and the stagnant waters are the cause of
endemic fevers. The people reside in the neighbourhood of the
low ground, as the soil is more fertile and less expensive to culti-
vate than the forest-covered uplands. South of the Ul, the
scene changes. Between every two rivers or tributaries stretches
a plain, considerably less elevated than the tract to the north.
There is very little slope in any of these plains for many miles,
and marshes are formed, from which emerge the headwaters
of many secondary streams, which in the rains become dangerous
torrents, and frequently cause devastating floods. The general
drainage of the country is from north-west to south-east.
Several large lakes exist, some formed by the ancient channels
of the northern rivers, being fine sheets of water, from 10 to 20 ft.
deep and from 3 to 4 m. long; in places they are fringed with
magnificent groves. The whole north of the district is covered
with vast forests, of which a considerable portion are govern-
ment reserves. Sal occupies about two-thirds of the forest
area. The district is traversed by a branch of the Oudh &
Rohilkhand railway from Lucknow to Bareilly.
KHERSON, a government of south Russia, on the N. coast of
the Black Sea, bounded W. by the governments of Bessarabia
and Podolia, N. by Kiev and Poltava, S. by Ekaterinoslav and
Taurida. The area is 27,497 sq. m. The aspect of the country,
especially in the south, is that of an open steppe, and almost
the whole government is destitute of forest. The Dniester marks
the western and the Dnieper the south-eastern boundary; the
Bug, the Ingul and several minor streams drain the intermediate
territory. Along the shore stretch extensive lagoons. Iron,
kaolin and salt are the principal minerals. Nearly 45% of
the land is owned by the peasants, 31% by the nobility, 12% by
other classes, and 1 2 % by the crown, municipalities and public
institutions. The peasants rent 1,730,000 acres more from the
.landlords. Agriculture is well developed and 9,000,000 acres
(51 • ! %) are under crops. Agricultural machinery is extensively
used. The vine is widely grown, and yields 1,220,000 gallons
of wine annually. Some tobacco is grown and manufactured.
Besides the ordinary cereals, maize, hemp, flax, tobacco and
mustard are commonly grown; the fruit trees in general culti-
vation include the cherry, plum, peach, apricot and mulberry;
and gardening receives considerable attention. Agriculture
has been greatly improved by some seventy German colonies.
Cattle-breeding, horse-breeding and sheep-farming are pursued
on a large scale. Some sheep farmers own 30,000 or 40,000
merinos each. Fishing is an important occupation. There are
manufactures of wool, hemp and leather; also iron- works, machi-
nery and especially agricultural machinery works, sugar factories,
steam flour-mills and chemical works. The ports of Kherson,
Ochakov, Nikolayev, and especially Odessa, are among the
principal outlets of Russian commerce; Berislav, Alexandriya
Elisavetgrad, Voznesenask, Olviopol and Tiraspol play an impor-
tant part in the inland traffic. In 1871 the total population was
1,661,892, and in 1897 2,744,040, of whom 1,332,175 were women
and 785,094 lived in towns. The estimated pop. in 1906 was
3,257,600. Besides Great and Little Russians, it comprises
Rumanians, Greeks, Germans (123,453), Bulgarians, Bohemians,
Swedes, and Jews (30% of the total), and some Gypsies. About
84% belong to the Orthodox Greek Church; there are also nu-
merous Stundists. The government is divided into six districts,
the chief towns of which are: Kherson (<?.».), Alexandriya
(14,002 in 1897), Ananiev (16,713), Elisavetgrad (66,182 in 1900),
Odessa (449,673 in 1900), and Tiraspol (29,323 in 1900). This
region was long subject to the sway of the Tatar khans of the
Crimea, and owes its rapid growth to the colonizing activity of
Catherine II., who betv/een 1778 and 1792 founded the cities of
Kherson, Odessa and Nikolayev. Down to 1803 this government
was called Nikolayev.
KHERSON, a town of south Russia, capital of the above
government, on a hill above the right bank of the Dnieper, about
19 m. from its mouth. Founded by the courtier Potemkin in
1778 as a naval station and seaport, it had become by 1786 a
place of' 10,000 inhabitants, and, although its progress was
checked by the rise of Odessa and the removal (in 1794) of the
naval establishments to Nikolayev, it had in 1900 a population
of 73,185. The Dnieper at this point breaks into several arms,
forming islands overgrown with reeds and bushes; and vessels
of burden must anchor at Stanislavskoe-selo, a good way down
the stream. Of the traffic on the river the largest share is due
to the timber, wool, cereals, cattle and hides trade; wool-dressing,
soap-boiling, tallow-melting, brewing, flour-milling and the
manufacture of tobacco are the chief industries. Kherson is a
substantially built and regular town. The cathedral is the
burial-place of Potemkin, and near Kherson lie the remains of
John Howard, the English philanthropist, who died here in
1790. The fortifications have fallen into decay. The name
Kherson was given to the town from the supposition that the
site was formerly that of Chersonesus Heracleotica, the Greek
city founded by the Dorians of Heraclea.
KHEVENHtiLLER, LUDWIG ANDREAS (1683-1744), Aus-
trian field-marshal, Count of Aschelberg-Frankenburg, came of a
noble family, which, originally Franconian, settled in Carinthia
in the nth century. He first saw active service under Prince
Eugene in the War of the Spanish Succession, and by 1716 had
risen to the command of Prince Eugene's own regiment of
dragoons. He distinguished himself greatly at the battles of
Peterwardein and Belgrade, and became in 1723 major-general
of cavalry (General-Wachtmeister), in 1726 proprietary colonel
of a regiment and in 1733 lieutenant field marshal. In 1734
the War of the Polish Succession brought him into the field again.
He was present at the battle of Parma (June 29), where Count
Mercy, the Austrian commander, was killed, and after Mercy's
death he held the chief command of the army in Italy till Field
Marshal Konigsegg's arrival. Under Konigsegg he again dis-
tinguished himself at the battle of Guastalla (September 19).
He was once more in command during the operations which
followed the battle, and his skilful generalship won for him the
grade of general of cavalry. He continued in military and
diplomatic employment in Italy to the close of the war. In
1737 he was made field marshal, Prince Eugene recommending
him to his sovereign as the best general in the service. His chief
exploit in the Turkish War, which soon followed his promotion,
was at Radojevatz (September 28,1737), where he cut his way
through a greatly superior Turkish army. It was in the Austrian
Succession War that his most brilliant work was done. As com-
mander-in-chief of the army on the Danube he not only drove out
the French and Bavarian invaders of Austria in a few days of
rapid marching and sharp engagements (January, 1742), but
overran southern Bavaria, captured Munich, and forced a large
French corps in Linz to surrender. Later in the summer of
1742, owing to the inadequate forces at his disposal, he had to
evacuate his conquests, but in the following campaign, though
now subordinated to Prince Charles of Lorraine, KhevenhUller
KHEVSURS— KHIVA
777
reconquered southern Bavaria, and forced the emperor in June
to conclude the unfavourable convention of Nieder-Schonfeld.
He disapproved the advance beyond the Rhine which followed
these successes, and the event justified his fears, for the Austrians
had to fall back from the Rhine through Franconia and the
Breisgau, Khevenhiiller himself conducting the retreat with
admirable skill. On his return to Vienna, Maria Theresa
decorated the field marshal with the order of the Golden
Fleece. He died suddenly at Vienna on the 26th of January
1744.
He was the author of various instructional works for officers and
soldiers (Des G. F. M. Graven v. Khevenhiiller Observationspunkte fur
sein Dragoner-regiment (1734 and 1748) and a rbglement for the
infantry (1737), and of an important work on war in general, Kurzer
Begriff aller militarischen Operationen (Vienna, 1756; French version,
Maximes de guerre, Paris, 1771).
KHEVSURS, a people of the Caucasus, kinsfolk of the Georgians.
They live in scattered groups in East Georgia to the north and
north-west of Mount Borbalo. Their name is Georgian and
means " People of the Valleys." For the most part nomadic,
they are still in a semi-barbarous state. They have not the
beauty of the Georgian race. They are gaunt and thin to almost
a ghastly extent, their generally repulsive aspect being accentu-
ated by their targe hands and feet and their ferocious expression.
In complexion and colour of hair and eyes they vary greatly.
They are very muscular and capable of bearing extraordinary
fatigue. They are fond of fighting, and still wear armour of
the true medieval type. This panoply is worn when the law of
vendetta, which is sacred among them as among most Caucasian
peoples, compels them to seek or avoid their enemy. They carry
a spiked gauntlet, the terrible marks of which are borne by a
large proportion of the Khevsur faces.
Many curious customs still prevail among the Khevsurs, as for
instance the imprisonment of the woman during childbirth in a
lonely hut, round which the husband parades, firing off his musket
at intervals. After delivery, food is surreptitiously brought the
mother, who is kept in her prison a month, after which the hut is
burnt. The boys are usually named after some wild animal, e.g.
bear or wolf, while the girls' names are romantic, such as Daughter
of the Sun, Sun of my Heart. Marriages are arranged by parents
when the bride and bridegroom are still in long clothes. The chief
ceremony is a forcible abduction of the girl. Divorce is very com-
mon, and some Khevsurs are polygamous. Formerly no Khevsur
might die in a house, but was always carried out under the sun or
stars. The Khevsurs like to call themselves Christians, but their
religion is a mixture of Christianity, Mahomrnedanism and heathen
rites. They keep the Sabbath of the Christian church, the Friday
of the Moslems and the Saturday of the Jews. They worship sacred
trees and offer sacrifices to the spirits of the earth and air. Their
priests are a combination of medicine-men and divines.
See G. F. R. Radde, Die Chevs'uren und ihr Land (Cassel, 1878);
Ernest Chantre, Recherches anlhropologiques dans le Caucase (Lyons,
1885-1887).
KHILCHIPUR, a mediatized chiefship in Central India, under
the Bhopal agency; area, 273 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 3I)I43; esti-
mated revenue, £7000; tribute payable to Sindhia, £700. The
residence of the chief, who is a Khichi Rajput of the Chauhan
clan, is at Khilchipur (pop. 5121).
KHINGAN, two ranges of mountains in eastern Asia.
(i) GREAT KHINGAN is the eastern border ridge of the immense
plateau which may be traced from the Himalaya to Bering
Strait and from the Tian-shan Mountains to the Khingan
Mountains. It is well known from 50° N. to Kalgan (41° N.,
115° E.), where it is crossed by the highway from Urga to Peking.
As a border ridge of the Mongolian plateau, it possesses very
great orographical importance, in that it is an important climatic
boundary, and constitutes the western limits of the Manchurian
flora. The base of its western slope, which is very gentle, lies at
altitudes of 3000 to 3500 ft. Its crest rises to 4800 to 6500 ft.,
but its eastern slope sinks very precipitately to the plains
of Manchuria, which have only 1500 to 2000 ft. of altitude.
On this stretch one or two subordinate ridges, parallel to the
main range and separated from it by longitudinal valleys, fringe
its eastern slope, thus marking two different terraces and giving
to the whole system a width of from 80 to 100 m. Basalts,
trachytes and other volcanic formations are found in the main
range and on its south-eastern slopes. The range was in
volcanic activity in 1720-1721.
South-west of Peking the Great Khingan is continued by the
In-shan mountains, which exhibit similar features to those of the
Great Khingan, and represent the same terraced escarpment of the
Mongolian plateau. Moreover, it appears from the map of the
Russian General Staff (surveys of Skassi, V. A. Obruchev, G. N.
Potanin, &c.) that similar terrace-shaped escarpments — but consider-
ably wider apart than in Manchuria — occur in the Shan-si province
of China, along the southern border of the South Mongolian plateau.
These escarpments are pierced by the Yellow River or Hwang-ho
south of the Great Wall, between 38° and 39° N., and in all prob-
ability a border range homologous to the Great Khingan separates
the upper tributaries of the Hwang-ho (namely the Tan-ho) from
those of the Yang-tsze-kiang. But according to Obruchev the
escarpments of the Wei-tsi-shan and Lu-huang-lin, by which southern
Ordos drops towards the Wei-ho (tributary of the Hwang-ho), can
hardly be taken as corresponding to the Kalgan escarpment. They
fall with gentle slopes only towards the high plains on the south of
them, while a steep descent towards the low plain seems to exist
further south only, between 32 ° and 3d °. Thus the southern con-
tinuations of the Great Khingan, south of 38 ° N., possibly consist
of two separate escarpments. At its northern end the place where
the Great Khingan is pierced by the Amur has not been ascer-
tained by direct observation. Prince P. Kropotkin considers that
the upper Amur emerges from the high plateau and its border-ridge,
the Khingan, below Albazin and above Kumara.1 If this view
prevail — Petermann has adopted it for his map of Asia, and it has
been upheld in all the Gotha publications — it would appear that the
Great Khingan joins the Stanovoi ridge or Jukjur, in that portion
of it which faces the west coast of the Sea of Okhotsk. At any rate
the Khingan, separating the Mongolian plateau from the much
lower plains of the Sungari and the Nonni, is one of the most impor-
tant orographical dividing-lines in Asia.
See Semenov's Geographical Dictionary (in Russian) ; D. V.
Putiata, Expedition to the Khingan in 1891 (St Petersburg, 1893);
Potanin, " Journey to the Khingan," in Izvestia Rtiss. Geog. Soc.
(1901).
(2) The name LITTLE KHINGAN is applied indiscriminately to
two distinct mountain ranges. The proper application of the
term would be to reserve it for the typical range which the Amur
pierces 40 m. below Ekaterino-Nikolsk (on the Amur), and which
is also known as the Bureya mountains, and as Dusse-alin. This
range, which may be traced from the Amur to the Sea of Okhotsk,
seems to be cleft twice by the Sungari and to be continued under
different local names in the same south-westerly direction to the
peninsula of Liao-tung in Manchuria. The other range to which
the name of Little Khingan is applied is that of the Dkhuri-alin
mountains (51° N., i22°-i26° E.), which run in a north-westerly
direction between the upper Nonni and the Amur, west of
Blagovyeshchensk. (P. A. K.; J.T. BE.)
KHIVA, formerly an important kingdom of Asia, but now a
much reduced khanate, dependent upon Russia, and confined to
the delta of the Amu-darya (Oxus). Its frontier runs down the
left bank of the Amu, from 40° 15' N., and down its left branch to
Lake Aral; then, for about 40 m. along the south coast of Lake
Aral, and finally southwards, following the escarpment of the
Ust-Urt plateau. From the Transcaspian territory of Russia
Khiva is separated by a line running almost W.N.W.-E.S.E.
under 40° 30' N., from the Uzboi depression to the Amu-darya.
The length of the khanate from north to south is 200 m., and its
greatest width 300 m. The area of the Khiva oasis is 52 icsq. m.
while the area of the steppes is estimated at 17,000 sq. m. The
population of the former is estimated at 400,000, and that of the
latter also at 400,000 (nomadic). The water of the Amu is
brought by a number of irrigation canals to the oasis, the general
declivity of the surface westwards facilitating the irrigation.
Several old beds of the Amu intersect the territory. The water
of the Amu and the very thin layer of ooze which it deposits
render the oasis very fertile. Millet, rice, wheat, barley, oats,
peas, flax, hemp, madder, and all sorts of vegetables and fruit
(especially melons) are grown, as also the vine and cotton. The
white-washed houses scattered amidst the elms and poplars, and
surrounded by flourishing fields, produce the most agreeable
contrast with the arid steppes. Livestock, especially sheep,
camels, horses and cattle, is extensively bred by the nomads.
_* See his sketch of the orography of East Siberia (French trans.,
with addenda, published by the Institut G6ographique of Brussels in
1902). ,
KHIVA— KHOI
The population is composed of four divisions: Uzbegs (150,000
to 200,000), the dominating race among the settled inhabitants
of the oasis, from whom the officials are recruited; Sarts and
Tajiks, agriculturists and tradespeople of mixed race; Turkomans
(c. 170,000), who live in the steppes, south and west of the oasis,
and formerly plundered the settled inhabitants by their raids;
and the Kara-kalpaks, or Black Bonnets, a Turki tribe some
50,000 in number. They live south of Lake Aral, and in the
towns of Kungrad, Khodsheili and Kipchak form the prevailing
element. They cultivate the soil, breed cattle, and their women
make carpets. There are also about 10,000 Kirghiz, and when
the Russians took Khiva in 1873 there were 29,300 Persian slaves,
stolen by Turkoman raiders, and over 6500 liberated slaves,
mostly Kizil-bashes. The former were set free and the slave
trade abolished. Of domestic industries, the embroidering of
cloth, silks and leather is worthy of notice. The trade of Khiva
is considerable: cotton, wool, rough woollen cloth and silk
cocoons are exported to Russia, and various animal products to
Bokhara. Cottons, velveteen, hardware and pepper are imported
from Russia, and silks, cotton, china and tea from Bokhara.
Khivan merchants habitually attend the Orenburg and Nizhniy-
Novgorod fairs.
History. — The present khanate is only a meagre relic of the
great kingdom which under the name of Chorasmia, Kharezm
(Khwarizm) and Urgenj (Jurjanlya, Gurganj) held the keys of
the mightiest river in Central Asia. Its possession has con-
sequently been much disputed from early times, but the country
has undergone great changes, geographical as well as political,
which have lessened its importance. The Oxus (Amu-darya) has
changed its outlet, and no longer forms a water-way to the
Caspian and thence to Europe, while Khiva is entirely surrounded
by territory either directly administered or protected by Russia.
Chorasmia is mentioned by Herodotus, it being then one of the
Persian provinces, over which Darius placed satraps, but nothing
material of it is known till it was seized by the Arabs in A.D. 680.
When the power of the caliphs declined the governor of the pro-
vince probably became independent; but the first king known
to history is Mamun-ibn-Mahommed in 995. Khwarizm fell
under the power of Mahmud of Ghazni in 1017, and subsequently
under that of the Seljuk Turks. In 1097 the governor Kutb-ud-
din assumed the title of king, and one of his descendants, 'Ala-
ud-din-Mahommed, conquered Persia, and was the greatest prince
in Central Asia when Jenghiz Khan appeared in 1219. Khiva
was conquered again by Timur in 1379; and finally fell under
the rule of the Uzbegs in 1512, who are still the dominant race
under the protection of the Russians.
Russia established relations with Khiva in the I7th century.
The Cossacks of the Yaik during their raids across the Caspian
learnt of the existence of this rich territory and made more
than one plundering expedition to the chief town Urgenj. In
1717 Peter the Great, having heard of the presence of auriferous
sand in the bed of the Oxus, desiring also to " open mercantile
relations with India through Turan " and to release from slavery
some Russian subjects, sent a military force to Khiva. When
within 100 miles of the capital they encountered the troops of the
khan. The battle lasted three days, and ended in victory for
the Russian arms. The Khivans, however, induced the victors
to break up their army into small detachments and treacher-
ously annihilated them in detail. It was not until the third
decade of the igth century that the attention of the Muscovite
government was again directed to the khanate. In 1839 a force
under General Perovsky moved from Orenburg across the Ust-Urt
plateau to the Khivan frontiers, to occupy the khanate, liberate
the captives and open the way for trade. This expedition like-
wise terminated in disaster. In 1847 the Russians founded a fort
at the mouth of the Jaxartes or Syr-darya. This advance de-
prived the Khivans not only of territory, but of a large number
of tax-paying Kirghiz, and also gave the Russians a base for
further operations. For the next few years, however, the
attention of the Russians was taken up with Khokand, their
operations on that side culminating in the capture of Tashkent
in 1865. Free in this quarter, they directed their thoughts once
more to Khiva. In 1869 Krasnovodsk on the east shore of the
Caspian was founded, arid in 1871-1872 the country leading to
Khiva from different parts of Russian Turkestan was thoroughly
explored and surveyed. In 1873 an expedition to Khiva was
carefully organized on a large scale. The army of 10,000 men
placed at the disposal of General Kaufmann started from three
different bases of operation — Krasnovodsk, Orenburg and
Tashkent. Khiva was occupied almost without opposition.
All the territory (35,700 sq. m. and 110,000 souls) on the right
bank of the Oxus was annexed to Russia, while a heavy war
indemnity was imposed upon the khanate. The Russians
thereby so crippled the finances of the state that the khan is in
complete subjection to his more powerful neighbour.
(J. T. BE.;C. EL.)
KHIVA, capital of the khanate of Khiva, in Western Asia,
25 m. W. of the Amu-darya and 240 m. W.N.W. of Bokhara.
Pop. about 10,000. It is surrounded by a low earthen wall, and
has a citadel, the residence of the khan and the higher officials.
There are a score of mosques, of which the one containing the
tomb of Polvan, the patron saint of Khiva, is the best, and four
large madrasas (Mahommedan colleges). Large gardens exist
in the western part of the town. A small Russian quarter has '
grown up. The inhabitants make carpets, silks and cottons.
KHNOPFF, FERNAND EDMOND JEAN MARIE (1858- ),
Belgian painter and etcher, was born at the chateau de Grem-
bergen (Termonde), on the i2th of September 1858, and studied
under X. Mellery. He developed a very original talent, his
work being characterized by great delicacy of colour, tone and
harmony, as subtle in spiritual and intellectual as in its material
qualities. " A Crisis " (1881) was followed by " Listening to
Schumann," " St Anthony " and " The Queen of Sheba " (1883),
and then came one of his best known works, " The Small Sphinx "
(1884). His " Memories " (1889) and " White, Black and Gold "
(1901) are in the Brussels Museum; " Portrait of Mile R."
(1889) in the Venice Museum; "A Stream at Fosset " (1897) at
Budapest Museum; " The Empress "(1899) in the collection of
the emperor of Austria, and " A Musician " in that of the king
of the Belgians. " I lock my Door upon Myself " (1891), which
was exhibited at the New Gallery, London, in 1902 and there
attracted much attention, was acquired by the Pinakothek at
Munich. Other works are " Silence " (1890), " The Idea of
Justice " (1905) and " Isolde " (1906), together with a poly-
chrome bust " Sibyl " (1894) and an ivory mask (1897). In
quiet intensity of feeling Khnopff was influenced by Rossetti,
and in simplicity of line by Burne- Jones, but the poetry and the
delicately mystic and enigmatic note of his work are entirely
individual. He did good work also as an etcher and dry-
pointist.
See L. Dumont-Wilden, Fernand Khnopff (Brussels, 1907).
KHOI, a district and town in the province of Azerbaijan,
Persia, towards the extreme north-west frontier, between the
Urmia Lake and the river Aras. The district contains many
flourishing villages, and consists of an elevated plateau 60 m.
by 10 to 15, highly cultivated by a skilful system of drainage and
irrigation, producing fertile meadows, gardens and fields yielding
rich crops of wheat and barley, cotton, rice and many kinds of
fruit. In the northern part and bounding on Maku lies the plain
of Chaldaran (Kalderan), where in August 1514 the Turks under
Sultan Selim I. fought the Persians under Shah Ismail and gained
a great victory.
The town of KHOI lies in 38° 37' N., 45° 15' E., 77 m. (90 by
road) N.W. of Tabriz, at an elevation of 3300 ft., on the great
trade route between Trebizond and Tabriz, and about 2 m.
from the left bank of the Kotur Chai (river from Kotur) which is
crossed there by a seven-arched bridge and is known lower
down as the Kizil Chai, which flows into the Aras. The walled
part of the town is a quadrilateral with faces of about 1200 yds.
in length and fortifications consisting of two lines of bastions,
ditches, &c., much out of repair. The population numbers about
35,000, a third living inside the walls. The Armenian quarter,
with about 500 families and an old church, is outside the walls.
The city within the walls forms one of the best laid out towns in
KHOJENT— KHORASAN
Persia, cool streams and lines of willows running along the broad
and regular streets. There are some good buildings, including
the governor's residence, several mosques, a large brick bazaar
and a fine caravanserai. There is a large transit trade, and con-
siderable local traffic across the Turkish border. The city sur-
rendered to the Russians in 1827 without fighting and after the
treaty of peace (Turkman Chai, Feb. 1828) was held for some
time by a garrison of 3000 Russian troops as a guarantee for
the payment of the war indemnity. In September 1881 Khoi
suffered much from a violent earthquake. It has post and
telegraph offices.
KHOJENT, or KHOJEND, a town of the province of Syr-darya,
in Russian Turkestan, on the left bank of the Syr-darya or
Jaxartes, 144 m. by rail S.S.E. from Tashkent, in 40° 17' N. and
69° 30' E., and on the direct road from Bokhara to Khokand.
Pop. (1900), 31,881. The Russian quarter lies between the river
and the native town. Near the river is the old citadel, on the top
of an artificial square mound, about 100 ft. high. The banks
of the river are so high as to make its water useless to the town
in the absence of pumping gear. Formerly the entire commerce
between the khanates of Bokhara and Khokand passed through
this town, but since the Russian occupation (1866) much of it
has been diverted. Silkworms are reared, and silk and cotton
goods are manufactured. A coarse ware is made in imitation
of Chinese porcelain. The district immediately around the town
is taken up with cotton plantations, fruit gardens and vineyards.
The majority of the inhabitants are Tajiks.
Khojent has always been a bone of contention between Kho-
kand and Bokhara. When the amir of Bokhara assisted
Khudayar Khan to regain his throne in 1864, he kept posses-
sion of Khojent. In 1866 the town was stormed by the
Russians; and during their war with Khokand in 1875 it played
an important part.
KHOKAND, or KOKAN, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the pro-
vince of Ferghana, on the railway from Samarkand to Andijan,
85 m. by rail S.W. of the latter, and 20 m. S. of the Syr-darya.
Pop. (1900), 86,704. Situated at an altitude of 1375 ft., it has
a severe climate, the average temperatures being — year, 56°;
January, 22°; July, 65°. Yearly rainfall, 3-6 in. It is the centre
of a fertile irrigated oasis, and consists of a citadel, enclosed
by a wall nearly 12 m. in circuit, and of suburbs containing
luxuriant gardens. The town is modernized, has broad streets
and large squares, and a particularly handsome bazaar. The
former palace of the khans, which recalls by its architecture the
mosques of Samarkand, is the best building in the town. Kho-
kand is one of the most important centres of trade in Turkestan.
Raw cotton and silk are the principal exports, while manufac-
tured goods are imported from Russia. Coins bearing the
inscription " Khokand the Charming," and known as khokands,
have or had a wide currency.
The khanate of Khokand was a powerful state which grew up
in the i8th century. Its early history is not well known, but the
town was founded in 1732 by Abd-ur-Rahim under the name of
Iski-kurgan, or Kali-i-Rahimbai. This must relate, however,
to the fort only, because Arab travellers of the loth century
mention Hovakend or Hokand, the position of which has been
identified with that of Khokand. Many other populous and
wealthy towns existed in this region at the time of the Arab con-
quest of Ferghana. In 1758-1759 the Chinese conquered Dzun-
garia and East Turkestan, and the begs or rulers of Ferghana
recognized Chinese suzerainty. In 1807 or 1808 Alim, son of
Narbuta, brought all the begs of Ferghana under his authority,
and conquered Tashkent and Chimkent. His attacks on the
Bokharan fortress of Ura-tyube were however unsuccessful,
and the country rose against him. He was killed in 1817 by the
adherents of his brother Omar. Omar was a poet and patron
of learning, but continued to enlarge his kingdom, taking the
sacred town of Azret (Turkestan), and to protect Ferghana from
the raids of the nomad Kirghiz built fortresses on the Syr-darya,
which became a basis for raids of the Khokand people into
Kirghiz land. This was the origin of a conflict with Russia.
Several petty wars were undertaken by the Russians after 1847
779
to destroy the Khokand forts, and to secure possession, first, of
the Hi (and so of Dzungaria), and next of the Syr-darya region,
the result being that in 1866, after the occupation of Ura-tyube
and Jizakh,the khanate of Khokand was separated from Bokhara.
During the forty-five years after the death of Omar (he died in
1822) the khanate of Khokand was the seat of continuous wars
between the settled Sarts and the nomad Kipchaks, the two
parties securing the upper hand in turns, Khokand falling under
the dominion or the suzerainty of Bokhara, which supported
Khudayar-khan, the representative of the Kipchak party, in
1858-1866; while Alim-kul, the representative of the Sarts, put
himself at the head of the gazawat (Holy War) proclaimed in
1860, and fought bravely against the Russians until killed at
Tashkent in 1865. In 1868 Khudayar-khan, having secured
independence from Bokhara, concluded a commercial treaty with
the Russians, but was compelled to flee in 1875, when a new
Holy War against Russia was proclaimed. It ended in the cap-
ture at the strong fort of Makhram, the occupation of Khokand
and Marghelan (1875), and the recognition of Russian superiority
by the amir of Bokhara, who conceded to Russia all the territory
north of the Naryn river. War, however, was renewed in the
following year. It ended, in February 1876, by the capture of
Andijan and Khokand and the annexation of the Khokand
khanate to Russia. Out of it was made the Russian province of
Ferghana.
AUTHORITIES. — The following publications are all in Russian:
Kuhn, Sketch of the Khanate of Khokand (1876); V. Nalivkin, Short
History of Khokand (French trans., Paris, 1889); Niazi Mohammed,
Tarihi Shahrohi, or History of the Rulers of Ferghana, edited by
Pantusov (Kazan, 1885); Makshe'ev, Historical Sketch of Turkestan
and the Advance of the Russians (St Petersburg, 1890) ; N. Petrovskiy,
Old Arabian Journals of Travel (Tashkent, 1894); Russian Ency-
clopaedic Dictionary, vol. xv. (1895). (P. A. K. ; J. T. BE.)
KHOLM (Polish Chelm), a town of Russian Poland, in the
government of Lublin, 45 m. by rail E.S.E. of the town of
Lublin. Pop. (1897), 19,236. It is a very old city and the
see of a bishop, and has an archaeological museum for church
antiquities.
KHONDS, or KANDHS, an aboriginal tribe of India, inhabiting
the tributary states of Orissa and the Ganjam district of Madras.
At the census of 1901 they numbered 701,198. Their main
divisions are into Kutia or hill Khonds and plain-dwelling
Khonds; the landowners are known as Raj Khonds. Their
religion is animistic, and their pantheon includes eighty-four
gods. They have given their name to the Khondmals, a sub-
division of Angul district in Orissa: area, 800 sq. m.; pop. (1901),
64,214. The Khond language, Kui, spoken in 1901 by more than
half a million persons, is much more closely related to Telugu
than is Gondi. The Khonds are a finer type than the Gonds.
They are as tall as the average Hindu and not much darker, while
in features they are very Aryan. They are undoubtedly a mixed
Dravidian race, with much Aryan blood.
The Khonds became notorious, on the British occupation of
their district about 1835, from the prevalence and cruelty of the
human sacrifices they practised. These " Meriah " sacrifices,
as they were called, were intended to further the fertilization of
the earth. It was incumbent on the Khonds to purchase their
victims. Unless bought with a price they were not deemed
acceptable. They seldom sacrificed Khonds, though in hard
times Khonds were obliged to sell their children and they could
then be purchased as Meriahs. Persons of any race, age or sex,
were, acceptable if purchased. Numbers were bought and kept
and well treated; and Meriah women were encouraged to become
mothers. Ten or twelve days before the sacrifice the victim's
hair was cut off, and the villagers having bathed, went with the
priest to the sacred grove to forewarn the goddess. The festival
lasted three days, and the wildest orgies were indulged in.
See Major Macpherson, Religious Doctrines of the Khonds; his
account of their religion in Jour. R. Asiatic Soc. xiii. 220—221 and
his Report upon the Khonds of Ganjam and Cuttack (Calcutta, 184^,);
also District Gazetteer of Angul (Calcutta, 1908).
KHORASAN, or KHORASSAN (i.e. " land of the sun "), a
geographical term originally applied to the eastern of the four
780
KHORREMABAD— KHORSABAD
quarters (named from the cardinal points) into which the ancient
monarchy of the Sassanians was divided. After the Arab con-
quest the name was retained both as the designation of a definite
province and in a looser sense. Under the new Persian empire
the expression has gradually become restricted to the north-
eastern portion of Persia which forms one of the five great
provinces of that country. The province is conterminous E.
with Afghanistan, N. with Russian Transcaspian territory, W.
with Astarabad and Shahrud-Bostam, and S. with Kerman and
Yezd. It lies mainly within 29° 4s'-38° 15' N. and s6°-6i° E.,
extending about 320 m. east and west and 570 m. north and
south, with a total area of about 1 50,000 sq. m. The surface is
mountainous. The ranges generally run in parallel ridges,
inclosing extensive valleys, with a normal direction from N.W.
to S.E. The whole of the north is occupied by an extensive
highland system composed of a part of the Elburz and its con-
tinuation extending to the Paropamisus. This system, sometimes
spoken of collectively as the Kuren Dagh, or Kopet Dagh from
its chief sections, forms in the east three ranges, the Hazar
Masjed, Binalud Kuh and Jagatai, enclosing the Meshed-
Kuchan valley and the Jovain plain. The former is watered by
the Kashaf-rud (Tortoise River), or river of Meshed, flowing east
to the Hari-rud, their junction forming the Tejen, which sweeps
round the Daman-i-Kuh, or northern skirt of the outer range,
towards the Caspian but loses itself in the desert long before
reaching it. The Jovain plain is watered by the Kali-i-mura,
an unimportant river which flows south to the Great Kavir or
central depression. In the west the northern highlands develop
two branches: (i) the Kuren Dagh, stretching through the Great
and Little Balkans to the Caspian at Krasnovodsk Bay, (2) the
Ala Dagh, forming a continuation of the Binalud Kuh and joining
the mountains between Bujnurd and Astarabad, which form
part of the Elburz system. The Kuren Dagh and Ala Dagh
enclose the valley of the Atrek River, which flows west and south-
west into the Caspian at Hassan Kuli Bay. The western off-
shoots of the Ala Dagh in the north and the mountains of Astara-
bad in the south enclose the valley of the Gurgan River, which
also flows westwards and parallel to the Atrek to the south-
eastern corner of the Caspian. The outer range has probably
a mean altitude of 8000 ft., the highest known summits being
the Hazar Masjed (10,500) and the Kara Dagh (9800). The
central range seems to be higher, culminating with the Shah-
Jehan Kuh (11,000) and the Ala Dagh (11,500). The southern
ridges, although generally much lower, have the highest point
of the whole system in the Shah Kuh (13,000) between Shahrud
and Astarabad. South of this northern highland several
parallel ridges run diagonally across the province in a N.W.-S.E.
direction as far as Seistan.
Beyond the Atrek and other rivers watering the northern
valleys a few brackish and intermittent rivers lose themselves
in the Great Kavir, which occupies the central and western parts
of the province. The true character of the kavir, which forms the
distinctive feature of east Persia, has scarcely been determined,
some regarding it as the bed of a dried-up sea, others as developed
by the saline streams draining to it from the surrounding high-
lands. Collecting in the central depressions, which have a mean
elevation of scarcely more than 500 ft. above the Caspian, the
water of these streams is supposed to form saline deposits with a
thin hard crust, beneath which the moisture is retained for a con-
siderable time, thus producing those dangerous and slimy quag-
mires which in winter are covered with brine, in summer with a
treacherous incrustation of salt. Dr Sven Hedin explored the
central depressions in 1906.
The surface of Khorasan thus consists mainly of highlands,
saline, swampy deserts and upland valleys, some fertile and well-
watered. Of the last, occurring mainly in the north, the chief
are the longitudinal valley stretching from near the Herat
frontier through Meshed, Kuchan and Shirvan to Bujnurd, the
Derrehgez district, which lies on the northern skirt of the outer
range projecting into the Akhal Tekkeh domain, now Russian
territory, and the districts of Nishapur and Sabzevar which lie
south of the Binalud and Jagatai ranges. These fertile tracts
produce rice and other cereals, cotton, tobacco, opium and
fruits in profusion. Other products are manna, suffron, asafoe-
tida and other gums. The chief manufactures are swords, stone-
ware, carpets and rugs, woollens, cottons, silks and sheepskin
pelisses (pustin, Afghan poshtin).
The administrative divisions of the province are: I, Nishapur;
2, Sabzevar; 3, Jovain; 4, Asfarain; 5, Bujnurd; 6, Kuchan; 7,
Derrehgez; 8, Kelat; 9, Chinaran; zo.Meshed; II, Jam; !2,Bakharz;
13, Radkan; 14, Serrakhs; 15, Sar-i-jam; 16, Bam and Safiabad;
17, Turbet i Haidari; 18, Turshiz; 19, Khaf; 20, Tun and Tabbas;
21, Kain; 22, Seistan.
The population consists of Iranians (Tajiks, Kurds, Baluchis),
Mongols, Tatars and Arabs, and is estimated at about a million.
The Persians proper have always represented the settled, industrial
and trading elements, and to them the Kurds and the Arabs have
become largely assimilated. Even many of the original Tatar,
Mongol and other nomad tribes (Hat), instead of leading their former
roving and unsettled life of the sahara-nishin (dwellers in the desert),
are settled and peaceful shahr-nishin (dwellers in towns). In religion
all except some Tatars and Mongols and the Baluchis have con-
formed to the national Shiah faith. The revenues (cash and kind)
of the province amount to about £180,000 a year, but very little of
this amount reaches the Teheran treasury. The value of the
exports and imports from and into the whole province is a little
under a million sterling a year. The province produces about
10,000 tons of wool and a third of this quantity, or rather more,
valued at £70,000 to £80,000, is exported via Russia to the markets
of western Europe, notably to Marseilles, Russia keeping only a
small part. Other important articles of export, all to Russia, are
cotton, carpets, shawls and turquoises, the last from the mines near
Nishapur. (A. H.-S.)
KHORREMABAD, a town of Persia, capital of the province of
Luristan, in 33° 32' N., 48° 15' E., and at an elevation of 4250 ft.
Pop. about 6000. It is situated 138 m. W.N.W. of Isfahan and
117 m. S.E. of Kermanshah, on the right bank of the broad but
shallow Khorremabad river, also called Ab-i-istaneh, and, lower
down, Kashgan Rud. On an isolated rock between the town
and the river stands a ruined castle, the Diz-i-siyah (black castle),
the residence of the governor of the district (then called Samha)
in the middle ages, and, with some modern additions, one of them
consisting of rooms on the summit, called Felek ul aflak (heaven
of heavens), the residence of the governors of Luristan in the
beginning of the igth century. At the foot of the castle stands
the modern residence of the governor, built c. 1830, with several
spacious courts and gardens. On the left bank of the river
opposite the town are the ruins of the old city of Samha. There
are a minaret 60 ft. high, parts of a mosque, an aqueduct, a
number of walls of other buildings and a four-sided monolith,
measuring g\ ft. in height, by 3 ft. long and 2$ broad, with an
inscription partly illegible, commemorating Mahmud, a grand-
son of the Seljuk king Malik Shah, and dated A.H. 517, or 519
(A.D. 1148-1150). There also remain ten arches of a bridge
which led over the river from Samha on to the road to Shapur-
khast, a city situated some distance west.
KHORSABAD, a Turkish village in the vilayet of Mosul,
12 J m. N.E. of that town, and almost 20 m. N. of ancient Nine-
veh, on the left bank of the little river Kosar. Here, in 1843,
P. E. Botta, then French consul at Mosul, discovered the re-
mains of an Assyrian palace and town, at which excavations were
conducted by him and Flandin in 1843-1844, and again by Victor
Place in 1851-1855. The ruins proved to be those of the town
of Dur-Sharrukin, " Sargon's Castle," built by Sargon, king of
Assyria, as a royal residence. The town, in the shape of a rect-
angular parallelogram, with the corners pointing approximately
toward the cardinal points of the compass, covered 741 acres of
ground. On the north-west side, half within and half without
the circuit of the walls, protruding into the plain like a great
bastion, stood the royal palace, on a terrace, 45 ft. in height,
covering about 25 acres. The palace proper was divided into
three sections, built around three sides of a large court on the
south-east or city side, into which opened the great outer gates,
guarded by winged stone bulls, each section containing suites of
rooms built around several smaller inner courts. In the centre
was the serai, occupied by the king and his retinue, with an
extension towards the north, opening on a large inner court, con-
taining the public reception rooms, elaborately decorated with
KHOTAN— KHURJA
781
sculptures and historical inscriptions, representing scenes of
hunting, worship, feasts, battles, and the like. The harem, with
separate provisions for four wives, occupied the south corner, the
domestic quarters, including stables, kitchen, bakery, wine cellar,
&c., being at the east corner, to the north-east of the great
entrance court. In the west corner stood a temple, with a stage-
tower (ziggurat) adjoining. The walls of the rooms, which stood
only to the height of one storey, were from 9 to 25 ft. in thickness,
of clay, faced with brick, in the reception rooms wainscoted with
stone slabs or tiles, elsewhere plastered, or, in the harem, adorned
with fresco paintings and arabesques. Here and there the floors
were formed of tiles or alabaster blocks, but in general they were
of stamped clay, on which were spread at the time of occupancy
mats and rugs. The exterior of the palace wall exhibited a
system of groups of half columns and stepped recesses, an orna-
ment familiar in Babylonian architecture. The palace and city
were completed in 707 B.C., and in 706 Sargon took up his resi-
dence there. He died the following year, and palace and city
seem to have been abandoned shortly thereafter. Up to 1909
this was the only Assyrian palace which had ever been explored
systematically, in its entirety, and fortunately it was found on
the whole in an admirable state of preservation. An immense
number of statues and bas-reliefs, excavated by Botta, were
transported to Paris, and formed the first Assyrian museum
opened to the world. The objects excavated by Place, together
with the objects found by Fresnel's expedition in Babylonia and
a part of the results of Rawlinson's excavations at Nineveh, were
unfortunately lost in the Tigris, on transport from Bagdad to
Basra. Flandin had, however, made careful drawings and copies
of all objects of importance from Khorsabad. The whole
material was published by the French government in two
monumental publications.
See P. E. Botta and E. Flandin, Monument de Ninive (Paris, 1849-
1850; 5 vols. 400 plates); Victor Place, Ninive el I'Assyrie, avec des
essais de restauration par F. Thomas (Paris, 1866-1869 ; 3 vols.).
(J. P. PE.)
KHOTAN (locally ILCHI), a town and oasis of East Turkestan,
on the Khotan-darya, between the N. foot of the Kuenlun and
the edge of the Takla-makan desert, nearly 200 m. by caravan
road S.E. from Yarkand. Pop., about 5000. The town con-
sists of a labyrinth of narrow, winding, dirty streets, with poor,
square, flat-roofed houses, half a dozen madrasas (Mahommedan
colleges), a score of mosques, and some masars (tombs of Mahom-
medan saints). Dotted about the town are open squares, with
tanks or ponds overhung by trees. For centuries Khotan was
famous for jade or nephrite, a semi-precious stone greatly
esteemed by the Chinese for making small fancy boxes, bottles
and cups, mouthpieces for pipes, bracelets, &c. The stone is
still exported to China. Other local products are carpets (silk
and felt), silk goods, hides, grapes, rice and other cereals, fruits,
tobacco, opium and cotton. There is an active trade in these
goods and in wool with India, West Turkestan and China. The
oasis contains two small towns, Kara-kash and Yurun-kash, and
over 300 villages, its total population being about 150,000.
Khotan, known in Sanskrit as Kustana and in Chinese as
Yu-than, Yu-tien, Kiu-sa-tan-na, and Khio-tan, is mentioned in
Chinese chronicles in the 2nd century B.C. In A.D. 73 it was
conquered by the Chinese, and ever since has been generally
dependent upon the Chinese empire. During the early centuries
of the Christian era, and long before that, it was an important
and flourishing place, the capital of a kingdom to which the
Chinese sent embassies, and famous for its glass-wares, copper
tankards and textiles. About the year A.D. 400 it was a city of
some magnificence, and the seat of a flourishing cult of Buddha,
with temples rich in paintings and ornaments of the precious
metals; but from the 5th century it seems to have declined.
In the 8th century it was conquered, after a struggle of 25 years,
by the Arab chieftain Kotaiba ibn Moslim, from West Turkestan,
who imposed Islam upon the people. In 1220 Khotan was
destroyed by the Mongols under Jenghiz Khan. Marco Polo,
who passed through the town in 1274, says that " Everything
is to be had there [at Cotan, i.e. Khotan] in plenty, including
abundance of cotton, with flax, hemp, wheat, wine, and the like.
The people have vineyards and gardens and estates. They live
by commerce and manufactures, and are no soldiers."1 The
place suffered severely during the Dungan revolt against China
in 1864-1875, and again a few years later when Yakub Beg of
Kashgar made himself master of East Turkestan.
The KHOTAN-DARYA rises in the Kuen-lun Mountains in two
headstreams, the Kara-kash and the Yurun-kash, which unite
towards the middle of the desert, some 90 m. N. of the town of
Khotan. The conjoint stream then flows 180 m. northwards
across the desert of Takla-makan, though it carries water only
in the early summer, and empties itself into the Tarim a few miles
below the confluence of the Ak-su with the Yarkand-darya
(Tarim). In crossing the desert it falls 1250 ft. in a distance of
27om. Its total length is about 300 m. and the area it drains
probably nearly 40,000 sq. m.
See J. P. A. R6musat, Histoire de la ville de Khotan (Paris, 1820) ;
and Sven Hedin, Through Asia (Eng. trans., London, 1898), chs. Ix.
and Ixii., and Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia, 1899-
1902, vol. ii. (Stockholm, 1906). (J. T. BE.)
KHOTIN, or KHOTEEN (variously written Khochim, Choczim,
and Chocim), a fortified town of South Russia, in the government
of Bessarabia, in 48° 30' N. and 26° 30' E., on the right bank of
the Dniester, near the Austrian (Galician) frontier, and opposite
Podolian Kamenets. Pop. (1897), 18,126. It possesses a few
manufactures (leather, candles, beer, shoes, bricks), and carries on
a considerable trade, but has always been of importance mainly
as a military post, defending one of the most frequented passages
of the Dniester. In the middle ages it was the seat of a Genoese
colony ; and it has been in Polish, Turkish and Austrian possession.
The chief events in its annals are the defeat of the Turks in 1621
by Ladislaus IV., of Poland, in 1673 by John Sobieski, of Poland,
and in 1739 by the Russians under Miinnich; the defeat of the
Russians by the Turks in 1768; the capture by the Russians in
1769, and by the Austrians in 1788; and the occupation by the
Russians in 1806. It finally passed to Russia with Bessarabia in
1812 by the peace of Bucharest.
KHULNA, a town and district of British India, in the Presi-
dency division of Bengal. The town stands on the river Bhairab,
and is the terminus of the Bengal Central railway, 109 m. E. of
Calcutta. Pop. (1901), 10,426. It is the most important centre
of river-borne trade in the delta.
The DISTRICT OF KHULNA lies in the middle of the delta of
the Ganges, including a portion of the Sundarbans or seaward
fringe of swamps. It was formed out of Jessore in 1882. Area
(excluding the Sundarbans), 2077 sq. m. Besides the Sundar-
bans, the north-east part of the district is swampy; the north-
west is more elevated and drier, while the central part, though
low-lying, is cultivated. The whole is alluvial. In 1901 the
population was 1,253,043, showing an increase of 6% in
the decade. Rice is the principal crop; mustard, jute and
tobacco are also grown, and the fisheries are important. Sugar
is manufactured from the date palm. The district is entered
by the Bengal Central railway, but by far the greater part of
the traffic is carried by water.
See District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1908).
KHUNSAR, a town of Persia, sometimes belonging to the
province of Isfahan, at others to Irak, 96 m. N.W. of Isfahan,
in 33° 9' N., 50° 23' E., at an elevation of 7600 ft. Pop., about
10,000. It is picturesquely situated on both sides of a narrow
valley through which the Khunsar River, a stream about 12 ft.
wide, flows in a north-east direction to Kuom. The town and its
fine gardens and orchards straggle some 6 m. along the valley
with a mean breadth of scarcely half a mile. There is a great
profusion of fruit, the apples yielding a kind of cider which,
however, does not keep longer than a month. The climate is
cool in summer and cold in winter. There are five caravanserais,
three mosques and a post office.
KHURJA, a town of British India, in the Bulandshahr district
of the United Provinces, 27m. N.W. of Aligarh, near the main
1 Sir H. Yule, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, bk. i. ch. xxxvi. (3rd
ed., London, 1903).
782
KHYBER PASS— KIANG-SI
line of the East Indian railway. Pop. (1901), 29,277. It is an
important centre of trade in grain, indigo, sugar and ghi, and has
cotton gins and presses and a manufacture of pottery. Jain
traders form a large and wealthy class; and the principal
building in the town is a modern Jain temple, a fine domed
structure richly carved and ornamented in gold and colours.
KHYBER PASS, the most important of the passes which lead
from Afghanistan into India. It is a narrow defile winding
between cliffs of shale and limestone 600 to 1000 ft. high,
stretching up to more lofty mountains behind. No other pass in
the world has possessed such strategic importance or retains so
many historic associations as this gateway to the plains of
India. It has probably seen Persian and Greek, Seljuk, Tatar,
Mongol and Durani conquerors, with the hosts of Alexander the
Great, Mahmud of Ghazni, Jenghiz Khan, Timur, Baber,
Nadir Shah, Ahmed Shah, and numerous other warrior chiefs
pass and repass through its rocky defiles during a period of
2000 years. The mountain barrier which separates the Peshawar
plains from the Afghan highlands differs in many respects
from the mountain barrier which intervenes between the Indus
plains and the plateau farther south. To the south this barrier
consists of a series of flexures folded parallel to the river, through
which the plateau drainage breaks down in transverse lines form-
ing gorges and clefts as it cuts through successive ridges. West
of Peshawar the strike of the mountain systems is roughly from
west to east, and this formation is maintained with more or
less regularity as far south as the Tochi River and Waziristan.
Almost immediately west of Peshawar, and stretching along
the same parallel of latitude from the meridian of Kabul to
within ten miles of the Peshawar cantonment, is the great
central range of the Safed Koh, which forms throughout its
long, straight line of rugged peaks the southern wall, or water-
divide, of the Kabul River basin. About the meridian of 71 E.
it forks, sending off to the north-east what is locally known as a
spur to the Kabul River, but which is geographically only part
of that stupendous water-divide which hedges in the Kunar
and Chitral valleys, and, under the name of the Shandur Range,
unites with the Hindu Kush near the head of the Taghdumbash
Pamir. The Kabul River breaks through this northern spur
of the Safed Koh; and in breaking through it is forced to the
northward in a curved channel or trough, deeply sunk in the
mountains between terrific cliffs and precipices, where its narrow
waterway affords no foothold to man or beast for many miles.
To reach the Kabul River within Afghan territory it is neces-
sary to pass over this water-divide; and the Khyber stream,
flowing down from the pass at Landi Kotal to a point in the
plains opposite Jamrud, 9 m. W. of Peshawar, affords the
opportunity.
Pursuing the main road from Peshawar to Kabul, the fort of
Jamrud, which commands the British end of the Khyber Pass,
lies some n m. W. of Peshawar. The road leads through a
barren stony plain, cut up by water-courses and infested by all
the worst cut-throats in the Peshawar district. Some three
miles beyond Jamrud the road enters the mountains at an
opening called Shadi Bagiar, and here the Khyber proper
begins. The highway runs for a short distance through the bed
of a ravine, and then joins the road made by Colonel Mackeson
in 1839-1842, until it ascends on the left-hand side to a
plateau called Shagai. From here can be seen the fort of AH
Masjid, which commands the centre of the pass, and which has
been the scene of more than one famous siege. Still going
westward the road turns to the right, and by an easy zigzag
descends to the river of Ali Masjid, and runs along its bank.
The new road along this cliff was made by the British during
the Second Afghan War (1879-80), and here is the narrowest
part of the Khyber, not more than 15 ft. broad, with the Rhotas
hill on the right fully 2000 ft. overhead. Some three miles
farther on the valley widens, and on either side lie the hamlets
and some sixty towers of the Zakka Khel Afridis. Then comes
the Loargi Shinwari plateau, some seven miles in length and
three in its widest part, ending at Landi Kotal, where is another
British fort, which closes this end of the Khyber and overlooks
the plains of Afghanistan. After leaving Landi Kotal the great
Kabul highway passes between low hills, until it debouches
on the Kabul River and leads to Dakka. The whole of the
Khyber Pass from end to end lies within the country of the
Afridis, and is now recognized as under British control. From
Shadi Bagiar on the east to Landi Kotal on the west is about
20 m. in a straight line.
The Khyber has been adopted by the British as the main road
to Kabul, but its difficulties (before they were overcome by
British engineers) were such that it was never so regarded by
former rulers of India. The old road to India left the Kabul
River near its junction with the Kunar, and crossed the great
divide between the Kunar valley and Bajour; then it turned
southwards to the plains. During the first Afghan War the
Khyber was the scene of many skirmishes with the Afridis and
some disasters to the British troops. In July 1839 Colonel Wade
captured the fortress of Ali Masjid. In 1842, when Jalalabad
was blockaded, Colonel Moseley was sent to occupy the same fort,
but was compelled to evacuate it after a few days owing to
scarcity of provisions. In April of the same year it was reoccu-
pied by General Pollock in his advance to Kabul. It was at
Ali Masjid that Sir Neville Chamberlain's friendly mission to the
amir Shere Ali was stopped in 1878, thus causing the second
Afghan War; and on the outbreak of that war Ali Masjid was
captured by Sir Samuel Browne. The treaty which closed the war
in May 1879 left the Khyber tribes under British control. From
that time the pass was protected by jezailchis drawn from the
Afridi tribe, who were paid a subsidy by the British government.
For 18 years, from 1879 onward, Colonel R. Warburton controlled
the Khyber, and for the greater part of that time secured its
safety; but his term of office came to an end synchronously
with the wave of fanaticism which swept along the north-west
border of India during 1897. The Afridis were persuaded by
their mullahs to attack the pass, which they themselves had
guaranteed. The British government were warned of the
intended movement, but only withdrew the British officers
belonging to the Khyber Rifles, and left the pass to its fate.
The Khyber Rifles, deserted by their officers, made a half-
hearted resistance to their fellow-tribesmen, and the pass fell
into the hands of the Afridis, and remained in their possession
for some months. This was the chief cause of the Tirah Ex-
pedition of 1807. The Khyber Rifles were afterwards strength-
ened, and divided into two battalions commanded by four
British officers.
See Eighteen Years in the Khyber, by Sir Robert Warburton (IQOO) ;
Indian Borderland, by Sir T. Holdich (1901)- (T. H. H.*)
KIAKHTA, a town of Siberia, one of the chief centres of
trade between Russia and China, on the Kiakhta, an affluent
of the Selenga, and on an elevated plain surrounded by moun-
tains, in the Russian government of Transbaikalia, 320 m. S.W.
of Chita, the capital, and close to the Chinese frontier, in 50° 20'
N., 106° 40' E. Besides the lower town or Kiakhta proper, the
municipal jurisdiction comprises the fortified upper town of
Troitskosavsk, about 2 m. N., and the settlement of Ust-
Kiakhta, 10 m. farther distant. The lower town stands directly
opposite to the Chinese emporium of Maimachin, is surrounded
by walls, and consists principally of one broad street and a
large exchange courtyard. From 1689 to 1727 the trade of
Kiakhta was a government monopoly, but in the latter year it
was thrown open to private merchants, and continued to
improve until 1860, when the right of commercial intercourse
was extended along the whole Russian-Chinese frontier. The
annual December fairs for which Kiakhta was formerly famous,
and also the regular traffic passing through the town, have con-
siderably fallen off since that date. The Russians exchange
here leather, sheepskins, furs, horns, woollen cloths, coarse
linens and cattle for teas (in value 95% of the entire imports),
porcelain, rhubarb, manufactured silks, nankeens and other
Chinese produce. The population, including Ust-Kiakhta
(5000) and Troitskosavsk (9213 in 1897), is nearly 20,000.
KIANG-SI, an eastern province of China, bounded N. by
Hu-peh and Ngan-hui, S. by Kwang-tung, E. by Fu-kien, and
KIANG-SU— KIDD
783
W. by Hu-nan. It has an area of 72,176 sq. m., and a popula-
tion returned at 22,000,000. It is divided into fourteen pre-
fectures. The provincial capital is Nan-ch'ang Fu, on the Kan
Kiang, about 35m. from the Po-yang Lake. The whole province
is traversed in a south-westerly and north-easterly direction
by the Nan-shan ranges. The largest river is the Kan Kiang,
which rises in the mountains in the south of the province and
flows north-east to the Po-yang Lake. It was over the Meiling
Pass and down this river that, in old days, embassies landing at
Canton proceeded to Peking. During the summer time it has
water of sufficient depth for steamers of light draft as far as
Nan-ch'ang, and it is navigable by native craft for a considerable
distance beyond that city. Another river of note is the Chang
Kiang, which has its source in the province of Ngan-hui and
flows into the Po-yang Lake, connecting in its course the Wu-
yuen district, whence come the celebrated " Moyune " green
teas, and the city of King-te-chen, celebrated for its pottery,
with Jao-chow Fu on the lake. The black " Kaisow " teas are
brought from the Ho-kow district, where they are grown, down
the river Kin to Juy-hung on the lake, and the Siu-ho connects
by a navigable stream I-ning Chow, in the neighbourhood of
which city the best black teas of this part of China are produced,
with Wu-ching, the principal mart of trade on the lake. The
principal products of the province are tea, China ware, grass-
cloth, hemp, paper, tobacco and tallow. Kiu-kiang, the treaty
port of the province, opened to foreign trade in 1861, is on the
Yangtsze-kiang, a short distance above the junction of the
Po-yang Lake with that river.
KIANG-SU, a maritime province of China, bounded N. by
Shan-tung, S. by Cheh-kiang, W. by Ngan-hui, and E. by the
sea. It has an area of 45,000 sq. m., and a population estimated
at 21,000,000. Kiang-su forms part of the great plainof northern
China. There are no mountains within its limits, and few hills.
It is watered as no other province in China is watered. The
Grand Canal runs through it from south to north ; the Yangtsze-
kiang crosses its southern portion from west to east; it possesses
several lakes, of which the T'ai-hu is the most noteworthy, and
numberless streams connect the canal with the sea. Its coast
is studded with low islands and sandbanks, the results of the
deposits brought down by the Hwang-ho. Kiang-su is rich in
places of interest. Nanking, " the Southern Capital," was the
seat of the Chinese court until the beginning of the isth century,
and it was the headquarters of the T'ai-p'ing rebels from 1853,
when they took the city by assault, to 1864, when its garrison
yielded to Colonel Gordon's army. Hang-chow Fu and Su-chow
Fu, situated on the T'ai-hu, are reckoned the most beautiful
cities in China. " Above there is Paradise, below are Su and
Hang," says a Chinese proverb. Shang-hai is the chief port in
the province. In 1909 it was connected by railway (270 m.
long) via Su-Chow and Chin-kiang with Nanking. Tea and silk
are the principal articles of commerce produced in Kiang-su,
and next in importance are cotton, sugar and medicines. The
silk manufactured in the looms of Su-chow is famous all over the
empire. In the mountains near Nanking, coal, plumbago, iron
ore and marble are found. Shang-hai, Chin-kiang, Nanking
and Su-chow are the treaty ports of the province.
KIAOCHOW BAY, a large inlet on the south side of the
promontory of Shantung, in China. It was seized in November
1897 by the German fleet, nominally to secure reparation for the
murder of two German missionaries in the province of Shantung.
In the negotiations which followed, it was arranged that the bay
and the land on both sides of the entrance within certain defined
lines should be leased to Germany for 99 years. During the
continuance of the lease Germany exercises all the rights of
territorial sovereignty, including the right to erect fortifications.
The area leased is about 117 sq. m., and over a further area,
comprising a zone of some 32 m., measured from any point on
the shore of the bay, the Chinese government may not issue any
ordinances without the consent of Germany. The native popu-
lation in the ceded area is about 60,000. The German govern-
ment in 1899 declared Kiaochow a free port. By arrangement
with the Chinese government a branch of the Imperial maritime
customs has been established there for the collection of duties
upon goods coming from or going to the interior, in accordance
with the general treaty tariff. Trade centres at Ts'ingtao, a
town within the bay. The country in the neighbourhood is
mountainous and bare, but the lowlands are well cultivated.
Ts'ingtao is connected by railway with Chinan Fu, the capital
of the province; a continuation of the same line provides for
a junction with the main Lu-Han (Peking-Hankow) railway.
The value of the trade of the port during 1904 was £2,712,145
(£1,808,113 imports and £904,032 exports).
KICKAPOO (" he moves about "), the name of a tribe of
North American Indians of Algonquian stock. When first met
by the French they were in central Wisconsin. They sub;
sequently removed to the Ohio valley. They fought on the
English side in the War of Independence and that of 1812.
In 1852 a large band went to Texas and Mexico and gave much
trouble to the settlers; but in 1873 the bulk of the tribe was
settled on its present reservation in Oklahoma. They number
some 800, of whom about a third are still in Mexico.
KIDD, JOHN (1775-1851), English physician, chemist and
geologist, born at Westminster on the loth of September 1775,
was the son of a naval officer, Captain John Kidd. He was
educated at Bury St Edmunds and Westminster, and after-
wards at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. in
1797 (M.D. in 1804). He also studied at Guy's Hospital, London
(1797-1801), where he was a pupil of Sir Astley Cooper. He
became reader in chemistry at Oxford in 1801, and in 1803 was
elected the first Aldrichian professor of chemistry. He then
voluntarily gave courses of lectures on mineralogy and geology:
these were delivered in the dark chambers under the Ashmolean
Museum, and there J. J. and W. D. Conybeare, W. Buckland,
C. G. B. Daubeny and others gained their first lessons in geology.
Kidd was a popular and instructive lecturer, and through his
efforts the geological chair, first held by Buckland, was established.
In 1818 he became a F. R. C. P.; in 1822 regius professor of medi-
cine in succession to Sir Christopher Pegge; and in 1834 he was
appointed keeper of the Radcliffe Library. He delivered the
Harveian oration before the Royal College of Physicians in
1834. He died at Oxford on the 7th of September 1851.
PUBLICATIONS. — Outlines of Mineralogy (2 vols., 1809) ; A Geologi-
cal Essay on the Imperfect Evidence in Support of a Theory of the
Earth (1815); On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical
Condition of Man, 1833 (Bridge water Treatise).
KIDD, THOMAS (1770-1850), English classical scholar and
schoolmaster, was born in Yorkshire. He was educated at
Giggleswick School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He held
numerous scholastic and clerical appointments, the last being
the rectory of Croxton, near Cambridge, where he died on the
27th of August 1850. Kidd was an intimate friend of Person
and Charles Burney the younger. He contributed largely to
periodicals, chiefly on classical subjects, but his reputation
mainly rests upon his editions of the works of other scholars:
Opuscula Ruhnkeniana (1807), the minor works of the great
Dutch scholar David Ruhnken; Miscellanea Critica of Richard
Dawes (2nd ed., 1827); Tracts and Miscellaneous Criticisms of
Richard Person (1815). He also published an edition of the
works of Horace (1817) based upon Bentley's recension.
KIDD, WILLIAM [CAPTAIN KIDD] (c. 1645-1701), privateer
and pirate, was born, perhaps, in Greenock, Scotland, but
his origin is quite obscure. He told Paul Lorraine, the ordinary
of Newgate, that he was " about 56 " at the time of his con-
demnation for piracy in 1701. In 1691 an award from the
council of New York of £150 was given him for his services
during the disturbances in the colony after the revolution of
1688. He was commissioned later to chase a hostile privateer
off the coast, is described as an owner of ships, and is known
to have served with credit against the French in the West Indies.
In 1695 he came to London with a sloop of his own to trade.
Colonel R. Livingston (1654-1724), a well-known New York land-
owner, recommended him to the newly appointed colonial
governor Lord Bellomont, as a fit man to command a vessel to
cruise against the pirates in the Eastern seas (see PIRATE).
784
KIDDERMINSTER— KIDNEY DISEASES
Accordingly the " Adventure Galley," a vessel of 30 guns and
275 tons, was privately fitted out, and the command given to
Captain Kidd, who received the king's commission to arrest
and bring to trial all pirates, and a commission of reprisals
against the French. Kidd sailed from Plymouth in May 1696
for New York, where he filled up his crew, and in 1697 reached
Madagascar, the pirates' principal rendezvous. He made no
effort whatever to hunt them down. On the contrary he
associated himself with a notorious pirate named Culliford.
The fact would seem to be that Kidd meant only to capture
French ships. When he found none he captured native trading
vessels, under pretence that they were provided with French
passes and were fair prize, and he plundered on the coast of
Malabar. During 1698-1699 complaints reached the British
government as to the character of his proceedings. Lord
Bellomont was instructed to apprehend him if he should return
to America. Kidd deserted the "Adventure " in Madagascar,
and sailed for America in one of his prizes, the "Quedah Mer-
chant," which he also left in the West Indies. He reached New
England in a small sloop with several of his crew and wrote
to Bellomont, professing his ability to justify himself and sending
the governor booty. He was arrested in July 1699, was sent
to England and tried, first for the murder of one of his crew, and
then with others for piracy. He was found guilty on both
charges, and hanged at Execution Dock, London, on the 23rd of
May 1701. The evidence against him was that of two members
of his crew, the surgeon and a sailor who turned king's evidence,
but no other witnesses could be got in such circumstances, as
the judge told him when he protested. " Captain Kidd's
Treasure " has been sought by various expeditions and about
£14,000 was recovered from Kidd's ship and from Gardiner's
Island (off the E. end of Long Island); but its magnitude was
palpably exaggerated. He left a wife and child at New York.
The so-called ballad about him is a poor imitation of the
authentic chant of Admiral Benbow.
Much has been written about Kidd, less because of the intrinsic
interest of his career than because the agreement made with him by
Bellomont was the subject of violent political controversy. The
best popular account is in An Historical Sketch of Robin Hood and
Captain Kidd by W. W. Campbell (New York, 1853), in which the
essential documents are quoted. But see PIRATE.
KIDDERMINSTER, a market town and municipal and parlia-
mentary borough of Worcestershire, England, 135^ m. N.W. by
W. from London and 15 m. N. of Worcester by the Great
Western railway, on the river Stour and the Staffordshire and
Worcestershire canal. Pop. (1901), 24,692. The parish church
of All Saints, well placed above the river, is a fine Early English
and Decorated building, with Perpendicular additions. Of other
buildings the principal are the town hall (1876), the corporation
buildings, and the school of science and art and free library.
There is a free grammar school founded in 1637. A public
recreation ground, Brinton Park, was opened in 1887. Richard
Baxter, who was elected by the townsfolk as their minister in
1641, was instrumental in saving the town from a reputation
of ignorance and depravity caused by the laxity of their clergy.
He is commemorated by a statue, as is Sir Rowland Hill, the
introducer of penny postage, who was born here in 1795.
Kidderminster is chiefly celebrated for its carpets. The -per-
manency of colour by which they are distinguished is attributed
to the properties of the water of the Stour, which is impregnated
with iron and fuller's earth. Worsted spinning and dyeing are
also carried on, and there are iron foundries, tinplate works,
breweries, malthouses, &c. The parliamentary borough returns
one member. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen
and 1 8 councillors. Area, 1214 acres.
In 736 lands upon the river Stour, called Stour in Usmere,
which have been identified with the site of Kidderminster
(Chideminstre), were given to Earl Cyneberght by King jEthel-
bald to found a monastery. If this monastery was ever built,
it was afterwards annexed to the church of Worcester, and
the lands on the Stour formed part of the gift of Coenwulf,
king of the Mercians, to Deneberht, bishop of Worcester, but
were exchanged with the same king in 816 for other property.
At the Domesday Survey, Kidderminster was still in the hands
of the king and remained a royal manor until Henry II. granted
it to Manser Biset. The poet Edmund Waller was one of the
1 7th century lords of the manor. The town was possibly a
borough in 1187 when the men paid £4 to an aid. As a royal
possession it appears to have enjoyed various privileges in the
1 2th century, among them the right of choosing a bailiff to
collect the toll and render it to the king, and to elect six burgesses
and send them to the view of frankpledge twice a year. The
first charter of incorporation, granted in 1636, appointed a
bailiff and 12 capital burgesses forming a common council.
The town was governed under this charter until the Municipal
Reform Act of 1835. Kidderminster sent two members to the
parliament of 1295, but was not again represented until the
privilege of sending one member was conferred by the Reform
Act of 1832. The first mention of the cloth trade for which
Kidderminster was formerly noted occurs in 1334, when it was
enacted that no one should make woollen cloth in the borough
without the bailiff's seal. At the end of the i8th century the
trade was still important, but it began to decline after the in-
vention of machinery, probably owing to the poverty of the
manufacturers. The manufacture of woollen goods was however
replaced by that of carpets, introduced in 1735. At first only
the " Kidderminster " carpets were made, but in 1749 a Brussels
loom was set up in the town and Brussels carpets were soon
produced in large quantities.
See Victoria County History: Worcestershire; J. R. Burton, A
History of Kidderminster, with Short Accounts of some Neighbouring
Parishes (1890).
KIDNAPPING (from kid, a slang term for a child, and nap
or nab, to steal), originally the stealing and carrying away
of children and others to serve as servants or labourers in the
American plantations; it was defined by Blackstone as the
forcible abduction or stealing away of a man, woman or child
from their own country and sending them into another. The
difference between kidnapping, abduction (q.v.) and false im-
prisonment is not very great; indeed, kidnapping may be said
to be a form of assault and false imprisonment, aggravated by
the carrying of the person to some other place. The term is,
however, more commonly applied in England to the offence of
taking away children from the possession of their parents. By
the Offences against the Person Act 1861, " whosoever shall
unlawfully, by force or fraud, lead or take away or decoy or
entice away or detain any child under the age of fourteen years
with intent to deprive any parent, guardian or other person
having the lawful care or charge of such child of the possession
of such child, or with intent to steal any article upon or about
the person of such child, to whomsoever such article may belong,
and whosoever shall with any such intent receive or harbour
any such child, &c.," shall be guilty of felony, and is liable to
penal servitude for not more than seven years, or to imprison-
ment for any term not more than two years with or without
hard labour. The abduction or unlawfully taking away an
unmarried girl under sixteen out of the possession and against
the will of her father or mother, or any other person having the
lawful care or charge of her, is a misdemeanour under the same
act. The term is used in much the same sense in the United
States.
The kidnapping or forcible taking away of persons to serve at sea
is treated under IMPRESSMENT.
KIDNEY DISEASES.1 (For the anatomy of the kidneys,
see URINARY SYSTEM.) The results of morbid processes in the
kidney may be grouped under three heads: the actual lesions
produced, the effects of these on the composition of the urine,
1 The word " kidney " first appears in the early part of the 14th
century in the form kidenei, with plural kideneiren, kideneris,
kidneers, &c. It has been assumed that the second part of the word
is " neer " or " near " (cf. Ger. Niere), the common dialect word for
"kidney " in northern, north midland and eastern counties of England
(see I. Wright, English Dialect Dictionary, 1903, s.v. Near), and that
the first part represents the O.E. cwtiS, belly, womb; this the New
English Dictionary considers improbable ; there is only one doubtful
instance of singular kidnere and the ordinary form ended in -ei or ey.
Possibly this represents M.E. ey, plur. eyren, egg, the name being
given from the resemblance in shape. The first part is uncertain.
KIDNEY DISEASES
785
and the effects of the kidney-lesion on the body at large. Affec-
tions of the kidney are congenital or acquired. When acquired'
they may be the result of a pathological process limited to the
kidney, in which case they are spoken of as primary, or an
accompaniment of disease in other parts of the body, when they
may be spoken of as secondary.
Congenital Affections. — The principal congenital affections are
anomalies in the number or position of the kidneys or of their ducts;
atrophy; cystic disease and growths. The most common abnor-
mality is the existence of a single kidney; rarely a supernumerary
kidney may be present. The presence of a single kidney may be
due to failure of development, or to atrophy in foetal life; it may also
be dependent on the fusion of originally separate kidneys in such a
way as to lead to the formation of a horse-shoe kidney, the two
organs being connected at their lower ends. In some cases of horse-
shoe kidney the organs are united merely by fibrous tissue. Occa-
sionally the two kidneys are fused end to end, with two ureters.
A third variety is that where the fusion is more complete, producing
a disk-like mass with two ureters. The kidneys may be situated in
abnormal^ positions; thus they may be in front of the sacro-iliac
articulation, in the pelvis, or in the iliac fossa. The importance of
such displacements lies in the fact that the organs may be mistaken
for tumours. In some cases atrophy is associated with mal-develop-
ment, so that only the medullary portion of the kidney is developed ;
in others it is associated with arterial obstruction, and sometimes it
may be dependent upon obstruction of the ureter. In congenital
cystic disease the organ is transformed into a mass of cysts, and the
_snlargement of the kidneys may be so great as to produce difficulties
in birth. The cystic degeneration is caused by obstruction of the
uriniferous tubules or by anomalies in development, with persistence
of portions of the Wolffian body. In some cases cystic degeneration
is accompanied by anomalies in the ureters and in the arterial
supply. Growths of the kidney are sometimes found in infants; they
are usually malignant, and may consist of a peculiar form of sarcoma,
which has been spoken of as rhabdo-sarcoma, owing to the presence
in the mass of involuntary muscular fibres. The existence of these
tumours is dependent on anomalies of development ; the tissue which
forms the primitive kidney belongs to the same layer as that which
gives rise to the muscular system (mesoblast). Anomalies of the
excretory ducts: in some cases the ureter is double, in others it is
greatly dilated; in others the pelvis of the kidney may be greatly
dilated, with or without dilatation of the ureter.
Acquired Affections. Movable Kidney. — One or both of the
kidneys in the adult may be preternaturally mobile. This condition
is more common in women, and is usually the result of a severe
shaking or other form of injury, or of the abdominal walls
becoming lax as a sequel to abdominal distension, to emaciation
or pregnancy, or to the effects of tight-lacing. The more extreme
forms of movable kidney are dependent, generally, on anomalies
in the arrangement of the peritoneum, so that the organ has a
partial mesentery; and to this condition, where the kidney can
be moved freely _from one part of the abdomen to another, the term
floating kidney is applied. But more usually the organ is loose
under the peritoneum, and not efficiently supported in its fatty bed.
Movable kidney produces a variety of symptoms, such as pain in
the loin and back, faintness, nausea and vomiting — and the function
of the organ may be seriously interfered with, owing to the ureter
becoming kinked. In this way hydronephrosis, or distension of
the kidney with urine, may be produced. The return of blood
through the renal vein may also be hindered, and temporary vascular
engorgement of the kidney, with haematuria, may be produced.
In some cases the movable kidney may be satisfactorily kept in
its place by a pad and belt, but in other cases an operation has to be
undertaken. This consists in exposing the kidney (generally the
right) through an incision below the last rib, and fixing it in its
proper position by several permanent sutures of silk or silkworm gut.
The operation is neither difficult nor dangerous, and its results are
excellent.
Embolism. — The arrangement of the blood-vessels of the kidney
is peculiarly favourable to the production of wedge-shaped areas of
necrosis, the result of a blocking by clots. Sometimes the clot is
detached from the interior of the heart, the effect being an arrest
of the circulation in the part of the kidney supplied by the blocked
artery. In other cases, the plug is infective owing to the presence of
septic micro-organisms, and this is likely to lead to the formation
of small pyaemic abscesses. It is exceptional for the large branches
of the renal artery to be blocked, so that the symptoms produced in
the ordinary cases are only the temporary appearance of blood or
albumen in the urine. Blocking of the main renal vessels as a result
of disease of the walls of the vessels may lead to disorganization of
the kidneys. Blocking of the veins, leading to extreme congestion
of the kidney, also occurs. It is seen in cases of extreme weakness
and wasting, sometimes in septic conditions, as in puerperal pyaemia,
where a clot, formed first in one of the pelvic veins, may spread up
the vena cava and secondarily block the renal veins. Thrombosis
of the renal vein also occurs in malignant disease of the kidney and
in certain forms of chronic Bright's disease.
Passive congestion of the kidneys occurs in heart-diseases and
lung-diseases, where the return of venous blood is interfered with.
It may also be produced by tumours pressing on the vena cava.
The engorged kidneys become brownish red, enlarged and fibroid,
and they secrete a scanty, high-coloured urine.
Active congestion is produced by the excretion in the urine of such
materials as turpentine and cantharides and the toxins of various
diseases. These irritants produce engorgement and inflammation
of the kidney, much as they would that of any other structures with
which they come in contact. Renal disturbance is often the result
of the excretion of microbic poisons. Extreme congestion of the
kidneys may be produced by exposure to cold, owing to some
intimate relationship existing between the cutaneous and the renal
vessels, the constriction of the one being accompanied by the
dilatation of the other. Infective diseases, such as typhoid fever,
pneumonia, scarlet fever, in fact, most acute specific diseases,
produce during their height a temporary nephritis, not usually
followed by permanent alteration in the kidney; but some acute
diseases cause a nephritis which may lay the foundation of permanent
renal disease. This is most common as a result of scarlet fever.
Bright's disease is the term applied to certain varieties of acute
and chronic inflammation of the kidney. Three forms are usually
recognized — acute, chronic and the granular or cirrhotic kidney.
In the more common form of granular kidney the renal lesion is
only part of a widespread affection involving the whole arterial
system, and is not actually related to Bright's disease. Chronic
Bright's disease is sometimes the sequel to acute Bright's disease,
but in a great number of cases the malady is chronic from the
beginning. The lesions of the kidney are probably produced by
irritation of the kidney-structures owing to the excretion of toxic
substances either ingested or formed in the body; it is thought by
some that the malady may arise as a result of exposure to cold.
The principal causes of Bright's disease are alcoholism, gout, preg-
nancy and the action of such poisons as lead ; it may also occur as a
sequel to acute diseases, such as scarlet fever. Persons following
certain occupations are peculiarly liable to Bright's disease, e.g.
engineers who work in hot shops and pass out into the cold air
scantily clothed ; and painters, in whom the malady is dependent on
the action of lead on the kidney. In the case of alcohol and lead
the poison is ingested; in the case of scarlet fever, pneumonia, and
perhaps pregnancy, the toxic agent causing the renal affection is
formed in the body. In Bright's disease all the elements of the
kidney, the glomeruli, the tubular epithelium, and the interstitial
tissue, are affected. When the disease~follows scarlet fever, the
glomerular structures are mostly affected, the capsules being
thickened by fibrous tissue, and the glomerular tuft compressed and
atrophied. The epithelium of the convoluted tubules undergoes
degeneration; considerable quantities of it are shed, and form the
well-known casts in the urine. The tubules become blocked by the
epithelium, and distended with the pent-up urine; this is one cause
of tne increase in size that the kidneys undergo in certain forms of
Bright's disease. The lesions in the tubules and in the glomeruli
are not generally uniform. The interstitial tissue is always affected,
and exudation, proliferation and formation of fibrous tissue occur_
In the granular and contracted kidney the lesion in the interstitial
tissue reaches a high degree of development, little renal secreting
tissue being left. Such tubules as remain are dilated, and the
epithelium lining them is altered, the cells becoming hyaline and
losing their structure. The vessels are narrowed owing to thickening
of the subendothelial layer, and the muscular coat undergoes hyper-
trophic and fibroid changes, so that the vessels are abnormally rigid
When the overgrowth of fibrous tissue is considerable, the surface
of the organ becomes uneven, and it is for this reason that the term
granular kidney has been applied to the condition. In acute Bright's
disease the kidney is increased in size and engorged with blood, the
changes described above being in active progress. In the chronic
form the kidney may be large or small, and is usually white or
mottled. If large, the cortex is thickened, pale and waxy, and the
pyramids are congested ; if small, the fibrous change has advanced
and the cortex is diminished. Bright's disease, both acute and
chronic, is essentially a disease of the cortical secreting portion of
the kidney. The true granular kidney, classified by some as a third
variety, is usually part of a general arterial degeneration, the over-
growth of fibrous tissue in the kidney and the lesions in the arteries
being well marked.
The principal degenerations affecting the kidney are the fatty and
the albuminoid. Fatty degeneration often reaches a high degree in
alcoholics, where fatty degeneration of the heart and liver are also
present. Albuminoid disease is frequently associated with some
varieties of Bright's disease, and is also seen as a result of chronic
bone disease, or of long-continued suppuration involving other parts
of the body, or of syphilis. It is due to irritation of the kidneys
by toxic products.
Growths of the Kidney.— The principal growths are tubercle
adenoma, sarcoma and carcinoma. In addition, fatty and fibrous
growths, the nodules of glanders and the gummata of syphilis, may
be mentioned. Tuberculous disease is sometimes primary; more
frequently it is secondary to tubercle in other portions of the genito-
urinary apparatus. The genito-urinary tract may be infected by
786
KIDNEY DISEASES
tubercle in two ways; ascending, in which the primary lesion is in
the testicle, epididymis, or urinary bladder, the lesion travelling up
by the ureter or the lymphatics to the kidney ; descending, where the
tubercle bacillus reaches the kidney through the blood-vessels. In
the latter case, miliary tubercles, as scattered granules, are seen,
especially in the cortex of the kidney; the lesion is likely to be
bilateral. In primary tuberculosis, and in ascending tuberculosis,
the lesion is at first unilateral. Malignant disease of the kidney
takes the form of sarcoma or carcinoma. Sometimes it is dependent
on the malignant growths starting in what are spoken of as " adrenal
rests " in the cortex of the kidney. Sarcoma is most often seen in
the young; carcinoma in the middle-aged and elderly. Carcinoma
may be primary or secondary, but the kidney is not so prone to
malignant disease as other organs, such as the stomach, bowel or liver.
Cystic Kidneys. — Cysts may be single — sometimes of large size.
Scattered small cysts are met with in chronic Bright's disease and
in granular contracted kidney, where the dilatation of tubules reaches
a high degree. Certain growths, such as adenomata, are liable to
cystic degeneration, and cysts are also found in malignant disease.
Finally, there is a rare condition of general cystic disease somewhat
similar to the congenital affection. In this form the kidneys, greatly
enlarged, consist of a congeries of cysts separated by the remains of
renal tissue.
Parasitic Affections. — The more common parasites affecting the
kidney, or some other portion of the urinary tract, and causing
disease, are filaria, bilharzia and the cysticercus form of the taenia
echinococcus (hydatids). The presence of filaria in the thoracic
duct and other lymph-channels may determine the presence of chyle
in the urine, together with the ova and young forms of the filaria,
owing to the distension and rupture of a lymphatic vessel into some
portion of the urinary tract. This is the common cause of chyluria
in hot climates, but chyluria is occasionally seen in the United
Kingdom without filaria. Bilharzia, especially in Egypt and South
Africa, causes haematuria. The cysticercus form of the taenia
echinococcus leads to the production of hydatid cysts in the kidney;
this organ, however, is not so often affected as the liver.
Stone in the Kidney.— ^Calculi are frequently found in the kidney,
consisting usually of uric acid, sometimes of oxalates, more rarely
of phosphates. Calculous disease of the bladder (q.v.) is generally
the sequel to the formation of a stone in the kidney, which, passing
down, becomes coated by the salts in the urine. Calculi are usually
formed in the pelvis of the kidney, and their formation is dependent
either on the excessive amounts of uric acid, oxalic acid, &c., in the
urine, or on an alteration in the composition of the urine, such as
increased acidity, or on uric acid or oxatate of lime being present in an
abnormal amount. The formation of abnormal crystals is oftendueto
the presence of some colloid, such as blood, mucus or albumen, in the
secretion, modifying the crystalline form. Once a minute calculus
has been formed, its subsequent growth is highly probable, owin^
to the deposition on it of the urinary constituent forming it. Calculi
formed in the pelvis of the kidney may be single and may reach a
very large size, forming, indeed, an actual cast of the interior of
the expanded kidney. At other times they are multiple and of
varying size. They may give rise to no symptoms, or on the other
hand may cause distressing renal colic, especially when they are
small and loose and are passed or are trying to be passed. Serious
complications may result from the presence of a stone in the kidney,
such as hydronephrosis, from the urinary secretion being pent up
behind the obstruction, or complete suppression, which is apparently
produced reflexly through the nervous system. In such cases the
surgical removal of the stone is often followed by the restoration of
the renal secretion.
The symptoms of renal calculus may be very slight, or they may
be entirely absent if the stone is moulding itself into the interior of
the kidney; but if the stone is movable, heavy and rough, it may
cause great distress, especially during exercise. There will probably
be blood in the urine; and there will be pain in the loin and thigh
and down into the testicle. The testicle also may be drawn up by
its suspensory muscle, and there may be irritability of the bladder.
With stone in one kidney the pains may be actually referred to the
kidney of the other side. Generally, but not always, there is tender-
ness in the loin. If the stone is composed of lime it may throw a
shadow on the Rontgen plate, but other stones may give no shadow.
Renal colic is the acute pain felt when a small stone is travelling
down the ureter to the bladder. The pain is at times so acute that
fomentations, morphia and hot baths fail to ease it, and nothing
short of chloroform gives relief.
For the operative treatment of renal calculus an incision is made a
little below the last rib, and, the muscles having been traversed,
the kidney is reached on the surface which is not covered by peri-
toneum. Most likely the stone is then felt, so it is cut down upon
and removed. If it is not discoverable on gently pinching the
kidney between the finger and thumb, the kidney had better be
opened in its convex border and explored by the finger. Often it
has happened that when a man has presented most of the symptoms
of renal calculus and has been operated on with a negative result
as regards finding a stone, all the symptoms have nevertheless
disappeared as the direct result of the blank operation.
Pyelitis. — Inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney is generally
produced by the extension of gonorrhoeal or other septic inflamma-
tion upwards from the bladder and lower urinary tract, or by the
presence of stone or of tubercle in the pelvis of the kidney. Pyo-
nephrosis, or distension of the kidney with pus, may result as a sequel
to pyelitis or as a complication of hydronephrosis; in many cases
the inflammation spreads to the capsule of the kidney, and leads
to the formation of an abscess outside the kidney — a perinephritic
abscess. In some cases a perinephritic abscess results from a septic
plug in a blood-vessel of the kidney, or it may occur as the result
of an injury to the loose cellular tissue surrounding the kidney,
without lesion of the kidney.
Hydronephrosis, or distension of the kidney with pent-up urine,
results from obstruction of the ureter, although all obstructions of
the ureter are not followed by it, calculous obstruction, as already
noted, often causing complete suppression of urine. Obstruction of
the ureter, causing hydronephrosis, is likely to be due to the impac-
tion of a stone, or to pressure on the ureter from a tumour in the
pelvis — as, for instance, a cancer of the uterus — or to some abnor-
mality of the ureter. Sometimes a kink of the ureter of a movable
kidney causes hydronephrosis. The hydronephrosis produced by
obstruction of the ureter may be intermittent; and when a certain
degree of distension is produced, either as a result of the shifting of
the calculus or of some other cause, the obstruction is temporarily
relieved in a great outflow of urine, and the urinary discharge is re-
established. When the hydronephrosis has long existed the kidney
is converted into a sac, the remains of the renal tissues being spread
out as a thin layer.
Effects on the Urine. — Diseases of the kidney produce alterations
in the composition of the urine; either the proportion of the normal
constituents being altered, or substances not normally present being
excreted. In most diseases the quantity of urinary water is dimin-
ished, especially in those in which the activity of the circulation is
impaired. There are diseases, however, more especially the granular
kidney and certain forms of chronic Bright's disease, in which the
quantity of urinary water is considerably increased, notwithstanding
the profound anatomical changes that have occurred in the kidney.
There are two forms of suppression of the urine: one is obstructive
suppression, seen where the ureter is blocked by stone or other
morbid process; the other is non-obstructive suppression, which is
apt to occur in advanced diseases of the kidney. In other cases
complete suppression may occur as the result of injuries to distant
parts of the body, as after severe surgical operations. In some
diseases in which the quantity of urinary water excreted is normal,
or even greater than normal, the efficiency of the renal activity is
really diminished, inasmuch as the urine contains few solids. In
estimating the efficiency of the kidneys, it is necessary to take into
consideration the so-called " solid urine," that is to say, the quantity
of solid matter daily excreted, as shown by the specific gravity of
the urine. The nitrogenous constituents — urea, uric acid, creatinin,
&c. — vary greatly in amount in different diseases. In most renal
diseases the quantities of these substances are diminished because
of the physiological impairment of the kidney. The chief abnormal
constituents of the urine are serum-albumen, serum-globulin, albu-
moses (albuminuria), blood (haematuria), blood pigment (haemo-
globinuria), pus (pyuria), chyle (chyluria) and pigments such as
melanuria and urobilinuria.
Effects on the Body at large. — These may be divided into the persis-
tent and the intermittent or transitory. The most important
persistent effects produced by disease of the kidney are, first,
nutritional changes leading to general ill health, wasting and
cachexia; and, secondly, certain cardio-vascular phenomena, such
as enlargement (hypertrophy) of the heart, and thickening of the
inner, and degeneration of the middle, coat of the smaller arteries.
Amongst the intermittent or transitory effects are dropsy, secondary
inflammations of certain organs and serous cavities, and uraemia.
Some of these effects are seen in every form of severe kidney disease,
and uraemia may occur in any advanced kidney disease. Renal
dropsy is chiefly seen in certain forms of Bright's disease, and the
cardiac and arterial changes are commonest in cases of granular or
contracted kidney, but maybe absent in other diseases which destroy
the kidney tissue, such as hydronephrosis. Uraemia is a toxic
condition, and three varieties of it are recognized — the acute, the
chronic and the latent. Many of these effects are dependent upon
the action of poisons retained in the body owing to the deficient
action of the kidneys. It is also probable that abnormal substances
having a toxic action are produced as a result of a perverted meta-
bolism. Uraemia is of toxic origin, and it is probable that the
dropsy of renal disease is due to effects produced in the capillaries
by the presence of abnormal substances in the blood. High arterial
tension, cardiac hypertrophy and arterial degeneration may also
be of toxic origin, or they may be produced by an attempt of the
body to maintain an active circulation through the greatly dimin-
ished amount of kidney tissue available.
Rupture of the kidney may result from a kick or other direct injury.
Vomiting and collapse are likely to ensue, and most likely blood will
appear in the urine, or a tumour composed of blood and urine may
form in the renal region. An incision made into the swelling from
the loin may enable the surgeon to see the torn kidney. An attempt
should be made to save the kidney by suturing and draining; unless
KIDWELLY— KIELCE
787
the damage is obviously past repair, the kidney should not be
removed without giving nature a chance. (J. R. B.; E. O.*)
KIDWELLY (Cydweli), a decayed market-town and municipal
borough of Carmarthenshire, Wales, situated (as its name
implies) near the junction of two streams, the Gwendraeth Fawr
and the Gwendraeth Fach, a short distance from the shores of
Carmarthen Bay. Pop. (1901), 2285. It has a station on the
Great Western railway. The chief attraction of Kidwelly is' its
magnificent and well-preserved castle, one of the finest in South
Wales, dating chiefly from the i3th century and admirably
situated on a knoll above the Gwendraeth Fach. The parish
church of St Mary, of the I4th century, possesses a lofty tower
with a spire. The quiet little town has had a stirring history. It
was a place of some importance when William de Londres, a
companion of Fitz Hamon and his conquering knights, first
erected a castle here. In 1135 Kidwelly was furiously attacked
by Gwenllian, wife of Griffith ap Rhys, prince of South Wales,
and a battle, fought close to the town at a place still known as
Maes Gwenllian, ended in the total defeat and subsequent exe-
cution of the Welsh princess. Later, the extensive lordship of
Kidwelly became the property through marriage of Henry, earl of
Lancaster, and to this circumstance is due the 'exclusive juris-
diction of the town. Kidwelly received its first charter of
incorporation from Henry VI.; its present charter dating
from 1618. The decline of Kidwelly is due to the accumula-
tion of sand at the mouth of the river, and to the consequent
prosperity of the neighbouring Llanelly.
KIEF, KEF or KEIF (a colloquial form of the Arabic kaif,
pleasure or enjoyment), the state of drowsy contentment pro-
duced by the use of narcotics. To " do kef," or to " make kef,"
is to pass the time in such a state. The word is used in northern
Africa, especially in Morocco, for the drug used for the purpose.
KIEL, the chief naval port of Germany on the Baltic, a town
of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. Pop. (1900),
107,938; (1905), 163,710, including the incorporated suburbs.
It is beautifully situated at the southern end on the Kieler
Busen (bay or harbour of Kiel), 70 m. by rail N. from Hamburg.
It consists of a somewhat cramped old town, lying between the
harbour and a sheet of water called Kleiner Kiel, and a better
built and more spacious new town, which has been increased
by the incorporation of the garden suburbs of Brunswick and
Diisternbrook. In the old town stands the palace, built in the
I3th century, enlarged in the i8th and restored after a fire in
1838. It was once the seat of the dukes of Holstein-Gottorp,
who resided here from 1721 to 1773, and became the residence
of Prince Henry of Prussia. Other buildings are the church of
St Nicholas (restored in 1877-1884), dating from 1240, with a
lofty steeple; the old town-hall on the market square; the church
of the Holy Ghost; three fine modern churches, those of St James,
and St Jurgen and of St Ansgar; and the theatre. Further to the
north and facing the bay is the university, founded in 1665 by
Christian Albert, duke of Schleswig, and named after him
" Christian Albertina." The new buildings were erected in
1876, and connected with them are a library of 240,000 volumes,
a zoological museum, a hospital, a botanical garden and a school
of forestry. The university, which is celebrated as a medical
school, is attended by nearly 1000 students, and has a teaching
staff of over 100 professors and docents. Among other scientific
and educational institutions are the Schleswig-Holstein museum
of national antiquities in the old university buildings, the
Thaulow museum (rich in Schleswig-Holstein wood-carving of
the 1 6th and I7th centuries), the naval academy, the naval
school and the school for engineers.
The pride of Kiel is its magnificent harbour, which has a
comparatively uniform depth of water, averaging 40 ft., and close
to the shores 20 ft. Its length is 1 1 m. and its breadth varies from
i m. at the southern end to 45 m. at the mouth. Its defences,
which include two forts on the west and four on the east side,
all situated about 5 m. from the head of the harbour at the
place (Friedrichsort) where its shores approach one another,
make it a place of great strategic stength. The imperial docks
(five in all) and ship-building yards are on the east side facing
the town, between Gaarden and Ellerbeck, and comprise basins
capable of containing the largest war-ships afloat. The imperial
yard employs 7000 hands, and another 7000 are employed in
two large private ship-building works, the Germania (Krupp's)
and Howalds'. The Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, commonly called
the Kiel Canal, connecting the Baltic with the North Sea at
Brunsbuttel, has its eastern entrance at Wik, 15 m. N. of Kiel
(see GERMANY: Waterways). The town and adjacent villages,
e.g. Wik, Heikendorf and Laboe, are resorted to for sea-bathing,
and in June of each year a regatta, attended by yachts from all
countries, is held. The Kieler Woche is one of the principal
social events in Germany, and corresponds to the " Cowes
week " in England. Kiel is connected by day and night services
with Korsor in Denmark by express passenger boats. The
harbour yields sprats which are in great repute. The principal
industries are those connected with the imperial navy and ship-
building, but embrace also flour-mills, oil-works, iron-foundries,
printing-works, saw-mills, breweries, brick-works, soap-making
and fish-curing. There is an important trade in coal, timber,
cereals, fish, butter and cheese.
The name of Kiel appears as early as the loth century in the
form Kyi (probably from the Anglo-Saxon Kille = a safe place
for ships). Kiel is mentioned as a city in the next century; in
1242 it received the Liibeck rights ; in the I4th century it
acquired various trading privileges, having in 1284 entered the
Hanseatic League. In recent times Kiel has been associated
with the peace concluded in January 1814 between Great
Britain, Denmark and Sweden, by which Norway was ceded to
Sweden. In 1773 Kiel became part of Denmark, and in 1866
it passed with the rest of Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia. Since
being made a great naval arsenal, Kiel has rapidly developed
in prosperity and population.
See Prahl, Chronika der Sladt Kiel (Kiel, 1856); Erichsen, Topo-
graphic des Landkreises Kiel (Kiel, 1898); H. Eckardt, Alt-Kiel in
Wort und Bild (Kiel, 1899); P. Hasse, Das Kieler Stadtbuch, 1264-
1289 (Kiel, 1875); Das dlteste Kieler Rentebuch 1300, 1487, edited
by C. Reuter (Kiel, 1893); Das zweite Kieler Rentebuch 1487, 1586,
edited by W. Stern (Kiel, 1904) ; and the Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft
fur Kieler Stadtgeschichte (Kiel, 1877, 1904).
KIELCE, a government in the south-west of Russian Poland,
surrounded by the governments of Piotrkow and Radom and by
Austrian Galicia. Area, 3896 sq. m. Its surface is an elevated
plateau 800 to 1000 ft. in altitude, intersected in the north-east
by a range of hills reaching 1350 ft. and deeply trenched in the
south. It is drained by the Vistula on its south-east border,
and by its tributaries, the Nida and the Pilica, which have a very
rapid fall and give rise to inundations. Silurian and Devonian
quartzites, dolomite, limestones and sandstones prevail in the
north, and contain rich iron ores, lead and copper ores. Carbon-
iferous deposits containing rich coal seams occur chiefly in the
south, and extend into the government of Piotrkow. Permian
limestones and sandstones exist in the south. The Triassic
deposits contain very rich zinc ores of considerable thickness
and lead. The Jurassic deposits consist of iron-clays and lime-
stones, containing large caves. The Cretaceous deposits yield
gypsum, chalk and sulphur. White and black marble are also
extracted. The soil is of great variety and fertile in parts, but
owing to the proximity of the Carpathians, the climate is more
severe than might be expected. Rye, wheat, oats, barley and
buckwheat are grown; modern intensive culture is spreading,
and land fetches high prices, the more so as the peasants' allot-
ments were small at the outset and are steadily decreasing.
Out of a total of 2,193,300 acres suitable for cultivation 53-4 %
are actually cultivated. Grain is exported. Gardening is a
thriving industry in the south; beet is grown for sugar in the
south-east. Industries are considerably developed: zinc ores
are extracted, as well as some iron and a little sulphur. Tiles,
metallic goods, leather, timber goods and flour are the chief
products of the manufactures. Pop. (1897), 765,212, for the
most part Poles, with 11% Jews; (1906, estimated), 910,900.
By religion 88 % of the people are Roman Catholics. Kielce is
divided into seven districts, the chief towns of 'which, with
788
KIELCE— KIEV
populations in 1897, are Kielce (g.».), Jedrzejow (Russ. Andreyev,
5010), Miechow (4156), Olkusz(349i), Pinczow (8095), Stopnica
(4659) and Wloszczowa (23,065).
KIELCE, a town of Russian Poland, capital of the above
government, 152 m. by rail S. of Warsaw, situated in a picturesque
hilly country. Pop. (1890), 12,775; (1897), 23,189. It has a castle,
built in 1638 and for some time inhabited by Charles XII.;
it was renowned for its portrait gallery and the library of
Zaluski, which was taken to St Petersburg. The squares and
boulevards are lined with handsome modern buildings. The
principal factories are hemp-spinning, cotton-printing and cement
works. The town was founded in 1173 by a bishop of Cracow.
In the 1 6th century it was famous for its copper mines, but they
are no longer worked.
KIEPERT, HEINRICH (1818-1899), German geographer, was
born at Berlin on the 3ist of July 1818. He was educated at
the university there, studying especially history, philology and
geography. In 1840-1846, in collaboration with Karl Ritter,
he issued his first work, Atlas von Hellas und den hellenischen
Kolonien, which brought him at once into eminence in the
sphere of ancient historical cartography. In 1848 his Historisch-
geographischer Atlas der alien Welt appeared, and in 1854 the
first edition of the Atlas antiquus, which has obtained very
wide recognition, being issued in English, French, Russian,
Dutch and Italian. In 1894 Kiepert produced the first part
of a larger atlas of the ancient world under the title Format
orbis anliqui; his valuable maps in Corpus inscriptionum
latinarum must also be mentioned. In 1877-1878 his Lehrbuch
der alien Geographic was published, and in 1879 Leitfaden der
alien Geographic, which was translated into English (A Manual
of Ancient Geography, 1881) and into French. Among Kiepert's
general works one of the most important was the excellent
Neuer Handatlas iiber alle Teile der Erde (1855 et seq.), and he
also compiled a large number of special and educational maps.
Asia Minor was an area in which he took particular interest.
He visited it four times in 1841-1888; and his first map (1843-
1846), together with his Karle des osmanischen Reiches in Asien
(1844 and 1869), formed the highest authority for the geography
of the region. Kiepert was professor of geography in the
university of Berlin from 1854. He died at Berlin on the 2ist
of April 1899. He left unpublished considerable material in
various departments of his work, and with the assistance of
this his son Richard (b. 1846), who followed his father's career,
was enabled to issue a map of Asia Minor in 24 sheets, on a scale
of i : 400,000 (1902 et seq.), and to carry on the issue of Formae
orbis antiqui.
KIERKEGAARD, S6REN AABY (1813-1855), Danish philo-
sopher, the seventh child of a Jutland hosier, was born in Copen-
hagen on the 5th of May 1813. As a boy he was delicate,
precocious and morbid in temperament. He studied theology
at the university of Copenhagen, where he graduated in 1840
with a treatise On Irony. For two years he travelled in
Germany, and in 1842 settled finally in Copenhagen, where he
died on the nth of November 1855. He had lived in studious
retirement, subject to physical suffering and mental depression.
His first volume, Papers of a Still Living Man (1838), a charac-
terization of Hans Andersen, was a failure, and he was for some
time unnoticed. In 1843 he published Euten — Eller (Either — or)
(4th ed., 1878), the work on which his reputation mainly rests;
it is a discussion of the ethical and aesthetic ideas of life. In
his last years he carried on a feverish agitation against the
theology and practice of the state church, on the ground that
religion is for the individual soul, and is to be separated abso-
lutely from the state and the world. In general his philosophy
was a reaction against the speculative thinkers — Steffens (<?.».),
Niels Treschow (1751-1833) and Frederik Christian Sibbern
(1785-1872); it was based on the absolute dualism of Faith and
Knowledge. His chief follower was Rasmus Nielsen (1809-1884)
and he was opposed by Georg Brandes, who wrote a brilliant
account of his life and works. As a dialectician he has been
described as little inferior to Plato, and his influence on the
literature of Denmark is considerable both in style and in matter.
To him Ibsen owed his character Brand in the drama of that
name.
See his posthumous autobiographical sketch, Syns punktetfor min
Forfattervirksomhed (" Standpoint of my Literary Work "); Georg
Brandes, Soren Kierkegaard (Copenhagen, 1877); A. Barthold,
Noten zu K.'s Lebensgeschichte (Halle, 1876), Die Bedeutung der
dsthetischen Schriften S. Kierkegaarde (Halle, 1879) and 5. K.'s
Personlichkeit in ihrer Verwirklichung der Ideale (Gutersloh, 1886);
F. Petersen, 5. K.'s Christendomsforkyndelae (Christiania, 1877).
For Kierkegaard's relation to recent Danish thought, see Hoffding's
Archivfur Geschichte der Philosophic (1888), vol. li.
KIEV, KIEFF, or KIYEFF, a government of south-western
Russia, conterminous with those of Minsk, Poltava, Chernigov,
Podolia, Kherson and Volhynia; area 19,686 sq. m. It
represents a deeply trenched plateau, 600 to 800 ft. in altitude,
reaching 950 to 1050 ft. in the west, assuming a steep character
in the middle, and sloping gently northwards to the marshy
regions of the Pripet, while on the east it falls abruptly to the
valley of the Dnieper, which lies only 250 to 300 ft. above the
sea. General A. Tillo has shown that neither geologically nor
tectonically can " spurs of the Carpathians " penetrate into
Kiev. Many useful minerals are extracted, such as granites,
gabbro, labradorites of a rare beauty, syenites and gneiss,
marble, grinding stones, pottery clay, phosphorites, iron ore
and mineral colours. Towards the southern and central parts
the surface is covered by deep rich " black earth." Nearly the
whole of the government belongs to the basin of the Dnieper,
that river forming part of its eastern boundary. In the south-
west are a few small tributaries of the Bug. Besides the Dnieper
the only navigable stream is its confluent the Pripet. The
climate is more moderate than in middle Russia, the average
temperatures at the city of Kiev being— year, 44-5°; January,
21°; July, 68°; yearly rainfall, 22 inches. The lowlands of
the north are covered with woods; they have the flora of
the Polyesie, or marshy woodlands of Minsk, and are peopled
with animals belonging to higher latitudes.1 The population,
which was 2,017,262 in 1863, reached 3,575,457 in 1897, of whom
1,791,503 were women, and 147,878 lived in towns; and in
1904 it reached 4,042,526, of whom 2,030,744 were women.
The estimated population in 1906 was 4,206,100. In 1897 there
were 2,738,977 Orthodox Greeks, 14,888 Nonconformists, 91,821
Roman Catholics, 423,875 Jews, and 6820 Protestants.
No less than 41% of the land is in large holdings, and 45%
belongs to the peasants. Out of an area of 12,600,000 acres,
11,100,000 acres are available for cultivation, 4,758,000 acres
are under crops, 650,000 acres under meadows, and 1,880,000
acres under woods. About 290,000 acres are under beetroot,
for sugar. The crops principally grown are wheat, rye, oats,
millet, barley and buckwheat, with, in smaller quantities,
hemp, flax, vegetables, fruit and tobacco. Camels have been
used for agricultural work. Bee-keeping and gardening are
general. The chief factories are sugar works and distilleries.
The former produce 850,000 to 1,150,000 tons of sugar and
over 50,000 tons of molasses annually. The factories include
machinery works and iron foundries, tanneries, steam flour-
mills, petroleum refineries and tobacco factories. Two main
railways, starting from Kiev and Cherkasy respectively, cross
the government from N.E. to S.W., and two lines traverse its
southern part from N.W. to S.E., parallel to the Dnieper.
Steamers ply on the Dnieper and some of its tributaries. Wheat,
rye, oats, barley and flour are exported. There are two great
fairs, at Kiev and Berdichev respectively, and many of minor
importance. Trade is very brisk, the river traffic alone being
valued at over one million sterling annually. The government is
divided into twelve districts. The chief town is Kiev (q.v.)a.nd the
district towns, with their populations in 1897, Berdichev (53,728),
Cherkasy (29,619), Chigirin (9870), Kanev (8892), Lipovets
(6068), Radomysl (11,154), Skvira (16,265), Tarashcha (11,452),
Umaft (28,628), Vasilkov (17,824) and Zvenigorodka (16,972).
The plains on the Dnieper have been inhabited since probably
the Palaeolithic period, and the burial-grounds used since the
1 Schmahlhausen's Flora of South-Wesl Russia (Kiev, 1886)
contains a good description of the flora of the province.
KIEV
789
Stone Age. The burial mounds (kurgans) of both the Scythians
and the Slavs, traces of old forts (gorod ishche) , stone statues, and
more recent caves offer abundant material for anthropological
and ethnographical study.
KIEV, a city of Russia, capital of the above government, on
the right or west bank of the Dnieper, in 50° 27' 12" N. and
30° 30' 18" E., 628 m. by rail S.W. of Moscow and 406 m. by rail
N.N.E. of Odessa. The site of the greater part of the town
consists of hills or bluffs separated by ravines and hollows, the
elevation of the central portions being about 300 ft. above the
ordinary level of the Dnieper. On the opposite side of the river
the country spreads out low and level like a sea. Having
received all its important tributaries, the Dnieper is here a broad
(400 to 580 yds.) and navigable stream; but as it approaches the
town it divides into two arms and forms a low grassy island
of considerable extent called Tukhanov. During the spring
floods there is a rise of 16 or even 20 ft., and not only the island
but the country along the left bank and the lower grounds on the
right bank are laid under water. The bed of the river is sandy
and shifting, and it is only by costly engineering works that the
main stream has been kept from returning to the more eastern
channel, along which it formerly flowed. Opposite the southern
part of the town, where the currents have again united, the
river is crossed by a suspension bridge, which at the time of its
erection (1848-1853) was the largest enterprise of the kind in
Europe. It is about half a mile in length and 525 ft. in breadth,
and the four principal spans are each 440 ft. The bridge was
designed by Vignoles, and cost about £400,000. Steamers ply
in summer to Kremenchug, Ekaterinoslav, Mogilev, Pinsk and
Chernigov. Altogether Kiev is one of the most beautiful cities
in Russia, and the vicinity too is picturesque.
Until 1837 the town proper consisted of the Old Town,
Pechersk and Podoli; but in that year three districts were
added, and in 1879 the limits were extended to include Kure-
nevka, Lukyanovka, Shulyavka and Solomenka. The admini-
strative area of the town is 13,500 acres.
The Old Town, or Old Kiev quarter (Starokievskaya Chast),
occupies the highest of the range of hills. Here the houses are
most closely built, and stone structures most abundant. In
some of the principal streets are buildings of three to five
storeys, a comparatively rare thing in Russia, indeed in the
main street (Kreshchatik) fine structures have been erected
since 1896. In the nth century the area was enclosed by
earthen ramparts, with bastions and gateways; but of these
the only surviving remnant is the Golden Gate. In the centre
of the Old Town stands the cathedral of St Sophia, the oldest
cathedral in the Russian empire. Its external walls are of a
pale green and white colour, and it has ten cupolas, four spangled
with stars and six surmounted each with a cross. The golden
cupola of the four-storeyed campanile is visible for many miles
across the steppes. The statement frequently made that the
church was a copy of St Sophia's in Constantinople has been
shown to be a mistake. The building measures in length 177 ft.,
while its breadth is 118 ft. But though the plan shows no
imitation of the great Byzantine church, the decorations of the
interior (mosaics, frescoes, &c.) do indicate direct Byzantine
influence. During the occupation of the church by the Uniats
or United Greek Church in the i7th century these were covered
with whitewash, and were only discovered in 1842, after which
the cathedral was internally restored; but the chapel of the
Three Pontiffs has been left untouched to show how carefully
the old style has been preserved or copied. Among the mosaics
is a colossal representation of the Virgin, 15 ft. in height, which,
like the so-called " indestructible wall " in which it is inlaid,
dates from the time (1019-1054) of Prince Yaroslav. This prince
founded the church in 1037 in gratitude for his victory over the
Petchenegs, a Turkish race then settled in the Dnieper valley.
His sarcophagus, curiously sculptured with palms, fishes, &c.,
is preserved. The church of St Andrew the Apostle occupies
the spot where, according to Russian tradition, that apostle
stood when as yet Kiev was not, and declared that the hill
would become the site of a great city. The present building,
in florid rococo style, dates from 1744-1767. The church of the
Tithes, rebuilt in 1828-1842, was founded in the close of the loth
century by Prince Vladimir in honour of two martyrs whom
he had put to death; and the monastery of St Michael (or of
the Golden Heads — so called from the fifteen gilded cupolas
of the original church) claims to have been built in 1108 by
Svyatopolk II., and was restored in 1655 by the Cossack chieftain
Bogdan Chmielnicki. On a plateau above the river, the favour-
ite promenade of the citizens, stands the Vladimir monument
(1853) in bronze. In this quarter, some distance back from the
river, is the new and richly decorated Vladimir cathedral (1862-
1896), in the Byzantine style, distinguished for the beauty and
richness of its paintings.
Until 1820 the south-eastern district of Pechersk was the
industrial and commercial quarter; but it has been greatly
altered in carrying out fortifications commenced in that year
by Tsar Nicholas I. Most of the houses are small and old-
fashioned. The monastery — the Kievo-Pecherskaya — is the
chief establishment of its kind in Russia; it is visited every
year by about 250,000 pilgrims. Of its ten or twelve conventual
churches the chief is that of the Assumption. There are four
distinct quarters in the monastery, each under a superior,
subject to the archimandrite: the Laura proper or New Monas-
tery, that of the Infirmary, and those of the Nearer and the
Further Caves. These caves or catacombs are the most striking
characteristic of the place; the name Pechersk, indeed, is con-
nected with the Russian peshchera, " a cave." The first series
of caves, dedicated to St Anthony, contains eighty saints1
tombs; the second, dedicated to St Theodosius, a saint greatly
venerated in Russia, about forty-five. The bodies were formerly
exposed to view; but the pilgrims who now pass through the
galleries see nothing but the draperies and the inscriptions.
Among the more notable names are those of Nestor the chroni-
cler, and Iliya of Murom, the Old Cossack of the Russian epics.
The foundation of the monastery is ascribed to two saints of
the nth century — Anthony and Hilarion, the latter metropolitan
of Kiev. By the middle of the i2th century it had become
wealthy and beautiful. Completely ruined by the Mongol
prince Batu in 1240, it remained deserted for more than two
centuries. Prince Simeon Oblkovich was the first to begin the
restoration. A conflagration laid the buildings waste in 1716,
and their present aspect is largely due to Peter the Great. The
cathedral of the Assumption, with seven gilded cupolas, was
dedicated in 1089, destroyed by the Mongols in 1240, and
restored in 1729; the wall-paintings of the interior are by
V. Vereshchagin. The monastery contains a school of picture-
makers of ancient origin, whose productions are widely
diffused throughout the empire, and a printing press, from
which have issued liturgical and religious works, the oldest
known examples bearing the date 1616. It possesses a wonder-
working ikon or image of the " Death of the Virgin," said to
have been brought from Constantinople in 1073, and the second
highest bell-tower in Russia.
The Podol quarter lies on the low ground at the foot of the
bluffs. It is the industrial and trading quarter of the city,
and the seat of the great fair of the " Contracts," the transference
of which from Dubno in 1797 largely stimulated the commercial
prosperity of Kiev. The present regular arrangement of its
streets arose after the great fire of 1811. Lipki district (from
the lipki or lime trees, destroyed in 1833) is of recent origin,
and is mainly inhabited by the well-to-do classes. It is some-
times called the palace quarter, from the royal palace erected
between 1868 and 1870, on the site of the older structure dating
from the time of Tsaritsa Elizabeth. Gardens and parks
abound; the palace garden is exceptionally fine, and in the same
neighbourhood are the public gardens with the place of amuse-
ment-known as the Chateau des Fleurs.
In the New Buildings, or the Lybed quarter, are the university
and the botanical gardens. The Ploskaya Chast (Flat quarter)
or Obolon contains the lunatic asylum; the Lukyanovka Chast,
the penitentiary and the camp and barracks; and the Bulvar-
naya Chast, the military gymnasium of St Vladimir and the
790
KILBARCHAN— KILDARE
railway station. The educational and scientific institutions of
Kiev rank next to those of the two capitals. Its university,
removed from Vilna to Kiev in 1834, has about 2500 students,
and is well provided with observatories, laboratories, libraries
and museums; five scientific societies and two societies for
aid to poor students are attached to it. There are, besides, a
theological academy, founded in 1615; a society of church
archaeology, which possesses a museum built in 1900, very rich
in old ikons, crosses, &c., both Russian and Oriental; an
imperial academy of music; university courses for ladies; a
polytechnic, with 1300 students — the building was completed
in i goo and stands on the other side of Old Kiev, away from
the river. Of the learned societies the more important are the
medical (1840), the naturalists' (1869), the juridical (1876), the
historical of Nestor the Chronicler (1872), the horticultural
(1875), and the dramatic (1879), the archaeological commission
(1843), and the society of church archaeology.
Kiev is the principal centre for the sugar industry of Russia,
as well as for the general trade of the region. Its Stryetenskaya
fair is important. More than twenty caves were discovered on
the slope of a hill (Kirilov Street), and one of them, excavated
in 1876, proved to have belonged to neolithic troglodytes.
Numerous graves, both from the pagan and the Christian
periods, the latter containing more than 2000 skeletons, with
a great number of small articles, were discovered in the same
year in the same neighbourhood. Many colonial Roman coins
of the 3rd and 4th centuries, and silver dirhems, stamped at
Samarkand, Balkh, Merv, &c., were also found in 1869.
In 1862 the population of Kiev was returned as 70,341;
in 1874 the total was given as 127,251; and in 1902 as 319,000.
This includes 20,000 Poles and 12,000 Jews. Kiev is the head-
quarters of the IX. Army Corps, and of a metropolitan of the
Orthodox Greek Church.
The history of Kiev cannot be satisfactorily separated from that
of Russia. According to Nestor's legend it was founded in 864 by
three brothers, Kiy, Shchek and Khoriv, and after their deaths the
principality was seized by two Varangians (Scandinavians), Askold
and Dir, followers of Rurik, also in 864. Rurik's successor Oleg
conquered Kiev in 882 and made it the chief town of his principality.
It was in the waters of the Dnieper opposite the town that Prince
Vladimir, the first saint of the Russian church, caused his people
to be baptized (988), and Kiev became the 'seat of the first Christian
church, of the first Christian school, and of the first library in
Russia. For three hundred and seventy-six years it was an indepen-
dent Russian city; for eighty years (1240-1320) it was subject to the
Mongols; for two hundred and forty-nine years (1320—1569) it be-
longed to the Lithuanian principality; and for eighty-five years to
Poland (1569-1654). It was finally united to the Russian empire
in 1686. The city was devastated by the khan of the Crimea in
1483. The Magdeburg rights, which the city enjoyed from 1516,
were abolished in 1835, and the ordinary form of town government
introduced; and in 1840 it was made subject to the common civil
law of the empire.
The Russian literature concerning Kiev is voluminous. Its
bibliography will be found in the Russian Geographical Dictionary
of P. Semenov, and in the Russian Encyclopaedic Dictionary, pub-
lished by Brockhaus and Efron (vol. xv., 1895). Among recent
publications are: Rambaud's La Russie ipique (Paris, 1876);
Avenarius, Kniga o Kievskikh Bogaluiryakh (St Petersburg, 1876),
dealing with the early Kiev heroes; Zakrevski, Opisanie Kieva (1868) ;
the materials issued by the commission for the investigation of the
ancient records of the city; Taranovskiy, Gorod Kiev (Kiev, 1881);
De Baye, Kiev, la mkre des Mies russes (Paris, 1896); Goetz, Das
Kiewer Hohlenkloster als Kulturzentrum des Vormongolischen Russ-
lands (Passau, 1004). See also Count Bobrinsky, Kurgans of Smiela
(1897); and N. Byelyashevsky, The Mints of Kiev.
(P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
KILBARCHAN, a burgh of barony of Renfrewshire, Scotland,
i m. from Milliken Park station on the Glasgow & South-
western railway, 13 m. W. by S. of Glasgow. Pop. (1901),
2886. The public buildings include a hall, library and masonic
lodge (dating from 1784). There is also a park. In a niche in
the town steeple (erected in 1755) is the statue of the famous
piper, who died about the beginning of the i7th century and is
commemorated in the elegy on " The Life and Death of Habbie
Simson, Piper of Kilbarchan " by Robert Sempill of Beltrees
(1595-1665). The chief industries are manufactures of linen
(introduced in 1739 and dating the rise of the prosperity of the
town), cotton, silks and " Paisley " shawls, and calico-printing,
besides quarries, coal and iron mines in the neighbourhood.
Two miles south-west is a great rock of greenstone called Clocho-
derrick, 12 ft. in height, 22 ft. in length, and 17 ft. in breadth.
About 2 m. north-west on Gryfe Water, lies Bridge of Weir (pop.
2242), the industries of which comprise tanning, currying,
calico-printing, thread-making and wood-turning. It has a
station on the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Immediately
to the south-west of Bridge of Weir are the ruins of Ranfurly
Castle, the ancient seat of the Knoxes. Sir John de Knocks
(ft. 1422) is supposed to have been the great-grandfather of
John Knox; and Andrew Knox (1550-1633), one of the most
distinguished members of the family, was successively bishop
of the Isles, abbot of Icolmkill (lona), and bishop of Raphoe.
About 4 m. N.W. of Bridge of Weir lies the holiday resort of
Kilmalcolm (pronounced Kilmacome; pop. 2220), with a
station on the Glasgow & South-Western railway. It has
a golf-course, public park and hydropathic establishment.
Several charitable institutions have been built in and near the
town, amongst them the well-known Quarrier's Orphan Homes
of Scotland.
KILBIRNIE, a town in north Ayrshire, Scotland, on the
Garnock, 205 m. S.W. of Glasgow, with stations on the Glasgow
& South-Western and the Caledonian railways. Pop. (1901),
4571. The industries include flax-spinning, rope works,
engineering works, and manufactures of linen thread, wincey,
flannels and fishing-nets, and there are iron and steel works and
coal mines in the vicinity. The parish church is of historical
interest, most of the building dating from the Reformation.
In the churchyard are the recumbent effigies of Captain Thomas
Crawford of Jordanhill (d. 1 603) , who in 1 5 7 5 effected the surprise
of Dumbarton Castle, and his lady. Near Kilbirnie Place, a
modern mansion, are the ruins of Kilbirnie Castle, an ancient
seat of the earls of Crawford, destroyed by fire in 1757. About
i m. E. is Kilbirnie Loch, i$ m. long.
KI LBR1DE. WEST, a town on the coast of Ayrshire, Scotland,
near the mouth of Kilbride Burn, 4 m. N.N.W. of Ardrossan
and 35 J m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western
railway. Pop. (1901), 2315. It has been growing in repute
as a health resort; the only considerable industry is weaving.
In the neighbourhood are the ruins of Law Castle, Crosbie
Castle and Portincross Castle, the last, dating from the i3th
century, said to be a seat of the Stuart kings. Farland Head,
with cliffs 300 ft. high, lies 2 m. W. by N. ; and the inland country
is hilly, one point, Kaim Hill, being 1270 ft. above sea-level.
KILDARE, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster,
bounded W. by Queen's County and King's County, N. by Meath,
E. by Dublin and Wicklow, and S. by Carlow. The area is
418,496 acres or about 654 sq. m. The greater part of Kildare
belongs to the great central plain of Ireland. In the east of the
county this plain is bounded by the foot-hills of the mountains
of Dublin and Wicklow; in the centre it is interrupted by an
elevated plateau terminated on the south by the hills of Dun-
murry, and on the north by the Hill of Allen (300 ft.) which rises
abruptly from the Bog of Allen. The principal rivers are the
Boyne, which with its tributary the Blackwater rises in the north
part of the county, but soon passes into Meath; the Barrow,
which forms the boundary of Kildare with Queen's County, and
receives the Greese and the Lane shortly after entering Kildare;
the Lesser Barrow, which flows southward from the Bog of Allen
to near Rathangan; and the Liffey, which enters the county near
Ballymore Eustace, and flowing north-west and then north-east
quits it at Leixlip, having received the Morrel between Celbridge
and Clane, and the Ryewater at Leixlip. Trout are taken in
the upper waters, and there are salmon reaches near Leixlip.
Geology. — The greater part of the county is formed of typical
grey Carboniferous limestone, well seen in the flat land about
Clane. The natural steps at the Salmon Falls at Leixlip are formed
from similar strata. Along the south-east the broken ground of
Silurian shales forms the higher country, rising towards the Leinster
chain. The granite core of the latter, with its margin of mica-schist
produced by the metamorphism of the Silurian beds, appears in
the south round Castledermot. A parallel ridge of Silurian rocks,
KILDARE— KILHAM
791
including an interesting series of basic lavas, rises from the plain
north of Kildare town (Hill of Allen and Chair of Kildare), with some
Old Red Sandstone on its flanks. The limestone in this ridge is
rich in fossils of Bala age, and has been compared with that at Port-
rane in county Dublin. The low ground is diversified by eskers
and masses of glacial gravel, notably at the dry sandy plateau
of the Curragh ; but in part it retains sufficient moisture to give rise
to extensive bogs. The Liffey, which comes down as a mountain-
stream in the Silurian area, forming a picturesque fall in the gorge
of Pollaphuca, wanders through the limestone region between low
banks as a true river of the plain.
Climate and Industries. — Owing to a considerable degree to the
large extent of bog, the climate of the northern districts is very
moist, and fogs are frequent, but the eastern portion is drier, and the
climate of the Liffey valley is very mild and healthy. The soil,
whether resting on the limestone or on the clay slate, is principally
a rich deep loam inclining occasionally to clay, easily cultivated
and very fertile if properly drained. About 40,000 acres in the
northern part of the county are included in the Bog of Allen, which
is, however, intersected in many places by elevated tracts of firm
ground. To the east of the town of Kildare is the Curragh, an un-
dulating down upwards of 4800 acres in extent. The most fertile
and highly cultivated districts of Kildare are the valleys of the Liffey
and a tract in the south watered by the Greese. The demesne lands
along the valley of the Liffey are finely wooded. More attention is paid
to drainage and the use of manures on the larger farms than is done
in many other parts of Ireland. The pastures which are not subjected
to the plough are generally very rich and fattening. The propor-
tion of tillage to pasture is roughly as I to 2j. Wheat is a scanty
crop, but oats, barley, turnips and potatoes are all considerably
cultivated. Cattle and sheep are grazed extensively, and the num-
bers are well sustained. Of the former, crosses with the shorthorn
or the Durham are the commonest breed. Leicesters are the prin-
cipal breed of sheep. Poultry farming is a growing industry.
Though possessing a good supply of water-power the county is
almost destitute of manufactures; there are a few small cotton,
woollen and paper mills, as well as breweries and distilleries, and
several corn mills. Large quantities of turf are exported to Dublin
by canal. The main line of the Midland Great Western follows the
northern boundary of the county, with a branch to Carbury and
Edenderry; and that of the Great Southern & Western crosses
the county by way of Newbridge and Kildare, with southward
branches to Naas (and Tullow, county Carlow) and to Athy and
the south. The northern border is traversed by the Royal Canal,
which connects Dublin with the Shannon at Cloondara. Farther
south the Grand Canal, which connects Dublin with the Shannon
at Shannon Harbour, occupies the valley of the Liffey until at
Sallins it enters the Bog of Allen, passing into King's County near
the source of the Boyne. Several branch canals afford communica-
tion with the southern districts.
Population and Administration. — The decreasing population
(70,206 in 1891; 63,566 in 1901) shows an unusual excess of
males over females, in spite of an excess of male emigrants.
About 86% of the population are Roman Catholics. The
county comprises 14 baronies and contains no civil parishes.
Assizes are held at Naas, and quarter sessions at Athy, Kildare,
Maynooth and Naas. The military stations at Newbridge and
the Curragh constitute the Curragh military district, and the
barracks at Athy and Naas are included in the Dublin military
district. The principal towns are Athy (pop. 3599), Naas (3836)
and Newbridge (2903); with Maynooth (which is the seat of a
Roman Catholic college), Celb ridge, Kildare (the county town),
Monasterevan, Kilcullen and Leixlip. Ballitore, one of the larger
villages, is a Quaker settlement, and at a school here Edmund
Burke was educated. Kildare returned ten members to the Irish
parliament, of whom eight represented boroughs; it sends only
two (for the north and south divisions of the county) to the
parliament of the United Kingdom. The county is in the
Protestant diocese of Dublin and the Roman Catholic dioceses
of Dublin and of Kildare and Leighlin.
History and Antiquities. — According to a tale in the Book of
Leinster theoriginal name of Kildare was Druim Criaidh (Drum-
cree), which it retained until the time of St Brigit, after which
it was changed to Cilldara, the church of the oak, from an old
oak under whose shadow the saint had constructed her cell. For
some centuries it was under the government of the Macmur-
roughs, kings of Leinster, but with the remainder of Leinster it
was granted by Henry II. to Strongbow. On the division of the
palatinate of Leinster among the five grand-daughters of Strong-
bow, Kildare fell to Sibilla, the fourth daughter, who married
William de Ferrars, earl of Derby. Through the marriage of
the only daughter of William de Ferrars it passed to William de
Vescy — who, when challenged to single combat by John Fitz
Thomas, baron of Offaly, for accusing him of treason, fled to
France. His lands were thereupon in 1297 bestowed on Fitz
Thomas, who in 1316 was created earl of Kildare, and in 1317
was appointed sheriff of Kildare, the office remaining in the
family until the attainder of Gerald, the ninth earl, in the reign
of Henry VIII. Kildare was a liberty of Dublin until 1296,
when an act was passed constituting it a separate county.
In the county are several old gigantic pillar-stones, the
principal being those at Punchestown, Harristown, Jigginstown
and Mullamast. Among remarkable earthworks are the raths
at Mullamast, Knockcaellagh near Kilcullen, Ardscull near
Naas, and the numerous sepulchral mounds in the Curragh.
Of the round towers the finest is that of Kildare; there are'
remains of others at Taghadoe, Old Kilcullen, Oughterard and
Castledermot. Formerly there were an immense number of
religious houses in the county. There are remains of a Francis-
can abbey at Castledermot. At Graney are ruins of an Augus-
tinian nunnery and portions of a building said to have belonged
to the Knights Templars. The town of Kildare has ruins of
four monastic buildings, including the nunnery founded by St
Brigit. The site of a monastery at Old Kilcullen, said to date
from the time of St Patrick, is marked by two stone crosses, one
of which is curiously sculptured. The fine abbey of Monas-
terevan is now the seat of the marquess of Drogheda. On the
Liffey are the remains of Great Connel Abbey near Celbridge, of
St Wolstan's near Celbridge, and of New Abbey. At Moone,
where there was a Franciscan monastery, are the remains of an
ancient cross with curious sculpturings. Among castles may
be mentioned those of Athy and Castledermot, built about the
time of the Anglo-Norman invasion; Maynooth Castle, built by
the Fitzgeralds; Kilkea, originally built by the seventh earl of
Kildare, and restored within the igth century; and Timolin,
erected in the reign of King John.
KILDARE, a market town and the county town of county
Kildare, Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, a junction
on the main line of the Great Southern & Western railway,
30. m. S.W. from Dublin, the branch line to Athy, Carlow and
Kilkenny diverging southward. Pop. (1901), 1576. The town
is of high antiquarian interest. There is a Protestant cathedral
church, the diocese of which was united with Dublin in 1846.
St Brigit or Bridget founded the religious community in the sth
century, and a fire sacred to the memory of the saint is said to
have been kept incessantly burning for several centuries (until
the Reformation) in a small ancient chapel called the Fire House,
part of which remains. The cathedral suffered with the town
from frequent burnings and destructions at the hands of the Danes
and the Irish, and during the Elizabethan wars. The existing
church was partially in ruins when an extensive restoration was
begun in 1875 under the direction of G.E. Street; while the choir,
which dated from the latter part of the i7th century, was rebuilt
in 1896. Close to the church are an ancient cross and a very fine
round tower (its summit unhappily restored with a modern
battlement) 1055 ft. high, with a doorway with unusual ornament
of Romanesque character. There are remains of a castle of the
i3th century, and of a Carmelite monastery. From the elevated
situation of the town, a striking view of the great central plain
of Ireland is afforded. Kildare was incorporated by James II.,
and returned two members to the Irish parliament.
KILHAM, ALEXANDER (1762-1798), English Methodist,
was born at Epworth, Lincolnshire, on the loth of July 1762.
He was admitted by John Wesley in 1785 into the regular itin-
erant ministry. He became the leader and spokesman of the
democratic party in the Connexion which claimed for the laity
the free election of class-leaders and stewards, and equal repre-
sentation with ministers at Conference. They also contended
that the ministry should possess no official authority or pastoral
prerogative, but should merely carry into effect the decisions
of majorities in the different meetings. Kilham further advo-
cated the complete separation of the Methodists from the
Anglican Church. In the violent controversy that ensued he
792
KILIA— KILIN
wrote many pamphlets, often anonymous, and frequently not
in the best of taste. For this he was arraigned before the
Conference of 1796 and expelled, and he then founded the
Methodist New Connexion (i 798, merged since 1906 in the United
Methodist Church). He died in 1798, and the success of the
church he founded is a tribute to his personality and to the
principles for which he strove. Kilham's wife (Hannah Spurr,
1774-1832), whom he married only a few months before his
death, became a Quaker, and worked as a missionary in the
Gambia and at Sierra Leone; she reduced to writing several West
African vernaculars.
KILIA, a town of S. Russia, in the government of Bessarabia,
100 m. S.W. of Odessa, on the Kilia branch of the Danube, 20 m.
from its mouth. Pop. (1897), 11,703. It has steam flour-mills
and a rapidly increasing trade. The town, anciently known as
Chilia, Chele, and Lycostomium, was a place of banishment for
political dignitaries of Byzantium in the I2th-i3th centuries.
After belonging to the Genoese from 1381-1403 it was occupied
successively by Walachia and Moldavia, until in 1484 it fell into
the hands of the Ottoman Turks. It was taken from them by
the Russians in 1790. After being bombarded by the Anglo-
French fleet in July 1854, it was given to Rumania on the con-
clusion of the war; but in 1878 was transferred to Russia with
Bessarabia.
KILIAN (CHILIAN, KILLIAN), ST, British missionary bishop
and the apostle of eastern Franconia, where he began his
labours towards the end of the 7th century. There are several
biographies of him, the first of which dates back to the gth
century (Bibliotheca hagiographica latino, Nos. 4660-4663). The
oldest texts which refer to him are an 8th century necrology at
Wiirzburg and the notice by Hrabanus Maurus in his martyr-
ology. According to Maurus Kilian was a native of Ireland,
whence with his companions he went to eastern Franconia. After
having preached the gospel in Wiirzburg, the whole party were
put to death by the orders of an unjust judge named Gozbert.
It is difficult to fix the period with precision, as the judge
(or duke) Gozbert is not known through other sources. Kilian's
comrades, Coloman and Totman, were, according to the Wiirz-
burg necrology, respectively priest and deacon. The elevation of
the relics of the three martyrs was performed by Burchard, the
first bishop of Wiirzburg, and they are venerated in the cathedral
of that town. His festival is celebrated on the 8th of July.
See Acta Sanctorum, Julii, ii. 599-619; F. Emmerich, Der heilige
Kilian (Wurzburg, 1896); J. O'Hanlon, Lives of the Irish Saints, vii.
122-143 (Dublin, 1875-1904); A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutsch-
lands, 3rd ed., L 382 seq. (H. DE.)
KILIMANJARO, a great mountain in East Africa, its centre
lying in 3° 5' S. and 37° 23' E. It is the highest known summit of
the continent, rising as a volcanic cone from a plateau of about
3000 ft. to 19,321 ft. Though completely isolated it is but one
of several summits which crown the eastern edge of the great
plateau of equatorial Africa. About 200 m. almost due north,
across the wide expanse of the Kapte and Kikuyu uplands, lies
Mount Kenya, somewhat inferior in height and mass to Kiliman-
jaro; and some 25 m. due west rises the noble mass of Mount
Meru.
The major axis of Kilimanjaro runs almost east and west, and
on it rise the two principal summits, Kibo in the west, Mawenzi
(Ki-mawenzi) in the east. Kibo, the higher, is a truncated cone
with a nearly perfect extinct crater, and marks a comparatively
recent period of volcanic activity; while Mawenzi (16,892 ft.) is
the very ancient core of a former summit, of which the crater
walls have been removed by denudation. The two peaks, about
7 m. apart, are connected by a saddle or plateau, about 14,000 ft.
in altitude, below which the vast mass slopes with great regularity
in a typical volcanic curve, especially in the south, to the plains
below. The sides are furrowed on the south and east by a large
number of narrow ravines, down which flow streams which feed
the Pangani and Lake Jipe in the south and the Tsavo tributary
of the Sabaki in the east. South-west of Kibo, the Shira ridge
seems to be of independent origin, while in the north-west a
rugged group of cones, of comparatively recent origin, has poured
forth vast lava-flows. In the south-east the regularity of the
outline is likewise broken by a ridge running down from
Mawenzi.
The lava slopes of the Kibo peak are covered to a depth of
some 200 ft. with an ice-cap, which, where ravines occur, takes
the form of genuine glaciers. The crater walls are highest on
the south, three small peaks, uncovered by ice, rising from the
rim on this side. To the central and highest of these, the culmi-
nating point of the mountain, the name Kaiser Wilhelm Spitze
has been given. The rim here sinks precipitously some 600 ft.
to the interior of the crater, which measures rather over 2000
yds. in diameter, and is in part covered by ice, in part by a bare
cone of ashes. On the west the rim is breached, allowing the
passage of an important glacier formed from the snow which
falls within the crater. Lower down this cleft, which owed its
origin to dislocation, is occupied by two glaciers, one of which
reaches a lower level (13,800 ft.) than any other on Kilimanjaro.
On the north-west three large glaciers reach down to 16,000 ft.
Mawenzi peak has no permanent ice-cap, though at times snow
lies in patches. The rock of which it is composed has become
very jagged by denudation, forming stupendous walls and preci-
pices. On the east the peak falls with great abruptness some
6500 ft. to a vast ravine, due apparently to dislocation and
sinking of the ground. Below this the slope is more gradual and
more symmetrical. Like the other high mountains of eastern
Africa, Kilimanjaro presents well-defined zones of vegetation.
The lowest slopes are arid and scantily covered with scrub, but
between 4000 and 6000 ft. on the south side the slopes are well
watered and cultivated. The forest zone begins, on the south,
at about 6500 ft., and extends to 9500, but in the north it is
narrower, and in the north-west, the driest quarter of the moun-
tain, almost disappears. In the alpine zone, marked especially
by tree lobelias and Senecio, flowering plants extend up to
15,700 ft. on the sheltered south-west flank of Mawenzi, but
elsewhere vegetation grows only in dwarfed patches beyond
13,000 ft. The special fauna and flora of the upper zone are
akin to those of other high African mountains, including Came-
roon. The southern slopes, between 4000 and 6000 ft., form the
well-peopled country of Chaga, divided into small districts.
As the natives believe that the summit of Kilimanjaro is composed
of silver, it is conjectured that Aristotle's reference to " the so-called
Silver Mountain " from which the Nile flows was based on reports
about this mountain. It is possible, however, that the " Silver
Mountain " was Ruwenzori (q.v.), from whose snow-clad heights
several headstreams of the Nile do descend. It is also possible,
though improbable, that Ruwenzori and not Kilimanjaro nor Kenya
may be the range known to Ptolemy and to the Arab geographers
of the middle ages as the Mountains of the Moon. Reports of the
existence of mountains covered with snow were brought to Zanzibar
about 1845 by Arab traders. Attracted by these reports Johannes
Rebmann of the Church Missionary Society journeyed inland from
Mombasa in 1848 and discovered Kilimanjaro, which is some 200 m.
inland. Rebmann's account, though fully borne out by his colleague
Dr Ludwig Krapf, was at first received with great incredulity by
professional geographers. The matter was finally set at rest by the
visits paid to the mountain by Baron Karl von der Decken (1861
and 1862) and Charles New (1867), the latter of whom reached the
lower edge of the snow. Kilimanjaro has since been explored by
Joseph Thomson (1883), Sir H. H. Johnston (1884), and others.
It has been the special study of Dr Hans Meyer, who made four ex-
peditions to it, accomplishing the first ascent to the summit in 1889.
In the partition of Africa between the powers of western Europe,
Kilimanjaro was secured by Germany (1886) though the first treaties
concluded with native chiefs in that region had been made in 1884
by Sir H. H. Johnston on behalf of a British company. On the
southern side of the mountain at Moshi is a German government
station.
See R. Thornton (the geologist of von der Decken's party) in
Proc. of Roy. Geog. Soc. (1861-1862); Ludwig Krapf, Travels in East
Africa (1860) ; Charles New, Life ... in East Africa (1873) ; Sir J. D.
Hooker in Journal of Linnean Society (1875); Sir H. H. Johnston,
The Kilimanjaro Expedition (1886) ; Hans Meyer, Across East African
Glaciers (1891); Der Kilimanjaro (Berlin, 1900). Except the last-
named all these works were published in London. (E. HE.)
KILIN, or CH'-I-LIN, one of the four symbolical creatures
which in Chinese mythology are believed to keep watch and
ward over the Celestial Empire. It is a unicorn, portrayed in
Chinese art as having the body and legs of a deer and an ox's
KILKEE— KILKENNY
793
tail. Its advent on earth heralds an age of enlightened govern-
ment and civic prosperity. It is regarded as the noblest of the
animal creation and as the incarnation of fire, water, wood,
metal and earth. It lives for a thousand years, and is believed
to step so softly as to leave no footprints and to crush no living
thing.
KILKEE, a seaside resort of county Clare, Ireland, the ter-
minus of a branch of the West Clare railway. Pop. (1901),
1 66 1. It lies on a small and picturesque inlet of the Atlantic
named Moore Bay, with a beautiful sweep of sandy beach. The
coast, fully exposed to the open ocean, abounds in fine cliff
scenery, including numerous caves and natural arches, but is
notoriously dangerous to shipping. Moore Bay is safe and
attractive for bathers. Bishop's Island, a bold isolated rock
in the vicinity, has remains of an oratory and house ascribed
to the recluse St Senan.
KILKENNY, a county of Ireland, in the province of Leinster,
bounded N. by Queen's County, E. by Carlow and Wexford, S.
by Waterford, and W. by Waterford and Tipperary. The area
is 511,775 acres, or about 800 sq. m. The greater part of Kil-
kenny forms the south-eastern extremity of the great central
plain of Ireland, but in the south-east occurs an extension of the
mountains of Wicklow and Carlow, and the plain is interrupted
in the north by a hilly region forming part of the Castlecomer
coal-field, which extends also into Queen's County and Tipperary.
The principal rivers, the Suir, the Barrow and the Nore, have their
origin in the Slieve Bloom Mountains (county Tipperary and
Queen's County), and after widely divergent courses southward
discharge their waters into Waterford Harbour. The Suir forms
the boundary of the county with Waterford, and is navigable
for small vessels to Carrick. The Nore, which is navigable to
Innistioge, enters the county at its north-western boundary,
and flows by Kilkenny to the Barrow, 9 m. above Ross, having
received the King's River at Jerpoint and the Argula near Innis-
tioge. The Barrow, which is navigable beyond the limits of
Kilkenny into Kildare, forms the eastern boundary of the county
from near New Bridge. There are no lakes of any extent, but
turloughs or temporary lakes are occasionally formed by the
bursting up of underground streams.
The coal of the Castlecomer basin is anthracite, and the most
productive portions of the bed are in the centre of the basin at
Castlecomer. Hematitic iron of a rich quality is found in the
Cambro-Silurian rocks at several places; and tradition asserts
that silver shields were made about 850 B.C. at Argetros or
Silverwood on the Nore. Manganese is obtained in some of the
limestone quarries, and also near the Barrow. Marl is abundant
in various districts. Pipeclay and potter's clay are found, and
also yellow ochre. Copper occurs near Knocktopher.
The high synclinal coal-field forms the most important feature of
the north of the county. A prolongation of the field runs out south-
west by Tullaroan. The lower ground is occupied by Carboniferous
limestone. The Old Red Sandstone, with a Silurian core, forms the
high ridge of Slievenaman in the south ; and its upper laminated beds
contain Archanodon, the earliest known freshwater mollusc, and
plant-remains, at Kiltorcan near Ballyhale. The Leinster granite
appears mainly as inliers in the Silurian of the south-east. The
Carboniferous sandstones furnish the hard pavement-slabs sold as
" Carlow flags." The black limestone with white shells in it at
Kilkenny is quarried as an ornamental marble. Good slates are
quarried at Kilmoganny, in the Silurian inlier on the Slievenaman
range.
On account of the slope of the country, and the nature of the
soil, the surface occupied by bog or wet land is very small, and
the air is dry and healthy. So temperate is it in winter that the
myrtle and arbutus grow in the open air. There is less rain
than at Dublin, and vegetation is earlier than in the adjacent
counties. Along the banks of the Suir, Nore and Barrow a very
rich soil has been formed by alluvial deposits. Above the Coal-
measures in the northern part of the county there is a moorland
tract devoted chiefly to pasturage. The soil above the limestone
is for the most part a deep and rich loam admirably adapted for
the growth of wheat. The heath-covered hills afford honey
with a flavour of peculiar excellence. Proportionately to its
area, Kilkenny has an exceptionally large cultivable area. The
proportion of tillage to pasturage is roughly as i to 2\. Oats,
barley, turnips and potatoes are all grown; the cultivation of
wheat has very largely lapsed. Cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry
are extensively reared, the Kerry cattle being in considerable
request.
The linen manufacture introduced into the county in the i7th
century by the duke of Ormonde to supersede the woollen manu-
facture gradually became extinct, and the woollen manu-
facture now carried on is also very small. There are, however,
breweries, distilleries, tanneries and flour-mills, as well as marble
polishing works. The county is traversed from N. to S. by the
Maryborough, Kilkenny and Waterford branch of the Great
Southern & Western railway, with a connexion from Kilkenny
to Bagenalstown on the Kildare and Carlow line; and the Water-
ford and Limerick line of the same company runs for a short
distance through the southern part of the county.
The population (87,496 in 1891; 79,159 in 1901) includes
about 94% of Roman Catholics. The decrease of population
is a little above the average, though emigration is distinctly
below it. The chief towns and villages are Kilkenny (?.».),
Callan (1840), Castlecomer, Thomastown and Graigue. The
county comprises 10 baronies and contains 134 civil parishes.
The county includes the parliamentary borough of Kilkenny,
and is divided into north and south parliamentary divisions,
each returning one member. Kilkenny returned 16 members
to the Irish parliament, two representing the county. Assizes
are held at Kilkenny, and quarter sessions at Kilkenny, Pilltown,
Urlingford, Castlecomer, Callan, Grace's Old Castle and Thomas-
town. The county is in the Protestant diocese of Ossory and
the Roman Catholic dioceses of Ossory and Kildare and
Leighlin.
Kilkenny is one of the counties generally considered to have
been created by King John. It had previously formed part
of the kingdom of Ossory, and was one of the liberties granted
to the heiresses of Strongbow with palatinate rights. Circular
groups of stones of very ancient origin are on the summits of
Slieve Grian and the hill of Cloghmanta. There are a large
number of cromlechs as well as raths (or encampments) in various
parts of the county. Besides numerous forts and mounds there
are five round towers, one adjoining the Protestant cathedral of
Kilkenny, and others at Tulloherin, Kilree, Fertagh and Agha-
viller. All, except that at Aghaviller, are nearly perfect.
There are remains of a Cistercian monastery at Jerpoint, said
to have been founded by Dunnough, King of Ossory, and of
another belonging to the same order at Graigue, founded by the
earl of Pembroke in 1212. The Dominicans had an abbey at
Rosbercon founded in 1267, and another at Thomastown, of
which there are some remains. The Carmelites had a monastery
at Knocktopher. There were an Augustinian monastery at
Inistioge, and priories at Callan and Kells, of all of which there
are remains. There are also ruins of several old castles, such
as those of Callan, Legan, Grenan and Clonamery, besides the
ancient portions of Kilkenny Castle.
KILKENNY, a city and municipal and parliamentary borough
(returning one member), the capital of county Kilkenny,
Ireland, finely situated on the Nore, and on the Great Southern
and Western railway, 81 m. S.W. of Dublin. Pop. (1901),
10,609. It consists of Englishtown (or Kilkenny proper) and
Irishtown, which are separated by a small rivulet, but although
Irishtown retains its name, it is now included in the borough
of Kilkenny. The city is irregularly built, possesses several
spacious streets with many good houses, while its beautiful
environs and imposing ancient buildings give it an unusual
interest and picturesque appearance. The Nore is crossed by
two handsome bridges. The cathedral of St Canice, from whom
the town takes its name, dates in its present form from about
1255. The see of Ossory, which originated in the monastery of
Aghaboe founded by St Canice in the 6th century, and took its
name from the early kingdom of Ossory, was moved to Kilkenny
(according to conjecture) about the year 1200. In 1835 the
diocese of Ferns and Leighlin was united to it. With the excep-
tion of St Patrick's, Dublin, the cathedral is the largest
794
KILKENNY— KILLALA
ecclesiastical building in Ireland, having a length from east to
west of 226 ft., and a breadth along the transepts from north to
south of 123 ft. It occupies an eminence at the western extre-
mity of Irishtown. It is a cruciform structure mainly in Early
English style, with a low massive tower supported on clustered
columns of the black marble peculiar to the district. The
building was extensively restored in 1865. It contains many
old sepulchral monuments and other ancient memorials. The
north transept incorporates the parish church. The adjacent
library of St Canice contains numerous ancient books of great
value. A short distance from the south transept is a round
tower 100 ft. high; the original cap is wanting. The episcopal
palace near the east end of the cathedral was erected in the time
of Edward III. and enlarged in 1735* Besides the cathedral
the principal churches are the Protestant church of St Mary, a
plain cruciform structure of earlier foundation than the present
cathedral; that of St John, including a portion of the hospital
of St John founded about 1220; and the Roman Catholic
cathedral, of the diocese of Ossory, dedicated to St Mary (1843-
1857), a cruciform structure in the Early Pointed style, with a
massive central tower. There are important remains of two
monasteries — the Dominican abbey founded in 1225, and now
used as a Roman Catholic church; and the Franciscan abbey
on the banks of the Nore, founded about 1230. But next in
importance to the cathedral is the castle, the seat of the marquess
of Ormonde, on the summit of a precipice above the Nore. It
was originally built by Strongbow, but rebuilt by William
Marshall after the destruction of the first castle in 1175; and
many additions and restorations by members of the Ormonde
family have maintained it as a princely residence. The Protes-
tant college of St John, originally founded by Pierce Butler,
8th earl of Ormonde, in the i6th century, and re-endowed in 1684
by James, ist duke of Ormonde, stands on the banks of the
river opposite the castle. In it Swift, Farquhar, Congreve and
Bishop Berkeley received part of their education. On the out-
skirts of the city is the Roman Catholic college of St Kyran
(Kieran), a Gothic building completed about 1840. The other
principal buildings are the modern court-house, the tholsel or
city court (1764), the city and county prison, the barracks and
the county infirmary. In the neighbourhood are collieries as well
as long-established quarries for marble, the manufactures con-
nected with which are an important industry of the town. The
city also possesses corn-mills, breweries and tanneries. Not far
from the city are the remarkable limestone caverns of Dunmore,
which have yielded numerous human remains. The corporation of
Kilkenny consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Kilkenny proper owes its origin to an English settlement in
the time of Strongbow, and it received a charter from William
Marshall, who married Strongbow's daughter. This charter was
confirmed by Edward III., and from Edward IV. Irishtown
received the privilege of choosing a portreeve independent of
Kilkenny. By Elizabeth the boroughs, while retaining their
distinct rights, were constituted one corporation, which in 1609
was made a free borough by James I., and in the following year a
free city. From James II. the citizens received a new charter,
constituting the city and liberties a distinct county, to be styled
the county of the city of Kilkenny, the burgesses of Irishtown
continuing, however, to elect a portreeve until the passing of the
Muncipal Reform Act. Frequent parliaments were held at
Kilkenny from the i4th to the i6th century, and so late as the
reign of Henry VIII. it was the occasional residence of the lord-
lieutenant. In 1642 it was the meeting-place of the assembly
of confederate Catholics. In 1648 Cromwell, in the hope of
obtaining possession of the town by means of a plot, advanced
towards it, but before his arrival the plot was discovered. In
1650 it was, however, compelled to surrender after a long and
resolute defence. At a very early period Kilkenny and Irishtown
returned each two members to the Irish parliament, but since
the Union one member only has been returned to Westminster
for the city of Kilkenny.
The origin of the expression " to fight like Kilkenny cats," which,
according to the legend, fought till only their tails were left, has
been the subject of many conjectures. It is said to be an allegory
on the disastrous municipal quarrelsof Kilkenny andlrishtown which
lasted from the end of the 1 4th to the end of the I7th centuries
(Notes and Queries, 1st series, vol. ii. p. 71). It is referred also to
the brutal sport of some Hessian soldiers, quartered in Kilkenny
during the rebellions of 1798 or 1803," who tied two cats together
by their tails, hung them over a line and left them to fight. A soldier
is said to have freed them by cutting off their tails to escape censure
from the officers (ibid. 3rd series, vol. v. p. 433). Lastly, it is attri-
buted to the invention of J. P. Curran. As a sarcastic protest
against cock-fighting in England, he declared that he had witnessed
in Sligo (?) fights between trained cats, and that once they had
fought so fiercely that only their tails were left (ibid. 7th series, vol. ii.
P- 394).
KILKENNY, STATUTE OF, the name given to a body of laws
promulgated in 1366 with the object of strengthening the
English authority in Ireland. In 1361, when Edward III. was
on the English throne, he sent one of his younger sons, Lionel,
duke of Clarence, who was already married to an Irish heiress,
to represent him in Ireland. From the English point of view
the country was in a most unsatisfactory condition. Lawless
and predatory, the English settlers were hardly distinguishable
from the native Irish, and the authority of the English king over
both had been reduced to vanishing point. In their efforts to
cope with the prevailing disorder Lionel and his advisers sum-
moned a parliament to meet at Kilkenny early in 1366 and here
the statute of Kilkenny was passed into law. This statute was
written in Norman-French, and nineteen of its clauses are merely
repetitions of some ordinances which had been drawn up at
Kilkenny fifteen years earlier. It began by relating how the
existing state of lawlessness was due to the malign influence
exercised by the Irish over the English, and, like Magna Carta,
its first positive provision declared that the church should be
free. As a prime remedy for the prevailing evils all marriages
between the two races were forbidden. Englishmen must not
speak the Irish tongue, nor receive Irish minstrels into their
dwellings, nor even ride in the Irish fashion; while to give or sell
horses or armour to the Irish was made a treasonable offence.
Moreover English and not Breton law was to be employed, and
no Irishman could legally be receivd into a religious house, nor
presented to a benefice. The statute also contained clauses for
compelling the English settlers to keep the laws. For each
county four wardens of the peace were to be appointed, while the
sheriffs were to hold their tourns twice a year and were not to
oppress the people by their exactions. An attempt was made
to prevent the emigration of labourers, and finally the spiritual
arm was invoked to secure obedience to these laws by threats of
excommunication. The statute, although marking an inter-
esting stage in the history of Ireland, had very little practical
effect.
The full text is published in the Statutes and Ordinances of Ireland.
John to Henry V., by H. F. Berry (1907).
KILLALA (pron. Killdlla), a small town on the north coast of
county Mayo, Ireland, in the northern parliamentary division,
on the western shore of a fine bay to which it gives name. Pop.
(1901), 510. It is a terminus of a branch of the Midland Great
Western railway. Its trade is almost wholly diverted to Ballina
on the river Moy, which enters the bay, but Killala is of high
antiquarian and historical interest. It was for many centuries
a bishop's see, the foundation being attributed to St Patrick in
the 5th century, but the diocese was joined with Achonry early
in the I7th century and with Tuam in 1833. The cathedral
church of St Patrick is a plain structure of the I7th century.
There is a fine souterrain, evidently connected with a rath, or
encampment, in the graveyard. A round tower, 84 ft. in height,
stands boldly on an isolated eminence. Close to Killala the
French under Humbert landed in 1798, being diverted by con-
trary winds from the Donegal coast. Near the Moy river, south
of Killala, are the abbeys of Moyne and Roserk or Rosserick,
both Decorated in style, and both possessing fine cloisters.
At Rathfran, 2 m. N., is a Dominican abbey (1274), and in the
neighbourhood are camps, cromlechs, and an inscribed ogham
stone,. 1 2 ft. in height. Killala gives name to a Roman Catholic
diocese, the seat of which, however, is at Ballina.
KILLALOE— KILLIGREW, SIR H.
795
KILLALOE, a town of county Clare, Ireland, in the east
parliamentary division, at the lower extremity of Lough Derg
on the river Shannon, at the foot of theJSlieve Bernagh moun-
tains. Pop. (1901), 885. It is connected, so as to form one
town, with Ballina (county Tipperary) by a bridge of 13 arches.
Ballina is the terminus of a branch of the Great Southern and
Western railway, 15 m. N.E. of Limerick. Slate is quarried
in the vicinity, and there were formerly woollen manufactures.
The cathedral of St Flannan occupies the site of a church
founded by St Dalua in the 6th century. The present building
is mainly of the I2th century, a good cruciform example of the
period, preserving, however, a magnificent Romanesque doorway.
It was probably completed by Donall O'Brien, king of Munster,
but part of the fabric dates from a century before his time.
In the churchyard is an ancient oratory said to date from the
period of St Dalua. Near Killaloe stood Brian Boru's palace of
Kincora, celebrated in verse by Moore; for this was the capital
of the kings of Munster. Killaloe is frequented by anglers for
the Shannon salmon-fishing and for trout-fishing in Lough
Derg. Killaloe gives name to Protestant and Roman Catholic
dioceses.
KILLARNEY, a market town of county Kerry, Ireland, in
the east parliamentary division, on a branch line of the Great
Southern & Western railway, 185^ m. S.W. from Dublin. Pop.
of urban district (1901), 5656. On account of the beautiful
scenery in the neighbourhood the town is much frequented by
tourists. The principal buildings are the Roman Catholic
cathedral and bishop's palace of the diocese of Kerry, designed
by A. W. Pugin, a large Protestant church and several hotels.
Adjoining the town is the mansion of the earl of Kenmare.
There is a school of arts and crafts, where carving and inlaying
are prosecuted. The only manufacture of importance now
carried on at Killarney is that of fancy articles from arbutus
wood; but it owed its origin to iron-smelting works, for which
abundant fuel was obtained from the neighbouring forests.
The lakes of Killarney, about if m. from the town, lie in a
basin between several lofty mountain groups, some of which rise
abruptly from the water's edge, and all clothed with trees and
shrubbery almost to their summits. The lower lake, or Lough
Leane (area 5001 acres), is studded with finely wooded islands,
on the largest of which, Ross Island, are the ruins of Ross Castle,
an old fortress of the O'Donoghues; and on another island, the
" sweet Innisfallen " of Moore, are the picturesque ruins of an
abbey founded by St Finian the leper at the close of the 6th
century. Between the lower lake and the middle or Tore lake
(680 acres in extent) stands Muckross Abbey, built by Francis-
cans about 1440. With the upper lake (430 acres), thickly
studded with islands, and close shut in by mountains, the lower
and middle lakes are connected by the Long Range, a winding
and finely wooded channel, 2\ m. in length, and commanding
magnificent views of the mountains. Midway in its course is a
famous echo caused by the Eagle's Nest, a lofty pyramidal
rock.
Besides the lakes of Killarney themselves, the immediate
neighbourhood includes many features of natural beauty and of
historic interest. Among the first are Macgillicuddy's Reeks
and the Tore and Purple Mountains, the famous pass known as
the Gap of Dunloe, Mount Mangerton, with a curious depression
(the Devil's Punchbowl) near its summit, the waterfalls of Tore
and Derrycunihy, and Lough Guitane, above Lough Leane.
Notable ruins and remains, besides Muckross and Innisfallen,
include Aghadoe, with its ruined church of the i2th century
(formerly a cathedral) and remains of a round tower; and the
Ogham Cave of Dunloe, a souterrain containing inscribed stones.
The waters of the neighbourhood provide trout and salmon, and
the flora is of high interest to the botanist. Innumerable
legends centre round the traditional hero O'Donoghue.
KILLDEER, a common American plover, so called in imitation
of its whistling cry, the Charadrius vociferus of Linnaeus, and
the Aegialitis vocifera of modern ornithologists. About the
size of a snipe, it is mostly sooty-brown above, but showing a
bright buff on the tail coverts, and in flight a white bar on the
wings; beneath it is pure white except two pectoral bands
of deep black. It is one of the finest as well as the largest of
the group commonly known as ringed plovers or ring dotterels,1
forming the genus Aegialitis of Boie. Mostly wintering in the
south or only on the sea-shore of the more northern states, in
spring it spreads widely over the interior, breeding on the
newly ploughed lands or on open grass-fields. The nest is
made in a slight hollow, and is often surrounded with small
pebbles and fragments of shells. Here the hen lays her pear-
shaped, stone-coloured eggs, four in number, and always
arranged with their pointed ends touching each other, as is
the custom of most Limicoline birds. The parents exhibit the
greatest anxiety for their offspring on the approach of an in-
truder. It is the best-known bird of its family in the United
States, where it is less abundant in the north-east than farther
south or west. In Canada it does not range farther northward
than 56° N.J it is not known in Greenland, and hardly in
Labrador, though it is a passenger in Newfoundland every
spring and autumn.2 In winter it finds its way to Bermuda
and to some of the Antilles, but it is not recorded from any
of the islands to the windward of Porto Rico. In the other
direction, however, it travels down the Isthmus of Panama
and the west coast of South America to Peru. The killdeer
has several other congeners in America, among which may be
noticed Ae. semipalmata, curiously resembling the ordinary
ringed plover of the Old World, Ae. hiaticula, except that it
has its toes connected by a web at the base; and Ae. nivosa,
a bird inhabiting the western parts of both the American
continents, which in the opinion of some authors is only a
local form of the widely spread Ae. alexandrina or cantiana,
best known as Kentish plover, from its discovery near Sandwich
towards the end of the i8th century, though it is far more
abundant in many other parts of the Old World. The common
ringed plover, Ae. hiaticula, has many of the habits of the
killdeer, but is much less often found away from the sea-
shore, though a few colonies may be found in dry warrens in
certain parts of England many miles from the coast, and in
Lapland at a still greater distance. In such localities it
paves its nest with small stones (whence it is locally known as
" Stone hatch "), a habit almost unaccountable unless regarded
as an inherited instinct from shingle-haunting ancestors.
(A. N.)
KILLIECRANKIE, a pass of Perthshire, Scotland, 3! m.
N.N.W. of Pitlochry by the Highland railway. Beginning
close to Killiecrankie station it extends southwards to the
bridge of Garry for nearly if m. through the narrow, extremely
beautiful, densely wooded glen in the channel of which flows
the Garry. A road constructed by General Wade in 1732
runs up the pass, and between this and the river is the
railway, built in 1863. The battle of the 27th of July 1689,
between some 3000 Jacobites under Viscount Dundee and
the royal force, about 4000 strong, led by General Hugh
Mackay, though named from the ravine, was not actually
fought in the pass. When Mackay emerged from the gorge he
found the Highlanders already in battle array on the high
ground on the right bank of the Girnaig, a tributary of the
Garry, within half a mile of where the railway station now is.
Before he had time to form on the more open table-land, the
clansmen charged impetuously with their claymores and swept
his troops back into the pass and the Garry. Mackay lost
nearly half his force, the Jacobites about 900, including their
leader. Urrard House adjoins the spot where Viscount Dundee
received his death-wound.
KILLIGREW, SIR HENRY (d. 1603), English diplomatist,
belonged to an old Cornish family and became member of
parliament for Launceston in 1553. Having lived abroad
1 The word dotterel seems properly applicable to a single species
only, the Charadrius morinellus of Linnaeus, which, from some of its
osteological characters, may be fitly regarded as the type of a dis-
tinct genus, Eudromias. Whether any other species agree with it in
the peculiarity alluded to is at present uncertain.
2 A single example is said to have been shot near Christchurch, in
Hampshire, England, in April 1857 (Ibis, 1862, p. 276).
796
KILLIGREW, T.— KILLYBEGS
during the whole or part of Mary's reign, he returned to England
when Elizabeth came to the throne and at once began to serve
the new queen as a diplomatist. He 'was employed on a mission
to Germany, and in conducting negotiations in Scotland, where
he had several interviews with Mary Queen of Scots. He
was knighted in 1591, and after other diplomatic missions in
various parts of Europe he died early in 1603. Many of Sir
Henry's letters on public matters are in the Record Office,
London, and in the British Museum. His first wife, Catherine
(c. 1530-1583), daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke (1504-1576),
tutor to Edward VI., was a lady of talent.
Another celebrated member of this family was Sir ROBERT
KILLIGREW (c. 1570-1633), who was knighted by James I. in
the same year (1603) as his father, Sir William Killigrew. Sir
William was an officer in Queen Elizabeth's household and
a member of parliament; he died in November 1622. Sir
Robert was a member of all the parliaments between 1603 and
his death, but he came more into prominence owing to his
alleged connexion with the death of Sir Thomas Overbury.
A man of some scientific knowledge, he had been in the habit
of supplying powders to Robert Carr, earl of Somerset, but it
is not certain that the fatal powder came from the hands of
Killigrew. He died early in 1633, leaving five sons, three of
whom attained some reputation (see below).
KILLIGREW, THOMAS (1612-1683), English dramatist and
wit, son of Sir Robert Killigrew, was born in Lothbury, London,
on the 7th of February 1612. Pepys says that as a boy he
satisfied his love of the stage by volunteering at the Red Bull
to take the part of a devil, thus seeing the play for nothing.
In 1633 he became page to Charles I., and was faithfully attached
to the royal house throughout his life. In 1635 he was in
France, and has left an account (printed in the European Maga-
zine, 1803) of the exorcizing of an evil spirit from some nuns at
Loudun. In 1 64 1 he published two tragi-comedies, The Prisoners
and Claracilla, both of which had probably been produced
before 1636. In 1647 he followed Prince Charles into exile.
His wit, easy morals and accommodating temper recommended
him to Charles, who sent him to Venice in 1651 as his repre-
sentative. Early in the following year he was recalled at the
request of the Venetian ambassador in Paris. At the Restora-
tion he became groom of the bedchamber to Charles II., and
later chamberlain to the queen. He received in 1660, with
Sir William Davenant, a patent to erect a new playhouse, the
performances in which were to be independent of the censorship
of the master of the revels. This infringement of his prerogative
caused a dispute with Sir Henry Herbert, then holder of the
office, but Killigrew settled the matter by generous concessions.
He acted independently of Davenant, his company being known
as the King's Servants. They played at the Red Bull, until in
1663 he built for them the original Theatre Royal in Drury
Lane. Pepys writes in 1664 that Killigrew intended to have
four opera seasons of six weeks each during the year, and with
this end in view paid several visits to Rome to secure singers
and scene decorators. In 1664 his plays were published as
Comedies and Tragedies. Written by Thomas Killigrew. They
are Claracilla; The Princess, or Love at First Sight; The
Parson's Wedding; The Pilgrim; Cicilia and Clorinda, or Love
in Arms; Thomaso, or the Wanderer; and Bellamira, her
Dream, or Love of Shadows. The Parson's Wedding (acted
c. 1640, reprinted in the various editions of Dodsley's Old
Plays and in the Ancient British Drama) is an unsavoury play,
which displays nevertheless considerable wit, and some of its
jokes were appropriated by Congreve. It was revived after
the Restoration in 1664 and 1672 or 1673, all the parts being
in both cases taken by women. Killigrew succeeded Sir Henry
Herbert as master of the revels in 1673. He died at Whitehall
on the igth of March 1683. He was twice married, first to
Cecilia Crofts, maid of honour to Queen Henrietta Maria, and
secondly to Charlotte de Hesse, by whom he had a son Thomas
(1657-1719), who was the author of a successful little piece,
Chit-Chat, played at Drury Lane on the i4th of February 1719,
with Mrs Oldfield in the part of Florinda.
Killigrew enjoyed a greater reputation as a wit than as a dramatist.
Sir John Denhara said of him: —
Had Cowley ee'er spoke, Killigrew ne'er writ,
Combined in one, they'd made a matchless wit.
Many stories are related of his bold speeches to Charles I. Pepys
(Feb. 12, 1668) records that he was said to hold the title of King's
Fool or Jester, with a cap and bells at the expense of the king's
wardrobe, and that he might therefore revile or jeer anybody, even
the greatest, without offence.
His elder brother, Sir WILLIAM KILLIGREW (1606-1695), was
a court official under Charles I. and Charles II. He attempted
to drain the Lincolnshire fens, and was the author of four
plays (printed 1665 and 1666) of some merit.
A younger brother, Dr HENRY KILLIGREW (1613-1700),
was chaplain and almoner to the duke of York, and master
of the Savoy after the Restoration. A juvenile play of his,
The Conspiracy, was printed surreptitiously in 1638, and in an
authenticated version in 1653 as Pallantus and Eudora. He
had two sons, HENRY KILLIGREW (d. 1712), an admiral, and
JAMES KILLIGREW, also a naval officer, who was killed in an
encounter with the French in January 1695; and a daughter,
ANNE (1660-1685), poet and painter, who was maid of honour
to the duchess of York, and was the subject of an ode by
Dryden, which Samuel Johnson thought the noblest in the
language.
A sister, ELIZABETH KILLIGREW, married Francis Boyle,
ist Viscount Shannon, and became a mistress of Charles II.
KILLIN, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, at the
south-western extremity of Loch Tay, 4 m. N.E. of Killin
Junction on a branch line of the Callander & Oban railway.
Pop. of parish (1901), 1423. It is situated near the confluence
of the rivers and glens of the Dochart and Lochay, and is a
popular tourist centre, having communication by steamer with
Kenmore at the other end of the lake, and thence by coach to
Aberfeldy, the terminus of a branch of the Highland railway.
It has manufactures of tweeds. In a field near the village
a stone marks the site of what is known as Fingal's Grove.
An island in the Dochart (which is crossed at Killin by a bridge
of five arches) is the ancient burial-place of the clan Macnab.
Finlarig Castle, a picturesque mass of ivy-clad ruins, was a
stronghold of the Campbells of Glenorchy, and several earls
of Breadalbane were buried in ground adjoining it, where the
modern mausoleum of the family stands. Three miles up the
Lochay, which rises in the hills beyond the forest of Mamlorn
and has a course of 15 m., the river forms a graceful cascade.
The Dochart, issuing from Loch Dochart, flows for 13 m. in a
north-easterly direction and falls into Loch Tay. The ruined
castle on an islet in the loch once belonged to the Campbells
of Lochawe.
KILLIS, a town of N. Syria, in the vilayet of Aleppo, 60 m. N.
of Aleppo city. It is situated in an extremely fertile plain, and
is completely surrounded with olive groves, the produce of
which is reckoned the finest oil of all Syria; and its position
on the carriage-road from Aleppo to Aintab and Birejik gives
it importance. The population (20,000) consists largely of
Circassians, Turkomans and Arabs, the town lying just on the
northern rim of the Arab territory. As Killis lies also very
near the proposed junction of the Bagdad and the Beirut-Aleppo
railways (at Tell Habesh), it is likely to increase in importance.
KILLYBEGS, a seaport and market town of county Donegal,
Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, on the north coast
on Donegal Bay, the terminus of the Donegal railway. Pop.
(1901), 607. It derives some importance from its fine land-
locked harbour, which, affording accommodation to large vessels,
is used as a naval station, and is the centre of an important
fishery. There is a large pier for the fishing vessels. The
manufacture of carpets occupies a part of the population,
employing both male and female labour — the productions being
known as Donegal carpets. There are slight remains of a castle
and ancient church; and a mineral spring is still used. The
town received a charter from James I., and was a parliamentary
borough, returning two members, until the Union.
KILLYLEAGH— KILPATRICK
797
KILLYLEAGH, a small seaport and market town of county
Down, Ireland, in the east parliamentary division, on the western
shore of Strangford Lough. Pop. (1901), 1410. Linen manu-
facture is the principal industry, and agricultural produce is
exported. Killyleagh was an important stronghold in early
times, and the modern castle preserves the towers of the old
building. Sir John de Courcy erected this among many other
fortresses in the neighbourhood; it was besieged by Shane
O'Neill (1567), destroyed by Monk (1648), and subsequently
rebuilt. The town was incorporated by James I., and returned
two members to the Irish parliament.
KILMAINE, CHARLES EDWARD (1751-1799), French
general, was born at Dublin on the igth of October 1751.
At the age of eleven he went with his father, whose surname
was Jennings, to France, where he changed his name to Kil-
maine, after a village in Mayo. He entered the French army
as an officer in a dragoon regiment in 1774, and afterwards
served as a volunteer in the Navy (1778), during which period
he was engaged in the fighting in Senegal. From 1780 to 1783
he took part in the War of American Independence under
Rochambeau, rejoining the army on his return to France. In
1791, as a retired captain, he took the civic oath and was recalled
to active service, becoming lieutenant-colonel in 1792, and
colonel, brigadier-general, and lieutenant-general in 1793. In
this last capacity he distinguished himself in the wars on the
northern and eastern frontiers. But he became an object of
suspicion on account of his foreign birth and his relations with
England. He was suspended on the 4th of August 1793, and
was not recalled to active service till 1795. He then took part
in the Italian campaigns of 1796 and 1797, and was made
commandant of Lombardy. He afterwards received the
command of the cavalry in Bonaparte's " army of England,"
of which, during the absence of Desaix, he was temporarily
commander-in-chief (1798). He died on the isth of December
1799
See J. G. Alger, Englishmen in the French Revolution (1889);
Eugene Fieff6, Histoire des troupes etrangeres au service de France
(1854) ; Eticnne Charavay, Correspondance de Carnal, tome iii.
K1LMALLOCK, a market town of county Limerick, Ireland,
in the east parliamentary division, 1245 m. S.W. of Dublin by
the Great Southern & Western main line. Pop. (1901), 1206.
It commands a natural route (now followed by the railway)
through the hills to the south and south-west, and is a site of
great historical interest. It received a charter in the reign of
Edward III., at which time it was walled and fortified, and
entered by four gates, two of which remain. It was a military
post of importance in Elizabeth's reign, but its fortifications
were for the most part demolished by order of Cromwell.
Two castellated mansions are still to be seen. The church of
St Peter and St Paul belonged to a former abbey, and has a
tower at the north-west corner which is a converted round tower.
The Dominican Abbey, of the i3th century, has Early English
remains of great beauty and a tomb to Edmund, the last of the
White Knights, a branch of the family of Desmond intimately
connected with Kilmallock, who received their title from
Edward III. at the battle of Halidon Hill. The foundation of
Kilmallock, however, is attributed to the Geraldines, who had
several towns in this vicinity. Eight miles from the town is
Lough Gur, near which are numerous stone circles and other
remains. Kilmallock returned two members to the Irish
parliament. •
KILMARNOCK, a municipal and police burgh of Ayrshire,
Scotland, on Kilmarnock Water, a tributary of the Irvine, 24 m.
S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway.
Pop. (1901), 35,091. Among the chief buildings are the town
hall, court-house, corn-exchange (with the Albert Tower, no ft.
high), observatory, academy, corporation art gallery, institute
(containing a free library and a museum), Kay schools, School
of Science and Art, Athenaeum, theatre, infirmary, Agricultural
Hall, and Philosophical Institution. The grounds of Kilmarnock
House, presented to the town in 1893, were laid out as a public
park. In Kay Park (48 J acres), purchased from the duke of
Portland for £9000, stands the Burns Memorial, consisting of two
storeys and a tower, and containing a museum in which have been
placed many important MSS. of the poet and the McKie library
of Burns's books. The marble statue of the poet, by W. G.
Stevenson, stands on a terrace on the southern face. A Reformers'
monument was unveiled in Kay Park in 1885. Kilmarnock rose
into importance in the i7th century by its production of striped
woollen " Kilmarnock cowls " and broad blue bonnets, and
afterwards acquired a great name for its Brussels, Turkey and
Scottish carpets. Tweeds, blankets, shawls, tartans, lace
curtains, cottons and winceys are also produced. The boot and
shoe trade is prosperous, and there are extensive engineering and
hydraulic machinery works. But the iron industry is prominent,
the town being situated in the midst of a rich mineral region.
Here, too, are the workshops of the Glasgow & South-Western
railway company. Kilmarnock is famous for its dairy produce,
and every October holds the largest cheese-show in Scotland.
The neighbourhood abounds in freestone and coal. The burgh,
which is governed by a provost and council, unites with Dum-
barton, Port Glasgow, Renfrew and Rutherglen in returning one
•member to parliament. Alexander Smith, the poet (1830-1867),
whose father was a lace-pattern designer, and Sir James Shaw
(1764-1843), lord mayor of London in 1806, to whom a statue
was erected in the town in 1848, were natives of Kilmarnock. It
dates from the i5th century, and in 1591 was made a burgh of
barony under the Boyds, the ruling house of the district. The
last Boyd who bore the title of Lord Kilmarnock was beheaded
on Tower Hill, London, in 1746, for his share in the Jacobite
rising. The first edition of Robert Burns's poems was published
here in 1786.
KILMAURS, a town in the Cunningham division of Ayrshire,
Scotland, on the Carmel, 21^ m. S. by W. of Glasgow by the
Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 1803. Once
noted for its cutlery, the chief industries now are shoe and
bonnet factories, and there are iron and coal mines in the neigh-
bourhood. The parish church dates from 1170, and was dedi-
cated either to the Virgin or to a Scottish saint of the gth century
called Maure. It was enlarged in 1403 and in great part rebuilt
in 1888. Adjoining it is the burial-place of the earls of Glencairn,
the leading personages in the district during several centuries,
some of whom bore the style of Lord Kilmaurs. Their family
name was Cunningham, adopted probably from the manor which
they acquired in the 1 2th century. The town was made a burgh
of barony in 1527 by the earl of that date. Burns's patron, the
thirteenth earl, on whose death the poet wrote his touching
" Lament," sold the Kilmaurs estate in 1786 to the marchioness
of Titchfield.
KILN (O. E. cylene, from the Lat. culina, a kitchen, cooking-
stove), a place for burning, baking or drying. Kilns may be
divided into two classes — those in which the materials come into
actual contact with the flames, and those in which the furnace is
beneath or surrounding the oven. Lime-kilns are of the first
class, and brick-kilns, pottery-kilns, &c., of the second, which
also includes places for merely drying materials, such as
hop-kilns, usually called "oasts" or "oast-houses."
KILPATRICK, NEW, or EAST, also called BEARSDEN, a town of
Dumbartonshire, Scotland, 55 m. N.W. of Glasgow by road, with
a station on the North British railway company's branch line
from Glasgow to Milngavie. Pop. (1901), 2705. The town is
largely inhabited by business men from Glasgow. The public
buildings include the Shaw convalescent home, Buchanan
Retreat, house of refuge for girls, library, and St Peter's College,
a fine structure, presented to the Roman Catholic Church in 1892
by the archbishop of Glasgow. There is some coal-mining, and
lime is manufactured. Remains of the Wall of Antoninus are
close to the town. At Garscube and Garscadden, both within
ij m. of New Kilpatrick, are extensive iron- works, and at the
former place coal is mined and stone quarried.
KILPATRICK, OLD, a town of Dumbartonshire, Scotland, on
the right bank of the Clyde, iofm. N.W. of Glasgow by rail, with
stations on the North British and Caledonian railways. Pop.
(1901), 1533. It is traditionally the birthplace of St Patrick,
KILRUSH— KIMBERLEY, EARL OF
whose father is said to have acted there as a Roman magistrate.
Roman remains occur in the district, and the Wall of Antoninus
ran through the parish. To the north, occupying an area of
about 6 m. from east to west and 5 m. from north to south
run the Kilpatrick Hills, of which the highest points are
Duncomb and Fynloch Hill (each 1313 ft.).
KILRUSH, a seaport and watering-place of county Clare,
Ireland, in the west parliamentary division, on the north shore
of the Shannon estuary 45 m. below Limerick. Pop. of urban
district (1901), 4179. It is the terminus of a branch of the West
Clare railway. The only seaport of importance in the county,
it has a considerable export trade in peat fuel, extensive fisheries,
and flagstone quarries; while general fairs, horse fairs and annual
agricultural shows are held. The inner harbour admits only
small vessels, but there is a good pier a mile south of the town.
Off the harbour lies Scattery Island (Inis Cathaigk), where
St Senan (d. 544) founded a monastery. There are the remains
of his oratory and house and of seven rude churches or chapels,
together with a round tower and a holy well still in repute. The
island also received the epithet of Holy, and was a favourite
burial-ground until modern times.
KILSYTH, a police burgh of Stirlingshire, Scotland, on the
Kelvin, 13 m. N.N.E. of Glasgow by the North British railway,
and close to the Forth and Clyde canal. Pop. (1901), 7292.
The principal buildings are the town and public halls, and the
academy-. The chief industries are coal-mining and iron-works;
there are also manufactures of paper and cotton, besides quarry-
ing of whinstone and sandstone. There are considerable remains
of the Wall of Antoninus south of the town, and to the north
the ruins of the old castle. Kilsyth dates from the middle of the
1 7th century and became a burgh of barony in 1826. It was
the scene of Montrose's defeat of the Covenanters on the
1 5th of August 1645. The town was the centre of remarkable
religious revivals in 1742-3 and 1839, the latter conducted by
William Chalmers Burns (1815-1868), the missionary to China.
KILT, properly the short loose skirt or petticoat, reaching
to the knees and usually made of tartan, forming part of the
dress of a Scottish Highlander (see COSTUME). The word
means that which is " girded or tucked up," and is apparently
of Scandinavian origin, cf. Danish kilte, to tuck up. The early
kilt was not a separate garment but was merely the lower part
of the plaid, in which the Highlander wrapped himself, hanging
down in folds below the belt.
KILWA (Quiloa), a seaport of German East Africa, about
200 m. S. of Zanzibar. There are two Kilwas, one on the main-
land— Kilwa Kivinje; the other, the ancient city, on an island —
Kilwa Kisiwani. Kilwa Kivinje, on the northern side of Kilwa
Bay, is regularly laid out, the houses in the European quarter
being large and substantial. The government house and barracks
are fortified and are surrounded by fine public gardens. The
adjacent country is fertile and thickly populated, and the trade
of the port is considerable. Much of it is in the hands of Banyans.
Kilwa is a starting-point for caravans to Lake Nyasa. Pop.
about 5000. Most of the inhabitants are Swahili.
Kilwa Kisiwani, 18 m. to the south of the modern town,
possesses a deep harbour sheltered from all winds by projecting
coral reefs. The island on which it is built is separated from the
mainland by a shallow and narrow channel. The ruins of the
city include massive walls and bastions, remains of a palace
and of two large mosques, of which the domed roofs are in fair
preservation, besides several Arab forts. The new quarter
contains a customs house and a few Arab buildings. Pop. about
600. On the island of Songa Manara, at the southern end of
Kilwa Bay, hidden in dense vegetation, are the ruins of another
city, unknown to history. Fragments of palaces and mosques
in carved limestone exist, and on the beach are the remains of a
lighthouse. Chinese coins and pieces of porcelain have been
found on the sea-shore, washed up from the reefs.
The sultanate of Kilwa is reputed to have been founded about
A.D. 975 by AH ibn Hasan, a Persian prince from Shiraz, upon the site
of the ancient Greek colony of Rhapta. The new state, at first
confined to the town of Kilwa, extended its influence along the coast
from Zanzibar to Sofala, and the city came to be regarded as the
capital of the Zenj "empire" (see ZANZIBAR: "Sultanate"). An Arab
chronicle gives a list of over forty sovereigns who reigned at Kilwa
in a period of five hundred years (cf. A. M. H. J. Stokvis, Manuel
d'histoire^ Leiden, 1888, i. 558). Pedro Alvares Cabral, the Portu-
guese navigator, was the first European to visit it. His fleet, on its
way to India, anchored in Kilwa Bay in 1500. Kilwa was then a
large and wealthy city, possessing, it is stated, three hundred mosques.
In 1502 Kilwa submitted to Vasco da Gama, but the sultan neglect-
ing to pay the tribute imposed upon him, the city in 1505 was occu-
pied by the Portuguese. They built a fort there ; the first erected
by them on the east coast of Africa. Fighting ensued between the
Arabs and the Portuguese, the city was destroyed; and in 1512 the
Portuguese, whose ranks had been decimated by fever, temporarily
abandoned the place. Subsequently Kilwa became one of the chief
centres of the slave trade. Towards the end of the I7th century
it fell under the dominion of the imams of Muscat, and on the
separation in 1856 of their Arabian and African possessions became
subject to the sultan of Zanzibar. With the rest of the southern
part of the sultan's continental dominions Kilwa was acquired by
Germany in 1890 (see AFRICA, § 5; and GERMAN EAST AFRICA).
KILWARDBY, ROBERT (d. 1279), archbishop of Canterbury
and cardinal, studied at the university of Paris, where he soon
became famous as a teacher of grammar and logic. Afterwards
joining the order of St Dominic and turning his attention to
theology, he was chosen provincial prior of his order in England
in 1261, and in October 1272 Pope Gregory X. terminated
a dispute over the vacant archbishopric of Canterbury by
appointing Kilwardby. Although the new archbishop crowned
Edward I. and his queen Eleanor in August 1274, he took little
part in business of state, but was energetic in discharging the
spiritual duties of his office. He was charitable to the poor,
and showed liberality to the Dominicans. In 1278 Pope
Nicholas III. made him cardinal-bishop of Porto and Santa
Rufina; he resigned his archbishopric and left England, carrying
with him the registers and other valuable property belonging
to the see of Canterbury. He died in Italy on the nth of
September 1279. Kilwardby was the first member of a men-
dicant order to attain a high position in the English Church.
Among his numerous writings, which became very popular
among students, are De ortu scientiarum, De tempore, De Uni-
versali, and some commentaries on Aristotle.
See N. Trevet, Annales sex regum Angliae, edited by T. Hog
(London, 1845) ; W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury,
vol. iii. (London, 1860-1876); J. Qu6tif and J. Echard, Scriptores
ordinis Predicatorum (Paris, 1719-1721).
KILWINNING, a municipal and police burgh of Ayrshire,
Scotland, on the right bank of the Garnock, 24 m. S.W. of
Glasgow by the Caledonian railway, and 26f m. by the Glasgow
& South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 4440. The chief
buildings include the public library, the Masonic hall and the
district hospital. The centre of interest, however, is the ruined
abbey, originally one of the richest in Scotland. Founded
about 1140 by Hugh de Morville, lord of Cunninghame, for
Tyronensian monks of the Benedictine order, it was dedicated
to St Winnin, who lived on the spot in the 8th century and has
given his name to the town. This beautiful specimen of Early
English architecture was partly destroyed in 1561, and its
lands were granted to the earl of Eglinton and others. Kil-
winning is the traditional birthplace of Scottish freemasonry,
the lodge, believed to have been founded by the foreign archi-
tects and masons who came to build the abbey, being regarded
as the mother lodge in Scotland. The royal company of archers
of Kilwinning — dating, it is said, as far back as 1488 — meet
every July to shoot at the popinjay. The industry in weaving
shawls and lighter fabrics has died out; and the large iron,
coal and fire-clay works at Eglinton, and worsted spinning,
employ most of the inhabitants. About a mile from Kilwinning
is Eglinton Castle, the seat of the earls of Eglinton, built in
1798 in the English castellated style.
KIMBERLEY, JOHN WODEHOUSE, IST EARL OF (1826-1902),
English statesman, was born on the 7th of January 1826, being
the eldest son of the Hon. Henry Wodehouse and grandson of
the 2nd Baron Wodehouse (the barony dating from 1797),
whom he succeeded in 1846. He was educated at Eton and
Christ Church, Oxford, where he took a first-class degree in
KIMBERLEY— KIMERIDGIAN
799
classics in 1847; in the same year married Lady Florence
Fitzgibbon (d. 1895), daughter of the last earl of Clare. He
was by inheritance a Liberal in politics, and in 1852-1856 and
1859-1861 he was under secretary of state for foreign affairs in
Lord Aberdeen's and Lord Palmerstoh's ministries. In the
interval (1856-1858) he had been envoy-extraordinary to Russia;
and in 1863 he was sent on a special mission to Copenhagen on
the forlorn hope of finding a peaceful solution of the Schleswig-
Holstein question. The mission was a failure, but probably
nothing else was possible. In 1864 he became under secretary
for India, but towards the end of the year was made Lord-
Lieutenant of Ireland. In that capacity he had to grapple
with the first manifestations of Fenianism, and in recognition
of his vigour and success he was created (1866) earl of Kimberley.
In July 1866 he vacated his office with the fall of Lord Russell's
ministry, but in 1868 he became Lord Privy Seal in Mr Glad-
stone's cabinet, and in July 1870 was transferred from that
post to be secretary of state for the colonies. It was the
moment of the great diamond discoveries in South Africa, and
the new town of Kimberley was named after the colonial secre-
tary of the day. After an interval of opposition from 1874 to
1880, Lord Kimberley returned to the Colonial Office in Mr
Gladstone's next ministry; but at the end of 1882 he exchanged
this office first for that of chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and
then for the secretaryship of state for India, a post he retained
during the remainder of Mr Gladstone's tenure of power
(1882-1886, 1892-1894), though in 1892-1894 he combined with
it that of the lord presidency of the council. In Lord Rosebery's
cabinet (1894-1895) he was foreign secretary. Lord Kimberley
was an admirable departmental chief, but it is difficult to asso-
ciate his own personality with any ministerial act during his
occupation of all these posts. He was at the colonial office
when responsible government was granted to Cape Colony,
when British Columbia was added to the Dominion of Canada,
and during the Boer War of 1 880-81, with its conclusion at
Majuba; and he was foreign secretary when the misunderstand-
ing arose with Germany over the proposed lease of territory from
the Congo Free State for the Cape to Cairo route. He was
essentially a loyal Gladstonian party man. His moderation,
common sense, and patriotism had their influence, nevertheless,
on his colleagues. As leader of the Liberal party in the House
of Lords he acted with undeviating dignity; and in opposition
he was a courteous antagonist and a critic of weight and
experience. He took considerable interest in education, and
after being for many years a member of the senate of London
University, he became its chancellor in 1899. He died in
London on the 8th of April 1902, being succeeded in the earldom
by his eldest and only surviving son, Lord Wodehouse (b. 1848).
KIMBERLEY, a town of the Cape province, South Africa,
the centre of the Griqualand West diamond industry, 647 m.
N.E. of Cape Town and 310 m. S.W. of Johannesburg by rail.
Pop. (1904), 34,331, of whom 13,556 were whites. The town is
built on the bare veld midway between the Modder and Vaal
Rivers and is 4012 ft. above the sea. Having grown out of
camps formed round the diamond mines, its plan is very irregular
and in striking contrast with the rectangular outline common
to South African towns. Grouped round market square are
the law courts, with a fine clock tower, the post and telegraph
offices and the town-hall. The public library and the hospital
are in DuToits Pan Road. In the district of Newton, laid out
during the siege of 1899-1900, a monument to those who fell
during the operations has been erected where four roads meet.
Siege Avenue, in the suburb of Kenilworth, 250 ft. wide, a mile
and a quarter long, and planted with 16 rows of trees, was also
laid out during the siege. In the public gardens are statues
of Queen Victoria and Cecil Rhodes. The diamond mines form,
however, the chief attraction of the town (see DIAMOND). Of
these the Kimberley is within a few minutes' walk of market
square. The De Beers mine is one mile east of the Kimberley
mine. The other principal mines, Bultfontein, Du Toits Pan
and Wesselton, are still farther distant from the town. Barbed
wire fencing surrounds the mines, which cover about 180 acres.
The Kaffirs who work in the mines are housed in large com-
pounds. Wire netting is spread over these enclosures, and
every precaution taken to prevent the illicit disposal of diamonds.
Ample provision is made for the comfort of the inmates, who in
addition to food and lodging earn from 175. to 245. a week.
Most of the white workmen employed live at Kenilworth, laid
out by the De Beers company as a " model village." Beacons-
field, near Du Toits Pan Mine, is also dependent on the
diamond industry.
Kimberley was founded in 1870 by diggers who discovered
diamonds on the farms of Du Toits Pan and Bultfontein. In
1871 richer diamonds were found on the neighbouring farm of
Vooruitzight at places named De Beers and Colesberg Kopje.
There were at first three distinct mining camps, one at Du
Toits Pan, another at De Beers (called De Beers Rush or Old
De Beers) and the third at the Colesberg Kopje (called De
Beers New Rush, or New Rush simply). The Colesberg Kopje
mine was in July 1873 renamed Kimberley in honour of the
then secretary of state for the colonies, the ist earl of Kimberley,
by whose direction the mines were — in 1871 — taken under the
protection of Great Britain. Kimberley was also chosen as
the name of the town into which the mining camps developed.
Doubt having arisen as to the rights of the crown to the minerals
on Vooruitzight farm, litigation ensued, ending in the purchase
of the farm by the state for £100,000 in 1875. In 1880 the town
was incorporated in Cape Colony (see GRIQUALAND). In 1874 a
great part of the population left for the newly discovered gold
diggings in the Lydenburg district of the Transvaal, but others
took their place. Among those early attracted to Kimberley
were Cecil Rhodes and " Barney " Barnato, who in time came
to represent two groups of financiers controlling the mines.
The amalgamation of their interests in 1889 — when the De
Beers group purchased the Kimberley mine for £5,338,650 —
put the whole diamond production of the Kimberley fields in the
hands of one company, the De Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd.,
so named after the former owners of the farms on which are
situated the chief mines. Kimberley in consequence became
largely dependent on the good-will of the De Beers corporation,
the town having practically no industries other than diamond
mining. Horse-breeding is carried on to a limited extent.
The value of the annual output of diamonds averages about
£4,500,000. The importance of the industry led to the building
of a railway from Cape Town, opened in 1885. On the outbreak
of war between the British and the Boers in 1899 Kimberley was
invested by a Boer force. The siege began on the i2th of
October and lasted until the isth of February 1900, when the
town was relieved by General Sir John French. Among the
besieged was Cecil Rhodes, who placed the resources of the
De Beers company at the disposal of the defenders. In 1906
the town was put in direct railway communication with Johan-
nesburg, and in 1908 the completion of the line from Bloem-
fontein gave Natal direct access to Kimberley, which thus
became an important railway centre.
KIMERIDGIAN, in geology, the basal division of the Upper
Oolites in the Jurassic system. The name is derived from the
hamlet of Kimeridge or Kimmeridge near the coast of Dorset-
shire, England. It appears to have been first suggested by
T. Webster in 1812; in 1818, in the form Kimeridge Clay, it was
used by Buckland. From the Dorsetshire coast, where it is
splendidly exposed in the fine cliffs from St Alban's Head to
Gad Cliff, it follows the line of Jurassic outcrop through Wilt-
shire, where there is a broad expanse between Westbury and
Devizes, as far as Yorkshire, there it appears in the vale of
Pickering and on the coast in Filey Bay. It generally occupied
broad valleys, of which the vale of Aylesbury may be taken as
typical. Good exposures occur at Seend, Calne, Swindon,
Wootton Bassett, Faringdon, Abingdon, Culham, Shotover Hill,
Brill, Ely and Market Rasen. Traces of the formation are found
as far north as the east coast of Cromarty and Sutherland at
Eathie and Helmsdale.
In England the Kimeridgian is usually divisible into an Upper
Series, 600-650 ft. in the south, dark bituminous shales, paper
8oo
KIMHI— KIN
shales and clays with layers and nodules of cement-stones and sep-
taria. These beds merge gradually into the overlying Portlandian
formation. The Lower Series, with a maximum thickness of 400 ft.,
consists of clays and dark shales with septaria, cement-stones and
calcareous " doggers." These litholpgical characters are very
persistent. The Upper Kimeridgian is distinguished as the zone
of Perisphinctes biplex, with the sub-zone of Discina latissima in the
higher portions. Cardioceras alternans is the zonal ammonite charac-
teristic of the lower division, with the sub-zone of Ostrea deltoidea in
the lower portion. Exogyra virgula is common in the upper part of
the lower division, and the lower part of the Upper Kimeridgian.
A large number of ammonites are peculiar to this formation, in-
cluding Reineckia eudoxus, R. Thurmanni, Aspidoceras longispinus,
&c. Large dinosaurian reptiles are abundant, Cetiosaurus, Giganto-
saurus, Megalosaurus, also plesiosaurs and ichthyosaurs; croco-
dilian and chelonian remains are also found. Protocardia striatula,
Thracia depressa, Belemnites abreviatus, B. Blainvillei, Lingula ovalis,
Khynchonella inconstant and Exogyra nana are characteristic fossils.
Alum has been obtained from the Kimeridge Clay, and the cement-
stones have been employed in Purbeck; coprolites are found in small
quantities. Bricks, tiles, flower-pots, &c., are made from the clay
at Swindon, Gillingham, Brill, Ely, Horncastle, and other places.
The so-called "Kimeridge coal" is a highly bituminous shale cap-
able of being used as fuel, which has been worked on the cliff at
Little Kimeridge.
The " Kimendgien " of continental geologists is usually made to
contain the three sub-divisions of A. Oppel and W. Waagen, viz. : —
[ Upper (Virgulian) with Exogyra virgula
Kimeridgien -I Middle (Pteroceran) with Pteroceras oceani
[Lower (Astartian) with A starte supracorallina ;
but the upper portion of this continental Kimeridgian is equivalent
to some of the British Portlandian ; while most of the Astartian cor-
responds to the Corallian. A. de Lapparent now recognizes only
the Virgulian and Pteroceran in the Kimeridgien. Clays and marls
with occasional limestones and sandstones represent the Kime-
ridgien of most of northern Europe, including Russia. In Swabia
and some other parts of Germany the curious ruiniform marble
Felsenkalk occurs on this horizon, and most of the Kimeridgien of
southern Europe, including the Alps, is calcareous. Representatives
of the formation occur in Caucasia, Algeria, Abyssinia, Madagascar;
in South America with volcanic rocks, and possibly in California
(Maripan beds), Alaska and King Charles's Land.
See " Jurassic Rocks of Britain," vols. v. and i., Memoirs of the
Geological Survey (vol. v. contains references to literature up to 1895).
(I A. H.)
KIMHI, or Qiiiin, the family name of three Jewish grammar-
ians and biblical scholars who worked at Narbonne in the i2th
century and the beginning of the I3th, and exercised great
influence on the study of the Hebrew language. The name, as is
shown by manuscript testimony, was also pronounced gamhi
and further mention is made of the French surname Petit.
JOSEPH KIMHI was a native of southern Spain, and settled
in Provence, where he was one of the first to set forth in the
Hebrew language the results of Hebraic philology as expounded
by the Spanish Jews in their Arabic treatises. He was acquainted
moreover with Latin grammar, under the influence of which he
resorted to the innovation of dividing the Hebrew vowels into
five long vowels and five short, previous grammarians having
simply spoken of seven vowels without distinction of quantity.
His grammatical textbook, Sefer Ha-Zikkaron, "Book of
Remembrance " (ed. W. Bacber, Berlin, 1888), was marked by
methodical comprehensiveness, and introduced into the theory
of the verbs a new classification of the stems which has been
retained by later scholars. In the far more ample Sefer Ha-
Galuy, "Book of Demonstration" (ed. Matthews, Berlin, 1887),
Joseph Kimhi attacks the philological work of the greatest French
Talmud scholar of that day, R. Jacob Tam, who espoused the
antiquated system of Menaftem b.Saruq, and this he supplements
by an independent critique of Menahem. This work is a mine
of varied exegetical and philological details. He also wrote
commentaries — the majority of which are lost — on a great
number of the scriptural books. Those on Proverbs and Job have
been published. He composed an apologetic work under the
title Sefer Ha-Berith (" Book of the Bond "), a fragment of which
is extant, and translated into Hebrew the ethico-philosophical
work of Bahya ibn Paquda (" Duties of the Heart "). In his
commentaries he also made contributions to the comparative
philology of Hebrew and Arabic.
MOSES KIMHI was the author of a Hebrew grammar, known —
after the first three words— as Mahalak Shebile Ha-daat,or briefly
as Mahalak. It is an elementary introduction to the study of
Hebrew, the first of its kind, in which only the most indispensable
definitions and rules have a place, the remainder being almost
wholly occupied by paradigms. Moses Kimhi was the first who
made the verb paqadh a model for conjugation, and the first
also who introduced the now usual sequence in the enumeration
of stem-forms. His handbook was of great historical importance
as in the first hah' of the i6th century it became the favourite
manual for the study of Hebrew among non-Judaic scholars
(isted., Pesaro, 1508). Elias Levita (q.v.) wrote Hebrew explana-
tions, and Sebastian Munster translated it into Latin. Moses
Kimhi also composed commentaries to the biblical books; those
on Proverbs, Ezra and Nehemiah are in the great rabbinical
bibles falsely ascribed to Abraham ibn Ezra.
DAVID KIMHI (c. 1160-1235), also known as Redaq( = R. David
Kimhi), eclipsed the fame both of his father and his brother.
From the writings of the former he quotes a great number of
explanations, some of which are known only from this source.
His magnum opus is the Sefer Miklol, " Book of Completeness."
This falls into two divisions: the grammar, to which the title
of the whole, Miklol, is usually applied (first printed in Constanti-
nople, 1532-1534, then, with the notes of Elias Levita, at Venice,
1545), and the lexicon, Sefer Hashorashim, "Book of Roots,"
which was first printed in Italy before 1480, then at Naples in
1490, and at Venice in 1546 with the annotations of Elias. The
model and the principal source for this work of David Kimhi's
was the book of R. Jonah (Abulwalid), which was cast in a
similar bipartite form; and it was chiefly due to Kimhi's gram mar
and lexicon that, while the contents of Abulwalid's works were
common knowledge, they themselves remained in oblivion for
centuries. In spite of this dependence on his predecessors his
work shows originality, especially in the arrangement of his
material. In the grammar he combined the paradigmatic
method of his brother Moses with the procedure of the older
scholars who devoted a close attention to details. In his
dictionary, again, he recast the lexicological materials inde-
pendently, and enriched lexicography itself, especially by his
numerous etymological explanations. Under the title El Safer,
" Pen of the Writer " (Lyk, 1864), David Kimhi composed a sort
of grammatical compendium as a guide to the correct punctua-
tion of the biblical manuscripts; it consists, for the most part,
of extracts from the Miklol. After the completion of his great
work he began to write commentaries on portions of the Scrip-
tures. The first was on Chronicles, then followed one on the
Psalms, and finally his exegetical masterpiece — the commentary
on the prophets. His annotations on the Psalms are especially
interesting for the polemical excursuses directed against the
Christian interpretation. He was also responsible for a commen-
tary on Genesis (ed. A. Giinsburg, I'ressburg, 1842), in which he
followed Moses Maimonides in explaining biblical narratives as
visions. He was an enthusiastic adherent of Maimonides, and,
though far advanced in years, took an active part in the battle
which raged in southern France and Spain round his philosophico-
religious writings. The popularity of his biblical exegesis is
demonstrated by the fact that the first printed texts of the
Hebrew Bible were accompanied by his commentary: the Psalms
1477, perhaps at Bologna; the early Prophets, 1485, Soncino;
the later Prophets, ibid. 1486.
His commentaries have been frequently reprinted, many of them
in Latin translations. A new edition of that on the Psalms was
begun by Schiller-Szinessy (First Book of Psalms, Cambridge, 1883).
Abr. Geiger wrote of the three Kimljis in the Hebrew periodical
Ozar Nefymad (vol. ii., 1857= A. Geiger, Gesammelte Schriften,
v. 1-47). See further the Jewish Encyclopedia. (W. BA.)
KIN (0. E. cyn, a word represented in nearly all Teutonic
languages, cf. Du. kunne, Dan. and Swed. kon, Goth kuni, tribe;
the Teutonic base is kunya; the equivalent Aryan root gan- to
beget, produce, is seen in Gr. ytvos, Lat. genus, cf. "kind"),
a collective word for persons related by blood, as descended from
a common ancestor. In law, the term " next of kin " is applied
to the person or persons who, as being in the nearest degree of
blood relationship to a person dying intestate, share according to
KINCARDINESHIRE
801
degree in his personal estate (see INTESTACY, and INHERITANCE).
" Kin " is frequently associated with " kith " in the phrase
" kith and kin," now used as an emphasized form of " kin " for
family relatives. It properly means one's " country and kin,"
or one's " friends and kin." Kith (O.E. cyftfte and cy5, native
land, acquaintances) comes from the stem of cunnan, to know,
and thus means the land or people one knows familiarly.
The suffix -kin, chiefly surviving in English surnames, seems to have
been early used as a diminutive ending to certain Christian names in
Flanders and Holland. The termination is represented by the dimi-
nutive -chen in German, as in Kindchen, Hiiuschen, &c. Many
English words, such as " pumpkin," " firkin," seem to have no
diminutive significance, and may have been assimilated from earlier
forms, e.g. " pumpkin " from " pumpion."
KINCARDINESHIRE, or THE MEARNS, an eastern county
of Scotland, bounded E. by the North Sea, S. and S.W. by
Forfarshire, and N.W. and N. by Aberdeenshire. Area, 243,974
acres, or 381 sq. m. In the west and north-west the Grampians
are the, predominant feature. The highest of their peaks is
Mount Battock (2555 ft.), where the counties of Aberdeen,
Forfar and Kincardine meet, but there are a score of hills
exceeding 1500 ft. in height. In the extreme north, on the
confines of Aberdeenshire, the Hill of Fare, famous for its sheep
walks, attains an altitude of 1545 ft. In the north the county
slopes from the Grampians to the picturesque and finely-wooded
valley of the Dee, and in the south it falls to the Howe (Hollow)
of the Mearns, which is a continuation north-eastwards of
Strathmore. The principal rivers are Bervie Water ( 20 m. long) ,
flowing south-eastwards to the North Sea; the Water of Feugh
(20 m.) taking a north-easterly direction and falling into the
Dee at Banchory, and forming near its mouth a beautiful
cascade; the Dye (15 m.) rising in Mount Battock and ending
its course in the Feugh; Luther Water (14 m.) springing not
far from the castle of Drumtochty and meandering pleasantly
to its junction with the North Esk; the Cowie (13 m.) and the
Carron (85 m.) entering the sea at Stonehaven. The Dee and
North Esk serve as boundary streams during part of their
course, the one of Aberdeenshire, the other of Forfarshire.
Loch Loirston, in the parish of Nigg, and Loch Lumgair, in
Dunnottar parish, both small, are the only lakes in the shire.
Of the glens Glen Dye in the north centre of the county is
remarkable for its beauty, and the small Den Fenella, to the
south-east of Laurencekirk, contains a picturesque waterfall.
Its name perpetuates the memory of Fenella, daughter of a
thane of Angus, who was slain here after betraying Kenneth II.
to his enemies, who (according to local tradition) made away
with him in Kincardine Castle. Excepting in the vicinity of
St Cyrus, the coast from below Johnshaven to Girdle Ness
presents a bold front of rugged cliffs, with an average height of
from 100 to 250 ft., interrupted only by occasional creeks and
bays, as at Johnshaven, Gourdon, Bervie, Stonehaven, Port-
lethen, Findon, Cove and Nigg.
Geology. — The great fault which traverses Scotland from shore to
shore passes through this county from Craigeven Bay, about a mile
north of Stonehaven, by Fenella Hill to Edzell. On the northern
side of this line are the old crystalline schists of the Dalradian group;
on the southern side Old Red Sandstone occupies all the remaining
space. Good exposures of the schists are seen, repeatedly folded,
in the cliffs between Aberdeen and Stonehaven. They consist of a
lower series of greenish slates and a higher, more micaceous and
schistose series with grits; bands of limestone occur in these rocks
near Bunchory. Besides the numerous minor flexures the schists
are bent into a broad synclinal fold which crosses the county,
its axis lying in a south-westerly-north-easterly direction. Rising
through the schists are several granite masses, the largest being that
forming the high ground around Mt Battock; south of the Dee are
several smaller masses, some of which have been extensively quarried.
The lower part of the Old Red Sandstone consists of flags, red sand-
stones and purple clays in great thickness; these are followed by
coarse conglomerates, well seen in the cliff at Dunnottar Castle,
with ashy grits and some thin sheets of diabase. The diabase forms
the Bruxie and Leys Hills and some minor elevations. Above the
volcanic series more red sandstones, conglomerates and marls appear.
The Old Red Sandstone is folded synclinally in a direction con-
tinuing the vale of Strathmore ; south of this is an anticline, as may
be seen on the coast between St Cyrus and Kinneff. Glacial striae
on the higher ground and debris on the lower ground show that the
direction taken by the ice flow was south-eastward on the hills but
XV. 26
as the shore was approached it gradually took on an easterly and
finally a northerly direction.
Climate and Agriculture. — The climate is healthy, but often cold,
owing to the exposure to east winds. The average temperature for
the year is 45° F., for July 58°, and for January 37°. The average
annual rainfall is 34 in. Much of the Grampian territory is occupied
by grouse moors, but the land by the Dee, in the Howe and along the
coast, is scientifically farmed and yields well. The soil of the Howe
is richer and stronger than that in the Dee valley, but the most fer-
tile region is along the coast, where the soil is generally deep loam
resting on clay, although in some places it is poor and thin, or stiff
and cold. Oats are the principal crop, wheat is not largely grown,
but the demands of the distillers maintain a very considerable acre-
age under barley. Rather more than one-tenth of the total area
is under wood. Turnips form the main green crop, but potatoes
are extensively raised. A little more than half the holdings consist
of 50 acres and under. Great attention is paid to livestock. Short-
horns are the most common breed, but the principal home-bred
stock is a cross between shorthorned and polled, though there are
many valuable herds of pure polled. Cattle-feeding is carried on
according to the most advanced methods. Blackfaced sheep are
chiefly kept on the hill runs, Cheviots or a cross with Leicesters
being usually found on the lowland farms. Most of the horses are
employed in connexion with the cultivation of the soil, but several
good strains, including Clydesdales, are retained for stock purposes.
Pigs are also reared in considerable numbers.
Other Industries. — Apart from agriculture, the principal industry
is the fishing, of which Stonehaven is the centre. The coast being
dangerous and the harbours difficult in rough weather, the fishermen
often run great risks. The village of Findon (pron. Finnan) has given
its name to the well-known smoked haddocks, which were first cured
in this way at that hamlet. The salmon fisheries of the sea and the
rivers yield a substantial annual return. Manufactures are of little
more than local importance. Woollens are made at Stonehaven,
and at Bervie, Laurencekirk and a few other places flax-spinning
and weaving are carried on. There are also some distilleries, brew-
eries and tanneries. Stonehaven, Gourdon and Johnshaven are the
chief ports for seaborne trade.
The Deeside railway runs through the portion of the county
on the. northern bank of the Dee. The Caledonian and North
British railways run to Aberdeen via Laurencekirk to Stonehaven,
using the same metals, and- there is a branch line of the N.B.R. from
Montrose to Bervie. There are also coaches between Blairs and
Aberdeen, Bervie and Stonehaven, Fettercairn and Edzell, Banchory
and Birse, and other points.
Population and Government. — The population was 35,492 in
1891, and 40,923 in 1901, when 103 persons spoke Gaelic and
English. The chief town is Stonehaven (pop. in 1901, 4577)
with Laurencekirk (1512) and Banchory (1475), but part of
the city of Aberdeen, with a population of 9386, is within the
county. The county returns one member to parliament, and
Bervie, the only royal burgh, belongs to the Montrose group of
parliamentary burghs. Kincardine is united in one sheriffdom
with the shires of Aberdeen and Banff, and one of the Aberdeen
sheriffs-substitute sits at Stonehaven. The county is under
school-board jurisdiction. The academy at Stonehaven and a
few of the public schools earn grants for higher education.
The county council hands over the " residue " grant to the
county secondary education committee, which expends it
in technical education grants. At Blairs, in the north-east of
the shire near the Dee, is a Roman Catholic college for the train-
ing of young men for the priesthood.
History. — The annals of Kincardineshire as a whole are
almost blank. The county belonged of old to the district of
Pictavia and apparently was overrun for a brief period by the
Romans. In the parish of Fetteresso are the remains of the
camp of Raedykes, in which, according to tradition, the Cale-
donians under Galgacus were lodged before their battle with
Agricola. It is also alleged that in the same district Malcolm I.
was killed (954) whilst endeavouring to reduce the unruly tribes
of this region. Mearns, the alternative name for the county, is
believed to have been derived from Mernia, a Scottish king, to
whom the land was granted, and whose brother, Angus, had
obtained the adjoining shire of Forfar. The antiquities consist
mostly of stone circles, cairns, tumuli, standing stones and a
structure in the parish of Dunnottar vaguely known as a " Picts*
kiln." By an extraordinary reversion of fortune the town which
gave the shire its name has practically vanished. It stood about
2 m. N.E. of Fettercairn, and by the end of the i6th century
had declined to a mere hamlet, being represented now only by
802
KINCHINJUNGA— KING, C. W.
the ruins of the royal castle and an ancient burial-ground. The
Bruces, earls of Elgin, also bear the title of earl of Kincardine.
See A. Jervise, History and Traditions of the Lands of the Lindsays
(1853), History and Antiquities of the Mearns (1858), Memorials of
Angus and the Mearns (1861); J. Anderson, The Black Book of Kin-
cardineshire (Stonehaven, 1879) ; C. A. Mollyson, The Parish of For-
doun (Aberdeen, 1893); A. C. Cameron, The History of Fettercairn
(Paisley, 1899).
KINCHINJUNGA, or KANCHANJANGA, the third (or second;
see K2) highest mountain in the world. It is a peak of the
eastern Himalayas, situated on the boundary between Sikkim
and Nepal, with an elevation of 28,146 ft. Kinchinjunga is best
seen from the Indian hill-station of Darjeeling, where the view
of this stupendous mountain, dominating all intervening ranges
and rising from regions of tropical undergrowth to the altitude
of eternal snows, is one of the grandest in the world.
KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin,"
supra), a word in origin meaning birth, nature, or as an adjective,
natural. From the application of the term to the natural
disposition or characteristic which marks the class to which an
object belongs, the general and most common meaning of " class,"
genus or species easily develops; that of race, natural order or
group, is particularly seen in such expressions as " mankind."
The phrase " payment in kind," i.e. in goods or produce as
distinguished from money, is used as equivalent to the Latin
in specie; in ecclesiastical usage " communion in both kinds "
or " in one kind " refers to the elements of bread and wine
(Lat. species) in the Eucharist. The present main sense of the
adjective " kind," i.e. gentle, friendly, benevolent, has developed
from the meaning " born," " natural," through " of good birth,
disposition or nature," " naturally well-disposed."
KINDERGARTEN, a German word meaning " garden of
children," the name given by Friedrich Froebel to a kind of
" play-school " invented by him for .furthering the physical,
moral and intellectual growth of children between the ages
of three and seven. For the theories on which this type of
school was based see FROEBEL. Towards the end of the i8th
century Pestalozzi planned, and Oberlin formed, day-asylums
for young children. Schools of this kind took in the Netherlands
the name of " play school," and in England, where they have
especially thriven, of " infant schools " (q.v.). But Froebel's
idea of the " Kindergarten " differed essentially from that of the
infant schools. The child required to be prepared for society by
being early associated with its equals; and young children thus
brought together might have their employments, especially
their chief employment, play, so organized as to draw out their
capacities of feeling and thinking, and even of inventing and
creating.
Froebel therefore invented a course of occupations, most of
which are social games. Many of the games are connected
with the " gifts," as he called the simple playthings provided
for the children. These " gifts " are, in order, six coloured
balls, a wooden ball, a cylinder and a cube, a cube cut to form
eight smaller cubes, another cube cut to form eight parallelo-
grams, square and triangular tablets of coloured wood, and strips
of lath, rings and circles for pattern-making. In modern
kindergartens much stress has been laid on such occupations
as sand-drawing, modelling in clay and paper, pattern-making,
plaiting, &c. The artistic faculty was much thought of by
Froebel, and, as in the education of the ancients, the sense of
rhythm in sound and motion was cultivated by music and poetry
introduced in the games. Much care was to be given to the
training of the senses, especially those of sight, sound and touch.
Intuition or first-hand experience (Anschauung) was to be
recognized as the true basis of knowledge, and though stories
were to be told, instruction of the imparting and " learning-up "
kind was to be excluded. Froebel sought to teach the children
not what to think but how to think, in this following in the
steps of Pestalozzi, who had done for the child what Bacon
nearly two hundred years before had done for the philosopher.
Where possible the children were to be much in. the open air,
and were each to cultivate a little garden.
The first kindergarten was opened at Blankenburg, nearRudolstadt,
in 1 837, but after a needy existence of eight years was closed for want
of funds. In 1851 the Prussian government declared that " schools
founded on Froebel's principles or principles like them could not be
allowed." As early as 1854 it was introduced into England, and
Henry Barnard reported on it that it was " by far the most original,
attractive and philosophical form of infant development the worlc*
has yet seen " (Report to Governor of Connecticut, 1854). The great
propagandist of Froebelism, the Baroness Berta von Marenholtz-
Biilow (1811-1893), drew the attention of the French to the kinder-
garten from the year 1855, and Michelet declared that Froebel had
" solved the problem of human education." In Italy the kinder-
garten was introduced by Madame Salis-Schwabe. In Austria it is
recognized and regulated by the government, though the Volks-
Kindergarten are not numerous. But by far the greatest develop-
ments of the kindergarten system are in the United States and in
Belgium. The movement was begun in the United States by Miss
Elizabeth Peabody in 1867, aided by Mrs Horace Mann and Dr
Henry Barnard. The first permanent kindergarten was established
in St Louis in 1873 by Miss Susan Blow and Dr W. T. Harris. In
Belgium the mistresses of the " Ecoles gardiennes " are instructed
in the " idea of the kindergarten " and " Froebel's method," and in
1880 the minister of public instruction issued a programme* for the
" Ecoles Gardiennes Communales," which is both in fact and in
profession a kindergarten manual.
For the position of the kindergarten system in the principal
countries of the world see Report of a Consultative Committee upon the
School Attendance of Children below the Age of Five, English Board
of Education Reports (Cd. 4259, 1908); and " The Kindergarten,"
by Laura Fisher, Report of the United States Commissioner for Educa-
tion for 1903, vol. i. ch. xvi. (Washington, 1905).
KINDl [Asu YUSUF YA'QUB IBN ISHAQ UL-KINDI, sometimes
called pre-eminently " The Philosopher of the Arabs "] flourished
in the pth century, the exact dates of his birth and death being
unknown. He was born in Kufa, where his father was governor
under the Caliphs Mahdi and Harun al-Rashld. His studies
were made in Basra and Bagdad, and in the latter place he
remained, occupying according to some a government position.
In the orthodox reaction under Motawakkil, when all philosophy
was suspect, his library was confiscated, but he himself seems
to have escaped. His writings — like those of other Arabian
philosophers — are encyclopaedic and are concerned with most
of the sciences; they are said to have numbered over two
hundred, but fewer than twenty are extant. Some of these
were known in the middle ages, for Kindl is placed by Roger
Bacon in the first rank after Ptolemy as a writer on optics.
His work De Somniorum Visione was translated by Gerard of
Cremona (q.v.) and another was published as De medicinarum
compositarum gradibus investigandis Libellus (Strassburg, 1531).
He was one of the earliest translators and commentators of
Aristotle, but like Farabi (q.v.) appears to have been superseded
by Avicenna.
See G. Fliigel, Al Kindi eenannt der Philosoph der Araber (Leipzig,
1857), and T. J. de Boer, Geschichte der Philosophie im Islam (Stutt-
gart, 1901), pp. 90 sqq. ; also ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY. (G. W. T.)
KINEMATICS (from Gr. rivr/na, a motion), the branch of
mechanics which discusses the phenomena of motion without
reference to force or mass (see MECHANICS).
KINETICS (from Gr. tuveiv, to move), the branch of mechanics
which discusses the phenomena of motion as affected by force;
it is the modern equivalent of dynamics in the restricted sense
(see MECHANICS).
KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888), English writer
on ancient gems, was born at Newport (Mon.) on the $th of
September 1818. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in
1836; graduated in 1840, and obtained a fellowship in 1842;
he was senior fellow at the time of his death in London on the
25th of March 1888. He took holy orders, but never held any
cure. He spent much time in Italy, where he laid the founda-
tion of his collection of gems, which, increased by subsequent
purchases in London, was sold by him in consequence of his
failing eyesight and was presented in 1881 to the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York. King was recognized universally
as one of the greatest authorities in this department of art.
His chief works on the subject are: Antique Gems, their Origin,
Uses and Value (1860), a complete and exhaustive treatise; The
Gnostics and their Remains (znd ed. by J. Jacobs, 1887, which
KING, CLARENCE— KING, RUFUS
803
led to an animated correspondence in the Athenaeum); The
Natural History of Precious Stones and Gems and of the Precious
Metals (1865); The Handbook of Engraved Gems (2nd ed., 1885);
Early Christian Numismatics (1873). King was thoroughly
familiar with the works of Greek and Latin authors, especially
Pausanias and the elder Pliny, which bore upon the subject in
which he was most interested; but he had little taste for the
minutiae of verbal criticism. In 1869 he brought out an edition
of Horace, illustrated from antique gems; he also translated
Plutarch's Moralia (1882) and the theosophical works of the
Emperor Julian (1888) for Bonn's Classical Library.
KING, CLARENCE (1842-1901), American geologist, was
born at Newport, Rhode Island, U.S.A., on the 6th of January
1842. He graduated at Yale in 1862. His most important
work was the geological exploration of the fortieth parallel, of
which the main reports (1876 and 1877) comprised the geological
and topographical atlas of the Rocky Mountains, the Green River
and Utah basins, and the Nevada plateau and basin. When the
United States Geological Survey was consolidated in 1879 King
was chosen director, and he vigorously conducted investigations
in Colorado, and in the Eureka district and on the Comstock
lode in Nevada. He held office for a year only; in later years
his only noteworthy contribution to geology was an essay on the
age of the earth, which appeared in the annual report of the
Smithsonian Institution for 1893. He died at Phoenix, Arizona,
on the 24th of December 1901.
KING, EDWARD (1612-1637), the subject of Milton's Lycidas,
was born in Ireland in 1612, the son of Sir John King, a member
of a Yorkshire family which had migrated to Ireland. Edward
King was admitted a pensioner of Christ's College, Cambridge,
on the 9th of June 1626, and four years later was elected a fellow.
Milton, though two years his senior and himself anxious to
secure a fellowship, remained throughout on terms of the closest
friendship with his rival, whose amiable character seems to have
endeared him to the whole college. King served from 1633 to
1634 as praelector and tutor of his college, and was to have
entered the church. His career, however, was cut short by the
tragedy which inspired Milton's verse. In 1637 he set out for
Ireland to visit his family, but on the loth of August the ship in
which he was sailing struck on a rock near the Welsh coast, and
King was drowned. Of his own writings many Latin poems
contributed to different collections of Cambridge verse survive,
but they are not of sufficient merit to explain the esteem in
which he was held.
A collection of Latin, Greek and English verse written in his
memory by his Cambridge friends was printed at Cambridge in 1638,
with the title Justa Edouardo King naufrago ab amicis moerentibus
amoris et nveias x^pif. The second part of this collection has a
separate title-page, Obsequies to the Memorie of Mr Edward King,
Anno Dom. 1638, and contains thirteen English poems, of which
Lycidas l (signed J. M.) is the last.
KING, EDWARD (1829-1910), English bishop, was the second
son of the Rev. Walter King, archdeacon of Rochester and
rector of Stone, Kent. Graduating from Oriel College, Oxford,
he was ordained in 1854, and four years later became chaplain
and lecturer at Cuddesdon Theological College. He was principal
at Cuddesdon from 1863 to 1873, when he became regius professor
of pastoral theology at Oxford and canon of Christ Church. To
the world outside he was only known at this time as one of
Dr Pusey's most intimate friends and as a leading member of the
English Church Union. But in Oxford, and especially among the
younger men, he exercised an exceptional influence, due, not to
special profundity of intellect, but to his remarkable charm in
personal intercourse, and his abounding sincerity and goodness.
In 1885 Dr King was made bishop of Lincoln. The most
eventful episode of his episcopate was his prosecution (1888-1890)
1 J. W. Hales, in the Athenaeum for the 1st of August 1891, sug-
gests that in writing King's elegy Milton had in his mind, besides the
idylls of Theocritus, a Latin eclogue of Giovanni Baptista Amalteo
entitled Lycidas, in which Lycidas bids farewell to the land he loves
and prays for gentle breezes on his voyage. He was familiar with the
Italian Latin poets of the Renaissance, and he may also have been
influenced in his choice of the name by the shepherd Lycidas in
Sannazaro's eclogue Phittis.
for ritualistic practices before the archoishop of Canterbury,
Dr Benson, and, on appeal, before the judicial committee of the
Privy Council (see LINCOLN JUDGMENT). Dr King, who loyally
conformed his practices to the archbishop's judgment, devoted
himself unsparingly to the work of his- diocese; and, irrespective
of his High Church views, he won the affection and reverence
of all classes by his real saintliness of character. The bishop,
who never married, died at Lincoln on the 8th of March 1910.
See the obituary notice in The Times, March 9, 1910.
KING, HENRY (1591-1669), English bishop and poet, eldest
son of John King, afterwards bishop of London, was baptized
on the i6th of January 1591. With his younger brother John
he proceeded from Westminster School to Christ Church, Oxford,
where both matriculated on the 2oth of January 1609. Henry
King entered the church, and after receiving various ecclesiastical
preferments he was made bishop of Chichester in 1642, receiving
at the same time the rich living of Petworth, Sussex. On the
29th of December of that year Chichester surrendered to the
Parliamentary army, and King was among the prisoners. After
his release he found an asylum with his brother-in-law, Sir
Richard Hobart of Langley, Buckinghamshire, and afterwards
at Richkings near by, with Lady Salter, said to have been a
sister of Dr Brian Duppa (1588-1662). King was a close friend
of Duppa and personally acquainted with Charles I. In one of
his poems dated 1649 he speaks of the Eikon Basilike as the
king's own work. Restored to his benefice at the Restoration,
King died at Chichester on the 3oth of September 1669. His
works include Poems, Elegies, Paradoxes and Sonets (1657), The
Psalmes of David from the New Translation of the Bible, turned
into Meter (1651), and several sermons. He was one of the
executors of John Donne, and prefixed an elegy to the 1663
edition of his friend's poems.
King's Poems and Psalms were edited, with a biographical sketch,
by the Rev. J. Hannah (1843).
KING, RUFUS (1755-1827), American political leader, was
born on the 24th of March 1755 at Scarborough, Maine, then
a part of Massachusetts. He graduated at Harvard in 1777,
read law at Newburyport, Mass., with Theophilus Parsons, and
was admitted to the bar in 1780. He served in the Massachu-
setts General Court in 1783-1784 and in the Confederation Con-
gress in 1784-1787. During these critical years he adopted the
" states' rights " attitude. It was largely through his efforts
that the General Court in 1784 rejected the amendment to the
Articles of Confederation authorizing Congress to levy a 5%
impost. He was one of the three Massachusetts delegates in
Congress in 1785 who refused to present the resolution of the
General Court proposing a convention to amend the articles.
He was also out of sympathy with the meeting at Annapolis in
1 786. He did good service, however, in opposing the extension
of slavery. Early in 1787 King was moved by the Shays
Rebellion and by the influence of Alexander Hamilton to take a
broader view of the general situation, and it was he who intro-
duced the resolution in Congress, on the 2ist of February 1787,
sanctioning the call for the Philadelphia constitutional con-
vention. In the convention he supported the large-state party,
favoured a strong executive, advocated the suppression of the
slave trade, and opposed the counting of slaves in determining
the apportionment of representatives. In 1788 he was one of
the most influential members of the Massachusetts convention
which ratified the Federal Constitution. He married Mary
Alsop (1769-1819) of New York in 1786 and removed to that
city in 1788. He was elected a member of the New York
Assembly in the spring of 1789, and at a special session of the
legislature held in July of that year was chosen one of the first
representatives of New York in the United States Senate. In
this body he served in 1789-1796, supported Hamilton's financial
measures, Washington's neutrality proclamation and the Jay
Treaty, and became one of the recognized leaders of the Federal-
ist party. He was minister to Great Britain in 1796-1803 and
again in 1825-1826, and was the Federalist candidate for vice-
president in 1804 and 1808, and for president in 1816, when he
8 04
KING, THOMAS— KING, WILLIAM
received 34 electoral votes to 183 cast for Monroe. He was
again returned to the Senate in 1813, and was re-elected in 1819
as the result of a struggle between the Van Buren and Clinton
factions of the Democratic-Republican party. In the Missouri
Compromise debates he supported the anti-slavery programme in
the main, but for constitutional reasons voted against the second
clause of the Tallmadge Amendment providing that all slaves
born in the state after its admission into the Union should be
free at the age of twenty-five years. He died at Jamaica,
Long Island, on the apth of April 1827.
The Life and Correspondence of Rufus King, begun about 1850
by his son, Charles King, was completed 'by his grandson, Charles
R. King, and published in six volumes (New York, 1894-1900).
Rufus King's son, JOHN ALSOP KING (1788-1867), was edu-
cated at Harrow and in Paris, served in the war of 1812 as a
lieutenant of a cavalry company, and was a member of the New
York Assembly in 1-810-1821 and of the New York Senate in
1823. When his father was sent as minister to Great Britain in
1825 he accompanied him as secretary of the American legation,
and when his father returned home on account of ill health he
remained as charge d'affaires until August 1826. He was a
member of the New York Assembly again in 1832 and in 1840,
was a Whig representative in Congress in 1840-1851, and in
1857-1859 was governor of New York State. He was a prominent
member of the Republican party, and in 1861 was a delegate to
the Peace Conference in Washington.
Another son, CHARLES KING (1780-1867), was also educated
abroad, was captain of a volunteer regiment in the early part of
the war of 1812, and served in 1814 in the New York Assembly,
and after working for some years as a journalist was president of
Columbia College in 1849-1864.
A third son, JAMES GORE KING (1791-1853), was an assistant
adjutant-general in the war of 1812, was a banker in Liverpool
and afterwards in New York, and was president of the New
York & Erie railroad until 1837, when by his visit to London he
secured the loan to American bankers of £1,000,000 from the
governors of the Bank of England. In 1849-1851 he was a
representative in Congress from New Jersey.
Charles King's son, RUFUS KING (1814-1876), graduated at
the U.S. Military Academy in 1833, served for three years in
the engineer corps, and, after resigning from the army, became
assistant engineer of the New York & Erie railroad. He was
adjutant-general of New York state in 1839-1843, and became
a brigadier-general of volunteers in the Union army in 1861,
commanded a division in Virginia in 1862-1863, and, being com-
pelled by ill health to resign from the army, was U.S. minister
to the Papal States in 1863-1867.
His son, CHARLES KING (b. 1844), served in the artillery until
1870 and in the cavalry until 1879; he was appointed brigadier-
general U.S. Volunteers in the Spanish War in 1898, and served
in the Philippines. He wrote Famous and Decisive Battles
(1884), Campaigning with Crook (1890), and many popular
romances of military life.
KING, THOMAS (1730-1805), English actor and dramatist,
was born in London on the 2oth of August 1730. Garrick saw
him when appearing as a strolling player in a booth at Windsor,
and engaged him for Drury Lane. He made his first appearance
there in 1748 as the Herald in King Lear. He played the part of
Allworth in the first presentation of Massinger's New Way to
Pay Old Debts (1748), and during the summer he played Romeo
and other leading parts in Bristol. For eight years he was the
kading comedy actor at the Smock Alley theatre in Dublin,
but in 1759 he returned to Drury Lane and took leading parts
until 1802. One of his earliest successes was as Lord Ogleby
in The Clandestine Marriage (1766), which was compared to
Garrick's Hamlet and Kemble's Coriolanus, but he reached the
climax of his reputation when he created the part of Sir Peter
Teazle at the first representation of The School for Scandal
(1777). He was the author of a number of farces, and part-
owner and manager of several theatres, but his fondness for
gambling brought him to poverty. He died on the nth of
December 1805.
KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729), Anglican divine, the son of
James King, an Aberdeen man who migrated to Antrim, was
born in May 1650. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin,
and after being presented to the parish of St Werburgh, Dublin,
in 1679, became dean of St Patrick's in 1689, bishop of Derry in
1691, and archbishop of Dublin in 1702. In 1718 he founded
the divinity lectureship in Trinity College, Dublin, which bears
his name. He died in May 1729. King was the author of The
Slate of the Protestants in Ireland under King James's Government
(1691), but is best known by his De Origine Mali (1702; Eng.
trans., 1731), an essay deemed worthy of a reply by Bayle and
Leibnitz. King was a strong supporter of the Revolution, and
his voluminous correspondence is a valuable help to our know-
ledge of the Ireland of his day.
See A Great Archbishop of Dublin, William King, D.D., edited by
Sir C. S. King, Bart. (1908).
KING, WILLIAM (1663-1712), English poet and miscellaneous
writer, son of Ezekiel King, was born in 1663. From his father
he inherited a small estate and he was connected with the Hyde
family. He was educated at Westminster School under Dr
Busby, and at Christ Church, Oxford (B.A. 1685; D.C.L. 1692).
His first literary enterprise was a defence of Wycliffe, written
in conjunction with Sir Edward Hannes (d. 1710) and entitled
Reflections upon Mons. Varillas's History of Heresy . . . (1688).
He became known as a humorous writer on the Tory and High
Church side. He took part in the controversy aroused by the
conversion of the once stubborn non-juror William Sherlock, one
of his contributions being an entertaining ballad, " The Battle
Royal," in which the disputants are Sherlock and South. In
1694 he gained the favour of Princess Anne by a defence of her
husband's country entitled Animadversions on the Pretended
Account of Denmark, in answer to a depreciatory pamphlet by
Robert (afterwards Viscount) Molesworth. For this service he
was made secretary to the princess. He supported Charles
Boyle in his controversy with Richard Bentley over the genuine-
ness of the Epistles of Phalaris, by a letter (printed in Dr Bent-
ley's Dissertations . . . (1698), more commonly known as
Boyle against Bentley), in which he gave an account of the cir-
cumstances of Bentley's interview with the bookseller Bennet.
Bentley attacked Dr King in his Dissertation in answer (1699) to
this book, and King replied with a second letter to his friend
Boyle. He further satirized Bentley in ten Dialogues of the Dead
relating to . . . the Epistles of Phalaris (1699). In 1700 he pub-
lished The Transactioneer, -with some of his Philosophical Fancies,
in two Dialogues, ridiculing the credulity of Hans Sloane, who was
then the secretary of the Royal Society. This was followed up
later with some burlesque Useful Transactions in Philosophy
(1709). By an able defence of his friend, James Annesley,
5th earl of Anglesey, in a suit brought against him by his wife
before the House of Lords in 1701, he gained a legal reputation
which he did nothing further to advance. He was sent to Ireland
in 1701 to be judge of the high court of admiralty, and later
became sole commissioner of the prizes, keeper of the records in
the Bermingham Tower of Dublin Castle, and vicar-general to the
primate. About 1708 he returned to London. He served the
Tory cause by writing for The Examiner before it was taken up
by Swift. He wrote four pamphlets in support of Sacheverell,
in the most considerable of which, " A Vindication of the Rev.
Dr Henry Sacheverell ... in a Dialogue between a Tory and a
Whig " (1711), he had the assistance of Charles Lambe of Christ
Church and of Sacheverell himself. In December 1711 Swift
obtained for King the office of gazetteer, worth from £200 to
£250. King was now very poor, but he had no taste for work,
and he resigned his office on the ist of July 1712. He died on
the 25th of December in the same year.
The other works of William King include: A Journey to London,
in theyear 1698. After the Ingenious Method of that madeby Dr Martin
Lister to Paris, in the same Year . . . (1699), which was considered by
the author to be his best work; Adversaria, or Occasional Remarks
on Men and Manners, a selection from his critical note-book, which
shows wide and varied reading; Rufinus, or An Historical Essay on
the Favourite Ministry (1712), a satire on the duke of Marlboroug-h.
His chief poems are: The Art of Cookery: in imitation of Horace's
KING OF OCKHAM— KING
805
Art of Poetry. With some Letters to Dr Lister and Others (1708), one
of his most amusing works; The Art of Love; in imitation of Ovid , . .
(1709) ; "Mully of Mountoun," and a burlesque " Orpheus and Eury-
dice." A volume of Miscellanies in Prose and Verse appeared in
1705; his Remains . . . were edited by J. Brown in 1732 ; and in
1776 John Nichols produced an excellent edition of his Original
Works . . . with Historical Notes and Memoirs of the Author.
Dr Johnson included him in his Lives of the Poets, and his works
appear in subsequent collections.
King is not to be confused with another WILLIAM KING (1685-
1763), author of a mock-heroic poem called The Toast (i736)satirizing
the countess of Newburgh, and principal of St Mary Hall, Oxford.
KING [OF OCKHAM ], PETER KING, IST BARON (1669-1734),
lord chancellor of England, was born at Exeter in 1669. In his
youth he was interested in early church history, and published
anonymously in 1 69 1 ;! n Enquiry into the Constitution, Discipline,
Unity and Worship of the Primitive Church that flourished within
the first Three Hundred Years after Christ. This treatise engaged
the interest of his cousin, John Locke, the philosopher, by whose
advice his father sent him to the university of Leiden, where he
stayed for nearly three years. He entered the Middle Temple
in 1694 and was called to the bar in 1698. In 1700 he was
returned to parliament for Beer Alston in Devonshire; he was
appointed recorder of Glastonbury in 1705 and recorder of
London in 1708. He was chief justice of the common pleas
from 1714 to 1725, when he was appointed speaker of the
House of Lords and was raised to the peerage. In June of the
same year he was made lord chancellor, holding office until
compelled by a paralytic stroke to resign in 1733. He died at
Ockham, Surrey, on the 22nd of July 1734. Lord King as
chancellor failed to sustain the reputation which he had acquired
at the common law bar. Nevertheless he left his mark on Eng-
lish law by establishing the principles that a will of immovable
property is governed by the lex loci rei sitae, and that where a
husband had a legal right to the personal estate of his wife, which
must be asserted by a suit in equity, the court would not help
him unless he made a provision out of the property for the wife,
if she required it. He was also the author of the Act (4 Geo. II.
c. 26) by virtue of which English superseded Latin as the lan-
guage of the courts. Lord King published in 1702 a History of
the Apostles' Creed (Leipzig, 1706; Basel, 1750) which went
through several editions and was also translated into Latin.
His great-great-grandson, WILLIAM (1805-1893), married in
1835 the only daughter of Lord Byron the poet, and was created
earl of Lovelace in 1838. Another descendant, PETER JOHN
LOCKE KING (1811-1885), who was member of parliament for
East Surrey from 1847 to 1874, won some fame as an advocate
of reform, being responsible for the passing of the Real Estate
Charges Act of 1854, and for the repeal of a large number of
obsolete laws.
KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O.H. G.
chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kunc, Mod.
Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung), a
title, in its actual use generally implying sovereignty of the most
exalted rank. Any inclusive definition of the word " king " is,
however, impossible. It always implies sovereignty, but in no
special degree or sense; e.g. the sovereigns of the -British Empire
and of Servia are both kings, and so too, at least in popular
parlance, are the chiefs of many barbarous peoples, e.g. the Zulus.
The use of the title is, in fact, involved in considerable confusion,
largely the result of historic causes. Freeman, indeed, in his
Comparative Politics (p. 138) says: " There is a common idea of
kingship which is at once recognized however hard it may be to
define it. This is shown among other things by the fact that no
difficulty is ever felt as to translating the word king and the words
which answer to it in other languages." This, however, is subject
to considerable modification. "King," for instance, is used to
translate the Homeric aval- equally with the Athenian /ScunXtus
or the Roman rex. Yet the Homeric " kings " were but tribal
chiefs; while the Athenian and Roman kings were kings in
something more than the modern sense, as supreme priests as
well as supreme rulers and lawgivers (see ARCHON; and ROME:
History). In the English Bible, too, the title of king is given
indiscriminately to the great king of Persia and to potentates
who were little more than Oriental sheiks. A more practical
difficulty, moreover, presented itself in international intercourse,
before diplomatic conventions became, in the igth century, more
or less stereotyped. Originally the title of king was superior to
that of emperor, and it was to avoid the assumption of the
superior title of rex that the chief magistrates of Rome adopted
the names of Caesar, imperalor and princeps to signalize their
authority. But with the development of the Roman imperial
idea the title emperor came to mean more than had been in-
volved in that of rex; very early in the history of the Empire
there were subject kings; while with the Hellenizing of the East
Roman Empire its rulers assumed the style of /JacnXeiis, no
longer to be translated " king " but " emperor." From this
Roman conception of the supremacy of the emperor the medieval
Empire of the West inherited its traditions. With the bar-
barian invasions the Teutonic idea of kingship had come into
touch with the Roman idea of empire and with the theocratic
conceptions which this had absorbed from the old Roman and
Oriental views of kingship. With these the Teutonic kingship
had in its origin but little in common.
Etymologically the Romance and Teutonic words for king
have quite distinct origins. The Latin rex corresponds to the
Sanskrit rajah, and meant originally steersman. The Teutonic
king on the contrary corresponds to the Sanskrit ganaka, and
" simply meant father, the father of a family, the king of his
own kin, the father of a clan, the father of a people."1 The Teu-
tonic kingship, in short, was national; the king was the supreme
representative of the people, " hedged with divinity " in so far
as he was the reputed descendant of the national gods, but with
none of that absolute theocratic authority associated with the
titles of rex or ftaaiXevs. This, however, was modified by contact
with Rome and Christianity. The early Teutonic conquerors
had never lost their reverence for the Roman emperor, and were
from time to time proud to acknowledge their inferiority by
accepting titles, such as " patrician," by which this was implied.
But by the coronation of Charles, king of the Franks, as emperor
of the West, the German kingship was absorbed into the Roman
imperial idea, a process which exercised a profound effect on the
evolution of the Teutonic kingship generally. In the symmetri-
cal political theory of medieval Europe pope and emperor were
sun and moon, kings but lesser satellites; though the theory
only partially and occasionally corresponded with the facts.
But the elevation of Charlemagne had had a profound effect in
modifying the status of kingship in nations that never came under
his sceptre nor under that of his successors. The shadowy
claim of the emperors to universal dominion was in theory
everywhere acknowledged; but independent kings hastened to
assert their own dignity by surrounding themselves with the
ceremonial forms of the Empire and occasionally, as in the case
of the Saxon bretwaldas in England, by assuming the imperial
style. The mere fact of this usurpation showed that the title
of king was regarded as inferior to that of emperor; and so it
continued, as a matter of sentiment at least, down to the end of
the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the cheapening of the
imperial title by its multiplication in the igth century. To the
1 Max Miiller, Led. Sci. Lang., 2nd series, p. 255, " All people, save
those who fancy that the name king has something to do with a
Tartar khan or with a ' canning "... man, are agreed that the Eng-
lish cyning and the Sanskrit ganaka both come from the same root,
from that widely spread root whence comes our own cyn or kin
and the Greek yivos. The only question is whether there is any
connexion between cyning and ganaka closer than that which is
implied in their both coming from the same original' root. That is
to say, are we to suppose that cyning and ganaka are strictly the same
word common to Sanskrit and Teutonic, or is it enough to think
that cyning is an independent formation made after the Teutons
had separated themselves from the common stock ? . . . The differ-
ence between the two derivations is not very remote, as the cyn is
the ruling idea in any case; but if we make the word immediately
cognate with ganaka we bring in a notion about ' the father of his
people ' which has no place if we simply derive cyning from cyn."
See also O. Schrader, Reallexikon der Indogermanischen Altertums-
kunde (Strassburg, 1901) s.v. " Konig ": the chuning (King) is but
the chunni (Kin) personified; cf. A.S. lead masc. = " prince "; lead
fem. = " race," i.e. Lat. gens.
8o6
KING-BIRD
last, moreover, the emperor retained the prerogative of creating
kings, as in the case of the king of Prussia in 1701, a right bor-
rowed and freely used by the emperor Napoleon. Since 1814 the
title of king has been assumed or bestowed by a consensus of the
Powers; e.g. the elector of Hanover was made king by the con-
gress of Vienna (1814), and per contra the title of king was refusec
to the elector of Hesse by the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)
In general the title of king is now taken to imply a sovereign
and independent international position. This was implied in the
recognition of the title of king in the rulers of Greece, Rumania,
Servia and Bulgaria when these countries were declared abso-
lutely independent of Turkey. The fiction of this independent
sovereignty is preserved even in the case of the kings of Bavaria,
Saxony and Wurttemberg, who are technically members of a
free confederation of sovereign states, but are not independent,
since their relations with foreign Powers are practically con-
trolled by the king of Prussia as German emperor.
The theory of the " divine right " of kings, as at present
understood, is of comparatively modern growth. The principle
Divine that the kingship is " descendible in one sacred
Right of family," as George Canning put it, is not only still
Kings. tnat Qf tne Britjsn constitution, as that of all mon-
archical states, but is practically that of kingship from the be-
ginning. This is, however, quite a different thing from asserting
with the modern upholders <;i the doctrine of " divine right " not
only that " legitimate " monarchs derive their authority from,
and are responsible to, God alone, but that this authority is by
divine ordinance hereditary in a certain order of succession.
The power of popular election remained, even though popular
choice was by custom or by religious sentiment confined within
the limits of a single family. The custom of primogeniture
grew up owing to the obvious convenience of a simple rule that
should avoid ruinous contests; the so-called " Salic Law " went
further, and by excluding females, remove'd another possible
source of weakness. Neither did the Teutonic kingship imply
absolute power. The idea of kingship as a theocratic function
which played so great a part in the political controversies of the
i;th century, is due ultimately to Oriental influences brought to
bear through Christianity. The crowning and anointing of the
emperors, borrowed from Byzantium and traceable to the
influence of the Old Testament, was imitated by lesser poten-
tates; and this " sacring " by ecclesiastical authority gave to the
king a character of special sanctity. The Christian king thus
became, in a sense, like the Roman rex, both king and priest.
Shakespeare makes Richard II. say, " Not all the water in the
rough rude sea can wash the balm off from an anointed king "
(act iii. sc. 2); and this conception of the kingship tended to
gather strength with the weakening of the prestige of the papacy
and of the clergy generally. Before the Reformation the anointed
king was, within his realm, the accredited vicar of God for secu-
lar purposes; after the Reformation he became this in Protestant
states for religious purposes also. In England it is not without
significance that the sacerdotal vestments, generally discarded
by the clergy — dalmatic, alb and stole — continued to be among
the insignia of the sovereign (see CORONATION). Moreover,
this sacrosanct character he acquired not by virtue of his
"sacring," but by hereditary right; the coronation, anointing
and vesting were but the outward and visible symbol of a divine
grace adherent in the sovereign by virtue of his title. Even
Roman Catholic monarchs, like Louis XIV., would never have
admitted that their coronation by the archbishop constituted
any part of their title to reign; it was no more than the conse-
cration of their title. In England the doctrine of the divine
right of kings was developed to its extremest logical conclusions
during the political controversies of the i7th century. Of its
exponents the most distinguished was Hobbes, the most exagger-
ated Sir Robert Filmer. It was the main issue to be decided
by the Civil War, the royalists holding that " all Christian
kings, princes and governors "derive their authority direct from
God, the parliamentarians that this authority is the outcome of a
contract, actual or implied, between sovereign and people. In
one case the king's power would be unlimited, according to
Louis XIV.'s famous saying: " L' etat, c'est moil" or limitable
only by his own free act; in the other his actions would be
governed by the advice and consent of the people, to whom
he would be ultimately responsible. The victory of this latter
principle was proclaimed to all the world by the execution of
Charles I. The doctrine of divine right, indeed, for a while
drew nourishment from the blood of the royal " martyr "; it
was the guiding principle of the Anglican Church of the Restora-
tion; but it suffered a rude blow when James II. made it impos-
sible for the clergy to obey both their conscience and their king;
and the revolution of 1688 made an end of it as a great political
force. These events had effects far beyond England. They
served as precedents for the crusade of republican France against
kings, and later for the substitution of the democratic kingship
of Louis Philippe, " king of the French by the grace of God
and the will of the people," for the " legitimate " kingship of
Charles X., " king of France by the grace of God."
The theory of the crown in Britain, as held by descent modified
and modifiable by parliamentary action, and yet also " by the
grace of God," is in strict accordance with the earliest traditions
of the English kingship; but the rival theory of inalienable
divine right is not dead. It is strong in Germany and especially
in Prussia; it survives as a militant force among the Carlists in
Spain and the Royalists in France (see LEGITIMISTS) ; and even
in England a remnant of enthusiasts still maintain the claims of
a remote descendant of Charles I. to the throne (see JACOBITES).
See J. Neville Figgis, Theory of the Divine Right of Kings (Cambridge,
1896). (W. A. P.)
KING-BIRD, the Lanius tyrannus of Linnaeus, and the
Tyrannus carolinensis or T. pipiri of most later writers, a com-
mon and characteristic inhabitant of North America, ranging
as high as 57° N. lat. or farther, and westward to the Rocky
Mountains, beyond which it is found in Oregon, in Washington
(State), and in British Columbia, though apparently not occurring
in California. In Canada and the northern states of the Union it is
a summer visitor, wintering in the south, but also reaching Cuba;
and, passing through Central America, it has been found in
Bolivia and eastern Peru. Both the scientific and common
names of this species are taken from the way in which the cock
will at times assume despotic authority over other birds, attack-
ing them furiously as they fly, and forcing them to divert or
altogether desist from their course. Yet it is love of his mate
or his young that prompts this bellicose behaviour, for it is only
in the breeding season that he indulges in it; but then almost
every large bird that approaches his nest, from an eagle down-
wards, is assaulted, and those alone that possess greater command
of flight can escape from his repeated charges, which are accom-
panied by loud and shrill cries. On these occasions it may be
that the king-bird displays the emblem of his dignity, which
is commonly concealed; for, being otherwise rather plainly
coloured — dark-ashy grey above and white beneath — the erectile
feathers of the crown of the head, on being parted, form as it
were a deep furrow, and reveal their base, which is of a bright
golden-orange in front, deepening into scarlet, and then passing
into silvery white. This species seems to live entirely on insects,
which it captures on the wing ; it is in bad repute with bee-keepers,1
though, according to Dr E. Coues, it " destroys a thousand
noxious insects for every bee it eats." It builds, often in an
exposed situation, a rather large nest, coarsely constructed out-
side, but neatly lined with fine roots or grasses, and lays five or
six eggs of a pale salmon colour, beautifully marked with blotches
and spots of purple, brown and orange, generally disposed in a
zone near the larger end.
Nearly akin to the king-bird is the petchary or chicheree, so
called from its loud and petulant cry, T. dominicensis, or T.
griseus, one of the most characteristic and conspicuous birds of
the West Indies, and the earliest to give notice of the break of
day. In habits, except that it eats a good many berries, it is
:he very counterpart of its congener, and is possibly even more
ealous of any intruder. At all events its pugnacity extends tc
1 It is called in some parts the bee-martin.
KING-CRAB
807
animals from which it could not possibly receive any harm, and
is hardly limited to any season of the year.
In several respects both of these birds, with several of their
allies, resemble some of the shrikes; but it must be clearly under-
stood that the likeness is but of analogy, and that there is no
near affinity between the two families Laniidae and Tyrannidae,
which belong to wholly distinct sections of the great Passerine
King-Bird.
order; and, while the former is a comparatively homogeneous
group, much diversity of form and habits is found among the
latter. Similarly many of the smaller Tyrannidae bear some
analogy to certain Muscicapidae, with which they were at one
time confounded (see FLYCATCHER), but the difference between
them is deep seated.1 Nor is this all, for out of the seventy
genera, or thereabouts, into which the Tyrannidae have been
divided, comprehending perhaps three hundred and fifty
species, all of which are peculiar to the New World, a series of
forms can be selected which find a kind of parallel to a series of
forms to be found in the other group of Passeres; and the genus
Tyrannus, though that from which the family is named, is by no
means a fair representative of it; but it would be hard to say
which genus should be so accounted. The birds of the genus
Muscisaxicola have the habits and almost the appearance of
wheat-ears; the genus Alectorurus calls to mind a water- wagtail;
Euscarthmus may suggest a titmouse, Elatnea perhaps a willow-
wren; but the greatest number of forms have no analogous bird
of the Old World with which they can be compared; and, while
the combination of delicate beauty and peculiar external form
possibly attains its utmost in the long-tailed Milvulus, the glory
of the family may be said to culminate in the king of king-birds,
Musciwra regia. (A. N.)
KING-CRAB, the name given to an Arachnid, belonging to
the order Xiphosurae, of the grade Delobranchia or Hydropneu-
stea. King-crabs, of which four, possibly five, existing species
are known, were formerly referred to the genus Limulus, a name
still applied to them in all zoological textbooks. It has recently
been shown, however, that the structural differences between
1 Two easy modes of discriminating them externally may be
mentioned. All the Laniidae and Muscicapidae have but nine
primary quills in their wings, and their tarsi are covered with scales
in front only; while in the Tyrannidae there are ten primaries, and
the tarsal scales extend the whole way round. The more recondite
distinction in the structure of the trachea seems to have been first
detected by Macgillivray, who wrote the anatomical descriptions
published in 1839 by Audubqn (Orn. Biography, v. 421, 422); but
its value was not appreciated till the publication of Johannes Muller's
classical treatise on the vocal organs of Passerine birds (Abhandl. k.
Akad. Wissensch. Berlin, 1845, pp. 321, 405).
some of the species are sufficiently numerous and important to
warrant the recognition of three genera — Xiphosura, of which
Limulus is a synonym, Tachyplem and Carcinoscorpius. In
Xiphosura the genital operculum structurally resembles the
gill-bearing appendages in that the inner branches consist of
three distinct segments, the distal of which is lobate and projects
freely beyond the margin of the adjacent distal segment of the
outer branch; the entosternite (see ARACHNIDA) has two pairs
of antero-lateral processes, and in the "male only the ambulatory
appendages of the second pair are modified as claspers. In
Tachypleus and Carcinoscorpius, on the other hand, the genital
operculum differs from the gill-bearing appendages in that the
inner branches consist of two segments, the distal of which
are apically pointed, partially or completely fused in the
middle line, and do not project beyond the distal segments
of the outer branches; the entosternite has only one pair of
antero-lateral processes, and in the male the second and third
pairs of ambulatory limbs are modified as claspers. Tachypleus
differs from Carcinoscorpius in possessing a long movable spur
upon the fourth segment of the sixth ambulatory limb, in having
the postanal spine triangular in section instead of round, and the
claspers in the male heuiichelate, owing to the suppression of the
immovable finger, which is well developed in Carcinoscorpius.
At the present time king-crabs have a wide but discontinuous
distribution. Xiphosura, of which there is but one species,
X. polyphemus, ranges along the eastern side of North America
from the coast of Maine to Yucatan. Carcinoscorpius, which is
also represented by a single species, C. rotundicauda, extends
from the Bay of Bengal to the coast of the Moluccas and the
Philippines, while of the two better-known species of Tachypleus,
T. gigas ( = moluccanus) ranges from Singapore to Torres Straits,
and T. tridenlatus from Borneo to southern Japan. A third
species, T. hoeveni, has been recorded from the Moluccas. But
although Xiphosura is now so widely sundered geographically
from Tachypleus and Carcinoscorpius, the occurrence of the
remains of extinct species of king-crabs in Europe, both in
Tertiary deposits and in Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous strata,
suggests that there was formerly a continuous coast-line, with
tropical or temperate conditions, extending from Europe west-
ward to America, and eastward to southern Asia. There are,
however, no grounds for the assumption that the supposed
coast-line between America and Europe synchronized with
that between Europe and south Asia. King-crabs do not appear
to differ from each other in habits. Except in the breeding
season they live in water ranging in depth from about two to six
fathoms, and creep about the bottom or bury themselves in the
sand. Their food consists for the most part of soft marine
worms, which are picked up in the nippers, thrust into the
mouth, and masticated by the basal segments of the appendages
between which the mouth lies. At the approach of the breeding
season, which in the case of Xiphosura polyphemus is in May, June
and July, king-crabs advance in pairs into very shallow water
at the time of the high tides, the male holding securely to the
back of the female by means of his clasping nippers. No actual
union between the sexes takes place, the spawn of the female
being fertilized by the male at the time of being laid in the sand
or soon afterwards. This act accomplished, the two retreat
again into deeper water. Deposited in the mud or sand near
high-water mark, the eggs are eventually hatched by the heat of
the sun, to which they are exposed every day for a considerable
time. The newly hatched young is minute and subcircular in
shape, but bears a close resemblance to its parents except in the
absence of the caudal spine and in the presence of a fringe of
stiff bristles round the margin of the body. During growth it
undergoes a succession of moults, making its exit from the old
integument through a wide split running round the edge of the
carapace. Moulting is effected in exactly the same way in
scorpions, Pedipalpi, and normally in spiders. The caudal spine
appears at the second moult and gradually increases in length
with successive changes of the skin. This organ is of considerable
importance, since it enables the king-crab to right itself when
overturned by rough water or other causes. Without it the
8o8
KINGFISHER
animal would remain helpless like an upturned turtle, because
it is unable to reach the ground with its legs when lying on its
back. Before the tail is sufficiently developed to be used for
that purpose, the young king-crab succeeds in regaining the
normal position by flapping its flattened abdominal appendages
and rising in the water by that means. The king-crab fishery
FIG. i.
1, Limulus polyphemus, adult (dorsal aspect).
2, Limulus polyphemus, young (dorsal aspect).
3, Prestwichia rotundata, CoalM., Shropshire.
4, Prestwichia Birtwelli, Coal M., Lancashire.
5, Neolimulus falcatus, U. Silurian, Lanark.
6, Hemiaspis limuloides, L. Ludlow, Leintwardine, Shropshire.
7, Pseudoniscus aculeatus, U. Silurian, Russia.
is an industry of some importance in the United States, and in
the East Indies the natives eat the animal and tip their lances
and arrows with the caudal spine. They also use the hollow
empty shell as a water-ladle or pan — hence the name " pan-fish "
or " saucepan-crab " by which the animal is sometimes known.
Fossil king-crabs have been recorded from strata of the Tertiary
and Secondary epochs, and related but less specialized types of
the same order are found in rocks of Palaeozoic age. Of these
the most important are Belinurus of the Carboniferous, Proto-
limulus of the Devonian, and Hemiaspis of the Silurian periods.
These ancient forms differ principally from true king-crabs in
having the segments of the opisthosoma or hinder half of the
body distinctly defined instead of welded into a hexagonal
shield. (R. I. p.)
KINGFISHER (Ger.1 Konigsfischer; Walloon Roi-peheux =
pecheur), the Alcedo ispida of ornithologists, one of the most
beautiful and well-known of European birds, being found, though
nowhere very abundantly, in every European country, as well as
in North Africa and South-Western Asia as far as Sindh. Its
blue-green back and rich chestnut breast render it conspicuous
as it frequents the streams and ponds whence it procures its food,
by plunging almost perpendicularly into the water, and emerging
a moment after with the prey — whether a small fish, crustacean,
or an aquatic insect— it has captured. In hard frosts it resorts
1 But more commonly called Eisvogel, which finds its counterpart
in the Anglo-Saxon Isern or Isen.
to the sea-shore, but a severe winter is sure to occasion a great
mortality in the species, for many of its individuals seem unable
to reach the tidal waters where only in such a season they could
obtain sustenance; and to this cause rather than any other is
perhaps to be ascribed its general scarcity. Very early in the
year it prepares its nest, which is at the end of a tunnel bored
by itself in a bank, and therein the six or eight white, glossy,
translucent eggs are laid, sometimes on the bare soil, but often on
the fishbones which, being indigestible, are thrown up in pellets
by the birds; and, in any case, before incubation is completed
these rejectamenta accumulate so as to form a pretty cup-shaped
structure that increases in bulk after the young are hatched,
but, mixed with their fluid excretions and with decaying fishes
brought for their support, soon becomes a dripping fetid mass.
The kingfisher is the subject of a variety of legends and super-
stitions, both classical and medieval. Of the latter one of the
most curious is that having been originally a plain grey bird it
acquired its present bright colours by flying towards the sun on
its liberation from Noah's ark, when its upper surface assumed
the hue of the sky above it and its lower plumage was scorched
by the heat of the setting orb to the tint it now bears.2 More
than this, the kingfisher was supposed to possess many virtues.
Its dried body would avert thunderbolts, and if kept in a ward-
robe would preserve from moths the woollen stuffs therein laid,
or hung by a thread to the ceiling of a chamber would point with
its bill to the quarter whence the wind blew. All readers of
Ovid (Metam., bk. xi.) know how the faithful but unfortunate
Ceyx and Alcyone were changed into kingfishers — birds which
bred at the winter solstice, when through the influence of Aeolus,
the wind-god and father of the fond wife, all gales were hushed
and the sea calmed so that their floating nest might ride un-
injured over the waves during the seven proverbial " Halcyon
days"; while a variant or further development of the fable
assigned to the halcyon itself the power of quelling storms.3
The common kingfisher of Europe is the representative of a
well-marked family of birds, the Alcedinidae or Halcyonidae of
ornithologists, which is considered by most authorities 4 to be
closely related to the Bucerolidae (see HORNBILL) ; but the affinity
can scarcely be said as yet to be proved. Be that as it may, the
present family forms the subject of an important work by
Bowdler Sharpe.6 Herein are described one hundred and twenty-
five species, nearly all of them being beautifully figured by
Keulemans, and that number may be taken even now as
approximately correct; for, while the validity of a few has been
denied by some eminent men, nearly as many have since
been made known, and it seems likely that two or three more
described by older writers may yet be rediscovered. These
one hundred and twenty-five species Sharpe groups in nineteen
genera, and divides into two sub-families, Alcedininae and
Daceloninaef the one containing five and the other fourteen
genera. With existing anatomical materials perhaps no
better arrangement could have been made, but the method
afterwards published by Sundevall (Tentamen, pp. 95, 96)
differs from it not inconsiderably. Here, however, it will be
convenient to follow Sharpe. Externally, which is almost all
we can at present say, kingfishers present a great uniformity of
structure. One of their most remarkable features is the feeble-
ness of their feet, and the union (syndactylism) of the third and
fourth digits for the greater part of their length; while, as if still
2 Rolland, Faune populaire de la France, ii. 74.
8 In many of the islands of the Pacific Ocean the prevalent king-
fisher is the object of much veneration.
*Cf. Eyton, Cpnlrib. Ornithology (1850), p. 80; Wallace, Ann.
Nat. History, series 2, vol. xviii. pp. 201, 205; and Huxley, Proc.
Zool. Society (1867), p. 467.
1 A Monograph of the Alcedinidae or Family of the Kingfishers, by
R. B. Sharpe, 410 (London, 1868-1871). Some important anatomical
points were briefly noticed by Professor Cunningham (Proc. Zo»l.
Soc., 1870, p. 280).
8 The name of this latter sub-family as constituted by Sharpe
would seem to be more correctly Ceycinae — the genus Ceyx, founded
in 1801 by Lac6p6de, being the oldest included in it. The word
Dacelo, invented by Leach in 1815, is simply an anagram of Alcedo,
and, though of course without any etymological meaning, has been
very generally adopted.
KINGHORN— KINGLET
809
further to show the comparatively functionless character of
these members, in two of the genera, Alcyone and Ceyx, the second
digit is aborted, and the birds have but three toes. In most
forms the bill does not differ much from that of the common
Alcedo ispida, but in Syma its edges are serrated, while in
Carcineutes, Dacelo and Melidora the maxilla is prolonged,
becoming in the last a very pronounced hook. Generally the
wings are short and rounded, and the tail is in many forms incon-
spicuous; but in Tanysipiera, one of the most beautiful groups,
the middle pair of feathers is greatly elongated and spatulate,
while this genus possesses only ten rectrices, all the rest having
twelve. Sundevall relies on a character not noticed by Sharpe,
and makes his principal divisions depend on the size of the
scapulars, which in one form a mantle, and in the other are so
small as not to cover the back. The Alcedinidae are a cosmo-
politan family, but only one genus, Ceryle, is found in America,
and that extends as well over a great part of the Old World,
though not into the Australian region, which affords by far the
greater number both of genera and species, having no fewer than
ten of the former and fifty-nine of the latter peculiar to it.1
In habits kingfishers display considerable diversity, though
all, it would seem, have it in common to sit at times motionless
on the watch for their prey, and on its appearance to dart upon
it, seize it as they fly or dive, and return to a perch where it may
be conveniently swallowed. But some species, and especially
that which is the type of the family, are not always content to
await at rest their victim's showing itself. They will hover like
a hawk over the waters that conceal it, and, in the manner
already described, precipitate themselves upon it. This is
particularly the way with those that are fishers in fact as well as
in name; but no inconsiderable number live almost entirely in
forests, feeding on insects, while reptiles furnish the chief susten-
ance of others. The last is characteristic of at least one Aus-
tralian form, which manages to thrive in the driest districts of
that country, where not a drop of water is to be found for miles,
and the air is at times heated to a degree that is insupportable
by most animals. The belted kingfisher of North America,
Ceryle alcyon, is a characteristic bird of that country, though its
habits greatly resemble those of the European species; and the
so-called " laughing jackass " of New South Wales and South
Australia, Dacelo gigas — with its kindred forms, D. leachi,
D. cervina and D. occidentalis, from other parts of the country —
deserve special mention. Attention must also be called to the
speculations of Dr Bowdler Sharpe (op. tit., pp. xliv.-xlvii.) on
the genetic affinity of the various forms of Alcedinidae, and it is
to be regretted that hitherto no light has been shed by palaeon-
tologists on this interesting subject, for the only fossil referred to
the neighbourhood of the family is the Halcyornis toliapicus
of Sir R. Owen (Br. Foss. Mamm. and Birds, p. 554) from the
Eocene of Sheppey — the very specimen said to have been pre-
viously placed by Konig (Icon.foss. secliles, fig. 153) in the genus
Larus. (A. N.)
KINGHORN, a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901), 1550. It is situated on the Firth of Forth, 2\ m.
E. by N. of Burntisland, on the North British railway. The
public buildings include a library and town-hall. It enjoys
some repute as a summer resort. The leading industries are
ship-building, bleaching and the making of flax and glue. At
the time of his visit Daniel Defoe found thread-making in vogue,
which employed the women while the men were at sea. Alex-
ander III. created Kinghorn a burgh, but his connexion with the
town proved fatal to him. As he was riding from Inverkeithing
on the 1 2th of March 1286 he was thrown by his horse and fel!
over the cliffs, since called King's Wud End, a little to the west
of the burgh, and killed. A monument was erected in 1887 to
mark the supposed scene of the accident. The Witch Hil"
used to be the place of execution of those poor wretches. King-
horn belongs to the Kirkcaldy district group of parliamentary
burghs. At PETTYCUR, i m. to the south, is a good hr.rbour for
its size, and at Kinghorn Ness a battery has bee--, establishec
in connexion with the fortifications on Inchkeith. The hil
1 Cf. Wallace, Geog. Distr. Animals, ii 315.
above the battery was purchased by government in 1903 and
is used as a point of observation. About i m. to the north
of Kinghorn is the estate of Grange, which belonged to Sir
William Kirkcaldy. INCHKEITH, an island in the fairway of
the Firth of Forth, i\ m. S. by E. of Kinghorn and 3^ m. N. by
E. of Leith, belongs to the parish of Kinghorn. It has a north-
westerly and south-easterly trend, and is nearly i m. long and
\ m. wide. It is a barren rock, on the summit of which stands a
lighthouse visible at night for 21 m. In 1881 forts connected by
a military road were erected on the northern, western and
southern headlands.
KINGLAKE, ALEXANDER WILLIAM (1809-1891), English
historian and traveller, was born at Taunton on the 5th of
August 1809. His father, a successful solicitor, intended his
son for a legal career. Kinglake went to Eton and Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he matriculated in 1828, being a con-
temporary and friend of Tennyson and Thackeray. After leaving
Cambridge he joined Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the bar in
1837. While still a student he travelled, in 1835, throughout
the East, and the impression made upon him byhis experiences
was so powerful that he was seized with a desire to record them
in literature. Eothen, a sensitive and witty record of impres-
sions keenly felt and remembered, was published in 1844, and
enjoyed considerable reputation. In 1854 he went to the Crimea,
and was present at the battle of the Alma. During the campaign
he made the acquaintance of Lord Raglan, who was so much
attracted by his talents that he suggested to Kinglake the plan
for an elaborate History of the Crimean War, and placed his
private papers at the writer's disposal. For the rest of his life
Kinglake was engaged upon the task of completing this monu-
mental history. Thirty-two years elapsed between its commence-
ment and the publication of the last volume, and eight volumes
in all appeared at intervals between 1863 and 1887. Kinglake
lived principally in London, and sat in parliament for Bridg-
water from 1857 until the disfranchisement of the borough in
1868. He died on the 2nd of January 1891. Kinglake's life-
work, The History of the Crimean War, is in scheme and execution
too minute and conscientious to be altogether in proportion, but
it is a wonderful example of painstaking and talented industry.
It is not without errors of partisanship, but it shows remarkable
skill in the moulding of vast masses of despatches and technical
details into an absorbingly interesting narrative; it is illumined
by natural descriptions and character-sketches of great fidelity
and acumen; and, despite its length, it remains one of the most
picturesque, most vivid and most actual pieces of historical
narrative in the English language.
KINGLET, a name applied in many books to the bird called
by Linnaeus Motacilla regulus, and by most modern ornitho-
logists Regulus cristatus, the golden-crested or golden-crowned
wren of ordinary persons. This species is the type of a small
group which has been generally placed among the Sylviidae
or true warblers, but by certain systematists it is referred to
the titmouse family, Paridae. That the kinglets possess many
of the habits and actions of the latter is undeniable, but on
the other hand they are not known to differ in any important
points of organization or appearance from the former — the chief
distinction being that the nostril is covered by a single bristly
feather directed forwards. The golden-crested wren is the
smallest of British birds, its whole length being about 35 in.,
and its wing measuring only 2 in. from the carpal joint.
Generally of an olive-green colour, the top of its head is bright
yellow, deepening into orange, and bounded on either side by a
black line, while the wing coverts are dull black, and some of
them tipped with white, forming a somewhat conspicuous bar.
The cock has a pleasant but weak song. The nest is a beautiful
object, thickly felted of the softest moss, wool, and spiders'
webs, lined with feathers, and usually built under and near the
end of the branch of a yew, fir or cedar, supported by the inter-
weaving of two or three laterally diverging and pendent twigs,
and sheltered by the rest. The eggs are from six to ten in number,
of a dull white sometimes finely freckled with reddish-brown.
The species is particularly social, living for the most part of the
8io
KINGS, BOOKS OF
year in family parties, and often joining bands of any species ol
titmouse in a common search for food. Though to be met with
in Britain at all seasons, the bird in autumn visits the east coast
in enormous flocks, apparently emigrants from Scandinavia
while hundreds perish in crossing the North Sea, where they are
well known to the fishermen as " woodcock's pilots." A second
and more local European species is the fire-crested wren, R. igni-
capillus, easily recognizable by the black streak on each side
of the head, before and behind the eye, as well as by the deeper
colour of its crown. A third species, R. maderensis, inhabits
the Madeiras, to which it is peculiar; and examples from the
Himalayas and Japan have been differentiated as R. himalay-
ensis and R. japonicus. North America has two well-known
species, R. satrapa, very like the European R. ignicapillus, and
the ruby-crowned wren, .R. calendula, which is remarkable for
a loud song that has been compared to that of a canary-bird or
a skylark, and for having the characteristic nasal feather in a
rudimentary or aborted condition. (A. N.)
KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF, two books of the
Bible, the last "of the series of Old Testament histories known as
the Earlier or Former Prophets. They were originally reckoned
as a single book (Josephus; Origen ap. Eus., H.E. vi. 25;
Peshitta; Talmud), though modern Bibles follow the biparti-
tion which is derived from the Septuagint. In that version
they are called the third and fourth books of " kingdoms "
(0affi\fi£>v), the first and second being our books of Samuel.
The division into two books is not felicitous, and even the old
Hebrew separation between Kings and Samuel must not be
taken to mean that the history from the birth of Samuel to the
exile was treated by two distinct authors in independent volumes.
We cannot speak of the author of Kings or Samuel, but only of
an editor or of successive editors whose main work was to arrange
in. a continuous form extracts or abstracts from earlier sources.
The introduction of a chronological scheme and of a series of
editorial comments and additions, chiefly designed to enforce
the religious meaning of the history, gives a kind of unity to
the book of Kings as we now read it; but beneath this we can
still distinguish a variety of documents, which, though some-
times mutilated in the process of piecing together, retain
sufficient individuality of style and colour to prove their original
independence.
Of these documents one of the best defined is the vivid picture
of David's court at Jerusalem (2 Sam. ix.-xx.) from which the
first two chapters of i Kings manifestly cannot be separated.
As it would be unreasonable to suppose that the editor of the
history of David closed his work abruptly before the death of
the king, breaking off in the middle of a valuable memoir which
lay before him, this observation leads us to conclude that the
books of Samuel and Kings are not independent histories. They
have at least one source in common, and a single editorial hand
was at work on both. From an historical point of view, however,
the division which makes the beginning of Solomon's reign the
beginning of a new book is very convenient. The conquest of
Palestine by the Israelite tribes, recounted in the book of Joshua,
leads up to the era of the "judges" (Judg. ii. 6-23; iii. sqq.),
and the books of Samuel follow with the institution of the
monarchy and the first kings. The books of Kings bring to a
close the life of David (c. 975 B.C.), which forms the introduction
to the reign of Solomon (i Kings ii. i2-xi.), the troubles in whose
time prepared the way for the separation into the two distinct
kingdoms, viz. Judah and the northern tribes of Israel (xii. sqq.).
After the fall of Samaria, the history of these Israelites is rounded
off with a review (2 Kings xvii.-xviii. 12). The history of the
surviving kingdom of Judah is then carried down to the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem and the exile (5 and 6), and, after an account
of the Chaldean governorship, concludes with the release of the
captive king Jehoiachin (561 B.C.) and with an allusion to his
kind treatment during the rest of his lifetime.
The most noticeable feature in the book is the recurring interest
in the centralization of worship in the Temple at Jerusalem as
prescribed in Deuteronomy arid enforced by Josiah. Amidst
the great variety in style and manner which marks the several
parts of the history, features which are imbued with the teaching
of Deuteronomy recur regularly in similar stereotyped forms.
They point in fact to a specific redaction, and thus it would seem
that the. editor who treated the foundation of the Temple, the
central event of Solomon's life, as a religious epoch of the first
importance, regarded this as the beginning of a new era — the
history of Israel under the one sanctuary.
When we assume that the book of Kings was thrown into its
present form by a Deuteronomistic redactor we do not affirm
that he was the first who digested the sources of the
history into a continuous work, nor must we ascribe
absolute finality to his work. He gave the book a
definite shape and character, but the recognized methods of
Hebrew literature left it open to additions and modifications
by later hands. Even the redaction in the spirit of Deutero-
nomy seems itself to have had more than one stage, as Ewald
long ago recognized.
The evidence to be detailed presently shows that there was a cer-
tain want of definiteness about the redaction. The mass of dis-
jointed materials, not always free from inconsistencies, which lay
before the editor in separate documents or in excerpts already par-
tially arranged by an earlier hand, could not have been reduced to
real unity without critical sifting, and an entire recasting of the
narrative in a way foreign to the ideas and literary habits of the
Hebrews. The unity which the editor aimed at was limited to (a)
chronological continuity in the events recorded and (6) a certain
uniformity in the treatment of the religious meaning of the narrative.
Even this could not be perfectly attained in the circumstances,
and the links of the history were not firmly enough riveted to pre-
vent disarrangement or rearrangement of details by later scribes.
(a) The continued efforts of successive redactors can be traced
in the chronology ot the book. The chronological method of the
narrative appears most clearly in the history after Solomon, where
the events of each king's reign are thrown into a kind of stereotyped
framework on this type: " In the twentieth year of Jeroboam, king
of Israel, Asa began to reign over Judah, and reigned in Jerusalem
forty-one years.' ..." In the third year of Asa, king of Judah,
Baasha began to reign over Israel in Tirzah twenty-four years."
The history moves between Judah and Israel according to the date
of each accession; as soon as a new king has been introduced, every-
thing that happened in his reign is discussed, and wound up by
another stereotyped formula as to the death and burial of the sove-
reign; and to this mechanical arrangement the natural connexion
of events is often sacrificed. In this scheme the elaborate synchron-
isms between contemporary monarchs of the north and south give
an aspect of great precision to the chronology. But in reality the
data for Judah and Israel do not agree, and remarkable deviations
are sometimes found. The key to the chronology is i Kings vi. i,
which, as Wellhausen has shown, was not found in the original
Septuagint, and contains internal evidence of post-Chaldean date.
In fact the system as a whole is necessarily later than 535 B.C., the
fixed point from which it counts back, and although the numbers
for the duration of the reigns may be based upon early sources, the
synchronisms appear to have been inserted at a much later stage
in the history of the text.
(6) Another aspect in the redaction may be called theological.
Its characteristic is the retrospective application to the history of a
standard belonging to the later developments of Old Testament
religion. Thus the redactor regards the sins of Jeroboam as the real
cause of the downfall of Israel (2 Kings xvii. 21 seq.), and passes an
unfavourable judgment upon all its rulers, not merely to the effect
that they did evil in the sight of Yahweh but that they followed in
the way of Jeroboam. But his opinion was manifestly not shared
by Elijah or Elisha, nor by the original narrator of the lives of these
prophets. Moreover, the redactor in I Kings iii. 2 seq. regards wor-
ship at the high places as sinful after the building of the Temple,
although even the best kings before Hezekiah made no attempt to
suppress these shrines. This feature in the redaction displays
tself not only in occasional comments or homiletical excursuses,
3Ut in that part of the narrative in which all ancient historians
allowed themselves free scope for the development of their reflec-
:ions — the speeches placed in the mouths of actors in the history,
rlere also there is often textual evidence that the theological element
s somewhat loosely attached to the earlier narrative and underwent
successive additions.
Consequently it is necessary to distinguish between the older
sources and the peculiar setting in which the history has been
placed; between earlier records and that specific General
colouring which, from its affinity to Deuteronomy Structure.
and to other portions of the Old Testament which appear
to have been similarly treated undsr the influence cf its teach-
ng, may be conveniently termed " Deuteronomistic." For
KINGS, BOOKS OF
811
his sources the compiler refers chiefly to two distinct works,
the " words " or " chronicles " of the kings of Israel and
those of the kings of Judah. Precisely how much is copied
from these works and how much has been expressed in the
compiler's own language is of course uncertain. It is found
on inspection that the present history consists usually of an
epitome of each reign. It states the king's age at succession (so
Judah only), length of reign, death and burial, with allusions
to his buildings, wars, and other political events.1 In the case
of Judah, also, the name of the royal or queen-mother is speci-
fically mentioned. The references to the respective " chronicles,"
made as though they were still accessible, are wanting in the case
of Jehoram and Hoshea of Israel, and of Solomon, Ahaziah,
Athaliah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah of Judah. But
for Solomon the authority cited, " book of the acts of Solomon "
(i Kings xi. 41), presumably presupposes Judaean chronicles,
and the remaining cases preserve details of an annalistic
character. Moreover, distinctive annalistic material is found
for the Israelite kings Saul and Ishbosheth in i Sam.
xiii. i; xiv. 47-31; 2 Sam. ii. 8-ioa (including even their age
at accession), and for David in 2 Sam. ii. n and parts of v.
and viii.
The use which the compiler makes of his sources shows that
his aim was not the history of the past but its religious significance.
It is rare that even qualified praise is bestowed upon the kings
of Israel (Jehoram, 2 Kings iii. 2; Jehu x. 30; Hoshea xvii. 2).
Kings of great historical importance are treated with extreme
brevity (Omri, Jeroboam (2), Uzziah), and similar meagrenessof
historical information is apparent when the editorial details and
the religious judgments are eliminated from the accounts of
Nadab, Baasha, and the successors of Jeroboam (2) in Israel or of
Abijam and Manasseh in Judah.
To gain a more exact idea of the character of the book we may
divide the history into three sections: (i) the life of Solomon,
(2) the kingdoms of Ephraim (or Samaria)2 and
""' Judah, and (3) the separate history of Judah after
the fall of Samaria. I. Solomon. — The events which lead up
to the death of David and the accession of Solomon(i Kings
i., ii.) are closely connected with 2 Sam. ix.-xx. The unity is
broken by the appendix 2 Sam. xxi. xxi.-xxiv. which is closely
connected, as regards general subject-matter, with ibid, v.-viii. ;
the literary questions depend largely upon the structure of
the books of Samuel (q.v.). It is evident, at least, that either
the compiler drew upon other sources for the occasion and
has been remarkably brief elsewhere, or that his epitomes
have been supplemented by the later insertion of material
not necessarily itself of late origin. At present i Kings i., ii.
are both the close of David's life (no source is cited) and the
necessary introduction to Solomon. But Lucian's recension of
the Septuagint (ed. Lagarde), as also Josephus, begin the book at
ii. 12, thus separating the annalistic accounts of the two. Since
the contents of i Kings iii.-xi. do not form a continuous narrative,
the compiler's authority (" Acts of S." xi. 41) can hardly have
been an ordinary chronicle. The chapters comprise (a) sundry
notices of the king's prosperous and peaceful career, severed by
(6) a description of the Temple and other buildings; and they con-
clude with (c) some account of the external troubles which prove
to have unsettled the whole of his reign. After an introduction
(iii.), a contains generalizing statements of Solomon's might,
wealth and wisdom (iv. 20 seq., 25, 29-34; x. 23-25, 27) and
stories of a distinctly late and popular character (iii. 16-28,
x. i-io, 13). The present lack of unity can in some cases be
remedied by the Septuagint, which offers many deviations from
the Hebrew text; this feature together with the present form of
1 Cp. the brief annalistic form of the Babylonian chronicles (for a
specimen, see C. F. Kent, Israel's Hist, and Biog. Narratives, p. 502
seq.). For a synchronistic history of Assyria and Babylonia,
prepared for diplomatic purposes, see Schrader's Keilinschr. Bibl. i.
194 sqq. ; also L. W. King, Studies in Eastern Hist. i. (Tukulti-Ninib),
PP' i> 75 seQ' (with interesting variant traditions).
1 The term " Israel " as applied to the northern kingdom is apt
to be ambiguous, since as a general national name, with a religious
significance, it can include or suggest the inclusion of Judah.
the parallel texts in Chronicles will exemplify the persistence of
fluctuation to a late period (4th-2nd cent. B.C.).
Thus iii. 2 seq. cannot be by the same hand as t). 4, and v. 2 is
probably a later Deut. gloss upon v. 3 (earlier Deut.), which repre-
sents the compiler's view and (on the analogy of the framework) comes
closely after ii. I2.s Ch. iii. I can scarcely be severed from ix. 16,
and in the Septuagint they appear in iv. in the order: iv. 1-19 (the
officers), 27 seq. (their duties), 22-24 (the daily provision), 29-34
(Solomon's reputation), iii. i; ix. 16-170 (alliance with Egypt);
iv. 20 seq. 25 are of a generalizing character and recur in the Septua-
gint with much supplementary matter in ii. Ch. iv. 26 is naturally
related to x. 26 (cf. 2 Chron. i. 14) and takes its place in Lucian's
recension (cf. 2 Chron. ix. 25). There is considerable variation again
in ix. 10-x. 29, and the order ix. 10-14, 26-28, x. 1-22 (so partly
Septuagint) has the advantage of recording continuously Solomon's
dealings with Hiram. The intervening verses belong to a class
of floating notices (in a very unnatural order) which seem to have got
stranded almost by chahce at different points in the two recensions;
contrast also 2 Chron. viii. Solomon s preliminary arrangements
with Hiram in ch. v. have been elaborated to emphasize the impor-
tance of the Temple (w. 3-5, cf . 2 Sam. vii.) ; further difficulty is caused
by the relation between 13 seq. and 15 seq. (see 2 Chron. ii. 17 seq.)
and between both of these and ix. 20 seq. xi. 28. The account of the
royal buildings now sandwiched in between the related fragments
of a is descriptive rather than narrative, and the accurate details
might have been obtained by actual observation of the Temple at a
date long subsequent to Solomon. It is not all due to a single hand.
Ch. vi. 11-14 (with several late phrases) break the connexion and are
omitted by the Septuagint; w. 15-22, now untranslatable, appear in
a simple and intelligible form in the Septuagint. The account of the.
dedication contains many signs of a late date; viii. 14-53, 54~6' are
due to a Deuteronomic writer, and that they are an expansion of the
older narrative (w. 1-13) is suggested by the fact that the ancient
fragment, w. 12, 13 (imperfect in the Hebrew) appears in the Septua-
gint after v. 53 in completer form and with a reference to the book of
Jashar as source (/3i/3Xto rfj! tjiSflj -wri (VE-.I) TBD ). The redac-
tional insertion displaced it in one recension and led to its mutilation
in the other. With viii. 27-30, cf. generally Isa. xl.-lvi. ; OT. 44-51
presuppose the exile, w. 54-61 are wanting in Chron., and even the
older parts of this chapter have also been retouched in conformity
with later (even post-exilic) ritual and law. The Levites who appear
at v. 4 in contrast to the priests, in a way unknown to the pre-exilic
history, are not named in the Septuagint, which also omits the post-
exilic term " congregation " ('edah) in t>. 5. There is a general
similarity of subject with Deut. xxviii. '
The account of the end of Solomon's reign deals with (a) his
religious laxity (xi. 1-13, now in a Deuteronomic form), as the
punishment for which the separation of the two kingdoms is
announced; and (b) the rise of the adversaries who, according to
xi. 25, had troubled the whole of his reign, and therefore cannot
have been related originally as the penalty for the sins of his old
age. Both, however, form an introduction to subsequent events,
and the life of Solomon concludes with a brief annalistic notice
of his death, length of reign, successor, and place of burial.
(See further SOLOMON.)
II. Ephraim and Judah. — In the history of the two kingdoms
the redactor follows a fixed scheme determined, as has been
seen, by the order of succession. The fluctuation
of tradition concerning the circumstances of the ~.e
. . Kingdom,
schism is evident from a comparison with the
Septuagint, and all that is related of Ahijah falls under
suspicion of being foreign to the oldest history.4 The story
of the man of God from Judah (xiii.) is shown to be late by
its general tone (conceptions of prophetism and revelation),6
and by the term " cities of Samaria " (v. 32, for Samaria
as a province, cf. 2 Kings xvii. -24, 26; for the building of
the city by Omri see i Kings xvi. 24). It is a late Judaean
narrative inserted after the Deuteronomic redaction, and
3 Here and elsewhere a careful study (e.g. of the marginal refer-
ences in the Revised Version) will prove the close relation between
the " Deuteronomic " passages and the book of Deuteronomy
itself. The bearing of this upon the traditional date of that book
should not be overlooked.
4 See art. JEROBOAM; also W. R. Smith, Old Test, in Jew. Church,
pp. 117 sqq.; H. Winckler, Altlest. Untersuchungen, pp. I sqq., and
the subsequent criticisms by C. F. Burney (Kings, pp. 163 sqq.);
J. Skinner (Kings, pp. 443 sqq.); and Ed. Meyer (Israeliten n.
Nachbarstamme, pp. 357 sqq.).
5 Notice should everywhere be taken of those prophetical stories
which have the linguistic features of the Deuteronomic writers, or
which differ in style and expression from the prophecies of Amos,
Hosea and others, previous to Jeremiah.
8l2
KINGS, BOOKS OF
breaks the connexion between xii. 31 and xiii. 33 seq. The
latter describe the idolatrous worship instituted by the first
king of the schismatic north, and the religious attitude occurs
regularly throughout the compiler's epitome, however brief
the reigns of the kings. In the account of Nadab, xv. 25 seq.,
296, 30 seq. are certainly the compiler's, and the synchronism in
r. 28 must also be editorial; xv. 32 (Septuagint omit) and 16
are duplicates leading up to the Israelite and Judaean accounts
of Baasha respectively. But xv. 33-xvi. 7 contains little
annalistic information, and the prophecy in xvi. 1-4 is very
similar to xiv. 7-11, which in turn breaks the connexion between
vv. 6 and 12. Ch. xvi. 7 is a duplicate to w. 1-4 and out of place;
the Septuagint inserts it in the middle of ». 8. The brief reign
of Elah preserves an important entract in xvi. 9, but the date
in v. ioa (LXX. omits) presupposes the late finished chronological
scheme. Zimri's seven days receive the inevitable condemnation,
but the older material embedded in the framework (xvi. 156-18)
is closely connected with ». 9 and is continued in the non-
editorial portions of Omri's reign (xvi. 21 seq., length of reign in
v. 23, and ». 24). The achievements of Omri to which the
editor refers can fortunately be gathered from external sources
(see OMRI). Under Omri's son Ahab the separate kingdoms
converge.
Next, as to Judah: the vivid account of the accession of
• Rehoboam in xii. 1-16 is reminiscent of the full narratives in
2 Sam. ix.-xx.; i Kings i., ii. (cf. especially v. 16 with 2 Sam.
xx. i); xii. 156 refers to the prophecy of Ahijah (see above),
and " unto this day," *. 19, cannot be by a contemporary
author.jp. 17 (LXX. omits) finds a parallel in 2 Chron. xi. i6seq.,
and could represent an Ephraimite standpoint. The Judaean
standpoint is prominent in vv. 21-24, where (a) the inclusion
of Benjamin and (b) the cessation of war (at the command of
Shemaiah) conflict with (a) xi. 32, 36, xii. 20 and (b) xiv. 30
respectively. Rehoboam's history, resumed by the redactor
in xiv. 21-24, continues with a brief account of the spoiling
of the Temple and palace by Sheshonk (Shishak). (The
incident appears in 2 Chron. xii. in a rather different context,
before the details which now precede v. 21 seq.) The reign of
Abijam is entirely due to the editor, whose brief statement of
the war in xv. 76 is supplemented by a lengthy story in 2 Chron.
xiii. (where the name is Abijah). Ch. xv. 56 (last clause) and
v. 6 are omitted by the Septuagint, the former is a unique gloss
(see 2 Sam. xi. seq.), the latter is a mere repetition of xiv. 30;
with xv. 2 cf. v. 10. The account of Asa's long reign contains
a valuable summary of his war with Baasha, xv. 16-22; the
isolated v. 15 is quite obscure and is possibly related to
v. 18 (but cf. vii. 51). His successor Jehoshaphat is now dealt
with completely in xxii. 41-50 after the death of Ahab; but
the Septuagint, which follows a different chronological scheme
(placing his accession in the reign of Omri), gives the summary
(with some variations) after xvi. 28. Another light is thrown
upon the incomplete annalistic fragments (xxii. 44, 47-49)
by 2 Chron. xx. 35-37: the friendship between Judah and
Israel appears to have been displeasing to the redactor of
Kings.
The history of the few years between the close of Ahab's
life and the accession of Jehu covers about one-third of the
p.phraim entire book of Kings. This is due to the inclu-
from Ahab sion of a number of narratives which are partly of
to Jehu. a pO]iiicai character, and partly are interested in
the work of contemporary prophets. The climax is reached
in the overthrow of Omri's dynasty by the usurper Jehu,
when, after a period of close intercourse between Israel and
Judah, its two kings perished. The annals of each kingdom
would naturally deal independently with these events, but
the present literary structure of i Kings xvii.-2 Kings xi. is
extremely complicated by the presence of the narratives referred
to. First as regards the framework, the epitome of Ahab is
preserved in xvi. 20-34 and xxii. 39; it contains some unknown
references (his ivory house and cities), and a stern religious
judgment upon his Phoenician alliance, on which the intervening
chapters throw more light. The colourless summary of his son
Ahaziah (xxii. 51-53)' finds its conclusion in 2 Kings i. 17 seq.
where v. 18 should precede the accession of his brother Jehoram
(v. I7b). Jehoram is again introduced in iii. 1-3 (note the
variant synchronism), but the usual conclusion is wanting. In
Judah, Jehoshaphat was succeeded by his son Jehoram, who had
married Athaliah the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel (viii. 16-24);
to the annalistic details (vu. 20-22) 2 Chron. xxi. n sqq. adds
a novel narrative. His son Ahaziah (viii. 25 sqq.) is similarly
denounced for his relations with Israel. He is again introduced
in the isolated ix. 29, while Lucian's recension adds after x. 36
a variant summary of his reign but without the regular intro-
duction. Further confusion appears in the Septuagint, which
inserts after i. 18 (Jehoram of Israel) a notice corresponding
to iii. 1-3, and concludes " and the anger of the Lord was
kindled against the house of Ahab." This would be appropriate
in a position nearer ix. seq. where the deaths of Jehoram and
Ahaziah are described. These and other examples of serious
disorder in the framework may be associated with the literary
features of the narratives of Elijah and Elisha.
Of the more detailed narratives those that deal with the northern
kingdom are scarcely Judaean (see I Kings xix. 3), and they do not
criticize Elijah's work, as the Judaean compiler denounces the whole
history of the north. But they are plainly not of one origin. To
supplement the articles ELIJAH and ELISHA, it is to be noticed that
the account of Naboth's death in the history of Elijah (i Kings
xxi.) differs in details from that in the history of Elisha and Jehu
(2 Kings ix.), and the latter more precise narrative presupposes
events recorded in the extant accounts of Elijah but not these
events themselves. In I Kings xx., xxii. 1-28 (xxi. follows xix.
in the LXX.) Ahab is viewed rather more favourably than in the
Elijah-narratives (xix., xxi.) or in the compiler's summary. Ch. xxii. 6,
moreover, proves that there is some exaggeration in xviii. 4, 13;
the great contest between Elijah and the king, between Yahwen and
Baal, has been idealized. The denunciation of Ahab in xx. 35-43
has some notable points of contact with xiii. and seems to be a supple-
ment to the preceding incidents. Ch. xxii. is important for its ideas
of prophetism (especially vv. 19-23 ; cf. Ezek. xiv. 9 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. i
Jin contrast to I Chron. xxi. i]) ; a gloss at the end of v. 28, omitted
by the Septuagint, wrongly identifies Micaiah with the well-known
Micah (i. 2). Although the punishment passed upon Ahab in xxi.
20 sqq. (206-26 betray the compiler's hand; cf. xiv. 10 seq.)ismodified
in v. 29, this is ignored in the account of his death, xxii. 38, which
takes place at Samaria (see below).
The episode of Elijah and Ahaziah (2 Kings i.) is marked by the
revelation through an angel. The prophet's name appears in an
unusual form (viz. eliyyah, not -yahu), especially in vv. 2-8. The
prediction of Ahaziah's fate finds a parallel in 2 Chron. xxi. 12-15;
the more supernatural additions have been compared with the late
story in I Sam. xix. 18-24. The ascension of Elijah (2 Kings ii.)
is related as the introduction to the work of Elisha, which apparently
begins before the death of Jehoshaphat (see iii. I, II sqq.; contrast
2 Chron. loc. cit.). Among the stories of Elisha are some which find
him at the head of the prophetic gilds (iv. I, 38—44, vi. 1—7), whilst
in others he has friendly relations with the " king of Israel and the
court. As a personage of almost superhuman dignity he moves
in certain narratives where political records appear to have been
utilized to describe the activity of the prophets. The Moabite
campaign (iii.) concerns a revolt already referred to in the isolated
i. I ; there are parallels with the story of Jehoshaphat and Ahab
(iii. 7,11 seq. ; cf. I Kings xxii. 4 seq., 7 scjq.), contrast, however, xxii. 7
(where Elijah is not even named) and iii. 1 1 seq. But Jehoshaphat's
death has been already recorded (i Kings xxii. 50), and, while Lucian's
recension in 2 Kings iii. reads Ahaziah, i. 17 presupposes the acces-
sion of the Judaean Jehoram. Other political [narratives may under-
lie the stories of the Aramaean wars; with vi. 24~vii. 20 (after the
complete cessation of hostilities in vi. 23)compare the general style
of I Kings xx., xxii. ; with the famine in Samaria.vi. 25 ; cf. ibid. xvii. ;
with the victory, cf. ibid. xx. The account of Elisha and Hazael
(viii. 7-15) implies friendly relations with Damascus (in v. 12 the
terrors of war are in the future), but the description of Jehu's acces-
sion (ix.) is in the midst of hostilities. Ch. ix. 7-100 are a Deuteronomic
insertion amplifying the message in w. 3-6 (cf. I Kings xxi. 20 seq.).
The origin of the repetition in ix. 14-150 (cf. viii. 28 seq.) is not clear.
The oracle in ix. 25 seq. is not that in I Kings xxi. 19 seq., and mentions
the additional detail that Naboth's sons were slain. Here his field
or portion is located near Jezrecl, but in I Kings xxi. 18 his vineyard
is by the royal palace in Samaria (cf. xxii. 38 and contrast xxi. i,
where the LXX. omits reference to Tezreel). This fluctuation re-
appears in 2 Kings x. I, II seq., and 17; in ix. 27 compared with
2 Chron. xxii. 9 ; and in the singular duplication of an historical inci-
dent, viz. the war against the Aramaeans at Ramoth-Gilead (a) by
Jehoshaphat and Ahab, and (b) by Ahaziah and Jehoram, in each
1 The division of the two books at this point is an innovation first
made in the LXX. and Vulgate.
case with the death of the Israelite king, at Samaria and Jezreel respec
tively (see above and observe the contradiction in I Kings xxi. 2«
and xxii 38). These and other critical questions in this section ar
involved with (a) the probability that Elisha's work belongs rathe
to the accession of Jehu, with whose dynasty he was on most intimate
terms until his death some forty-five years later (2 Kings xiii. 14-21)
and (b) the problem of the wars between Israel and Syria which
appear to have begun only in the time of Jehu (x. 32). See Jew
Quart. Rev. (1908), pp. 597-630, and JEWS: History, § n seq.
In the annals of Jehu's dynasty the editorial introduction
to Jehu himself is wanting (x. 32 sqq.), although Lucian's
Dynasty recen^on in *• 36 concludes in annalistic manner
of Jehu, the lives of Jehoram of Israel and Ahaziah o:
Judah. The summary mentions the beginning oi
the Aramaean wars, the continuation of which is found in
the redactor's account of his successor Jehoahaz (xiii. 1-9)
But xiii. 4-6 modify the disasters, and by pointing to the
" saviour " or deliverer (cf. Judg. iii. 9, 15) anticipate xiv. 27.
The self-contained account of his son Jehoash (xiii. 10-13) is
supplemented (a) by the story of the death of Elisha (TO. 14-21)
and (b) by some account of the Aramaean wars (w. 22-25),
where v. 23, like w. 4-6 (Lucian's recension actually reads it
after v. 7), is noteworthy for the sympathy towards the northern
kingdom. Further (c) the defeat of Amaziah of Judah ap-
pears in xiv. 8-14 after the annals of Judah, although from
an Israelite source (». nb Bethshemesh denned as belonging
to Judah, see also v. 15, and with the repetition of the concluding
statements in v. 15 seq., see xiii. 12 seq.). These features and
the transference of xiii. 12 seq. after xiii. 25 in Lucian's recension
point to late adjustment. In Judaean history, Jehu's reform
and the overthrow of Jezebel in the north (ix., x. 15-28) find
their counterpart in the murder of Athaliah and the destruction
of the temple of Baal in Judah (xi. 18). But the framework
is incomplete. The editorial conclusion of the reign of Ahaziah,
the introduction to that of Athaliah, and the sources for both are
wanting. A lengthy Judaean document is incorporated detail-
ing the accession of Joash and the prominence of the abruptly
introduced priest Jehoiada. The interest in the Temple and
temple-procedure is obvious; and both xi. and xii. have points
of resemblance with xxii. seq. (see below and cf. also xi. 4, 7, n,
19, with i Kings xiv. 27 seq.). The usual epitome is found in
xi. 2i-xii. 3 (the age at accession should follow the synchronism,
so Lucian), with fragments of annalistic matter in xii. 17-21
(another version in 2 Chron. xxiv. 23 sqq.). For Joash's son
Amaziah see above; xiv. 6 refers to Deut. xxiv. 16, and 2 Chron.
xxv. 5-16 replaces v. 7 by a lengthy narrative with some interest-
ing details. Azariah or Uzziah is briefly summarized inxv. 1-7,
hence the notice in xiv. 22 seems out of place; perhaps the
usual statements of Amaziah's death and burial (cf. xiv. 206,
226), which were to be expected after v. 18, have been supple-
mented by the account of the rebellion (mi. 19, 200, 2i).1 The
chronological notes for the accession of Azariah imply different
views of the history of Judah after the defeat of Amaziah; with
xiv. 17, cf. xiii. 10, xiv. 2, 23, but contrast xv. i, and again v. 8.2
The important reign of Jeroboam (2) is dismissed as briefly
as that of Azariah (xiv. 23-29). The end of the Aramaean war
presupposed by v. 25 is supplemented by the sympathetic ad-
dition in v. 26 seq. (cf. xiii. 4 seq. 23). Of his successors Zechariah,
Shallum and Menahem only the briefest records remain, now
imbedded in the editorial framework (xv. 8-25). The summary
of Pekah (perhaps the same as Pekahiah, the confusion being due
to the compiler) contains excerpts which form the continuation
of the older material in v. 25 (cf. also TO. 10, 14, 16, 19, 20). For
an apparently similar adjustment of an earlier record to the
framework see above on i Kings xv. 25-31, xvi. 8-25. The
account of Hoshea's conspiracy (xv. 29 seq.) gives the Israelite
version with which Tiglath-Pileser's own statement can now be
compared. Two accounts of the fall of Samaria are given,
one of which is under the reign of the contemporary Judaean
1 Both xiv. 22 and xv. 5 presuppose fuller records of which 2 Chron.
xxvi. 6-7, 16-20 may represent merely later and less trustworthy
versions.
2 See F. Riihl, Deutsche Zeit. f. Geschichtwissens. xii. 54 sqq.; also
JEWS: History, § 12.
KINGS, BOOKS OF
813
Hezekiah (xvii. 1-6, xviii. 9-12); the chronology is again
intricate. Reflections on the disappearance of the northern
kingdom appear in xvii. 7-23 and xviii. 12; the latter belongs
to the Judaean history. The former is composite; xvii. 21-23
(cf. ». 1 8) look back to the introduction of calf -worship by
Jeroboam (i), and agree with the compiler's usual standpoint;
but in. 19-20 include Judah and presuppose the exile. The
remaining verses survey types of idolatry partly of a general
kind (w. 9-12, i6a), and partly characteristic of Judah in the
last years of the monarchy (TO. 1 6b, 1 7) . The brief account of the
subsequent history of Israel in xvii. 24-41 is not from one source,
since the piety of the new settlers (v. 32-340, 41) conflicts with the
later point of view in 346-40. The last-mentioned supplements the
eqilogue in xvii. 7-23, forms a solemn conclusion to the history of
the northern kingdom, and is apparently aimed at the Samaritans.
III. Later History of Judah. — The summary of Jotham
(xv. 32-38) shows interest in the Temple (v. 35) and alludes
to the hostility of Pekah (v. 37) upon which the .
Israelite annals are silent. 2. Chron. xxvii. expands
the former but replaces the latter by other not unrelated
details (see UZZIAH). But xv. 37 is resumed afresh in the
account of the reign of Ahaz (xvi. 5 sqq.; the text in v. 6
is confused) — another version in 2 Chron. xxviii. 5 sqq.
— and is supplemented by a description, evidently from the
Temple records, in which the ritual innovations by " king
Ahaz " (in contrast to " Ahaz " alone in mi. 5-9) are described
(OT. 10-18). There is further variation of detail in 2 Chron.
xxviii. 20-27. The summary of Hezekiah (xviii. 1-8) em-
phasizes his important religious reforms (greatly expanded in
2 Chron. xxix. seq. from a later standpoint), and includes two
references to his military achievements. Of these v. 8 is ignored
in Chron., and v. 7 is supplemented by (a) the annalistic extract
in w. 13-16, and (b) narratives in which the great contemporary
prophet Isaiah is the central figure. The latter are later than
Isaiah himself (xix. 37 refers to 681 B.C.) and reappear, with
some abbreviation and rearrangement, in Isa. xxxvi.-xxxix. (see
ISAIAH). They are partly duplicate (cf. xix. 7 with m. 28, 33;
TO. 10-13 with xviii. 28-35), and consist of two portions, xviii.
i7-xix. 8 (Isa. xxxvi. 2-xxxvii. 8) and xix. 96-35 (Isa. xxxvii.
96-36) ; to which of these xix. 90 and v. 36 seq. belong is dis-
auted. 2 Chron. xxxii. (where these accounts are condensed)
is in general agreement with 2 Kings xviii. 7, as against
TO. 14-16. The poetical fragment, xix. 21-28, is connected with
the sign in mi. 29-31; both seem to break the connexion between
xix. 20 and 3 2 sqq. Chap. xx. 1-19 appears to belong to an earlier
period in Hezekiah's reign (see v. 6 and cf. 2 Chron. xxxii. 25 seq.) ;
with TO. i-n note carefully the forms in Isa. xxxviii. 1-8, 21 seq.,
and 2 Chron. xxxii. 24-26; with xx. 12-19 (Isa. xxxix) contrast
he brief allusion in 2 Chron. xxxii. 31. In v. 17 seq. the exile
s foreshadowed. Use has probably been made of a late cycle
of Isaiah-stories; such a work is actually mentioned in 2 Chron.
xxxii. 32. The accounts of the reactionary kings Manasseh and
Amon, although now by the compiler, give some reference to
political events (see xxi. 17, 23 seq.); xxi. 7-15 refer to the exile
and find a parallel in xxiii. 26 seq., and xxi. 10 sqq. are replaced
n 2 Chron. xxxiii. 10-20 by a novel record of Manasseh's
penitence (see also ibid. v. 23 and note omission of 2 Kings
xxiii. 26 from Chron).
Josiah's reign forms the climax of the history. The usual
ramework (xxii. i; 2, xxiii. 28, 306) is supplemented by narra-
ives dealing with the Temple repairs and the reforms of Josiah.
These are closely related to xi. seq. (cf. xxii. 3-7 with xii. 4 sqq.),
but show many signs of revision; xxii. 16 seq., xxiii. 26 seq.',
Doint distinctly to the exile, and xxiii. 16-20 is an insertion
the altar in v. 16 is already destroyed in v. 15) after i Kings
dii. But it is difficult elsewhere to distinguish safely between
he original records and the later additions. In their present
hape the reforms of Josiah are described in terms that point
o an acquaintance with the teaching of Deuteronomy which
iromulgates the reforms themselves.1
1 See further the special study by E. Day, Journ. Bib. Lit. (1902)
p. 197 sqq.
814
KINGS, BOOKS OF
The annalist c notice in xxiii. 29 seq. (contrast xxii. 20) should
precede ». 28; 2 Chrpn. xxxv. 20-27 g'Xes an°ther version in the
correct position and ignores 2 Kings xxiii. 24-27 (see however the
Septuagint). For the last four kings of Judah, vhe references to
the worship at the high places (presumably abolished by Josiah)
are wanting, and the literary source is only cited for Jehoiakira;
xxiv. 3 seq. (and probably t>. 2), which treat the fall of Judah as
the punishment for Manasseh's sins, are a Deuteronomistic insertion
(2 Chron. xxxvi. 6 sqq. differs widely ; see, however', the Septuagint) ;
». 13 seq. and v. 15 seq. are duplicates. With xxiv. 18— xxv. 21 cf.
Jer. Hi. 1-27 (the text of the latter, especially w. 19 sqq. is superior) ;
and the fragments ibid, xxxix. i-io. Ch. xxv. 22-26 appears in much
fuller form in Jer. xl. seq. (see xl. 7-^9, xli. 1-3, 17 seq.). It is note-
worthy that Jeremiah does not enter into the history in Kings (contrast
Isaiah above). The book of Chronicles in general has a briefer
account of the last years, and ignores both the narratives which
also appear in Jeremiah and the concluding hopeful note struck by
the restoration of Jehoiachin (xxv. 27-30). This last, with the
addition of statistical data, forms the present conclusion also of
the book of Jeremiah.
Conclusions. — A survey of these narratives as a whole
strengthens our impression of the merely mechanical character
of the redaction by which they are united. Though editors
have written something of their own in almost every chapter,
generally from the standpoint of religious pragmatism, there is
not the least attempt to work the materials into a history in our
sense of the word; and in particular the northern and southern
histories are practically independent, being merely pieced together
in a sort of mosaic in consonance with the chronological system,
which we have seen to be really later than the main redaction.
It is very probable that the order of the pieces was considerably
readjusted by the author of the chronology; of this indeed the
Septuagint still shows traces. But with all its imperfections as
judged from a modern standpoint, the redaction has the great
merit of preserving material nearer to the actual history than
would have been the case had narratives been rewritten from
much later standpoints — as often in the book of Chronicles.
Questions of date and of the growth of the literary process are
still unsettled, but it is clear that there was an independent
history of (north) Israel with its own chronological scheme.
It was based upon annals and fuller political records, and at
some period apparently passed through circles where the
purely domestic stories of the prophets (Elisha) were current.1
This was ultimately taken over by a Judaean editor who was
under the influence of the far-reaching reforms ascribed to the
i8th year of Josiah (621 B.C.). Certain passages seem to imply
that in his time the Temple was still standing and the Davidic
dynasty uninterrupted. Also the phrase " unto this day "
sometimes apparently presupposes a pre-exilic date. On the
other hand, the history is carried down to the end of Jehoiachin's
life (xxv. 27 refers to his fifty-fifth year, w. 29 seq. look back
on his death), and a number of allusions point decisively to the
post-exilic period. Consequently, most scholars are agreed
that an original pre-exilic Deuteronomic compilation made
shortly after Josiah's reforms received subsequent additions
from a later Deuteronomic writer.
These questions depend upon several intricate literary and
historical problems. At the outset (a) the compiler deals with
history from the Deuteronomic standpoint, selecting certain
notices and referring further to separate chronicles of Israel
and Judah. The canonical book of Chronicles refers to such
a combined work, but is confined to Judah; it follows the re-
ligious judgment passed upon the kings, but it introduces new
details apparently derived from extant annals, replaces the
annalistic excerpts found in Kings by other passages, or uses
new narratives which at times are clearly based upon older
sources. Next (b) the Septuagint proves that Kings did not
reach its present form until a very late date; " each represents
a stage and not always the same stage in the long protracted
labours of the redactors " (Kuenen).2 In agreement with this
are the unambiguous indications of the post-exilic age (especially
Cf. similarlythe prophetic narrativesin the booksof Samuel (<?.».).
" The LXX. of Kings is not a corrupt reproduction of the Hebrew
receptus, but represents another recension of the text. Neither
recension can claim absolute superiority. The defects of the LXX.
lie on the surface, and are greatly aggravated by the condition of
the Greek text, which has suffered much in transmission, and
in the Judaean history) consisting of complete passages, obvious
interpolations, and also sporadic phrases in narratives whose
pre-exilic origin is sometimes clear and sometimes only to be
presumed. Further (c) , the Septuagint supports the independent
conclusion that the elaborate synchronisms belong to a late
stage in the redaction. Consequently it is necessary to allow
that the previous arrangement of the material may have been
different; the actual wording of the introductory notices was
necessarily also affected. In general, it becomes ever more
difficult to distinguish between passages incorporated by an
early redactor and those which may have been inserted later,
though possibly from old sources. Where the regular framework
is disturbed such considerations become more cogent. The
relation of annalistic materials in i Sam. (xiii. i; xiv. 47-51, &c.)
to the longer detailed narratives will bear upon the question, as
also the relation of 2 Sam. ix-xx. to i Kings i. seq. (see SAMUEL,
BOOKS OF). Again (d) the lengths of the reigns of the Judaean
kings form an integral part of the framework, and their total,
with fifty years of exile, allows four hundred and eighty years
from the beginning of the Temple to the return from Babylon.3
This round number (cf. again i Kings vi. i) points to a date
subsequent to 537, and Robertson Smith has observed that
almost all events dated by the years of the kings of Jerusalem
have reference to the affairs of the Temple. This suggests a
connexion between the chronology and the incorporation of
those narratives in which the Temple is clearly the centre of
interest, (e) But, apart from the question of the origin of the
more detailed Judaean records, the arguments for a pre-exilic
Judaean Deuteronomic compilation are not quite decisive.
The phrase " unto this day " is not necessarily valid (cf.
2 Chron. v. 9, viii. 8, xxi. 10 with i Kings viii. 8, ix. 21, 2 Kings
viii. 22), and depends largely upon the compiler's sagacity.
Also, the existence of the Temple and of the Davidic dynasty
(i Kings viii. 14-53; ix. 3! xi. 36-38; xv. 4; 2 Kings viii. 19;
cf. 2 Chron. xiii. 5) is equally applicable to the time of the second
temple when Zerubbabel, the Davidic representative, kindled
new hopes and aspirations. Indeed, if the object of the Deu-
teronomic compiler is to show from past history that " the
sovereign is responsible for the purity of the national religion "
(Moore, Ency. Bib. col. 2079), a date somewhere after the
death of Jehoiachin (released in 561) in the age of Zerubbabel
and the new Temple equally satisfies the conditions. With this
is concerned (/) the question whether, on historical grounds,
the account of the introduction of Deuteronomic reforms by
Josiah is trustworthy.4 Moreover, although a twofold Deu-
teronomic redaction of Kings is generally recognized, the criteria
for the presumably pre-exilic form are not so decisive as those
which certainly distinguish the post-exilic portions, and it is
frequently very difficult to assign Deuteronomic passages to
the earlier rather than to the later. Again, apart from the
contrast between the Israelite detailed narratives (relatively
early) and those of Judaean origin (often secondary), it
is noteworthy that the sympathetic treatment of northern
history in 2 Kings xiii. 4 seq. 23, xiv. 26 has literary parallels
in the Deuteronomic redaction of Judges (where Israelite
tradition is again predominant), but is quite distinct from the
hostile feeling to the north which is also Deuteronomic. Even
the northern prophet Hosea (q.v.) approximates the Deutero-
nomic standpoint, and the possibility that the first Deutero-
nomic compilation of Kings could originate outside Judah is
particularly has in many places been corrected after the later Greek
versions that express the Hebrew receptus of the 2nd century of our
era. Yet the LXX. not only preserves many good readings in
detail, but throws much light on the long-continued process of
redaction at the hand of successive editors or copyists of which the
extant Hebrew of Kings is the outcome. Even the false readings
of the Greek are instructive, for both recensions were exposed to
corrupting influences of precisely the same kind " (W. R. SMITH).
* See W. R. Smith, Journ. of_ Philology, x. 209 sqq. ; Prophets of
Israel, p. 147 seq. ; and K. Marti, Ency. Bib. art. " Chronology."
4 Against earlier doubts by Havet (1878), Vernes (1887) and Horst
(1888), see W. E. Addis, Documents of Hexateuch, ii. 2 sqq.; but the
whole question has been reopened by E. Day (loc. cit. above) and
R. H. Kennett (Journ. Theol. Stud., July 1906, 481 sqq ).
KING'S BENCH— KING'S COUNTY
815
strengthened by the fact that an Israelite source could be drawn
upon for an impartial account of Judaean history (2 Kings
xiv. 8-15). Finally, (g) literary and historical problems here
converge. Although Judaean writers ultimately rejected as
heathen a people who could claim to be followers of Yahweh
(Ezra iv. 2 ; 2 Kings xvii. 28, 33 ; contrast ibid. 34-40, a secondary
insertion), the anti-Samaritan feeling had previously been at
most only in an incipient stage, and there is reason to infer that
relations between the peoples of north and south had been
closer.1 The book of Kings reveals changing historical condi-
tions in its literary features, and it is significant that the very
age where the background is to be sought is that which has
been (intentionally ?) left most obscure: the chronicler's
history of the Judaean monarchy (Chron. — Ezra — Nehemiah),
as any comparison will show, has its own representation of the
course of events, and has virtually superseded both Kings and
Jeremiah, which have now an abrupt conclusion. (See further
S. A. Cook, Jew. Quart. Rev. (1907), pp. 158 sqq.; and the articles
JEWS: History, §§ 20, 22; PALESTINE: History).
LITERATURE. — A. Kuenen, Einleitung; J. Wellhausen, Compos,
d. Hexateuch, pp. 266-302 ; H. Winckler, Alttest. Untersuchungen
(1892) ; and B. Stade, Aliademische Reden (1899; on I Kings v.— vii. ;
2 Kings x.-xiv. ; xv.-xxi.); S. R. Driver, Lit. of O. T. (1909); see
also C. Holzhey, Das Buck. d. Konige (1899); the commentaries of
Benzinger (1899) and Kittel (1900), and especially F. C. Kent, Israel's
Hist, and Biog. Narr. (1905). The article by W. R. Smith, Ency.
Brit., 9th ed. (partly retained here), is revised and supplemented
by E. Kautzsch in the Ency. Bib. For the Hebrew text see Kloster-
mann's Sam. u. Konige (1887); C. F. Burney, Notes on the Hebrew
Text (1903) ; and Stade and Schwally's edition in Haupt's Sacred
Books of the Old Testament (1904). For English readers, J. Skinner's
commentary in the Century Bible, and W. E. Barnes in the Cam-
bridge Bible, are useful introductions. (S. A. C.)
KING'S BENCH, COURT OF, in England, one of the superior
courts of common law. This court, the most ancient of English
courts — in its correct legal title, " the court of the king before
the king himself," coram ipso rege — is far older than parliament
itself, for it can be traced back clearly, both in character and the
essence of its jurisdiction, to the reign of King Alfred. The king's
bench, and the two offshoots of the aula regia, the common pleas
and the exchequer, for many years possessed co-ordinate juris-
diction, although there were a few cases in which each had
exclusive authority, and in point of dignity precedence was given
to the court of king's bench, the lord chief justice of which was
also styled lord chief justice of England, being the highest per-
manent judge of the Crown. The court of exchequer attended
to the business of the revenue, the common pleas to private
actions between citizens, and the king's bench retained criminal
cases and such other jurisdiction as had not been divided between
the other two courts. By an act of 1830 the court of exchequer
chamber was constituted as a court of appeal for errors in law in
all three courts. Like the court of exchequer, the king's bench
assumed by means of an ingenious fiction the jurisdiction in civil
matters which properly belonged to the common pleas.
Under the Judicature Act 1873 the court of king's bench be-
came the king's bench division of the High Court of Justice. It
consists of the lord chief justice and fourteen puisne judges. It
•exercises original jurisdiction and also appellate jurisdiction from
the county courts and other inferior courts. By the act of 1873
(sec. 45) this appellate jurisdiction is conferred upon the High
Court generally, but in practice it is exercised by a divisional
court of the king's bench division only. The determination of
such appeals by the High Court is final, unless leave to appeal is
given by the court which heard the appeal or by the court of
appeal. There was an exception to this rule as regards certain
orders of quarter sessions, the history of which involves some
complication. But by sec. i (5) of the Court of Session Act 1894
the rule applies to all cases where there is a right of appeal to the
High Court from any court or person. It may be here mentioned
that if leave is given to appeal to the court of appeal there is a
further appeal to the House of Lords, except in bankruptcy
'See Kennett, Journ. Theol. Stud. 1905, pp. 169 sqq.; 1906, pp.
488 sqq. ; and cf. J. A. Montgomery, The Samaritans (1907), pp. 47,
53 seq., 57, 59. 61 sqq.
(Bankruptcy Appeals (County Courts) Act 1884), when the
decision of the court of appeal on appeal from a divisional court '
sitting in appeal is made final and conclusive.
There are masters in the king's bench division. Unlike the
masters in the chancery division, they have original jurisdiction,
and are not attached to any particular judge. They hear appli-
cations in chambers, act as taxing masters and occasionally as
referees to conduct inquiries, take accounts, and assess damages.
There is an appeal from the master to the judge in chambers.
Formerly there was an appeal from the judge in chambers to a
divisional court in every case and thence to the court of appeal,
until the multiplication of appeals in small interlocutory matters
became a scandal. Under the Supreme Court of Judicature
(Procedure) Act 1894 there is no right of appeal to the court of
appeal in any interlocutory matters (except those mentioned
in subs, (b) ) without the leave of the judge or of the court of
appeal, and in matters of " practice and procedure " the appeal
lies (with leave) directly to the court of appeal from the judge
in chambers.
KINGSBRIDGE, a market town in the Totnes parliamentary
division of Devonshire, England, 48 m. S.S.W. of Exeter, on a
branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901), 3025. It lies 6 m. from the English Channel, at the head
of an inlet or estuary which receives only small streams, on a
sharply sloping site. The church of St Edmund is mainly
Perpendicular, but there are Transitional Norman and Early
English portions. The town-hall contains a natural history
museum. A house called Pindar Lodge stands on the site of the
birthplace of John Wolcot (" Peter Pindar," 1738-1819). William
Cookworthy (1705-1780), a porcelain manufacturer, the first to
exploit the deposits of kaolin in the south-west of England, was
also born at Kingsbridge. The township of Dodbrooke, in-
cluded within the civil parish, adjoins Kingsbridge on the north-
east. Some iron-founding and ship-building, with a coasting
trade, are carried on.
Kingsbridge (Kyngysbrygge) was formerly included in the
manor of Churchstow, the first trace of its separate existence
being found in the Hundred Roll of 1276, which records that in
the manor of Churchstow there is a new borough, which has a
Friday market and a separate assize of bread and ale. The name
Kingsbridge however does not appear till half a century later.
When Kingsbridge became a separate parish is not certainly
known, but it was before 1414 when the church was rebuilt and
consecrated to St Edmund. In 1461 the abbot of Buckfastleigh
obtained a Saturday market at Kingsbridge and a three-days' fair
at the feast of St Margaret, both of which are still held. The
manor remained in possession of the abbot until the Dissolution,
when it was granted to Sir William Petre. Kingsbridge was never
represented in parliament or incorporated by charter, the govern-
ment being by a portreeve, and down to the present day the
steward of the manor holds a court leet and court baron and
appoints a portreeve and constables. In 1798 the town mills
were converted into a woollen manufactory, which up to recent
times produced large quantities of cloth, and the serge manu-
facture was introduced early in the igth century. The town
has been famous from remote times for a beverage called
" white ale." Included in Kingsbridge is the little town of
Dodbrooke, which at the time of the Domesday Survey had
a population of 42, and a flock of 108 sheep and 27 goats; and
in 1257 was granted a Wednesday market and a fair at the
Feast of St Mary Magdalene.
See "Victoria County History": Devonshire; Kingsbridge and
Sulcombe, with the intermediate Estuary , historically and topographically
depicted (Kingsbridge, 1819) ; S. F. Fox, Kingsbridge Estuary (Kings-
bridge, 1864).
KING'S COUNTY, a county of Ireland in the province of
Leinster, bounded N. byMeath andWestmeath.W.by Roscommon,
Galway and Tipperary (the boundary with the first two counties
being the river Shannon); S. by Tipperary and Queen's County,
and E. by Kildare. The area is 493,999 acres or about 772 sq. m.
The greater part of the county is included in the central plain of
Ireland. In the south-east the. Slieve Bloom Mountains form the
8i6
KINGSDOWN, BARON— KING'S EVIL
boundary between King's County and Queen's County, and run
into the former county from south-west to north-east for a dis-
tance of about 20 m. consisting of a mass of lofty and precipitous
crags through which there are two narrow passes, the Black Gap
and the Gap of Glandine. In the north-east Croghan Hill, a
beautiful green eminence, rises to a height over 700 ft. The
remainder of the county is flat, but a range of low hills crosses
its north-eastern division to the north of the Barrow. In the
centre of the county from east to west a large portion is occupied
by the Bog of Allen. The county shares in the advantage of the
navigation of the Shannon, which skirts its western side. The
Brosna, which issues from Loch Ennell in Westmeath, enters the
county near the town of Clara, and flowing south-westwards
across its north-west corner, discharges itself into the Shannon
after receiving the Clodagh and the Broughill. A small portion
of the north-eastern extremity is skirted by the upper Boyne.
The Barrow forms the south-eastern boundary with Queen's
County. The Little Brosna, which rises in the Slieve Bloom
Mountains, forms the boundary of King's County with Tipperary,
and falls into the Shannon.
This county lies in the great Carboniferous Limestone plain,
with clay-soils and bogs upon its surface, and many drier deposits
of esker-gravels rising as green hills above the general level. The
Slieve Bloom Mountains, consisting of Old Red Sandstone with
Silurian inliers, form a bold feature in the south. North of
Philipstown, the prominent mass of Croghan Hill is formed of
basic volcanic rocks contemporaneous with the Carboniferous
Limestone, and comparable with those in Co. Limerick.
Notwithstanding the large area occupied by bogs, the climate
is generally healthy, and less moist than that of several neigh-
bouring districts. The whole of the county would appear to
have been covered formerly by a vast forest, and the district
bordering on Tipperary is still richly wooded. The soil naturally
is not of great fertility except in special cases, but is capable of
being rendered so by the judicious application of bog and lime
manures according to its special defects. It is generally either
a deep bog or a shallow gravelly loam. On the borders of the
Slieve Bloom Mountains there are some very rich and fertile
pastures, and there are also extensive grazing districts on the
borders of Westmeath, which are chiefly occupied by sheep.
Along the banks of the Shannon there are some fine tracts of
meadow land. With the exception of the tract occupied by the
Bog of Allen, the remainder of the county is nearly all under
tillage, the most productive portion being that to the north-west
of the Hill of Croghan. The percentage of tillage to pasture is
roughly as i to zj. Oats, barley and rye, potatoes and turnips,
are all considerably grown; wheat is almost neglected, and the
acreage of all crops has a decreasing tendency. Cattle, sheep,
pigs and poultry are bred increasingly; dairies are numerous in
the north of the county, and the sheep are pastured chiefly in the
hilly districts.
The county is traversed from S.E. to N.W. by the Portarling-
ton, Tullamore, Clara and Athlone line of the Great Southern and
Western railway, with a branch from Clara to Banagher; from
Roscrea (Co. Tipperary) a branch of this company runs to
Parsonstown (Birr); while the Midland Great Western has
branches from its main line from Enfield (Co. Kildare) to
Edenderry, and from Streamstown (Co. Westmeath) to Clara.
The Grand Canal runs through the length of the county from
east to west, entering the Shannon at Shannon harbour.
The population (65,563 in 1891; 60,187 in I9°l)> decreasing
through emigration, includes about 89% of Roman Catholics.
The decrease is rather below the average. The chief towns are
Tullamore (the county town, pop. 4639) and Birr or Parsons-
town (4438), with Edenderry and Clara. Philipstown near Tulla-
more was formerly the capital of the county and was the centre
of the kingdom of Offaly. The county comprises 12 baronies
and 46 civil parishes. It returns two members to parliament,
for the Birr and Tullamore divisions respectively. Previous to
the Union, King's County returned six members to parliament,
two for the county, and two for each of the boroughs of Philips-
town and Banagher. Assizes are held at Tullamore and quarter
sessions at Parsonstown, Philipstown and Tullamore. The
county is divided into the Protestant dioceses of Killaloe, Meath
and Ossory; and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Ardagh, Kildare
and Leighlin, Ossory and Clonfert.
King's County, with portions of Tipperary, Queen's County
and Kildare, at an early period formed one kingdom under the
name of Offaly, a title which it retained after the landing of the
English. Subsequently it was known as Glenmallery, Western
Glenmallery pretty nearly corresponding to the present King's
County, and Eastern Glenmallery to Queen's County. By a
statute of 1556 the western district was constituted a shiie under
the name of King's County in honour of Philip, consort of Queen
Mary — the principal town, formerly the seat of the O'Connors,
being called Philipstown; and the eastern district at the same
time received the name of Queen's County in honour of Mary.
Perhaps the oldest antiquarian relic is the large pyramid of white
stones in the Slieve Bloom Mountains called the Temple of the
Sun or the White Obelisk. There are a considerable number of
Danish raths, and a chain of moats commanding the passes of the
bogs extended throughout the county. On the borders of Tippe-
rary is an ancient causeway leading presumably to a crannog or
lake-dwelling. The most important ecclesiastical ruins are those
of the seven churches of Clonmacnoise (q.v.) on the Shannon in
the north-west of the county, where an abbey was founded by St
Kieran in 648, and where the remains include those of churches,
two round towers, crosses, inscribed stones and a castle. Among
the more famous religious houses in addition to Clonmacnoise
were Durrow Abbey, founded by St Columbainsso; Monasteroris
founded in the I4th century by John Bermingham, earl of
Louth; and Seirkyran Abbey, founded in the beginning of the
5th century. The principal old castles are Rathmore, probably
the most ancient in the county; Banagher, commanding an im-
portant pass on the Shannon; Leap Castle, in the Slieve Bloom
Mountains; and Birr or Parsonstown, now the seat of the earl of
Rosse.
KINGSDOWN, THOMAS PEMBERTON LEIGH, BARON (1793-
1867), the eldest son of Thomas Pemberton, a chancery barrister,
was born in London on the nth of February 1793. He was called
to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1816, and at once acquired a
lucrative equity practice. He sat in parliament for Rye (1831-
1832) and for Ripon (1835-1843). He was made a king's counsel
in 1829. Of a retiring disposition, he seldom took part in parlia-
mentary debates, although in 1838 in the case of Stockdale v.
Hansard he took a considerable part in upholding the privileges
of parliament. In 1841 he accepted the post of attorney-general
for the duchy of Cornwall. In 1842 a relative, Sir Robert H.
Leigh, left him a life interest in his Wigan estates, amounting to
some £15,000 a year; he then assumed the additional surname
of Leigh. Having accepted the chancellorship of the duchy of
Cornwall and a privy councillorship, he became a member of the
judicial committee of the privy council, and for nearly twenty
years devoted his energies and talents to the work of that body;
his judgments, more particularly in prize cases, of which he took
especial charge, are remarkable not only for legal precision and
accuracy, but for their form and expression. In 1858, on the
formation of Lord Derby's administration, he was offered the
Great Seal, but declined; in the same year, however, he was raised
to the peerage as Baron Kingsdown. He died at his seat, Lorry
Hill, near Sittingbourne, Kent, on the 7th of October 1867.
Lord Kingsdown never married, and his title became extinct.
See Recollections of Life at the Bar and in Parliament, by Lord
Kingsdown (privately printed for friends, 1868); The Times (8th
of October 1867).
KING'S EVIL, an old, but not yet obsolete, name given to the
scrofula, which in the popular estimation was deemed capable of
cure by the royal touch. The practice of " touching " for the
scrofula, or " King's Evil," was confined amongst the nations of
Europe to the two Royal Houses of England and France. As
the monarchs of both these countries owned the exclusive right
of being anointed with the pure chrism, and not with the ordinary
sacred oil, it has been surmised that the common belief in the
sanctity of the chrism was in some manner inseparably connected
KINGSFORD— KINGSLEY, CHARLES
817
with faith in the healing powers of the royal touch. The kings
both of France and England claimed a sole and special right to
this supernatural gift: the house of France deducing its origin
from Clovis ($th century) ftnd that of England declaring Edward
the Confessor the first owner of this virtue. That the Saxon origin
of the royal power of healing was the popular theory in England
is evident from the striking ,vnd accurate description of the cere-
mony in Macbeth (act vi. scene iii.). Nevertheless the practice of
this rite cannot be traced back to an earlier date than the reign
of Edward III. in England, and oi St Louis (Louis IX.) in France;
consequently, it is believed that the performance of healing by the
touch emanated in the first instance from the French Crusader-
King, whose miraculous powers were subsequently transmitted
to his descendant and representative, Isabella of Valois, wife of
Edward II. of England. In any case, Queen Isabella's son and
heir, Edward III., claimant to the French throne through his
mother, was the first English king to order a public display of an
attribute that had hitherto been associated with the Valois kings
alone. From his reign dates the use of the " touch-piece," a gold
medal given to the sufferer as a kind of talisman, which was origi-
nally the angel coin, stamped with designs of St Michael and of
a three-masted ship.
The actual ceremony seems first to have consisted of the
sovereign's personal act of washing the diseased flesh with water,
but under Henry VII. the use of an ablution was omitted, and a
regular office was drawn up for insertion in the Service Book.
At the " Ceremonies for the Healing " the king now merely
touched his afflicted subject in the presence of the court chaplain
who offered up certain prayers and afterwards presented the
touch-piece, pierced so that it might be suspended by a ribbon
round the patient's neck. Henry VII. 's office was henceforth
issued with variations from time to time under successive kings,
nor did it disappear from certain editions of the Book of Common
Prayer until the middle of the i8th century. The practice of the
Royal Healing seems to have reached the height of its popularity
during the reign of Charles II., who is stated on good authority
to have touched over 100,000 strumous persons. So great a
number of applicants becoming a nuisance to the Court, it was
afterwards enacted that special certificates should in future be
granted to individuals demanding the touch, and such certificates
are occasionally to be found amongst old parish registers of the
close of the lyth century. After the Revolution, William of
Orange refused to touch, and referred all applicants to the exiled
James II. at St Germain; but Queen Anne touched frequently,
one of her patients being Dr Samuel Johnson in his infancy.
The Hanoverian kings declined to touch, and there exists no
further record of any ceremony of healing henceforward at the
English court. The practice, however, was continued by the
exiled Stuarts, and was constantly performed in Italy by James
Stuart, " the Old Pretender," and by his two sons, Charles and
Henry (Cardinal York). (H.M.V.)
KINGSFORD, WILLIAM (1819-1898), British engineer and
Canadian historian, was born in London on the 23rd of December
1819. He first studied architecture, but disliking the confine-
ment of an office enlisted in the ist Dragoon Guards, obtaining his
discharge in Canada in 1841. After serving for a time in the
office of the city surveyor of Montreal he made a survey for the
Lachine canal (1846-1848), and was employed in the United
States in the building of the Hudson River railroad in 1849, and
in Panama on the railroad being constructed there in 1851.
In 1853 he was surveyor and, afterwards district superintendent
for the Grand Trunk railroad, remaining in the employment of
that company until 1864. The following year he went to England
but returned to Canada in 1867 in the hope of taking part in the
construction of the Intercolonial Railway. In this he was un-
successful, but from 1872 to 1879 he held a government post in
charge of the harbours of the Great Lakes and the St Lawrence.
He had previously written books on engineering and topo-
graphical subjects, and in 1880 he began to study the records of
Canadian history at Ottawa. Among other books he published
Canadian Archaeology (1886) and Early Bibliography of Ontario
(1892). But the great work of his life was a History of Canada
in 10 volumes (1887-1897), ending with the union of Upper
and Lower Canada in 1841. Kingsford died on the 28th of
September 1898.
KINGSLEY, CHARLES (1819-1875), English clergyman, poet
and novelist, was born on the I2th of June 1819, at Holne
vicarage, Dartmoor, Devon. His early years were spent at
Barnack in the Fen country and at Clovelly in North Devon.
The scenery of both made a great impression on his mind,
and was afterwards described with singular vividness in his
writings. He was educated at private schools and at King's
College, London, after his father's promotion to the rectory
of St Luke's, Chelsea. In 1838 he entered Magdalene College,
Cambridge, and in 1842 he was ordained to the curacy of Evers-
ley in Hampshire, to the rectory of which he was not long after-
wards presented, and this, with short intervals, was his home
for the remaining thirty-three years of his life. In 1844 he
married Fanny, daughter of Pascoe Grenfell, and in 1848
he published his first volume, The Saint's Tragedy. In 1859 he
became chaplain to Queen Victoria; in 1860 he was appointed
to the professorship of modern history at Cambridge, which he
resigned in 1869; and soon after he was appointed to a canonry
at Chester. In 1873 this was exchanged for a canonry at West-
minster. He died at Eversley on the 23rd of January 1875.
With the exception of occasional changes of residence in
England, generally for the sake of his wife's health, one or two
short holiday trips abroad, a tour in the West Indies, and another
in America to visit his eldest son settled there as an engineer,
his life was spent in the peaceful, if active, occupations of a
clergyman who did his duty earnestly, and of a vigorous and
prolific writer. But in spite of this apparently uneventful life,
he was for many years one of the most prominent men of his
time, and by his personality and his books he exercised con-
siderable influence on the thought of his generation. Though not
profoundly learned, he was a man of wide and various informa-
tion, whose interests and sympathies embraced many branches
of human knowledge. He was an enthusiastic student in par-
ticular of natural history and geology. Sprung on the father's
side from an old English race of country squires, and on his
mother's side from a good West Indian family who had been
slaveholders for generations, he had a keen love of sport and
a genuine sympathy with country-folk, but he had at the same
time something of the scorn for lower races to be found in the
members of a dominant race.
With the sympathetic organization which made him keenly
sensible of the wants of the poor, he threw himself heartily into
the movement known as Christian Socialism, of which Frederick
Denison Maurice was the recognized leader, and for many years
he was considered as an extreme radical in a profession the
traditions of which were conservative. While in this phase
he wrote his novels Yeast and Alton Locke, in which, though he
pointed out unsparingly the folly of extremes, he certainly
sympathized not only with the poor, but with much that was
done and said by the leaders in the Chartist movement. Yet
even then he considered that the true leaders of the people were
a peer and a dean, and there was no real inconsistency in the
fact that at a later period he was among the most strenuous
defenders of Governor Eyre in the measures adopted by him to
put down the Jamaican disturbances. He looked rather to the
extension of the co-operative principle and to sanitary reform
for the amelioration of the condition of the people than to any
radical political change. His politics might therefore have been
described as Toryism tempered by sympathy, or as Radicalism
tempered by hereditary scorn of subject races. He was bitterly
opposed to what he considered to be the medievalism and
narrowness of the Oxford Tractarian Movement. In Mac-
millan's Magazine for January 1864 he asserted that truth for
its own sake' was not obligatory with the Roman Catholic
clergy, quoting as his authority John Henry Newman (?.«.).
In the ensuing controversy Kingsley was completely discomfited.
He was a broad churchman, who held what would be called a
liberal theology, but the Church, its organization, its creed, its
dogma, had ever an increasing hold upon him. Although at one
8i8
KINGSLEY, HENRY— KINGSLEY, MARY H.
period he certainly shrank from reciting the Athanasian Creed
in church, he was towards the close of his life found ready to
join an association for the defence of this formulary. The
more orthodox and conservative elements in his character gained
the upper hand as time went on, but careful students of him and
his writings will find a deep conservatism underlying the most
radical utterances of his earlier years, while a passionate sym-
pathy for the poor, the afflicted and the weak held possession
of him till the last hour of his life.
Both as a writer and in his personal intercourse with men,
Kingsley was a thoroughly stimulating teacher. As with his
own teacher, Maurice, his influence on other men rather consisted
in inducing them to think for themselves than in leading them
to adopt his own views, never, perhaps, very definite. But
his healthy and stimulating influence was largely due to the
fact that he interpreted the thoughts which were stirring in
the minds of many of his contemporaries.
As a preacher he was vivid, eager and earnest, equally plain-
spoken and uncompromising when preaching to a fashionable
congregation or to his own village poor. One of the very best
of his writings is a sermon called The Message of the Church to
Working Men; and the best of his published discourses are the
Twenty-five Village Sermons which he preached in the early
years of his Eversley life.
As a novelist his chief power lay in his descriptive faculties.
The descriptions of South American scenery in Westward Ho!,
of the Egyptian desert in Hypatia, of the North Devon scenery
in Two Years Ago, are among the most brilliant pieces of word-
painting in English prose- writing; and the American scenery
is even more vividly and more truthfully described when he
had seen it only by the eye of his imagination than in his work
At Last, which was written after he had visited the tropics.
His sympathy for children taught him how to secure their
interests. His version of the old Greek stories entitled The
Heroes, and Water-babies and Madam How and Lady Why, in
which he deals with popular natural history, take high rank
among books for children.
As a poet he wrote but little, but there are passages in The
Saint's Tragedy and many isolated lyrics, which are worthy of a
place in all standard collections of English literature. A ndromeda
is a very successful attempt at naturalizing the hexameter as
a form of English verse, and reproduces with great skill the
sonorous roll of the Greek original.
In person Charles Kingsley was tall and spare, sinewy rather
than powerful, and of a restless excitable temperament. His
complexion was swarthy, his hair dark, and his eye bright and
piercing. His temper was hot, kept under rigid control; his
disposition tender, gentle and loving, with flashing scorn and
indignation against all that was ignoble and impure; he was a
good husband, father and friend. One of his daughters, Mary
St Leger Kingsley (Mrs Harrison), has become well known as a
novelist under the pseudonym of " Lucas Malet."
Kingsley 's life was written by his widow in 1877, entitled Charles
Kingsley, his Letters and Memories of his Life, and presents a very
touching and beautiful picture of her husband, but perhaps hardly
does justice to his humour, his wit, his overflowing vitality and
boyish fun.
The following is a list of Kingsley 's writings: — Saint's Tragedy,
a drama (1848); Alton Locke, a novel (1849); Yeast, a novel (1849)
Twenty-five Village Sermons (1849); Phaeton, or Loose Thoughts for
Loose Thinkers (1852) ; Sermons on National Subjects (ist series, 1852);
Hypatia, a novel (1853) ; Glaucus, or the Wonders of the Shore (1855) ;
Sermons on National Subjects (2nd series, 1854) ; Alexandria and her
Schools (1854) ; Westward Ho I a novel (1855) ; Sermons for the Times
(1855) ; The Heroes, Greek fairy tales (1856) ; Two Years Ago, a novel
(1857) ; Andromeda and other Poems (1858) ; The Good News of God,
sermons (1859) ; Miscellanies (1859) ; Limits of Exact Science applied
to History (Inaugural Lectures, 1860) ; Town and Country Sermons
(1861); Sermons on the Pentateuch (1863); Water-babies (1863); The
Roman and the Teuton (1864); David and other Sermons (1866);
Hereward the Wake, a novel (1866); The Ancient Regime (Lectures
at the Royal Institution, 1867); Water of Life and other Sermons
(1867); The Hermits (1869); Madam How and Lady Why (1869);
At last (1871); Town Geology (1872); Discipline and other Sermons
1872); Prose Idylls (1873); Plays and Puritans (1873); Health and
Education (1874); Westminster Sermons (1874); Lectures delivered in
America (1875). He wasa large contributor to periodical literature;
many of his essays are included in Prose Idylls and other works in
the above list. But no collection has been made of some of his more
characteristic writings in the Christian Socialist and Politics for the
People, many of them signed by the preudonym he then assumed,
" Parson .Lot."
KINGSLEY, HENRY (1830-1876), English novelist, younger
brother of Charles Kingsley, was born at Barnack, Northampton-
shire, on the 2nd of January 1850. In 1853 he left Oxford,
where he was an undergraduate at Worcester College, for the
Australian goldfields. This venture, however, was not a success,
and after five years he returned to England. He achieved con-
siderable popularity with his Recollections of Geoffrey Hamlyn
(1859), a novel of Australian life. This was the first of a series
of novels of which Rruenshoe (1861) and The Hilly ars and The
Burtons (1865) are the best known. These stories are charac-
terized by much vigour, abundance of incident, and healthy
sentiment. He edited for eighteen months the Edinburgh
Daily Review, for which he had acted as war correspondent
during the Franco-German War. He died at Cuckfield, Sussex,
on the 24th of May 1876.
KINGSLEY, MARY HENRIETTA (1862-1900), English
traveller, ethnologist and author, daughter of George Henry
Kingsley (1827-1892), was born in Islington, London, on the
i3th of October 1862. Her father, though less widely known
than his brothers, Charles and Henry (see above), was a man of
versatile abilities, with a passion for travelling which he managed
to indulge in combination with his practice as a doctor. He
wrote one popular book of travel, South Sea Bubbles, by the
Earl and the Doctor (1872), in collaboration with the i3th earl
of Pembroke. Mary Kingsley's reading in history, poetry and
philosophy was wide if desultory, but she was most attracted
to natural history. Her family moved to Cambridge in 1886,
where she studied the science of sociology. The loss of both
parents in 1892 left her free to pursue her own course, and she
resolved to study native religion and law in West Africa with a
view to completing a book which her father had left unfinished.
With her study of " raw fetish " she combined that of a scientific
collector of fresh-water fishes. She started for the West Coast
in August 1893; and at Kabinda, at Old Calabar, Fernando
Po and on the Lower Congo she pursued her investigations,
returning to England in June 1894. She gained sufficient
knowledge of the native customs to contribute an introduction
to Mr R. E. Dennett's Notes on the Folk Lore of the Fjort (1898).
Miss Kingsley made careful preparations for a second visit to
the same coast; and in December 1894, provided by the
British Museum authorities with a collector's equipment, she
proceeded via Old Calabar to French Congo, and ascended the
Ogow6 River. From this point her journey, in part across
country hitherto untrodden by Europeans, was a long series of
adventures and hairbreadth escapes, at one time from the
dangers of land and water, at another from the cannibal Fang.
Returning to the coast Miss Kingsley went to Corisco and to the
German colony of Cameroon, where she made the ascent of
the Great Cameroon (13,760 ft.) from a direction until then
unattempted. She returned to England in October 1895. The
story of her adventures .and her investigations in fetish is
vividly told in her Travels in West Africa (1897). The book
aroused wide interest, And she lectured to scientific gatherings
on the fauna, flora and folk-lore of West Africa, and to com-
mercial audiences on the trade of that region and its possible
developments, always with a protest against the lack of detailed
knowledge characteristic of modern dealings with new fields of
trade. In both cases she spoke with authority, for she had brought
back a considerable number of new specimens of fishes and plants,
and had herself traded in rubber and oil in the districts through
which she passed. But her chief concern was for the develop-
ment of the negro on African, not European, lines and for the
government of the British possessions on the West Coast by
methods which left the native " a free unsmashed man — not a
whitewashed slave or an enemy." With undaunted energy
Miss Kingsley made preparations for a third journey to the West
Coast, but the Anglo-Boer War changed her plans, and she
KING'S LYNN— KINGSTON, DUCHESS OF
819
decided to go first to South Africa to nurse fever cases. She
died of enteric fever at Simon's Town, where she was engaged
in tending Boer prisoners, on the 3rd of June 1900. Miss
Kingsley's works, besides her Travels, include West African
Studies, The Story of West Africa, a memoir of her father prefixed
to his Notes on Sport and Travel (1899), and many contributions
to the study of West African law and folk-lore. To continue
the investigation of the subjects Miss Kingsley had made her
own " The African Society " was founded in 1901.
Valuable biographical information from the pen of Mr George
A. Macmillan is prefixed to a second edition (1901) of the Studies.
KING'S LYNN (LYNN or LYNN REGIS), a market town, sea-
port and municipal and parliamentary borough of Norfolk,
England, on the estuary of the Great Ouse near its outflow
into the Wash. Pop. (1901), 20,288. It is 97 m. N. by E. from
London by the Great Eastern railway, and is also served by the
Midland and Great Northern joint line. On the land side the
town was formerly defended by a fosse, and there are still con-
siderable remains of the old wall, including the handsome South
Gate of the i5th century. Several by-channels of the river,
passing through the town, are known as fleets, recalling the
similar flethe of Hamburg. The Public Walks forms a pleasant
promenade parallel to the wall, and in the centre of it stands a
picturesque octagonal Chapel of the Red Mount, exhibiting
ornate Perpendicular work, and once frequented by pilgrims.
The church of St Margaret, formerly the priory church, is a fine
building with two towers at the west end, one of which was
formerly surmounted by a spire, blown down in 1741. Norman
or transitional work appears in the base of both towers, of
which the southern also shows Early English and Decorated
work, while the northern is chiefly Perpendicular. There is a
fine Perpendicular east window of circular form. The church
possesses two of the finest monumental brasses in existence,
dated respectively 1349 and 1364. St Nicholas .chapel, at the
north end of the town, is also of rich Perpendicular workmanship,
with a tower of earlier date. All Saints' church in South Lynn
is a beautiful Decorated cruciform structure. Of a Franciscan
friary there remains the Perpendicular Grey Friars' Steeple,
and the doorway remains of a priests' college founded in 1502.
At the grammar school, founded in the reign of Henry VIII.,
but occupying modern buildings, Eugene Aram was usher.
Among the other public buildings are the guildhall, with Re-
naissance front, the corn exchange, the picturesque custom-house
of the 1 7th century, the athenaeum (including a museum, hall
and other departments), the Stanley Library and the municipal
buildings. The fisheries of the town are important, including
extensive mussel-fisheries under the jurisdiction of the corpora-
tion, and there are also breweries, corn-mills, iron and brass
foundries, agricultural implement manufactories, ship-building
yards, rope and sail works. Lynn Harbour has an area of 30 acres
and an average depth at low tide of 10 ft. There is also good
anchorage in the roads leading from the Wash to the docks.
There are two docks of 6f and 10 acres area respectively. A
considerable traffic is carried on by barges on the Ouse. The
municipal and parliamentary boroughs of Lynn are co-extensive;
the parliamentary borough returns one member. The town is
governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
3061 acres.
As Lynn (Lun, Lenne, Bishop's Lynn) owes its origin to the
trade which its early settlers carried by the Ouse and its tribu-
taries its history dates from the period of settled occupation by
the Saxons. It belonged to the bishops of Thetford before the
Conquest and remained with the see when it was translated to
Norwich. Herbert de Losinga (c. 1054-1119) granted its juris-
diction to the cathedral of Norwich but this right was resumed
by a later bishop, John de Gray, who in 1204 had obtained
from John a charter establishing Lynn as a free borough. A
fuller grant in 1206 gave the burgesses a gild merchant, the
busting court to be held once a week only, and general liberties
according to the customs of Oxford, saving the rights of the
bishop and the earl of Arundel, whose ancestor William D'Albini
had received from William II. the moiety of the tolbooth.
Among numerous later charters one of 1268 confirmed the
privilege granted to the burgesses by the bishop of choosing a
mayor; another of 1416 re-established his election by the
aldermen alone. Henry VIII. granted Lynn two charters,
the first (1524) incorporating it under mayor and aldermen;
the second (1537) changing its name to King's Lynn and
transferring to the corporation all the rights hitherto enjoyed
by the bishop. Edward VI. added the possessions of the gild
of the Trinity, or gild merchant, and St George's gild, while
Queen Mary annexed South Lynn. Admiralty rights were
granted by James I. Lynn, which had declared for the Crown
in 1643, surrendered its privileges to Charles II. in 1684, but
recovered its charter on the eve of the Revolution. A fair
held on the festival of St Margaret (July 20) was included in
the grant to the monks of Norwich about 1 100. Three charters
of John granting the bishop fairs on the feasts of St Nicholas,
St Ursula and St Margaret are extant, and another of Edward I.,
changing the last to the feast of St Peter ad Vincula (Aug. i).
A local act was passed in 1558-1559 for keeping a mart or
fair once a year. In the eighteenth century besides the pleasure
fair, still held in February, there was another in October, now
abolished. A royal charter of 1524 established the cattle, corn
and general provisions market, still held every Tuesday and
Saturday. Lynn has ranked high among English seaports from
early times.
See E. M. Beloe, Our Borough (1899) ; H. Harrod, Report on
Deeds, &c., of King's Lynn (1874) ; Victoria County History: Norfolk.
KING'S MOUNTAIN, a mountainous ridge in Gaston county,
North Carolina and York county, South Carolina, U.S.A. It
is an outlier of the Blue Ridge running parallel with it, i.e. N.E.
and S.W., but in contrast with the other mountains of the Blue
Ridge, King's Mountain has a crest marked with sharp and
irregular notches. Its highest point and great escarpment are
in North Carolina. About 15 m. S. of the line between the two
states, where the ridge is about 60 ft. above the surrounding
country and very narrow at the top, the battle of King's Moun-
tain was fought on the 7th of October 1780 between a force of
about 100 Provincial Rangers and about 1000 Loyalist militia
under Major Patrick Ferguson (1744-1780), and an American force
of about 900 backwoodsmen under Colonels William Campbell
(1745-1781), Benjamin Cleveland (i738-i8o6),IsaacShelby,John
Sevier and James Williams (1740-1780), in which the Americans
were victorious. The British loss is stated as 119 killed (includ-
ing the commander), 123 wounded, and 664 prisoners; the
American loss was 28 killed (including Colonel Williams) and 62
wounded. The victory largely contributed to the success of
General Nathanael Greene's campaign against Lord Cornwallis.
There has been some dispute as to the exact site of the engage-
ment, but the weight of evidence is in favour of the position
mentioned above, on the South Carolina side of the line. A
monument erected in 1815 was replaced in 1880 by a much larger
one, and a monument for which Congress appropriated $30,000
in 1906, was completed in 1909.
See L. C. Draper, King's Mountain and its Heroes (Cincinnati,
1881); and Edward McCrady, South Carolina in the Revolution
1775-1780 (New York, 1901).
KINGSTON, ELIZABETH, DUCHESS OF (1720-1788), sometimes
called countess of Bristol, was the daughter of Colonel Thomas
Chudleigh (d. 1726), and was appointed maid of honour to
Augusta, princess of Wales, in 1743, probably through the good
offices of her friend, William Pulteney, earl of Bath. Being a
very beautiful woman Miss Chudleigh did not lack admirers,
among whom were James, 6th duke of Hamilton, and Augustus
John Hervey, afterwards 3rd earl of Bristol. Hamilton, how-
ever, left England, and on the 4th of August 1744 she was
privately married to Hervey at Lainston, near Winchester.
Both husband and wife being poor, their union was kept secret
to enable Elizabeth to retain her post at court, while Hervey,
who was a naval officer, rejoined his ship, returning to England
towards the close of 1746. The marriage was a very unhappy
one, and the pair soon ceased to live together; but when it
appeared probable that Hervey would succeed his brother as earl
820
KINGSTON, W. H. G.— KINGSTON
of Bristol, his wife took steps to obtain proof of her marriage.
This did not, however, prevent her from becoming the mistress
of Evelyn Pierrepont, 2nd duke of Kingston, and she was not
only a very prominent figure in London society, but in 1765 in
Berlin she was honoured by the attentions of Frederick the
Great. By this time Hervey wished for a divorce from his wife;
but Elizabeth, although equally anxious to be free, was un-
willing to face the publicity attendant upon this step. However
she began a suit of jactitation against Hervey. This case was doubt-
less collusive, and after Elizabeth had sworn she was unmarried,
the court in February 1769 pronounced her a spinster. Within
a month she married Kingston, who died four years later, leaving
her all his property on condition that she remained a widow.
Visiting Rome the duchess was received with honour by Clement
XIV.; after which she hurried back to England to defend herself
from a charge of bigamy, which had been preferred against her
by Kingston's nephew, Evelyn Meadows (d. 1826). The house
of Lords in 1776 found her guilty, and retaining her fortune she
hurriedly left England to avoid further proceedings on the part
of the Meadows family, who had a reversionary interest in the
Kingston estates. She lived for a time in Calais, and then
repaired to St Petersburg, near which city she bought an estate
which she named " Chudleigh." Afterwards she resided in
Paris, Rome, and elsewhere, and died in Paris on the 26th of
August 1788. The duchess was a coarse and licentious woman,
and was ridiculed as Kitty Crocodile by the comedian Samuel
Foote in a play A Trip to Calais, which, however, he was not
allowed to produce. She is said to have been the original of
Thackeray's characters, Beatrice and Baroness Bernstein.
There is an account of the duchess in J. H. Jesse's Memoirs of the
Court of England 1688-1760, vol. iv. (1901).
KINGSTON, WILLIAM HENRY GILES (1814-1880), English
novelist, son of Lucy Henry Kingston, was born in London on
the 28th of February 1814. Much of his youth was spent at
Oporto, where his father was a merchant, but when he entered
the business, he made his headquarters in London. He early
wrote newspaper articles on Portuguese subjects. These were
translated into Portuguese, and the author received a Portuguese
order of knighthood and a pension for his services in the con-
clusion of the commercial treaty of 1842. In 1844 his first book,
The Circassian Chief, appeared, and in 1845 The Prime Minister,
a Story of the Days of the Great Marquis of Pombal. The Lusi-
tanian Sketches describe Kingston's travels in Portugal. In
1851 Peter the Whaler, his first book for boys, came out. These
books proved so popular that Kingston retired from business,
and devoted himself to the production of tales of adventure for
boys. Within thirty years he wrote upwards of one hundred
and thirty such books. He had a practical knowledge of sea-
manship, and his stories of the sea, full of thrilling adventures
and hairbreadth escapes, exactly hit the taste of his boy readers.
Characteristic specimens of his work are The Three Midshipmen;
The Three Lieutenants; The Three Commanders; and The
Three Admirals. He also wrote popular accounts of famous
travellers by land and sea, and translated some of the stories of
Jules Verne.
In all philanthropic schemes Kingston took deep interest; he
was the promoter of the mission to seamen; and he acted as
secretary of a society for promoting an improved system of
emigration. He was editor of the Colonist for a short time in
1844 and of the Colonial Magazine and East Indian Rniew from
1849 to 1851. He was a supporter of the volunteer movement
in England from the first. He died at Willesden on the 5th of
August 1880.
KINGSTON, the chief city of Frontenac county, Ontario,
Canada, at the north-eastern extremity of Lake Ontario, and
the mouth of the Cataraqui River. Pop. (1901), 17,961. It is
an important station on the Grand Trunk railway, the terminus
of the Kingston & Pembroke railway, and has steamboat
communication with other ports on Lake Ontario and the Bay
of Quinte, on the St Lawrence and the Rideau canal. It contains
a fine stone graving dock, 280 ft. long, 100 ft. wide, and with a
depth of 16 ft. at low water on the sill. The fortifications, which
at one time made it one of the strongest fortresses in Canada, are
now out of date. The sterility of the surrounding country, and
the growth of railways have lessened its commercial importance,
but it still contains a number of small factories, and important
locomotive works and ship-building yards. As an educational
and residential centre it retains high rank, and is a popular
summer resort. It is the seat of an Anglican and of a Roman
Catholic bishopric, of the Royal Military College (founded by
the Dominion government in 1875), of an artillery school, and
of Queen's University, an institution founded in 1839 under the
nominal control of the Presbyterian church, now including about
1200 students. In the suburbs are a Dominion penitentiary,
and a provincial lunatic asylum. Founded by the French in
1673, under the name of Kateracoui, soon changed to Fort
Frontenac, it played an important part in the wars between
English and French. Taken and destroyed by the English in
1758, it was refounded in 1782 under its present name, and was
from 1841 to 1844 the capital of Canada.
KINGSTON, a city and the county-seat of Ulster county, New
York, U.S.A., on the Hudson River, at the mouth of Rondout
Creek, about 90 m. N. of New York and about 53 m. S. of Albany.
Pop. (1900), 24,535 — 3551 being foreign-born; (1910 census)
25,908. It is served by the West Shore (which here crosses
Rondout Creek on a high bridge), the New York Ontario &
Western, the Ulster & Delaware, and the Wallkill Valley rail-
ways, by a ferry across the river to Rhinecliff, where connexion
is made with the New York Central & Hudson River railroad,
and by steamboat lines to New York, Albany and other river
points. The principal part of the city is built on a level plateau
about 150 ft. above the river; other parts of the site vary from
flatlands to rough highlands. To the N.W. is the mountain
scenery of the Catskills, to the S.W. the Shawangunk Mountains
and Lake Mohonk, and in the distance across the river are the
Berkshire Hills. The most prominent public buildings are the
post office and the city hall; in front of the latter is a Soldiers'
and Sailors' Monument. The city has a Carnegie library. The
" Senate House " — now the property of the state, with a colonial
museum — was erected about 1676; it was the meeting place of
the first State Senate in 1777, and was burned (except the walls)
in October of that year. The court house (1818) stands on the
site of the old court house, in which Governor George Clinton
was inaugurated in July 1777, and in which Chief Justice John
Jay held the first term of the New York Supreme Court in
September 1777. The Elmendorf Tavern (1723) was the
meeting-place of the New York Council of Safety in October
1777. Kingston Academy was organized in 1773, and in 1864
was transferred to the Kingston Board of Education and became
part of the city's public school system; its present building dates
from 1806. Kingston's principal manufactures are tobacco,
cigars and cigarettes, street railway cars and boats; other
manufactures are Rosendale cement, bricks, shirts, lace curtains,
brushes, motor wheels, sash and blinds. The city ships large
quantities of building and flag stones quarried in the vicinity.
The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $5,000,922,
an increase of 26-5 % since 1900.
In 1614 a small fort was built by the Dutch at the mouth of
Rondout Creek, and in 1652 a settlement was established in the
vicinity and named Esopus after the Esopus Indians, who were
a subdivision of the Munsee branch of the Delawares, and whose
name meant " small river," referring possibly to Rondout
Creek. The settlement was deserted in 1655-56 on account of
threatened Indian attacks. In 1658 a stockade was built by
the order of Governor Peter Stuyvesant, and from this event
the actual founding of the city is generally dated. In 1659 the
massacre of several drunken Indians by the soldiers caused a
general rising of the Indians, who unsuccessfully attacked the
stockade, killing some of the soldiers and inhabitants, and
capturing and torturing others. Hostilities continued into
the following year. In 1661 the governor named the place
Wiltwyck and gave it a municipal charter. In 1663 it suffered
from another Indian attack, a number of the inhabitants
being slain or taken prisoners. The English took possession
KINGSTON— KINGSTON-UPON-HULL, EARLS OF 821
in 1664, and in 1669 Wiltwyck was named Kingston, after
Kingston Lisle, near Wantage, England, the family seat
of Governor Francis Lovelace. In the same year the English
garrison was removed. In 1673-1674 Kingston was again tempo-
rarily under the control of the Dutch, who called it Swanen-
burg. In 1777 the convention which drafted the new state
constitution met in Kingston, and during part of the year
Kingston was the seat of the new state government. On the
i6th of October 1777 the British under General Sir John Vaughan
(1748-95) sacked it and burned nearly all its buildings. In
1908 the body of George Clinton was removed from Washington,
D.C., and reinterred in Kingston on the 2$oth anniversary of
the building of the stockade. In 1787 Kingston was one of the
places contemplated as a site for the national capital. In 1805
it was incorporated as a village, and in 1872 it absorbed the
villages of Rondout and Wilbur and was made a city.
See M. Schoonmaker, History of Kingston (New York, 1888).
KINGSTON, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the North Branch of the Susquehanna river, opposite
Wilkes-Barr6. Pop. (1900), 3846 (1039 foreign-born); (1910)
6449. Kingston is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna &
Western and the Lehigh Valley railways. It is the seat of
Wyoming Seminary (1844; co-educational), a well-known
secondary school. Anthracite coal is mined here; there are
railway repair and machine-shops; and among the borough's
manufactures are hosiery, silk goods, underwear and adding
machines. Kingston (at first called " Kingstown," from Kings
Towne, Rhode Island) was commonly known in its early days
as the " Forty Township," because the first permanent settle-
ment was made by forty pioneers from Connecticut, who were
sent out by the Susquehanna Company and took possession
of the district in its name in 1769. In 1772 the famous "Forty
Fort," a stockade fortification, was built here, and in 1777 it was
rebuilt, strengthened and enlarged. Here on the 3rd of July
1778 about 400 men and boys met, and under the command of
Colonel Zebulon Butler (1731-95) went out to meet a force of
about noo British troops and Indians, commanded by Major
John Butler and Old King (Sayenqueraghte). The Americans
were defeated in the engagement that followed, and many of
the prisoners taken were massacred or tortured by the Indians.
A monument near the site of the fort commemorates the battle
and massacre. Kingston was incorporated as a borough in 1857.
(See WYOMING VALLEY.)
KINGSTON, the capital and chief port of Jamaica, West Indies.
Pop. (1901), 46,542, mostly negroes. It is situated in the county
of Surrey, in the south-east of the island, standing on the north
shore of a land-locked harbour — for its size one of the finest in
the world — and with its suburbs occupying an area of 1080
acres. The town contains the principal government offices.
It has a good water supply, a telephone service and a supply of
both gas and electric light, while electric trams ply between
the town and its suburbs. The Institute of Jamaica maintains
a public library, museum and art gallery especially devoted to
local interests. The old parish church in King Street, dating
probably from 1692 was the burial-place of William Hall (1699)
and Admiral Benbow (1702). The suburbs are remarkable for
their beauty. The climate is dry and healthy, and the tempera-
ture ranges from 93° to 66° F. Kingston was founded in 1693,
after the neighbouring town of Port Royal had been ruined by
an earthquake in 1692. In 1703, Port Royal having been again
laid waste by fire, Kingston became the commercial, and in 1872
the political, capital of the island. On several occasions King-
ston was almost entirely consumed by fire, the conflagrations of
1780, 1843, X862 and 1882 being particularly severe. On the
i4th of January 1907 it was devastated by a terrible earthquake.
A long immunity had led to the erection of many buildings not
specially designed to withstand such shocks, and these and the
fire which followed were so destructive that practically the whole
town had to be rebuilt. (See JAMAICA.)
KINGSTON-ON-THAMES, a market town and municipal
borough in the Kingston parliamentary division of Surrey,
England, n m. S.W. of Charing Cross, London; on the London
and South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 34,375- It nas a
frontage with public walks and gardens upon the right bank of
the Thames, and is in close proximity to Richmond and Bushey
Parks, its pleasant situation rendering it a favourite residential
district. The ancient wooden bridge over the river, which was
in existence as early as 1223, was superseded by a structure of
stone in 1827. The parish church of All Saints, chiefly Per-
pendicular in style, contains several brasses of the isth century,
and monuments by Chantrey and others; the grammar school,
rebuilt in 1878, was originally founded as a chantry by Edward
Lovekyn in 1305, and converted into a school by Queen Eliza-
beth. Near the parish church stood the chapel of St Mary,
where it is alleged the Saxon kings were crowned. The ancient
stone said to have been used as a throne at these coronations
was removed to the market-place in 1850. At Norbiton, within
the borough, is the Royal Cambridge Asylum for soldiers'
widows (1854). At Kingston Hill is an industrial and training
school for girls, opened in 1892. There are large market gardens
in the neighbourhood, and the town possesses oil-mills, flour-
mills, breweries and brick and tile works. The borough is under
a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 1133 acres.
The position of Kingston (Cyningestun, Chingestune) on the
Thames where there was probably a ford accounts for its origin;
its later prosperity was due to the bridge which existed in 1223
and possibly long before. In 836 or 838 it was the meeting-place
of the council under Ecgbert, and in the icth century some if not
all of the West Saxon kings were crowned at Kingston. In the
time of Edward the Confessor it was a royal manor, and in 1086
included a church, five mills and three fisheries. Domesday
also mentions bedels in Kingston. The original charters were
granted by John in 1200 and 1209, by which the free men of
Kingston were empowered to hold the town in fee-farm for ever,
with all the liberties that it had while in the king's hands. Henry
III. sanctioned the gild-merchant which had existed previously,
and granted other privileges. These charters were confirmed
and extended by many succeeding monarchs down to Charles I.
Henry VI. incorporated the town under two bailiffs. Except
for temporary surrenders of their corporate privileges under
Charles II. and James II. the government of the borough
continued in its original form until 1835, when it was rein-
corporated under the title of mayor, aldermen and burgesses.
Kingston returned two members to parliament in 1311, 1313,
1353 and 1373, but never afterwards. The market, still held on
Saturdays, was granted by James I., and the Wednesday market
by Charles II. To these a cattle-market on Thursdays has been
added by the corporation. The only remaining fair, now held
on the i3th of November, was granted by Henry III., and was
then held on the morrow of All Souls and seven days following.
KINGSTON-UPON-HULL, EARLS AND DUKES OF. These
titles were borne by the family of Pierrepont, or Pierrepoint,
from 1628 to 1773.
ROBERT PIERREPONT (1584-1643), second son of Sir Henry
Pierrepont of Holme Pierrepont, Nottinghamshire, was member
of parliament for Nottingham in 1601, and was created Baron
Pierrepont and Viscount Newark in 1627, being made earl of
Kingston-upon-Hull in the following year. He remained neutral
on the outbreak of the Civil War; but afterwards he joined
the king, and was appointed lieutenant-general of the counties
of Lincoln, Rutland, Huntingdon, Cambridge and Norfolk.
Whilst defending Gainsborough he was taken prisoner, and was
accidentally killed on the 25th of July 1643 while being conveyed
to Hull. The earl had five sons, one of whom was Francis
Pierrepont (d. 1659), a colonel in the parliamentary army and
afterwards a member of the Long Parliament; and another was
William Pierrepont (q.i).), a leading member of the parliamentary
party.
His son HENRY PIERREPONT (1606-1680), 2nd earl of Kingston
and ist marquess of Dorchester, was member of parliament for
Nottinghamshire, and was called to the House of Lords as Baron
Pierrepont in 1641. During the earlier part of the Civil War he
was at Oxford in attendance upon the king, whom he represented
at the negotiations at Uxbridge. In 1645 he was made a privy
822
KINGSTOWN— KINKAJOU
councillor and created marquess of Dorchester; but in 164 7 he
compounded for his estates by paying a large fine to the parlia-
mentarians. Afterwards the marquess, who was always fond
of books, spent his time mainly in London engaged in the study
of medicine and law, his devotion to the former science bringing
upon him a certain amount of ridicule and abuse. After the
Restoration he was restored to the privy council, and was made
recorder of Nottingham and a fellow of the Royal Society.
Dorchester had two daughters, but no sons, and when he died
in London on the 8th of December 1680 the title of marquess of
Dorchester became extinct. He was succeeded as 3rd earl of
Kingston by Robert (d. 1682), a son of Robert Pierrepont of
Thoresby, Nottinghamshire, and as 4th earl by Robert's brother
William (d. 1690).
EVELYN PIERREPONT (c. 1655-1726), 5th earl and ist duke of
Kingston, another brother had been member of parliament for
East Retford before his accession to the peerage. While serving
as one of the commissioners for the union with Scotland he was
created marquess of Dorchester in 1706, and took a leading part
in the business of the House of Lords. He was made a privy
councillor and in 1715 was created duke of Kingston; afterwards
serving as lord privy seal and lord president of the council. The
duke, who died on the 5th of March 1726, was a prominent figure
in the fashionable society of his day. He was twice married,
and had five daughters, among whom was Lady Mary Wortley
Montagu (q.v.), and one son, William, earl of Kingston (d. 1713).
The latter's son, EVELYN PIERREPONT (1711-1773), succeeded
his grandfather as second duke cf Kingston. When the rebellion
of 1745 broke out he raised a regiment called " Kingston's light
horse," which distinguished itself at Culloden. The duke, who
attained the rank of general in the army, is described by Horace
Walpole as " a very weak man, of the greatest beauty and finest
person in England." He is chiefly famous for his connexion
with Elizabeth Chudleigh, who claimed to be duchess of Kingston
(q.v.). The Kingston titles became extinct on the duke's death
without children on the 23rd of September 1773, but on the death
of the duchess in 1788 the estates came to his nephew Charles
Meadows (1737-1816), who took the name of Pierrepont and was
created Baron Pierrepont and Viscount Newark in 1796, and Earl
Manvers in 1806. His descendant, the present Earl Manvers, is
thus the representative of the dukes of Kingston.
KINGSTOWN, a seaport of Co. Dublin, Ireland, in the south
parliamentary division, at the south-eastern extremity of
Dublin Bay, 6 m. S.E. from Dublin by the Dublin & South-
Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 17,377. It is a
large seaport and favourite watering-place, and possesses several
fine streets, with electric trams, and terraces commanding
picturesque sea views. The original name of Kingstown was
Dunleary, which was exchanged for the present designation after
the embarkation of George IV. at the port on his return from
Ireland in 1821, an event which is also commemorated by a
granite obelisk erected near the harbour. The town was a mere
fishing village until the construction of an extensive harbour,
begun in 1817 and finally completed in 1859. The eastern pier
has a length of 3500 ft. and the western of 4950 ft., the total
area enclosed being about 250 acres, with a varying depth of
from 15 to 27 ft. Kingstown is the station of the City of Dublin
Steam Packet Company's mail steamers to Holyhead in con-
nexion with the London & North- Western railway. It has large
export and import trade both with Great Britain and foreign
countries. The principal export is cattle, and the principal
imports corn and provisions. Kingstown is the centre of an
extensive sea-fishery; and there are three yacht clubs: the Royal
Irish, Royal St George and Royal Alfred.
KING-Tfi CH£N, a town near Fu-liang Hien, in the province of
Kiang-si, China, and the principal seat of the porcelain manu-
facture in that empire. Being situated on the south bank of the
river Chang, it was in ancient times known as Chang-nan Chtn,
or " town on the south of the river Chang." It is unwalled, and
straggles along the bank of the river. The streets are narrow,
and crowded with a population which is reckoned at a million,
the vast majority of whom find employment at the porcelain
factories. Since the Ch'in dynasty (557-589) this has been the
great trade of the place, which was then called by its earlier
name. In the reign of King-te (Chen-tsung) of the Sung dynasty,
early in the nth century A.D., a manufactory was founded there
for making vases and objects of art for the use of the emperor.
Hence its adoption of its present title. Since the time of the
Ming dynasty a magistrate has been specially appointed to
superintend the factories and to despatch at regulated intervals
the imperial porcelain to Peking. The town is situated on a vast
plain surrounded by mountains, and boasts of three thousand
porcelain furnaces. These constantly burning fires are the causes
of frequent conflagrations, and at night give the city the appear-
ance of a place on fire. The people are as a rule orderly, though
they have on several occasions shown a hostile bearing towards
foreign visitors. This is probably to be accounted for by a desire
to keep their art as far as possible a mystery, which appears less
unreasonable when it is remembered that the two kinds of earth
of which the porcelain is made are not found at King-te Chen, but
are brought from K'i-mun in the neighbouring province of Ngan-
hui, and that there is therefore no reason why the trade should be
necessarily maintained at that place. The two kinds of earth
are known as pai-tun-tsze, which is a fine fusible quartz powder,
and kao-lin, which is not fusible, and is said to give strength to
the ware. Both materials are prepared in the shape of bricks at
K'i-mun, and are brought down the Chang to the seat of the
manufacture.
KING USSIE, a town of Inverness-shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901 ),
987. It lies at a height of 750 ft. above sea-level, on the left bank
of the Spey, here crossed by a bridge, 465 m. S. by S.E. of Inver-
ness by the Highland railway. It was founded towards the end
of the 1 8th century by the duke of Gordon, in the hope of its
becoming a centre of woollen manufactures. This expectation,
however, was not realized, but in time the place grew popular as a
health resort, the scenery in every direction being remarkably
picturesque. On the right bank of the river is Ruthven, where
James Macpherson was born in 1 736, and on the left bank, some
2$ m. from Kingussie, is the house of Belleville (previously
known as Raitts) which he acquired from Mackintosh of Borlum
and where he died in 1796. The mansion, renamed Balavil by
Macpherson's great-grandson, was burned down in 1903, when
the fine library (including some MSS. of Sir David Brewster,
who had married the poet's second daughter) was destroyed. Of
Ruthven Castle, one of the residences of the Comyns of Badenoch,
only the ruins of the walls remain. Here the Jacobites made an
ineffectual rally under Lord George Murray after the battle of
Culloden.
KING WILLIAM'S TOWN, a town of South Africa, in the Cape
province and on the Buffalo River, 42 m. by rail W.N.W. of the
port of East London. Pop. (1904), 9506, of whom 5987 were
whites. It is the headquarters of the Cape Mounted Police.
" King," as the town is locally called, stands 1275 ft. above the
sea at the foot of the Amatola Mountains, and in the midst of a
thickly populated agricultural district. The town is well laid
out and most of the public buildings and merchants' stores are
built of stone. There are manufactories of sweets and jams,
candles, soap, matches and leather, and a large trade in wool,
hides and grains is done with East London. " King " is also an
important entrep6t for trade with the natives throughout
Kaffraria, with which there is direct railway communication.
Founded by Sir Benjamin D'Urban in May 1835 during the Kaffir
War of that year, the town is named after William IV. It was
abandoned in December 1836, but was reoccupied in 1846 and was
the capital of British Kaffraria from its creation in 1847 to its
incorporation in 1865 with Cape Colony. Many of the colonists
in the neighbouring districts are descendants of members of the
German legion disbanded after the Crimean War and provided
with homes in Cape Colony; hence such names as Berlin, Potsdam,
Braunschweig, Frankfurt, given to settlements in this part of the
country.
KINKAJOU (Cercoleptes caudivolvulus or Polos flavus), the
single species of an aberrant genus of the raccoon family (Pro-
cyonidae). It has been split up into a number of local races. A
KINKEL— KINORHYNCHA
823
native of the forests of the warmer parts of South and Central
Arherica, the kinkajou is about the size of a cat, of a uniform
pale, yellowish-brown colour, nocturnal and arboreal in its
habits, feeding on fruit, honey, eggs and small birds and
mammals, and is of a tolerably gentle disposition and easily
tamed. (See CARNIVORA.)
KINKEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1815-1882), German poet,
was born on the nth of August 1815 at Obercassel near Bonn.
Having studied theology at Bonn and afterwards in Berlin, he
established himself at Bonn in 1836 as privat decent of theology,
later became master at the gymnasium there, and was for a short
time assistant preacher in Cologne. Changing his religious
opinions, he abandoned theology and delivered lectures on the
history of art, in which he had become interested on a journey to
Italy in 1837. In 1846 he was appointed extraordinary professor
of the history of art at Bonn University. For his share in the
revolution in the Palatinate in 1849 Kinkel was arrested and,
sentenced to penal servitude for life, was interned in the fortress
of Spandau. His friend Carl Schurz contrived in November 1850
to effect his escape to England, whence he went to the United
States. Returning to London in 1853, he for several years taught
German and lectured on German literature, and in 1858 founded
the German paper Hermann. In 1866 he accepted the professor-
ship of archaeology and the history of art at the Polytechnikum
in Zurich, in which city he died on the i3th of November 1882.
The popularity which Kinkel enjoyed in his day was hardly
justified by his talent; his poetry is of the sweetly sentimental
type which was much in vogue in Germany about the middle of
the igth century. His Gedichte first appeared in 1843, and have
gone through several editions. He is to be seen to most advan-
tage in the verse romances, Otto der Schutz, eine rheinische
Geschichte inzwolf Abenteuern (1846) which in 1896 had attained
its 75th edition, and Der Grobschmied von Antwerpen (1868).
Among Kinkel's other works may be mentioned the tragedy
Nimrod (1857), and his history of art, Geschichte der bildenden
Ktinste bet den christlichen Volkern (1845). Kinkel's first wife,
Johanna, nee Mockel (1810-1858), assisted her husband in his
literary work, and was herself an author of considerable merit.
Her admirable autobiographical novel Hans Ibeles in London
was not published until 1860, after her death. She also wrote
on musical subjects.
See A. Strodtmann, Gottfried Kinkel (2 vols., Hamburg, 1851);
and O. Henne am Rhyn, G. Kinkel, ein Lebensbild (Zurich, 1883).
KINNING PARK, a southern suburb of Glasgow, Scotland.
Pop. (1901), 13,852. It is situated on the left bank of the Clyde
between Glasgow, with which it is connected by tramway and
subway, and Govan. Since 1850 it has grown from a rural
village to a busy centre mainly inhabited by artisans and
labourers. Its principal industries are engineering, bread and
biscuit baking, soap-making and paint-making.
KINNOR (Gr. Kivvpa), the Hebrew name for an ancient
stringed instrument, the first mentioned in the Bible (Gen. iv. 21),
where it is now always translated " harp." The identification of
the instrument has been much discussed, but, from the stand-
point of the history of musical instruments, the weight of evidence
' is in favour of the view that the Semitic kinnor is the Greek
cithara (g.v.). This instrument was already in use before 2000 B.C.
among the Semitic races and in a higher state of development
than it ever attained in Greece during the best classic period.
It is unlikely that an instrument (which also appears on Hebrew
coins) so widely known and used in various parts of Asia Minor
in remote times, and occurring among the Hittite sculptures,
should pass unmentioned in the Bible, with the exception of
the verses in Dan. iii.
KINO, the West African name of an astringent drug intro-
duced into European medicine in 1757 by John Fothergill. When
described by him it was believed to have been brought from the
river Gambia in West Africa, and when first imported it was sold
in England as Gumnti rubrum astringens gambiense. It was
obtained from Pterocarpus erinaceus. The drug now recognized
as the legitimate kind is East Indian, Malabar or Amboyna kino,
which is the evaporated juice obtained from incisions in the trunk
of Pterocarpus Marsupium (Leguminosae), though Botany Bay
or eucalyptus kino is used in Australia. When exuding from the
tree it resembles red-currant jelly, but hardens in a few hours after
exposure to the air and sun. When sufficiently dried it is packed
into wooden boxes for exportation. When these are opened it
breaks up into angular brittle fragments of a blackish-red coloui
and shining surface. In cold water it is only partially dissolved,
leaving a pale flocculent residue which is soluble in boiling water
but deposited again on cooling. It is soluble in alcohol and
caustic alkalis, but not in ether.
The chief constituent of the drug is kino-tannic acid, which
is present to the extent of about 75%; it is only very slightly
soluble in cold water. It is not absorbed at all from the stomach
and only very slowly from the intestine. Other constituents
are gum, pyrocatechin, and kinoin, a crystalline neutral principle.
Kino-red is also present in small quantity, being an oxidation
product of kino-tannic acid. The useful preparations of this drug
are the tincture (dose f-i drachm), and the pulvis kino compositus
(dose 5-20 gr.) which contains one part of opium in twenty.
The drug is frequently used in diarrhoea, its value being due to
the relative insolubility of kino-tannic acid, which enables it to
affect the lower part of the intestine. In this respect it is parallel
with catechu. It is not now used as a gargle, antiseptics being
recognized as the rational treatment for sore-throat.
KINORHYNCHA, an isolated group of minute animals con-
taining the single genus Echinoderes F. Dujardin, with some
eighteen species. They occur in mud and on sea-weeds at the
bottom of shallow seas below low-water mark and devour organic
debris.
The body is enclosed in a stout cuticle, prolonged in places into
spines and bristles. These are especially conspicuous in two rings
(Alter Hartog. from Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii., "Worms, &c.," by permission
of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd.)
b, bristle; cs, caudal spine; ph, pharynx; s & s', the spines on the
two segments of the proboscis; sg, salivary glands; st, stomach.
round the proboscis and in the two posterior caudal spines. The
body is divided into eleven segments and the protrusible pro-
boscis apparently into two, and the cuticle of the central segment
is thickened to form three plates, one dorsal and two ventro-
lateral. The cuticle is secreted by an epidermis in which no cell
boundaries are to be seen; it sends out processes into the bristles.
The mouth opens at the tip of the retractile proboscis; it leads
into a short thin-walled tube which opens into an oval muscular
gizzard lined with a thick cuticle; at the posterior end of this are
some minute glands and then follows a large stomach slightly
sacculated in each segment, this tapers through the rectum to the
teiminal anus. A pair of pear-shaped, ciliated glands inside lie
in the eighth segment and open on the ninth. They are regarded
as kidneys. The nervous system consists of a ganglion or brain,
which lies dorsally about the level of the junction of the pharynx
and the stomach, a nerve ring and a segmented neutral cord. .
The only sense organs described are eyes, which occur in some
species, and may number one to four pairs.
824
KINROSS-SHIRE— KINSALE
The Kinorhyncha are dioecious. The testes reach forward to
the fifth and even to the second segment, and open one each side
of the anus. The ovaries open in a similar position but never
reach farther forward than the fourth segment. The external
openings in the male are armed with a pair of hollowed spines.
The animals are probably oviparous.
LITERATURE. — F. Dujardin, Ann. Sci. Nat., yd series, Zool. xv.
1851 p. 158; W. Reinhard, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. xlv. 1887, pp.
401-467, t. xx.-xxii.; C. Zelinka, Verh. d. Deutsch. Zool. Ges., 1894.
^A. E*. J.)
KINROSS-SHIRE, a county of Scotland, bounded N. and W. by
Perthshire, on the extreme S.W. by Clackmannanshire and S. and
E. by Fifeshire. Its area is 52,410 acres or 81-9 sq. m. Except-
ing Clackmannan it is the smallest county in Scotland both in
point of area and of population. On its confines the shire is hilly.
To the N. and W. are several peaks of the Ochils, the highest
being Innerdouny (1621 ft.) and Mellock (1573); to the E. are
the heights of the Lomond group, such as White Craigs (1492 ft.)
and Bishop Hill; to the S. are Benarty (1131 ft.) on the Fife
border and farther west the Cleish Hills, reaching in Dumglow
an altitude of 1241 ft. With the exception of the Leven, which
drains Loch Leven and of which only the first mile of its course
belongs to the county, all the streams are short. Green's Burn,
the North and South Queich, and the Gairney are the principal.
Loch Leven, the only lake, is remarkable rather for its associ-
ations than its natural features. The scenery on the Devon, west
of the Crook, the river here forming the boundary with Perth-
shire, is of a lovely and romantic character. At one place the
stream rushes through the rocky gorge with a loud clacking
sound which has given to the spot the name of the Devil's Mill,
and later it flows under the Rumbling Bridge. In reality there
are two bridges, one built over the other, in the same vertical
line. The lower one dates from 1713 and is unused; but the
loftier and larger one, erected in 1816, commands a beautiful
view. A little farther west is the graceful cascade of the Caldron
Linn, the fall of which was lessened, however, by a collapse of
the rocks in 1886.
Geology. — The northern higher portion of the county is occupied
by the Lower Old Red Sandstone volcanic lavas and agglomerates
of the Ochils. The coarse character of some of the lower agglomer-
ate beds is well seen in the gorge at Rumbling Bridge. The beds
dip gently towards the S.S.E. ; in a north-easterly direction they con-
tain more sandy sediments, and the agglomerates and breccias
frequently become conglomerates. The plain of Kinross is occupied
by the soft sandstones, marls and conglomerates of the upper Old
Red Sandstone, which rest unconformably upon the lower division
with a strong dip. Southward and eastward these rocks dip con-
formably beneath the Lower Carboniferous cement stone series of the
Calciferous Sandstone group. The overlying Carboniferous lime-
stone occupies only a small area in the south and east of the county.
Intrusive basalt sheets have been intercalated between some of the
Carboniferous strata, and the superior resisting power of this rock
has been the cause of the existence of West Lomond, Benarty,
Cleish Hills and Bishop Hill, which are formed of soft marls and
sandstones capped by basalt. The Hurlet limestone is worked on
the Lomond and Bishop Hills. East- and west-running dikes of
basalt are found in the north-east of the county, traversing the Old
Red volcanic rocks. Kames of gravel and sand and similar glacial
detritus are widely spread over the older rocks.
Climate and Industries. — The lower part of the county is
generally well sheltered and adapted to all kinds of crops; and
the climate, though wet and cold, offers no hindrance to high
farming. The average annual rainfall is 35-5 inches, and the
temperature for the year is 48° F., for January 38° F. and for July
59°- 5 F. More than half of the holdings exceed 50 acres each.
Much of the land has been reclaimed, the mossy tracts when
drained and cultivated being very fertile. Barley is the principal
crop, and oats also is grown largely, but the acreage under wheat
is small. Turnips and potatoes are the chief green crops, the
former the more important. The raising of livestock is pursued
with great enterprise, the hilly land being well suited for this
industry, although many cattle are pastured on the lowland
farms. The cattle are mainly a native breed, which has been
much improved by crossing. The number of sheep is high for
the area. Although most of the horses are used for agricultural
work, a considerable proportion are kept solely for breeding.
Tartans, plaids and other woollens, and linen are manufactured
at Kinross and Milnathort, which is besides an important centre
for livestock sales. Brewing and milling are also carried on in
the county town, but stock-raising and agriculture are the staple
interests. The North British railway company's lines, from
the south and west run through the county via Kinross, and the
Mid-Fife line branches off at Mawcarse Junction.
Population and Government. — The population was 6673 in
1891 and 6981 in 1901, when 55 persons spoke Gaelic and
English. The only towns are Kinross (pop. in 1901, 2136) and
Milnathort (1052). Kinross is the county town, and of consider-
able antiquity. The county unites with Clackmannanshire to
return one member to parliament. It forms a sheriffdom with
Fifeshire and a sheriff-substitute sits at Kinross. The shire is
under school-board jurisdiction.
History. — For several centuries the shire formed part of Fife,
and during that period shared its history. Towards the middle
of the i3th century, however, the parishes of Kinross and Orwell
seem to have been constituted into a shire, which, at the date
(1305) of Edward I.'s ordinance for the government of Scotland,
had become an hereditary sheriffdom, John of Kinross then being
named for the office. James I. dispensed with the attendance
of small barons in 1427 and introduced the principle of represen-
tation, when the shire returned one member to the Scots parlia-
ment. The inclusion of the Fife parishes of Portmoak, Cleish
and Tullibole in 1685, due to the influence of Sir William Bruce,
the royal architect and heritable sheriff, converted the older shire
into the modern county. Excepting, however, the dramatic
and romantic episodes connected with the castle of Loch Leven,
the annals of the shire, so far as the national story is concerned,
are vacant. As to its antiquities, there are traces of an ancient
fort or camp on the top of Dumglow, and on a hill on the northern
boundary of the parish of Orwell a remarkable cairn, called Cairn-
a-vain, in the centre of which a stone cist was discovered in 1810
containing an urn full of bones and charcoal. Close to the town
of Kinross, on the margin of Loch Leven, stands Kinross House,
which was built in 1685 by Sir William Bruce as a residence for
the Duke of York (James II.) in case the Exclusion Bill should
debar him from the throne of England. The mansion, however,
was never occupied by royalty.
See/E. J.G. Mackay, History of Fife and Kinross (Edinburgh, 1896) ;
W. J. N. Liddall, The Place Names of Fife and Kinross (Edinburgh,
1895); C. Ross, Antiquities of Kinross-shire (Perth, 1886); R. B.
Begg, History of Lochleven Castle (Kinross, 1887).
KINSALE, a market town and seaport of Co. Cork, Ireland,
in the south-east parliamentary division, on the east shore
of Kinsale Harbour (the estuary of the Bandon river) 24 m.
south of Cork by the Cork Bandon & South Coast railway,
the terminus of a branch line. Pop. of urban district (1901),
4250. The town occupies chiefly the acclivity of Compass
Hill, and while of picturesque appearance is built in a very
irregular manner, the streets being narrow and precipitous.
The Charles Fort was completed by the duke of Ormonde in
1677 and captured by the earl of Marlborough in 1690. The
parish church of St Multose is an ancient but inelegant struc-
ture, said to have been founded as a conventual church in the
1 2th century by the saint to whom it is dedicated. Kinsale,
with the neighbouring villages of Scilly and Cove, is much fre-
quented by summer visitors, and is the headquarters of the
South of Ireland Fishing Company, with a fishery pier and a
commodious harbour with 6 to 8 fathoms of water; but the
general trade is of little importance owing to the proximity of
Queenstown and Cork. The Old Head of Kinsale, at the west
of the harbour entrance, affords fine views of the coast, and is
commonly the first British land sighted by ships bound from
New York, &c., to Queenstown.
Kinsale is said to derive its name from cean taile, the headland
in the sea. At an early period the town belonged to the De
Courcys, a representative of whom was created baron of Kinsale
or Kingsale in 1181. It received a charter of incorporation
from Edward III., having previously been a borough by pre-
scription, and its privileges were confirmed and extended by
KINTORE— KIPLING
825
various subsequent sovereigns. For several centuries previous
to the Union it returned two members to the Irish parliament.
It was the scene of an engagement between the French and
English fleets in 1380, was forcibly entered by the English in
1488, captured by the Spaniards and retaken by the English
in 1601, and entered by the English in 1641, who expelled the
Irish inhabitants. Finally, it was the scene of the landing of
James II. and of the French army sent to his assistance in 1689,
and was taken by the English in the following year.
KINTORE, a royal and police burgh of Aberdeenshire, Scot-
land. Pop. (1901), 789. It is situated on the Don, 13! m.
N.W. of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland railway. It
is a place of some antiquity, having been made a royal burgh in
the reign of William the Lion (d. 1214). Kintore forms one of
the Elgin group of parliamentary burghs, the others being Banff,
Cullen, Elgin, Inverurie and Peterhead. One mile to the south-
west are the ruins of Hallforest Castle, of which two storeys still
exist, once a hunting-seat of Robert Bruce and afterwards a
residence of the Keiths, earls marischal. There are several
examples of sculptured stones and circles in the parish, and 2 m.
to the north-west is the site of Bruce's camp, which is also
ascribed to the period of the Romans. Near it is Thainston
House, the residence of Sir Andrew Mitchell (1708-1771), the
British envoy to Frederick the Great. Kintore gives the title
of earl in the Scottish, and of baron in the British peerage to
the head of the Keith-Falconer family.
KIOTO (KYOTO), the former capital of Japan, in the province
of Yamashiro, in 35° 01' N., 135° 46' E. Pop. (1903), 379,404.
The Kamo-gawa, upon which it stands, is a mere rivulet in ordi-
nary times, trickling through a wide bed of pebbles; but the city
is traversed by several aqueducts, and was connected with Lake'
Biwa in 1890 by a canal 6| m. long, which carries an abundance of
water for manufacturing purposes, brings the great lake and the
city into navigable communication, and forms with the Kamo-
gawa canal and the Kamo-gawa itself a through route to Osaka,
from which Kioto is 25 m. distant by rail. Founded in the year
793, Kioto remained the capital of the empire during nearly
eleven centuries. The emperor Kwammu, when he selected this
remarkably picturesque spot for the residence of his court,
caused the city to be laid out with mathematical accuracy, after
the model of the Tang dynasty's capital in China. Its area, 3 m.
by 3!, was intersected by 18 principal thoroughfares, 9 running
due north and south, and 9 due east and west, the two systems
being connected at intervals by minor streets. At the middle
of the northern face stood the palace, its enclosure covering three-
quarters of a square mile, and from it to the centre of the south
face ran an avenue 283 ft. wide and 3! m. long. Conflagrations
and subsequent reconstructions modified the regularity of this
plan, but much of it still remains, and its story is perpetuated in
the nomenclature of the streets. In its days of greatest prosperity
Kioto contained only half a million inhabitants, thus never even
approximating to the size of the Tokugawa metropolis, Yedo, or
the Hojo capital Kamakura. The emperor Kwammu called
it Heian-jo, or the " city of peace, " when he made it the seat of
government; but the people knew it as Miyako, or Kyoto, terms
both of which signify " capital," and in modern times it is often
spoken of as Saikyo, or western capital, in opposition to Tokyo,
or eastern capital. Having been so long the imperial, intellectual,
political and artistic metropolis of the realm, the city abounds
with evidences of its unique career. Magnificent temples and
shrines, grand monuments of architectural and artistic skill,
beautiful gardens, gorgeous festivals, and numerous ateliers
where the traditions of Japanese art are obeyed with attractive
results, offer to the foreign visitor a fund of interest. Clear water
ripples everywhere through the city, and to this water Kioto
owes something of its importance, for nowhere else in Japan can
fabrics be bleached so white or dyed in such brilliant colours.
The people, like their neighbours of Osaka, are full of manu-
facturing energy. Not only do they preserve, amid all the
progress of the age, their old-time eminence as producers of the
finest porcelain, faience, embroidery, brocades, bronze, cloisonne
enamel, fans, toys and metal-work of all kinds, but they have
also adapted themselves to the foreign market, and weave and dye
quantities of silk fabrics, for which a large and constantly growing
demand is found in Europe and America. Nowhere else can be
traced with equal clearness the part played in Japanese civiliza-
tion by Buddhism, with its magnificent paraphernalia and impos-
ing ceremonial spectacles; nowhere else, side by side with this
luxurious factor, can be witnessed in more striking juxtaposition
the austere purity and severe simplicity of the Shinto cult; and
nowhere else can be more intelligently observed the fine faculty
of the Japanese for utilizing, emphasizing and enhancing the
beauties of nature. The citizens' dwellings and the shops, on
the other hand, are insignificant and even sombre in appearance,
their exterior conveying no idea of the pretty chambers within
or of the tastefully laid-out grounds upon which they open
behind. Kioto is celebrated equally for its cherry and azalea
blossoms in the spring, and for the colours of its autumn
foliage.
KIOWAS, a tribe and stock of North American Indians.
Their former range was around the Arkansas and Canadian
rivers, in Indian Territory (Oklahoma), Colorado and New
Mexico. A fierce people, they made raids upon the settlers
in western Texas until 1868, when they were placed on a
reservation in Indian Territory. In 1874 they broke out again,
but in the following year were finally subdued. In number
about 1 200, and settled in Oklahoma, they are the sole
representatives of the Kiowan linguistic stock.
See J. Mooney, " Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians," I7th
Report of Bureau of American Ethnology (Washington, 1898).
KIPLING, RUDYARD (i86s-/«1*), British author, was born
in Bombay on the 3oth of December 1865. His father, John
Lockwood Kipling (1837-1911), an artist of considerable ability,
was from 1875 to 1893 curator of the Lahore museum in India.
His mother was Miss Alice Macdonald of Birmingham, two of
whose sisters were married respectively to Sir E. Burne-Jones
and Sir Edward Poynter. He was educated at the United
Services College, Westward Ho, North Devon, of which a some-
what lurid account is given in his story Stalky and Co. On his
return to India he became at the age of seventeen the sub-editor
of the Lahore Civil and Military Gazette. In 1886, in his twenty-
first year, he published Departmental Ditties, a volume of light
verse chiefly satirical, only in two or three poems giving promise
of his authentic poetical note. In 1887 he published Plain
Tales from the Hills, a collection mainly of the stories contributed
to his own journal. During the next two years he brought out,
in six slim paper-covered volumes of Wheeler's Railway Library
(Allahabad), Soldiers Three, The Story of the Gadsbys, In Black
and White, Under the Deodars, The Phantom 'Rickshaw and
Wee Willie Winkee, at a rupee apiece. These were in form and
substance a continuation of the Plain Tales. This series of tales,
all written before the author was twenty-four, revealed a new
master of fiction. A few, but those the best, he afterwards said
that his father gave him. The rest were the harvest of his own
powers of observation vitalized by imagination. In method they
owed something to Bret Harte; in matter and spirit they were
absolutely original. They were unequal, as his books continued
to be throughout; the sketches of Anglo-Indian social life being
generally inferior to the rest. The style was to some extent
disfigured by jerkiness and mannered tricks. But Mr Kipling
possessed the supreme spell of the story-teller to entrance and
transport. The freshness of the invention, the variety of charac-
ter, the vigour of narrative, the raciness of dialogue, the magic of
atmosphere, were alike remarkable. The soldier-stories, especially
the exuberant vitality of the cycle which contains the immortal
Mulvaney, established the author's fame throughout the world.
The child-stories and tales of the British official were not less
masterly, while the tales of native life and of adventure " beyond
the pale " disclosed an even finer and deeper vein of romance.
India, which had been an old story for generations of English-
men, was revealed in these brilliant pictures as if seen for the first
time in its variety, colour and passion, vivid as mirage, enchant-
ing as the Arabian Nights. The new author's talent was quickly
826
KIPPER— KIRBY
recognized in India, but it was not till the books reached
England that his true rank was appreciated and proclaimed.
Between 1887 and 1889 he travelled through India, China, Japan
and America, finally arriving in England to find himself already
famous. His travel sketches, contributed to The Civil and
Military Gazette and The Pioneer, were afterwards collected (the
author's hand having been forced by unauthorized publication)
in the two volumes From Sea to Sea (1899). A further set of
Indian tales, equal to the best, appeared in Macmillan's Maga-
zine and were republished with others in Life's Handicap (1891).
In The Light that Failed (1891, after appearing with a different
ending in Lippincott's Magazine) Mr Kipling essayed his first long
story (dramatized 1905), but with comparative unsuccess. In
his subsequent work his delight in the display of descriptive and
verbal technicalities grew on him. His polemic against " the
sheltered life " and " little Englandism " became more didactic.
His terseness sometimes degenerated into abruptness and
obscurity. But in the meanwhile his genius became prominent
in verse. Readers of the Plain Tales had been impressed by the
snatches of poetry prefixed to them for motto, certain of them
being subscribed " Barrack Room Ballad." Mr Kipling now
contributed to the National Observer, then edited by W. E.
Henley, a series of Barrack Room Ballads. These vigorous
verses in soldier slang, when published in a book in 1892, together
with the fine ballad'of " East and West " and other poems, won
for their author a second fame, wider than he had attained as a
story-teller. In this volume the Ballads of the " Bolivar " and
of the " Clampherdown," introducing Mr Kipling's poetry of the
ocean and the engine-room, and " The Flag of England," finding
a voice for the Imperial sentiment, which — largely under the
influence of Mr Kipling's own writings — had been rapidly gaining
force in England, gave the key-note of much of his later verse.
In 1898 Mr Kipling paid the first of several visits to South Africa
and became imbued with a type of imperialism that reacted on
his literature, not altogether to its advantage. Before finally
settling in England Mr Kipling lived some years in America
and married in 1892 Miss Caroline Starr Balestier, sister of the
Wolcott Balestier to whom he dedicated Barrack Room Ballads,
and with whom in collaboration he wrote the Naulahka (1891),
one of his less successful books. The next collection of stories,
Many Inventions (1893), contained the splendid Mulvaney
extravaganza, " My Lord the Elephant "; a vividly realized tale
of metempsychosis, " The Finest Story in the World "; and in
that fascinating tale " In the Rukh," the prelude to the next new
exhibition of the author's genius. This came in 1894 with The
Jungle Book, followed in 1895 by The Second Jungle Book. With
these inspired beast-stories Kipling conquered a new world and a
new audience, and produced what many critics regard as his
most flawless work. His chief subsequent publications were
The Seven Seas (poems), 1896; Captains Courageous (a yarn of
deep-sea fishery), 1897; The Day's Work (collected stories),
1898; A Fleet in Being (an account of a cruise in a man-of-war),
1898; Stalky and Co. (mentioned above), 1899; From Sea to Sea
(mentionedabove),i899; Kim, 1901 ; Just So Stories (for children) ,
1902; The Five Nations (poems, concluding with what proved
Mr Kipling's most universally known and popular poem, " Re-
cessional," originally published in The Times on the i7th of July
1897 on the occasion of Queen Victoria's second jubilee), 1903;
Traffics and Discoveries (collected stories), 1904; Puck of Pook's
Hill (stories), 1906; Actions and Reactions (stories), 1909. Of
these Kim was notable as far the most successful of Mr Kipling's
longer narratives, though it is itself rather in the nature of a
string of episodes. But everything he wrote, even to a farcical
extravaganza inspired by his enthusiasm for the motor-car,
breathed the meteoric energy that was the nature of the man. A
vigorous and unconventional poet, a pioneer in the modern phase
of literary Imperialism, and one of the rare masters in English
prose of the art of the short story, Mr Kipling had already by
the opening of the 2oth century won the most conspicuous place
among the creative literary forces of his day. His position in
English literature was recognized in 1907 by the award to him of
the Nobel prize.
See Rudyard Kipling's chapter in My First Book (Chatto, 1894!;
" A Bibliography of Rudyard Kipling," by John Lane, in Rudya/d
Kipling: a Criticism, by Richard de Gallienne; " Mr Kipling's
Short Stories" in Questions at Issue, by Edmund Gosse (1893);
" Mr Kipling's Stories " in Essays in Little, by Andrew Lang; " Mr
Kipling's Stories," byJ.M.Barrie in the Contemporary Review (March
1891); articles in the Quarterly Review (July 1892) and Edinburgh
Review (Jan. 1898); and section on Kipling in Poets of the Younger
Generation, by William Archer (1902). See also for bibliography
to 1903 English Illustrated Magazine, new series, vol. xxx. pp. 298
and 429-432. (W. P. J.)
KIPPER, properly the name by which the male salmon is
known at some period of the breeding season. At the approach
of this season the male fish develops a sharp cartilaginous beak,-
known as the " kip," from which the name " kipper " is said to be
derived. The earliest uses of the word (in Old English cypera
and Middle English kypre) seem to include salmon of both sexes,
and there is no certainty as to the etymology. Skeat derives it
from the Old English kippian, " to spawn." The term has been
applied by various writers to salmon both during and after
milting; early quotations leave the precise meaning of the word
obscure, but generally refer to the unwholesomeness of the fish
as food during the whole breeding season. It has been usually
accepted, without much direct evidence, that from the practice
of rendering the breeding (i.e. " kipper ") salmon fit for food by
splitting, salting and smoke-drying them, the term " kipper "
is also used of other fish, particularly herrings cured in the same
way. The " bloater " as distinct from the " kipper " is a herring
cured whole without being split open.
KIPPIS, ANDREW (1725-1793), English nonconformist divine
and biographer, son of Robert Kippis, a silk-hosier, was born at
Nottingham on the 28th of March 1725. From school at
Sleaford in Lincolnshire he passed at the age of sixteen to the
nonconformist academy at Northampton, of which Dr Dod-
dridge was then president. In 1746 Kippis became minister
of a church at Boston; in 1750 he removed to Dorking in
Surrey; and in 1753 he became pastor of a Presbyterian con-
gregation at Westminster, where he remained till his death on
the 8th of October 1795. Kippis took a prominent part in the
affairs of his church. From 1763 till 1784 he was classical and
philological tutor in Coward's training college at Hoxton; and
subsequently for some years at another institution of the same
kind at Hackney. In 1778 he was elected a fellow of the
Antiquarian Society, and a fellow of the Royal Society in 1779.
Kippis was a very voluminous writer. He contributed largely
to The Gentleman's Magazine, The Monthly Review and The Library;
and he had a good deal to do with the establishment and conduct
of The New Annual Register. He published also a number of sermons
and occasional pamphlets; and he prefixed a life of the author
to a collected edition of Dr Nathaniel Lardner's Works (1788).
He wrote a life of Dr Doddridge, which is prefixed to Doddridge's
Exposition of the New Testament (1792). His chief work is his
edition of the Biographia Britannica, of which, however, he only
lived to publish 5 vols. (folio, 1778-1793). In this work he had the
assistance of Dr Towers. See notice by A. Rees, D.D., in The New
Annual Register for 1795.
KIRBY, WILLIAM (1750-1850), English entomologist, was
born at Witnesham in Suffolk on the igth of September 1759.
From the village school of Witnesham he passed to Ipswich
grammar school, and thence to Caius College, Cambridge,
where he graduated in 1781. Taking holy orders in 1782, he
spent his entire life in the peaceful seclusion of an English
country parsonage at Barham in Suffolk. His favourite study
was natural history; and eventually entomology engrossed all
his leisure. His first work of importance was his Monographia
Apum Angliae (2 vols. 8vo, 1802), which as the first scientific
treatise on its subject brought him into notice with the leading
entomologists of his own and foreign countries. The practical
result of a friendship formed in 1805 with William Spence, of
Hull, was the jointly written Introduction to Entomology (4 vols.,
1815-1826; 7th ed., 1856), one of the most popular books of
science that have ever appeared. In 1830 he was chosen to
write one of the Bridgcwater Treatises, his subject being The
History, Habits, and Instincts of Animals (2 vols., 1835). This
undeniably fell short of his earlier works in point of scientific
value. He died on the 4th of July 1850.
KIRCHER —KIRGHIZ
827
Besides the books already mentioned he was the author of many
papers in the Transactions of the Linnean Society, the Zoological
Journal and other periodicals; Strictures on Sir James Smith's
Hypothesis respecting the Lilies of the Field of our Saviour and the
Acanthus of Virgil (1819); Seven Sermons on our Lord's Temptations
(1829); and he wrote the sections on insects in the Account of the
Animals seen by the late Northern Expedition while within the Arctic
Circle (1821), and in Fauna Boreali-Americana (1837). His Life
by the Rev. John Freeman, published in 1852, contains a list of his
works.
KIRCHER, ATHANASIUS (1601-1680), German scholar and
mathematician, was born on the 2nd of May 1601, at Geisa
near Fulda. He was educated at the Jesuit college of Fulda,
and entered upon his noviciate in that order at Mainz in 1618.
He became professor of philosophy, mathematics, and Oriental
languages at Wiirzburg, whence he was driven (1631) by the
troubles of the Thirty Years' War to Avignon. Through the
influence of Cardinal Barberini he next (1635) settled in Rome,
where for eight years he taught mathematics in the Collegio
Romano, but ultimately resigned this appointment to study
hieroglyphics and other archaeological subjects. He died on
the 28th of November 1686.
Kircher was a man of wide and varied learning, but singularly
devoid of judgment and critical discernment. His voluminous
writings in philology, natural history, physics and mathematics
often accordingly have a good deal of the historical interest which
attaches to pioneering work, however imperfectly performed ; other-
wise they now take rank as curiosities of literature merely. They
include Ars Magnesia (1631); Magnes, sive de arte magnetica opus
tripartitum (1641); and Magneticum naturae regnum (1667); Prodro-
mus Coptus (1636); Lingua Aegyptiaca restituta (1643); Obeliscus
Pamphilius (1650) ; and Oedipus Aegyptiacus, hoc est universalis doc-
trinae hieroglyphicae instauratio (1652-1655) — works which may claim
the merit of having first called attention to Egyptian hieroglyphics;
Ars magna lucis et umbrae in mundo (1645-1646); Musurgia univer-
salis, sive ars magna consoni et dissoni (1650) ; Polygraphia, seu artifi-
cium linguarum quo cum omnibus mundi populis poterit quis respondere
(1663); Mundus subterraneus, quo subterrestris mundi opificium,
universae denique naturae divitiae, abditorum effectuum causae demon-
strantur (1665—1678); China illustrata (1667); Ars magna sciendi
(1669) ; and Latium (1669), a work which may still be consulted with
advantage. The Specula Melitensis Encyclica (1638) gives an ac-
count of a kind of calculating machine of his invention. The valuable
collection of antiquities which he bequeathed to the Collegio Romano
has been described by Buonanni (Musaeum Kircherianum, 1709;
republished by Battara in 1773).
KIRCHHEIM-UNTER-TECK, a town of Germany, in the
kingdom of Wurttemberg, is prettily situated on the Lauter,
at the north-west foot of the Rauhe Alb, 15 m. S.E. of Stuttgart
by rail. Pop. (1905), 8830. The town has a royal castle
built in 1538, two schools and several benevolent institutions.
The manufactures include cotton goods, damask, pianofortes,
machinery, furniture, chemicals and cement. The town also
has wool-spinning establishments and breweries, and a corn
exchange. It is the most important wool market in South
Germany, and has also a trade in fruit, timber and pigs. In
the vicinity are the ruins of the castle of Teck, the hereditary
stronghold of the dukes of that name. Kirchheim has belonged
to Wurttemberg since 1381.
KIRCHHOFF, GUSTAV ROBERT (1824-1887), German
physicist, was born at Konigsberg (Prussia) on the I2th of
March 1824, and was educated at the university of his native
town, where he graduated Ph.D. in 1847. After acting as
prhat-docent at Berlin for some time, he became extraordinary
professor of physics at Breslau in 1850. Four years later he
was appointed professor of physics at Heidelberg, and in 1875
he was transferred to Berlin, where he died on the i7th of October
1887. Kirchhoff's contributions to mathematical physics were
numerous and important, his strength lying in his powers of
stating a new physical problem in terms of mathematics, not
merely in working out the solution after it had been so formu-
lated. A number of his papers were concerned with electrical
questions. One of the earliest was devoted to electrical con-
duction in a thin plate, and especially in a circular one, and it
also contained a theorem which enables the distribution of
currents in a network of conductors to be ascertained. Another
discussed conduction in curved sheets; a third the distribution
of electricity in two influencing spheres; a fourth the deter-
mination of the constant on which depends the intensity of
induced currents; while others were devoted to Ohm's law,
the motion of electricity in submarine cables, induced mag-
netism, &c. In other papers, again, various miscellaneous
topics were treated — the thermal conductivity of iron, crystal-
line reflection and refraction, certain propositions in the thermo-
dynamics of solution and vaporization, &c. An important
part of his work was contained in his Vorlesungen iiber malhe-
matische Physik (1876), in which the principles of dynamics,
as well as various special problems, were treated in a somewhat
novel and original manner. But his name is best known for
the researches, experimental and mathematical, in radiation
which led him, in company with R. W. von Bunsen, to the
development of spectrum analysis as a complete system in
1859-1860. He can scarcely be called its inventor, for not only
had many investigators already used the prism as an instrument
of chemical inquiry, but considerable progress had been made
towards the explanation of the principles upon which spectrum
analysis rests. But to him belongs the merit of having, most
probably without knowing what had already been done, enun-
ciated a complete account of its theory, and of thus having firmly
established it as a means by which the chemical constituents
of celestial bodies can be discovered through the comparison
of their spectra with those of the various elements that exist
on this earth.
KIRCHHOFF, JOHANN WILHELM ADOLF (1826-1908),
German classical scholar and epigraphist, was born in Berlin
on the 6th of January 1826. In 1865 he was appointed pro-
fessor of classical philology in the university of his native city.
He died on the 26th of February 1908. He is the author of
Die Homerische Odyssee (1859), putting forward an entirely
new theory as to the composition of the Odyssey; editions of
Plotinus (1856), Euripides (1855 and 1877-1878). Aeschylus
(1880), Hesiod (Works and Days, 1889), Xenophon, On the
Athenian Constitution (ycA ed., 1889); fiber die Entstehungszeit
des Herodolischen Geschichtswerkes (2nd ed., 1878); Thukydid.es
und sein Urkundenmaterial (1895).
The following works are the result of his epigraphical and palaeo-
graphical studies: Die Umbrischen Sprachdenkmdler (1851); Das
Stadtrecht von Bantia (1853), on the tablet discovered in 1790 at
Oppido near Banzi, containing a plebiscite relating to the municipal
affairs of the ancient Bantia; Das Cotische Runenalphabet (1852);
Die Frdnkischen Runen (1855) ; Studien zur Geschichte des Griechischen
Alphabets (4th ed., 1887). The second part of vol. iv. of the Corpus
Inscriptionum Graecarum (1859, containing the Christian inscrip-
tions) and vol. i. of the C. I. Atticarum (1873, containing the in-
scriptions before 403) with supplements thereto (vol. iv. pts. 1-3,
1877-1891) are edited by him.
KIRGHIZ, a large and widespread division of the Turkish
family, of which there are two main branches, the Kara-Kirghiz
of the uplands and the Kirghiz-Kazaks of the steppe. They
jointly number about 3,000,000, and occupy an area of perhaps
the same number of square miles, stretching from Kulja west-
wards to the lower Volga, and from the headstreams of the Ob
southwards to the Pamir and the Turkoman country. They
seem closely allied ethnically to the Mongolians and in speech
to the Tatars. But both Mongols and Tatars belonged them-
selves originally to one racial stock and formed part of the same
hordes or nomadic armies: also the Western Turks have to a
large extent lost their original physique and become largely
assimilated to the regular " Caucasian " type. But the Kirghiz
have either remained nearly altogether unmixed, as in the
uplands, or else have intermingled in the steppe mainly with
the Volga Kalmucks in the west, and with the Dzungarian
nomads in the east, all alike of Mongol stock. Hence they have
everywhere to a large extent preserved the common Mongolian
features, while retaining their primitive Tatar speech. Physi-
cally they are a middle-sized, square-built race, inclined to stout-
ness, especially in the steppe, mostly with long black hair, scant
beard or none, small, black and oblique eyes, though blue or
grey also occur in the south, broad Mongoloid features, high cheek-
bones, broad, flat nose, small mouth, brachycephalous head,
very small hands and feet, dirty brown or swarthy complexion,
828
KIRGHIZ
often yellowish, but also occasionally fair. These character-
istics, while affiliating them directly to the Mongol stock, also
betray an admixture of foreign elements, probably due to
Finnish influences in the north, and Tajik or Iranian blood in
the south. Their speech also, while purely Turkic in structure,
possesses, not only many Mongolian and a few Persian and even
Arabic words, but also some terms unknown to the other
branches of the Mongolo-Tatar linguistic family, and which
should perhaps be traced to the Kiang-Kuan, Wu-sun, Ting-
ling, and other peoples of South Siberia partly absorbed by
them.
The Kara-Kirghiz— The Kara or "Black" Kirghiz, so called
from the colour of their tents, are known to the Russians either
as Chernyie (Black) or Dikokammenyie (Wild Stone or Rocky)
Kirghiz, and are the Block Kirghiz of some English writers.
They are on the whole the purest and best representatives of the
race, and properly speaking to them alone belongs the distinctive
national name Kirghiz or Krghiz. This term is commonly
traced to a legendary chief, Kirghiz, sprung of Oghuz-Khan,
ninth in descent from Japheth. It occurs in its present form
for the first time in the account of the embassy sent in 569 by
the East Roman emperor Justin II. to the Uighur Khan, Dugla-
Ditubulu, where it is stated that this prince presented a slave
of the Kirghiz tribe to Zemark, head of the mission. In the
Chinese chronicles the word assumes the form Ki-li-ki-tz', and
the writers of the Yuan dynasty (1280-1367) place the territory
of these people 10,000 li north-west of Pekin, about the head-
streams of the Yenisei. In the records of the T'ang dynasty
(618-907) they are spoken of under the name of Kha-kia-tz'
(pronounced Khaka, and sometimes transliterated Haka), and
it is mentioned that these Khakas were of the same speech as
the Khoei-khu. From this it follows that they were of Mongolo-
Tatar stock, and are wrongly identified by some ethnologists
with the Kiang-Kuan, Wu-sun, or Ting-ling, all of whom are
described as tall, with red hair, " green " or grey eyes, and fair
complexion, and must therefore have been of Finnish stock, akin
to the present Soyotes of the upper Yenisei.
The Kara-Kirghiz are by the Chinese and Mongolians called
Burnt, where ut is the Mongolian plural ending, as in Tangut, Yakut,
modified to yat in Buryat, the collective name of the Siberian Mon-
golians of the Baikal district. Thus the term Bur is the common
Mongolian designation both of the Baikal Mongols and of the Kara-
Kirghiz, who occupied this very region and the upper Yenisei valley
generally till comparatively recent times. For the original home of
their ancestors, the Khakas, lay in the south of the present govern-
ments of Yeniseisk and Tomsk, stretching thence southwards beyond
the Sayan range to the Tannuola hills in Chinese territory. Here
the Russians first met them in the 1 7th century, and by the aid
of the Kazaks exterminated all those east of the Irtish, driving the
rest farther west and south-westwards. Most of them took refuge
with their kinsmen, the Kara-Kirghiz nomad highlanders, whose
homes, at least since the I3th century, have been the Ala-tau range,
the Issyk-kul basin, the Tekes, Chu and Talass river valleys, the
Tian-shan range, the uplands draining both to the Tarim and to the
Jaxartes and Oxus, including Khokand, Karateghin and Shignan
southwards to the Pamir table-land, visited by them in summer.
They thus occupy most of the uplands along the Russo-Chinese
frontier, between 35° and 50° N. lat. and between 70° and 8s° E.
long.
The Kara-Kirghiz are ajl grouped in two main sections— the On
or Right ' in the east, with seven branches (Bogu, Sary-Bagishch,
Son-Bagishch, Sultu or Solve, Cherik, Sayak, Bassinz), and the Sol
or Left" in the west, with four branches (Kokche or Kflchy
Soru, Mundus, Kitai or Kintai). The Sol section occupies the
region between the Talass and Oxus headstreams in Ferghana
(Khokand) and Bokhara, where they come in contact with the
Galchas or Highland Tajiks. The On section lies on both sides of
the Tian-shan, about Lake Issyk-kul, and in the Chu, Tekes and
Narm (upper Jaxartes) valleys.
The total number of Kara-Kirghiz exceeds 800,000.
All are essentially nomads, occupied mainly with stock breeding
chiefly horses of a small but hardy breed, sheep of the fat-tailed
species, oxen used both for riding and as pack animals, some goats,
and camels of both species. Agriculture is limited chiefly to the
cultivation of wheat, barley and millet, from the last of wlvch a
coarse vodka or brandy is distilled. Trade is carried on chiefly by
barter, cattle being taken by the dealers from China., Turkestan and
Russia in exchange for manufactured goods.
The Kara-Kirghiz are governed by the " manaps," or tribal rulers
who enjoy almost unlimited authority, and may even sell or kill
their subjects. In religious matters they differ little from the
Kazaks, whose practices are described below. Although generally
recognizing Russian sovereignty since 1864, they pay no taxes.
The Kazaks. — Though not unknown to them, the term
Kirghiz is never used by the steppe nomads, who always call
themselves simply Kazaks, commonly interpreted as riders.
The first authentic reference to this name is by the Persian poet
and historian Firdousi (1020), who speaks of the Kazak tribes
as much dreaded steppe marauders, all mounted and armed
with lances. From this circumstance the term Kazak came
to be gradually applied to all freebooters similarly equipped, and
it thus spread from the Aralo-Caspian basin to South Russia,
where it still survives under the form of Cossack, spelt Kazak
or Kozak in Russian. Hence though Kazak and Cossack are
originally the same word, the former now designates a Mongolo-
Tatar nomad race, the latter various members of the Slav
family. Since the i8th century the Russians have used the
compound expression Kirghiz-Kazak, chiefly in order to dis-
tinguish them from their own Cossacks, at that time overrunning
Siberia. Siegmund Herberstein (1486-1566) is the first European
who mentions them by name, and it is noteworthy that he
speaks of them as " Tartars," that is, a people rather of Turki
than Mongolian stock.
In their present homes, the so-called " Kirghiz steppes," they are
far more numerous and widespread than their Kara-Kirghiz kinsmen,
stretching almost uninterruptedly from Lake Balkash round the
Aral and Caspian Seas westwards to the lower Volga, and from the
river Irtish southwards to the lower Oxus and Ust-Urt plateau.
Their domain, which is nearly 2,000,000 sq. m. in extent thus
lies mainly between 45° and 55* N. lat. and from 45° to 80° E. long
Here they came under the sway of Jenghiz Khan, after whose death
they fell to the share of his son Juji, head of the Golden Horde, but
continued to retain their own khans. When the Uzbegs acquired
the ascendancy, many of the former subjects of the Juji and Jagatai
hordes fell off and joined the Kazaks. Thusabout the year 1500 were
formed two powerful states in the Kipchak and Kheta steppes the
Mogul-Ulus and the Kazak, the latter of whom, under their khan
Arslane, are said by Sultan Baber to have had as many as 400,000
fighting men. Their numbers continued to be swollen by voluntary
or enforced accessions from the fragments of the Golden Horde, such
as the Kipchaks, Naimans, Konrats, Jalairs, Kankali, whose names
are still preserved in the tribal divisions of the Kazaks. And as
some of these peoples were undoubtedly of true Mongolian stock,
their names have given a colour to the statement that all the Kazaks
were rather of Mongol than of Turk! origin. But the universal
prevalence of a nearly pure variety of the Turki speech throughout
the Kazak steppes is almost alone sufficient to show that the Tatar
element must at all times have been in the ascendant. Very various
accounts have been given of the relationship of the Kipchak to the
Kirghiz, but at present they seem to form a subdivision of the Kir-
ghiz-Kazaks. The Kara-Kalpaks are an allied but apparently
separate tribe.
. Th^ Kirghiz-Kazaks have long been grouped in three large
hordes ^ or encampments, further subdivided into a number of
so-called " races," which are again grouped in tribes, and these in
sections, branches and auls, or communities of from five to fifteen
tents. The division into hordes has been traditionally referred to a
powerful khan, who divided his states amongst his three sons, the
eldest of whom became the founder of the Ulu-Yuz, or Great Horde,
the second of the Urta-Yuz, or Middle Horde, and the third of the
Kachi-Yuz, or Little Horde. The last two under their common
khan Abulkhair voluntarily submitted in 1730 to the Empress Anne.
Most of the Great Horde were subdued by Yunus, khan of Ferghana,
in 1798, and all the still independent tribes finally accepted Russian
sovereignty in 1819.
Since 1801 a fourth division, known as the Inner or Bukeyev-
skaya Horde, from the name of their first khan, Bukei, has been
settled in the Orenburg steppe.
But these divisions affect the common people alone, all the higher
orders and ruling families being broadly classed as White and Black
Kost or Bones. The White Bones comprise only the khans and their
descendants, besides the issue of the khojas or Moslem " saints."
The Black Bones include all the rest, except the Telengut or servants
of the khans, and the Kul or slaves.
The Kazaks are an honest and trustworthy people, but heavy,
sluggish, sullen and unfriendly. Even the hospitality enjoined
Dy the Koran is displayed only towards the orthodox Sunnite
sect. So essentially nomadic are all the tribes that they cannot
adopt a settled life without losing the very sentiment of their
nationality, and becoming rapidly absorbed in the Slav popula-
tion. They dwell exclusively in semicircular tents consisting
KIRIN— KIRK
829
of a light wooden framework, and red cloth or felt covering,
with an opening above for light and ventilation.
The camp life of the Kazaks seems almost unendurable to
Europeans in winter, when they are confined altogether to the
tent, and exposed to endless discomforts. In summer the day
is spent mostly in sleep or drinking koumiss, followed at night
by feasting and the recital of tales, varied with songs accompanied
by the music of the flute and balalaika. But horsemanship
is the great amusement of all true Kazaks, who may almost be
said to be born in the saddle. Hence, though excellent riders,
they are bad walkers. Though hardy and long-lived, they are
uncleanly in their habits and often decimated by small-pox and
Siberian plague. They have no fixed meals, and live mainly on
mutton and goat and horse flesh, and instead of bread use the
so-called balamyk, a mess of flour fried in dripping and diluted
in water. The universal drink is koumiss, which is wholesome,
nourishing and a specific against all chest diseases.
The dress consists of the chapan, a flowing robe of which
one or two are worn in summer and several in winter, fastened
with a silk or leather girdle, in which are stack a knife, tobacco
pouch, seal and a few other trinkets. Broad silk or cloth
pantaloons are often worn over the chapan, which is of velvet,
silk, cotton or felt, according to the rank of the wearer. Large
black or red leather boots, with round white felt pointed caps,
complete the costume, which is much the same for both sexes.
Like the Kara-Kirghiz, the Kazaks are nominally Sunnites,
but Shamanists at heart, worshipping, besides the Kudai or good
divinity, the Shaitan or bad spirit. Their faith is strong in the
talchi or soothsayer and other charlatans, who know everything,
can do everything, and heal all disorders at pleasure. But they
are not fanatics, though holding the abstract doctrine that the
" Kafir " may be lawfully oppressed, including in this category
not only Buddhists and Christians, but even Mahommedans of
the Shiah sect. There are no fasts or ablutions, mosques or
mollahs, or regular prayers. Although Mussulmans since the
beginning of the i6th century, they have scarcely yet found
their way to Mecca, their pilgrims visiting instead the more con-
venient shrines of the " saints " scattered over eastern Turkestan.
Unlike the Mongolians, the Kazaks treat their dead with great
respect, and the low steppe hills are often entirely covered with
monuments raised above their graves.
Letters are neglected to such an extent that whoever can
merely write is regarded as a savant, while he becomes a prodigy
of learning if able to read the Koran in the original. Yet the
Kazaks are naturally both musical and poetical, and possess a
considerable number of national songs, which are usually
repeated with variations from mouth to mouth.
The Kazaks still choose their own khans, who, though con-
firmed by the Russian government, possess little authority
beyond their respective tribes. The real rulers are the elders
or umpires and sultans, all appointed by public election. Brig-
andage and raids arising out of tribal feuds, which were formerly
recognized institutions, are now severely punished, sometimes
even with death. Capital punishment, usually by hanging or
strangling, is inflicted for murder and adultery, while three,
nine or twenty-seven times the value of the stolen property
is exacted for theft.
The domestic animals, daily pursuits and industries of the
Kazaks differ but slightly from those of the Kara-Kirghiz.
Some of the wealthy steppe nomads own as many as 20,000
of the large fat-tailed sheep. Goats are kept chiefly as guides
for these flocks; and the horses, though small, are hardy, swift,
light-footed and capable of covering from 50 to 60 miles at a
stretch. Amongst the Kazaks there are a few workers in silver,
copper and iron, the chief arts besides, being skin dressing,
wool spinning and dyeing, carpet and felt weaving. Trade is
confined mainly to an exchange of live stock for woven and
other goods from Russia, China and Turkestan.
Since their subjection to Russia the Kazaks have become less
lawless, but scarcely less nomadic. A change of habit in this
respect is opposed alike to their tastes and to the climatic and
other outward conditions. See also TURKS.
LITERATURE. — Alexis Levshin, Description des hordes et des steppes
des Kirghiz-Kazaks, translated from the Russian by Ferry de Cigny
(1840) ; W. Radloff, Proben der Volksliteratur der Turkischen Stdmme
Sudsiberiens; Ch. de Ujfalvy, Le Kohistan, le Ferghanah, et Kouldja;
also Bull, de la Soc. de Geo. (1878-1879); Semenoff, paper in Peter-
mann's Mittheilungen (1859), No. 3; Valikhanov's Travels in 1858-
1859; Madame de Ujfalvy, papers in Tourdu Monde (1874) ; Vambcry,
Die primitive Cultur des Turko-Tatarischen Volkes; P. S. Pallas,
Observations sur les Kirghiz (1769; French trans., 1803); Andriev,
" La Horde Moyenne," in Bull, de la Soc. de Geogr. de St Petersburg
(1875); Radomtsev, Excursion dans le steppe Kirghiz; Lansdell,
Russian Centralasia (1885); Jadrinzer, La SMrie (1886). Skrinc
and Ross, Heart of Asia (1899); E. H. Parker, A Thousand Years of
the Tartars (1895). Various Russian works by Nalivkin, published
in Turkestan, contain much valuable information, and N. N. Pantu-
sov, Specimens of Kirghiz Popular Poetry, with Russian translations
(Kazan, 1903-1904).
KIRIN, a province of central Manchuria, with a capital bear-
ing the same name. The province has an area of 90,000 sq. m.,
and a population of 6,500,000. The chief towns besides the
capital are Kwang-cheng-tsze, 80 m. N.W. of the capital,
and Harbin on the Sungari river. The city of KIRIN is situated
at the foot of the Lau-Ye-Ling mountains, on the left bank of
the Sungari or Girin-ula, there 300 yds. wide, and is served by
a branch of the Manchurian railway. The situation is one of
exceptional beauty; but the streets are narrow, irregular and
indescribably filthy. The western part of the town is built upon
a swamp and is under water a great part of the year. The
dockyards are supplied with machinery from Europe and are
efficient. Tobacco is the principal article of trade, the kind
grown in the province being greatly prized throughout the
Chinese empire under the name of " Manchu leaf." Formerly
ginseng was also an important staple, but the supply from this
quarter of the country has been exhausted. Outside the town
lies a plain " thickly covered with open coffins containing the
dead bodies of Chinese emigrants exposed for identification and
removal by their friends; if no claim is made during ten years
the remains are buried on the spot." Kirin was chosen by the
emperor K'anghi as a military post during the wars with the
Eleuths; and it owes its Chinese name of Ch'uen-ch'ang, i.e.
Naval Yard, to his building there the vessels for the transport
of his troops. The population was estimated at 300,000 in 181 2 ;
in 1909 it was about 120,000.
KIRK, SIR JOHN (1832- ), British naturalist and ad-
ministrator, son of the Rev. John Kirk, was born at Barry,
near Arbroath, on the igth of December 1832. He was edu-
cated at Edinburgh for the medical profession, and after
serving on the civil medical staff throughout the Crimean War,
was appointed in February 1858 physician and naturalist to
David Livingstone's second expedition to Central Africa. He
was by Livingstone's side in most of his journeyings during
the next five years, and was one of the first four white men
to behold Lake Nyassa (Sept. 16, 1859). He was finally in-
valided home on the gth of May 1863. The reputation he
gained during this expedition led to his appointment in January
1866 as acting surgeon to the political agency at Zanzibar. In
1868 he became assistant political agent, being raised to the
rank of consul-general in 1873 and agent in 1880. He retired
from that post in 1887. The twenty-one years spent by Kirk
in Zanzibar covered the most critical period of the history of
European intervention in East Africa; and during the greater
part of that time he was the virtual ruler of the country. With
Seyyid Bargash, who became sultan in 1870, he had a con-
trolling influence, and after the failure of Sir Bartle Frere's
efforts he succeeded in obtaining (June 5, 1873) the sultan's
signature to a treaty abolishing the slave trade in his dominions.
In 1877 Bargash offered to a British merchant — Sir W. Mac-
kinnon — a lease of his mainland territories, and he gave Kirk a
declaration in which he bound himself not to cede territory to
any other power than Great Britain, a declaration ignored by
the British government. When Germany in 1885 claimed
districts considered by the sultan to belong to Zanzibar, Kirk
intervened to prevent Bargash going in person to Berlin to
protest and induced him to submit to the dismemberment of
his dominions. In the delicate negotiations which followed
83o
KIRKBY— KIRKCALDY OF GRANGE, SIR W.
Kirk used his powers to checkmate the German designs to
supplant the British in Zanzibar itself; this he did without
destroying the Arab form of government. He also directed the
efforts, this time successful, to obtain for Britain a portion of
the mainland — Bargash in May 1887 granting to Mackinnon a
lease of territory which led to the foundation of British East
Africa. Having thus served both Great Britain and Zanzibar,
Kirk resigned his post (July 1887), retiring from the consular
service. In 1880-1890 he was a plenipotentiary at the slave
trade conference in Brussels, and was one of the delegates who
fixed the tariff duties to be imposed in the Congo basin. In
1895 he was sent by the British government on a mission to
the Niger; and on his return he was appointed a member of the
Foreign Office committee for constructing the Uganda railway.
As a naturalist Kirk took high rank, and many species of the
flora and fauna of Central Africa were made known by him, and
several bear his name, e.g. the Otogale kirkii (a lemuroid), the
Madoqua kirkii (a diminutive antelope), the Landolphia kirkii
and the Clematis kirkii. For his services to geography he
received in 1882 the patrons' medal of the Royal Geographical
Society, of which society he became foreign secretary. Kirk
was created K.C.B. in 1900. He married, in 1867, Miss Helen
Cooke.
KIRKBY, JOHN (d. 1290), English ecclesiastic and states-
man, entered the public service as a clerk of the chancery
during the reign of Henry III. Under Edward I. he acted as
keeper of the great seal during the frequent absences of the
chancellor, Robert Burnell, being referred to as vice-chancellor.
In 1282 he was employed by the king to make a tour through
the counties and boroughs for the purpose of collecting money;
this and his other services to Edward were well rewarded, and
although not yet ordained priest he held several valuable
benefices in the church. In 1283 he was chosen bishop of
Rochester, but owing to the opposition of the archbishop of
Canterbury, John Peckham, he did not press his claim to this
see. In 1 286, however, two years after he had become treasurer,
he was elected bishop of Ely, and he was ordained priest and
then consecrated by Peckham. He died at Ely on the 26th of
March 1290. Kirkby was a benefactor to his see, to which he
left some property in London, including the locality now known
as Ely Place, where for many years stood the London residence
of the bishop of Ely.
Kirkby's Quest is the name given to a survey of various English
counties which was made under the bishop's direction probably
in 1284 and 1285. For this see Inquisitions and Assessments relating
to Feudal Aids, 1284-1431, vol. i. (London, 1899).
KIRKCALDY (locally pronounced Kerkawdi), a royal, munici-
pal and police burgh and seaport of Fifeshire, Scotknd. Pop.
(1901), 34,079. It lieson the Firth of Forth, 26 m. N. of Edinburgh
by the North British railway, via the Forth Bridge. Although
Columba is said to have planted a church here, the authori-
tative history of the town does not begin for several centuries
after the era of the saint. In 1 240 the church was bestowed by
David, bishop of St Andrews, on Dunfermline Abbey, and in
1334 the town with its harbour was granted by David II. to the
same abbey, by which it was conveyed to the bailies and council
in 1450, when Kirkcaldy was created a royal burgh. In the course
of another century it had become an important commercial
centre, the salt trade of the district being then the largest in
Scotland. In 1644, when Charles I. raised it to a free port, it
owned a hundred vessels, and six years later it was assessed as
the sixth town in the kingdom. After the Union its shipping
fell off, Jacobite troubles and the American War of Independence
accelerating the decline. But its linen manufactures, begun
early in the i8th century, gradually restored prosperity; and
when other industries had taken root its fortunes advanced
by leaps and bounds, and there is now no more flourishing com-
munity in Scotland. The chief topographical feature of the
burgh is its length, from which it is called the " lang toun."
Formerly it consisted of little besides High Street, with closes
and wynds branching off from it; but now that it has absorbed
Invertiel, Linktown and Abbotshall on the west, and Pathhead,
Sinclairtown and Gallatown on the east, it has reached a
length of nearly 4 m. Its public buildings include the parish
church, in the Gothic style, St Brycedale United Free church,
with a spire 200 ft. high, a town-hall, corn exchange, public-
libraries, assembly rooms, fever hospital, sheriff court buildings,
people's club and institute, high school (1894) — on the site of
the ancient burgh school (1582) — the Beveridge hall and free
library, and the Adam Smith memorial hall. To the west lies
Beveridge Park of no acres, including a large sheet of water,
which was presented to the town in 1892. The harbour has an
inner and outer division, with wet dock and wharves. Plans
for its extension were approved in 1903. They include the
extension of the east pier, the construction of a south pier 800 ft.
in length, and of a tidal harbour 5 acres in area and a dock of
4 acres. Besides the manufacture of sheeting, towelling, ticks,
dowlas and sail-cloth, the principal industries include flax-spin-
ning, net-making, bleaching, dyeing, tanning, brewing, brass and
iron founding, and there are potteries, flour-mills, engineering
works, fisheries, and factories for the making of oil-cloth and
linoleum. In 1847 Michael Nairn conceived the notion of
utilizing the fibre of cork and oil-paint in such a way as to
produce a floor-covering more lasting than carpet and yet
capable of taking a pattern. The result of his experiments was
oil-cloth, in the manufacture of which Kirkcaldy has kept the
predominance to which Nairn's enterprise entitled it. Indeed,
this and the kindred linoleum business (also due to Nairn, who
in 1877 built the first linoleum factory in Scotland) were for
many years the monopoly of Kirkcaldy. There is a large
direct export trade with the United States. Among well-
known natives of the town were Adam Smith, Henry Balnaves
of Halhill, the Scottish reformer and lord of session in the time
of Queen Mary; George Gillespie, the theologian and a leading
member of the Westminster Assembly, and his younger brother
Patrick (1617-1675), a friend of Cromwell and principal of
Glasgow University; John Ritchie (1778-1870), one of the
founders of the Scotsman; General Sir John Oswald (1771-1840),
who had a command at San Sebastian and Vittoria. Sir Michael
Scott of Balwearie castle, about ij m. W. of the town, was sent
with Sir David Wemyss to bring the Maid of Norway to Scotland
in 1290; Sir Walter Scott was therefore in error in adopting the
tradition that identified him with the wizard of the same name,
who died in 1234. Carlyle and Edward Irving were teachers
in the town, where Irving spent seven years, and where he made
the acquaintance of the lady he afterwards married. Kirkcaldy
combines with Dysart, Kinghorn and Burntisland to return one
member to parliament.
KIRKCALDY OF GRANGE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1520-1573),
Scottish politician, was the eldest son of Sir James Kirkcaldy
of Grange (d. 1556), a member of an old Fifeshire family. Sir
James was lord high treasurer of Scotland from 1537 to 1543
and was a determined opponent of Cardinal Beaton, for whose
murder in 1546 he was partly responsible. William Kirk-
caldy assisted to compass this murder, and when the castle of
St Andrews surrendered to the French in July 1547 he was sent
as a prisoner to Normandy, whence he escaped in 1550. He was
then employed in France as a secret agent by the advisers of
Edward VI., being known in the cyphers as Corax; and later
he served in the French army, where he gained a lasting reputa-
tion for skill and bravery. The sentence passed on Kirkcaldy
for his share in Beaton's murder was removed in 1556, and
returning to Scotland in 1557 he came quickly to the front; as
a Protestant he was one of the leaders of the lords of the con-
gregation in their struggle with the regent, Mary of Lorraine,
and he assisted to harass the French troops in Fife. He opposed
Queen Mary's marriage with Darnley, being associated at this
time with Murray, and was forced for a short time to seek refuge
in England. Returning to Scotland, he was accessory to the
murder of Rizzio, but he had no share in that of Darnley; and
he was one of the lords who banded themselves together to rescue
Mary after her marriage with Bothwell. After the fight at
Carberry Hill the queen surrendered herself to Kirkcaldy, and
his generalship was mainly responsible for her defeat at Langside.
KIRKCUDBRIGHT— KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE
831
He seems, however, to have believed that an arrangement with
Mary was possible, and coming under the influence of Maitland
of Lethington, whom in September 1569 he released by a strata-
gem from his confinement in Edinburgh, he was soon " vehe-
mently suspected of his fellows." After the murder of Murray
Kirkcaldy ranged himself definitely among the friends of the
imprisoned queen. About this time he forcibly released one of
his supporters from imprisonment, a step which led to an alter-
cation with his former friend John Knox, who called him a
" murderer and throat-cutter." Defying the regent Lennox,
Kirkcaldy began to strengthen the fortifications of Edinburgh
castle, of which he was governor, and which he held for Mary,
and early in 1573 he refused to come to an agreement with the
regent Morton because the terms of peace did not include a
section of his friends. After this some English troops arrived
to help the Scots, and in May 1573 the castle surrendered.
Strenuous efforts were made to save Kirkcaldy from the vengeance
of his foes, but they were unavailing; Knox had prophesied that
he would be hanged, and he was hanged on the 3rd of August
IS73-
See Sir James Melville's Memoirs, edited by T. Thomson (Edin-
burgh, 1827) ; J. Grant, Memoirs and Adventures of Sir W. Kirkaldy
(Edinburgh, 1849); L. A. BarbiS, Kirkcaldy of Grange (1897); and A.
Lang, History of Scotland, vol. ii. (1902).
KIRKCUDBRIGHT (pron. Ker-M-bri) , a royal and police burgh,
and county town of Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901),
2386. It is situated at the mouth of the Dee, 6 m. from the sea
and 30 m. S.W. of Dumfries by the Glasgow & South-Western
railway, being the terminus of a branch line. The old form of
the name of the town was Kilcudbrit, from the Gaelic Cil Cudbert,
" the chapel of Cuthbert," the saint's body having lain here for
a short time during the seven years that lapsed between its
exhumation at Lindisfarne and the re-interment at Chester-le-
Street. The estuary of the Dee is divided at its head by the
peninsula of St Mary's Isle, but though the harbour is the best
in south-western Scotland, the great distance to which the tide
retreats impairs its usefulness. Among the public buildings are
the academy, Johnstone public school, the county buildings,
town-hall, museum, Mackenzie hall and market cross, the last-
named standing in front of the old court-house, which is now
used as a drill hall and fire-station. No traces remain of the
Greyfriars' or Franciscan convent founded by Alexander II.,
nor of the nunnery that was erected in the parish of Kirkcud-
bright. The ivy-clad ruins of Bomby castle, founded in 1582
by Sir Thomas Maclellan, ancestor of the barons of Kirkcud-
bright, stand at the end of the chief street. The town, which
witnessed much of the international strife and Border lawless-
ness, was taken by Edward I. in 1300. It received its royal
charter in 1455. After the battle of Towton, Henry VI. crossed
the Solway (August 1461) and landed at Kirkcudbright to join
Queen Margaret at Linlithgow. It successfully withstood the
English siege in 1547 under Sir Thomas Carleton, but after the
country had been overrun was compelled to surrender at dis-
cretion. Lord Maxwell, earl of Morton, as a Roman Catholic,
mustered his tenants here to act in concert with the Armada;
but on the approach of King James VI. to Dumfries he took ship
at Kirkcudbright and was speedily captured. The burgh is one
of the Dumfries district group of parliamentary burghs. On
St Mary's Isle was situated the seat of the earl of Selkirk, at
whose house Robert Burns gave the famous Selkirk grace: —
" Some ha'e meat, and canna eat,
And some wad eat that want it ;
But we ha'e meat, and we can eat,
And sae the Lord be thankit."
Fergus, lord of Galloway, a celebrated church-builder of the
1 2th century, had his principal seat on Palace Isle in a lake called
after him Loch Fergus, near St Mary's Isle, where he erected
the priory de Trayle, in token of his penitence for rebellion against
David I. The priory was afterwards united as a dependent
cell to the abbey of Holyrood. DUNDRENNAN ABBEY, 4! m. S.E.,
v/as, however, his greatest achievement. It was a Cistercian
house, colonized from Rievaulx, and was built in 1140. There
now remain only the transept and choir, a unique example of
the Early Pointed style. TONGUELAND (or Tungland), 2§ m.
N. by E., has interesting historical associations. It was the site
of a Premonstratensian abbey built by Fergus, and it was here
that Queen Mary rested in her flight from the field of Langside
(May 13, 1568). The well near Tongueland bridge from which
she drank still bears the name of the Queen's Well.
KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE (also known as the STEWARTRY
OF KIRKCUDBRIGHT and EAST GALLOWAY), a south-western
county of Scotland, bounded N. and N.W. by Ayrshire, W. and
S.W. by Wigtownshire, S. and S.E. by the Irish Sea and Solway
Firth, and E. and N.E. by Dumfriesshire. It includes the small
islands of Hestan and Little Ross, which are utilized as light-
house stations. It has an area of 575,565 acres or 899 sq. m.
The north-western part of the shire is rugged, wild and desolate.
In this quarter the principal mountains are Merrick (2764 ft.),
the highest in the south of Scotland, and the group of the Rinns
of Kells, the chief peaks of which are Corscrine (2668), Carh'ns
Cairn (2650), Meikle Millyea (2446) and Millfire (2350). To-
wards the south-west the chief eminences are Lamachan (2349),
Larg (2216), and the bold mass of Cairnsmore of Fleet (2331).
In the south-east the only imposing height is Criffel (1866). In
the north rises the majestic hill of Cairnsmuir of Carsphairn
(2612), and close to the Ayrshire border is the Windy Standard
(2287). The southern section of the shire is mostly level or
undulating, but characterized by much picturesque scenery.
The shore is generally bold and rocky, indented by numerous
estuaries forming natural harbours, which however are of little
use for commerce owing to the shallowness of the sea. Large
stretches of sand are exposed in the Solway at low water and the
rapid flow of the tide has often occasioned loss of life. The
number of " burns " and " waters " is remarkable, but their
length seldom exceeds 7 or 8 m. Among the longer rivers are
the Cree, which rises in Loch Moan and reaches the sea near
Creetown after a course of about 30 m., during which it forms
the boundary, at first of Ayrshire and then of Wigtownshire; the
Dee or Black Water of Dee (so named from the peat by which
it is coloured), which rises in Loch Dee and after a course mainly
S.E. and finally S., enters the sea at St Mary's Isle below Kirk-
cudbright, its length being nearly 36 m.; the Urr, rising in Loch
Urr on the Dumfriesshire border, falls into the sea a few miles
south of Dalbeattie 27 m. from its source; the Ken, rising on the
confines of Ayrshire, flows mainly in a southerly direction and
joins the Dee at the southern end of Loch Ken after a course of
24 m. through lovely scenery; and the Deugh which, rising on
the northern flank of the Windy Standard, pursues an extra-
ordinarily winding course of 20 m. before reaching the Ken.
The Nith, during the last few miles of its flow, forms the boundary
with Dumfriesshire, to which county it almost wholly belongs.
The lochs and mountain tarns are many and well distributed;
but except Loch Ken, which is about 6 m. long by | m. wide, few
of them attain noteworthy dimensions. There are several passes
in the hill regions, but the only well-known glen is Glen Trool,
not far from the district of Carrick in Ayrshire, the fame of which
rests partly on the romantic character of its scenery, which is
very wild around Loch Trool, and more especially on its associa-
tions with Robert Bruce. It was here that when most closely
beset by his enemies, who had tracked him to his fastness by
sleuth hounds, Bruce with the aid of a few faithful followers won
a surprise victory over the English in 1307 which proved the
turning-point of his fortunes.
Geology. — Silurian and Ordovician rocks are the most important
in this county; they are thrown into oft-repeated folds with their
axes lying in a N.E.-S.W. direction. The Ordovician rocks are
graptolitic black shales and grits of Llandeilo and Caradoc age.
They occupy all the northern part of the county north-west of a
line which runs some 3 m. N. of New Galloway and just S. of the
Rinns of Kells. South-east of this line graptolitic Silurian shales
of Llandovery age prevail; they are found around Dairy, Creetown,
New Galloway, Castle Douglas and Kirkcudbright. Overlying the
Llandovery beds on the south coast are strips of Wenlock rocks; they
extend from Bridgehouse Bay to Auchinleck and are well exposed in
Kirkcudbright Bay, and they can be traced farther round the coast
between the granite and the younger rocks. Carboniferous rocks
appear in small faulted tracts, unconformable on the Silurian, on
832
KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE
the shores of the Solway Firth. They are best developed about
Kirkbean, where they include a basal red breccia followed by con-
glomerates, grits and cement stones of Calciferous Sandstone age.
Brick-red sandstones of Permian age just come within the county on
the W. side of the Nith at Dumfries. Volcanic necks occur in the
Permian and basalt dikes penetrate the Silurian at Borgue, Kirk-
andrews, &c. Most of the highest ground is formed by the masses
of granite which have been intruded into the Ordovician and Silurian
rocks; the Criffel mass lies about Dalbeattie and Bengairn, another
mass extends east and west between the Cairnsmore of Fleet and Loch
Ken, another lies N.W. and S.E. between Loch Doon and Loch Dee
and a small mass forms the Cairnsmore of Carsphairn. Glacial
deposits occupy much of the low ground; the ice, having travelled
in a southerly or south-easterly direction, has left abundant striae on
the higher ground to indicate its course. Radiation of the ice streams
took place from the heights of Merrick, Kells, &c. ; local moraines are
found near Carsphairn and in the Deagh and Minnoch valleys. Glacial
drumlins of boulder clay lie in the vales of the Dee, Cree and Urr.
Climate and Agriculture. — The climate and soil are better fitted
for grass and green crops than for grain. The annual rainfall
averages 45-7 in. The mean temperature for the year is 48° F.;
for January 38-5°; for July 59°. The major part of the land is
either waste or poor pasture. More than half the holdings con-
sist of 5° acres and over. Oats is the predominant grain crop,
the acreage under barley being small and that under wheat
insignificant. Turnips are successfully cultivated, and potatoes
are the only other green crop raised on a moderately large scale.
Sheep-rearing has been pursued with great enterprise. The
average is considerably in excess of that for Scotland. Black-
faced and Cheviots are the most common on the high ground,
and a cross of Leicester with either is also in favour. Cattle-
breeding is followed with steady success; the black polled
Galloway is the general breed, but Aryshires have been introduced
for dairying, cheese-making occupying much of the farmers'
attention. Horses are extensively raised, a breed of small-sized
hardy and spirited animals being specifically known as Gallo-
ways. Most of the horses are used in agricultural work, but a
large number are also kept for stock; Clydesdales are bred to
some extent. Pig-rearing is an important pursuit, pork being
supplied to the English markets in considerable quantities.
During the last quarter of the igth century the number of pigs
increased 50%. Bee-keeping has been followed with special
care and the honey of the shire is consequently in good repute.
The proportion of woodland in the county is small.
Industries. — The shire ranks next to Aberdeen as a granite-
yielding county and the quarries occupy a large number of hands.
In some towns and villages there are manufactures of linen,
woollen and cotton goods; at various places distilling, brewing,
tanning and paper-making are carried on, and at Dalbeattie
there are brick and tile works. There is a little ship-building
at Kirkcudbright. The Solway fishery is of small account, but
salmon fishing is prosecuted at the mouth of certain rivers, the
Dee fish being notable for their excellence.
The only railway communication is by the Glasgow & South-
western railway running from Dumfries to Castle Douglas, from
which there is a branch to Kirkcudbright, and the Portpatrick
and Wigtownshire railway, beginning at Castle Douglas and
leaving the county at Newton Stewart. These are supplemented
by coaches between various points, as from New Galloway to
Carsphairn, from Dumfries to New Abbey and Dalbeattie, and
from Auchencairn to Dalbeattie.
Population and Government. — The population was 39,985 in
1891 and 39,383 in 1901, when 98 persons spoke Gaelic and
English. The chief towns are Castle Douglas (pop. in 1901,
3018), Dalbeattie (3469), Kirkcudbright (2386), Maxwelltown
(5796) with Creetown (991), and Gatehouse of Fleet (1013).
The shire returns one member to parliament, and the county
town (Kirkcudbright) belongs to the Dumfries district group
of parliamentary burghs, and Maxwelltown is combined with
Dumfries. The county forms part of the sheriffdom of Dumfries
and Galloway, and there is a resident sheriff-substitute at
Kirkcudbright. The county is under school-board jurisdic-
tion. There is an academy at Kirkcudbright, high schools at
Dumfries and Newton Stewart, and technical classes at Kirkcud-
bright, Dalbeattie, Castle Douglas and Dumfries.
History. — The country west of the Nith was originally peopled
by a tribe of Celtic Gaels called Novantae, or Atecott Picts, who,
owing to their geographical position, which prevented any ready
intermingling with the other Pictish tribes farther north, long
retained their independence. After Agricola's invasion in A.D. 79
the country nominally formed part of the Roman province,
but the evidence is against there ever having been a prolonged
effective Roman occupation. After the retreat of the Romans
the Novantae remained for a time under their own chiefs, but
in the 7th century accepted the overlordship of Northumbria.
The Saxons, soon engaged in struggles with the Norsemen, had
no leisure to look after their tributaries, and early in the 9th
century the Atecotts made common cause with the Vikings.
Henceforward they were styled, probably in contempt, Gall-
gaidhel, or stranger Gaels (i.e. Gaels who fraternized with the
foreigners), the Welsh equivalent for which, Gallwyddel, gave
rise to the name of Galloway (of which Galway is a variant),
which was applied to their territory and still denotes the
Stewartry of Kirkcudbright and the shire of Wigtown. When
Scotland was consolidated under Kenneth MacAlpine (crowned
at Scone in 844), Galloway was the only district in the south that
did not form part of the kingdom; but in return for the services
rendered to him at this crisis Kenneth gave his daughter in
marriage to the Galloway chief, Olaf the White, and also con-
ferred upon the men of Galloway the privilege of marching in
the van of the Scottish armies, a right exercised and recognized
for several centuries. During the next two hundred years the
country had no rest from Danish and Saxon incursions and
the continual lawlessness of the Scandinavian rovers. When
Malcolm Canmore defeated and slew Macbeth in 1057 he married
the dead king's widow Ingibiorg, a Pictish princess, an event
which marked the beginning of the decay of Norse influence.
The Galloway chiefs hesitated for a time whether to throw in i
their lot with the Northumbrians or with Malcolm; but language,
race and the situation of their country at length induced them
to become lieges of the Scottish king. By the close of the nth
century the boundary between England and Scotland was
roughly delimited on existing lines. The feudal system ulti-
mately destroyed the power of the Galloway chiefs, who resisted
the innovation to the last. Several of the lords or " kings " of
Galloway, a line said to have been founded by Fergus, the
greatest of them all, asserted in vain their independence of the
Scottish crown; and in 1234 the line became extinct in the male
branch on the death of Fergus's great-grandson Alan. One of
Alan's daughters, Dervorguila, had married John de Baliol
(father of the John de Baliol who was king of Scotland from 1292
until his abdication in 1296), and the people, out of affection for
Alan's daughter, were lukewarm in support of Robert Bruce. In
1308 the district was cleared of the English and brought under
allegiance to the king, when the lordship of Galloway was given
to Edward Bruce. Later in the I4th century Galloway espoused
the cause of Edward Baliol, who surrendered several counties,
including Kirkcudbright, to Edward III. In 1372 Archibald
the Grim, a natural son of Sir James Douglas " the Good,"
became Lord of Galloway and received in perpetual fee the
Crown lands between the Nith and Cree. He appointed a steward
to collect his revenues and administer justice, and there thus
arose the designation of the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright. The
high-handed rule of the Douglases created general discontent, and
when their treason became apparent their territory was overrun
by the king's men in 1455; Douglas was attainted, and his
honours and estates were forfeited. In that year the great
stronghold of the Thrieve, the most important fortress in Gallo-
way, which Archibald the Grim had built on the Dee immediately
to the west of the modern town of Castle Douglas, was reduced
and converted into a royal keep. (It was dismantled in 1640
by order of the Estates in consequence of the hostility of its
keeper, Lord Nithsdale, to the Covenant.) The famous cannon
Mons Meg, now in Edinburgh Castle, is said, apparently on
insufficient evidence, to have been constructed in order to aid
James III. in this siege. As the Douglases went down the
Maxwells rose, and the debateable land on the south-east of
KIRKE— KIRKWALL
833
Dumfriesshire was for generations the scene of strife and raid,
not only between the two nations but also among the leading
families, of whom the Maxwells, Johnstones and Armstrongs
were always conspicuous. After the battle of Sohvay Moss
(1542) the shires of Kirkcudbright and Dumfries fell under
English rule for a short period. The treaty of Norham
(March 24, 1550) established a truce between the nations for ten
years; and in 1552, the Wardens of the Marches consenting, the
debateable land ceased to be matter for debate, the parish of
Canonbie being annexed to Dumfriesshire, that of Kirkandrews
to Cumberland. Though at the Reformation the Stewartry
became fervent in its Protestantism, it was to Galloway, through
the influence of the great landowners and the attachment of
the people to them, that Mary owed her warmest adherents, and
it was from the coast of Kirkcudbright that she made her luckless
voyage to England. Even when the crowns were united in 1603
turbulence continued; for trouble arose over the attempt to
establish episcopacy, and nowhere were the Covenanters more
cruelly persecuted than in Galloway. After the union things
mended slowly but surely, curious evidence of growing com-
mercial prosperity being the enormous extent to which smuggling
was carried on. No coast could serve the " free traders " better
than the shores of Kirkcudbright, and the contraband trade
flourished till the igth century. The Jacobite risings of 1715
and 1745 elicited small sympathy from the inhabitants of the
shire.
See Sir Herbert Maxwell, History of Dumfries and Galloway
(Edinburgh, 1896); Rev. Andrew Symson. A Large Description of
Galloway (1684; newed., 1823) ; Thomas Murray, The Literary History
of Galloway (1822) ; Rev. William Mackenzie, History of Galloway
(1841); P. H. McKerlie, History of Ike Lands and their Owners in
Galloway (Edinburgh, 1870—1879); Galloway Ancient and Modern
(Edinburgh, 1891) ; J. A. H. Murray, Dialect of the Southern Counties
of Scotland (London, 1873).
KIRKE, PERCY (c. 1646-1691), English soldier, was the son of
George Kirke, a court official to Charles I. and Charles II. In
1666 he obtained his first commission in the Lord Admiral's
regiment, and subsequently served in the Blues. He was with
Monmouth at Maestricht (1673), and was present during two
campaigns with Turenne on the Rhine. In 1680 he became
lieutenant-colonel, and soon afterwards colonel of one of the
Tangier regiments (afterwards the King's Own Royal Lancaster
Regt.) In 1682 Kirke became governor of Tangier, and colonel
of the old Tangier regiment (afterwards the Queen's Royal West
Surrey). He distinguished himself very greatly as governor,
though he gave offence by the roughness of his manners and the
wildness of his life. On the evacuation of Tangier " Kirke's
Lambs " (so called from their badge) returned to England, and
a year later their colonel served as a brigadier in Faversham's
army. After Sedgemoor the> rebels were treated with great
severity; but the charges so often brought against the " Lambs "
are now known to be exaggerated, though the regiment shared
to the full in the ruthless hunting down of the fugitives. It is
often stated that it formed Jeffreys's escort in the " Bloody
Assize," but this is erroneous. Brigadier Kirke took a notable
part in the Revolution three years later, and William III.
promoted him. He commanded at the relief of Derry, and
made his last campaign in Flanders in 1691. He died, a lieu-
tenant-general, at Brussels in October of that year. His eldest
son, Lieut.-General Percy Kirke (1684-1741), was also colonel
of the " Lambs."
KIRKEE (or KIRKI), a town and military cantonment of
British India in Poona district, Bombay, 4 m. N.W. of Poona
city. Pop. (1901), 10,797. It is the principal artillery station in
the Bombay presidency, and has a large ammunition factory.
It was the scene of a victory over Baji Rao, the last peshwa,
in 1817.
KIRKINTILLOCH, a municipal and police burgh of Dumbar-
tonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 10,680. It is situated 8 m.N.E. of
Glasgow, by the North British railway, a portion of the parish
extending into Lanarkshire. It lies on the Forth & Clyde canal,
and the Kelvin — from which Lord Kelvin, the distinguished
scientist, took the title of his barony — flows past the town,
xv. 27
where it receives from the north the Glazert and from the south
the Luggie, commemorated by David Gray. The Wall of
Antoninus ran through the site of the town, the Gaelic name of
which (Caer, a fort, not Kirk, a church) means " the fort at the
end of the ridge." The town became a burgh of barony under
the Comyns in 1170. The cruciform parish church with crow-
stepped gables dates from 1644. The public buildings include
the town-hall, with a clock tower, the temperance hall, a con-
valescent home, the Broomhill home for incurables (largely due
to Miss Beatrice Clugston, to whom a memorial was erected in
1891), and the Westermains asylum. In 1 898 the burgh acquired
as a private park the Peel, containing traces of the Roman Wall,
a fort, and the foundation of Comyn's Castle. The leading
industries are chemical manufactures, iron-founding, muslin-
weaving, coal mining and timber sawing. LENZIE, a suburb, a
mile to the south of the old town, contains the imposing towered
edifice in the Elizabethan style which houses the Barony asylum.
David Gray, the poet, was born at Merkland, near by, and is
buried in Kirkintilloch churchyard, where a monument was
erected to his memory in 1865.
KIRK-KILISSEH (KiRK-KiLissE or KIRK-KILISSIA), a town
of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople, 35 m. E. of
Adrianople. Pop. (1905), about 16,000, of whom about half are
Greeks, and the remainder Bulgarians, Turks and Jews. Kirk-
Kilisseh is built near the headwaters of several small tributaries
of the river Ergene, and on the western slope of the Istranja
Dagh. It owes its chief importance to its position at the southern
outlet of the Fakhi defile over these mountains, through which
passes the shortest road from Shumla to Constantinople. The
name Kirk-Kilisseh signifies " four churches," and the town
possesses many mosques and Greek churches. It has an im-
portant trade with Constantinople in butter and cheese, and also
exports wine, brandy, cereals and tobacco.
KIRKSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Adair county,
Missouri, U.S. A., about 129 m. N. by W. of Jefferson City. Pop.
(1900), 3966, including 112 foreign-born and 291 negroes; (1910),
6347. It is served by the Wabash and the Quincy, Omaha &
Kansas City railways. It lies on a rolling prairie at an eleva-
tion of 975 ft. above the sea. It is the seat of the First District
Missouri State Normal School (1870); of the American School of
Osteopathy (opened 1892); and of the related A. T. Stili
Infirmary (incorporated 1895), named in honour of its founder,
Andrew Taylor Still (b. 1820), the originator of osteopathic
treatment, who settled here in 1875. In 1908 the School of
Osteopathy had 18 instructors and 398 students. Grain and
fruit are grown in large quantities, and much coal is mined in
the vicinity of Kirksville. Its manufactures are shoes, bricks,
lumber, ice, agricultural implements, wagons and handles.
Kirksville was laid out in 1842, and was named in honour of
Jesse Kirk. It was incorporated as a town in 1857 and
chartered as a city of the third class in 1892. In April 1899 a
cyclone caused serious damage to the city.
KIRKWALL (Norse, Kirkjuvagr, " church bay "), a royal,
municipal and police burgh, seaport and capital of the Orkney
Islands, county of Orkney, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 3711. It is
situated at the head of a bay of the same name on the east of
the island of Pomona, or Mainland, 247 m. N. of Leith and 54 m.
N. of Wick by steamer. Much of the city is quaint-looking and
old-fashioned, its main street (nearly i m. long) being in parts
so narrow that two vehicles cannot pass each other. The more
modern quarters are built with great regularity and the suburbs
contain several substantial villas surrounded by gardens. Kirk-
wall has very few manufactures. The linen trade introduced
in the middle of the i8th century is extinct, and a like fate has
overtaken the kelp and straw-plaiting industries. Distilling
however prospers, and the town is important not only as regards
its shipping and the deep-sea fishery, but also as a distributing
centre for the islands and the seat of the superior law courts.
The port has two piers. Kirkwall received its first charter from
James III. in 1486, but the provisions of this instrument being
disregarded by such men as Robert (d. 1592) and Patrick Stewart
(d. 1614), ist and 2nd earls of Orkney, and others, the Scottish
834
KIRRIEMUIR— KISFALUDY
parliament passed an act in 1670 confirming the charter granted
by Charles II. in 1661. The prime object of interest is the
cathedral of St Magnus, a stately cruciform red sandstone struc-
ture in the severest Norman, with touches of Gothic. It was
founded by Jarl Rognvald (Earl Ronald) in 1137 in memory of
his uncle Jarl Magnus who was assassinated in the island of
Egilshay in 1115, and afterwards canonized and adopted as the
patron saint of the Orkneys. The remains of St Magnus were
ultimately interred in the cathedral. The church is 234 ft. long
from east to west and 56 ft. broad, 71 ft. high from floor to roof,
and 133 ft. to the top of the present spire — the transepts being
the oldest portion. The choir was lengthened and the beautiful
eastern rose window added by Bishop Stewart in 1511, and the
porch and the western end of the nave were finished in 1 540 by
Bishop Robert Reid. Saving that the upper half of the original
spire was struck by lightning in 1671, and not rebuilt, the cathe-
dral is complete at all points, but it underwent extensive repairs
in the igth century. The disproportionate height and narrow-
ness of the building lend it a certain distinction which otherwise
it would have lacked. The sandstone has not resisted the effects
of weather, and much of the external decorative work has
perished. The choir is used as the parish church. The skellat,
or fire-bell, is not rung now. The church of St Olaf, from which
the town took its name, was burned down by the English in
1502; and of the church erected on its site by Bishop Reid — the
greatest building the Orkneys ever had — little more than the
merest fragment survives. Nothing remains of the old castle,
a fortress of remarkable strength founded by Sir Henry Sinclair
(d. 1400), earl and prince of Orkney and ist earl of Caithness,
its last vestiges having been demolished in 1865 to provide better
access to the harbour; and the earthwork to the east of the town
thrown up by the Cromwellians has been converted into a battery
of the Orkney Artillery Volunteers. Adjoining the cathedral
are the ruins of the bishop's palace, in which King Haco died
after his defeat at Largs in 1263. The round tower, which still
stands, was added in 1550 by Bishop Reid. It is known as the
Mass Tower and contains a niche in which is a small effigy
believed to represent the founder, who also endowed the grammar
school which is still in existence. To the east of the remains of
the bishop's palace are the ruins of the earl's palace, a structure
in the Scottish Baronial style, built about 1600 for Patrick
Stewart, 2nd earl of Orkney, and on his forfeiture given to the
bishops for a residence. Tankerness House is a characteristic
example of the mansion of an Orkney laird of the olden time.
Other public buildings include the municipal buildings, the
sheriff court and county buildings, Balfour hospital, and the
fever hospital. There is daily communication with Scrabster
pier (Thurso), via Scapa pier, on the southern side of the waist
of Pomona, about ij m. to the S. of Kirkwall; and steamers sail
at rc-gular intervals from the harbour to Wick, Aberdeen and
Leith. Good roads place the capital in touch with most places
in the island and a coach runs twice a day to Stromncss. Kirk-
wall belongs to the Wick district group of parliamentary burghs,
the others being Cromarty, Dingwall, Dornoch and Tain.
KIRRIEMUIR, a police burgh of Forfarshire, Scotland. Pop.
(1901), 4096. It is situated on a height above the glen through
which the Gairie flows, 6j m. N.W. of Forfar by a branch line of
the Caledonian railway of which it is the terminus. There are
libraries, a public hall and a park. The staple industry is linen-
weaving. The hand-loom lingered longer here than in any other
place in Scotland and is not yet wholly extinct. The Rev. Dr
Alexander Whyte (b. 1837) and J. M. Barrie (b. 1860) are natives,
the latter having made the town famous under the name of
" Thrums." The original Secession church — the kirk of the Auld
Lichts— was founded in 1806 and rebuilt in 1893. Kinnordy,
i \ m. N.W., was the birthplace of Sir Charles Lyell the geologist;
and Cortachy castle, a fine mansion in the Scottish Baronial
style, about 4 m. N., is the seat of the earl of Airlie.
KIRSCH (or KIRSCHENWASSER), a potable spirit distilled from
cherries. Kirsch is manufactured chiefly in the Black Forest
in Germany, and in the Vosges and Jura districts in France.
Generally the raw material consists of the wild cherry kndwn as
Cerasus avium. The cherries are subjected to natural fermenta-
tion and subsequent distillation. Occasionally a certain quantity
of sugar and water are added to the cherries after crushing, and
the mass so obtained is filtered or pressed prior to fermentation.
The spirit is usually " run " at a strength of about 50% of
absolute alcohol. Compared with brandy or whisky the charac-
teristic features of kirsch are (a) that it contains relatively
large quantities of higher alcohols and compound ethers, and
(b) the presence in this spirit of small quantities of hydrocyanic
acid, partly as such and partly in combination as benzaldehyde-
cyanhydrine, to which the distinctive flavour of kirsch is largely
due.
KIR-SHEHER, the chief town of a sanjak of the same name
in the Angora vilayet of Asia Minor, situated on a tributary of
the Kizil Irmak (Halys), on the Angora-Kaisarieh road. It is on
the line of the projected railway from Angora to Kaisarieh. The
town gives its name to the excellent carpets made in the vicinity.
On the outskirts there is a hot chalybeate spring. Population
about 9000 (700 Christians, mostly Armenians). Kir-sheher
represents the ancient Mocissus, a small town which became im-
portant in the Byzantine period: it was enlarged by the emperor
Justinian, who re-named it Justiniano polls, and made it the
capital of a large division of Cappadocia, a position it still
retains.
KIRWAN, RICHARD (1733-1812), Irish scientist, was born at
Cloughballymore, Co. Galway, in 1733. Part of his early life
was spent abroad, and in 1754 he entered the Jesuit novitiate
either at St Omer or at Hesdin, but returned to Ireland in the
following year, when he succeeded to the family estates through
the death of his brother in a duel. In 1766, having conformed
to the established religion two years previously, he was called
to the Irish bar, but in 1768 abandoned practice in favour of
scientific pursuits. During the next nineteen years he resided
chiefly in London, enjoying the society of the scientific men
living there, and corresponding with many savants on the conti-
nent of Europe, as his wide knowledge of languages enabled him
to do with ease. His experiments on the specific gravities and
attractive powers of various saline substances formed a sub-
stantial contribution to the methods of analytical chemistry,
and in 1782 gained him the Copley medal from the Royal
Society, of which he was elected a fellow in 1780; and in 1784 he
was engaged in a controversy with Cavendish in regard to the
latter's experiments on air. In 1787 he removed to Dublin,
where four years later he became president of the Royal Irish
Academy. To its proceedings he contributed some thirty-eight
memoirs, dealing with meteorology, pure and applied chemistry,
geology, magnetism, philology, &c. One of these, on the primi-
tive state of the globe and its subsequent catastrophe, involved
him in a lively dispute with the upholders of the Huttonian
theory. His geological work was marred by an implicit belief
in the universal deluge, and through finding fossils associated
with the trap rocks near Portrush he maintained basalt was of
aqueous origin. He was one of the last supporters in England
of the phlogistic hypothesis, for which he contended in his
Essay on Phlogiston and the Constitution of Acids (1787), identi-
fying phlogiston with hydrogen. This work, translated by
Madame Lavoisier, was published in French with critical notes
by Lavoisier and some of his associates; Kirwan attempted to
refute their arguments, but they proved too strong for him, and
he acknowledged himself a convert in 1791. His other books
included Elements of Mineralogy (1784), which was the first
systematic work on that subject in the English language, and
which long remained standard; An Estimate of the Temperature
of Different Latitudes (1787); Essay of the Analysis of Mineral
Waters (1799), and Geological Essays (1799). In his later
years he turned to philosophical questions, producing a paper
on human liberty in 1798, a treatise on logic in 1807, and a
volume of metaphysical essays in 1811, none of any worth.
Various stories are told of his eccentricities as well as of his
conversational powers. He died in Dublin in June 1812.
KISFALUDY, KAROLY [CHARLES] (1788-1830), Hungarian
author, was born at Tete, near Raab, on the 6th of February
KISH
835
1788. His birth cost his mother her life and himself his father's
undying hatred. He entered the army as a cadet in 1804; saw
active service in Italy, Servia and Bavaria (1805-1809), espe-
cially distinguishing himself at the battle of Leoben (May 25,
1809), and returned to his quarters at Pest with the rank of first
lieutenant. It was during the war that he composed his first
poems, e.g. the tragedy Gyilkos (" The Murder," 1808), and
numerous martial songs for the encouragement of his comrades.
It was now, too, that he fell hopelessly in love with the beautiful
Katalin Heppler, the daughter of a wealthy tobacco merchant.
Tiring of the monotony of a soldier's life, yet unwilling to sacri-
fice his liberty to follow commerce or enter the civil service,
Kisfaludy, contrary to his father's wishes, now threw up his
commission and made his home at the house of a married sister
at Vorrock, where he could follow his inclinations. In 1812 he
studied painting at the Vienna academy and supported himself
precariously by his brush and pencil, till the theatre at Vienna
proved a still stronger attraction. In 1812 he wrote the tragedy
Kldra Zdch, and in 1815 went to Italy to study art more
thoroughly. But he was back again within six months,
and for the next three years flitted from place to place, living
on the charity of his friends, lodging in hovels and dashing off
scores of daubs v/hich rarely found a market. The united
and repeated petitions of the whole Kisfaludy family failed to
bring about a reconciliation between the elder Kisfaludy
and his prodigal son. It was the success of his drama Ilka,
written for the Fehervar dramatic society, that first made him
famous and prosperous. The play was greeted with enthusiasm
both at Fehervar and Buda (1819). Subsequent plays, The
Voiwde Stiber and The Petitioners (the first original Magyar
dramas), were equally successful. Kisfaludy's fame began to
spread. He had found his true vocation as the creator of
the Hungarian drama. In May 1820 he wrote three new plays
for the dramatic society (he could always turn out a five-act
drama in four days) which still further increased his reputa-
tion. From 1820 onwards, under the influence of the great
critic Kazinczy, he learnt to polish and refine his style, while his
friend and adviser Gyorgy Gaal (who translated some of his
dramas for the Vienna stage) introduced him to the works of
Shakespeare and Goethe. By this time Kisfaludy had evolved
a literary theory of his own which inclined towards romanticism;
and in collaboration with his elder brother Alexander (see below)
he founded the periodical Aurora(i&22), which he edited to the day
of his death. The Aurora was a notable phenomenon in Magyar
literature. It attracted towards it many of the rising young
authors of the day (including Vorosmarty, Bajza and Czuczor)
and speedily became the oracle of the romanticists. Kisfaludy's
material position had now greatly improved, but he could not
shake off his old recklessness and generosity, and he was never
able to pay a tithe of his debts. The publication of Aurora so
engrossed his time that practically he abandoned the stage. But
he contributed to Aurora ballads, epigrams, short epic pieces,
and, best of all, his comic stories. Kisfaludy was in fact the
founder of the school of Magyar humorists and his comic types
amuse and delight to this day. When the folk-tale became
popular in Europe, Kisfaludy set to work upon folk-tales also
and produced (1828) some of the masterpieces of that genre. He
died on the 2ist of November 1830. Six years later the great
literary society of Hungary, the Kisfaludy Tdrsasdg, was founded
to commemorate his genius. Apart from his own works it is
the supreme merit of Kisfaludy to have revived and nationalized
the Magyar literature, giving it a range and scope undreamed of
before his time.
The first edition of Kisfaludy's works, in 10 volumes, appeared
at Buda in 1 83 1 , shortly after his death, but the 7th edition (Budapest
1893) is the best and fullest. See Ferenc Toldy, Lives of the Magyar
Poets (Hung.) (Budapest, 1870); Zsolt Beothy, The Father of Hun-
garian Comedy (Budapest, 1882) ; Tamas Szana, The Two Kisfaludys
(Hung.) (Budapest, 1876). Kisfaludy's struggles and adventures
are also most vividly described in Jokai's novel, Eppur si muove
(Hung.).
SANDOR [ALEXANDER] KISFALUDY (1772-1844), Hungarian
poet, elder brother of the preceding, was born at Zala on the 27th
of September 1772, educated at Raab, and graduated in philo-
sophy and jurisprudence at Pressburg. He early fell under the
influence of Schiller and Klcist, and devoted himself to the resus-
citation of the almost extinct Hungarian literature. Disgusted
with his profession, the law, he entered the Life Guards (1793)
and plunged into the gay life of Vienna, cultivating literature,
learning French, German and Italian, painting, sketching,
assiduously frequenting the theatre, and consorting on equal
terms with all the literary celebrities of the Austrian capital.
In 1796 he was transferred to the army in Italy for being con-
cerned with some of his brother officers of the Vienna garrison
in certain irregularities. When Milan was captured by Napoleon
•Kisfaludy was sent a prisoner of war to Vaucluse, where he
studied Petrarch with enthusiasm and fell violently in love with
Caroline D'Esclapon, a kindred spirit to whom he addressed
his melancholy Himfy Lays, the first part of the subsequently
famous sonnets. On returning to Austria he served with some
distinction in the campaigns of 1798 and 1799 on the Rhine and
in Switzerland; but tiring of a military life and disgusted at the
slowness of his promotion, he quitted the army in September
1799, and married his old love Roza Szegedy at the beginning
of 1800. The first five happy years of their life were passed at
Kam in Vas county, but in 1805 they removed to Siimeg where
Kisfaludy gave himself up entirely to literature.
At the beginning of the igth century he had published a
volume of erotics which made him famous, and his reputation
was still .further increased by his Regek or Tales. During the
troublous times of 1809, when the gentry of Zala county founded
a confederation, the palatine appointed Kisfaludy one of his
adjutants. Subsequently, by command, he wrote an account of
the movement for presentation to King Francis, which was com-
mitted to the secret archives, and Kisfaludy was forbidden to
communicate its contents. In 1820 the Marczebanya Institute
crowned his Tales and the palatine presented him with a prize
of 400 florins in the hall of the Pest county council. In 1822
he started the Aurora with his younger brother Karoly (see
above). When the academy was founded in 1830 Kisfaludy
was the first county member elected to it. In 1835 he resigned
because he was obliged to share the honour of winning the
academy's grand prize with Vorosmarty. After the death of
his first wife (1832) he married a second time, but by neither of
his wives had he any child. The remainder of his days were
spent in his Tusculum among the vineyards of Siimeg and
Somla. He died on the 28th of October 1844. Alexander
Kisfaludy stands alone among the rising literary schools of
his day. He was not even influenced by his friend the great
critic Kazinczy, who gave the tone to the young classical
writers of his day. Kisfaludy's art was self-taught, solitary
and absolutely independent. If he imitated any one it was
Petrarch; indeed his famous Himfy szcrelmei (" The Loves
of Himfy"), as his collected sonnets are called, have won
for him the title of " The Hungarian Petrarch." But
the passion of Kisfaludy is far more sincere and real than
ever Petrarch's was, and he completely Magyarized everything
he borrowed. After finishing the sonnets Kisfaludy devoted
himself to more objective writing, as in the incomparable Regek,
which reproduce the scenery and the history of the delightful
counties which surround Lake Balaton. He also contributed
numerous tales and other pieces to Aurora. Far less successful
were his plays, of which Hunyddi Jdnos (1816), by far the longest
drama in the Hungarian language, need alone be mentioned.
The best critical edition of Sandor Kisfaludy's works is the fourth
complete edition, by David Angyal, in eight volumes (Budapest,
1893). See Tamas Szana, The two Kisfaludys (Hung.) (Budapest,
1876); Imre Sandor, The Influence of the Italian on the Hungarian
Literature (Hung.) (Budapest, 1878); Kalman Sumegi, Kisfaludy
and his Tales (Hung.) (Budapest, 1877). (R. N. B.)
KlSH, or KAIS (the first form is Persian and the second
Arabic), an island in the Persian Gulf. It is mentioned in the
1 2th century as being the residence of an Arab pirate from Oman,
who exacted a tribute from the pearl fisheries of the gulf and had
the title of "King of the Sea," and it rose to importance in the
836
KISHANGARH— KISMET
I3th century with the fall of Siraf as a transit station of the
trade between India and the West. In the i4th century it was
supplanted by Hormuz and lapsed into its former insignificance.
The island is nearly 10 m. long and 5 m. broad, and contains
a number of small villages, the largest, Mashi, with about 100
houses, being situated on its north-eastern corner in 26° 34' N.
and 54° 2' E. The highest part of the island has an elevation of
1 20 ft. The inhabitants are Arabs, and nearly all pearl fishers,
possessing many boats, which they take to the pearl banks on
the Arabian coast. The water supply is scanty and there is
little vegetation, but sufficient for sustaining some flocks of
sheep and goats and some cattle. Near the centre of the north
coast are the ruins of the old city, now known as Harira, with
remains of a mosque, with octagonal columns, masonry, water-
cisterns (two 150 ft. long, 40 ft. broad, 24 ft. deep) and a fine
underground canal, or aqueduct, half a mile long and cut in the
solid rock 20 ft. below the surface. Fragments of glazed tiles
and brown and blue pottery, of thin white and blue Chinese
porcelain, of green celadon (some with white scroll-work or
figures in relief), glass beads, bangles, &c., are abundant. Kish
is the Kataia of Arrian; Chisi and Quis of Marco Polo; Quixi,
Queis, Caez, Cais, &c., of Portuguese writers; and Khenn, or
Kenn, of English.
KISHANGARH, a native state of India, in the Rajputana
agency. Area, 858 sq. m.jpop. (1901), 90,970, showing a decrease
of 27% in the decade, due to the famine of 1899-1900;
estimated revenue, £34,000; there is no tribute. The state was
founded in the reign of the emperor Akbar, by a younger son
of the raja of Jodhpur. In 1818 Kishangarh first came into
direct relations with the British government, by entering into a
treaty, together with the other Rajput states, for the suppression
of the Pindari marauders by whom the country was at that time
overrun. The chief, whose title is maharaja, is a Rajput of the
Rathor clan. Maharaja Madan Singh ascended the throne in 1 900
at the age of sixteen, and attended the Delhi Durbar of 1903 as a
cadet in the Imperial Cadet Corps. The administration, under
the diwan, is highly spoken of. Irrigation from tanks and wells
has been extended; factories for ginning and pressing cotton have
been started; and the social reform movement, for discouraging
excessive expenditure on marriages, has been very successful.
The state is traversed by the Rajputana railway. The town of
KISHANGARH is 18 m. N.W. of Ajmere by rail. Pop. (1901),
12,663. It is the residence of many Jain merchants.
KISHINEV (Kisftlanowoi the Moldavians) ,a town of south-west
Russia, capital of the government of Bessarabia, situated on the
right bank of the Byk, a tributary of the Dniester, and on the
railway between Odessa and Jassy in Rumania, 120 m. W.N.W.
from the former. At the beginning of the igth century it was
but a poor village, and in 1812 when it was acquired by Russia
from Moldavia it had only 7000 inhabitants; twenty years later
its population numbered 35,000, while in 1862 it had with its
suburbs 92,000 inhabitants, and in 1900 125,787, composed of
the most varied nationalities — Moldavians, Walachians, Rus-
sians, Jews (43%), Bulgarians, Tatars, Germans and Gypsies.
A massacre (pogrom) of the Jews was perpetrated here in 1903.
The town consists of two parts — the old or lower town, on the
banks of the Byk, and the new or upper town, situated on high
crags, 450 to 500 ft. above the river. The wide suburbs are
remarkable for their gardens, which produce great quantities of
fruits (especially plums, which are dried and exported), tobacco,
mulberry leaves for silkworms, and wine. The buildings of the
town are sombre, shabby and low, but built of stone; and the
streets, though wide and shaded by acacias, are mostly unpaved.
Kishinev is the seat of the archbishop of Bessarabia, and has a
cathedral, an ecclesiastical seminary with 800 students, a college,
and a gardening school, a museum, a public library, a botanic
garden, and a sanatorium with sulphur springs. The town is
adorned with statues of Tsar Alexander II. (1886) and the poet
Pushkin (1885). There are tallow-melting houses, steam flour-
mills, candle and soap works, distilleries and tobacco factories.
The trade is very active and increasing, Kishinev being a centre
for the Bessarabian trade in grain, wine, tobacco, tallow, wool
and skins, exported to Austria and to Odessa. The town played
an important part in the war between Russia and Turkey hi
1877-78, as the chief centre of the Russian invasion.
KISHM (also Arab. Jazirat ut-lawilah, Pers. Jazarih i dardz,
i.e. Long Island), an island at the mouth of the Persian Gulf,
separated from the Persian mainland by the Khor-i-Jafari, a
strait which at its narrowest point is less than 2 m. broad.
On British Admiralty charts it figures as " Clarence Strait,"
the name given to it by British surveyors in 1828 in honour of
the duke of Clarence (William IV.). The island is 70 m. long,
its main axis running E.N.E. by W.S.W. Its greatest breadth
is 22 m. and the mean breadth about 7m. A range of hills
from 300 to 600 ft. high, with strongly marked escarpments,
runs nearly parallel to the southern coast; they are largely
composed, like those of Hormuz and the neighbouring mainland,
of rock salt, which is regularly quarried in several places,
principally at Nimakdan (i.e. salt-cellar) and Salakh on the
south coast, and forms one of the chief products of the island,
finding its way to Muscat, India and Zanzibar. In the centre of
the island some hills, consisting of sandstone and marl, rise to an
elevation of 1300 ft. In its general aspect the island is parched
and barren-looking, like the south of Persia, but it contains
fertile portions, which produce grain, dates, grapes, melons, &c.
Traces of naphtha were observed near Salakh, but extensive
boring operations in 1892 did not lead to any result. The
town of Kishm (pop. 5000) is on the eastern extremity of the
island. The famous navigator, William Baffin, was killed here
in January 1622 by a shot from the Portuguese castle close by,
which a British force was then besieging. Lafit (Laft, Leit),
the next place in importance (reduced by a British fleet in 1809),
is situated about midway on the northern coast in the most
fertile part of the island. There are also many flourishing
villages. At Basidu or Bassudore (correct name Baba Sa'idu),
on the western extremity of the island, the British government
maintained until 1879 a sanatorium for the crews of their
gunboats in the gulf, with barracks for a company of sepoys
belonging to the marine battalion at Bombay, workshops,
hospital, &c. The village is still British property, but its
occupants are reduced to a couple of men in charge of a coal
depot, a provision store and about 90 villagers. In December
1896 a terrible earthquake destroyed about four-fifths of the
houses on the island and over 1000 persons lost their lives.
The total population is generally estimated at about 15,000
to 20,000, but the German Admiralty's Segelhandbuch fiir den
Persischen Golf for 1907 has 40,000.
Kishm is the ancient Oaracta, or Uorochta, a name said to
have survived until recently in a village called Brokt, or Brokht.
It was also called the island of the Beni Kavan, from an Arab
tribe of that name which came from Oman. (A. H.-S.)
KISKUNFELEGYHAZA, a town of Hungary, in the county
of Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun, 80 m. S.S.E. of Budapest by rail.
Pop. (1900), 33,242. Among the principal buildings are a fine
town hall, a Roman Catholic gymnasium and a modern large
parish church. The surrounding country is covered with
vineyards, fruit gardens, and tobacco and corn fields. The
town itself, which is an important railway junction, is chiefly
noted for its great cattle-market. Numerous Roman urns and
other ancient relics have been dug up in the vicinity. In the
1 7th century the town was completely destroyed by the Turks,
and it was not recolonized and rebuilt till 1743.
KISLOVODSK, a town and health-resort of Russian
Caucasia, in the province of Terek, situated at an altitude of
2690 ft., in a deep caldron-shaped valley on the N. side of the
Caucasus, 40 m. by rail S.W. of Pyatigorsk. Pop. (1897),
4078. The limestone, hills which surround the town rise by
successive steps or terraces, and contain numerous caves. The
mineral waters are strongly impregnated with carbonic acid
gas and have a temperature of 51° F. The principal spring
is known as Narsan, and its water is called by the Circassians
the " drink of heroes."
KISMET, fate, destiny, a term used by Mahommedans to
express all the incidents and details of man's lot in life. The
KISS— KISTNA
word is the Turkish form of the Arabic gismat, from gasama,
to divide.
KISS, the act of pressing or touching with the lips, cheek,
hand or lips of another, as a sign or expression of love, affection,
reverence or greeting. Skeat (Etym. Did., 1898) connects the
Teut. base kmsa with Lat. gustus, taste, and with Goth, kustus,
test, from kinsan, to choose, and takes " kiss " as ultimately a
doublet of " choice."
For the liturgical osculum pads or " kiss of peace," see PAX. See
_ll,,,.- /"* NT.,— r, T'L ~ If: 1 *J- TT'.l . 1 11T T-. -w
I'histoire de France (1834-1890, series ii. torn. 12).
KISSAR, or GYTARAH BARBARYEH, the ancient Nubian lyre,
still in use in Egypt and Abyssinia. It consists of a body
having instead of the traditional tortoiseshell back a shallow,
round bowl of wood, covered with a sound-board of sheepskin,
in which are three small round sound-holes. The arms, set
through the sound-board at points distant about the third of the
diameter from the circumference, have the familiar fan shape.
Five gut strings, knotted round the bar and raised from the
sound-board by means of a bridge tailpiece similar to that in use
on the modern guitar, are plucked by means of a plectrum by
the right hand for the melody, while the left hand sometimes
twangs some of the strings as a soft drone accompaniment.
KISSINGEN, a town and watering-place of Germany, in the
kingdom of Bavaria, delightfully situated in a broad valley
surrounded by high and well-wooded hills, on the Franconian
Saale, 656 ft. above sea-level, 62 m. E. of Frankfort-on-Main,
and43N.E.of Wiirzburgby rail. Pop. (1900), 4757. Its streets
are regular and its houses attractive. It has an Evangelical, an
English, a Russian and three Roman Catholic churches, a theatre,
and various benevolent institutions, besides all the usual buildings
for the lodging, cure and amusement of the numerous visitors
who are attracted to this, the most popular watering-place in
Bavaria. In the Kurgarten, a tree-shaded expanse between the
Kurhaus and the handsome colonnaded Konversations-Saal, are
the three principal springs, the Rak6czy, the Pandur and the
Maxbrunnen, of which the first two, strongly impregnated
with iron and salt, have a temperature of 51-26° F.; the last
(50-72°) is like Sellers or Seltzer water. At short distances
from the town are the intermittent artesian spring Solensprudel,
the Schonbornsprudel and the Theresienquelle; and in the
same valley as Kissingen are the minor spas of Bocklet and
Briickenau. The waters of Kissingen are prescribed for both
internal and external use in a great variety of diseases. They
are all highly charged with salt, and productive government
salt-works were at one time stationed near Kissingen. The
number of persons who visit the place amounts to about 20,000
a year. The manufactures of the town, chiefly carriages and
furniture, are unimportant; there is also a trade in fruit and
wine.
The salt springs were known in the gth century, and their
medicinal properties were recognized in the i6th, but it was
only during the igth century that Kissingen became a popular
resort. The town belonged to the counts of Henneberg until
1394, when it was sold to the bishop of Wiirzburg. With this
bishopric it passed later to Bavaria. On the loth of July 1866
the Prussians defeated the Bavarians with great slaughter near
Kissingen. On the i3th of July 1874 the town was the scene
of the attempt of the fanatic Kullmann to assassinate Prince
Bismarck, to whom a statue has been erected. There are also
monuments to Kings Louis I. and Maximilian I. of Bavaria.
See Balling, Die Heilquellen und Bdder zu Kissingen ( Kissingen,
1886); A. Sotier, Bad Kissingen (Leipzig, 1883); Werner, Bad
Kissingen ah Kurort (Berlin, 1904); Leusser, Kissingen fur Flerz-
kranke (Wiirzburg, 1902); Diruf, Kissingen und seine Heilquellen
(Wiirzburg, 1892) ; and Roth, Bad Kissingen (Wiirzburg, 1901).
KISTNA, or KRISHNA, a large river of southern India. It
rises near the Bombay sanatorium of Mahabaleshwar in the
Western Ghats, only about 40 m. from the Arabian Sea, and, as
it discharges into the Bay of Bengal, it thus flows across almost
the entire peninsula from west to east. It has an estimated
837
basin area of 97,000 sq. m., and its length is 800 m. Its source
is held sacred, and is frequented by pilgrims in large numbers.
From Mahabaleshwar the Kistna runs southward in a rapid
course into the nizam's dominions, then turns to the east, and
ultimately falls into the sea by two principal mouths, carrying
with it the waters of the Bhima from the north and the Tunga-
badhra from the south-west. Along this part of the coast runs
an extensive strip of land which has been entirely formed by the
detritus washed down by the Kistna and Godavari. The river
channel is throughout too rocky and the stream too rapid to
allow navigation even by small native craft. In utility for irri-
gation the Kistna is also inferior to its two sister streams, the
Godavari and Cauvery. By far the greatest of its irrigation works
is the Bezwada anicut, begun by Sir Arthur Cotton in 1852.
Bezwada is a small town at the entrance of the gorge by which
the Kistna bursts through the Eastern Ghats and immediately
spreads over the alluvial plain. The channel there is 1300 yds.
wide. During the dry season the depth of water is barely 6 ft.,
but sometimes it rises to as much as 36 ft., the maximum flood
discharge being calculated at 1,188,000 cub. ft. per second. Of
the two main canals connected with the dam, that on the left
bank breaks into two branches, the one running 39 m. to Ellore,
the other 49 m. to Masulipatam. The canal -on the right bank
proceeds nearly parallel to the river, and also sends off two
principal branches, to Nizampatam and Comamur. The total
length of the main channels is 372 m. and the total area irrigated
in 1903-1904 was about 700,000 acres.
KISTNA (or KRISHNA), a district of British India, in the N.E.
of the Madras Presidency. Masulipatam is the district head-
quarters. Area, 8490 sq. m. The district is generally a flat
country, but the interior is broken by a few low hills, the highest
being 1857 ft. above sea-level. The principal rivers are the Kistna,
which cuts the district into two portions, and the Munyeru,
Paleru and Naguleru (tributaries of the Gundlakamma and
the Kistna) ; the last only is navigable. The Kolar lake, which
covers an area of 21 by 14 m., and the Romparu swamp are
natural receptacles for the drainage on the north and south sides
of the Kistna respectively.
In 1901 the population was 2,154,803, showing an increase of
16% in the decade. Subsequently the area of the district was
reduced by the formation of the new district of Guntur (q.v.),
though Kistna received an accretion of territory from Godavari
district. The population in 1901 on the area as reconstituted
(5899 sq. m.) was 1,744,138. The Kistna delta system of irriga-
tion canals, which are available also for navigation, connect with
the Godavari system. The principal crops are rice, millets,
pulse, oil-seeds, cotton, indigo, tobacco and a little sugar-cane.
There are several factories for ginning and pressing cotton. The
cigars known in England as Lunkas are partly made from to-
bacco grown on lankas or islands in the Kistna. The manufacture
of chintzes at Masulipatam is a decaying industry, but cotton is
woven everywhere for domestic use. Salt is evaporated, under
government supervision, along the coast. Bezwada, at the head
of the delta, is a place of growing importance, as the central
junction of the East Coast railway system, which crosses the
inland portion of the district in three directions. Some sea-
borne trade, chiefly coasting, is carried on at the open roadsteads
of Masulipatam and Nizampatam, both in the delta. The
Church Missionary Society supports a college at Masulipatam.
The early history of Kistna is inseparable from that of the
northern Circars. Dharanikota and the adjacent town of Amra-
vati were the seats of early Hindu and Buddhist govern-
ments; and the more modern Rajahmundry owed its importance
to later dynasties. The Chalukyas here gave place to the Cholas,
who in turn were ousted by the Reddi kings, who flourished
during the i4th century, and built the forts of Bellamkonda,
Kondavi and Kondapalli in the north of the district, while the
Gajapati dynasty of Orissa ruled in the north. Afterwards the
entire district passed to the Kutb Shahis of 'Golconda, until
annexed to the Mogul empire by Aurangzeb in 1687. Meantime
the English had in 1611 established a small factory at Masulipa-
tam, where they traded with varying fortune from 1759, when,
838
KIT— KITE
Masulipatam being captured from the French by Colonel Forde,
with a force sent by Lord Clive from Calcutta, the power of the
English in the greater part of the district was complete.
KIT (:)• (probably an adaptation of the Middle Dutch kitte,
a wooden tub, usually with a lid and handles; in modern Dutch
kit means a tankard), a tub, basket or pail used for holding milk,
butter, eggs, fish and other goods; also applied to similar recep-
tacles for various domestic purposes, or for holding a workman's
tools, &c. By transference " kit " came to mean the tools them-
selves, but more commonly personal effects such as clothing,
especially that of a soldier or sailor, the word including the knap-
sack or other receptacle in which the effects are packed.
(2) The name (perhaps a corruption of " cittern " Gr. KtBapa]
of a small violin, about 16 in. long, and played with a bow
of nearly the same length, much used at one time by dancing-
masters. The French name is pochette, the instrument being
small enough to go into the pocket.
KITAZATO, SHIBASABURO (1856- ), Japanese doctor of
medicine, was born at Kumamoto in 1856 and studied in
Germany under Koch from 1885 to 1891. He became one of the
foremost bacteriologists of the world, and enjoyed the credit of
having discovered the bacilli of tetanus, diphtheria and plague,
the last in conjunction with Dr Aoyama, who accompanied him
to Hong-Kong in 1894 during an epidemic at that place.
KIT-CAT CLUB, a club of Whig wits, painters, politicians
and men of letters, founded in London about 1703. The name
was derived from that of Christopher Cat, the keeper of the pie-
house in which the club met in Shire Lane, near Temple Bar.
The meetings were afterwards held at the Fountain tavern in
the Strand, and latterly in a room specially built for the purpose
at Barn Elms, the residence of the secretary, Jacob Tonson,
the publisher. In summer the club met at the Upper Flask,
Hampstead Heath. The club originally consisted of thirty-nine,
afterwards of forty-eight members, and included among others
the duke of Marlborough, Lords Halifax and Somers, Sir Robert
Walpole, Vanbrugh, Congreve, Steele and Addison. The por-
traits of many of the members were painted by Sir Godfrey
Kneller, himself a member, of a uniform size suited to the height
of the Barn Elms room in which the club dined. The canvas,
36 X 28 in., admitted of less than a half-length portrait but
was sufficiently long to include a hand, and this is known as the
kit-cat size. The club was dissolved about 1720.
KITCHEN (O.E. cycene; this and other cognate forms, such as
Dutch keukcn, Ger. Kuche, Dan. kokken, Fr. cuisine, are formed
from the Low Lat. cucina, Lat. coquina, coquere, to cook), the
room or place in a house set apart for cooking, in which the
culinary and other domestic utensils are kept. The range or
cooking-stove fitted with boiler for hot water, oven and other
appliances, is often known as a " kitchener " (see COOKERY and
HEATING). Archaeologists have used the term " kitchen-midden,"
i.e. kitchen rubbish-heap (Danish kokken-modding) for the rubbish
heaps of prehistoric man, containing bones, remains of edible shell-
fish, implements, &c. (see SHELL-HEAPS). " Midden," in Middle
English mydding, is a Scandinavian word, from myg, muck,
filth, and dyng, heap; the latter word gives the English " dung."
KITCHENER, HORATIO HERBERT KITCHENER, VISCOUNT
(1850- ), British field marshal, was the son of Lieut. -Colonel
H. H. Kitchener and was born at Bally Longford, Co. Kerry,
on the 24th of June 1850. He entered the Royal Military
Academy, Woolwich, in 1868, and was commissioned second
lieutenant, Royal Engineers, in 1871. As a subaltern he
was employed in survey work in Cyprus and Palestine, and
on promotion to captain in 1883 was attached to the Egyptian
army, then in course of re-organization under British officers.
In the following year he served on the staff of the British expedi-
tionary force on the Nile, and was promoted successively major
and lieutenant-colonel by brevet for his services. From 1886 to
1888 he was commandant at Suakin, commanding and receiving
a severe wound in the action of Handub in 1888. In 1888 he
commanded a brigade in the actions of Gamaizieh and Toski.
From 1889 to 1892 he served as adjutant-general of the army.
He had become brevet-colonel in the British army in 1888, and
he received the C.B. in 1889 after the action of Toski. In 1892
Colonel Kitchener succeeded Sir Francis (Lord) Grenfell as sirdar
of the Egyptian army, and three years later, when he had com-
pleted his predecessor's work of re-organizing the forces of the
khedive, he began the formation of an expeditionary force on
the vexed military frontier of Wady Haifa. The advance into
the Sudan (see EGYPT, Military Operations) was prepared by
thorough administrative work on his part which gained universal
admiration. In 1896 Kitchener won the action of Ferket
(June 7) and advanced the frontier and the railway to Dongola.
In 1897 Sir Archibald Hunter's victory of Abu Hamed (Aug. 7)
carried the Egyptian flag one stage farther, and in 1898 the
resolve to destroy the Mahdi's power was openly indicated by
the despatch of a British force to co-operate with the Egyptians.
The sirdar, who in 1896 became a British major-general and
received the K.C.B., commanded the united force, which stormed
the Mahdist zareba on the river Atbara on the 8th of April, and,
the outposts being soon afterwards advanced to Metemmeh and
Shendy, the British force was augmented to the strength of a
division for the final advance on Khartum. Kitchener's work
was crowned and the power of the Mahdists utterly destroyed
by the victory of Omdurman (Sept. 2), for which he was raised
to the peerage as Baron Kitchener of Khartoum, received the
G.C.B., the thanks of parliament and a grant of £30,000. Little
more than a year afterwards, while still sirdar of the Egyptian
army, he was promoted lieutenant-general and appointed chief-
of-staff to Lord Roberts in the South African War (see TRANS-
VAAL, History). In this capacity he served in the campaign of
Paardeberg, the advance on Bloemfontein and the subsequent
northward advance to Pretoria, and on Lord Roberts' return to
England in November 1900 succeeded him as commander-in-
chief, receiving at the same time the local rank of general. In
June 1902 the long and harassing war came to its close, and
Kitchener was rewarded by advancement to the dignity of
viscount, promotion to the substantive rank of general " for
distinguished service," the thanks of parliament and a grant of
£50,000. He was also included in the Order of Merit.
Immediately after the peace he went to India as commander-
in-chief in the East Indies, and in this position, which he held
for seven years, he carried out not only many far-reaching
administrative reforms but a complete re-organization and strate-
gical redistribution of the British and native forces. On leaving
India in 1909 he was promoted field marshal, and succeeded the
duke of Connaught as commander-in-chief and high commis-
sioner in the Mediterranean. This post, not of great importance
in itself, was regarded as a virtual command of the colonial as
distinct from the home and the Indian forces, and on his appoint-
ment Lord Kitchener (after a visit to Japan) undertook a tour of
inspection of the forces of the empire, and went to Australia
and New Zealand in order to assist in drawing up local schemes of
defence. In this mission he was highly successful, and earned
golden opinions. But soon after his return to England in
April 1910 he declined to take up his Mediterranean appoint-
ment, owing to his dislike of its inadequate scope, and he was
succeeded in June by Sir Ian Hamilton.
KITE,1 the Falco milvus of Linnaeus and Milvus iclinus of
modern ornithologists, once probably the most familiar bird of
prey in Great Britain, and now one of the rarest. Three or four
hundred years ago foreigners were struck with its abundance in
the streets of London. It was doubtless the scavenger in ordinary
of that and other large towns (as kindred species now are in
Eastern lands), except where its place was taken by the raven;
for Sir Thomas Browne (c. 1662) wrote of the latter at Norwich —
" in good plentie about the citty which makes so few kites to be
seen hereabout." John Wolley has well remarked of the modern
Londoners that few " who see the paper toys hovering over the
parks in fine days of summer, have any idea that the bird from
which they derive their name used to float all day in hot weather
high over the heads of their ancestors." Even at the begin-
ning of the igth century the kite formed a feature of many
1 In O.E. is c$ta; no related word appears in cognate languages.
Glcde, cognate with " glide," is also another English name.
KITE-FLYING
839
a rural landscape in England, as they had done in the days
when the poet Cowper wrote of them. But an evil time soon
came upon the species. It must have been always hated by the
henwife, but the resources of civilization in the shape of the gun
and the gin were denied to her. They were, however, employed
with fatal zeal by the gamekeeper; for the kite, which had long
afforded the supremest sport to the falconer, was now left friend-
less,"1 and in a very few years it seems to have been exterminated
throughout the greater part of England, certain woods in the
Western Midlands, as well as Wales, excepted. In these latter
a small remnant still exists; but the well-wishers of this beautiful
species are naturally chary of giving information that might lead
to its further persecution. In Scotland there is no reason to
suppose that its numbers suffered much diminution until about
1835, or even later, when the systematic destruction of " vermin "
on so many moors was begun. In Scotland, however, it is now
as much restricted to certain districts as in England or Wales,
and those districts it would be most inexpedient to indicate.
The kite is, according to its sex, from 25 to 27 in. in length,
about one half of which is made up by its deeply forked tail,
capable of great expansion, and therefore a powerful rudder,
enabling the bird while soaring on its wide wings, more than
5 ft. in extent, to direct its circling course with scarcely a move-
ment that is apparent to the spectator below. Its general colour
is pale reddish-brown or cinnamon, the head being greyish-white,
but almost each feather has the shaft dark. The tail feathers are
broad, of a light red, barred with deep brown, and furnish the
salmon fisher with one of the choicest materials of his "flies."
The nest, nearly always built in the crotch of a large tree, is
formed of sticks intermixed with many strange substances
collected as chance may offer, but among them rags 2 seem always
to have a place. The eggs, three or four in number, are of a dull
white, spotted and blotched with several shades of brown, and
often lilac. It is especially mentioned by old authors that in
Great Britain the kite was resident throughout the year; whereas
on the Continent it is one of the most regular and marked
migrants, stretching its wings towards the south in autumn,
wintering in Africa, and returning in spring to the land of its
birth.
There is a second European species, not distantly related, the
Milvus migrans or M. ater of most authors,3 smaller in size, with a
general dull blackish-brown plumage and a less forked tail. In
some districts this is much commoner than the red kite, and on
one occasion it has appeared in England. Its habits are very like
those of the species already described, but it seems to be more
addicted to fishing. Nearly allied to this black kite are the
M. aegyptius of Africa, the M . govinda (the common pariah kite
1 George, third earl of Orford, died in 1791, and Colonel Thornton,
who with him had been the latest follower of this highest branch of
the art of falconry, broke up his hawking establishment not many
years after. There is no evidence that the pursuit of the kite was
in England or any other country reserved to kings or privileged
persons, but the taking of it was quite beyond the powers of the
ordinary trained falcons, and in older days practically became
limited to those of the sovereign. Hence the kite had attached to
it, especially in France, the epithet of " royal," which has still
survived in the specific appellation of regalis applied to it by many
ornithologists. The scandalous work of Sir Antony Weldon (Court
and Character of King James, p. 104) bears witness to the excellence
of the kite as a quarry in an amusing story of the "British Solomon,"
whose master-falconer, Sir Thomas Monson, being determined to
outdo the performance of the French king's falconer, who, when sent
to England to show sport, " could not kill one kite, ours being more
magnanimous than the French kite," at last succeeded, after an
outlay of £1000, in getting a cast of hawks that took nine kites
running — " never missed one." On the strength of this, James was
induced to witness a flight at Royston, " but the kite went to such
a mountee as all the field lost sight of kite and hawke and all, and
neither kite nor hawke were either seen or heard of to this present."
2 Thus justifying the advice of Shakespeare's Autolycus (Winter's
Tale, iv. 3) — " When the kite builds, look to lesser linen " — very
necessary in the case of the laundresses in olden time, when the
bird commonly frequented their drying-grounds.
3 Dr R. Dowdier Sharpe (Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. i. 322) calls it
M. korschun, but the figure of S. G. Gmelin's Accipiter Korschun,
whence the name is taken, unquestionably represents the moor-
buzzard (Circus aeruginosus).
of India) ,4 the M . melanotis of Eastern Asia, and the M. affinis and
M. isurus; the last is by some authors removed to another genus
or sub-genus as Lophoictinia, and is peculiar to Australia, while
M. affinis also occurs in Ceylon, Burma, and some of the Malay
countries as well. All these may be considered true kites, while
those next to be mentioned are more aberrant forms. First there
is Elanus, the type of which is E. caeruleus, a beautiful little bird,
the black-winged kite of English authors, that comes to the south
of Europe from Africa, and has several congeners — E. axillaris
and E. scriptus of Australia being most worthy of notice. An
extreme development of this form is found in the African
Nauclerus riocourii, as well as in Elanoides furcatus, the swallow-
tailed kite, a widely-ranging bird in America, and remarkable
for its length of wing and tail, which gives it a marvellous power
of flight, and serves to explain the unquestionable fact of its
having twice appeared in Great Britain. To Elanus also Iclinia,
another American form, is allied, though perhaps more remotely,
and it is represented by /. mississippiensis, the Mississippi kite,
which is by some considered to be but the northern race of the
Neotropical I. plumbs. Gampsonyx, Rostrhamus and Cymindis,
all belonging to the Neotropical region, complete the series of
forms that seem to compose the sub-family Milvinae, though
there may be doubt about the last, and some systematists
would thereto add the perns or honey-buzzards, Perninae.
(A. N.)
KITE-FLYING, the art of sending up into the air, by means of
the wind, light frames of varying shapes covered with paper or
cloth (called kites, after the bird — in German Droche, dragon),
which are attached to long cords or wires held in the hand or
wound on a drum. When made in the common diamond form,
or triangular with a semicircular head, kites usually have a
pendulous tail appended for balancing purposes. The tradition
is that kites were invented by Archytas of Tarentum four
centuries before the Christian era, but they have been in use
among Asiatic peoples and savage tribes like the Maoris of New
Zealand from time immemorial. Kite-flying has always been
a national pastime of the Koreans, Chinese, Japanese, Tonkinese,
Annamese, Malays and East Indians. It is less popular among
the peoples of Europe. The origin of the sport, although obscure,
is usually ascribed to religion. With the Maoris it still retains
a distinctly religious character, and the ascent of the kite is
accompanied by a chant called the kite-song. The Koreans
attribute its origin to a general, who, hundreds of years ago,
inspirited his troops by sending up a kite with a lantern attached,
which was mistaken by his army for a new star and a token of
divine succour. Another Korean general is said to have been
the first to put the kite to mechanical uses by employing one
to span a stream with a cord, which was then fastened to a cable
and formed the nucleus of a bridge. In Korea, Japan and China,
and indeed throughout Eastern Asia, even the tradespeople may
be seen indulging in kite-flying while waiting for customers.
Chinese and Japanese kites are of many shapes, such as birds,
dragons, beasts and fishes. They vary in size, but are often as
much as 7 ft. in height or breadth, and are constructed of bam-
boo strips covered with rice paper or very thin silk. In China the
ninth day of the ninth month is " Kites' Day," when men and
boys of all classes betake themselves to neighbouring eminences
and fly their kites. Kite-fighting is a feature of the pastime in
Eastern Asia. The cord near the kite is usually stiffened with a
mixture of glue and crushed glass or porcelain. The kite-flyer
manoeuvres to get his kite to windward of that of his adversary,
then allows his cord to drift against his enemy's, and by a sudden
jerk to cut it through and bring its kite to grief. The Malays
possess a large variety of kites, mostly without tails. The Sultan
of Johor sent to the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893 a
collection of fifteen different kinds. Asiatic musical kites bear
one or more perforated reeds or bamboos which emit a plaintive
sound that ca.n be heard for great distances. The ignorant,
believing that these kites frighten away evil spirits, often keep
them flying all night over their houses.
4 The Brahminy kite of India, Haliastur Indus, seems to be rather
a fishing eagle.
840
KIT-FOX— KITTO
There are various metaphorical uses of the term " kite-flying,"
such as in commercial slang, when " flying a kite " means raising
money on credit (cf. " raising the wind "), or in political slang for
seeing " how the whid blows." And " flying-kites," in nautical
language, are the topmost sails.
Kite-flying for scientific purposes began in the middle of the
i8th century. In 1752 Benjamin Franklin made his memorable
kite experiment, by which he attracted electricity from the air
and demonstrated the electrical nature of lightning. A more
systematic use of kites for scientific purposes may, however, be
said to date from the experiments made in the last quarter of the
1 9th century. (E. B.)
Meteorological Use. — Many European and American meteoro-
logical services employ kites regularly, and obtain information
not only of the temperature, but also of the humidity and velocity
of the air above. The kites used are mostly modifications of the
so-called box-kites, invented by L. Hargrave. Roughly these
kites may be said to resemble an ordinary box with the two ends
removed, and also the middle part of each of the four sides. The
original Hargrave kite, the form generally used, has a rectangular
section; in Russia a semicircular section with the curved part
facing the wind is most in favour; in England the diamond-
shaped section is preferred for meteorological purposes owing to
its simplicity of construction. Stability depends on a multitude
of small details of construction, and long practice and experience
are required to make a really good kite. The sizes most in use
have from 30 to 80 sq. ft. of sail area. There is no difficulty
about raising a kite to a vertical height of one or even two miles
on suitable days, but heights exceeding three miles are seldom
reached. On the 2Qth of November 1905 at Lindenberg, the
Prussian Aeronautical Observatory, the upper one of a train of
six kites attained an altitude of just four miles. The total lifting
surface of these six kites was nearly 300 sq. ft., and the length of
wire a little over nine miles. The kites are invariably flown on
a steel wire line, for the hindrance to obtaining great heights is
not due so much to the weight of the line as to the wind pressure
upon it, and thus it becomes of great importance to use a material
that possesses the greatest possible strength, combined with the
smallest possible size. Steel piano wire meets this requirement,
for a wire of -^j in. diameter will weigh about 16 ft to the
mile, and stand a strain of some 250-280 Ib before it breaks.
Some stations prefer to use one long piece of wire of the same
gauge throughout without a join, others prefer to start with
a thin wire and join on thicker and thicker wire as more kites
are added. The process of kite-flying is as follows. The first
kite is started either with the self-recording instruments secured
in it, or hanging from the wire a short distance below it. Wire
is then paid out, whether quickly or slowly depends on the
strength of the wind, but the usual rate is from two to three miles
per hour. The quantity that one kite will take depends on the
kite and on the wind, but roughly speaking it may be said that
each 10 sq. ft. of lifting surface on the kite should carry 1000
ft. of -fa in. wire without difficulty. When as much wire as
can be carried comfortably has run out another kite is attached
to the line, and the paying out is continued; after a time a third
is added, and so on. Each kite increases the strain upon the wire,
and moreover adds to the height and makes it more uncertain
what kind of wind the upper kites will encounter; it also adds
to the time that is necessary to haul in the kites. In each way
the risk of their breaking away is increased, for the wind is very
uncertain and is liable to alter in strength. Since to attain an
exceptional height the wire must be strained nearly to its break-
ing point, and under such conditions a small increase in the
strength of the wind will break the wire, it follows that great
heights can only be attained by those who are willing to risk the
trouble and expense of frequently having their wire and train
of kites break away. The weather is the essential factor in kite-
flying. In the S.E. of England in winter it is possible on about
two days out of three, and in summer on about one day out of
three. The usual cause of failure is want of wind, but there are
a few days when the wind is too strong. (For meteorological
results, &c., see METEOROLOGY.) (W. H. Di.)
Military Use. — A kite forms so extremely simple a method of
lifting anything to a height in the air that it has naturally been
suggested as being suitable for various military purposes, such
as signalling to a long distance, carrying up flags, or lamps, or
semaphores. Kites have been used both in the army and in
the navy for floating torpedoes on hostile positions. As much
as two miles of line have been paid out. For purposes of photo-
graphy a small kite carrying a camera to a considerable height
may be caused to float over a fort or other place of which a
bird's-eye view is required, the shutter being operated by electric
wire, or slow match, or clockwork. Many successful photographs
have been thus obtained in England and America.
The problem of lifting a man by means of kites instead of by
a captive balloon is a still more important one. The chief military
advantages to be gained are: (i) less transport is required; (2)
they can be used in a strong wind; (3) they are not so liable to
damage, either from the enemy's fire or from trees, &c., and are
easier to mend; (4) they can be brought into use more quickly;
(5) they are very much cheaper, both in construction and in
maintenance, not requiring any costly gas.
Captain B. F. S. Baden-Powell, of the Scots Guards, in June
1894 constructed, at Pirbright Camp, a huge kite 36 ft. high, with
which he successfully lifted a man on different occasions. He
afterwards improved the contrivance, using five or six smaller
kites attached together in preference to one large one. With
this arrangement he frequently ascended as high as 100 ft. The
kites were hexagonal, being 12 ft. high and 12 ft. across. The
apparatus, which could be packed in a few minutes into a simple
roll, weighed in all about i cwt. This appliance was proved to
be capable of raising a man even during a dead calm, the
retaining line being fixed to a wagon and towed along. Lieut.
H.D. Wise made some trials in America in 1897 with some large
kites of the Hargrave pattern (Hargrave having previously him-
self ascended in Australia), and succeeded in lifting a man 40 ft.
above the ground. In the Russian army a military kite apparatus
has also been tried, and was in evidence at the manoeuvres in
1898. Experiments have also been carried out by most of the
European powers. (B. F. S. B.-P.)
KIT-FOX (Canis [Vulpes] iielox), a small fox, from north-
western America, measuring less than a yard in length, with a
tail of nearly a third this length. There is a good deal of varia-
tion in the colour of the fur, the prevailing tint being grey. A
specimen in the Zoological Gardens of London had the back and
tail dark grey, the tail tipped with black, and a rufous wash on
the cheeks, shoulders, flanks and outer surface of the limbs, with
the under surface white. The specific name was given on
account of the extraordinary swiftness of the animal. (See
CARNIVORA.)
KITTO, JOHN (1804-1854), English biblical scholar, was the
son of a mason at Plymouth, where he was born on the 4th of
December 1804. An accident brought on deafness, and in
November 1819 he was sent to the workhouse, where he was
employed in making list shoes. In 1823 a fund was raised on his
behalf, and he was sent to board with the clerk of the guardians,
having his time at his own disposal, and the privilege of making
use of a public library. After preparing a small volume of
miscellanies, which was published by subscription, he studied
dentistry with Anthony Norris Groves in Exeter. In 1825 he
obtained congenial employment in the printing office of the
Church Missionary Society at Islington, and in 1827 was trans-
ferred to the same society's establishment at Malta. There
he remained for eighteen months, but shortly after his return
to England he accompanied Groves and other friends on a private
missionary enterprise to Bagdad, where he obtained personal
knowledge of Oriental life and habits which he afterwards applied
with tact and skill in the illustration of biblical scenes and
incidents. Plague broke out, the missionary establishment was
broken up, and in 1832 Kitto returned to England. On arriving
in London he was engaged in the preparation of various serial
publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge,
the most important of which were the Pictorial History of Palestine
and the Pictorial Bible. The Cyclopaedia of Biblicat Literature,
KITTUR— KIWI
841
edited under his superintendence, appeared in two volumes in
1843-1845 and passed through three editions. His Daily Bible
Illustrations (8 vols. 1849-1853) received an appreciation which
is not yet extinct. In 1850 he received an annuity of £100 from
the civil list. In August 1854 he went to Germany for the waters
of Cannstatt on the Neckar, where on the 25th of November
he died.
See Kitto's own work, The Lost Senses (1845); J. E. Ryland's
Memoirs of Kitto (1856); and John Eadie's Life of Kitto (1857).
KITTUR, a village of British India, in the Belgaum district
of Bombay; pop. (1901), 4922. It contains a ruined fort,
formerly the residence of a Mahratta chief. In connexion with a
disputed succession to this chiefship in 1824, St John Thackeray,
an uncle of the novelist, was killed when approaching the fort
under a flag of truce; and a nephew of Sir Thomas Munro,
governor of Madras, fell subsequently when the fort was stormed.
KITZINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria
on the Main, 95 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Main by rail, at the
junction of the main-lines to Passau, Wiirzburg and Schweinfurt.
Pop. (1900), 8489. A bridge, 300 yards long, connects it with
its suburb Etwashausen on the left bank of the river. A railway
bridge also spans the Main at this point. Kitzingen is still
surrounded by its old walls and towers, and has an Evangelical
and two Roman Catholic churches, two municipal museums, a
town-hall, a grammar school, a richly endowed hospital and
two old convents. Its chief industries are brewing, cask-
making and the manufacture of cement and colours. Con-
siderable trade in wine, fruit, grain and timber is carried on by
boats on the Main. Kitzingen possessed a Benedictine abbey
in the 8th century, and later belonged to the bishopric of
Wiirzburg.
SeeF. Bernbeck, Kitzinger Chronik 745-1565 (Kitzingen, 1899).
KIU-KIANG FU, a prefecture and prefectural city in the
province of Kiang-si, China. The city, which is situated on
the south bank of the Yangtsze-kiang, ism. above the point
where the Kan Kiang flows into that river from the Po-yang
lake, stands in 29° 42' N. and 116° 8' E. The north face of the
city is separated from the river by only the width of a roadway,
and two large lakes lie on its west and south fronts. The walls
are from 5 to 6 m. in circumference, and are more than usually
strong and broad. As is generally the case with old cities in
China, Kiu-Kiang has repeatedly changed its name. Under
the Tsin dynasty (A.D. 265-420), it was known as Sin- Yang,
under the Liang dynasty (502-557) as Kiang Chow, under the
Suy dynasty (589-618) as Kiu-Kiang, under the Sung dynasty
(960-1127) as Ting-Kiang, and under the Ming dynasty (1368-
1644) it assumed the name it at present bears. Kiu-Kiang has
played its part in the history of the empire, and has been re-
peatedly besieged and sometimes taken, the last time being
in February 1853, when the T'ai-p'ing rebels gained possession
of the city. After their manner they looted and utterly de-
stroyed it, leaving only the remains of a single street to repre-
sent the once flourishing town. The position of Kiu-Kiang on
the Yangtsze-kiang and its proximity to the channels of internal
communication through the Po-yang lake, more especially to
those leading to the green-tea-producing districts of the provinces
of Kiang-si and Ngan-hui, induced Lord Elgin to choose it as
one of the treaty ports to be opened under the terms of his
treaty (1:861). Unfortunately, however, it stands above instead
of below the outlet of the Po-yang lake, and this has proved to
be a decided drawback to its success as a commerical port.
The immediate effect of opening the town to foreign trade was
to raise the population in one year from 10,000 to 40,000. The
population in 1908, exclusive of foreigners, was officially esti-
mated at 36,000. The foreign settlement extends westward from
the city, along the bank of the Yangtsze-kiang, and is bounded
on its extreme west by the P'un river, which there runs into
the Yangtsze. The bund, which is 500 yards long, was erected
by the foreign community. The climate is good, and though
hot in the summer months is invariably cold and bracing in the
winter. According to the customs returns the value of the
trade of the port amounted in 1902 to £2,854,704, and in 1904
to £3,489,816, of which £1,726,506 were imports and £1,763,310
exports. In 1904 322,266 Ib. of opium were imported.
KIUSTENDIL, the chief town of a department in Bulgaria,
situated in a mountainous country, on a small affluent of the
Struma, 43 m. S.W. of Sofia by rail. Pop. (1906), 12,353.
The streets are narrow and uneven, and the majority of the
houses are of clay or wood. The town is chiefly notable for its
hot mineral springs, in connexion with which there are nine
bathing establishments. Small quantities of gold and silver
are obtained from mines near Kiustendil, and vines, tobacco
and fruit are largely cultivated. Some remains survive of the
Roman period, when the town was known as Pautalia, Ulpia
Pautalia, and Pautalia Aurelii. In the loth century it became
the seat of a bishopric, being then and during the later middle
ages known by the Slavonic name of Velbuzhd. After the
overthrow of the Servian kingdom it came into the possession
of Constantine, brother of the despot Yovan Dragash, who
ruled over northern Macedonia. Constantine was expelled and
killed by the Turks in 1394. In the isth century Kiustendil
was known as Velbushka Banya, and more commonly as
Konstantinova Banya (Constantine's Bath), from which has
developed the Turkish name Kiustendil.
KIVU, a considerable lake lying in the Central African (or
Albertine) rift-valley, about 60 m. N. of Tanganyika, into
which it discharges its waters by the Rusizi River. On the
north it is separated from the basin of the Nile by a line of
volcanic peaks. The length of the lake is about 55 m., and its
greatest breadth over 30, giving an area, including islands, of
about 1 100 sq. m. It is about 4830 ft. above sea-level and is
roughly triangular in outline, the longest side lying to the west.
The coast-line is much broken, especially on the south-east,
where the indentations present a fjord-like character. The
lake is deep, and the shores are everywhere high, rising in places
in bold precipitous cliffs of volcanic rock. A large island,
Kwijwi or Kwichwi, oblong in shape and traversed by a hilly
ridge, runs in the direction of the major axis of the lake, south-
west of the centre, and there are many smaller islands. The
lake has many fish, but no crocodiles or hippopotami. South
of Kivu the rift-valley is blocked by huge ridges, through which
the Rusizi now breaks its way in a succession of steep gorges,
emerging from the lake in a foaming torrent, and descending
2000 ft. to the lacustrine plain at the head of Tanganyika.
The lake fauna is a typically fresh-water one, presenting no
affinities with the marine or " halolimnic " fauna of Tanganyika
and other Central African lakes, but is similar to that shown
by fossils to have once existed in the more northern parts of the
rift-valley. The former outlet or extension in this direction
seems to have been blocked in recent geological times by the
elevation of the volcanic peaks which dammed back the water,
causing it finally to overflow to the south. This volcanic region
is of great interest and has various names, that most used being
Mfumbiro (?.».)> though this name is sometimes restricted to a
single peak. Kivu and Mfumbiro were first heard of by J. H.
Speke in 1861, but not visited by a European until 1894, when
Count von Gotzen passed through the country on his journey
across the continent. The lake and its vicinity were sub-
sequently explored by Dr R. Kandt, Captain Bethe, E. S.
Grogan, J. E. S. Moore, and Major St Hill Gibbons. The
ownership of Kivu and its neighbourhood was claimed by the
Congo Free State and by Germany, the dispute being settled
in 1910, after Belgium had taken over the Congo State. The
frontier agreed upon was the west bank of the Rusizi, and
the west shore of the lake. The island of Kwijwi also fell to
Belgium.
See R. Kandt, Caput Nili (Berlin, 1904), and Karte des Kivusees,
1 : 285,000, with text by A. v. Bockelmann (Berlin, 1902) ; E. S.
Grogan and A. H. Sharpe, From the Cape to Cairo (London, 1900) ;
J. E. S. Moore, To the Mountains of the Moon (London, 1901);
A. St H. Gibbons, Africa from South to North, ii. (London, 1904).
KIWI, or Kiwi-Kiwi, the Maori name — first apparently
introduced to zoological literature by Lesson in 1828 (Man.
842
KIWI
d'Ornithologie, ii. 210, or Voy. de la " CoquUle," zoologie, p. 418),
and now very generally adopted in English — of one of the most
characteristic forms of New Zealand birds, the Apteryx of
scientific writers. . This remarkable bird was unknown till
George Shaw described and figured it in 1813 (Nat. Miscellany,
pis. 1057, 1058) from a specimen brought to him from the
southern coast of that country by Captain Barcley of the ship
" Providence." At Shaw's death, in the same year, it passed
Kiwi.
into the possession of Lord Stanley, afterwards I3th earl of
Derby, and president of the Zoological Society, and it is now
with the rest of his collection in the Liverpool Museum. Con-
sidering the state of systematic ornithology at the time, Shaw's
assignment of a position to this new and strange bird, of which
he had but the skin, does him great credit, for he said it seemed
" to approach more nearly to the Struthious and Gallinaceous
tribes than to any other." And his credit is still greater when
we find the venerable John Latham, who is said to have
examined the specimen with Shaw, placing it some years later
among the penguins (Gen. Hist. Birds, x. 394), being appar-
ently led to that conclusion through its functionless wings and
the backward situation of its legs. In this false allocation, James
Francis Stephens also in 1826 acquiesced (Gen. Zoology, xiii.
70). Meanwhile in 1820 K. J. Temminck, who had never seen
a specimen, had assorted it with the dodo in an order to which
he applied the name of Inerles (Man. d'Ornithologie, i. cxiv.).
In 1831 R. P. Lesson, who had previously (loc. cit.) made some
blunders about it, placed it (Traite d'Ornithologie, p. 12), though
only, as he says, " par analogic et a priori," in his first division
of birds, " Oiseaux Anomaux," which is equivalent to what we
now call Ratitae, making of it a separate family " Nullipennes."
At that time no second example was known, and some doubt
was felt, especially on the Continent, as to the very existence
of such a bird ' — though Lesson had himself when in the Bay
of Islands in April 1824 (Voy. " CoquUle," ut supra) heard of it;
and a few years later J. S. C. Dumont d'Urville had seen its
skin, which the naturalists of his expedition procured, worn as a
tippet by a Maori chief at Tolaga Bay (Houa-houa),2 and in
1830 gave what proves to be on the whole very accurate in-
formation concerning it (Voy. " Astrolabe," ii. 107). To put all
suspicion at rest, Lord Derby sent his unique specimen for
exhibition at a meeting of the Zoological Society, on the i2th of
February 1833 (Proc. Zool. Society, 1833, p. 24) , and a few months
later (torn, cit., p. 80) William Yarrell communicated to that body
a complete description of it, which was afterwards published in
full with an excellent portrait (Trans. Zool. Society, vol. i. p. 71,
pi. 10). Herein the systematic place of the species, as akin to the
1 Cuvier in the second edition of his Regne Animal only referred to
it in a footnote (i. 408).
'Cruise in 1822 (Journ. Residence in New Zealand, p. 313) had
spoken of an " emeu " found in that island, which must of course
have been an Apteryx.
Struthious birds, was placed beyond cavil, and the author called
upon all interested in zoology to aid in further research as to this
singular form. In consequence of this appeal a legless skin was
within two years sent to the society (Proceedings, 1835, p. 61)
obtained by W. Yate of Waimate, who said it was the second
he had seen, and that he had kept the bird alive for nearly a
fortnight, while in less than another couple of years additional
information (op. cit., 1837, p. 24) came from T. K. Short to the
effect that he had seen two living, and that all Yarrell had said
was substantially correct, except underrating its progressive
powers. Not long afterwards Lord Derby received and in March
1838 transmitted to the same society the trunk and viscera of
an Apteryx, which, being entrusted to Sir R. Owen, furnished
that eminent anatomist, in conjunction with other -specimens
of the same kind received from Drs Lyon and George Bennett,
with the materials of the masterly monograph laid before the
society in instalments, and ultimately printed in its Transactions
(ii. 257; iii. 277). From this time the whole structure of the
kiwi has certainly been far better known than that of nearly
any other bird, and by degrees other examples found their way
to England, some of which were distributed to the various
museums of the Continent and of America.3
In 1847 much interest was excited by the reported discovery
of another species of the genus (Proceedings, 1847, p. 51), and
though the story was not confirmed, a second species was really
soon after made known by John Gould (torn, cit., p. 93; Transac-
tions, vol. iii. p. 379, pi. 57) under the name of Apteryx oweni — a
just tribute to the great master who had so minutely explained
the anatomy of the group. Three years later A. D. Bartlett
drew attention to the manifest difference existing among
certain examples, all of which had hitherto been regarded as
specimens of A. auslralis, and the examination of a large series
led him to conclude that under that name two distinct species
were confounded. To the second of these, the third of the
genus (according to his views), he gave the name of A. mantelli
(Proceedings, 1850, p. 274), and it soon turned out that to this
new form the majority of the specimens already obtained
belonged. In 1851 the first kiwi known to have reached England
alive was presented to the Zoological Society by Eyre, then
lieutenant-governor of New Zealand. This was found to
belong to the newly described A. mantelli, and some careful
observations on its habits in captivity were published by John
Wolley and another (Zoologist, pp. 3409, 3605). 4 Subsequently
the society has received several other live examples of this form,
besides one of the real A. australis (Proceedings, 1872, p. 861),
some of A . oweni, and one of a supposed fourth species, A . haasti,
characterized in 1871 by Potts (Ibis, 1872, p. 35; Trans. N. Zeal.
Institute, iv. 204; v. 195).*
The kiwis form a group of the subclass Ratilae to which the
rank of an order may fitly be assigned, as they differ in many
important particulars from any of the other existing forms of
Ratite birds. The most obvious feature the Apteryges afford
is the presence of a back toe, while the extremely aborted
condition of the wings, the position of the nostrils — almost at
the tip of the maxilla — and the absence of an after-shaft in
the feathers, are characters nearly as manifest, and others not
less determinative, though more recondite, will be found on
examination. The kiwis are peculiar to New Zealand, and it
' In 1842, according to Broderip (Penny Cyclopaedia, xxiii. 146),
two had been presented to the Zoological Society by the New Zealand
Company, and two more obtained by Lord Derby, one of which he
had given to Gould. In 1844 the British Museum possessed three,
and the sale catalogue of the Rivoli Collection, which passed in 1846
to the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, includes a
single specimen — probably the first taken to America.
4 This bird in 1859 laid an egg, and afterwards continued to lay one
or two more every year. In 1865 a male of the same species was
introduced, but though a strong disposition to breed was shown
on the part of both, and the eggs, after the custom of the Ratitae,
were incubated by him, no progeny was hatched (Proceedings, 1868,
P- 339).
' A fine series of figures of all these supposed species is given by
Rowley (Orn. Miscellany, vol. i. pis. 1-6). Some others, as A.
maxima, A. mollis, and A. fusca have also been indicated, but
proof of their validity has yet to be adduced.
KIZILBASHES— KLADNO
843
is believed that A. manlelli is the representative in the North
Island of the southern A. australis, both being of a dark reddish-
brown, longitudinally striped with light yellowish-brown, while
A. oweni, of a light greyish -brown transversely barred with
black, is said to occur in both islands. About the size of a
large domestic fowl, they are birds of nocturnal habit, sleeping,
or at least inactive, by day, feeding mostly on earth-worms,
but occasionally swallowing berries, though in captivity they
will eat flesh suitably minced. Sir Walter Buller writes (B. of
New Zealand, p. 362): —
" The kiwi is in some measure compensated for the absence of
wings by its swiftness of foot. When running it makes wide strides
and carries the body in an oblique position, with the neck stretched
to its full extent and inclined forwards. In the twilight it moves
about cautiously and as noiselessly as a rat, to which, indeed, at
this time it bears some outward resemblance. In a quiescent
posture, the body generally assumes a perfectly rotund appearance ;
and it sometimes, but only rarely, supports itself by resting the point
of its bill on the ground. It often yawns when disturbed in the
daytime, gaping its mandibles in a very grotesque manner. When
provoked it erects the body, and, raising the foot to the breast,
strikes downwards with considerable force and rapidity, thus using
its sharp and powerful claws as weapons of defence. . . . While
hunting for its food the bird makes a continual sniffing sound through
the nostrils, which are placed at the extremity of the upper mandible.
Whether it is guided as much by touch as by smell 1 cannot safely
say ; but it appears to me that both senses are used in the action.
That the sense of touch is highly developed seems quite certain,
because the bird, although it may not be audibly sniffing, will
always first touch an object with the point of its bill, whether in
the act of feeding or of surveying the ground; and when shut upin a
cage or confined in a room it may be heard, all through the night,
tapping softly at the walls. ... It is interesting to watch the
bird, in a state of freedom, foraging for worms, which constitute
its principal food: it moves about with a slow action of the body;
and the long, flexible bill is driven into the soft ground, generally
home to the very root, and is either immediately withdrawn with a
worm held at the extreme tip of the mandibles, or it is gently moved
to and fro, by an action of the head and neck, the body of the bird
being perfectly steady. It is amusing to observe the extreme care
and deliberation with which the bird draws the worm from its hiding-
place, coaxing it out as it were by degrees, instead of pulling roughly
or breaking it. On getting the worm fairly out of the ground, it
throws up its head- with a jerk, and swallows it whole."
The foregoing extract refers to A. manielli, but there is little
doubt of the remarks being equally applicable to A. australis,
and probably also to A. oweni, though the different proportion
of the bill in the last points to some diversity in the mode of
feeding. (A. N.)
KIZILBASHES (Turkish, " Red-Heads "), the nickname given
by the Orthodox Turks to the Shiitic Turkish immigrants
from Persia, who are found chiefly in the plains from Kara-
Hissar along Tokat and Amasia to Angora. During the wars
with Persia the Turkish sultans settled them in these districts.
They are strictly speaking persianized Turks, and speak pure
Persian. There are many Kizilbashes in Afghanistan. Their
immigration dates only from the time of Nadir Shah (1737).
They are an industrious honest folk, chiefly engaged in trade and
as physicians, scribes, and so on. They form the bulk of the
amir's cavalry. Their name seems to have been first used in
Persia of the Shiites in allusion to their red caps.
See Ernest Chantre, Recherches anthropologiques dans I'Asie occi-
dentals (Lyons, 1895).
KIZIL IRMAK, i.e. " Red River " (anc. Halys), the largest
river in Asia Minor, rising in the Kizil Dagh at an altitude of
6500 ft., and running south-west past Zara to Sivas. Below
Sivas it flows south to the latitude of Kaisarieh, and then curves
gradually round to the north. Finally, after a course of about
600 m., it discharges its waters into the Black Sea between
Sinope and Samsun, where it forms a large delta. The only
important tributaries are the Delije Irmak on the right and the
Geuk Irmak on the left bank.
KIZLYAR (KIZLIAR, or KIZLAR), a town of Russia, in
Caucasia, in the province of Terek, 120 m. N.E. of Vladikavkaz,
in the low-lying delta of the river Terek, about 35 m. from the
Caspian. The population decreased from 8309 in 1861 to 7353
in 1897. The town lies to the left of the main stream between
two of the larger secondary branches, and is subject to flood-
ing. The town proper, which spreads out round the citadel, has
Tatar, Georgian and Armenian quarters. The public buildings
include the Greek cathedral, dating from 1786; a Greek nunnery,
founded by the Georgian chief Daniel in 1736; the Armenian
church of SS Peter and Paul, remarkable for its size and wealth.
The population is mainly supported by the gardens and vine-
yards irrigated by canals from the river. A government
vineyard and school of viticulture are situated 3! m. from the
town. About 1,200,000 gallons of Kizlyar wine are sold
annually at the fair of Nizhniy-Novgorod. Silk and cotton are
woven. Kizlyar is mentioned as early as 1616, but the most
notable accession of inhabitants (Armenians, Georgians and
Persians) took place in 1715. Its importance as a fortress
dates from 1736, but the fortress is no longer kept in repair.
KIZYL-KUM, a desert of Western Asia, stretching S.E. of the
Aral Lake between the river Syr-darya on the N.E. and the river
Amu-darya on the S.W. It measures some 370 by 220 m., and is
in part covered with drift-sand or dunes, many of which are
advancing slowly but steadily towards the S. W. In character
they resemble those of the neighbouring Kara-kum desert (see
KARA-KUM). On the whole the Kizyl-kum slopes S.W. towards
the Aral Lake, where its altitude is only about 160 ft. as com-
pared with 2000 in the S.E. In the vicinity of that lake the
surface is covered with Aralo-Caspian deposits; but in the S.E.,
as it ascends towards the foothills of the Tian-shan system, it
is braided with deep accumulations of fertile loess.
KJERULF, HALFDAN (1815-1868), Norwegian musical com-
poser, the son of a high government official, was born at Chris-
tiania on the i5th of September 1815. His early education was
at Christiania University, for a legal career, and not till he was
nearly 26 — on the death of his father— was he able to devote him-
self entirely to music. As a fact, he actually started on his career
as a music teacher and composer of songs before ever having
seriously studied music at all, and not for ten years did he attract
any particular notice. Then, however, his Government paid
for a year's instruction for him at Leipzig. For many years
after his return to Norway Kjerulf tried in vain to establish serial
classical concerts, while he himself was working with Bjornson.
and other writers at the composition of lyrical songs. His fame
rests almost entirely on his beautiful and manly national part-
songs and solos; but his pianoforte music is equally charming and
simple. Kjerulf died at Grefsen, on the nth of August 1868.
KJERULF, THEODOR (1825-1888), Norwegian geologist, was
born at Christiania on the 3othof March 1825. He was educated
in the university at Christiania, and subsequently studied at
Heidelberg, working in Bunsen's laboratory. In 1858 he became
professor of geology in the university of his native city, and he
was afterwards placed in charge of the geological survey of the
country, then established mainly through his influence. His
contributions to the geology of Norway were numerous and im-
portant, especially in reference to the southern portion of the
country, and to the structure and relations of the Archaean and
Palaeozoic rocks, and the glacial phenomena. His principal
results were embodied in his work Udsigt over del sydlige Norges
Geologi (1879). He was author also of some poetical works. He
died at Christiania on the 25th of October 1888.
KLADNO, a mining town of Bohemia, Austria, 18 m. W.N.W.
of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 18,600, mostly Czech. It is
situated in a region very rich in iron-mines and coal-fields and
possesses some of the largest iron and steel works in Bohemia.
Near it is the mining town of Buschtehrad (pop. 3510), situated
in the centre of very extensive coal-fields. Buschtehrad was
originally the name of the castle only. This was from the isth
century to 1630 the property of the lords of Kolovrat, and came
by devious inheritance through the grand-dukes of Tuscany,
to the emperor Francis Joseph. The name Buschtehrad was
first given to the railway, and then to the town, which had been
called Buckow since its foundation in 1700. There is another
castle of Buschtehrad near Hofic. Kladno, which for centuries
had been a village of no importance, was sold in 1705 by the
grand-duchess Anna Maria of Tuscany to the cloister in
844
KLAFSKY— KLAPROTH
Bfewnow, to which it still belongs. The mining industry began
in 1842.
KLAFSKY, KATHARINA (1855-189$), Hungarian operatic
singer, was born at. Szt Janos, Wieselburg, of humble parents.
Being employed at Vienna as a nurserymaid, her fine soprano
voice led to her being engaged as a chorus singer, and she was
given good lessons in music. By 1882 she became well-known
in Wagnerian roles at the Leipzig theatre, and she increased her
reputation at other German musical centres. In 1892 she
appeared in London, and had a great success in Wagner's operas,
notably as Briinnhilde and as Isolde, her dramatic as well as
vocal gifts being of an exceptional order. She sang in America
in 1895, but died of brain disease in 1896.
A Life, by L. Ordemann, was published in 1903 (Leipzig).
KLAGENFURT (Slovene, Celovec), the capital of the Austrian
duchy of Carinthia, 212 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900),
24,314. It is picturesquely situated on the river Glan, which is
in communication with the Worther-see by the 3 m. long Lend
canal. Among the more noteworthy buildings are the parish
church of St iEgidius (1709), with a tower 298 ft. in height; the
cathedral of SS Peter and Paul (1582-1593, burnt 1723, restored
1725); the churches of the Benedictines (1613), of the Capuchins
(1646), and of the order of St Elizabeth (1710). To these must
be added the palace of the prince-bishop of Gurk, the burg or
castle, existing in its present form since 1777; and the Landhaus
or house of assembly, dating from the end of the I4th century,
and containing a museum of natural history, and collection of
minerals, antiquities, seals, paintings and sculptures. The most
interesting public monument is the great Lindwurm or Dragon,
standing in the principal square ( 1 590) . The industrial establish-
ments comprise white lead factories, machine and iron foundries,
and commerce is active, especially in the mineral products of the
region.
Upon the Zollfeld to the north of the city once stood the ancient
Roman town of Virunum. During the Middle Ages Klagenfurt
became the property of the crown, but by a patent of Maxi-
milian I. of the 24th of April 1518, it was conceded to the Carin-
thian estates, -and has since then taken the place of St Veil as
capital of Carinthia. In 1535, 1636, 1723 and 1796 Klagenfurt
suffered from destructive fires, and in 1690 from the effects of
an earthquake. On the 29th of March 1797 the French took
the city, and upon the following day it was occupied by Napoleon
as his headquarters.
KLAJ (latinized CLAJUS), JOHANN (1616-1656), German poet,
was born at Meissen in Saxony. After studying theology at
Wittenberg he went to Nuremberg as a "candidate for holy
orders," and there, in conjunction with Georg Philipp Hars-
dorffer, founded in 1644 the literary society known as the Pegnitz
order. In 1647 he received an appointment as master in the
Sebaldus school in Nuremberg, and in 1650 became preacher at
Kitzingen, where he died in 1656. Klaj's poems consist of dramas,
written in stilted language and redundant with adventures,
among which are Hollen- und Himmelfahrl Christi (Nuremberg,
1644), and Herodes, der Kindermorder (Nuremberg, 1645), and
a poem, written jointly with Harsdorffer, Pegnesische Schafer-
gedicht (1644), which gives in allegorical form the story of his
settlement in Nuremberg.
See Tittmanu, Die Nurnberger Dichterschule (Gottingen, 1847).
KLAMATH, a small tribe of North American Indians of Lutua-
mian stock. They ranged around the Klamath river and lakes,
and are now on the Klamath reservation, southern Oregon.
See A. S. Gatschet, " Klamath Indians of Oregon," Contributions
to North American Ethnology, vol. ii. (Washington, 1890).
KLAPKA, GEORG (1820-1892), Hungarian soldier, was born
at Temesvar on the 7th of April 1820, and entered the Austrian
army in 1838. He was still a subaltern when the Hungarian
revolution of 1848 broke out, and he offered his services to the
patriot party. He served in important staff appointments
during the earlier part of the war which followed; then, early in
1849, he was ordered to replace General Meszaros, who had been
defeated at Kaschau, and as general commanding an army corps
he had a conspicuous share in the victories of Kapolna, Isaszeg,
Waitzen, Nagy Sarlo and Komarom. Then, as the fortune of
war turned against the Hungarians, Klapka, after serving for a
short time as minister of war, took command at Komarom, from
which fortress he conducted a number of successful expeditions
until the capitulation of Vilagos in August put an end to the war
in the open field. He then brilliantly defended Komarom for two
months, and finally surrendered on honourable terms. Klapka
left the country at once, and lived thenceforward for many years
in exile, at first in England and afterwards chiefly in Switzerland.
He continued by every means in his power to work for the inde-
pendence of Hungary, especially at moments of European war,
such as 1854, 1859 and 1866, at which an appeal to arms seemed
to him to promise success. After the war of 1866 (in which as a
Prussian major-general he organized a Hungarian corps in
Silesia) Klapka was permitted by the Austrian government to
return to his native country, and in 1867 was elected a member of
the Hungarian Chamber of Deputies, in which he belonged to the
Deak party. In 1877 he made an attempt to reorganize the
Turkish army in view of the war with Russia. General Klapka
died at Budapest on the I7th of May 1892. A memorial was
erected to his memory at Komarom in 1896.
He wrote Memoiren (Leipzig, 1850); Der Nationalkrieg in Ungarn,
&c. (Leipzig, 1851); a history of the Crimean War, Der Krieg im
Orient . . . bis Ende Juli 1855 (Geneva, 1855); and Aus meinen
Erinnerungen (translated from the Hungarian, Zurich, 1887).
KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS (1783-1835), German Orient-
alist and traveller, was born in Berlin on the nth of October
1783, the son of the chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth (q.v.).
He devoted his energies in quite early life to the study of Asiatic
languages, and published in 1802 his Asiatisches Magazin
(Weimar, 1802-1803). He was in consequence called to St Peters-
burg and given an appointment in the academy there. In 1805
he was a member of Count Golovkin's embassy to China. On
his return he was despatched by the academy to the Caucasus on
an ethnographical and linguistic exploration (1807-1808), and
was afterwards employed for several years in connexion with (he
academy's Oriental publications. In 1812 he "moved to Berlin;
but in 1815 he settled in Paris, and in 1816 Humboldt procured
him from the king of Prussia the title and salary of professor of
Asiatic languages and literature, with permission to remain in
Paris as long as was requisite for the publication of his works.
He died in that city on the 28th of August 1835.
The principal feature of Klaproth's erudition was the vastness of
the field which it embraced. His great work Asia polyglolta (Paris,
1823 and 1831, with Sprachatlas) not only served as a resume of all
that was known on the subject, but formed a new departure for the
classification of the Eastern languages, more especially those of the
Russian Empire. To a great extent, however, his work is now super-
seded. The Itinerary of a Chinese Traveller (1821), a scries of
documents in the military archives of St Petersburg purporting
to be the travels of George Ludwig von , and a similar scries
obtained from him in the London foreign office, are all regarded as
spurious.
Klaproth's other works include: Reise in den Kaukasus und
Georgien in den Jahren 1807 und 1808 (Halle, 1812-1814; French
translation, Paris, 1823); Geographisch-historische Beschreibung del
ostlichen Kaukasus (Weimar, 1814); Tableaux historiques de I Asie
(Paris, 1826); Memoires relatifs a I'Asie (Paris, 1824-1828); Tableau
historique, geographique, ethnographiqueetpolitiquede Caucase (Paris,
1827); and Vocabulaire et grammaire de la langue gtorgienne (Paris,
KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH (1743-1817), German
chemist, was born at Wernigerode on the ist of December 1743.
During a large portion of his life he followed the profession of an
apothecary. After acting as assistant in pharmacies at Quedlin-
burg, Hanover, Berlin and Danzig successively he came to
Berlin on the death of Valentin Rose the elder in 1771 as manager
of his business, and in 1780 he started an establishment on his own
account in the same city, where from 1 782 he was pharmaceutical
assessor of the Ober-Collegium Medicum. In 1787 he was
appointed lecturer in chemistry to the Royal Artillery, and when
the university was founded in 1810 he was selected to be the
professor of chemistry. He died in Berlin on the ist of January
1817. Klaproth was the leading chemist of his time in Germany.
KLEBER— KLEIST, B. H. W. VON
845
An exact and conscientious worker, he did much to improve
and systematize the processes of analytical chemistry and
mineralogy, and his appreciation of the value of quantitative
methods led him to become one of the earliest adherents of the
Lavoisierian doctrines outside France. He was the first to dis-
cover uranium, zirconium and titanium, and to characterize
them as distinct elements, though he did not obtain any of
them in the pure metallic state; and he elucidated the com-
position of numerous substances till then imperfectly known,
including compounds of the then newly recognized elements:
tellurium, strontium, cerium and chromium.
His papers, over 200 in number, were collected by himself in
Beitrage zur chemischen Kenntniss der Mineralkorper (5 vols., 1795-
1810) and Chemische Abhandlungen gemischten Inhalts (1815). He
also published a Chemisches Worterbuch (1807-1810), and edited a
revised edition of F. A. C. Gren's Handbuch der Chemie (1806).
KLEBER, JEAN BAPTISTE (1753-1800), French general, was
born on the gth of March 1753, at Strassburg, where his father
was a builder. He was trained, partly at Paris, for the profession
of architect, but his opportune assistance to two German nobles
in a tavern brawl obtained for him a nomination to the mili-
tary school of Munich. Thence he obtained a commission in the
Austrian army, but resigned it in 1783 on finding his humble
birth in the way of his promotion. On returning to France he
was appointed inspector of public buildings at Belfort, where he
studied fortification and military science. In 1792 he enlisted in
the Haut-Rhin volunteers, and was from his military knowledge
at once elected adjutant and soon afterwards lieutenant-colonel.
At the defence of Mainz he so distinguished himself that though
disgraced along with the rest of the garrison and imprisoned, he
was promptly reinstated, and in August 1793 promoted general
of brigade. He won considerable distinction in the Vendean
war, and two months later was made a general of division. In
these operations began his intimacy with Marceau, with whom he
defeated the Royalists at Le Mans and Savenay. For openly
expressing his opinion that lenient measures ought to be pursued
towards the Vendeans he was recalled; but in April 1794 he
was once more reinstated and sent to the Army of the Sambre-
and-Meuse. He displayed his skill and bravery in the numerous
actions around Charleroi, and especially in the crowning victory
of Fleurus, after which in the winter of 1794-95 he besieged
Mainz. In 1795 and again in 1796 he held the chief command of
an army temporarily, but declined a permanent appointment as
commander-in-chief. On the i3th of October 1795 he fought a
brilliant rearguard action at the bridge of Neuwied, and in the
offensive campaign of 1796 he was Jourdan's most active and
successful lieutenant. Having, after the retreat to the Rhine
(see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS), declined the chief com-
mand, he withdrew into private life early in 1798. He accepted
a division in the expedition to Egypt under Bonaparte, but
was wounded in the head at Alexandria in the first engage-
ment, which prevented his taking any further part in the
campaign of the Pyramids, and caused him to be appointed
governor of Alexandria. In the Syrian campaign of 1799,
however, he commanded the vanguard, took El-Arish, Gaza
and Jaffa, and won the great victory of Mount Tabor on the
1 5th of April 1799. When Napoleon returned to France
towards the end of 1799 he left Kleber in command of the
French forces. In this capacity, seeing no hope of bringing
his army back to France or of consolidating his conquests,
he made the convention of El-Arish. But when Lord Keith,
the British admiral, refused to ratify the terms, he attacked
the Turks at Heliopolis, though with but 10,000 men against
60,000, and utterly defeated them on the 2Oth of March 1800.
He then retook Cairo, which had revolted from the French.
Shortly after these victories he was assassinated at Cairo by a
fanatic on the I4th of June 1800, the same day on which his
friend and comrade Desaix fell at Marengo. Kleber was un-
doubtedly one of the greatest generals of the French revolutionary
epoch. Though he distrusted his powers and declined the respon-
sibility of supreme command, there is nothing in his career to
show that he would have been unequal to it. As a- second in
command he was not excelled by any general of his time. His
conduct of affairs in Egypt at a time when the treasury was
empty and the troops were discontented for want of pay, shows
that his powers as an administrator were little — if at all —
inferior to those he possessed as a general.
Ernouf, the grandson of Jourdan's chief of staff, published in
1867 a valuable biography of K16ber. See also Reynaud, Life of
Merlin de Thionvitte; Ney, Memoirs; Dumas, Souvenirs; Las
Casas, Memorial de Ste Helene; J. Charavaray, Les Generaux marts
pour la patrie; General Pajol, Kleber; lives of Marceau and Desaix;
M. F. Rousseau, Kleber et Menou en Egyple (Paris, 1900).
KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD (1810-1876), German writer of
Jewish origin, was born at Miskolcz, in Hungary. He was
educated at the gymnasium in Pest, and studied medicine in
Vienna and Berlin. After travelling in Italy and Greece, he
settled as a man of letters in Berlin, where he remained until his
death on the 2nd of August 1876. He was the author of many
dramatic works, among others the historical tragedies Maria
wn Medici (1841); Luines (1842); Zenobia (1847); Moreto (1859);
Maria (1860); Strafford (1862) and Heliodora (1867); and the
comedies Die Herzogin (1848); EinSchillzl ing (1850); and Voltaire
(1862). The tendency of Klein as a dramatist was to become
bombastic and obscure, but many of his characters are vigorously
conceived, and in nearly all his tragedies there are passages of
brilliant rhetoric. He is chiefly known as the author of the
elaborate though uncompleted Geschichte des Dramas (1865-1876),
in which he undertook to record the history of the drama from
the earliest times. He died when about to enter upon the Eliza-
bethan period, to the treatment of which he had looked forward
as the chief part of his task. The work, which is in thirteen
bulky volumes, gives proof of immense learning, but is marred
by eccentricities of style and judgment.
Klein's Dramatische Werke were collected in 7 vols. (1871-1872).
KLEIST, BERND HEINRICH WILHELM VON (1777-1811),
German poet, dramatist and novelist, was born at Frankfort-on-
Oder on the i8th of October 1777. After a scanty education, he
entered the Prussian army in 1792, served in the Rhine campaign
of 1796 and retired from the service in 1799 with the rank of
lieutenant. He next studied law and philosophy at the university
of Frankfort-on -Oder, and in 1800 received a subordinate post in
the ministry of finance at Berlin. In the following year his
roving, restless spirit got the better of him, and procuring a
lengthened leave of absence he visited Paris and then settled in
Switzerland. Here he found congenial friends in Heinrich
Zschokke (q.v.) and Ludwig Friedrich August Wieland (1777-
1819), son of the poet; and to them he read his first drama, a
gloomy tragedy, Die Familie Schroffenstein (1803), originally
entitled Die Familie Ghonorcz. In the autumn of 1802 Kleist
returned to Germany; he visited Goethe, Schiller and Wieland in
Weimar, stayed for a while in Leipzig and Dresden, again pro-
ceeded to Paris, and returning in 1804 to his post in Berlin was
transferred to the Domanenkammer (department for the adminis-
tration of crown lands) at Konigsberg. On a journey to Dresden
in 1807 Kleist was arrested by the French as a spy, and being sent
to France was kept for six months a close prisoner at Chalons-
sur-Marne. On regaining his liberty he proceeded to Dresden,
where in conjunction with Adam Heinrich M tiller (1779-1829) he
published in 1808 the journal Phobus. In 1809 he went to Prague,
and ultimately settled in Berlin, where he edited (1810-1811) the
Berliner A bendblattcr. Captivated by the intellectual and musical
accomplishments of a certain Frau Henriette Vogel, Kleist,who
was himself more disheartened and embittered than ever, agreed
to do her bidding and die with her, carrying out this resolution
by first shooting the lady and then himself on the shore of the
Wannsee near Potsdam, on the 2ist of November 1811. Kleist's
whole life was filled by a restless striving after ideal and
illusory happiness, and this is largely reflected in his work. He
was by far the most important North German dramatist of
the Romantic movement, and no other of the Romanticists
approaches him in the energy with which he expresses patriotic
indignation.
846
KLEIST, E. C. VON— KLINGER, F. M.
His first tragedy, Die Familie Schroffenstein, has been already re-
ferred to; the material for the second, Penthesilea (1808), queen of the
Amazons, is taken from a Greek source and presents a picture of
wild passion. More successful than either of these was his romantic
play, Das Kdthchenvon Heilbronn,oder Die Feuerprobe (1808), a poetic
drama full of medieval bustle and mystery, which has retained its
popularity. In comedy, Kleist made a name with Der zerbrochene
Krug (1811), while Amphitryon (1808), an adaptation of Moliere's
comedy, is of less importance. Of Kleist's other dramas, Die
Hermannschlacht (1809) is a dramatic treatment of an historical
subject and is full of references to the political conditions of his own
times. In it he gives vent to his hatred of his country's oppressors.
This, together with the drama Prinz Friedrich von Hamburg, the
latter accounted Kleist's best work, was first published by Ludwig
Tieck in Kleists hinterlassene Schriften (1821). Robert Guiskard, a
drama conceived on a grand plan, was left a fragment. Kleist was
also a master in the art of narrative, and of his Gesammelte Erzahl-
ungen (1810-1811), Michael Kohlhaas, in which the famous Branden-
burg horse dealer in Luther's day (see KOHLHASE) is immortalized,
is one of the best German stories of its time. He also wrote some
patriotic lyrics. His Gesammelte Schriften weru published by
Ludwig Tieck (3 vols. 1826) and by Julian Schmidt (new ed. 1874) ;
also by F. Muncker (4 vols. 1882); by T. Zolling (4 vols. 1885);
by K. Siegen, (4 vols. 1895); and in a critical edition by E. Schmidt
(5 vols. 1904-1905). His Ausgewahlte Dramen were published by
K. Siegen (Leipzig, 1877) ; and his letters were first published
by E. von Billow, Heinrich von Kleists Leben und Brief e (1848).
See further A. Wilbrandt, Heinrich von Kleist (1863); O. Brahm,
Heinrich von Kleist (1884); R. Bonafous, Henri de Kleist, so, vie et
ses ceuvres (1894); H. Conrad, Heinrich von Kleist als Mensch und
Dichter (1896); G. Minde-Ppuet, Heinrich von Kleist, seine Sprache
und sein Stil (1897); R. Steig, Heinrich von Kleists Berliner Kdmpfe
(1901); F. Servaes, Heinrich von Kleist (1902); S. Wukadinowic,
Kleist- Studien (1904); S. Rahmer, H. von Kleist als Mensch und
Dichter (1909). . , .
KLEIST, EWALD CHRISTIAN VON (1715-1759), German
poet, was born at Zeblin, near Koslin in Pomerania, on the 7th of
March 1715. After attending the Jesuit school in Deutschkrona
and the gymnasium in Danzig, he proceeded in 1731 to the uni-
versity of Konigsberg, where he studied law and mathematics.
On the completion of his studies, he entered the Danish army,
in which he became an officer in 1736. Recalled to Prussia by
Frederick II. in 1 740, he was appointed lieutenant in a regiment
stationed at Potsdam, where he became acquainted with
J. W. L. Gleim (<?.».), who interested him in poetry. After dis-
tinguishing himself at the battle of Mollwitz (April 10, 1741)
and the siege of Neisse (1741), he was promoted captain in 1749
and major in 1756. Quartered during the winter of 1757-1758 in
Leipzig, he found relief from his irksome military duties in the
society of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (q.ii.}. Shortly afterwards
in the battle of Kunersdorf, on the I2th of August 1759, he
was mortally wounded while leading the attack, and died at
Frankfort-on-Oder on the 24th of August following.
Kleist's chief work is a poem in hexameters, Der Friihling
(1749), for which Thomson's Seasons largely supplied ideas.
In his description of the beauties of nature Kleist shows real
poetical genius, an almost modern sentiment and fine taste.
He also wrote some charming odes, idylls and elegies, and a
small epic poem Cissides und Paches (1759), the subject being
two Thessalian friends who die an heroic death for their country
in a battle against the Athenians.
Kleist published in 1756 the first collection of his Gedichte, which
was followed by a second in 1758. After his death his friend Karl
Wilhelm Ramler (q.v.) published an edition of Kleists sdmtliche Werke
in 2 vols. (1760). A critical edition was published by A. Sauer, in
3 vols. (1880-1882). Cf . further, A. Chuquet, De Ewaldi Kleistii vita
et scriptis (Paris, 1887), and H. Prchle, Friedrich der Grosse und die
deutsche Literatur (1872).
KLERKSDORP, a town of the Transvaal, 118 m. S.W. of
Johannesburg and 192 m. N.E. of Kimberley by rail. Pop.
(1904), 4276 of whom 2203 were whites. The town, built on
the banks of the Schoonspruit 10 m. above its junction with
the Vaal, possesses several fine public buildings. In the neigh-
bourhood are gold-mines, the reef appearing to form the western
boundary of the Witwatersrand basin. Diamonds (green in
colour) and coal are also found in the district. Klerksdorp was
one of the villages founded by the first Boers who .crossed the
Vaal, dating from 1838. The modern town, which is on the side
of the spruit opposite the old village, was founded in 1888.
KLESL (or KHLESL), MELCHIOR (1552-1630), Austrian states-
man and ecclesiastic, was the son of a Protestant baker, and was
born in Vienna. Under the influence of the Jesuits he was con-
verted to Roman Catholicism, and having finished his education
at the universities of Vienna and Ingolstadt, he was made chan-
cellor of the university of Vienna; and as official and vicar-
general of the bishop of Passau he exhibited the zeal of a convert
in forwarding the progress of the counter-reformation in Austria.
He became bishop of Vienna in 1598; but more important was
his association with the archduke Matthias which began about
the same time. Both before and after 1612, when Matthias
succeeded his brother Rudolph II. as emperor, Klesl was the
originator and director of his policy, although he stoutly opposed
the concessions to the Hungarian Protestants in 1606. Heassiste'd
to secure the election of Matthias to the imperial throne, and
sought, but without success, to strengthen the new emperor's
position by making peace between the Catholics and the Protes-
tants. When during the short reign of Matthias the question of
the imperial succession demanded prompt attention, the bishop,
although quite as anxious as his opponents to retain the empire
in the house of Habsburg and to preserve the dominance of the
Roman Catholic Church, advised that this question should be
shelved until some arrangement with the Protestant princes had
been reached. This counsel was displeasing to the archduke Maxi-
milian and to Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand II.
who believed that Klesl was hostile to the candidature of the
latter prince. It was, however, impossible to shake his influence
with the emperor; and in June 1618, a few months before the
death of Matthias, he was seized by order of the archdukes and
imprisoned at Ambras in Tirol. In 1622 Klesl, who had been a
cardinal since 1615, was transferred to Rome by order of Pope
Gregory XV., and was released from imprisonment. In 1627
Ferdinand II. allowed him to return to his episcopal duties in
Vienna, where he died on the i8th of September 1630.
See J. Freiherr von Hammer-Purgstall, Khlesls Leben (Vienna,
1847-1851); A. Kerschbaumer, Kardinal Klesl (Vienna, 1865); and
Klesls Brief e an Rudolfs II. Obersthofmeister A. Freiherr von Dietrich-
stein, edited by V. Bibl. (Vienna, 1900).
KLINGER, FRIEDRICH MAXIMILIAN VON (1752-1831),
German dramatist and novelist, was born of humble parentage
at Frankfort-on-Main, on the I7th of February 1752. His
father died when he was a child, and his early years were a hard
struggle. He was enabled, however, in 1774 to enter the univer-
sity of Giessen, where he studied law; and Goethe, with whom he
had been acquainted since childhood, helped him in many ways.
In 1775 Klinger gained with his tragedy Die Zwillinge a prize
offered by the Hamburg theatre, under the auspices of the actress
Sophie Charlotte Ackermann (1714-1792) and her son the famous
actor and playwright, Friedrich Ludwig Schroder (1744-1816).
In 1776 Klinger was appointed Theaterdichtcr to the " Seylersche
Schauspiel-Gesellschaft " and held this post for two years. In
1778 he entered the Austrian military service and took part in the
Bavarian war of succession. In 1780 he went to St Petersburg,
became an officer in the Russian army, was ennobled and attached
to the Grand Duke Paul, whom he accompanied on a journey to
Italy and France. In 1 785 he was appointed director of the corps
of cadets, and having married a natural daughter of the empress
Catharine, was made praeses of the Academy of Knights in 1799.
In 1803 Klinger was nominated by the emperor Alexander
curator of the university of Dorpat, an office he held until
1817; in 1811 he became lieutenant-general. He then gradually
gave up his official posts, and after living for many years in
honourable retirement, died at Dorpat on the 25th of February
1831.
Klinger was a man of vigorous moral character and full of fine
feeling, though the bitter experiences and deprivations of
his youth are largely reflected in his dramas. It was one of his
earliest works, Sturm und Drang (1776), which gave its name to
this literary epoch. In addition to this tragedy and Die Zwillinge
(1776), the chief plays of his early period of passionate fervour
and restless " storm and stress " are Die neuc Arria (1776),
Simsone Grisaldo (1776) and Slilpo und seine Kinder (1780). To
KLINGER, M.— KLOPSTOCK
847
a later period belongs the fine double tragedy of Medea in Korinth
and Medea auf dent Kaukasos (1791). In Russia he devoted
himself mainly to the writing of philosophical romances, of
which the best known are Fausts Leben, Taten und Hollenfahrt
(1791), Geschichte Giafars des Barmeciden (1792) and Geschichte
Raphaels de Aquillas (1793). This series was closed in 1803
with Betrachtungen und Gedanken uber verschiedene Gegenstande
der Welt und der Literatur. In these works Klinger gives
calm and dignified expression to the leading ideas which the
period of Sturm und Drang had bequeathed to German classical
literature.
Klinger's works were published in twelve volumes (1809-1815),
also 1832-1833 and 1842. The most recent edition is in eight volumes
(i878-i88o);butnoneof these is complete. A selection will be found
in A. Sauer, Sturmer und Drdnger, vol. i. (1883). See E. Schmidt,
Lenz und Klinger (1878); M. Rieger, Klinger in der Sturm- und
Drangperiode (1880); and Klinger in seiner Reife (1896).
KLINGER, MAX (1857- ), German painter, etcher and
sculptor, was born at Plagwitz near Leipzig. He attended the
classes at the Carlsruhe art school in 1874, and went in the follow-
ing year to Berlin, where in 1878 he created a sensation at the
Academy exhibition with two series of pen-and-ink drawings —
the " Series upon the Theme of Christ " and " Fantasies upon the
Finding of a Glove." The daring originality of these imaginative
and eccentric works caused an outburst of indignation, and the
artist was voted insane; nevertheless the "Glove" series was
bought by the Berlin National Gallery. His painting of " The
Judgment of Paris " caused a similar storm of indignant protest
in 1887, owing to its rejection of all conventional attributes and
the naive directness of the conception. His vivid and somewhat
morbid imagination, with its leaning towards the gruesome and
disagreeable, and the Goyaesque turn of his mind, found their
best expression in his "cycles" of etchings: "Deliverances of
Sacrificial Victims told in Ovid," " A Brahms Phantasy," " Eve
and the Future," " A Life," and " Of Death "; but in his use of the
needle he does not aim at the technical excellence of the great
masters; it supplies him merely with means of expressing his
ideas. After 1886 Klinger devoted himself more exclusively to
painting and sculpture. In his painting he aims neither at classic
beauty nor modern truth, but at grim impressiveness not without
a touch of mysticism. His " Pieta" at the Dresden Gallery, the
frescoes at the Leipzig University, and the " Christ in Olympus,"
at the Modern Gallery in Vienna, are characteristic examples of
his art. The Leipzig Museum contains his sculptured " Salome "
and " Cassandra." In sculpture he favours the use of vari-
coloured materials in the manner of the Greek chryselephantine
sculpture. His "Beethoven" is a notable instance of his work
in this direction.
KLIPSPRINGER, the Boer name of a small African mountain-
antelope (Oreotragus saltator), ranging from the Cape through
East Africa to Somaliland and Abyssinia, and characterized by
its blunt rounded hoofs, thick pithy hair and gold-spangled
colouring. The klipspringer represents a genus by itself, the
various local forms not being worthy of more than racial dis-
tinction. The activity of these antelopes is marvellous.
KLONDIKE, a district in Yukon Territory, north-western
Canada, approximately in 64° N. and 140° W. The limits are
rather indefinite, but the district includes the country to the south
of the Klondike River, which comes into the Yukon from the east
and has several tributaries, as well as Indian River, a second
branch of the Yukon, flowing into it some distance above the
Klondike. The richer gold-bearing gravels are found along the
creeks tributary to these two rivers within an area of about
800 sq. m. The Klondike district is a dissected peneplain with
low ridges of rounded forms rising to 4250 ft. above the sea at
the Dome which forms its centre. All of the gold-bearing creeks
rise not far from the Dome and radiate in various directions
toward the Klondike and Indian rivers, the most productive
being Bonanza with its tributary Eldorado, Hunker, Dominion
and Gold Run. Of these, Eldorado, for the two or three miles
in which it was gold-bearing, was much the richest, and for its
length probably surpassed any other known placer deposit.
Rich gravel was discovered on Bonanza Creek in 1896, and a wild
rush to this almost inaccessible region followed, a population
of 30,000 coming in within the next three or four years with a
rapidly increasing output of gold, reaching in 1900 the climax
of $22,000,000. Since then the production has steadily declined,
until in 1906 it fell to $5,600,000. The richest gravels were
worked out before 1910, and most of the population had left the
Klondike for Alaska and other regions; so that Dawson, which
for a time was a bustling city of more than 10,000, dwindled
to about 3000 inhabitants. As the ground was almost all frozen,
the mines were worked by a thawing process, first by setting
fires, afterwards by using steam, new methods being introduced
to meet the unusual conditions. Later dredges and hydraulic
mining were resorted to with success.
The Klondike, in spite of its isolated position, brought to-
gether miners and adventurers from all parts of the world, and
it is greatly to the credit of the Canadian government and of the
mounted police, who were entrusted with the keeping of order,
that life and property were as safe as elsewhere and that no
lawless methods were adopted by the miners as in placer mining
camps in the western United States. The region was at first
difficult of access, but can now be reached with perfect comfort
in summer, travelling by well-appointed steamers on the Pacific
and the Yukon River. Owing to its perpetually frozen soil,
summer roads were excessively bad in earlier days, but good
wagon roads have since been constructed to ah1 the important
mining centres. Dawson itself has all the resources of a civilized
city in spite of being founded on a frozen peat-bog; and is sup-
plied with ordinary market vegetables from farms just across the
river. During the winter, when for some time the sun does not
appear above the hills, the cold is intense, though usually without
wind, but the well-chinked log houses can be kept comfortably
warm. When winter travel is necessary dog teams and sledges
are generally made use of, except on the stage route south to
White Horse, where horses are used. A telegraph line connects
Dawson with British Columbia, but the difficulties in keeping
it in order are so great over the long intervening wilderness that
communication is often broken. Gold is practially the only
economic product of the Klondike, though small amounts of tin
ore occur, and lignite coal has been mined lower down on the
Yukon. The source of the gold seems to have been small
stringers of quartz in the siliceous and sericitic schists which
form the bed rock of much of the region, and no important
quartz veins have been discovered; so that unlike most other
placer regions the Klondike has not developed lode mines to
continue the production of gold when the gravels are exhausted.
KLOPP, ONNO (1822-1903), German historian, was born at
Leer on the gth of October 1822, and was educated at the univer-
sities of Bonn, Berlin and Gottingen. For a few years he was
a teacher at Leer and at Osnabruck; but in 1858 he settled at
Hanover, where he became intimate with King George V., who
made him his Archivrat. Thoroughly disliking Prussia, he was
in hearty accord with George in resisting her aggressive policy;
and after the annexation of Hanover in 1866 he accompanied
the exiled king to Hietzing. He became a Roman Catholic in
1874. He died at Penzing, near Vienna, on the gth of August
1903. Klopp is best known as the author of Der Fall des Hauses
Stuart (Vienna, 1875-1888), the fullest existing account of the
later Stuarts.
His Der Konig Friedrich II. und seine Politik (Schaffhausen, 1867)
and Geschichte Ostfrieslands (Hanover, 1854-1858) show his dislike
of Prussia. His other works include Der dreissigjdhrige Krieg bis
zum Tode Gustaii Adolfs (Paderborn, 1891-1896); a revised edition
of his Tilly im dreissigjdhrigen Kriege (Stuttgart, 1861); a life of
George V., Konig Georg V. (Hanover, 1878); Phillipp Melanchlhon
(Berlin, 1897). He edited Corrispondenza epistolare tra Leopoldo I.
imperatore ed il P. Marco VAviano capuccino (Gratz, 1888). Klopp
also wrote much in defence of George V. and his claim to Hanover,
including the Offizieller Bericht uber die Kriegsereignisse zwischen
Hannover und Preussen im Juni 1866 (Vienna, 1867), and he
edited the works of Leibnitz in eleven volumes (1861-1884).
See W. Klopp, Onno Klopp: ein Lebenslauf (Wehberg, 1907).
KLOPSTOCK, GOTTLIEB FRIEDRICH (1724-1803), German
poet, was born at Quedlinburg, on the 2nd of July 1 724, the eldest
KLOSTERNEUBURG
. son of a lawyer, a man of sterling character and of a deeply
religious mind. Both in his birthplace and on the estate of
Friedeburg on the Saale, which his father later rented, young
Klopstock passed a happy childhood ; and more attention having
been given to his physical than to his mental development he
grew up a strong healthy boy and was an excellent horseman
and skater. In his thirteenth year Klopstock returned to
Quedlinburg where he attended the gymnasium, and in 1739
proceeded to the famous classical school of Schulpforta. Here
he soon became an adept in Greek and Latin versification, and
wrote some meritorious idylls and odes in German. His original
intention of making the emperor Henry I. (" The Fowler ") the
hero of an epic, was, under the influence of Milton's Paradise Lost,
with which he became acquainted through Bodmer's translation,
abandoned in favour of the religious epic. While yet at school,
he had already drafted the plan of Der Messias, upon which his
fame mainly rests. On the 2ist of September 1745 he delivered
on quitting school a remarkable " leaving oration " on epic
poetry — Abschiedsrede ilber die epische Poesie, kullur- undliterar-
geschichtlich erldutert — and next proceeded to Jena as a student
of theology, where he elaborated the first three cantos of the
Messias in prose. The life at this university being uncongenial
to him, he removed in the spring of 1746 to Leipzig, and here
joined the circle of young men of letters who contributed to
the Bremer Beitrage. In this periodical the first three cantos
of the Messias in hexameters were anonymously published in
1 748. A new era in German literature had commenced, and the
name of the author soon became known. In Leipzig he also
wrote a number of odes, the best known of which is An nteine
Freunde (1747), afterwards recast as Wingolf (1767). He left
the university in 1748 and became a private tutor in the family
of a relative at Langensalza. Here unrequited love for a cousin
(the " Fanny " of his odes) disturbed his peace of mind. Gladly
therefore he accepted in 1750 an invitation from Jakob Bodmer
(q.v.), the translator of Paradise Lost, to visit, him in Zurich.
Here Klopstock was at first treated with every kindness and
respect and rapidly recovered his spirits. Bodmer, however,
was disappointed to find in the young poet of the Messias a man
of strong worldly interests, and a coolness sprang up between
the two friends.
At this juncture Klopstock received from Frederick V. of
Denmark, on the recommendation of his minister Count von
Bernstorff (1712-1772), an invitation to settle at Copenhagen,
with an annuity of 400 talers, with a view to the completion of
the Messias. The offer was accepted; on his way to the Danish
capital Klopstock met at Hamburg the lady who in 1754 became
his wife, Margareta (Meta) Moller, (the " Cidli " of his odes), an
enthusiastic admirer of his poetry. His happiness was short;
she died in 1758, leaving him almost broken-hearted. His grief
at her loss finds pathetic expression in the isth canto of the
Messias. The poet subsequently published his wife's writings,
Hinterlassene Werkevon Margareta Klopstock (1759), which give
evidence of a tender, sensitive and deeply religious spirit.
Klopstock now relapsed into melancholy; new ideas failed him,
and his poetry became more and more vague and unintelligible.
He still continued to live and work at Copenhagen, and next,
following Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg (q.ii.), turned his
attention to northern mythology, which he conceived should
replace classical subjects in a new school of German poetry. In
1770, on the dismissal by King Christian VII. of Count Bern-
storff from office, he retired with the latter to Hamburg, but
retained his pension together with the rank of councillor of
legation. Here, in 1773, he issued the last five cantos of the
Messias. In the following year he published his strange scheme
for the regeneration of German letters, Die Gelehrtenrepublik
(1774). In 1775 he travelled south, and making the acquaint-
ance of Goethe on the way, spent a year at the court of the
margrave of Baden at Karlsruhe. Thence, in 1776, with the title
of Hofrat and a pension from the margrave, which he retained
together with that from the king of Denmark, he returned to
Hamburg where he spent the remainder of his life. His latter
years he passed, as had always been his inclination, in retirement,
only occasionally relieved by association with his most intimate
friends, busied with philological studies, and hardly interesting
himself in the new developments of German literature. The
American War of Independence and the Revolution in France
aroused him, however, to enthusiasm. The French Republic
sent him the diploma of honorary citizenship; but, horrified at
the terrible scenes the Revolution had enacted in the place of
liberty, he returned it. When 67 years of age he contracted a
second marriage with Johanna Elisabeth von Winthem, a widow
and a niece of his late wife, who for many years had been one of
his most intimate friends. He died at Hamburg on the i4th of
March 1803, mourned by all Germany, and was buried with great
pomp and ceremony by the side of his first wife in the churchyard
of the village of Ottensen.
Klopstock's nature was best attuned to lyrical poetry, and in it
his deep, noble character found its truest expression. He was less
suited for epic and dramatic representation ; for, wrapt up in himself,
a stranger to the outer world, without historical culture, and without
even any interest in the events of his time, he was lacking in the art
of plastic representation such as a great epic requires. Thus the
Messias, despite the magnificent passages which especially the
earlier cantos contain, cannot satisfy the demands such a theme
must necessarily make. The subject matter, the Redemption,
presented serious difficulties to adequate epic treatment. The
Gospel story was too scanty, and what might have been imported
from without and interwoven with it was rejected by the author as
profane. He had accordingly to resort to Christian mythology ; and
here again, circumscribed by the dogmas of the Church, he was in
danger of trespassing on the fundamental truths of the Christian
faith. The personality of Christ could scarcely be treated in an
individual form, still less could angels and devils — and in the case
of God Himself it was impossible. The result was that, despite
the groundwork — the Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the Revelation
of St John, and the model ready to hand in Milton's Paradise Lost —
material elements are largely wanting and the actors in the poem,
Divine and human, lack plastic form. That the poem took twenty-five
years to complete could not but be detrimental to its unity of design ;
the original enthusiasm was not sustained until the end, and the earlier
cantos are far superior to the later. Thus the intense public interest
the work aroused in its commencement had almost vanished before
its completion. It was translated into seventeen languages and led
to numerous imitations. In his odes Klopstock had more scope
for his peculiar talent. Among the best are An Fanny; Der
Zurchersee; Die tote Klarissa; An Cidli; Die beiden Musen; Der
Rheinwein; Die fruhen Crdber; Mein Vaterland. His religious odes
mostly take the form of hymns, of which the most beautiful is Die
Friihlingsfeier. His dramas, in some of which, notably Hermanns
Schlacht (1769) and Hermann und die Fiirsten (1784), he celebrated
the deeds of the ancient German hero Arminius, and in others, Der
Tod Adams (1757) and Salomo (1764), took his materials from the
Old Testament, are essentially lyrical in character and deficient in
action. In addition to Die Gelehrtenrepublik, he was also the author
of Fragmente uber Sprache und Dichtkunst (1779) and Grammatische
Gesprache (1794), works in which he made important contributions
to philology and to the history of German poetry.
Klopstock's Werke first appeared in seven quarto volumes (1798-
1809). At the same time a more complete edition in twelve octavo
volumes was published (1798-1817), to which six additional volumes
were added in 1830. More recent editions were published in 1844-
1845, 1854-1855, 1879 (ed. by R. Boxbergcr), 1884 (ed. by R. Hamel)
and 1893 (a selection edited by F. Muncker). A critical edition of
the Odes was published by F. Muncker and J. Pawel in 1889; a
commentary on these by H. Duntzcr (1860; and ed., 1878). For
Klopstork's correspondence see K. Schmidt, Klopstock und seine
Freunde (1810); C. A. H. Clodius, Klopstocks Nachlass (1821); J. M.
Lappcnberg, Briefe von und an Klopstock (1867). Cf. further K. F.
Cramer, Klopstock, er und uber thn (1780-1792); J. G. Gruber,
Klopstocks Leben (1832); R. Hamel, Klopstock-Studien (1879-1880);
F. Muncker, F. G. Klopstock, the most authoritative biography,
(1888); E. Bailly, Etude sur la vie et les aeuvres de Klopstock (Paris,
1888).
KLOSTERNEUBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria,
Si m. N.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 11,595. It is situated
on the right bank of the Danube, at the foot of the Kahlenberg,
and is divided by a small stream into an upper and a lower town.
As an important pioneer station Klosterneuburg has various
military buildings and stores, and among the schools it possesses
an academy of wine and fruit cultivation.
On a hill rising directly from the banks of the Danube stand
the magnificent buildings (erected 1730-1834) of the Augustine
canonry, founded in 1 106 by Margrave Leopold the Holy. This
foundation is the oldest and richest of the kind in Austria; it
KLOTZ— KNEE
849
owns much of the land upon which the north-western suburbs
of Vienna stand. Among the points of interest within it are the
old chapel of 1318, with Leopold's tomb and the altar of Verdun,
dating from the I2th century, the treasury and relic-chamber,
the library with 30,000 volumes and many MSS., the picture
gallery, the collection of coins, the theological hall, and the wine-
cellar, containing an immense tun like that at Heidelberg. The
inhabitants of Klosterneuburg are mainly occupied in making
wine, of excellent quality. There is a large cement factory out-
side the town. In Roman times the castle of Citium stood in the
region of Klosterneuburg. The town was founded by Charle-
magne, and received its charter as a town in 1298.
KLOTZ, REINHOLD (1807-1870), German classical scholar,
was born near Chemnitz in Saxony on the i3th of March 1807.
In 1849 he was appointed professor in the university of Leipzig
in succession to Gottfried Hermann, and held this post till his
death on the toth of August 1870. Klotz was a man of unwearied
industry, and devoted special attention to Latin literature.
He was the author of editions of several classical authors, of
which the most important were: the complete works of Cicero (2nd
ed., 1869-1874); Clement of Alexandria (1831-1834); Euripides
(1841-1867), in continuation of Pflugk's edition, but unfinished;
Terence (1838-1840), with the commentaries of Donatus and
Eugraphius. Mention should also be made of : Handworterbuch der
lateinischen Sprache (sth ed., 1874); Romische Litteraturgeschichte
(1847), of which only the introductory volume appeared; an edition
of the treatise De Graecae linguae particulis (1835-1842) of Mat-
thaeus Deverius (Devares), a learned Corfiote (c. 1500—1570), and
corrector of the Greek MSS. in the Vatican; the posthumous Index
Ciceronianus (1872) and Handbuch der lateinischen Stilistik (1874).
From 1831-1855 Klotz was editor of the Neue Jahrbiicher fur
Philologie (Leipzig). During the troubled times of 1848 and the
following years he showed himself a strong conservative.
A memoir by his son Richard will be found in the Jahrbticher for
1871, pp. 154-163-
KNARESBOROUGH, a market town in the Ripon parliament-
ary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, i6| m.
W. by N. from York by a branch of the North Eastern railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901), 4979. Its situation is most
picturesque, on the steep left bank of the river Nidd, which here
follows a well- wooded valley, hemmed in by limestone cliffs. The
church of St John the Baptist is Early English, but has numerous
Decorated and Perpendicular additions; it is a cruciform building
containing several interesting monuments. Knaresborough
Castle was probably founded in 1070 by Serlo de Burgh. Its
remains, however, are of the i4th century, and include a massive
keep rising finely from a cliff above the Nidd. After the battle
of Marston Moor it was taken by Fairfax, and in 1648 it was
ordered to be dismantled. To the south of the castle is St
Robert's chapel, an excavation in the rock constructed into an
ecclesiastical edifice in the reign of Richard I. Several of the
excavations in the limestone, which is extensively quarried, are
incorporated in dwelling-houses. A little farther down the rivei
is St Robert's cave, which is supposed to have been the residence
of the hermit, and in 1744 was the scene of the murder of Daniel
Clarke by Eugene Aram, whose story is told in Lytton's well-
knpwn novel. Opposite the castle is the Dropping Well, the
waters of which are impregnated with lime and have petrifying
power, this action causing the curious and beautiful incrusta-
tions formed where the water falls over a slight cliff. The
Knaresborough free grammar school was founded in 1616. There
is a large agricultural trade, and linen and leather manufactures
and the quarries also employ a considerable number of persons.
Knaresborough (Canardesburg, Cnarreburc, Cknareburg), which
belonged to the Crown before the Conquest, formed part of
William the Conqueror's grant to his follower Serlo de Burgh.
Being forfeited by his grandson Eustace Fitzjohn in the reign of
Stephen, Knaresborough was granted to Robert de Stuteville,
from whose descendants it passed through marriage to Hugh
de Morville, one of the murderers of Thomas Becket, who with
his three accomplices remained in hiding in the castle for a whole
year. During the i3th and I4th centuries the castle and lordship
changed hands very frequently; they were granted successively
to Hubert de Burgh, whose son forfeited them after the battle of
Evesham, to Richard, earl of Cornwall, whose son Edmund died
without issue; to Piers Gaveston, and lastly to John of Gaunt,
duke of Lancaster, and so to the Crown as parcel of the duchy
of Lancaster. In 1317 John de Lilleburn, who was holding the
castle of Knaresburgh for Thomas duke of Lancaster against
the king, surrendered under conditions to William de Ros of
Hamelak, but before leaving the castle managed to destroy all
the records of the liberties and privileges of the town which were
kept in the castle. In 1368 an inquisition was taken to ascertain
these privileges, and the jurors found that the burgesses held " all
the soil of their borough yielding 73. 4d. yearly and doing suit at
the king's court." In the reign of Henry VIII. Knaresborough
is said by Leland to be " no great thing and meanely builded but
the market there is quik." During the civil wars Knaresborough
was held for some time by the Royalists, but they were obliged
to surrender, and the castle was among those ordered to be
destroyed by parliament in 1646. A market on Wednesday and
a fortnightly fair on the same day from the Feast of St Mark to
that of St Andrew are claimed under a charter of Charles II. con-
firming earlier charters. Lead ore was found and worked on
Knaresborough Common in the i6th century. From 1555 to
1867 the town returned two members to parliament, but in the
latter year the number was reduced to one, and in 1885 the
representation was merged in that of the West Riding.
KNAVE (O.E. cnafa, cognate with Ger. Knabc, boy), originally
a male child, a boy (Chaucer, Canterbury Tales: " Clerk's Tale,"
i. 388). Like Lat. puer, the word was early used as a name for
any boy or lad employed as a servant, and so of male servants in
general (Chaucer: " Pardoner's Tale," i. 204). The current use
of the word for a man who is dishonest and crafty, a rogue, was
however an early usage, and is found in Layamon (c. 1205).
In playing-cards the lowest court card of each suit, the " jack,"
representing a medieval servant, is called the " knave." (See
also VALET.)
KNEBEL, KARL LUDWIG VON (1744-1834), German poet
and translator, was born at the castle of Wallerstein in Franconia
on the 3oth of November 1744. After having studied law for
a short while at Halle, he entered the regiment of the crown
prince of Prussia in Potsdam and was attached to it as officer
for ten years. Disappointed in his military career, owing to the
slowness of promotion, he retired in 1774, and accepting the post
of tutor to Prince Konstantin of Weimar, accompanied him and
his elder brother, the hereditary prince, on a tour to Paris. On
this journey he visited Goethe in Frankfort-on-Main, and intro-
duced him to the hereditary prince, Charles Augustus. This
meeting is memorable as being the immediate cause of Goethe's
later intimate connexion with the Weimar court. After Knebel's
return and the premature death of his pupil he was pensioned,
receiving the rank of major. In 1798 he married the singer
Luise von Rudorf, and retired to Ilmenau; but in 1805 he
removed to Jena, where he lived until his death on the 23rd
of February 1834. Knebel's Sammlung kleiner Gedichte (1815),
issued anonymously, and Distichen (1827) contain many graceful
sonnets, but it is as a translator that he is best known. His
translation of the elegies of Propertius, Elegien des Propers
(1798), and that of Lucretius' De rerttm nalura (2 vols., 1831) are
deservedly praised. Since their first acquaintance Knebel and
Goethe were intimate friends, and not the least interesting of
Knebel's writings is his correspondence with the eminent poet,
Briefwechsel mil Goethe (ed. G. E. Guhrauer, 2 vols., 1851).
Knebel's Literarischer Nachlass und Briefwechsel was edited by
K. A. Varnhagen von Ehse and T. Mundt in 3 vols. (1835; 2nd ed.,
1840). See Hugo von Knebel-Doberitz, Karl Ludwig von Knebel
(1890).
KNEE (O. E. cneow, a word common to Indo-European
languages, cf. Ger. Knie, Fr. genou, Span, hinojo, Lat. genu, Gr.
761^, Sansk. janu), in human anatomy, the articulation of the
upper and lower parts of the leg, the joint between the femur
and the tibia (see JOINTS). The word is also used of articulation
resembling the knee-joint in shape or position in other animals;
it thus is applied to the carpal articulation of the fore leg of a
horse, answering to the ankle in man, or to the tarsal articulation
or heel of a bird's foot.
850
KNELLER— KNIGHT, C.
KNELLER, SIR GODFREY (1648-1723), a portrait painter
whose celebrity belongs chiefly to England, was born in Liibeck
in the duchy of Holstein, of an ancient family, on the 8th of
August 1648. He was at first intended for the army, and was
sent to Leyden to learn mathematics and fortification. Showing,
however, a marked preference for the fine arts, he studied in the
school of Rembrandt, and under Ferdinand Bol in Amsterdam.
In 1672 he removed to Italy, directing his chief attention to
Titian and the Caracci; Carlo Maratta gave him some guidance
and encouragement. In Rome, and more especially in Venice,
Kneller earned considerable reputation by historical paintings
as well as portraits. He next went to Hamburg, painting with
still increasing success. In 1674 he came to England at the invi-
tation of the duke of Monmouth, was introduced to Charles II.,
and painted that sovereign, much to his satisfaction, several
times. Charles also sent him to Paris, to take the portrait of
Louis XIV. When Sir Peter Lely died in 1680, Kneller, who pro-
duced in England little or nothing in the historical department,
remained without a rival in the ranks of portrait painting; there
was no native-born competition worth speaking of. Charles
appointed him court painter; and he continued to hold the same
post into the days of George I. Under William III. (1692) he
was made a knight, under George I. (1715) a baronet, and by
order of the emperor Leopold I. a knight of the Roman Empire.
Not only his court favour but his general fame likewise was large:
he was lauded by Dryden, Addison, Steele, Prior, Tickell and
Pope. Kneller's gains also were very considerable; aided by
habits of frugality which approached stinginess, he left property
yielding an annual income of £2000. His industry was main-
tained till the last. His studio had at first been in Covent
Garden, but in his closing years he lived in Kneller Hall, Twicken-
ham. He died of fever, the date being generally given as the 7th
of November 1723, though some accounts say 1726. He was
buried in Twickenham church, and has a monument in 'West-
minster Abbey. An elder brother, John Zachary Kneller, an
ornamental painter, had accompanied Godfrey to England, and
had died in 1702. The style of Sir Godfrey Kneller as a portrait
painter represented the decline of that art as practised by Vandyck ;
Lely marks the first grade of descent, and Kneller the second.
His works have much freedom, and are well drawn and coloured ;
but they are mostly slight in manner, and to a great extent
monotonous, this arising partly from the habit which he had of
lengthening the oval of all his heads. The colouring may be called
brilliant rather than true. He indulged much in the common-
places of allegory; and, though he had a quality of dignified
elegance not unallied with simplicity, genuine simple nature is
seldom to be traced in his works. His fame has greatly declined,
and could not but do so after the advent of Reynolds. Among
Kneller's principal paintings are the "Forty-three Celebrities
of the Kit-Cat Club," and the " Ten Beauties of the Court of
William III.," now at Hampton Court; these were painted by
order cf the queen; they match, but match unequally, the
" Beauties of the Court of Charles II.," painted by Lely. He
executed altogether the likenesses of ten sovereigns, and fourteen
of his works appear in the National Portrait Gallery. It is said
that Kneller's own favourite performance was the portrait of the
" Converted Chinese " in Windsor Castle. His later works are
confined almost entirely to England, not more than two or three
specimens having gone abroad after he had settled here.
(W. M. R.)
KNICKERBOCKER, BARMEN JANSEN (c. i65o-c. 1720),
Dutch colonist of New Netherland (New York), was a native of
Wyhe (Wie), Overyssel, Holland. Before 1683 he settled near
what is now Albany, New York, and there in 1704 he bought
through Harme Gansevoort one-fourth of the land in Dutchess
county near Red Hook, which had been patented in 1688 'to
Peter Schuyler, who in 1722 deeded seven (of thirteen) lots in the
upper fourth of his patent to the seven children of Knickerbocker.
The eldest of these children, Johannes Harmensen, received from
the common council of the city of Albany a grant of 50 acres of
meadow and 10 acres of upland on the south side of Schaghti-
coke Creek. This Schaghticoke estate was held by Johannes
Harmensen's son Johannes (1723-1802), a colonel in the Con-
tinental Army in the War of Independence, and by his son
Harmen (1779-1855), a lawyer, a Federalist representative in
Congress in 1809-1811, a member of the New York Assembly
in 1816, and a famous gentleman of the old school, who for his
courtly hospitality in his manor was called " the prince of
Schaghticoke " and whose name was borrowed by Washington
Irving for use in his (Diedrich) Knickerbocker's History of New
York (1809). Largely owing to this book, the name " Knicker-
bockers " has passed into current use as a designation of the
early Dutch settlers in New York and their descendants. The
son of Johannes, David Buel Knickerbacker (1833-1894), who
returned to the earlier spelling of the family name, graduated
at Trinity College in 1853 and at the General Theological
Seminary in 1856, was a rector for many years at Minneapolis,
Minnesota, and in 1883 was consecrated Protestant Episcopal
bishop of Indiana.
See the series of articles by W. B. Van Alstyne on " The Knicker-
bocker Family," beginning in vol. xxix., No. I (Jan. 1908) of the
New York Genealogical and Biographical Record.
KNIFE (0. E. cnff, a word appearing in different forms in
many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-
maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown;
Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip ";
Fr. canif is also of Teutonic origin), a small cutting instrument,
with the blade either fixed to the handle or fastened with a hinge
so as to clasp into the handle (see CUTLERY). For the knives
chipped from flint by prehistoric man see ARCHAEOLOGY and
FLINT IMPLEMENTS.
KNIGGE, ADOLF FRANZ FRIEDRICH, FREIHERR VON (1752-
1796), German author, was born on the family estate of Breden-
beck near Hanover on the i6th of October 1752. After studying
law at Gottingen he was attached successively to the courts of
Hesse-Cassel and Weimar as gentleman-in-waiting. Retiring
from court service in 1777, he lived a private life with his family
in Frankfort-on-Main, Hanau, Heidelberg and Hanover until
1791, when he was appointed Oberhauptmann (civil adminis-
trator) in Bremen, where he died on the 6th of May 1796.
Knigge, under the name "Philo," was one of the most active
members of the Illuminati, a mutual moral and intellectual
improvement society founded by Adam Weishaupt (1748-1830)
at Ingolstadt, and which later became affiliated to the Free-
masons. Knigge is known as the author of several novels, among
which Der Roman meines Lebens (1781-1787; new ed., 1805)
and Die Reise nach Braunschweig (1792), the latter a rather
coarsely comic story, are best remembered. His chief literary
achievement was, however, (fber den Umgang mil Menschen
(1788), in which he lays down rules to be observed for a peaceful,
happy and useful life; it has been often reprinted.
Knigge's Schriften were published in 12 volumes (1804-1806).
See K. Goedeke, Adolf, Freiherr von Knigge (1844) ; and H. Klencke,
A us einer alien Kiste (Briefe, Handschriften und Dokumente aus dem
Nachlasse Knigges) (1853).
KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873), English publisher and
author, the son of a bookseller and printer at Windsor, was
born on the I5th of March 1791. He was apprenticed to his
father; but on the completion of his indentures he took up
journalism and interested himself in several newspaper specu-
lations. In 1823, in conjunction with friends he had made
as publisher (1820-1821) of The Etonian, he started Knight's
Quarterly Magazine, to which W. M. Praed, Derwent Coleridge
and Macaulay contributed. The venture was brought to
a close with its sixth number, but it initiated for Knight a
career as publisher and author which extended over forty
years. In 1827 Knight was compelled to give up his publish-
ing business, and became the superintendent of the publications
of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful ' Knowledge, for
which he projected and edited The British Almanack and
Companion, begun in 1828. In 1829 he resumed business
on his own account with the publication of The Library of
Entertaining Knowledge, writing several volumes of the series
himself. In 1832 and 1833 he started The Penny Magazine and
KNIGHT, D. R.— KNIGHTHOOD
851
The Penny Cyclopaedia, both of which had a large circulation.
The Penny Cyclopaedia, however, on account of the heavy
excise duty, was only completed in 1844 at a great pecuniary
sacrifice. Besides many illustrated editions of standard works,
including in 1842 The Pictorial Shakespeare, which had appeared
in parts (1838-1841), Knight published a variety of illustrated
works, such as Old England and The Land we Live in. He also
undertook the series known as Weekly Volumes. He himself
contributed the first volume, a biography of William Caxton.
Many famous books, Miss Martineau's Tales, Mrs Jameson's
Early Italian Painters and G-. H. Lewes's Biographical History
of Philosophy, appeared for the first time in this series. In
1853 he became editor of The English Cyclopaedia, which was
practically only a revision of The Penny Cyclopaedia, and at
about the same time he began his Popular History of England
(8 vols., 1856-1862). In 1864 he withdrew from the business of
publisher, but he continued to write nearly to the close of his
long life, publishing The Shadows of the Old Booksellers (1865),
an autobiography under the title Passages of a Working Life
during Half a Century (2 vols., 1864-1865), and an historical
novel, Begg'd at Court (1867). He died at Addlestone, Surrey,
on the Qth of March 1873.
See A. A. Clowes, Knight, a Sketch (1892); and F. Espinasse, in
The Critic (May 1860).
KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845- ), American artist,
was born at Philadelphia, Penn., in 1845. He was a pupil at the
Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, 'under Gleyre, and later worked
in the private studio of Meissonier. After 1872 he lived in
France, having a house and studio at Poissy on the Seine.
He painted peasant women out of doors with great popular
success. He was awarded the silver medal and cross of the
Legion of Honour, Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1889, and was
made a knight of the Royal Order of St Michael of Bavaria,
Munich, 1893, receiving the gold medal of honour from the
Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, 1893. His
son, Ashton Knight, is also known as a landscape painter.
KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843-1908), English landscape
painter, was born at Sevenoaks, Kent; he started as a school-
master, but painting was his hobby, and he subsequently de-
voted himself to it. In 1861 he had his first picture hung at the
Academy. He was essentially an open-air painter, constantly
going on sketching tours in the most picturesque spots of Eng-
land, and all his pictures were painted out of doors. He died
at Dover on the 2nd of January 1908. The Chantrey trustees
bought his " December's Bareness Everywhere " for the nation in
the following month. Most of his best pictures had passed into
the collection of Mr Iceton of Putney (including " White Walls
of Old England " and " Hereford Cathedral "), Mr Walter Briggs
of Burley in Wharfedale (especially " Pinner "), and Mr S. M.
Phillips of Wrotham (especially two water-colours of Richmond
Bridge).
KNIGHTHOOD and CHIVALRY. These two words, which are
nearly but not quite synonymous, designate a single subject
of inquiry, which -presents itself under three different although
connected and in a measure intermingled aspects. It may be
regarded in the first place as a mode or variety of feudal tenure,
in the second place as a personal attribute or dignity, and in the
third place as a scheme of manners or social arrangements.
The first of these aspects is discussed under the headings FEU-
DALISM and KNIGHT SERVICE: we are concerned here only with
the second and third. For the more important religious as
distinguished from the military orders of knighthood or chivalry
the reader is referred to the headings ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM,
KNIGHTS OF; TEUTONIC KNIGHTS; and TEMPLARS.
" The growth of knighthood " (writes Stubbs) " is a subject
on which the greatest obscurity prevails ": and, though J. H.
Round has done much to explain the introduction of the system
into England,1, its actual origin on the continent of Europe is still
obscure in many of its most important details.
The words knight and knighthood are merely the modern forms
pf the Anglo-Saxon or Old English cni/it and cnihthad. Of these
1 Feudal England, pp. 225 sqq.
the primary signification of the first was a boy or youth, and of
the second that period of life which intervenes between child-
hood and manhood. But some time before the middle of the 1 2th
century they had acquired the meaning they still retain of the
French chevalier and chevalerie. In a secondary sense cniht
meant a servant or attendant answering to the German Knecht,
and in the Anglo-Saxon Gospels a disciple is described as a
learning cniht. In a tertiary sense the word appears to have been
occasionally employed as equivalent to the Latin miles — usually
translated by thegn — which in the earlier middle ages was used
as the designation of the domestic as well as of the martial
officers or retainers of sovereigns and princes or great person-
ages.2 Sharon Turner suggests that cniht from meaning an
attendant simply may have come to mean more especially a
military attendant, and that in this sense it may have gradually
superseded the word thegn.3 But the word thegn itself, that is,
when it was used as the description of an attendant of the
king, appears to have meant more especially a military atten-
dant. As Stubbs says " the thegn seems to be primarily the
warrior gesith " — the gesithas forming the chosen band of com-
panions (comites) of the German chiefs (principes) noticed by
Tacitus — " he is probably the gesith who had a particular mili-
tary duty in his master's service "; and he adds that from the
reign of Athelstan " the gesith is lost sight of except very occa-
sionally, the more important class having become thegns, and the
lesser sort sinking into the rank of mere servants of the king." *
It is pretty clear, therefore, that the word cniht could never have
superseded the word thegn in the sense of a military attendant,
at all events of the king. But besides the king, the ealdormen,
bishops and king's thegns themselves had their thegns, and tc-
these it is more than probable that the name of cniht was applied.
Around the Anglo-Saxon magnates were collected a crowd of
retainers and dependants of all ranks and conditions; and there is
evidence enough to show that among them were some called
cnihtas .who were not always the humblest or least considerable
of their number.5 The testimony of Domesday also establishes
the existence in the reign of Edward the Confessor of what
Stubbs describes as a " large class " of landholders who had
commended themselves to some lord, and he regards it as doubt-
ful whether their tenure had not already assumed a really feudal
character. But in any event it is manifest that their condition
was in many respects similar to that of a vast number of unques-
tionably feudal and military tenants who made their appearance
after the Norman Conquest. If consequently the former were
called cnihtas under the Anglo-Saxon regime, it seems sufficiently
probable that the appellation should have been continued to the
latter — practically their successors— under the Anglo-Norman
regime. And if the designation of knights was first applied to
the military tenants of the earls, bishops and barons — who-
although they held their lands of mesne lords owed their services
to the king — the extension of that designation to the whole body
of military tenants need not have been a very violent or prolonged
process. Assuming, however, that knight was originally used
to describe the military tenant of a noble person, as cniht had
sometimes been used to describe the thegn of a noble person, it
would, to begin with, have defined rather his social status than
the nature of his services. But those whom the English called
knights the Normans called chevaliers, by which term the nature
of their services was defined, while their social status was left
out of consideration. And at first chevalier in its general and
honorary signification seems to have been rendered not by knight
but by rider, as may be inferred from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
wherein it is recorded under the year 1085 that William the
Conqueror " dubbade his sunu Henric to ridere." 6 But, as E. A.
Freeman says, " no such title is heard of in the earlier days of
England. The thegn, the ealdorman, the king himself, fought on
foot; the horse might bear him to the field, but when the fighting
2 Du Cange, Gloss., s.v. " Miles."
3 History of England, iii. 12.
4 Stubbs, Constitutional History, i. 156.
6 Ibid. i. 156, 366; Turner, iii. 125-129.
6 Ingram's edition, p. 290.
852
KNIGHTHOOD
itself came he stood on his native earth to receive the onslaught
of her enemies." * In this perhaps we may behold one of the
most ancient of British insular prejudices, for on the Continent
the importance of cavalry in warfare was already abundantly
understood. It was by means of their horsemen that the
Austrasian Franks established their superiority over their neigh-
bours, and in time created the Western Empire anew, while from
the word caballarius, which occurs in the Capitularies in the reign
of Charlemagne, came the words for knight in all the Romance
languages.2 In Germany the chevalier was called Ritter, but
neither rider nor chevalier prevailed against knight in England.
And it was long after knighthood had acquired its present meaning
with us that chivalry was incorporated into our language. It
may be remarked too in passing that in official Latin, not only
in England but all over Europe, the word miles held its own
against both eques and caballarius.
Concerning the origin of knighthood or chivalry as it existed
in the middle ages — implying as it did a formal assumption of
Origin ot and initiation into the profession of arms — nothing
Medieval beyond more or less probable conjecture is possible.
Kaightliooa.fhe me(jieval knights had nothing to do in the way of
derivation with the " equites " of Rome, the knights of King
Arthur's Round Table, or the Paladins of Charlemagne. But
there are grounds for believing that some of the rudiments of
chivalry are to be detected in early Teutonic customs, and that
they may have made some advance among the Franks of Gaul.
We know from Tacitus that the German tribes in his day were
wont to celebrate the admission of their young men into the
ranks of their warriors with much circumstance and ceremony.
The people of the district to which the candidate belonged were
called together; his qualifications for the privileges about to be
conferred upon him were inquired into; and, if he were deemed
fitted and worthy to receive them, his chief, his father, or one of
his near kinsmen presented him with a shield and a lance.
Again, among the Franks we find Charlemagne girding his son
Louis the Pious, and Louis the Pious girding his son Charles the
Bald with the sword, when they arrived at manhood.3 It seems
certain here that some ceremony was observed which was deemed
worthy of record not for its novelty, but as a thing of recognized
importance. It does not follow that a similar ceremony
extended to personages less exalted than the sons of kings and
emperors. But if it did we must naturally suppose that it applied
in the first instance to the mounted warriors who formed the
most formidable portion of the warlike array of the Franks.
It was among the Franks indeed, and possibly through their
experiences in war with the Saracens, that cavalry first acquired
the pre-eminent place which it long maintained in every
European country. In early society, where the army is not a paid
force but the armed nation, the cavalry must necessarily consist
of the noble and wealthy, and cavalry and chivalry, as Freeman
observes,4 will be the same. Since then we discover in the
Capitularies of Charlemagne actual mention of " caballarii " as
a class of warriors, it may reasonably be concluded that formal
investiture with arms applied to the " caballarii " if it was a usage
extending beyond the sovereign and his heir-apparent. " But,"
as Hallam says, " he who fought on horseback and had been
invested with peculiar arms in a solemn manner wanted nothing
more to render him a knight; " and so he concludes, in view of
the verbal identity of " chevalier " and " caballarius," that " we
may refer chivalry in a general sense to the age of Charlemagne." *
Yet, if the " caballarii " of the Capitularies are really the pre-
cursors of the later knights, it remains a difficulty that the Latin
name for a knight is " miles," although " caballarius " became in
various forms the vernacular designation.
Before it was known that the chronicle ascribed to Ingulf of
Croyland is really a fiction of the I3th or I4th century, the
knighting of Heward or Hereward by Brand, abbot of Burgh
1 Comparative Politics, p. 74.
* Baluze, Capitularia Regum Francorum, ii. 794, 1069.
1 Du Cange, Gloss., s.v. " Arma."
4 Freeman, Comparative Politics, p. 73.
• Hallam, Middle Ages, Hi. 392.
(now Peterborough), was accepted from Selden to Hallam as
an historical fact, and knighthood was supposed, not only to
have been known among the Anglo-Saxons, but to
have had a distinctively religious character which ia England.
was contemned by the Norman invaders. The
genuine evidence at our command altogether fails to support .
this view. When William of Malmesbury describes the knighting
of Athelstan by his grandfather Alfred the Great, that is, his
investiture " with a purple garment set with gems and a Saxon
sword with a golden sheath," there is no hint of any religious
observance. In spite of the silence of our records, Dr Stubbs
thinks that kings so well acquainted with foreign usages as
Ethelred, Canute and Edward the Confessor could hardly have
failed to introduce into England the institution of chivalry
then springing up in every country of Europe; and he is sup-
ported in this opinion by the circumstance that it is nowhere
mentioned as a Norman innovation. Yet the fact that Harold
received knighthood from William of Normandy makes it clear
either that Harold was not yet a knight, which in the case of so
tried a warrior would imply that " dubbing to knighthood " was
not yet known in England even under Edward the Confessor, or,
as Freeman thinks, that in the middle of the nth century the
custom had grown in Normandy into " something of a more
special meaning " than it bore in England.
Regarded as a method of military organization, the feudal
system of tenures was always far better adapted to the purposes
of defensive than of offensive warfare. Against invasion it
furnished a permanent provision both in men-at-arms and strong-
holds; nor was it unsuited for the campaigns of neighbouring
counts and barons which lasted for only a few weeks, and ex-
tended over only a few leagues. But when kings and kingdoms
were in conflict, and distant and prolonged expeditions became
necessary, it was speedily discovered that the unassisted re-
sources of feudalism were altogether inadequate. It became
therefore the manifest interest of both parties that personal
services should be commuted into pecuniary payments. Then
there grew up all over Europe a system of fining the knights who
failed to respond to the sovereign's call or to stay their full time
in the field; and in England this fine developed, from the reign
of Henry II. to that of Edward II., into a regular war-tax called
escuage or scutage (<?.».). In this way funds for war were placed at
the free disposal of sovereigns, and, although the feudatories and
their retainers still formed the most considerable portion of their
armies, the conditions under which they served were altogether
changed. Their military service was now far more the result
of special agreement. In the reign of Edward I., whose warlike
enterprises after he was king were confined within the four seas,
this alteration does not seem to have proceeded very far, and
Scotland and Wales were subjugated by what was in the main,
if not exclusively, a feudal militia raised as of old by writ to the
earls and barons and the sheriffs.6 But the armies of Edward III. ,
Henry V. and Henry VI. during the century of intermittent war-
fare between England and France were recruited and sustained
to a very great extent on the principle of contract.7 On the
Continent the systematic employment of mercenaries was both
an early and a common practice.
Besides consideration for the mutual convenience of sovereigns
and their feudatories, there were other causes which materially
contributed towards bringing about those changes in The
the military system of Europe which were finally Crusades.
accomplished in the I3th and I4th centuries. During the
Crusades vast armies were set on foot in which feudal rights
6 Stubbs, Const. Hist. ii. 278 ; also compare Grosse, Military
Antiquities, i. 65 seq.
7 There has been a general tendency to ignore the extent to which
the armies of Edward III. were raised by compulsory levies even after
the system of raising troops by free contract had begun. Luce
(ch. vi.) points out how much England relied at this time on what
would now be called conscription: and his remarks arc entirely
borne out by the Norwich documents published by Mr W. Hudson
(Norf. and Norwich Archaeological Soc. xiv. 263 sqq.), by a Lynn
corporation document of l8th Edw. III. (Hist. MSS. Commission
Report XI. Appendix pt. iii. p. 189), and by Smyth's Lives of tiie
Berkeley*, i. 312, 319, 320.
KNIGHTHOOD
853
and obligations had no place, and it was seen that the volun-
teers who flocked to the standards of the various commanders
were not less but even more efficient in the field than the
vassals they had hitherto been accustomed to lead. It was thus
established that pay, the love of enterprise and the prospect of
plunder — if we leave zeal for the sacred cause which they had
espoused for the moment out of sight — were quite as useful for
the purpose of enlisting troops and keeping them together as
the tenure of land and the solemnities of homage and fealty.
Moreover, the crusaders who survived the difficulties and dangers
of an expedition to Palestine were seasoned and experienced
although frequently impoverished and landless soldiers, ready to
hire themselves to the highest bidder, and well worth the wages
they received. Again, it was owing to the crusades that the
church took the profession of arms under her peculiar protection,
and thenceforward the ceremonies of initiation into it assumed a
religious as well as a martial character.
To distinguished soldiers of the cross the honours and benefits
of knighthood could hardly be refused on the ground that they
Knighthood did not possess a sufficient property qualification —
independent of which perhaps they had denuded themselves in
of Feudal- order to their equipment for the Holy War. And
thus the conception of knighthood as of something
distinct from feudalism both as a social condition and a
personal dignity arose and rapidly gained ground. It was
then that the analogy was first detected between the order of
knighthood and the order of priesthood, and that an actual
union of monachism and chivalry was effected by the establish-
ment of the religious orders of which the Knights Templars
and the Knights Hospitallers were the most eminent examples.
As comprehensive in their polity as the Benedictines or
Franciscans, they gathered their members from, and soon
scattered their possessions over, every country in Europe. And
in their indifference to the distinctions of race and nationality
they merely accommodated themselves to the spirit which had
become characteristic of chivalry itself, already recognized, like
the church, as a universal institution which knit together the
whole warrior caste of Christendom into one great fraternity
irrespective alike of feudal subordination and territorial boun-
daries. Somewhat later the adoption of hereditary surnames
and armorial bearings marked the existence of a large and noble
class who either from the subdivision of fiefs or from the effects
of the custom of primogeniture were very insufficiently provided
for. To them only two callings were generally open, that of the
churchman and that of the soldier, and the latter as a rule offered
greater attractions than the former in an era of much licence and
little learning. Hence the favourite expedient for men of birth,
although not of fortune, was to attach themselves to some prince
or magnate in whose military service they were sure of an ade-
quate maintenance and might hope for even a rich reward in the
shape of booty or of ransom.1 It is probably to this period and
these circumstances that we must look for at all events the rudi-
mentary beginnings of the military as well as the religious orders
of chivalry. Of the existence of any regularly constituted
companionships of the first kind there is no trustworthy evidence
until between two and three centuries after fraternities of the
second kind had been organized. Soon after the greater crusad-
ing societies had been formed similar orders, such as those of
St James of Compostella, Calatrava and Alcantara, were estab-
lished to fight the Moors in Spain instead of the Saracens in the
Holy Land. But the members of these orders were not less monks
than knights, their statutes embodied the rules of the cloister,
and they were bound by the ecclesiastical vows of celibacy,
poverty and obedience. From a very early stage in the develop-
ment of chivalry, however, we meet with the singular institution
of brotherhood in arms; and from it the ultimate origin if not of
the religious fraternities at any rate of the military companion-
ships is usually derived.2 By this institution a relation was
'J. B. de Lacurne de Sainte Palaye, Memoires sur I'Ancienne
Chevalerie, i. 363, 364 (ed. 1781).
2 Du Cange, Dissertation sur Joinville, xxi. ; Sainte Palaye,
Memoires, i. 272 ; G. F. Beitz, Memorials of the Order of the Garter
(1841,) p. xxvii.
created between two or more monks by voluntary agreement,
which was regarded as of far more intimacy and stringency than
any which the mere accident of consanguinity implied. Brothers
in arms were supposed to be partners in all things save the affec-
tions of their " lady-loves." They shared in every danger arid
in every success, and each was expected to vindicate the honour
of another as promptly and zealously as his own. The plot of
the medieval romance of Amis and Amiles is built entirely on
such a brotherhood. Their engagements usually lasted through
life, but sometimes only for a specified period or during the
continuance of specified circumstances, and they were always
ratified by oath, occasionally reduced to writing in the shape of a
solemn bond and often sanctified by their reception of the
Eucharist together. Romance and tradition speak of strange
rites — the mingling and even the drinking of blood — as having
in remote and rude ages marked the inception of these martial
and fraternal associations.3 But in later and less barbarous
times they were generally evidenced and celebrated by a formal
and reciprocal exchange of weapons and armour. In warfare
it was customary for knights who were thus allied to appear
similarly accoutred and bearing the same badges or cognisances,
to the end that their enemies might not know with which of them
they were in conflict, and that their friends might be unable to
accord more applause to one than to the other for his prowess in
the field. It seems likely enough therefore that there should grow
up bodies of knights banded together by engagements of fidelity,
although free from monastic obligations; wearing a uniform or
livery, and naming themselves after some special symbol or
some patron saint of their adoption. And such bodies placed
under the command of a sovereign or grand master, regulated by
statutes, and enriched by ecclesiastical endowments would have
been precisely what in after times such orders as the Garter
in England, the Golden Fleece in Burgundy, the Annunziata in
Savoy and the St Michael and Holy Ghost in France actually
were.4
During the I4th and isth centuries, as well as somewhat
earlier and later, the general arrangements of a European army
were always and everywhere pretty much the same.6
Under the sovereign the constable and the marshal
or marshals held the chief commands, their authority
being partly joint and partly several. Attendant on them
were the heralds, who were the officers of their military court,
wherein offences committed in the camp and field were tried
and adjudged, and among whose duties it was to carry orders
and messages, to deliver challenges and call truces, and to
identify and number the wounded and the slain. The main
divisions of the army were distributed under the royal and other
principal standards, smaller divisions under the banners of
some of the greater nobility or of knights banneret, and smaller
divisions still under the pennons of knights or, as in distinction
from knights banneret they came to be called, knights bachelors.
All knights whether bachelors or bannerets were escorted by
their squires. But the banner of the banneret always implied
a more or less extensive command, while every knight was en-
titled to bear a pennon and every squire a pencel. All three flags
were of such a size as to be conveniently attached to and carried
on a lance, and were emblazoned with the arms or some portion
of the bearings of their owners. But while the banner was
square the pennon, which resembled it in other respects, was
either pointed or forked at its extremity, and the pencel, which
was considerably less than the others, always terminated in a
single tail or streamer.6
If indeed we look at the scale of chivalric subordination from
another point of view, it seems to be more properly divisible into
four than into three stages, of which two may be called provisional
and two final. The bachelor and the banneret were both equally
knights, only the one was of greater distinction and authority
3 Du Cange, Dissertation, xxi., and Lancelot du Lac, among other
romances.
4 Anstis, Register of the Order of the Garter, i. 63.
6 Grose, Military Antiq. i. 207 seq. ; Stubbs, Co;
seq., and iii. 278 seq.
6 Grose's Military Antiquities, ii. 256.
Const. Hist. ii. 276
KNIGHTHOOD
than the other. In like manner the squire and the page were
both in training for knighthood, but the first had advanced
further in the process than the second. It is true that the squire
was a combatant while the page was not, and that many squires
voluntarily served as squires all their lives owing to the insuffi-
ciency of their fortunes to support the costs and charges of
knighthood. But in the ordinary course of a chivalrous educa-
tion the successive conditions of page and squire were passed
through in boyhood and youth, and the condition of knighthood
was reached in early manhood. Every feudal court and castle
was in fact a school of chivalry, and although princes and great
personages were rarely actually pages or squires, the moral and
physical discipline through which they passed was not in any
important particular different from that to which less exalted
candidates for knighthood were subjected.1 The page, or, as he
was more anciently and more correctly called, the " valet " or
'' damoiseau," commenced his service and instruction when he
was between seven and eight years old, and the initial phase
continued for seven or eight years longer. He acted as the con-
stant personal attendant of both his master and mistress. He
waited on them in their hall and accompanied them in the chase,
served the lady in her bower and followed the lord to the camp.2
From the chaplain and his mistress and her damsels he learnt
the rudiments of religion, of rectitude and of love,3 from his
master and his squires the elements of military exercise, to cast a
spear or dart, to sustain a shield, and to march with the measured
tread of a soldier; and from his master and his huntsmen
and falconers the " mysteries of the woods and rivers." or in
other words the rules and practices of hunting and hawking.
When he was between fifteen and sixteen he became a squire.
But no sudden or great alteration was made in his mode of life.
He continued to wait at dinner with the pages, although in a
manner more dignified according to the notions of the age.
He not only served but carved and helped the dishes, proffered
the first or principal cup of wine to his master, and his guests,
and carried to them the basin, ewer or napkin when they washed
their hands before and after meat. He assisted in clearing the
hall for dancing or minstrelsy, and laid the tables for chess or
draughts, and he also shared in the pastimes for which he had
made preparation. He brought his master the " vin de coucher "
at night, and made his early refection ready for him in the
morning. But his military exercises and athletic sports occupied
an always increasing portion of the day. He accustomed himself
to ride the " great horse," to tilt at the quintain,. to wield the
sword and battle-axe, to swim and climb, to run and leap, and
to bear the weight and overcome the embarrassments of armour.
He inured himself to the vicissitudes of heat and cold, and volun-
tarily suffered the pains or inconveniences of hunger and thirst,
fatigue and sleeplessness. It was then loo that he chose his
" lady-love," whom he was expected to regard with an adoration
at once earnest, respectful, and the more meritorious if concealed.
And when it was considered that he had made sufficient advance-
ment in his military accomplishments, he took his sword to the
priest, who laid it on the altar, blessed it, and returned it to him.4
Afterwards he either remained with his early master, relegating
most of his domestic duties to his younger companions, or he
entered the service of some valiant and adventurous lord or
1 Sainte Palaye, Memoires, i. 36; Froissart, bk. iii. ch. 9.
2 Sainte Palaye, Memoires, pt. i. and Mills, History of Chivalry,
vol. i. ch. 2,
1 See the long sermon in the romance of Petit Jehan de Saintre,
pt. i. ch. v., and compare the theory there set forth with the actual
behaviour of the chief personages. Even Gautier, while he contends
that chivalry did much to refine morality, is compelled to admit
the prevailing immorality to which medieval romances testify,
and the extraordinary free behaviour of the unmarried ladies. No
doubt these romances, taken alone, might give as unfair an idea as
modern French novels give of Parisian morals, but we have abundant
other evidence for placing the moral standard of the age of chivalry
definitely below that of educated society in the present day.
1 Sainte Palaye, Memoires, i. II seq.: " C'est peut-e'tre a cette
c6rt>monie et non a cellos de la chevalerie qu'on doit rapporter ce
qui se lit dans nos historiens de la premiere et de la seconde race au
suiet des premieres armes que les Rois et les Princes remettoient avec
solemnite au jeunes Princes leurs enfans."
knight of his own selection. He now became a " squire of the
body," and truly an "armiger" or " scutifer," for he bore the
shield and armour of his leader to the field, and, what was a task
of no small difficulty and hazard, cased and secured him in his
panoply of war before assisting him to mount his courser or
charger. It was his function also to display and guard in battle
the banner of the baron or banneret or the pennon of the knight
he served, to raise him from the ground if he were unhorsed, to
supply him with another or his own horse if his was disabled or
killed, to receive and keep any prisoners he might take, to fight
by his side if he was unequally matched, to rescue him if cap-
tured, to bear him to a place of safety if wounded, and to bury
him honourably when dead. And after he had worthily and
bravely, borne himself for six or seven years as a squire, the time
came when it was fitting that he should be made a knight. This,
at least, was the current theory; but it is specially dangerous
in medieval history to assume too much corresf mdence between
theory and 'fact. In many castles, and perLx s in most, the
discipline followed simply a natural and unwritten code of
" fagging " and seniority, as in public schools or on board
men-of-war some hundred years or so ago.
Two modes of conferring knighthood appear to have prevailed
from a very early period in all countries where chivalry was
known. In both of them the essential portion seems /nodes of
to have been the accolade or stroke of the sword, conferring
But while in the one the accolade constituted the Kalshth<>°<1-
whole or nearly the whole of the ceremony, in the other it
was surrounded with many additional observances. The former
and simpler of these modes was naturally that used in war:
the candidate knelt before " the chief of the army or some
valiant knight," who struck him thrice with the flat of a sword,
pronouncing a brief formula of creation and of exhortation
which varied at the creator's will.5
In this form a number of knights were made before and after
almost every battle between the nth and the i6th centuries,
and its advantages on the score of both convenience and economy
gradually led to its general adoption both in time of peace and
time of war. On extraordinary occasions indeed the more
elaborate ritual continued to be observed. But recourse was
had to it so rarely that in England about the beginning of the
1 5th century it came to be exclusively appropriated to a special
king of knighthood. When Scgar, garter king of arms, wrote in
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, this had been accomplished with
such completeness that he does not even mention that there
were two ways of creating knights bachelors. " He that is to
be made a knight," he says, " is striken by the prince with a
sword drawn upon his back or shoulder, the prince saying,
' Soys Chevalier,' and in times past was added ' Saint George.'
And when the knight rises the prince sayeth 'Avencez.' This is
the manner of dubbing knights at this present, and that term
' dubbing ' was the old term in this point, not 'creating.' This
sort of knights are by the heralds called knights bachelors." In
our days when a knight is personally made he kneels before the
sovereign, who lays a sword drawn, ordinarily the sword of state,
on either of his shoulders and says, " Rise," calling him by his
Christian name with the addition of " Sir " before it.
8 There are several obscure points as to the relation of the longer
and shorter ceremonies, as well as the origin and original relation of
their several parts. There is nothing to show whence came " dub-
bing " or the " accolade." It seems certain that the word " dub "
means to strike, and the usage is as old as the knighting of Henry by
William the Conqueror (supra, pp. 851, 852). So, too, in the Empire
a dubbed knight is " ritter geschlagen." The " accolade " may
etymologically refer to the embrace, accompanied by a blow with the
hand, characteristic of the longer form of knighting. The derivation
of " adouber," corresponding to " dub," from " adoptare," which
is given by Du Cange, and would connect the ceremony with
" adoptio per arma," is certainly inaccurate. The investiture with
arms, which formed a part of the longer form of knighting, and
which we have seen to rest on very ancient usage, may originally
have had a distinct meaning. We have observed that Lanfranc
invested Henry I. with arms, while William " dubbed him to
rider." If there was a difference in the meaning cf the two cere-
monies, the difficulty as to the knighting of Earl Harold (supra,
p. 852) is at least partly removed.
KNIGHTHOOD
H55
Very different were the solemnities which attended the creation
of a knight when the complete procedure was observed. " The
ceremonies and circumstances at the giving this dignity," says
Selden, " in the elder time were of two kinds especially, which we
may call courtly and sacred. The courtly were the feasts held
at the creation, giving of robes, arms, spurs and the like. The
sacred were the holy devotions and what else was used in the
church at or before the receiving of the dignity.1 But the leading
authority on the subject is an ancient tract written in French,
which will be found at length either in the original or translated
by Segar, Dugdale, Byshe and Nicolas, among other English
writers.2 Daniel explains his reasons for transcribing it, " tant
a cause du detail que de la naivete du stile et encore plus de la
bisarrerie des ceremonies que se faisoient pourtant alors fort
serieusement," while he adds that these ceremonies were essen-
tially identical in England, France, Germany, Spain and Italy.
The process of inauguration was commenced in the evening by the
placing of the candidate under the care of two "esquires of honour
grave and well seen in courtship and nurture and also in the feats of
chivalry," who were to be " governors in all things relating to him."
Under their direction, to begin with, a barber shaved him and cut
his hair. He was then conducted by them to his appointed chamber,
where a bath was prepared hung within and without with linen and
covered with rich cloths, into which after they had undressed him
he entered. While he was in the bath two " ancient and grave
knights " attended him " to inform, instruct and counsel him touch-
ing the order and feats of chivalry," and when they had fulfilled
their mission they poured some of the water of the bath over his
shoulders, signing the left shoulder with the cross, and retired.
He was then taken from the bath and put into a plain bed without
hangings, in which he remained until his body was dry, when the
two esquires put on him a white shirt and over that " a robe of
russet with long sleeves having a hood thereto like unto that of an
hermit." Then the " two ancient and grave knights " returned and
led him to the chapel, the esquires going before them " sporting and
dancing " with " the minstrels making melody." And when they
had been served with wines and spices they went away leaving
only the candidate, the esquires, " the priest, the chandler and the
watch," who kept the vigil of arms until sunrise, the candidate pass-
ing the night " bestowing himself in orisons and prayers." At
daybreak he confessed to the priest, heard matins, and communicated
in the mass, offering a taper and a piece of money stuck in it as near
the lighted end as possible, the first " to the honour of God" and the
second " to the honour of the person that makes him a knight."
Afterwards he was taken back to his chamber, and remained in bed
until the knights, esquires and minstrels went to him and aroused
him. The knights then dressed him in distinctive garments, and they
then mounted their horses and rode to the hall where the candidate
was to receive knighthood ; his future squire was to ride before him
bareheaded bearing his sword by the point in its scabbard with his
spurs hanging from its hilt. And when everything was prepared
the prince or^ubject who was to knight him came into the hall, and,
the candidate's sword and spurs having been presented to him, he
delivered the right spur to the " most noble and gentle " knight
present, and directed him to fasten it on the candidate's right heel,
which he kneeling on one knee and putting the candidate's right
foot on his knee accordingly did, signing the candidate's knee with
the cross, and in like manner by another " noble and gentle " knight
the left spur was fastened to his left heel. And then he who was to
create the knight took the sword and girded him with it, and then
embracing him he lifted his right hand and smote him on the neck
or shoulder, saying, " Be thou a good knight," and kissed him.
When this was done they all went to the chapel with much music,
and the new knight laying his right hand on the altar promised to
support and defend the church, and ungirding his sword offered it
on the altar. And as he came out from the chapel the master cook
awaited him at the door and claimed his spurs as his fee, and said,
1 Selden, Titles of Honor, 639.
2 Daniel, Histoire de la Milice FranQoise, i. '99-104 ; Byshe's Upton,
De Studio Militari, pp. 21-24; Dugdalei Warwickshire, ii. 708-710;
Segar, Honor Civil and Military, pp. 69 seq. and Nicolas, Orders of
Knighthood, vol. ii. (Order of the Bath) pp. 19 seq. . .It is given as " the
order and manner of creating Knights of the Bath in time of peace
according to the custom of England," and consequently dates from a
period when the full ceremony of creating knights bachelors generally
had gone out of fashion. But as Ashmole, speaking of Knights of the
Bath, says, " if the ceremonies and circumstances of their creation
be well considered, it will appear that this king [Henry IV.] did not
institute but rather restore the ancient manner of making knights,
and consequently that the Knights of the Bath are in truth no other
than knights bachelors, that is to say, such as are created with those
ceremonies wherewith knights bachelors were formerly created."
(Ashmole, Order of the Garter, p. 15). See also Selden, Titles of
Honor, p. 678, and the Archceological Journal, v. 258 seq.
" If you do anything contrary to the order of chivalry (which God
forbid), I shall hack the spurs from your heels."3
The full solemnities for conferring knighthood seem to have
been so largely and so early superseded by the practice of dubbing
or giving the accolade alone that in England it became at last
restricted to such knights as were made at coronations and
some other occasions of state. And to them the particular
name of Knights of the Bath was assigned, while knights made
in the ordinary way were called in distinction from them knights
of the sword, as they were also called knights bachelors in dis-
tinction from knights banneret.4 It is usually supposed that
the first creation of knights of the Bath under that designation
was at the coronation of Henry IV.; and before the order of
the Bath as a companionship or capitular body was instituted
the last creation of them was at the coronation of Charles II.
But all knights were also knights of the spur or " equites aurati,"
because their spurs were golden or gilt, — the spurs of squires
being of silver or white metal, — and these became their peculiar
badge in popular estimation and proverbial speech. In the
form of their solemn inauguration too, as we have noticed, the
spurs together with the sword were always employed as the
leading and most characteristic ensigns of knighthood.5
With regard to knights banneret, various opinions have been
entertained as to both the nature of their dignity and the
qualifications they were required to possess for receiving it at
different periods and in different countries. On the Continent
the distinction which is commonly but incorrectly made between
the nobility and the gentry has never arisen, and it was unknown
here while chivalry existed and heraldry was understood.
Here, as elsewhere in the old time, a nobleman and a gentleman
meant the same thing, namely, a man who under certain con-
ditions of descent was entitled to armorial bearings. Hence
Du Cange divides the medieval nobility of France and Spain
into three classes: first, barons or ricos hombres; secondly,
chevaliers or caballeros; and thirdly, ecuyers or infanzons;
and to the first, who with their several special titles constituted
the greater nobility of either country, he limits the designation
of banneret and the right of leading their followers to war under
a banner, otherwise a " drapeau quarre " or square flag.6 Selden
shows especially from the parliament rolls that the term banneret
has been occasionally employed in England as equivalent to
baron.7 In Scotland, even as late as the reign of James VI.,
lords of parliament were always created bannerets as well as
barons at their investiture, " part of the ceremony consisting
in the display of a banner, and such ' barones majores ' were
thereby entitled to the privilege of having one borne by a
retainer before them to the field of a quadrilateral form." 8 In
Scotland, too, lords of parliament and bannerets were also
called bannerents, banrents or baronets, and in England
banneret was often corrupted to baronet. " Even in a patent
passed to Sir Ralph Fane, knight under Edward VI., he is
called ' baronettus ' for ' bannerettus.' " 9 In this manner
it is not improbable that the title of baronet may have been
suggested to the advisers of James I. when the order of Baronets
s As may be gathered from Selden, Favyn, La Colombiers, Mene-
strier and Sainte Palaye, there were several differences of detail
in the ceremony at different times and in different places. But in
the main it was everywhere the same both in its military and its
ecclesiastical elements. In the Pontificale Romanum, the old Ordo
Romanus and the manual or Common Prayer Book in use in England
before the Reformation forms for the blessing or consecration of
new knights ate included, and of these the first and the last are
quoted by Selden.
4 Selden, Titles of Honor, p. 678 ; Ashmole, Order of the Garter,
p. 15; Favyn, Theatre d'Honneur, ii. 1035,
6 " If we sum up the principal ensigns of knighthood, ancient and
modern, we shall find they have been or are a horse, gold ring, shield
and lance, a belt and sword, gilt spurs and a gold chain or collar."
—Ashmole, Order of the Garter, pp. 12, 13.
6 On the banner see Grose, Military Antiquities, ii. 257; and
Nicolas, British Orders of Knighthood, vol. i. p. xxxvii.
' Titles of Honor, pp. 356 and 608. See also Hallam, Middle Ages,
iii. 126 seq. and Stubbs, Const. Hist. iii. 440 seq.
8 Riddell's Law and Practice in Scottish Peerages, p. 578; also
Nisbet's System of Heraldry, ii. 49 and Selden's Titles of Honor, p. 702.
9 Selden, Titles of Honor, pp. 608 and 657.
856
KNIGHTHOOD
was originally created by him, for it was a question whether the
recipients of the new dignity should be designated by that or
some other name.1 But there is no doubt that as previously
used it was merely a corrupt synonym for banneret, and not the
name of any separate dignity. On the Continent, however, there
are several recorded examples of bannerets who had an hereditary
claim to that honour and its attendant privileges on the ground
of the nature of their feudal tenure.2 And generally, at any rate
to commence with, it seems probable that bannerets were in
every country merely the more important class of feudatories,
the " ricos hombres " in contrast to the knights bachelors, who
in France in the time of St Louis were known as " pauvres
hommes." In England all the barons or greater nobility were
entitled to bear banners, and therefore Du Cange's observations
would apply to them as well as to the barons or greater nobility
of France and Spain. But it is clear that from a comparatively
early period bannerets whose claims were founded on personal
distinction rather than on feudal tenure gradually came to the
front, and much the same process of substitution appears to
have gone on in their case as that whiAh we have marked in the
case of simple knights. According to the Sallade and the
Division du Monde, as cited by Selden, bannerets were clearly
in the beginning feudal tenants of a certain magnitude and
importance and nothing more, and different forms for their
creation are given in time of peace and in time of war.3 But
in the French Gcsla Romanorum the warlike form alone is given,
and it is quoted by both Selden and Du Cange. From the latter
a more modern version of it is given by Daniel as the only one
generally in force.
The knight bachelor whose services and landed possessions
entitled him to promotion would apply formally to the com-
mander in the field for the title of banneret. If this were
granted, the heralds were called to cut publicly the tails from
his pennon: or the commander, as a special honour, might cut
them off with his own hands.4 The earliest contemporary
mention of knights banneret is in France, Daniel says, in the
reign of Philip Augustus, and in England, Selden says in the
reign of Edward I. But in neither case is reference made to
them in such a manner as to suggest that the dignity was then
regarded as new or even uncommon, and it seems pretty certain
that its existence on one side could not have long preceded
its existence on the other side of the Channel. Sir Alan Plokenet,
Sir Ralph Daubeney and Sir Philip Daubeney are entered as
bannerets on the roll of the garrison of Caermarthen Castle in
1282, and the roll of Carlaverock records the names and arms
of eighty-five bannerets who accompanied Edward I. in his
expedition into Scotland in 1300.
What the exact contingent was which bannerets were expected
to supply to the royal host is doubtful.6 But, however this may
be, in the reign of Edward III. and afterwards bannerets appear
as the commanders of a military force raised by themselves and
marshalled under their banners: their status and their relations
both to the crown and to their followers were mainly the con-
sequences of voluntary contract not of feudal tenure. It is from
the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. also that the two
best descriptions we possess of the actual creation of a banneret
have been transmitted to us.6 Sir Thomas Smith, writing
towards the end of the i6th century, says, after noticing the
conditions to be observed in the creation of bannerets, " but
this order is almost grown out of use in England " ;7 and,
during the controversy which arose between the new order of
1 See " Project concerninge the conferinge of the title of vidom,"
wherein it is said that " the title of vidom (vicedominus) was an
ancient title used in this kingdom of England both before and since
the Norman Conquest " (Slate Papers, James I. Domestic Series,
Ixiii. 150 B, probable date April 1611).
2 Selden, Titles of Honor, pp. 452 seq.
8 Ibid. pp. 449 seq.
4 Du Cange, Dissertation, ix. ; Selden, Titles of Honor, p. 452 ;
Daniel, Milice Franfoise, i. 86 (Paris, 1721).
' Selden, Titles of Honor, p. 656; Grose, Military Antiquities, ii.2o6.
• Froissart, Bk. I. ch. 241 and Bk. II. ch. 53. The recipients were
Sir John Chandos and Sir Thos. Trivet.
7 Commonwealth of England (ed. 1640), p. 48.
baronets and the crown early in the i7th century respecting
their precedence, it was alleged without contradiction in an
argument on behalf of the baronets before the privy council
that " there are not bannerets now in being, peradventure
never shall be."8 Sir Ralph Fane, Sir Francis Bryan and Sir
Ralph Sadler were created bannerets by the Lord Protector
Somerset after the battle of Pinkie in 1547, and the better
opinion is that this was the last occasion on which the dignity
was conferred. It has been stated indeed that Charles I.
created Sir John Smith a banneret after the battle of Edgehill
in 1642 for having rescued the royal standard from the enemy.
But of this there is no sufficient proof. It was also supposed
that George III. had created several naval officers bannerets
towards the end of the last century, because he knighted them
on board ship under the royal standard displayed. This,
however, is unquestionably an error.9
On the continent of Europe the degree of knight bachelor
disappeared with the military system which had given rise to it.
It is now therefore peculiar to the British Empire, existing
where, although very frequently conferred by letters Orders at
patent, it is yet the only dignity which is still even Knighthood.
occasionally created — as every dignity was formerly created — by
means of a ceremony in which the sovereign and the subject
personally take part. Everywhere else dubbing or the accolade
seems to have become obsolete, and no other species of knight-
hood, if knighthood it can be called, is known except that which
is dependent on admission to some particular order. It is a
common error to suppose that baronets are hereditary knights.
Baronets are not knights unless they are knighted like anybody
else; and, so far from being knights because they are baronets,
one of the privileges granted to them shortly after the institution
of their dignity was that they, not being knights, and their
successors and their eldest sons and heirs-apparent should, when
they attained their majority, be entitled if they desired to receive
knighthood.10 It is a maxim of the law indeed that, as Coke
says, " the knight is by creation and not by descent," and,
although we hear of such designations as the " knight of Kerry "
or the " knight of Glin," they are no more than traditional
nicknames, and do not by any means imply that the persons
to whom they are applied are knights in a legitimate sense.
Notwithstanding, however, that simple knighthood has gone
out of use abroad, there are innumerable grand crosses, com-
manders and companions of a formidable assortment of orders
in almost every part of the world.11 (Sec the section on " Orders
of Knighthood " below.)
The United Kingdom has eight orders of knighthood — the
Garter, the Thistle, St Patrick, the Bath, the Star of India,
St Michael and St George, the Indian Empire and the Royal
Victorian Order; and, while the first is undoubtedly the oldest
as well as the most illustrious anywhere existing, a fictitious
antiquity has been claimed and is even still frequently conceded
' State Papers, Domestic Series, Tames the First, Ixvii. 1 19.
' " Thursday, June 24th: His Majesty was pleased to confer the
honour of knights banneret on the following flag officers and com-
manders under the royal standard, who kneeling kissed hands on
the occasion: Admirals Pye and Sprye; Captains l<night, Bickerton
and Vernon," Gentleman's Magazine (1773) xliii. 299. Sir Harris
Nicolas remarks on these and the other cases (British Orders of
Knighthood, vol. xliii.) and Sir VVilliam Fitzherbcrt published anony-
mously a pamphlet on the subject, A Short Inquiry into the Nature
of the Titles conferred at Portsmouth, &c., which is very scarce, but
is to be found under the name of " Fitzherbert " in the catalogue
of the British Museum Library.
10 " Sir Henry Ferrers, Baronet, was indicted by the name of
Sir Henry Ferrers, Knight, for the murthcr of one Stone whom one
Nightingale feloniously murthcred, and that the said Sir Henry
was present aiding and abetting, &c. Upon this indictment Sir
Henry Ferrers being arraigned said he never was knighted, which
being confessed, the indictment was held not to be sufficient, where-
fore he was indicted de novo by the name of Sir Henry Ferrers,
Baronet." Brydall, Jus Imaginis apud Anglos, or the Law of Eng-
land relating to the Nobility and Gentry (London, 1675), p. 20. Cf.
Patent Rolls, 10 Jac. I., pt. x. No. 18; Selden, Titles of Honor, p. 687.
11 Louis XIV. introduced the practice of dividing the members of
military orders into several degrees when he established the order
of St Louis in 1693.
INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD,
DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSES-
SION OF HIS LATE MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII AND ARRANGED
IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND COMMAND.
KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY
PLATE I.
THE ORDER OF THE GARTER.
(i.) THE GARTBR; (ii.) THE COLLAR AND GEORGE; (iii.) THE LESSER GEORGE AND RIBBON; (iv.) STAR.
Draton by William Gitt.
Niagara Lilho. Co.. Buffalo, N. Y.
KNIGHTHOOD
857
to the second and fourth, although the third, fifth, sixth, seventh,
and eighth appear to be as contentedly as they are unquestion-
ably recent.
It is, however, certain that the " most noble " Order of the
Garter at least was instituted in the middle of the I4th century,
Order of wnen English chivalry was outwardly brightest and
the* Garter. tne court most magnificent. But in what particular
year this event occurred is and has been the subject
of much difference of opinion. All the original records of the
order until after 1416 have perished, and consequently the ques-
tion depends for its settlement not on direct testimony but on
inference from circumstances. The dates which have been
selected vary from 1344 (given by Froissart, but almost cer-
tainly mistaken) to 1351. The evidence may be examined at
length in Nicolas and Beltz; it is indisputable that in the
wardrobe account from September 1347 to January 1349,
the zist and 23rd Edward III., the issue of certain habits
with garters and the motto embroidered on them is marked
for St George's Day; that the letters patent relating to
the preparation of the royal chapel of Windsor are dated in
August 1348; and that in the treasury accounts of the prince
of Wales there is an entry in November 1348 of the gift by
him of " twenty-four garters to the knights of the Society
of the Garter."1 But that the order, although from this mani-
festly already fully constituted in the autumn of 1348, was
not in existence before the summer of 1346 Sir Harris Nicolas
proves pretty conclusively by pointing out that nobody who was
not a knight could under its statutes have been admitted to it,
and that neither the prince of Wales nor several others of the
original companions were knighted until the middle of that
year.
Regarding the occasion there has been almost as much con-
troversy as regarding the date of its foundation. The " vulgar
and more general story," as Ashmole calls it, is that of the
countess of Salisbury's garter. But commentators are not at
one as to which countess of Salisbury was the heroine of the
adventure, whether she was Katherine Montacute or Joan the
Fair Maid of Kent, while Heylyn rejects the legend as " a vain
and idle romance derogatory both to the founder and the order,
first published by Polydor Vergil, a stranger to the affairs of
England, and by him taken upon no better ground than jama
vulgi, the tradition of the common people, too trifling a founda-
tion for so great a building."2
Another legend is that contained in the preface to theRegister or
Black Book of the order, compiled in the reign of Henry VIII.,
by what authority supported is unknown, that Richard I.,
while his forces were employed against Cyprus and Acre, had
been inspired through the instrumentality of St George with
renewed courage and the means of animating his fatigued
soldiers by the device of tying about the legs of a chosen number
of knights a leathern thong or garter, to the end that being
thereby reminded of the honour of their enterprise they might be
encouraged to redoubled efforts for victory. This was supposed
to have been in the mind of Edward III. when he fixed on the
garter as the emblem of the order, and it was stated so to have
been by Taylor, masler of the rolls, in his address to Francis I. of
France on his investiture in 1527.' According to Ashmole the
true account of the matter is that " King Edward having
given forth his own garter as the signal for a battle which
sped fortunately (which with Du Chesne we conceive to be that
of Crecy), the victory, we say, being happily gained, he thence
took occasion to institute this order, and gave the garter
(assumed by him for the symbol of unity and society) pre-
eminence among the ensigns of it. But, as Sir Harris
Nicolas points out — although Ashmole is not open to the
correction — this hypothesis rests for its plausibility on the
assumption that the order was established before the invasion of
1 G. F. Beltz, Memorials of tlie Most Noble Order of the Garter (1841),
1 Heylyn, Cosmographie and History of the Whole World, bk. i.
p. 286.
* Beltz, Memorials, p. xlvi.
France in 1346. And he further observes that " a great variety
of devices and mottoes were used by Edward III.; they were
chosen from the most trivial causes and were of an amorous
rather than of a military character. Nothing," he adds, " is
more likely than that in a crowded assembly a lady should
accidentally have dropped her garter; that the circumstance
should have caused a smile in the bystanders; and that on its
being taken up by Edward he should have reproved the levity of
his courtiers by so happy and chivalrous an exclamation, placing
the garter at the same time on his own knee, as ' Dishonoured be
he who thinks ill of it.' Such a circumstance occurring at a time
of general festivity, when devices, mottoes and conceits of all
kinds were adopted as ornaments or badges of the habits worn at
jousts and tournaments, would naturally have been commemo-
rated as other royal expressions seem to have been by its con-
version into a device and motto for the dresses at an approaching
hastilude."4 Moreover, Sir Harris Nicolas contends that the
order had no loftier immediate origin than a joust or tour-
nament. It consisted of the king and the Black Prince, and
24 knights divided into two bands of 12 like the tillers in a
hastilude — at the head of the one being the first, and of the other
the second; and to the companions belonging to each, when the
order had superseded the Round Table and had become a per-
manent institution, were assigned stalls either on the sovereign's
or the prince's side of St George's Chapel. That Sir Harris
Nicolas is accurate in this conjecture seems probable from the
selection which was made of the " founder knights." As Beltz
observes, the fame of Sir Reginald Cobham, Sir Walter Manny
and the earls of Northampton, Hereford and Suffolk was already
established by their warlike exploits, and they would certainly
have been among the original companions had the order been
then regarded as the reward of military merit only. But,
although these eminent warriors were subsequently elected as
vacancies occurred, their admission was postponed to that of
several very young and in actual warfare comparatively unknown
knights, whose claims to the honour may be most rationally
explained on the assumption that they had excelled in the
particular feats of arms which preceded the institution of the
order. The original companionship had consisted of the sove-
reign and 25 knights, and no change was made in this respect
until 1786, when the sons of George III. and his successors
were made eligible notwithstanding that the chapter might be
complete. In 1805 another alteration was effected by the pro-
vision that the lineal descendants of George II. should be
eligible in the same manner, except the Prince of Wales for the
time being, who was declared to be " a constituent part of the
original institution "; and again in 1831 it was further ordained
that the privilege accorded to the lineal descendants of George II.
should extend to the lineal descendants of George I. Although,
as Sir Harris Nicolas observes, nothing is now known of the
form of admitting ladies into the order, the description applied
to them in the records during the i4th and isth centuries leaves
no doubt that they were regularly received into it. The queen
consort, the wives and daughters of knights, and some other
women of exalted position, were designated " Dames de la
Fraternite de St George," and entries of the delivery of robes
and garters to them are found at intervals in the Wardrobe-
Accounts from the 5oth Edward III. (1376) to the loth of
Henry VII. (1495), the first being Isabel, countess of Bedford,
the daughter of the one king, and the last being Margaret and
Elizabeth, the daughters of the other king. The effigies of
Margaret Byron, wife of Sir Robert Harcourt, K.G., at Stanton
Harcourt, and of Alice Chaucer, wife of William de la Pole,
duke of Suffolk, K.G., at Ewelme, which date from the reigns
of Henry VI. and Edward IV., have garters on their left arms.
(See further under " Orders of Knighthood " below.)
It has been the general opinion, as expressed by Sainte Palaye
and Mills, that formerly all knights were qualified to confer
knighthood.5 But it may be questioned whether the privilege
* Orders of Knighthood, vol. i. p. Ixxxiii.
6 Memoires, i. 67, i. 22; History of Chivalry; Gibbon, Decline and
Fall, vii. 200.
858
KNIGHTHOOD
was thus indiscriminately enjoyed even in the earlier days
of chivalry. It is true that as much might be inferred from
Persons the testimony of the romance writers; historical
empowered evidence, however, tends to limit the proposition, and
to confer tj,e sounder conclusion appears to be, as Sir Harris
' Nicolas says, that the right was always restricted
in operation to sovereign princes, to those acting under their
authority or sanction, and to a few other personages of exalted
rank and station.1 In several of the writs for distraint of knight-
hood from Henry III. to Edward III. a distinction is drawn
between those who are to be knighted by the king himself or
by the sheriffs of counties respectively, and bishops and abbots
could make knights in the nth and I2th centuries.2 At all
periods the commanders of the royal armies had the power of
conferring knighthood; as late as the reign of Elizabeth it was
exercised among others by Sir Henry Sidney in 1 583, and Robert,
earl of Essex, in 1595, while under James I. an ordinance of
1622, confirmed by a proclamation of 1623, for the registration
of knights in the college of arms, is rendered applicable to all
who should receive knighthood from either the king or any of
his lieutenants.3 Many sovereigns, too, both of England and
of France, have been knighted after their accession to the
throne by their own subjects, as, for instance, Edward III. by
Henry, earl of Lancaster, Edward VI. by the lord protector
Somerset, Louis XI. by Philip, duke of Burgundy, and Francis I.
by the Chevalier Bayard. But when in 1543 Henry VIII.
appointed Sir John Wallop to be captain of Guisnes, it was
considered necessary that he should be authorized in express
terms to confer knighthood, which was also done by Edward VI.
in his own case when he received knighthood from the duke of
Somerset.4 But at present the only subject to whom the right
of conferring knighthood belongs is the lord-lieutenant of
Ireland, and to him it belongs merely by long usage and
established custom. But, by whomsoever conferred, knight-
hood at one time endowed the recipient with the same status
and attributes in every country wherein chivalry was recognized.
In the middle ages it was a common practice for sovereigns and
princes to dub each other knights much as they were after-
wards, and are now, in the habit of exchanging the stars and
ribbons of their orders. Henry II. was knighted by his great-
uncle David I. of Scotland, Alexander III. of Scotland by
Henry III., Edward I. when he was prince by Alphonso X. of
Castile, and Ferdinand of Portugal by Edmund of Langley,
earl of Cambridge.5 And, long after the military importance
of knighthood had practically disappeared, what may be called
its cosmopolitan character was maintained: a knight's title was
recognized in all European countries, and not only in that
country in which he had received it. In modern times, how-
ever, by certain regulations, made in 1823, and repeated and
enlarged in 1855, not only is it provided that the sovereign's
permission by royal warrant shall be necessary for the reception
by a British subject of any foreign order of knighthood, but
further that such permission shall not authorize " the assump-
tion of any style, appellation, rank, precedence, or privilege
appertaining to a knight bachelor of the United Kingdom."6
Since knighthood was accorded either by actual investiture
or its equivalent, a counter process of degradation was regarded
Degrade- as necessary for the purpose of depriving anybody
tion. wno ha(j once received it of the rank and condition
it implied.7 The cases in which a knight has been formally
degraded in England are exceedingly few, so few indeed that
two only are mentioned by Segar, writing in 1602, and Dallaway
1 Orders of Knighthood, vol. i. p. xi.
1 Selden, Titles of Honor, p. 638.
* Harleian MS. 6063; Hargrave MS. 325.
4 Patent Rolls, 35th Hen. VIII., pt. xvi., No. 24; Burnct, Hist,
of Reformation, i. 15.
' Spelman, " De milite dissertatio," Posthumous Works, p. 181.
'London Gazette, December 6, 1823, and May 15, 1855.
* On the Continent very elaborate ceremonies, partly heraldic
and partly religious, were observed in the degradation of a knight,
which are described by Sainte Palaye, Memoires, i. 316 scq., and
after him by Mills, History of Chivalry, i. 60 seq. Cf. Titles of Honor,
P- 653-
says that only three were on record in the College of Arms when
he wrote in 1793. The last case was that of Sir Francis Michell
in 1621, whose spurs were hacked from his heels, his sword-belt
cut, and his sword broken over his head by the heralds in
Westminster Hall.8
Roughly speaking, the age of chivalry properly so called may
be said to have extended from the beginning of the crusades to
the end of the Wars of the Roses. Even in the way of pageantry
and martial exercise it did not long survive the middle ages.
In England tilts and tourneys, in which her father had so much
excelled, were patronized to the last by Queen Elizabeth, and
were even occasionally held until after the death of Henry,
prince of Wales. But on the Continent they were discredited
by the fatal accident which befell Henry II. of France in 1559.
The golden age of chivalry has been variously located. Most
writers would place it in the early i3th century, but Gautier
would remove it two or three generations further back. It may
be true that, in the comparative scarcity of historical evidence,
12th-century romances present a more favourable picture of
chivalry at that earlier time; but even such historical evidence as
we possess, when carefully scrutinized, is enough to dispel the
illusion that there was any period of the middle ages in which the
unselfish championship of " God and the ladies " was anything
but a rare exception.
It is difficult to describe the true spirit and moral influ-
ence of knighthood, if only because the ages in which it
flourished differed so widely from our own. At its very
best, it was always hampered by the limitations of medieval
society. Moreover, many of the noblest precepts of the knightly
code were a legacy from earlier ages, and have survived the
decay of knighthood just as they will survive all transitory
human institutions, forming part of the eternal heritage of the
race. Indeed, the most important of these precepts did not
even attain to their highest development in the middle ages.
As a conscious effort to bring religion into daily life, chivalry
was less successful than later puritanism; while the educated
classes of our own day far surpass the average medieval knight
in discipline, self-control and outward or inward refinement.
Freeman's estimate comes far nearer to the historical facts than
Burke's: " The chivalrous spirit is above all things a class spirit.
The good knight is bound to endless fantastic courtesies towards
men and still more towards women of a certain rank; he may
treat all below that rank with any decree of scorn and cruelty.
The spirit of chivalry implies the arbitrary choice of one or two
virtues to be practised in such an exaggerated degree as to
become vices, while the ordinary laws of right and wrong are
forgotten. The false code of honour supplants the laws of the
commonwealth, the law of God and the eternal principles of
right. Chivalry again in its military aspect not only encourages
the love of war for its own sake without regard to the cause for
which war is waged, it encourages also an extravagant regard
for a fantastic show of personal daring which cannot in any way
advance the objects of the siege or campaign which is going on.
Chivalry in short is in morals very much what feudalism is in
law: each substitutes purely personal obligations devised in the
interests of an exclusive class, for the more homely duties of an
honest man and a good citizen " (Norman Conquest, v. 482).
The chivalry from which Burke drew his ideas was, so far as it
existed at all, the product of a far later age. In its own age,
chivalry rested practically, like the highest civilization of
ancient Greece and Rome, on slave labour;9 and if many of its
8 Dallaway's Heraldry, p. 303.
9 Even in I3th century England more than half the population
were serfs, and as such had no claim to the privileges of Magna
Carta; disputes between a serf and his lord were decided in the
latter's court, although the king's courts attempted to protect the
serf's life and limb and necessary implements of work. By French
feudal law, the villein had no appeal from his lord save to God
(Pierre de Fontaines, Conseil, ch. xxi. art. 8); and, though common
sense and natural good feeling set bounds in most cases to the
tyranny of the nobles, yet there was scarcely any injustice too gross
to be possible. " How mad arc they who exult when sons are born
to their lords ! " wrote Cardinal Jacques de Vitry early in the I3th
century (Exempla, p. 64, Folk Lore Soc. 1890).
KNIGHTHOOD
859
most brilliant outward attractions have now faded for ever,
this is only because modern civilization tends so strongly to
remove social barriers. The knightly ages will always enjoy the
glory of having formulated a code of honour which aimed at
rendering the upper classes worthy of their exceptional privileges;
yet we must judge chivalry not only by its formal code but also
by its practical fruits. The ideal is well summed up by F. W.
Cornish: " Chivalry taught the world the duty of noble service
willingly rendered. It upheld courage and enterprise in obedi-
ence to rule; it consecrated military prowess to the service of the
Church, glorified the virtues of liberality, good faith, unselfish-
ness and courtesy, and above all, courtesy to women. Against
these may be set the vices of pride, ostentation, love of bloodshed,
contempt of inferiors, and loose manners. Chivalry was an im-
perfect discipline, but it was a discipline, and one fit for the
times. It may have existed in the world too long: it did not
come into existence too early; and with all its shortcomings it
exercised a great and wholesome influence in raising the medieval
world from barbarism to civilization" (p. 27). This was the
ideal, but to give the reader a clear view of the actual features
of knightly society in their contrast with that of our own day,
it is necessary to bring out one or two very significant
shadows.
Far too much has been made of the extent to which the
inightly code, and the reverence paid to the Virgin Mary,
raised the position of women (e.g. Gautier, p. 360). AS Gautier
himself admits, the feudal system made it difficult to separate
the woman's person from her fief: instead of the freedom of
Christian marriage on which the Church in theory insisted,
lands and women were handed over together, as a business
bargain, by parents or guardians. In theory, the knight was
the defender of widows and orphans; but in practice wardships
and marriages were bought and sold as a matter of everyday
routine like stocks and shares in the modern market. Lord
Thomas de Berkeley (1245-1321) counted on this as a regular
and considerable source of income (Smyth, Lives, i. 157).
Late in the isth century, in spite of the somewhat greater
liberty of that age, we find Stephen Scrope writing nakedly to
a familiar correspondent "for very need [of poverty], I was
fain to sell a little daughter I have for much less than I should
have done by possibility," i.e. than the fair market price
(Gairdner, Paston Letters, Introduction, p. clxxvi; cf. ccclxxi).
Startling as such words are, it is perhaps still more startling to
find how frequently and naturally, in the highest society, ladies
were degraded by personal violence. The proofs of this which
Schultz and Gautier adduce from the Chansons de Geste might
be multiplied indefinitely. The Knight of La Tour-Landry
(1372) relates, by way of warning to his daughters, a tale of a
lady who so irritated her husband by scolding him in company,
that he struck her 'to the earth with his fist and kicked her in
the face, breaking her nose. Upon this the good knight moralizes:
"And this she had for her euelle and gret langage, that she was
wont to saie to her husbonde. And therfor the wiff aught to
suffre and lete her husbonde haue the wordes, and to be maister,
for that is her worshippe; for it is shame to here striff betwene
hem, and in especial before folke. But y saie not but whanne
thei be allone, but she may tolle hym with goodly wordes, and
counsaile hym to amende yef he do amys " (La Tour, chap.
xviii.; cf. xvii. and xix.). The right of wife-beating was
formally recognized by more than one code of laws, and it
was already a forward step when, in the i3th century, the
Contumes du Beauvoisis provided " que le mari ne doit battre
sa femme que raisonnablement " (Gautier, p. 349). This was a
natural consequence not only of the want of self-control which
we see everywhere in the middle ages, but also of the custom
of contracting child-marriages for unsentimental considerations.
Between 1288 and 1500 five marriages are recorded in the direct
line of the Berkeley family in which the ten contracting parties
averaged less than eleven years of age: the marriage contract
of another Lord Berkeley was drawn up before he was six years
old. Moreover, the same business considerations which dictated
those early marriages clashed equally with the strict theory of
knighthood. In the same Berkeley family, the lord Maurice IV.
was knighted in 1338 at the age of seven to avoid the possible
evils of wardship, and Thomas V. for the same reason in 1476
at the age of five. Smyth's record of this great family shows
that, from the middle of the I3th century onwards, the lords
were not only statesmen and warriors, but still more distinguished
as gentlemen-farmers on a great scale, even selling fruit from
the castle gardens, while their ladies would go round on tours
of inspection from dairy to dairy. The lord Thomas III.
(1326-1361), who was noted as a special lover of tournaments,
spent in two years only £90, or an average of about £15 per
tournament; yet he was then laying money by at the rate of
£450 a year, and, a few years later, at the rate of £1150, or
nearly half his income ! Indeed, economic causes contributed
much to the decay of romantic chivalry. The old families had
lost heavily from generation to generation, partly by personal
extravagances, but also by gradual alienations of land to the
Church and by the enormous expenses of the crusades. Already,
in the i3th century, they were hard pressed by the growing
wealth of the burghers, and even the greatest nobles could
scarcely keep up their state without careful business manage-
ment. It is not surprising therefore, to find that at least as
early as the middle of the i3th century the commercial side
of knighthood became very prominent. Although by the code
of chivalry no candidate could be knighted before the age of
twenty-one, we have seen how great nobles like the Berkeleys
obtained that honour for their infant heirs in order to avoid
possible pecuniary loss; and French writers of the I4th century
complained of this knighting of infants as a common and serious
abuse.1 Moreover, after the knight's liability to personal service
in war had been modified in the i2th century by the scut age
system, it became necessary in the first quarter of the i3th to
compel landowners to take up the knighthood which in theory
they should have coveted as an honour — a compulsion which
was soon systematically enforced (Distraint of Knighthood, 1278),
and became a recognized source of royal income. An indirect
effect of this system2 was to break down another rule of the
chivalrous code — that none could be dubbed who was not of
gentle birth.3 This rule, however, had often been broken
before; even the romances of chivalry speak not infrequently
of the knighting of serfs or jongleurs;4 and other causes besides
distraint of knighthood tended to level the old distinctions.
While knighthood was avoided by poor nobles, it was coveted
by rich citizens. It is recorded in 1298 as "an immemorial
custom " in Provence that rich burghers enjoyed the honour
of knighthood; and less than a century later we find Sacchetti
complaining that the dignity is open to any rich upstart, however
disreputable his antecedents.5 Similar causes contributed to
the decay of knightly ideas in warfare. Even in the I2th century,
when war was still rather the pastime of kings and knights than
1 Sainte Palaye, ii. 90.
1 Medley, English Constitutional History (and ed., pp. 291, 466),
suggests that Edward might have deliberately calculated this degrada-
tion of the older feudal ideal.
3 Being made to " ride the barriers " was the penalty for anybody
who attempted to take part in a tournament without the qualification
of name and arms. Guillim (Display of Heraldry, p. 66) and Nisbet
(System of Heraldry, ii. 147) speak of this subject as concerning
England and Scotland. See also Ashmole's Order of the Garter,
p. 284. But in^ England knighthood has always been conferred to
a great extent independently of these considerations. At almost
every period there have been men of obscure and illegitimate birth
who have been knighted. Ashmole cites authorities for the con-
tention that knighthood ennobles, insomuch that whosoever is a
knight it necessarily follows that he is also a gentleman; " for, when
a king gives the dignity to an ignoble person whose merit he would
thereby recompense, he is understood to have conferred whatsoever
is requisite for the completing of that which he bestows." By the
common law, if a villein were made a knight he was thereby enfran-
chised and accounted a gentleman, and if a person under age and
in wardship were knighted both his minority and wardship termi-
nated. (Order of the Garter, p. 43 ; Nicolas, British Orders of Knight-
hood, i. 5.)
4 Gautier, pp. 21, 249.
6 Du Cange, s.v. miles (ed. Didot, t. iv. p. 402) ; Sacchetti, Novella,
cliii. All the medieval orders of knighthood, however, insisted in
their statutes on the noble birth of the candidate.
86o
KNIGHTHOOD
[ORDERS
a national effort, the strict code of chivalry was more honoured
in the breach than in the observance.1 But when the Hundred
Years' War brought a real national conflict between England
and France, when archery became of supreme importance, and
a large proportion evert of the cavalry were mercenary soldiers,
then the exigencies of serious warfare swept away much of that
outward display and those class-conventions on which chivalry
had always rested. Simeon Luce (chap, vi.) has shown how
much the English successes in this war were due to strict business
methods. Several of the best companders (e.g. Sir Robert
Knolles and Sir Thomas Dagworth) were of obscure birth, while
on the French side even Du Guesclin had to wait long for his
knighthood because he belonged only to the lesser nobility. The
tournament again, which for two centuries had been under the
ban of the Church, was often almost as definitely discouraged
by Edward III. as it was encouraged by John of France; and
while John's father opened the Crecy campaign by sending
Edward a challenge in due form of chivalry, Edward took
advantage of this formal delay to amuse the French king with
negotiations while he withdrew his army by a rapid march from
an almost hopeless position. A couple of quotations from
Froissart will illustrate the extent to which war had now become
a mere business. Much as he admired the French chivalry, he
recognized their impotence at Crecy. " The sharp arrows
ran into the men of arms and into their horses, and many fell,
horse and men. . . . And also among the Englishmen there
were certain rascals that went afoot with great knives, and they
went in among the men of arms, and slew and murdered many
as they lay on the ground, both earls, barons, knights and
squires, whereof the king of England was after displeased,
for he had rather they had been taken prisoners." How far
Edward's solicitude was disinterested may be gauged from
Froissart's parallel remark about the battle of Aljubarrota,
where, as at Agincourt, the handful of victors were obliged by a
sudden panic to slay their prisoners. " Lo, behold the great
evil adventure that fell that Saturday. For they slew as many
good prisoners as would well have been worth, cne with another,
four hundred thousand franks." In 1402 Lord Thomas de
Berkeley bought, as a speculation, 24 Scottish prisoners.
Similar practical considerations forced the nobles of other
European countries either to conform to less sentimental
methods of warfare and to growing conceptions of nationality,
or to become mere Ishmaels of the type which outlived the
middle ages in Gotz von Berlichingen and his compeers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Froissart is perhaps the source from which we
may gather most of chivalry in its double aspect, good and bad.
The brilliant side comes out most clearly in Joinville, the Chronique
de Du Guesclin, and the Histoire de Bayart ; the darker side appears
in the earlier chronicles of the crusades, and is especially emphasized
by preachers and moralists like Jacques de Vitry, Etienne de
Bourbon, Nicole Bozon and John Gower. John Smyth's Lives of
the Berkeley! (Bristol and Gloucs. Archaeol. Soc., 2 vols.) and the
Book of the Knight of La Tour-Landry (ed. A. de Montaiglon, or in
the old English trans, published by the Early English Text Soc.)
throw a very vivid light on the inner life of noble families. Of
modern books, besides those quoted by their full titles in the notes,
the best are A. Schultz, Hijfisches Leben z. Zeit der Minnesanger
(Leipzig, 1879); S. Luce, Hist, de Du Guesclin el de son Epoque (2nd
ed., Paris, 1882), masterly but unfortunately unfinished at the
author's death; L6on Gautier, La Chevalerie (Paris, 1883), written
with a strong apologetic bias, but full and correct |n its references;
and F. W. Cornish, Chivalry (London, 1901), too little reference to
the more prosaic historical documents, but candid and without
intentional partiality. (G. G. Co.)
ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD
When orders ceased to be fraternities and became more and
more marks of favour and a means of recognizing meritorious
1 Lecoy de la Marche (Chairefranc,aise au moyen Age, 2nd cd., p. 387)
gives many instances to prove that "al chevalene, au xiii' siecle,
est d6ji sur son declin." But already about 1160 Peter of Blois
had written, " The so-called order of knighthood is nowadays mere
disorder " (ordo militum nunc est, ordinem non tenere. Ep. xciv. :
the whole letter should be read); and, half a century earlier still,
Guibert of Nogent gives an equally unflattering picture of con-
temporary chivalry in his De vita sua (Migne, Pat. Lot., torn. clvi.).
services to the Crown and country, the term "orders" became
loosely applied to the insignia and decorations themselves.
Thus " orders," irrespective of the title or other specific desig-
nation they confer, fall in Great Britain generally into three
main categories, according as the recipients are made " knights
grand cross," " knights commander," or " companions." In
some orders the classes are more numerous, as in the Royal
Victorian, for instance, which has five, numerous foreign orders
a like number, some six, while the Chinese " Dragon " boasts no
less than eleven degrees. Generally speaking, the insignia of the
" knights grand cross " consist of a star worn on the left breast
and a badge, usually some form either of the cross patte or of
the Maltese cross, worn suspended from a ribbon over the
shoulder or, in certain cases, on days of high ceremonial
from a collar. The " commanders " wear the badge from a
ribbon round the neck, and the star on the breast; the " com-
panions " have no star and wear the badge from a narrow
ribbon at the button-hole.
Orders may, again, be grouped according as they are (i) PRIME
ORDERS OF CHRISTENDOM, conferred upon an exclusive class
only. Here belong, inter alia, the well-known orders of the
Garter (England), Golden Fleece (Austria and Spain), Annunziata
(Italy), Black Eagle (Prussia), St Andrew (Russia), Elephant
(Denmark) and Seraphim (Sweden). Of these the first three
only, which are usually held to rank inter se in the order given,
are historically identified with chivalry. (2) FAMILY ORDERS,
bestowed upon members of the royal or princely class, or upon
humbler individuals according to classes, in respect of " per-
sonal " services rendered to the family. To this category belong
such orders as the Royal Victorian and the Hohenzollern
(Prussia). (3) ORDERS OF MERIT, whether military, civil
or joint orders. Such have, as a rule, at least three, oftener
five classes, and here belong such as the Order of the Bath
(British), Red Eagle (Prussia), Legion of Honour (France).
There are also certain orders, such as the recently instituted
Order of Merit (British), and the Pour le Merite (Prussia), which
have but one class, all members being on an equality of rank
within the order.
Of the three great military and religious orders, branches
survive of two, the Teutonic Order (Dcr hohe deutsche Rittcr Orden
or Marianen Orden) and the Knights of St John of Jerusalem
(Johanniter Orden, Malteser Orden), for the history of which and
the present state see TEUTONIC ORDER and ST JOHN OF JERU-
SALEM, KNIGHTS OF THE ORDER OF.
Great Britain. — The history and constitution of the " most
noble " Order of the Garter has been treated above. The officers
of the order are five — the prelate, chancellor, registrar, king of
arms and usher — the first, third and fifth having been attached
to it from the commencement, while the fourth was added by
Henry V. and the second by Edward IV. The prelate has
always been the bishop of Winchester; the chancellor was
formerly the bishop of Salisbury, but is now the bishop of
Oxford; the registrarship and the deanery of Windsor have
been united since the reign of Charles I.; the king of arms,
whose duties were in the beginning discharged by Windsor
herald, is Garter Principal King of Arms; and the usher is the
gentleman usher of the Black Rod. The chapel of the order
is St George's Chapel, Windsor. The insignia of the order are
illustrated on Plate I.
The " most ancient " Order of the Thistle was founded by
James II. in 1687, and dedicated to St Andrew. It consisted
of the sovereign and eight knights companions, and fell into
abeyance at the Revolution of 1688. In 1703 it was revived
by Queen Anne, when it was ordained to consist of the
sovereign and 12 knights companions, the number being in-
creased to 16 by statute in 1827. The officers of the order
are the dean, the secretary, Lyon King of Arms and the
gentleman usher of the Green Rod. The chapel, in St Giles's,
Edinburgh, was begun in 1909. The star, badge and ribbon of
the order are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 5 and 6. The collar
is formed of thistles, alternating with sprigs of rue, and the
motto is Nemo me impune lacessit.
INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD,
DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSES-
SION OF HIS LATE MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII AND ARRANGED
IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND COMMAND.
KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY
PLATE II.
THE BATH, (i.) STAR; (ii.) GRAND CROSS (Mil.); (iii.)STAR; (iv.) GRAND CROSS (Civ.) THE THISTLE, (v.) STAR; (vi.) BADGE.
THE ST PATRICK, (vii.) BADGE; (viii.) STAR. THE ST MICHAEL AND ST GEORGE. (ix.(STAR; (x.) GRAND CROSS.
Drawn by William Gibb-
Niagara Lilho. Co.. Buffalo, N. I'.
ORDERS]
KNIGHTHOOD
861
The " most illustrious " Order of St Patrick was instituted
by George III. in 1788, to consist of the sovereign, the lord
lieutenant of Ireland as grand master and 15 knights companions,
enlarged to 22 in 1833. The chancellor of the order is the chief
secretary to the lord lieutenant of Ireland, and the king of arms
is Ulster King of Arms; Black Rod is the usher. The chapel
is in St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin. The star, badge and
ribbon are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 7 and 8. The collar is
formed of alternate roses with red and white leaves, and gold
harps linked by gold knots; the badge is suspended from a
harp surmounted by an imperial jewelled crown. The motto
is Quis separabit?
The " most honourable " Order of the Bath was established
by George I. in 1725, to consist of the sovereign, a grand master
and 36 knights companions. This was a pretended revival of
an order supposed to have been created by Henry IV. at his
coronation in 1399. But, as has been shown in the preceding
section, no such order existed. Knights of the Bath, although
they were allowed precedence before knights bachelors, were
merely knights bachelors who were knighted with more elaborate
ceremonies than others and on certain great occasions. In
1815 the order was instituted, in three classes, " to commemorate
the auspicious termination of the long and arduous contest in
which the Empire has been engaged "; and in 1847 the civil
knights commanders and companions were added. Exclusive
of the sovereign, royal princes and distinguished foreigners, the
order is limited to 55 military and 27 civil knights grand cross,
145 military and 108 civil knights commanders, and 705 military
and 298 civil companions. The officers of the order are the
dean (the dean of Westminster), Bath King of Arms, the regis-
trar, and the usher of the Scarlet Rod. The ribbon and
badges of the knights grand cross (civil and military) and the
stars are illustrated on Plate II., figs, i, 2, 3 and 4.
The " most distinguished " Order of St Michael and St George
was founded by the prince regent, afterwards George IV., in
1818, in commemoration of the British protectorate of the
Ionian Islands, " for natives of the Ionian Islands and of the
island of Malta and its dependencies, and for such other subjects
of his majesty as may hold high and confidential situations in
the Mediterranean." By statute of 1832 the lord high commis-
sioner of the Ionian Islands was to be the grand master, and
the order was directed to consist of 15 knights grand crosses,
20 knights commanders and 25 cavaliers or companions. After
the repudiation of the British protectorate of the Ionian
Islands, the order was placed on a new basis, and by letters
patent of 1868 and 1877 it was extended and provided for such
of " the natural born subjects of the Crown of the United
Kingdom as may have held or shall hold high and confidential
offices within her majesty's colonial possessions, and in reward
for services rendered to the crown in relation to the foreign affairs
of the Empire." It is now (by the enlargement of 1902) limited to
100 knights grand cross, of whom the first or principal is grand
master, exclusive of extra and honorary members, of 300 knights
commanders and 600 companions. The officers are the prelate,
chancellor, registrar, secretary and officer of arms. The chapel
of the order, in St Paul's Cathedral, was dedicated in 1906.
The badge of the knights grand cross and the ribbon are illus-
trated on Plate II., figs. 9 and 10. The star of the knights
grand cross is a seven-rayed star of silver with a small ray of
gold between each, in the centre is a red St George's cross
bearing a' medallion of St Michael encountering Satan, sur-
rounded by a blue fillet with the motto Auspicium melioris
aevi.
The Order of St Michael and St George ranks between the
" most exalted " Order of the Star of India and the " most
eminent " Order of the Indian Empire, of both of which the
viceroy of India for the time being is ex officio grand master.
Of these the first was instituted in 1861 and enlarged in 1876.
1897 and 1903, in three classes, knights grand commanders,
knights commanders and companions, and the second was
established (for " companions " only) in 1878 and enlarged in
1887, 1892, 1897 and 1903, also in the same three classes, in
commemoration of Queen Victoria's assumption of the imperial
style and title of the Empress of India. The badges, stars and
ribbons of the knights grand commanders of the two orders are
illustrated on Plate III., figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6. The collar of the
Star of India is composed of alternate links of the lotus flower,
red and white roses and palm branches enamelled on gold, with
an imperial crown in the centre; that of the Indian Empire is
composed of elephants, peacocks and Indian roses.
The Royal Victorian Order was instituted by Queen Victoria
on the 25th of April 1896, and conferred for personal services
rendered to her majesty and her successors on the throne. It
consists of the sovereign, chancellor, secretary and five classes —
knights grand commanders, knights commanders, commarders
and members of the fourth and fifth classes, the distinction
between these last divisions lying in the badge and in the
precedence enjoyed by the members. The knights of this
order rank in their respective classes immediately after those
of the Indian Empire, and its numbers are unlimited. The
badge, star and ribbon of the knights grand cross are illustrated
on Plate III., figs, i and 2. ,
To the class of orders without the titular appellation " knight "
belongs the Order of Merit, founded by King Edward VII. on the
occasion of his coronation. The order is founded on the lines
of the Prussian Ordre pour le merile (see below), yet more com-
prehensive, including those who have gained distinction in the
military and naval services of the Empire, and such as have
made themselves a great name in the fields of science, art and
literature. The number of British members has been fixed at
twenty-four, with the addition of such foreign persons as the
sovereign shall appoint. The names of the first recipients
were: Earl Roberts, Viscount Wolseley, Viscount Kitchener,
Sir Henry Keppel, Sir Edward Seymour, Lord Lister, Lord
Rayleigh, Lord Kelvin, John Morley, W. E. H. Lecky, G. F.
Watts and Sir William Huggins. The only foreign recipients
up to 1910 were Field Marshals Yamagata and Oyama and
Admiral Togo. A lady, Miss Florence Nightingale, received the
order in 1907. The badge is a cross of red and blue enamel sur-
mounted by an imperial crown; the central blue medallion bears
the inscription " For Merit " in gold, and is surrounded by a
wreath of laurel. The badge of the military and naval mem-
bers bears two crossed swords in the angles of the cross. The
ribbon is garter blue and crimson and is worn round the neck.
The Distinguished Service Order, an order of military merit, was
founded on the 6th of September 1886 by Queen Victoria, its object
being to recognize the special services of officers in the army and
navy. Its numbers are unlimited, and its designation the fetters
D.S.O. It consists of one class only, who take precedence imme-
diately after the 4th class of the Royal Victorian Order. The badge
is a white and gold cross with a red centre bearing the imperial
crown surrounded by a laurel wreath. The ribbon is red edged
with blue. The Imperial Service Order was likewise instituted on
the 26th of June 1902, and finally revised in 1908,10 commemorate
King Edward's coronation, and is specially designed as a recognition
of faithful and meritorious services rendered to the British Crown by
the administrative members of the civil service in various parts of
the Empire, and is to consist of companions only. The numbers are
limited to 475, of whom 250 belong to the home and 225 to the civil
services of the colonies and protectorates (Royal Warrant, June 1909).
Women as well as men are eligible. The members of the order
have the distinction of adding the letters I.S.O. after their names.
In precedence the order ranks after the Distinguished Service Order.
The badge is a gold medallion bearing the royal cipher and the words
" For Faithful Service " in blue; for men it rests on a silver star, for
women it is surrounded by a silver wreath. The ribbon is one blue
between two crimson stripes.
In addition to the above, there are two British orders confined to
ladies. The Royal Order of Victoria and Albert, which was instituted
in 1862, is a purely court distinction. It consists of four classes,
and it has as designation the letters V.A. The Imperial Order of the
Crown of India is conferred for like purposes as the Order of the
Indian Empire. Its primary object is to recognize the services of
ladies connected with the court of India. The letters C.I. are its
designation.
The sovereign's permission by royal warrant is necessary before
a British subject can receive a foreign order of knighthood. For
other decorations, see under MEDALS.
The Golden Fleece (La Toison d'Or) ranks historically and in
distinction as one of the great knightly orders of Europe. It is
862
KNIGHTHOOD
[ORDERS
now divided into two branches, of Austria and Spain. It was
founded on the loth of January, 1429/30 by Philip the Good,
duke of Burgundy, on the day of his marriage with Isabella of
Portugal at Bruges, in her honour and dedicated to the Virgin and
St Andrew. No certain origin can be given for the name. It
seems to have been in dispute even in the early history of the
order. Four different sources have been suggested; the
classical myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts for
the golden fleece, the scriptural story of Gideon, the staple trade
of Flanders in wool, and the fleece of golden hair of Marie de
Rambrugge, the duke's mistress. Motley (Rise of Dutch Rep.,
i. 48) says: " What could be more practical and more devout
than the conception? Did not the Lamb of God, suspended
at each knight's heart, symbolize at once the woollen fabrics
to which so much of Flemish wealth and Burgundian power was
owing, and the gentle humility of Christ which was ever to
characterize the order? " At its constitution the number of
the knights was limited to 24, exclusive of the grand master,
the sovereign. The members were to be gentilshomtnes de
nom el d'armes et sans reproche, not knights of any other
order, and vowed to join their sovereign in the defence of the
Catholic faith, the protection of Holy Church, and the upholding
of virtue and good morals. The sovereign undertook to consult
the knights before embarking on a war, all disputes between
the knights were to be settled by the order, at each chapter the
deeds of each knight were held in review, and punishments and
admonitions were dealt out to offenders; to this the sovereign
was expressly subject. Thus we find that the emperor Charles V.
accepted humbly the criticism of the knights of the Fleece on
his over-centralization of the government and the wasteful
personal attention to details (E. A. Armstrong, Charles V., 1902,
ii. 373). The knights could claim as of right to be tried by
their fellows on charges of rebellion, heresy and treason, and
Charles V. conferred on the order exclusive jurisdiction over all
crimes committed by the knights. The arrest of the offender
had to be by warrant signed by at least six knights, and during
the process of charge and trial he remained not in prison but
dans I'aimable compagnie du dit ordre. It was in defiance of
this right that Alva refused the claim of Counts Egmont and
Horn to be tried by the knights of the Fleece in 1568. During
the i6th century the order frequently acted as a consultative
body in the state; thus in 1539 and 1540 Charles summons the
knights with the council of state and the privy council to decide
what steps should be taken in face of the revolt of Ghent (Arm-
strong, op. cit., i. 302), in 1562 Margaret of Parma, the regent,
summons them to Brussels to debate the dangerous condition
of the provinces (Motley, i. 48), and they were present at
the abdication of Charles in the great hall at Brussels in 1555.
The history of the order and its subsequent division into the
two branches of Austria and Spain may be briefly summarized.
By the marriage of Mary, only daughter of Charles the Bold of
Burgundy to Maximilian, archduke of Austria, 1477, the grand
mastership of the order came to the house of Habsburg and,
with the Netherlands provinces, to Spain in 1504 on the accession
of Philip, Maximilian's son, to Castile. On the extinction of
the Habsburg dynasty in Spain by the death of Charles II. in
1700 the grand-rnastership, which had been filled by the kings
of Spain after the loss of the Netherlands, was claimed by the
emperor Charles VI., and he instituted the order in Vienna
in 1713. Protests were made at various times by Philip V.,
but the question has never been finally decided by treaty, and
the Austrian and Spanish branches have continued as indepen-
dent orders ever since as the principal order of knighthood in
the respective states. It may be noticed that while the Austrian
branch excludes any other than Roman Catholics from the
order, the Spanish Fleece may be granted to Protestants. The
badges of the two branches vary slightly in detail, more par-
ticularly in the attachment of fire-stones (fusils or furisons) and
steels by which the fleece is attached to the ribbon of the collar.
The Spanish form is given on Plate IV., fig. 2. The collar is
composed of alternate links of furisons and double steels
interlaced to form the letter B for Burgundy. A magnificent
exhibition of relics, portraits of knights and other objects con-
nected with the order of the Golden Fleece was held at Bruges
in 1907.
The chief history of the order is Baron de Reiffenberg's Histoire
de I'Ordre de la Toison d'Or (1830); see also an article by Sir J.
Balfour Paul, Lyon King of Arms, in the Scottish Historical Review
(July 1908).
Austria-Hungary. — The following are the principal orders other
than that of the Golden Fleece (supra). The Order of St Stephen of
Hungary, the royal Hungarian order, founded in 1764 by the empress
Maria Theresa, consists of the grand master (the sovereign), 20
knights grand cross, 30 knights commanders and 50 knights. The
badge is a green enamelled cross with gold borders, suspended from
the Hungarian crown; the red enamelled medallion in the centre of
the cross bears a white patriarchal cross issuing from a coronctcd
green mound; on either side of the cross are the letters M.T. in gold,
and the whole is surrounded by a white fillet with the legend
Publicum Meritorum Praemium. The ribbon is green with a crimson
central stripe. The collar, only worn by the knights grand cross, is of
gold, and consists of Hungarian crowns linked together alternately
by the monograms of St Stephen, S.S., and the foundress, M.T. ; the
centre of the collar is formed by a flying lark encircled by the motto
Stringit amore. An illustration of the star of the grand cross is
given on Plate V. fig. 4. The Order of Leopold, for civil and military
service, was founded in 1808 by the emperor Francis I. in memory
of his father Leopold II. The three classes take precedence next
after the corresponding classes of the order of St Stephen. The
badge is a red enamelled cross bordered with white and gold and
surmounted by the imperial crown; the red medallion in the centre
bears the letters F.I. A., and on the encircling white fillet is the
inscription Integritati et Merita. When conferred for service in war
the cross rests on a green laurel wreath. The ribbon is scarlet with
two white stripes. The collar consists of imperial crowns, the
initials F. and L. and oak wreaths. The Order of the Iron Crown,
i.e. of Lombardy, was founded by Napoleon as king of Italy in 1809,
and rcfounded as an Austrian order of civil and military merit in
1816 by the emperor Francis I.; the number of knights is limited
to ipo — 20 grand cross, 30 commanders, 50 knights. The badge
consists of the double-headed imperial eagle with sword and orb;
below it is the jewelled iron crown of Lombardy, and above the
imperial crown ; on the breast of the eagle is a gold-bordered blue
shield with the letter F. in gold. The military decoration for war
service also bears t,wo green laurel branches. The ribbon is yellow
edged with narrow blue stripes. The collar is formed of Lombard
crowns, oak wreaths and the monogram F. P. (Franciscus Primus).
The Order of Francis Joseph, for personal merit of every kind, was
founded in 1849 by the emperor Francis Joseph I. It is of the three
usual classes and is unlimited in numbers. The badge is a black
and gold imperial eagle surmounted by the imperial crown. The
eagle bears a red cross with a white medallion, containing the letters
F. J., and to the beaks of the two heads of the eagle is attached a
chain on which is the legend Viribus Unitis. The ribbon is deep red.
The Order of Maria Theresa was founded by the empress Maria
Theresa in 1757. It is a purely military order and is given to officers
for personal distinguished conduct in the field. There arc three
classes. There were originally only two, grand cross and knights.
The emperor Joseph II. added a commanders' class in 1765. The
badge is a white cross with gold edge, in the centre a red medallion
with a white gold-edged fesse, surrounded by a fillet with the inscrip-
tion Fortitudini. The ribbon is red with a white central stripe.
The Order of Elizabeth Theresa, also a military order for officers, was
founded in 1750 bv the will of Elizabeth Christina, widow of the
emperor Charles Vl. It was renovated in 1771 by her daughter,
the empress Maria Theresa. The order is limited to 21 knights in
three divisions. The badge is an oval star with eight points,
enamelled half red and white, dependent from a gold imperial crown.
The central medallion bears the initials of the founders, with the
encircling inscription M. Theresa parentis gratiam perennem vulint.
The ribbon is black. The Order of the Starry Cross, for hi^h-born
ladies of the Roman Catholic faith who devote themselves to good
works, spiritual and temporal, was founded in 1668 by the empress
Eleanor, widow of the emperor Ferdinand III. and mother of
Leopold I., to commemorate the recovery of a relic of the true cross
from a dangerous fire in the imperial palace at Vienna. The relic
was supposed to have been peculiarly treasured by the emperor
Maximilian I. and the emperor Frederick III. The patroness of the
order must be a princess of the imperial Austrian house. The badge
is the black double-headed eagle surrounded by a blue-enamelled
ornamented border, with the inscription Salus et Gloria on a white
fillet ; the eagle bears a red Greek cross with gold and blue borders.
The Order of Elizabeth, also for ladies, was founded in 1898.
Belgium. — The Order of Leopold, for civil and military merit, was
founded in 1832 by Leopold I., with four classes, a fifth being added
in 1838. The badge is a white enamelled cross, with gold borders
and balls, suspended from a royal crown and resting on a green
laurel and oak wreath. In the centre a medallion, surrounded by a
red fillet with the motto of the order, L'union fail la. force, bears a
golden Belgian lion on a black field. The ribbon is watered red.
INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD,
DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSES-
SION OF HIS LATE MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII AND ARRANGED
IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND COMMAND.
KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY
PLATE III.
ROYAL VICTORIAN ORDER, (i.) GRAND CROSS; (ii.) STAR. ORDER OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE, (iii.) BADGE OF KNIGHT
GRAND COMMANDER; (iv.) STAR. THE STAR OF INDIA, (v.) STAR; (vi.) BADGE OF KNIGHT GRAND COMMANDER.
Drawn by William Gibb.
Niagara Litho. Co.-. Buffalo. N. Y.
.ORDERS]
KNIGHTHOOD
863
The Order of the Iron Cross, the badge of which is a black cross with
gold borders, with a gold centre bearing a lion, was instituted by
Leopold II. in 1867 as an order of civil merit. The military cross
was instituted in 1885. There are also the following orders insti-
tuted by Leopold II. for service in the Congo State: the Order of the
African Star (1888), the Royal Order of the Lion (1891) and the
Congo Star (1889).
Bulgaria. — The Order of SS Cyril and Methodius was instituted
in 1909 by King Ferdinand to commemorate the elevation of the
principality to the position of an independent kingdom. It now
takes precedence of the Order of St Alexander, which was founded by
Prince Alexander in 1881, and reconstituted by Prince Ferdinand
in 1888. There are six classes. The plain white cross, suspended
from the Bulgarian crown, bears the name of the patron saint in
old Cyrillic letters in the centre.
Denmark. — The Order of the Elephant, one of the chief European
orders of knighthood, was, it is said, founded by Christian I. in 1462 ;
a still earlier origin has been assigned to it, but its regular institution
was that of Christian V. in 1693. The order, exclusive of the sove-
reign and his sons, is limited, to 30 knights, who must be of the
Protestant religion. The badge of the order is illustrated on Plate IV.
fig. 5. The ribbon is light watered blue, the collar of alternate gold
elephants with blue housings and towers, the star of silver with
a purple medallion bearing a silver or brilliant cross surrounded by
a silver laurel wreath. The motto is Magnanime pretium. The
Order of the Dannebrog is, according to Danish tradition, of miracu-
lous origin, and was founded by Valdemar II. in 1219 as a memorial
of a victory over the Esthonians, won by the appearance in the sky
of a red banner bearing a white cross. Historically the order dates
from the foundation in 1671 by Christian V. at the birth of his son
Frederick, the statutes being published in 1693. Originally re-
stricted to 50 knights and granted as a family or court decoration,
it was reconstituted as an unlimited order of merit in 1808 by
Frederick VI.; alterations have been made in 1811 and 1864. It
now consists of three classes — grand cross, commander (two grades),
knight, and of one rank of ordinary members (Dannebrogs maender).
The badge of the order is, with variations for the different classes,
a white enamelled Danish cross with red and gold borders, bearing
in the centre the letter W (V) and on the fourarms the inscription Gud
og Kongen (For God and King). The ribbon is white with red
edging.
France. — The Legion of Honour, the only order of France, and
one which in its higher grades ranks in estimation with the highest
European orders, was instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte on the
igth of May 1802 (29 Floreal of the year X.) as a general mili-
tary and civil order of merit. All soldiers on whom " swords of
honour " had been already conferred were declared legionaries
ipso facto, and all citizens after 25 years' service were declared
eligible, whatever their birth, rank or religion. On admission
all were to swear to co-operate so far as in them lay for the
assertion of the principles of liberty and equality. The organiza-
tion as laid down by Napoleon in 1804 was as follows: Napoleon
was grand master; a grand council of 7 grand officers ad-
ministered the order; the order was divided into 15 " cohorts "
of 7 grand officers, 20 commanders, 30 officers and 350 legion-
aries, and at the headquarters of the cohorts, for which the
territory of France was separated into 15 divisions, were main-
tained hospitals for the support of the sick and infirm legionaries.
Salaries (traitements) varying in each rank were attached to the
order. In 1805 the rank of "Grand Eagle " (now Grand Cross,
or Grand Cordon) was instituted, taking precedence of the grand
officers. At the Restoration many changes were made, the old
rrilitary and religious orders were restored, and the Legion of
Honour, nowOrdre Royale de la Legion d'Honneur, took the lowest
rank. The revolution of July 1830 restored the order to its
unique place. The constitution of the order now rests on the
decrees of the i6th of March and 24th of November 1852, the law
of the 25th of July 1873, the decree of the 29th of December 1892,
and the laws of the i6th of April 1895 and the 28th of January
1897, and a decree of the 26th of June 1900. The president of
the republic is the grand master of the order; the administration
is in the hands of a grand chancellor, who has a council of the
order nominated by the grand master. The chancellery is
housed in the Palais de la Legion de I'Honneur, which, burnt
during the Commune, was rebuilt in 1878. The order consists of
the five classes of grand cross (limited to 80), grand officer (200),
commander (1000), officers (4000), and chevalier or knight, in
which the number is unlimited. These limitations in number
do not affect the foreign recipients of the order. Salaries (traite-
ments) are attached to the military and naval recipients of the
order when on the active list, viz. 3000 francs for grand cross,
2000 francs for grand officers, 1000 francs for commanders, 250
francs for chevaliers. The numbers of the recipients of the order
sans trailement are limited through all classes. In ordinary
circumstances twenty years of military, naval or civil service
must have been performed before a candidate can be eligible for
the rank of chevalier, and promotions can only be made after
definite service in the lower rank. Extraordinary service in
time of war and extraordinary services in civil life admit to any
rank. Women have been decorated, notably Rosa Bonheur,
Madame Curie and Madame Bartet. The Napoleonic form of
the grand cross and ribbon is illustrated on Plate IV, fig. 6; the
cross from which the drawing was made was given to King
Edward VII. when prince of Wales in 1863. In the present
order of the French Republic the symbolical head of the Republic
appears in the centre, and a laurel wreath replaces the imperial
crown; the inscription round the medallion is Republique fran-
cjiise. Since 1805 there has existed an institution, Maison
d'education de la Legion d'Honneur, for the education of the
daughters, granddaughters, sisters and nieces of members of
the Legion of Honour. There are three houses, at Saint Denis, at
Ecouen and Les Loges (see Dictionnaire de I' administration fran-
ise, by M. Block and E. Magnero, 1905, s.v. " Decorations ").
Among the orders swept away at the French Revolution, restored
in part at the Restoration, and finally abolished at the revolution of
July 1830 were the following: The Order of St Michael was founded
by Louis XI. in 1469 for a limited number of knights of noble birth.
Later the numbers were so much increased under Charles IX. that
it became known as Le Collier a toutes betes. In 1816 the order was
granted for services in art and science. In view of the low esteem
into which the Order of St Michael had fallen, Henry III. founded
in 1578 the Order of the Holy Ghost (St Esprit). The badge of the
order was a white Maltese cross decorated in gold, with the gold
lilies of France at the angles, in the centre a white dove with wings
outstretched, the ribbon was sky blue (cordon bleu). The motto of
the order was Duce et auspice. The Order of St Louis was founded
by Louis XIV. in 1693 for military merit, and the Order of Military
Merit by Louis XV. in 1759, originally for Protestant officers.
Germany. — i. Anhalt. The Order of Albert the Bear, a family
order or Hausorden, was founded in 1836 by the dukes Henry of
Anhalt-Kothen, Leopold Frederick of Anhalt-Dessau and Alexander
Charles of Anhalt-Bernburg. Changes in the constitution have
been made at various dates. It now consists of five classes, grand
cross, commander (2 classes) and knights (2 classes). The badge is
a gold oval bearing in gold a crowned and collared bear on a crenel-
lated wall ; below the ring by which the badge is attached to the
ribbon is a shield with the arms of the house of Anhalt, on the
reverse those of the house of Ascania. Round the oval is the motto
Fiirchte Gott und folge seine Befehle. The ribbon is green with two
red stripes. The grand master alone wears a collar.
ii. Baden. The Order of Fidelity or Loyalty (Hausorden der
Treue) was instituted by William, margrave of Baden-Durlach in
1715, and reconstituted in 1803 by the elector Charles Frederick.
There is now only one class, for princes of the reigning house, foreign
sovereigns and eminent men of the state. The badge is a red
enamelled cross with gold borders and double C's interlaced in the
angles; in the centre a white medallion with red monogram over a
green mound surmounted by the word Fidditas_ in black; the cross
is suspended from a ducal crown. The ribbon is orange with silver
edging. The military Order of Charles Frederick was founded in
1807. There are three classes. The badge is a white cross resting
on a green laurel wreath, the ribbon is red with a yellow stripe
bordered with white. The order is conferred for long and meritori-
ous military service. The Order of the Zdhringen Lion was founded
in 1812 in commemoration of the descent of the reigning house of
Baden from the dukes of Zahringen. It has been reconstituted in
1840 and 1877. It now consists of five classes. The badge is a green
enamel cross with gold clasps in the angles; in the central medallion
an enamelled representation of the ruined castle of Zahringen. The
ribbon is green with two orange stripes. Since 1896 the Order of
Berthold I. has been a distinct order; it was founded in 1877 as a
higher class of the Zahringen Lion.
lii. Bavaria. The Order of St Hubert, one of the oldest and
most distinguished knightly orders, was founded in 1444 by duke
Gerhard V. of Jillich-Berg in honour of a victory over Count Arnold
of Egmpnt at Ravensberg on the 3rd of November, St Hubert's day.
The knights wore a collar of golden hunting horns, whence the order
was also known as the Order of the Horn. Statutes were granted in
1476, but the order fell into abeyance at the extinction of the
dynasty in 1609. It was revived in 1708 by the elector palatine,
John William of Neuberg, and its constitution was altered at various
times, its final form being given by the elector Maximilian Joseph,
first king of Bavaria, in 1808. Exclusive of the sovereign and
864-
KNIGHTHOOD
[ORDERS
princes of the blood, and foreign sovereigns and princes, it
consists of twelve capitular knights of the rank of count or
Freiherr. The badge of the order and the ribbon are illustrated
in Plate V. fig. 3. The central medallion represents the conversion
of St Hubert. The collar is composed of gold and blue enamel
figures of the co'nversion linked by the Gothic monogram I.T.V.,
In Trau Vast, the motto of the order, alternately red and green.
The Order of St George, said to have been founded in the I2th cen-
tury as a crusading order and revived by the emperor Maximilian I.
in 1494. dates historically from its institution in 1729 by the
elector Charles Albert, afterwards the emperor Charles VII. It was
confirmed by the elector Charles Theodore in 1778 and by the
elector Maximilian Joseph IV. as the second Bavarian order.
Various new statutes have been granted from 1827 to 1875. The
order is divided into two blanches, " of German and foreign lan-
guages," and it also has a " spiritual class." The members of the
order must be Roman Catholics. The badge is a blue enamelled
cross with white and gold edging suspended from the mouth of a gold
lion's head ; in the angles of the cross are blue lozenges containing
the letters V.I. B.I. , Virgini Immaculatae Bavaria Immaculata. The
central medallion contains a figure of the Immaculate Conception.
The medallion on the reverse contains a figure of St George and the
Dragon and the corresponding initials J.U.P.F., Justus ut Palma
Florebit, the motto of the order. Besides the above Bavaria
possesses the Military Order of Maximilian Joseph, 1806, and the
Civil Orders of Merit of St Michael, 1693, and of the Bavarian Crown,
1808, and other minor orders and decorations, civil and military.
There are also the two illustrious orders fpr ladies, the Order of
Elizabeth, founded in 1766, and the Order of Theresa, in 1827. The
foundations of St Anne of Munich and of St Anne of Wtirzburg for
ladies are not properly orders.
iy. Brunswick. The Order of Henry the Lion, for military and
civil merit, was founded by Duke William in 1834. There are five
classes, and a cross of merit of two classes. The badge is a blue
enamelled cross dependent from a lion surmounted by the ducal
crown ; the angles of the cross are filled by crowned W's and the
centre bears the arms of Brunswick, a crowned pillar and a white
horse, between two sickles. The ribbon is deep red bordered with
yellow.
v. Hanover. The Order of St George (one class only) was insti-
tuted by King Ernest Augustus I. in 1839 as the family order of the
house of Hanover ; the Royal Guelphic Order (three classes) by George,
prince regent, afterwards George IV. of Great Britain, in 1815; and
the Order of Ernest Augustus by George V. of Hanover in 1865.
These orders have not been conferred since 1866, when Hanover
ceased to be a kingdom, and the Royal Guelphic Order, which from
its institution was more British than Hanoverian, not since the
death of William IV. in 1837. The last British grand cross was the
late duke of Cambridge.
vi. Hesse. Of the various orders founded by the houses of Hessc-
Cassel and Hesse- Darmstadt the following are still bestowed in the
grand duchy of Hesse. The Order of Louis, founded by the grand
duke Louis I. of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1807; there are five classes;
the black, red and gold bordered cross bears the initial L. in the
centre, the ribbon is black with red borders; the Order of Philip the
Magnanimous, founded by the grand duke Louis II. in 1840 has five
classes; the white cross of the badge bears the effigy of Philip sur-
rounded by the motto Si Deus vobiscum quis contra nos. The
Order of the Golden Lion was founded in 1770 by the landgrave
Frederick II. of Hesse-Cassel, the knights are 41 in number and take
precedence of the members of the two former orders. The badge
is an open oval of gold with the Hessian lion in the centre. The
ribbon is crimson.
vii. Mecklenburg. The grand duchies of Mecklcnburg-Schwerin
and Mecklenburg-Strelitz possess jointly the Order of the Wendish
Crown, founded in 1864 by the grand dukes Frederick Francis II. of
Schwerin and Frederick William of Strelitz; there are four classes,
with two divisions of the grand cross, and also an affiliated cross of
merit; the grand cross can be granted to ladies. The badge is a
white cross bearing on a blue centre the Wendish crown, surrounded
by the motto, for the Schwerin knights, Per aspera ad astra, for the
Strelitz knights, A vito viret honore. The Order of the Griffin, founded
in 1884 by Frederick Francis III. of Schwerin, was made common to
the duchies in 1904.
viii. Oldenberg. The Order of Duke Peter Frederick Louis, a
family order and order of merit, was founded by the grand duke
Paul Frederick Augustus in memory of his father in 1838. It has
two divisions, each of five classes, of capitular knights and honorary
members. The badge is a white gold bordered cross suspended
from a crown, in the centre the crowned monogram P.F.L. sur-
rounded by the motto Ein Gotl, Ein Recht, Eine Wahrheit ; the ribbon
is dark blue bordered with red.
ix. Prussia. The Order of the Black Eagle, one of the most
distinguished of European orders, was founded in 1701 by the elector
of Brandenburg, Frederick I., in memory of his coronation as king
of Prussia. The order consists of one class only and the original
statutes limited the number, exclusive of the princes of the royal
house and foreign members, to 30. But the number has been
exceeded. It is only conferred on those of royal lineage and upon
high officers of state. It confers the nobiliary particle von. Only
those who have received the Order of the Red Eagle are eligible. An
illustration of the badge of the order with ribbon is given on Plate IV.
fig. 3. The star of silver bears the black eagle on an orange ground
surrounded by a silver fillet on which is the motto of the order
Suum Cuique. The collar is formed of alternate black eagles and
a circular medallion with the motto on a white centre surrounded by
the initials F.R. repeated in green, the whole in a circle of blue with
four gold crowns on the exterior rim. The Order of the Red Eagle,
the second of the Prussian orders, was founded originally as the
Order of Sincerity (L'Ordre de la Sincerite) in 1705 by George William,
hereditary prince of Brandenburg- Bayreuth. The original constitu-
tion and insignia are now entirely changed, with the exception of the
red eagle which formed the centre of the cross of the badge. The
order had almost fallen into oblivion when it was revived in 1734
by the margrave George Frederick Charles as the Order of the Bran-
denburg Red Eagle. It consisted of 30 nobly born knights. The
numbers were increased and a grand cross class added in 1759. On
the cession of the principality to Prussia in 1791 the order was
transferred and King Frederick William raised it to that place in
Prussian orders which it has since maintained. The order was
divided into four classes in 1810 and there are now five classes with
numerous sub-divisions. It is an order of civil and military merit.
The grand cross resembles the badge of the Black Eagle, but is white
and the eagles in the corners red, the central medallion bearing the
initials W.R. (those of William I.) surrounded by a blue fillet with
the motto Sincere el Constanter. The numerous classes and sub-
divisions have exceedingly complicated distinguishing marks, some
bearing crossed swords, a crown, or an oak-leaf surmounting the
cross. The ribbon is white with two orange stripes.
The Order for Merit (Ordre pour le Merite), one of the most highly
prized of European orders of merit, has now two divisions, military
and for science and art. It was originally founded by the electoral
prince Frederick, afterwards Frederick I. of Prussia, in 1667 as the
Order of Generosity; it was given its present name and granted for
civil and military distinction by Frederick the Great, 1740. In
1810 the order was made one for military merit against the enemy
in the field exclusively. In 1840 the class for distinction for science
and art, or peace class (Friedensklasse) was founded by Frederick
William IV., for those " who have gained an illustrious name by
wide recognition in the spheres of science and art." The number is
limited to 30 German and 30 foreign members. The Academy
of Sciences and Arts on a vacancy nominates three candidates, from
which one is selected by the king. It is interesting to note that this
was the only distinction which Thomas Carlyle would accept. The
badge of the military order is a blue cross with gold uncrowned eagles
in the angles; on the topmost arm is the initial F., with a crown; on
the other arms the inscription Pour le Merite. The ribbon is black
with a silver stripe at the edges. In 1866 a special grand cross was
instituted for the crown prince (afterwards Frederick III.) and Prince
Frederick Charles. It was in 1879 granted to Count yon Moltke
as a special distinction. The badge of the class for science or art
is a circular medallion of white, with a gold eagle in the centre sur-
rounded by a blue border with the inscription Pour le Merite ; on the
white field the letters IF. II. four times repeated, and four crowns
in gold projecting from the rim. The ribbon is the same as for the
military class. The Order of the Crown, founded by William I. in
1861, ranks with the Red Eagle. There arc four classes, with many
subdivisions. Other Prussian orders are the Order of William,
instituted by William II. in 1896; a Prussian branch of the knights
of St John of Jerusalem, JohanniterOrden, in its present form dating
from 1893 ; and the family Order of the House of Hohenzollern, founded
in 1851 by Frederick William IV. There are two divisions, military
and civil, divided into four classes. The military badge is a white
cross with black and gold edging, resting on a green oak and laurel
wreath; the central medallion bears the Prussian Eagle with the
arms of Hohenzollcrn, and is surrounded by a blue fillet with the
motto Vom Pels zum Meer; the civil badge is a black eagle, with
the head encircled with a blue fillet with the motto. There are also
for ladies the Order of Service, founded in 1814 by Frederick William
III., in one class, but enlarged in 1850 and in 1865. The decoration
of merit for ladies (Verdienst-kreuz) , founded in 1870, was raised to
an order in 1907. For the famous military decoration, the Iron
Cross, sec MEDALS,
x. Saxony.— The Order of the Crown of Rue (Rauten Krone) was
founded as a family order by Frederick Augustus I. in 1807. It is
of one class only, and the sons and nephews of the sovereign are born
knijjhts of the order. It is granted to foreign ruling princes and
subjects of high rank. The badge is a pale green enamelled cross
resting on a gold crown with eight rue leaves, the centre is white
with the crowned monogram of the founder surrounded by a green
circlet of rue; the star bears in its centre the motto Providentiac
Memor. The ribbon is green. Other Saxon orders are the military
Order of St Henry, fpr distinguished service in the field, founded in
1736 in one class; since 1829 it has had four classes; the ribbon is
sky blue with two yellow stripes, the gold cross bears in the centre
the effigy of the emperor Henry II.; the Order of Albert, for civil
and military merit, founded in 1850 by Frederick Augustus II. in
memory of Duke Albert the Bold, the founder of the Albertine line
of Saxony, has six classes: the Order of Civil Merit, was founded in
\
1
\
INSIGNIA OF*. SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD,
DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSES-
SION OF HIS LATE MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII AND ARRANGED
IN ACCORDANCE Wlfil HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND COMMAND.
KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY
PLATE IV.
I.
III.
(i. ) THE ST ANDREW (Russia), (ii. ) THE GOLDEN FLEECE (Spain), (iii. ) THE BLACK EAGLE (Prussia), (iv. ) THE TOWER AND SWORD
(Portugal.) (v.) THE ELEPHANT (Denmark), (vi.) THE LEGION oF HONOUR (France-Napoleonic), (vii.) THE ANNUNZIATA (Italy).
Draitm by William Gibb.
Niagara Litho. Co.. Buffalo. -V. }'.
ORDERS]
KNIGHTHOOD
865
1815. For ladies there are the Order of Sidonia, 1870, in memory
of the wife of Albert the Bold, the mother (Stamm- Mutter) cf the
Albertine line; and the Maria Anna Order, 1906.
xi. The duchies of Saxe Altenburg. Saxe Coburg Gotha and Saxe
Meiningen have in common the family Order of Ernest, founded in
1833 in memory of Duke Ernest the Pious of Saxe Gotha and as a
revival of the Order of German Integrity (Orden der deutschen Redlich-
keit) founded in 1690. Saxe Coburg Gotha and Saxe Meiningen
have also separate crosses of merit in science and art.
xii. Saxe Weimar. — The Order of the White Falcon or of Vigilance
was founded in 1732 and renewed in 1815.
xiii. Wurttemberg. — The Order of the Crown of Wurttemberg was
founded in 1818, uniting the former Order of the Golden Eagle and an
order of civil merit. It has five classes. The badge is a white cross
surmounted by the royal crown, in the centre the initial F surrounded
by a crimson fillet on which is the motto Furchtlos und Treu ; in the
angles of the cross are four golden leopards; the ribbon is crimson
with two black stripes. Besides the military Order of Merit founded
in !759' a"d the silver cross of merit, 1900, Wurttemberg has also
the Order of Frederick, 1830, and the Order of Olga, 1871, which is
granted to ladies as well as men.
Greece. — The Order of the Redeemer was founded as such in 1833
by King Otto, being a conversion of a decoration of honour instituted
in 1829 by the National Assembly at Argos. There are five classes,
the numbers being regulated for each. An illustration of the badge
and ribbon of the grand cross is given on Plate V. fig. I.
Holland. — The Order of William, for military merit, was founded
in 1815 by William I.; there are four classes; the badge is a white
cross resting on a green laurel Burgundian cross, in the centre the
Burgundian flint-steel, as in the order of the Golden Fleece. The
motto Voer Moed, Bflied, Trouw (For Valour, Devotion, Loyalty),
appears on the arms of the cross. The cross is surmounted by a
jewelled crown; the ribbon is orange with dark blue edging. The
Order of the Netherlands Lion, for civil merit, was founded in 1818;
there are four classes. The family Order of the Golden Lion of
Nassau passed in 1890 to the grand duchy of Luxembourg (see under
Luxemburg). In 1892 Queen Wilhelmina instituted the Order of
Orange-Nassau with five classes. The Teutonic Order (q.v.), surviving
in the Ballarde (Bailiwick) of Utrecht, was officially established in
the Netherlands by the States General in 1580. It was abolished
by Napoleon in 1811 and was restored in 1815.
Italy. — The Order of the Annunziata, the highest order of knight-
hood of the Italian kingdom, was instituted in 1362 by Amadeus VI.,
count of Savoy, as the Order of the Collare or Collar, from the silver
collar made up of love-knots and roses, which was its badge, in
honour of the fifteen joys of the Virgin; hence the number of the
knights was restricted to fifteen, the fifteen chaplains recited fifteen
masses each day, and the clauses of the original statute of the order
were fifteen (Amadeus VIII. added five others in 1434). Charles III.
decreed that the order should be called the Annunziata, and made
some other alterations in 1518. His son and successor, Emmanuel
Philibert, made further modifications in the statute and the costume.
The church of the order was originally the Carthusian monastery of
Pierre-chatel in the district of Bugey, but after Charles Emmanuel I.
had given Bugey and Bresse to France in 1601 the church of the
order was transferred to the Camaldolese monastery near Turin.
That religious order having been suppressed at the time of the
French Revolution, King Charles Albert decreed in 1840 that the
Carthusian church of Collegno should be the chapel of the order.
The knights of the Annunziata have the title of "cousins of the
king," and enjoy precedence overall the other officials of the state.
The costume of the order is of white satin embroidered in silk, with
a purple velvet cloak adorned with roses and gold embroidery, but
it is now never worn ; in the collar the motto Pert is inserted, on the
meaning of which there is great uncertainty,1 and from it hangs a
pendant enclosing a medallion representing the Annunciation (see
Plate IV. fig. 7). An account of the order is given in Count Luigi
Cibrario's Ordini Cavallereschi (Turin, 1846) with coloured plates of
the costume and badges.
The Order of St Maurice and St Lazarus (SS Maurizio e Lazzaro),
is a combination of two ancient orders. The Order of St Maurice
was originally founded by Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy, in 1434,
when he retired to the hermitage of Ripaille, and consisted of a group
of half-a-dozen councillors who were to advise him on such a.^airs
of state as he continued to control. When he became pope as Felix V.
the order practically ceased to exist. It was re-established at the
instance of Emmanuel Philibert by Pope Pius V. in 1572 as a military
and religious order, and the following year it was united to that of
St Lazarus by Gregory XIII. The latter order had been founded as a
military and religious community at the time of the Latin kingdom
of Jerusalem with the object of assisting lepers, many of whom
were among its members. Popes, princes and nobles endowed it
with estates and piivileges, including that of administering and
succeeding to the property of lepers, which eventually led to grave
1 It has been taken as the Latin word meaning " he bears " or as
representing the initials of the legend Fortiludo Ejus Rhodum Tenuit,
with an allusion to a defence of the island of Rhodes by an ancient
count of Savoy.
XV. 28
abuses. With the advance of the Sararen<! the knights of St Lazarus,
when driven from the Holy Land and Egypt, migrated to France
(1291) and Naples (1311), where they founded leper hospitals. The
order in Naples, which alone was afterwards recognized as the legiti-
mate descendant of the Jerusalem community, was empowered to
seize and confine anyone suspected of leprosy, a permission which led
to the establishment of a regular inquisitorial system of blackmail.
In the 15th and i6th centuries dissensions broke out among the
knights, and the order declined in credit and wealth, until finally
the grand master, Giannotto Castiglioni, resigned his position in
favour of Emmanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, in 1571. Two years
later the orders of St Lazarus and St Maurice were incorporated into
one community, the members of which were to devote themselves
to the defence of the Holy See and to fight its enemies as well as to
continue assisting lepers. The galleys of the order subsequently
took part in various expeditions against the Turks and the Barbary
pirates. Leprosy, which had almost disappeared in the I7th cen-
tury, broke out once more in the l8th, and in 1773 a hospital was
established by the order at Aosta, made famous by Xavier de
Maistre's tale, Le Lepreux de la cit6 d'Aoste. The statutes were
published in 1816, by which date the order had lost its military
character; it was reformed first by Charles Albert (1831), and later
by Victor Emmanuel II., king of Italy (1868). The knighthood of
St Maurice and St Lazarus is now a dignity conferred by the king
of Italy (the grand master) on persons distinguished in the public
service, science, art and letters, trade, and above all in charitable
works, to which its income is devoted. There are five classes. The
badge of the combined order is composed of the white cross with
trefoil termination of St Lazarus resting on the green cross of St
Maurice; both crosses are bordered gold. The first four classes
wear the badge suspended from a royal crown. The ribbon is dark
green.
See L. Cibrario, Descrizione storica degli Ordini Cayallereschi, vol. i.
(Turin, 1846); Calendario Reale, an annual publication issued in
Rome.
The military Order of Savoy was founded in 1815 by Victor
Emmanuel of Sardinia; badge modified 1855 and 1857. It has now
five classes. The badge is a white cross, the arms of which expand
and terminate in an obtuse angle; round the cross is a green laurel
and oak wreath; the central medallion is red, bearing m gold two
crossed swords, the initials of the founder and the date 1855. The
ribbon is red with a central stripe of blue. The Civil Order of Savoy,
founded in 1831 by Charles Albert of Sardinia, is of one class, and
in statutes of 1868 is limited to 60 members. The badge is the plain
Savoy cross in blue, with silver medallion, the ribbon is blue with
white borders. The Order of the Crown of Italy was founded in 1868
by Victor Emmanuel II. in commemoration of the union of Italy
into a kingdom. There are five classes.
Luxemburg. — The Order of the Golden Lion was founded as a family
order of the house of Nassau by William III. of the Netherlands and
Adolphus of Nassau jointly. On the death of William in 1890 it
passed to the grand duke of Luxemburg; it has only one class.
The Order of Adolphus of Nassau, for civil and military merit, in four
classes, was founded in 1858, and the Order of the Oak Crown as a
general order of merit, in five classes, in 1841, modified 1858.
Monaco. — The Order of St Charles, five classes, was founded in
1858 by Prince Charles III. and remodelled in 1863. It is a general
order of merit.
Montenegro. — The Order of_ St Peter, founded in 1852, is a family
order, in one class, and only given to members of the princely family;
the Order of Danilo, or of the Independence of Montenegro, is a general
order of merit, in four classes, with subdivisions, also founded in 1852.
Norway. — The Order of St Olaf was founded in 1847 by Oscar I.
in honour of St Olaf, the founder of Christianity in Norway, as a
general order of merit, military and civil. There are three classes,
the last two being, in 1873 and 1890, subdivided into two grades each.
The badge and ribbon is illustrated on Plate V, fig. 5. . The reverse
bears the motto Ret og Sandhed (Right and Truth). The Order of the
Norwegian Lion, founded in 1904 by Oscar II., has only one class;
foreigners on whom the order is conferred must be sovereigns or heads
of states or members of reigning houses.
Papal. — The arrangement and constitution of the papal orders
was remodelled by a brief of Pius X. in 1905. The Order of Christ,
the supreme pontifical order, is of one class only; for the history of
this ancient order see Portugal (infra). The badge and ribbon is
the same as the older Portuguese form. The Order of Pius was
founded in 1847 by Pius IX.; there are now three classes; the badge
is an eight-pointed blue star with golden flames between the rays,
a white centre bears the founder's name ; the ribbon is blue with two
red stripes at each border. The Order of St Gregory the Great, founded
in 1831, is in two divisions, civil and military, each having three
classes. The Order of St Sylvester was originally founded as the
Order of the Golden Spur by Paul IV. in 1559 as a military body,
though tradition assigns it to Constantine the Great and Pope
Sylvester. It was reorganized as an order of merit by Gregory XVI.
in 1841. In 1905 the order was divided into three classes, and a
separate order, that of the Golden Spur or Golden Legion (Militia
Aurata) was established, in one class, with the numbers limited to a
hundred. The cross Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice, instituted by Leo XIII.
866
KNIGHTHOOD
[ORDERS
in 1888 is a decoration, not an order. There remains the
venerable Order of the Holy Sepulchre, of which tradition assigns
the foundation to Godfrey de Bouillon. It was, however, probably
founded as a military order for the protection of the Holy Sepulchre
by Alexander VI. in 1496. The right to nominate to the order was
shared with the pope as grand master by the guardian of the Patres
Minores in Jerusalem, later by the Franciscans, and then by the
Latin patriarch in Jerusalem. In 1905 the latter was nominated
grand master, but the pope reserves the joint right of nomination.
The badge of the order is a red Jerusalem cross with red Latin crosses
in the angles.
Portugal. — The Order of Christ was founded on the abolition of the
Templars by Dionysius or Diniz of Portugal and in 1318 in conjunc-
tion with Pope John XXII., both having the right to nominate to the
order. The papal branch survives as a distinct order. In 1522 it
was formed as a distinct Portuguese order and the grand mastership
vested in the crown of Portugal. In 1789 its original religious
aspect was abandoned, and with the exception that its members
must be of the Roman Catholic faith, it is entirely secularized.
There are three classes. The original badge of the order was a long
red cross with expanded flat ends bearing a small cross in white;
the ribbon is red. The modern badge is a blue enamelled cross
resting on a green laurel wreath ; the central medallion, in white, con-
tains the old red and white cross. The older form is worn with the
collar by the grand-crosses. The Order of the Tower and Sword was
founded in 1808 in Brazil by the regent, afterwards king John VI.
of Portugal, as a revival of the old Order of the Sword, said to have
been founded by Alfonso V. in 1459. It was remodelled in 1832
under its present name and constitution as a general order of military
and civil merit. There are five classes. The badge of the order and
ribbon is illustrated on Plate IV. fig 4. The Order of St Benedict of
Aviz (earlier of Evora), founded in 1162 as a religious military
order, was secularized in 1789 as an order of military merit, in four
classes. The badge is a green cross fleury; the ribbon is green.
The Order of St James of the Sword, or James of Compostella, is
a branch of the Spanish order of that name (see under Spain). It
also was secularized in 1789, and in 1862 was constituted an order
of merit for science, literature and art, in five classes. The badge is
the lily-hilted sword of St James, enamelled red with gold borders;
the ribbon is violet. In 1789 these three orders were granted a
common badge uniting the three separate crosses in a gold medallion ;
the joint ribbon is red, green and violet, and to the separate crosses
was added a red sacred heart and small white cross. There are also
the Order of Our Lady of Villa Vifosa (1819), for both sexes, and the
Order of St Isabella, 1 80 1, for ladies.
Rumania. — The Order of the Star of Rumania was founded in 1877,
and the Order of the Crown of Rumania in 1881, both in five classes,
for civil and military merit ; the ribbon of the first is red with blue
borders, of the second light blue with two silver stripes.
Russia. — The Order oj St Andrew was founded in 1698 by Peter
the Great. It is the chief order of the empire, and admission carries
with it according to the statutes of 1720 the orders of St Anne,
Alexander Nevsky, and the White Eagje; there is only one class.
The badge and ribbon is illustrated in Plate IV. fig 5. The collar is
composed of three members alternately, the imperial eagle bearing
on a red medallion a figure of St George slaying the Dragon, the badge
of the grand duchy of Moskow, the cipher of the emperor Paul I.
in gold on a blue ground, surmounted by the imperial crown, and
surrounded by a trophy of weapons and green and white flags, and a
circular red and gold star with a blue St Andrew's cross. The Order
of St Catherine, for ladies, ranks next to the St Andrew. It was
founded under the name of the Order of Rescue by Peter the Great
in 1714 in honour of the empress Catherine and the part she had
taken in rescuing him at the battle of the Pruth in 1711. There are
two classes. The grand cross is only for members of the imperial
house and ladies of the highest nobility. The second class was added
in 1797. The badge of the order is a cross of diamonds bearing in a
medallion the effigy of St Catherine. The ribbon is red with the
motto For Love and Fatherland in silver letters. The Order of St
Alexander Nevsky was founded in 1725 by the empress Catherine I.
There is only one class. The badge is a red enamelled cross with
gold eagles in the angles, bearing in a medallion the mounted effigy
of St Alexander Nevsky. The ribbon is red. The Order of the
White Eagle was founded in 1713 by Augustus II. of Poland and was
adopted as a Russian order in 1831 ; there is one class. The Order
of St Anne was founded by Charles Frederick, duke of Holstein-
Gottorp in 1735 in honour of his wife, Anna Petrovna, daughter of
Peter the Great. It was adopted as a Russian order in 1797 by their
grandson, the emperor Paul. There are four classes. Other orders
are those of St Vladimir, founded by Catherine II., 1782, four classes,
and of St Stanislaus, founded originally as a Polish order by Stanis-
laus Augustus Poniatowski in 1765, and adopted as a Russian
order in 1831.
The military Order of St George was founded by the empress
Catherine II. in 1769 for military service on land and sea, with four
classes; a fifth class for non-commissioned officers and men, the
St George's Cross, was added in 1807. The badge is a white cross
with gold borders, with a red central medallion on which is the figure
of St George slaying the dragon. The ribbon is orange with
three black stripes.
Servia. — The Order of the While Eagle, the principal order, was
founded by Milan I. in 1882, statutes 1883, in five classes; the ribbon
is blue and red; the Order of St Sava, founded 1 883, also in five classes,
is an order of merit for science and art ; the Order of the Star of
Karageorgevitch, four classes, was founded by Peter I. in 1904.
The orders of Milosch the Great, founded by Alexander I. in 1898 and
of Takovo, founded originally by Michael Obrenovitch in 1863,
reconstituted in 1883, are since the dynastic revolution of 1903 no
longer bestowed. The Order of St Lazarus is not a general order, the
cross and collar being only worn by the king.
Spain. — The Spanish branch of the Order of the Golden Fleece
has been treated above. The three most ancient orders of Spain —
of St James of Composlella, or St James of the Sword, of Alcantara and
of Calatrava — still exist as orders of merit, the first in three classes,
the last two as orders of military merit in one class. They were all
originally founded as military religious orders, like the crusading
Templars and the Hospitallers, but to fight for the true faith against
the Moors in Spain. The present badges of the orders represent the
crosses that the knights wore on their mantles. That of St James of
Compostella is the red lily-hilted sword of St James ; the ribbon is also
red. The other two orders wear the cross fleury — Alcantara red,
Calatrava green, with corresponding ribbons. A short history of these
orders may be here given. Tradition gives the foundation of the
Order of Knights of St James of Compostella to Ramiro II., king of
Leon, in the loth century, to commemorate a victory over theMoors,
but, historically.the order dates from the confirmation in 1175 by
Pope Alexander III. It gained great reputation in the wars against
the Moors and became very wealthy. In 1493 the grand-mastership
was annexed by Ferdinand the Catholic, and was vested permanently
in the crown of Spain by Pope Adrian VI. in 1522.
The Order of Knights of Alcantara, instituted about 1156 by the
brothers Don Suarez and Don Gomez de Barrientos for protection
against the Moors. In 1 177 they were confirmed as a religious order
of knighthood under Benedictine rule by Pope Alexander III. Until
about 1213 they were known as the Knights of San Julian del
Pereyro; but when the defence of Alcantara, newly wrested from
the Moors by Alphonso IX. of Castile, was entrusted to them they
took their name from that city. For a considerable time they were
in some degree subject to the grand master of the. kindred order
of Calatrava. Ultimately, however, they asserted their indepen-
dence by electing a grand master of their own, the first holder of the
office being Don Diego Sanche. During the rule of thirty-seven
successive grand masters, similarly chosen, the influence and wealth
of the order gradually increased until the Knights of Alcantara were
almost as powerful as the sovereign. In 1494-1495 Juan de Zufiiga
was prevailed upon to resign the grand-mastership to Ferdinand,
who thereupon vested it in his own person as king; and this arrange-
ment was ratified by a bull of Pope Alexander VI., and was declared
permanent by Pope Adrian VI. in 1523. The yearly income of *
Zuiiiga at the time of his resignation amounted to 150,000 ducats.
In 1540 Pope Paul III. released the knights from the strictness of
Benedictine rule by giving them permission to marry, though second
marriage was forbidden. The three vows were henceforth obedientia,
castitas conjugalis and conversio morum. In modern times the his-
tory of the order has been somewhat chequered. When Joseph
Bonaparte became king of Spain in 1808, he deprived the knights of
their revenues, which were only partially recovered on the restora-
tion of Ferdinand VII. in 1814. The order ceased to exist as a
spiritual body in 1835.
The Order of Knights of Calatrava was founded in 1158 by Don
Sancho III. of Castile, who presented the town of Calatrava. newly
wrested from the Moors, to them to guard. In 1164 Pope Alexan-
der III. granted confirmation as a religious military order under
Cistercian rule. In 1197 Calatrava fell into the hands of the
Moors and the order removed to the castle of Salvatierra, but
recovered their town in 1212. In 1489 Ferdinand seized the grand-
mastership, and it was finally vested in the crown of Spain in 1523.
The order became a military order of merit in 1808 and was reorga-
nized in 1874. The Royal and Illustrious Order of Charles III.
was founded in 1771 by Charles III., in two classes; altered in 1804,
it was abolished by Joseph Bonaparte in 1809, together with all the
Spanish orders except the Golden Fleece, and the Royal Order of the
Knights of Spain was established. In 1814 Ferdinand VII. revived
the order, and in 1847 it received its present constitution, viz. of
three classes (the commanders in two divisions). The badge of the
order is a blue and white cross suspended from a green laurel wreath,
in the angles are golden lilies, and the oval centre bears a figure of
the Virgin in a golden glory. The ribbon is blue and white. The
Order of Isabella the Catholic was founded in 1815 under the patronage
of St Isabella, wife of Diniz of Portugal; originally instituted to
reward loyalty in defence of the Spanish possessions in America,
it is now a general order of merit, in three classes. The badge is a
red rayed cross with gold rays in the angles, in the centre a repre-
sentation of the pillars of Hercules; the cross is attached to the
yellow and white ribbon by a green laurel wreath. Other Spanish
orders are the Maria Louisa, 1792, for noble ladies; the military and
naval orders of merit of St Ferdinand, founded by the Cortes in 181 1,
five classes; of St Ermenegild (Hermenegildo) , 1814, three classes, of
Military Merit and Naval Merit, 1866, and of Maria Christina,
1890; the Order of Beneficencia for civil merit, 1856; that of
INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD,
DRAWN BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSES-
SION OF HIS LATE MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII AND ARRANGED
IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND COMMAND.
KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY
PLATE V.
I.
III.
P 4 •
jr-\ /
(i.) THE REDEEMER (Greece), (ii.) THE ORDER OF THE KNIGHTS OF ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM (English Branch. Badge of the Sovereign and
Patron). (Hi.) THE ST HUBERT (Bavaria), (iv.) THE ST STEPHEN (Hungary), (v.) THEST. OLAF( Norway). (VJ.)THESERAPHIM (Sweden).
Drawn Ky William Gitb.
Niagara Lilho. Co.. Buffalo, N. Y.
KNIGHT-SERVICE
867
Alfonso XII. for merit in science, literature and art, 1902, and the
Civil Order of Alfonso XII., 1902.
Sweden. — The Order of the Seraphim (the "Blue Ribbon"). Tradi-
tion attributes the foundation of this most illustrious order of knight-
hood to Magnus I. in 1280, more certainty attaches to the fact that
the order was in existence in 1336. In its modern form the order
dates from its reconstitution in 1748 by Frederick I., modified by
statutes of 1798 and 1814. Exclusive of the sovereign and the
princes of the blood, the order is limited to 23 Swedish and 8 foreign
members. The native members must be already members of the
Order of the Sword or the Pole Star. There is a prelate of the order
which is administered by a chapter; the chapel of the knights is in
the Riddar Holmskyrka at Stockholm. The badge and ribbon of
the grand cross is illustrated on Plate V. fig. 6. The collar is formed
of alternate gold seraphim and blue enamelled patriarchal crosses.
The motto is lesus Hominum Salyator. The Order of the Sword
(the " Yellow Ribbon "), the principal Swedish military order, was
founded, it is said, by Gustavus I. Vasa in 1522, and was re-estab-
lished by Frederick I., with the Seraphim and the Pole Star in 1748 ;
modifications have been made in 1798, 1814 and 1889. There are
five classes, with subdivisions. The badge is a white cross, in the
angles gold _crowns, the points of the cross joined by gold swords
entwined with gold and blue belts, in the blue centre an upright
sword with the three crowns in gold, the whole surmounted by the
royal crown The ribbon is yellow with blue edging. The Order
of the Pole Star (Polar Star, North Star, the " Black Ribbon "),
founded in 1748 for civil merit, has since 1844 three classes. The
white cross bears a five-pointed silver star on a blue medallion.
The ribbon is black. The Order of Vasa (the " Green Ribbon "),
founded by Gustavus III. in 1772 as an order of merit for services
rendered to the national industries and manufactures, has three
classes, with subdivisions. The white cross badge bears on a blue
centre the charge of the house of Vasa, a gold sheaf shaped like a
vase with two handles. The ribbon is green. The Order of Charles
XIII., founded in 1811, is granted to Freemasons of high degree.
It is thus quite unique.
Turkey. — -The Nischan-i-Imtiaz, or Order of Privilege, was founded
by Abdul Hamid II. in ^879 as a general order of merit in one class;
the Nischan-el-Iftikhar, or Order of Glory, also one class, founded
1831 by Mahmoud II.; the Nischan-i-Mejidi, the Mejidieh, was
founded as a civil and military order of merit in 1851 by Abdul
Medjid. There are five classes; the badge is a silver sun of seven
clustered rays, with crescent and star between each cluster; on a gold
centre is the sultan's name in black Turkish lettering, surrounded by
a red fillet inscribed with the words Zeal, Devotion, Loyalty; it is
suspended from a red crescent and star; the ribbon is red with green
borders. The khedive of Egypt has authority, delegated by the
sultan, to grant thio order. The Nischan-i-Osmanie, the Osmanieh,
for civil and military merit, was founded by Abdul Aziz in 1862;
it has four classes. The badge is a gold sun with seven gold-bordered
green rays; the red centre bears the crescent, and it is also suspended
from a gold crescent and star; the ribbon is green bordered with
red. The Nischan-i-Schefakat of Compassion or Benevolence, was
instituted for ladies, in three classes, in 1878 by the sultan in honour
of the work done for the non-combatant victims of the Russo-Turkish
war of 1877 in connexion with the Turkish Compassionate Fund
started by the late Baroness Burdett-Coutts. She was one of the
first to receive the order. There are also the family order, for Turkish
princes, the Hanedani-Ah-Osman, founded in 1893, and theErtogroul,
in 1903.
Non-European Orders. — Of the various states of Central and
South America, Nicaragua has the American Order oj San Juan or
Grey Town, founded in 1857, in three classes; and Venezuela that of
the Bust of Bolivar, 1854, five classes; the ribbon is yellow, blue and
red. Mexico has abolished its former orders, the Mexican Eagle,
1865, and Our Lady of Guadalupe, 1853; as has Brazil those of the
Southern Cross, 1822, Dom Pedro I., 1826, the Rose, 1829, and the
Brazilian branches of the Portuguese orders of Christ, St Benedict
of Aviz and St James. The republican Order of Columbus, founded
in 1890, was abolished in 1891.
China. — There are no orders for natives, and such distinctions as
are conferred by the different coloured buttons of the mandarins,
the grades indicated by the number of peacocks' feathers, the gift
of the yellow jacket and the like, are rather insignia of rank or per-
sonal marks of honour than orders, whether of knighthood or merit,
in the European sense. For foreigners, however, the emperor in
1882 established the sole order, that of the Imperial Double Dragon,
in five classes, the first three of which are further divided into three
grades each, making eleven grades in all. The recipients eligible
for the various classes are graded, from the first grade of the first
class for reigning sovereigns down to the fifth class for merchants
and manufacturers. The insignia of the order are unique in shape
and decoration. Of the three grades of the first class the badge is
a rectangular gold and yellow enamel plaque, decorated with two
upright blue dragons, with details in green and white, between the
heads for the first grade a pearl, for the second a ruby, for the third
a coral, set in green, white and gold circles. The size of the plaque
varies for the different classes. The badges of the other four classes
are round plaques, the first three with indented edges, the last plain;
in the second class the dragons are in silver on a yellow and gold
ground, the jewel is a cut coral ; the grades differ in the colour, shape,
&c., of the borders and indentations; in the third class the dragons
are gold, the ground green, the jewel a sapphire; in the fourth the
silver dragons are on a blue ground, the jewel a lapis lazuli; in the
fifth green dragons on a silver ground, the jewel a pearl. The
ribbons, decorated with embroidered dragons, differ for the various
grades and classes.
Japan. — The Japanese orders have all been instituted by the
emperor Mutsu Hitp. In design and workmanship the insignia of
the orders are beautiful examples of the art of the native cnamellers.
The Order of the Chrysanthemum (Kikkwa Daijasho), founded in
1877, has only one class. It is but rarely conferred on others than
members of the royal house or foreign rulers or princes. The badge
of the order may be described as follows: From a centre of red
enamel representing the sun issue 32 white gold-bordered rays in
four sharply projecting groups, between the angles of which are four
yellow conventional chrysanthemum flowers with green leaves
forming a circle on which the rays rest; the whole is suspended
from a larger yellow chrysanthemum. The ribbon is deep red
bordered with purple. The collar, which may be granted with the
order or later, is composed of four members repeated, two gold
chrysanthemums, one with green leaves, the other surrounded by a
wreath of palm, and two elaborate arabesque designs. The Order
of the Paulownia Sun (Tokwa Daijasho), founded in 1888, in one class,
may be in a sense regarded as the highest class of the Rising Sun
(Kiokujitsasho) founded in eight classes, in 1875. The badge of
both orders is essentially the same, viz. the red sun with white and
gold rays; in the former the lilac flowers of the Paulownia tree, the
flower of the Tycoon's arms, take a prominent part. The ribbon
of the first order is deep red with white edging, of the second scarlet
with white central stripe. The last two classes of the Rising Sun
wear a decoration formed of the Paulownia flower and leaves. The
Order of the Mirror or Happy Sacred Treasure (Zaihosho) was founded
in 1888, with eight classes. The cross of white and gold clustered
rays bears in a blue centre a silver star-shaped mirror. The ribbon
is pale blue with orange stripes. There is also an order for ladies,
that of the Crown, founded in five classes in 1888. The military order
of Japan is the Order of the Golden Kite, founded in 1890, in seven
classes. The badge has an elaborate design ; it consists of a star of
purple, red, yellow, gold and silver rays, on which are displayed old
Japanese weapons, banners and shields in various coloured enamels,
the whole surmounted by a golden kite with outstretched wings.
The ribbon is green with white stripes.
Persia. — The Order of the Sun and Lion, founded by Path 'Ali
Shah in 1808, has five classes. There' is also the Nischan-i-Aftab,
for ladies, founded in 1873.
Siam. — The Sacred Order, or the Nine Precious Stones, was founded
in 1869, in one class only, for the Buddhist princes of the royal house.
The Order of the White Elephant, founded in 1861, is in five classes
This is the principal general order. The badge is a striking example
of Oriental design adapted to a European conventional form. The
circular plaque is formed of a triple circle of lotus leaves in gold,
red and green, within a blue circlet with pearls a richly caparisoned
white elephant on a gold ground, the whole surmounted by the
jewelled gold pagoda crown of Siam ; the collar is formed of alternate
white elephants, red, blue and white royal monograms and gold
pagoda crowns. The ribbon is red with green borders and small
blue and white stripes. Other orders are the Siamese Crown (Mong-
kut Siam), five classes, founded 1869; the family Order of Chulah-
Chon-Clao, three classes, 1873; and the Maha Charkrkri, 1884, only
for princes and princesses of the reigning family. (C. WE.)
KNIGHT-SERVICE, the dominant and distinctive tenure of
land under the feudal system. It is associated in its origin with
that development in warfare which made the mailed horseman,
armed with lance and sword, the most important factor in battle.
Till within recent years it was believed that knight-service was
developed out of the liability, under the English system, of every
five hides to provide one soldier in war. It is now held that, on
the contrary, it was a novel system which was introduced after
the Conquest by the Normans, who relied essentially on their
mounted knights, while the English fought on foot. They were
already familiar with the principle of knight-sen/ice, the knight's
fee, as it came to be termed in England, being represented in
Normandy by the fief du haubert, so termed from the hauberk
or coat of mail (lorica) which was worn by the knight. Allusion
is made to this in the coronation charter of Henry I. (noo),
which speaks of those holding by knight-service as milites qui per
loricam terras suas deserviunt.
The Conqueror, it is now held, divided the lay lands of England
among his followers, to be held by the service of a fixed number
of knights in his host, and imposed the same service on most of
the great ecclesiastical bodies which retained their landed endow-
ments. No record evidence exists of this action on his part, and
the quota of knight-service exacted was not determined by the
868
KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE
area or value of the lands granted (or retained), but was based
upon the unit of the feudal host, the constabularia of ten knights.
Of the tenants-in-chief or barons (i.e. those who held directly
of the crown), the principal were called on to find one or more of
these units, while of the lesser ones some were called on for five
knights, that is, half a constabularia. The same system was
adopted in Ireland when that country was conquered under
Henry II. The baron who had been enfeoffed by his sovereign
on these terms could provide the knights required either by hiring
them for pay or, more conveniently when wealth was mainly
represented by land, by a process of subenfeoffment, analogous
to that by which he himself had been enfeoffed. That is to say,
he could assign to an under-tenant a certain portion of his fief
to be held by the service of finding one or more knights. The
land so held would then be described as consisting of one or more
knights' fees, but the knight's fee had not, as was formerly
supposed, any fixed area. This process could be carried farther
till there was a chain of mesne lords between the tenant-in-chief
and the actual holder of the land; but the liability for perform-
ance of the knight-service was always carefully defined.
The primary obligation incumbent on every knight was service
in the field, when called upon, for forty days a year, with specified
armour and arms. There was, however, a standing dispute as
to whether he could be called upon to perform this service outside
the realm, nor was the question of his expenses free from diffi-
culty. In addition to this primary duty he had, in numerous
cases at least, to perform that of " castle ward " at his lord's
chief castle for a fixed number of days in the year. On certain
baronies also was incumbent the duty of providing knights for
the guard of royal castles, such as Windsor, Rockingham and
Dover. Under the feudal system the tenant by knight-service
had also the same pecuniary obligations to his lord as had his
lord to the king. These consisted of (i) " relief," which he paid
on succeeding to his lands; (2) " wardship," that is, the profits
from his lands during a minority; (3) " marriage," that is, the
right of giving in marriage, unless bought off, his heiress, his heir
(if a minor) and his widow; and also of the three " aids " (see
AIDS).
The chief sources of information for the extent and develop-
ment of knight-service are the returns (cartae) of the barons (i.e.
the tenants-in-chief) in 1166, informing the king, at his request,
of the names of their tenants by knight-service with the number
of fees they held, supplemented by the payments for " scutage "
(see SCUTAGE) recorded on the pipe rolls, by the later returns
printed in the Testa de Nevill, and by the still later ones collected
in Feudal Aids. In the returns made in 1166 some of the barons
appear as having enfeoffed more and some less than the number
of knights they had to find. In the latter case they described
the balance as being chargeable on their " demesne," that is, on
the portion of their fief which remained in their own hands.
These returns further prove that lands had already been granted
for the service of a fraction of a knight, such service being in
practice already commuted for a proportionate money payment;
and they show that the total number of knights with which land
held by military service was charged was not, as was formerly
supposed, sixty thousand, but, probably, somewhere between
five and six thousand. Similar returns were made for Normandy,
and are valuable for the light they throw on its system of knight-
service.
The principle of commuting for money the obligation of
military service struck at the root of the whole system, and so
complete was the change of conception that " tenure by knight-
service of a mesne lord becomes, first in fact and then in law,
tenure by escuage (i.e. scutage)." By the time of Henry III., as
Bracton states, the test of tenure was scutage; liability, however
small, to scutage payment made the tenure military.
The disintegration of the system was carried farther in the
latter half of the i3th century as a consequence of changes in
warfare, which were increasing the importance of foot soldiers
and making the service of a knight for forty days of less value
to the king. The barons, instead of paying scutage, compounded
for their service by the payment of lump sums, and, by a process
which is still obscure, the nominal quotas of knight-service due
from each had, by the time of Edward I., been largely reduced.
The knight's fee, however, remained a knight's fee, and the
pecuniary incidents of military tenure, especially wardship,
marriage, and fines on alienation, long continued to be a source
of revenue to the crown. But at the Restoration (1660) tenure
by knight-service was abolished by law (12 Car. II. c. 24),
and with it these vexatious exactions were abolished.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The returns of 1166 are preserved in the Liber
Niger (I3th cent.), edited by Hearne, and the Liber Rubeus or Red
Book of the Exchequer (13 cent.), edited by H. Hall for the Rolls
Series in 1896. The later returns are in Testa de Nevill (Record
Commission, 1807) and in the Record Office volumes of Feudal Aids,
arranged under counties. For the financial side of knight-service
the early pipe rolls have been printed by the Record Commission
and the Pipe Roll Society, and abstracts of later ones will be found
in The Red Book of the Exchequer, which may be studied on the whole
question; but the editor's view must be received with caution and
checked by J. H. Round's Studies on the Red Book of the Exchequer
(for private circulation). The Baronia Anglica of Madox may also
be consulted. The existing theory on knight-service was enunciated
by Mr Round in English Historical Review, vi., vii., and reissued by
him in his Feudal England (1895). It is accepted by Pollock and
Maitland (History of English Law), who discuss the question at
length; by Mr J. F. Baldwin in his Scutage and Knight-senice in
England (University of Chicago Press, 1897), a valuable monograph
with bibliography; and by Petit-Dutaillis, in his Studies supplement-
ary to Stubbs' Constitutional History (Manchester University Series,
1908). (J. H. R.)
KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE, a semi-military secret
society in the United States in the Middle West, 1861-1864, the
purpose of which was to bring the Civil War to a close and restore
the " Union as it was." There is some evidence that before the
Civil War there was a Democratic secret organization of the same
name, with its principal membership in the Southern States.
After the outbreak of the Civil War many of the Democrats of
the Middle West, who were opposed to the war policy of the
Republicans, organized the Knights of the Golden Circle, pledging
themselves to exert their influence to bring about peace. In
1863, owing to the disclosure of some of its secrets, the organiza-
tion took the name of Order of American Knights, and in 1864
this became the Sons of Liberty. The total membership of this
order probably reached 250,000 to 300,000, principally in Ohio.
Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Kentucky and south-western
Pennsylvania. Fernando Wood of New York seems to have
been the chief officer and in 1864 Clement L. Vallandigham
became the second in command. The great importance of the
Knights of the Golden Circle and its successors was due to its
opposition to the war policy of the Republican administration.
The plan was to overthrow the Lincoln government in the
elections and give to the Democrats the control of the state and
Federal governments, which would then make peace and invite
the Southern States to come back into the Union on the old foot-
ing. In order to obstruct and embarrass the Republican adminis-
tration the members of the order held peace meetings to influence
public opinion against the continuance of the war; purchased
arms to be used in uprisings, which were to place the peace party
in control of the Federal government, or failing in that to establish
a north-western confederacy; and took measures to set free the
Confederate prisoners in the north and bring the war to a forced
close. All these plans failed at the critical moment, and the most
effective work done by the order was in encouraging desertion
from the Federal armies, preventing enlistments, and resisting
the draft. Wholesale arrests of leaders and numerous seizures
of arms by the United States authorities resulted in a general
collapse of the order late in 1864. Three of the leaders were
sentenced to death by military commissions, but sentence was
suspended until 1866, when they were released under the decision
of the United States Supreme Court in the famous case Ex parte
Milligan.
AUTHORITIES. — An Authentic Exposition of the Knights of the
Golden Circle (Indianapolis, 1863) ; J. F. Rhodes, History of the United
States from the Compromise of 1850 (New York, 1905) vol. v. ;
E. McPherson, Political History of the Rebellion (Washington, 1876);
and W. D. Foulke, Life of 0. P. Morton (2 vols., New York, 1899).
KNIPPERDOLLINCK— KNOLLES
869
KNIPPERDOLLINCK (or KNIPPERDOLLING), BERNT (BEREND
or BERNHARDT) (c. 1490-1536), German divine, was a prosperous
cloth-merchant at Miinster when in 1524 he joined Melchior
Rinck and Melchior Hofman in a business journey to Stockholm,
which developed into an abortive religious errand. Knipper-
doliinck, a man of fine presence and glib tongue, noted from his
youth for eccentricity, had the ear of the Munster populace when
in 1 527 he helped to break the prison of Tonics Kruse, in the teeth
of the bishop and the civic authorities. For this he made his
peace with the latter; but, venturing on another business
journey, he was arrested, imprisoned for a year, and released
on payment of a high fine — in regard of which treatment he
began an action before the Imperial Chamber. Though his
aims were political rather, than religious, he attached himself
to the reforming movement of Bernhardt Rothmann, once
(1529) chaplain of St Mauritz, outside Munster, now (1532)
pastor of the city church of St Lamberti. A new bishop
directed a mandate (April 17, 1532) against Rothmann, which
had the effect of alienating the moderates in Munster from the
democrats. Knipperdollinck was a leader of the latter in the
surprise (December 26, 1532) which made prisoners of the negoti-
ating nobles at Telgte, in the territory of Miinster. In the end,
Munster was by charter from Philip of Hesse (February 14, 1533)
constituted an evangelical city. Knipperdollinck was made a
burgomaster in February 1534. Anabaptism had already (Sep-
tember 8, 1533) been proclaimed at Munster by a journeyman
smith; and, before this, Heinrich Roll, a refugee, had brought
Rothmann (May 1 533) to a rejection of infant baptism. From
the ist of January 1534 Roll preached Anabaptist doctrines
in a city pulpit; a few days later, two Dutch emissaries of Jan
Matthysz, or Matthyssen, the master-baker and Anabaptist
prophet of Haarlem, came on a mission to Munster. They were
followed (January 13) by Jan Beukelsz (or Bockelszoon, or
Buchholdt), better known as John of Leiden. It was his second
visit to Munster; he came now as an apostle of Matthysz. He was
twenty-five, with a winning personality, great gifts as an organizer,
and plenty of ambition. Knipperdollinck, whose daughter Clara
was ultimately enrolled among the wives of John of Leiden,
came under his influence. Matthysz himself came to Munster
(1534) and lived in Knipperdollinck 's house, which became the
centre of the new movement to substitute Munster for Strassburg
(Melchior Hofmann's choice) as the New Jerusalem. On the
death of Matthysz, in a foolish raid (April 5, 1534), John became
supreme. Knipperdollinck, with one attempt at revolt, when he
claimed the kingship for himself, was his subservient henchman,
wheedling the Munster democracy into subjection to the fantastic
rule of the " king of the earth." He was made second in com-
mand, and executioner of the refractory. He fell in with the
polygamy innovation, the protest of his wife being visited with a
penance. In the military measures for resisting the siege of
Munster he took no leading part. On the fall of the city (June 25,
1535) he hid in a dwelling in the city wall, but was betrayed
by his landlady. After six months' incarceration, his trial, along
with his comrades, took place on the igth of January, and his
execution, with fearful tortures, on the 22nd of January 1536.
Knipperdollinck attempted to strangle himself, but was forced
to endure the worst. His body, like those of the others, was
hung in a cage on the tower of St Lamberti, where the cages
are still to be seen. An alleged portrait, from an engraving
of 1607, is reproduced in the appendix to A. Ross's Pansebeia,
i65S-
See L. Keller, Geschichte der Wiedertaufer und thres Reicns zu
Munster (1880); C. A. Cornelius, Historische Arbeiten (1899); E.
Belfort Bax, Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists (1903). (A. Go.*)
KNITTING (from O.E. cnyttan, to knit; cf. Ger. Knutlen; the
root is seen in " knot "), the art of forming a single thread or
strand of yarn into a texture or fabric of a loop structure, by
employing needles or wires. " Crochet " work' is an analogous
art in its simplest form. It consists of forming a single thread
into a single chain of loops. All warp knit fabrics are built on
this structure. Knitting may be said to be divided into two
principles, viz. (i) hand knitting and (2) frame-work knitting
(see HOSIERY). In hand knitting, the wires, pins or needles used
are of different lengths or gauges, according to the class of work
wanted to be produced. They are made of steel, bone, wood or
ivory. Some are headed to prevent the loops from slipping
over the ends. Flat or selvedged work can only be produced on
them. Others are pointed at both ends, and by employing three
or more a circular or circular-shaped fabric can be made. In
hand knitting each loop is formed and thrown off individually
and in rotation and is left hanging on the new loop formed. The
cotton, wool and silk fibres are the principal materials from which
knitting yarns are manufactured, wool being the most important
and most largely used. " Lamb's-wool," " wheeling," " finger-
ing " and worsted yarns are all produced from the wool fibre, but
may differ in size or fineness and quality. Those yarns are largely
used in the production of knitted underwear. Hand knitting is
to-day principally practised as a domestic art, but in some of
the remote parts of Scotland and Ireland it is prosecuted as an
industry to some extent. In the Shetland Islands the wool of the
native sheep is spun, and used in its natural colour, being manu-
factured into shawls, scarfs, ladies' jackets, &c. The principal
trade of other districts is hose and half-hose, made from the
wool of the sheep native to the district. The formation of the
stitches in knitting may be varied in a great many ways, by
" purling " (knitting or throwing loops to back and front in rib
form), " slipping " loops, taking up and casting off and working in
various coloured yarns to form stripes, patterns, &c. The articles
may be shaped according to the manner in which the wires and
yarns are manipulated.
KNOBKERRIE (from the Taal or South African Dutch, knop-
kirie, derived from Du. knop, a knob or button, and kerrie, a
Bushman or Hottentot word for stick), a strong, short stick with
a rounded knob or head used by the natives of South Africa in
warfare and the chase. It is employed at close quarters, or as a
missile, and in time of peace serves as a walking-stick. The name
has been extended to similar weapons used by the natives of
Australia, the Pacific islands, and other places.
KNOLLES, RICHARD (c. 1545-1610), English historian, was
a native of Northamptonshire, and was educated at Lincoln
College, Oxford. He became a fellow of his Cullege, and at some
date subsequent to 1571 left Oxford to become master of a school
at Sandwich, Kent, where he died in 1610. In 1603 Knolles
published his Generall Historic of the Turkes, of which several
editions subsequently appeared, among them a good one edited
by Sir Paul Rycaut (1700), who brought the history down to
1699. It was dedicated to King James I., and Knolles availed
himself largely of Jean Jacques Boissard's Vitae et Icones Sullan-
orum Turcicorum (Frankfort, 1596). Although now entirely
superseded, it has considerable merits as regards style and
arrangement. Knolles published a translation of J. Bodin's
De Republica in 1606, but the Grammalica Lalina, Graeca et
Hebraica, attributed to him by Anthony Wood and others, is the
work of the Rev. Hanserd Knollys (c. 1599-1691), a Baptist
minister.
See the Athenaeum, August 6, 1881.
KNOLLES (or KNOLLYS), SIR ROBERT (c. 1325-1407), English
soldier, belonged to a Cheshire family. In early life he served
in Brittany, and he was one of the English survivors who were
taken prisoners by the French after the famous " combat of the
thirty " in March 1351. He was, however, quickly released and
was among the soldiers of fortune who took advantage of the
distracted state of Brittany, at this time the scene of a savage
civil war, to win fame and wealth at the expense of the wretched
inhabitants. After a time he transferred his operations to
Normandy, when he served under the allied standards of England
and of Charles II. of Navarre. He led the " great company " in
their work of devastation along the valley of the Loire, fighting
at this time for his own hand and for booty, and winning a terrible
reputation by his ravages. After the conclusion of the treaty
of Bretigny in 1360 Knolles returned to Brittany and took part
in the struggle for the possession of the duchy between John of
Montfort (Duke John IV.) and Charles of Blois, gaining great
fame by his conduct in the fight at Auray (September 1364), where
870
KNOLLYS
Du Guesclin was captured and Charles of Blois was slain. In
1367 he marched with the Black Prince into Spain and fought at
the battle of Najera; in 1369 he was with the prince in Aquitaine.
In 1370 he was placed by Edward III. at the head of an expe-
dition which invaded France and marched on Paris, but after
exacting large sums of money as ransom a mutiny broke up the
army, and its leader was forced to take refuge in his Breton castle
of Derval and to appease the disappointed English king with a
large monetary gift. Emerging from his retreat Knolles again
assisted John of Montfort in Brittany, where he acted as John's
representative ; later he led a force into Aquitaine, and he was one
of the leaders of the fleet sent against the Spaniards in 1377. In
1380 he served in France under Thomas of Woodstock, after-
wards duke of Gloucester, distinguishing himself by his valour at
the siege of Nantes; and in 1381 he went with Richard II. to
meet Wat Tyler at Smithfield. He died at Sculthorpe in Norfolk
on the isth of August 1407. Sir Robert devoted much of his
great wealth to charitable objects. He built a college and an
almshouse at Pontefract, his wife's birthplace, where the alms-
house still exists; he restored the churches of Sculthorpe and
Harpley; and he helped to found an English hospital in Rome.
Knolles won an immense reputation by his skill and valour in
the field, and ranks as one of the foremost captains of his age.
French writers call him Canolles, or Canole.
KNOLLYS, the name of an English family descended from
Sir Thomas Knollys (d. 1435), lord mayor of London. The first
distinguished member of the family was Sir Francis Knollys
(c. 1514-1596), English statesman, son of Robert Knollys, or
Knolles (d. 1521), a courtier in the service and favour of
Henry VII. and Henry VIII. Robert had also a younger
son, Henry, who took part in public life during the reign of
Elizabeth and who died in 1583.
Francis Knollys, who entered the service of Henry VIII.
before 1540, became a member of parliament in 1542 and was
knighted in 1 547 while serving with the English army in Scotland.
A strong and somewhat aggressive supporter of the reformed
doctrines, he retired to Germany soon after Mary became queen,
returning to England to become a privy councillor, vice-chamber-
lain of the royal household and a member of parliament under
Queen Elizabeth, whose cousin Catherine (d. 1569), daughter
of William Carey and niece of Anne Boleyn, was his wife. After
serving as governor of Plymouth, Knollys was sent in 1566 to
Ireland, his mission being to obtain for the queen confidential
reports about the conduct of the lord-deputy Sir Henry Sidney.
Approving of Sidney's actions he came back to England, and in
1568 was sent to Carlisle to take charge of Mary Queen of Scots,
who had just fled from Scotland; afterwards he was in charge of
the queen at Bolton Castle and then at Tutbury Castle. He dis-
cussed religious questions with his prisoner, although the extreme
Protestant views which he pat before her did not meet with
Elizabeth's approval, and he gave up the position of guardian
just after his wife's death in January 1 569. In 1 584 he introduced
into the House of Commons, where since 1572 he had represented
Oxfordshire, the bill legalizing the national association for
Elizabeth's defence, and he was treasurer of the royal household
from 1572 until his death on the igth of July 1596. His monu-
ment may still be seen in the church of Rotherfield Grays,
Oxfordshire. Knollys was repeatedly free and frank in his
objections to Elizabeth's tortuous foreign policy; but, possibly
owing to his relationship to the queen, he did not lose her favour,
and he was one of her commissioners on such important occasions
as the trials of Mary Queen of Scots, of Philip Howard earl of
Arundel, and of Anthony Babington. An active and lifelong
Puritan, his attacks on the bishops were not lacking in vigour,
and he was also very hostile to heretics. He received many
grants of land from the queen, and was chief steward of the city
of Oxford and a knight of the garter.
Sir Francis's eldest son Henry (d 1583), and his sons Edward
(d. c. 1580), Robert (d. 1625), Richard (d. 1596), Francis (d.
c. 1648), and Thomas, were all courtiers and served the queen in
parliament or in the field. His daughter Lettice (1540-1634)
married Walter Devereux, earl of Essex, and then Robert Dudley,
earl of Leicester; she was the mother of Elizabeth's favourite,
the 2nd earl of Essex.
Some of Knollys's letters are in.T. Wright's Queen Elizabeth and
her Times (1838) and the Burghley Papers, edited by S. Haynes
(1740) ; and a few of his manuscripts are still in existence. A speech
which Knollys delivered in parliament against some claims made by
the bishops was printed in 1608 and again in W. Stoughton's Assertion
for True and Christian Church Policie (London, 1642).
Sir Francis Knollys's second son William (c. 1547-1 63 2) N
served as a member of parliament and a soldier during the reign
of Queen Elizabeth, being knighted in 1 586. His eldest brother
Henry, having died without sons in 1583, William inherited his
father's estates in Oxfordshire, becoming in 1596 a privy council-
lor and comptroller of the royal household; in 1602 he was made
treasurer of the household. Sir William enjoyed the favour of the
new king James I., whom he had visited in Scotland in 1585, and
was made Baron Knollys in 1603 and Viscount Wallingford in
1616. But in this latter year his fortunes suffered a tem-
porary reverse. Through his second wife Elizabeth (1586-1658),
daughter of Thomas Howard, earl of Suffolk, Knollys was related
to Frances, countess of Somerset, and when this lady was tried for
the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury her relatives were regarded
with suspicion; consequently Lord Wallingford resigned the
treasurership of the household and two years later the mastership
of the court of wards, an office which he had held since 1614.
However, he regained the royal favour, and was created earl of
Banbury in 1626. He died in London on the 25th of May 1632.
His wife, who was nearly forty years her husband's junior,
was the mother of two sons, Edward (1627-1645) and Nicholas
(1631-1674), whose paternity has given rise to much dispute.
Neither is mentioned in the earl's will, but in 1641 the law courts
decided that Edward was earl of Banbury, and when he was killed
in June 1645 his brother Nicholas took the title. In the Con-
vention Parliament of 1660 some objection was taken to the earl
sitting in the House of Lords, and in 1661 he was not summoned
to parliament; he had not succeeded in obtaining Lis writ of
summons when he died on the i4th of March 1674.
Nicholas's son Charles (1662-1740), the 4th earl, had not been
summoned to parliament when in 1692 he killed Captain Philip
Lawson in a duel. This raised the question of his rank in a new
form. Was he, or was he not, entitled to trial by the peers?
The House of Lords declared that he was not a peer and therefore
not so entitled, but the court of king's bench released him from
his imprisonment on the ground that he was the earl of Banbury
and not Charles Knollys a commoner. Nevertheless the House
of Lords refused to move from its position, and Knollys had not
received a writ of summons when he died in April 1740. His son
Charles (1703-1771), vicar of Burford, Oxfordshire, and his
grandsons, William (1726-1776) and Thomas Woods (1727-1793),
were successively titular earls of Banbury, but they took no steps
to prove their title. However, in 1806 Thomas Woods's son
William (1763-1824), who attained the rank of general in the
British army, asked for a writ of summons as earl of Banbury,
but in 1813 the House of Lords decided against the claim.
Several peers, including the great Lord Erskine, protested against
this decision, but General Knollys himself accepted it and ceased
to call himself earl of Banbury. He died in Paris on the 2oth of
March 1834. His eldest son, Sir William Thomas Knollys (i 797-
1883), entered the army and served with the Guards during the
Peninsular War. Remaining in the army after the conclusion
of the peace of 181 5 he won a good reputation and rose high in his
profession. From 1855 to 1860 he was in charge of the military
camp at Aldershot, then in its infancy, and in 1861 he was made
president of the council of military education. From 1862 to
1877 he was comptroller of the household of the prince of Wales,
afterwards King Edward VII. From 1877 until his death on
the 23rd of June 1883 he was gentleman usher of the black rod;
he was also a privy councillor and colonel of the Scots Guards.
His son Francis (b. 1837), private secretary to Edward VII. and
George V., was created Baron Knollys in 1902; another son,
Sir Henry Knollys (b. 1840), became private secretary to King
Edward's daughter Maud, queen of Norway.
KNOT
871
See Sir N. H. Nicolas, Treatise on the Law of Adulterine Bastardy
1833); and G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage (1887), vol. i.
KNOT, a Limicoline bird very abundant at certain seasons
on the shores of Britain and many countries of the northern
hemisphere. Camden in the edition of his Britannia published
in 1607 (p. 408) inserted a passage not found in the earlier issues
of that work, connecting the name with that of King Canute,
and this account of its origin has been usually received. But no
other evidence in its favour is forthcoming, and Camden's state-
ment is merely the expression of an opinion,1 so that there is
perhaps ground for believing him to have been mistaken, and
that the clue afforded by Sir Thomas Browne, who (c. 1672)
wrote the name " Gnatts or Knots," may be the true one.2 Still
the statement was so determinedly repeated by successive
authors that Linnaeus followed them in calling the species
Tringa canutus, pndso it remains with nearly all modern ornitho-
logists.3 Rather larger than a snipe, but with a shorter bill
and legs, the knot visits the coasts of some parts of Europe, Asia
and North America at times in vast flocks; and, though in tem-
perate climates a good many remain throughout the winter,
these are nothing in proportion to those that arrive towards the
end of spring, in England generally about the isth of May, and
after staying a few days pass northward to their summer quar-
ters, while early in autumn the young of the year throng to the
same places in still greater numbers, being followed a little later
by their parents. In winter the plumage is ashy-grey above
(save the rump, which is white) and white beneath. In summer
the feathers of the back are black, broadly margined with light
orange-red, mixed with white, those of the rump white, more or
less tinged with red, and the lower parts are of a nearly uniform
deep bay or chestnut. The birds which winter in temperate
climates seldom attain the brilliancy of colour exhibited by those
which arrive from the south; the luxuriance generated by the
heat of a tropical sun seems needed to develop the full richness of
hue. The young when they come from their birthplace are
clothed in ashy-grey above, each feather banded with dull
black and ochreous, while the breast is more or less deeply tinged
with warm buff. Much curiosity has long existed among zoolo-
gists as to the egg of the knot, of which not a single identified
or authenticated specimen is known to exist in collections. The
species was found breeding abundantly on the North Georgian
(now commonly called the Parry) Islands by Parry's Arctic
expedition, as well as soon after on Melville Peninsula by Captain
Lyons, and again during the voyage of Sir George Nares on the
northern coast of Grinnell Land and the shores of Smith Sound,
where Major Feilden obtained examples of the newly hatched
young (Ibis, 1877, p. 407), and observed that the parents fed
largely on the buds of Saxifraga oppositifolia. These are the
only localities in which this species is known to breed, for on
none of the arctic lands lying to the north of Europe or Asia has
it been unquestionably observed.4 In winter its wanderings
are very extensive, as it is recorded from Surinam, Brazil,
Walfisch Bay in South Africa, China, Queensland and New
Zealand. Formerly this species was extensively netted in
England, and the birds fattened for the table, where they were
1 His words are simply " Knotts, i. Canuti aues, vt opinor e Dania
enim aduolare creduntur." In the margin the name is spelt " Cnotts, '
and he possibly thought it had to do with a well-known story of that
king. Knots undoubtedly frequent the sea-shore, where Canute is
said on one occasion to have taken up his station, bilt they generally
retreat, and that nimbly, before the advancing surf, which he is said
in the story not to have done.
1 In this connexion we may compare the French manngomn
ordinarily a gnat or mosquito, but also, among the French Creoles
of America, a small shore-bird, either a Tringa or an Aegialitis
according to Descourtilz (Voyage, ii. 249). See also Littres
Dictionnaire, s.v.
3 There are few of the Limicolae, to which group the knot belongs
that present greater changes of plumage according to age or season
and hence before these phases were understood the species became
encumbered with many synonyms, as Tringa cinerea, ferruginea
grisea, islandica, naevia and so forth. The confusion thus caused
was mainly cleared away by Montagu and Temminck.
4 The Tringa canutus of Payer's expedition seems more likely to
have been T. maritima, which species is not named among the birds
of Franz Josef Land, though it can hardly fail to occur there.
esteemed a great delicacy, as witness the entries in the Northum-
)erland and Le Strange Household Books; and the British
Museum contains an old treatise on the subject: "The maner of
.epyng of knotts, after Sir William Askew and my Lady, given
to my Lord Darcy, 25 Hen. VIII." (MSS. Sloane, 1592, 8 cat.
663). (A. N.)
KNOT (O.E. cnolta, from a Teutonic stem knutt; cf. " knit,"
and Ger. knoten), an intertwined loop of rope, cord, string or
other flexible material, used to fasten two such ropes, &c., to one
another, or to another object. (For the various forms which
such " knots " may take see below.) The word is also used for
the distance-marks on a log-line, and hence as the equivalent of
a nautical mile (see LOG), and for any hard mass, resembling a
tnot drawn tight, especially one formed in the trunk of a tree
at the place of insertion of a branch. Knots in wood are the
remains of dead branches which have become buried in the wood
of the trunk or branch on which they were borne. When a
branch dies down or is broken off, the dead stump becomes grown
over by a healing tissue, and, as the stem which bears it increases
in thickness, gradually buried in the newer wood. When a sec-
tion is made of the stem the dead stump appears in the section
as a knot; thus in a board it forms a circular piece of wood,
liable to fall out and leave a " knot-hole." " Knot " or " knob "
is an architectural term for a bunch of flowers, leaves or other
ornamentation carved on a corbel or on a boss. The word is
also applied figuratively to any intricate problem, hard to dis-
entangle, a use stereotyped in the proverbial " Gordian knot,"
which, according to the tradition, was cut by Alexander the
Great (see GORDIUM).
Knots, Bends, Hitches, Splices and Seizings are all ways of
fastening cords or ropes, either to some other object such as a
spar, or a ring, or to one another. The " knot " is formed to
make a knob on a rope, generally at the extremity, and by un-
twisting the strands at the end and weaving them together.
But it may be made by turning the rope on itself through a loop,
as for instance, the " overhand knot " (fig. i). A " bend "
(from the same root as " bind "), and a " hitch " (an O.E. word),
are ways of fastening or tying ropes together, as in the " Carrick
bend" (fig. 21), or round spars as the Studding Sail Halyard
Bend (fig. 19), and the Timber Hitch (fig. 20). A "splice"
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
(from the same root as " split ") is made by untwisting two rope
ends and weaving them together. A " seizing " (Fr. saisir) is
made by fastening two spars to one another by a rope, or two
ropes by a third, or by using one rope to make a loop on another
— as for example the Racking Seizing (fig. 41), the Round Seizing
(fig. 40), and the Midshipman's Hitch (fig. 29). The use of the
words is often arbitrary. There is, for instance, no difference in
principle between the Fisherman's Bend (fig. 18) and the Timber
Hitch (fig. 20). Speaking generally, the Knot and the Seizing
are meant to be permanent, and must be unwoven in order to be
unfastened, while the Bend and Hitch can be undone at once by
pulling the ropes in the reverse direction from that in which they
are meant to hold. Yet the Reef Knot (figs. 3 and 4) can be cast
loose with ease, and is wholly different in principle, for instance,
from the Diamond Knot (figs. 42 and 43). These various foims
of fastening are employed in many kinds of industry, as for
example in scaffolding, as well as in seamanship. The governing
principle is that the strain which pulls against them shall draw
them tighter. The ordinary " knots and splices " are described
in every book on seamanship.
Overhand Knot (fig. i). — Used at the end of ropes to prevent their
unreeving and as the commencement of other knots. Take the end
o round the end b.
872
KNOT
Figure-of-Eight Knot (fig. 2). — Used only to prevent ropes from
unreeving; it forms a large knob.
Reef Knot (figs. 3, 4). — Form an overhand knot as above. Then
take the end a over the end 6 and through the bight. If the end a
FIG. 3. FIG. 4.
were taken under the end 6, a granny would be formed. This knot
is so named from being used in tying the reef-points of a sail.
Bowline (figs. 5-7). — Lay the end a of a rope over the standing
part b. Form with b a bight c over a. Take a round behind b and
FIG. 5.
down through the bight c.
form a loop which will not slip.
FIG. 6. FIG. 7.
This is a most useful knot employed to
Running bowlines are formed by
FIG. 8.
FIG. 9.
FIG. 10.
making a bowline round its own standing part above 6. It is the
most common and convenient temporary running noose.
Bowline on a Bight (figs. 8, 9). — The first part is made similar to
the above with the double part of the rope ; then the bight a is pulled
through sufficiently to allow it to be bent over past d and come up
in the position shown in fig. 9. It makes a more comfortable sling
for a man than a single bight.
Half-Hitch (fig. 10). — Pass the end a of the rope round the standing
part 6 and through the bight.
Two Half-Hitches (fig. ll). — The half-hitch repeated; this is
commonly used, and is capable of resisting to the full strength of
the rope. A stop from a to the standing part will prevent it jam-
ming.
Clove Hitch (figs. 12, 13). — Pass the end a round a spar and cross
FIG. ii.
FIG. 12.
FIG. 13.
it over b. Pass it round the spar again and put the end a through
the second bight.
Blackball Hitch (fig. 14). — Form a bight at the end of a rope, and
put the hook of a tackle through the bight so that the end of the rope
may be jammed between the standing part and the back of the hook.
Double Blackwall Hitch (fig. 15). — Pass the end a twice round the
hook and under the standing part 6 at the last cross.
Cat's-paw (fig. 1 6). — Twist up_two parts of a lanyard in opposite
directions and hook the tackle in the eyes *, »'. A piece of wood
Fig. 14.
FIG. 15.
FIG. 16.
FIG. 17.
should be placed between the parts at g. A large lanyard should
be clove-hitched round a large toggle and a strap passed round it
below the toggle.
Marling-spike Hitch (fig. 17). — Lay the end a over c; fold the loop
over on the standing part b; then pass the marline-spike through,
over both parts of the bight and under the part b. Used for tighten-
ing each turn of a seizing.
Fisherman's Bend (fig. 1 8). —Take two turns round a spar, then a
FIG. 18. FIG. 19. FIG. 20.
half-hitch round the standing part and between the spar and the
turns, lastly a half-hitch round the standing part.
Studding-sail Halyard Bend (fig. 19). — Similar to the above, except
that the end is tucked under the first round turn; this is more snug.
A magnus hitch has two round turns and one on the other side of
the standing part with the end through the bight.
Timber Hitch (fig. 20).— Take the end a of a rope round a spar,
then round the standing part 6, then several times round its own
part c, against the lay 01 the rope.
Carrick Bend (fig. 21).— Lay the end of one hawser over its own
part to form a bight as e', b; pass the end of another hawser up through
that bight near 6, going out over the first end at c, cross-
ing under the first long part and over its end at d, then
under both long parts, forming the loops, and above
the first short part at b, terminating at the end e", in
the opposite direction vertically and horizontally to the
other end. The ends should be securely stopped to
their respective standing parts, and also a stop put on
the becket or extreme end to prevent it catching a pipe
or chock; in that form this is the best quick means of
uniting two large hawsers, since they cannot jam. When
large hawsers have to work through small pipes, good
security may be obtained either by passing ten or twelve
taut racking turns with a suitable strand and securing
each end to a standing part of the hawser, or by taking
half as many round turns taut, crossing the ends between
the hawsers over the seizing and reef-knotting the ends.
This should be repeated in three places and the extreme
ends well stopped. Connecting hawsers by bowline
knots is very objectionable, as the bend is large and the
knots jam.
Sheet Bend (fig. 22). — Pass the end of one rope through fiQ. 2i.
the bight of another, round both parts of the other, and
under its own standing part. Used for bending small sheets to the
clews of sails, which present bights ready for the hitch. An
ordinary net is composed of a series of sheet bends. A weaver's knot
is made like a sheet bend.
Single Wall Knot (fig. 23). — Unlay the end of a rope, and with
the strand a form a bight. Take the next strand 6 round the end of a.
KNOT
873
Take the last strand c round the end of 6 and through the bight made
by a. Haul the ends taut.
Single Wall Crowned (fig. 24). — Form a single wall, and lay one
of the ends, a, over the knot. Lay b over a, and c over b and through
the bight of a. Haul the ends taut.
FIG. 22.
FIG. 23.
FIG. 24.
Double Wall and Double Crown (fig. 25). — Form a single wall
crowned ; then let the ends follow their own parts round until all the
parts appear double. Put the ends down through the knot.
Matthew Walker (figs. 26, 27). — Unlay the end of a rope. Take
the first strand round the rope and through its own bight; the
second strand round the rope, through the bight of the first, and
through its own bight ; the third through all three bights. Haul the
ends taut.
Inside Clinch (fig. 28). — The end is bent close round the standing
part till it forms a circle and a half, when it is securely seized at a, b
and c, thus making a running eye; when taut round anything it
jams the end. It is used for securing hemp cables to anchors,
FIG. 25.
FIG. 26.
FIG. 27.
FIG. 28.
the standing parts of topsail sheets, and for many other purposes.
If the eye were formed outside the bight an outside clinch would
be made, depending entirely on the seizings, but more ready for
slipping.
Midshipman's Hitch (fig. 29). — Take two round turns inside the
bight, the same as a half-hitch repeated; stop up the end or let
another half-hitch be taken or held by hand. Used for hooking a
tackle for a temporary purpose.
Turk's Head (fig. 30). — With fine line (very dry) make a clove
hitch round the rope ; cross the bights twice, passing an end the re-
verse way (up or down) each time ; then keeping the whole spread flat,
FIG. 29. FIG. 30.
FIG. 31.
FIG. 32.
let each end follow its own part round and round till it is too tight
to receive any more. Used as an ornament variously on side-ropes
and foot-ropes of jibbooms. It may also be made with three ends,
two formed by the same piece of line secured through the rope and
one single piece. Form with them a diamond knot; then each end
crossed over its neighbour follows its own part as above.
Spanish Windlass (fig. 31). — An iron bar and two marling-spikes
are taken ; two parts of a seizing are twisted like a cat's-paw (fig. 1 6),
passed round the bar, and hove round till sufficiently taut. In
heaving shrouds together to form an eye two round turns are taken
with a strand and the two ends hove upon. When a lever is placed
between the parts of a long lashing or trapping and hove round,
we have what is also called a Spanish windlass.
Slings (fig. 32). — This is simply the bight of a rope turned up over
its own part ; it is frequently made of chain, when a shackle (bow up)
takes the place of the bight at s and another at y, connecting the
two ends with the part which goes round the mast-head. Used to
sling lower yards. For boat's yards it should be a grummet with a
thimble seized in at y. As the tendency of all yards is to cant
forward with the weight of the sail, the part marked by an arrow
should be the fore-side — easily illustrated by a round ruler and a
piece of twine.
Sprit-Sail Sheet Knot (fig. 33). — This knot consists of a double wall
and double crown made by the two ends, consequently with six
strands, with the ends turned down. Used formerly in the clews of
sails, now as an excellent stopper, a lashing or shackle being placed
at i and a lanyard round the head at /.
Turning in a Dead-Eye Cutter-Stay fashion (fig. 34). — A bend is
made in the stay or shroud round its own part and hove together
FIG. 33.
FIG. 34.
FIG. 35-
with a "car and strand ; two or three seizings diminishing in size (one
round and one or two either round or flat) are hove on taut and snug,
the end being at the side of the fellow part. The dead-eye is put in
and the eye driven down with a commander.
Turning in a Dead-Eye end up (fig. 35). — The shroud is measured
round the dead-eye and marked where a throat-seizing is hove on;
the dead-eye is then forced into its place, or it may be put in first.
The end beyond a is taken up taut and secured with a round seizing ;
higher still the end is secured by another seizing. As it is important
that the lay should always be kept in the rope as much as possible,
these eyes should be formed conformably, either right-handed or
left-handed. It is easily seen which way a rope would naturally
kink by putting a little extra twist into it. A shroud whose dead-
eye is turned in end up will bear a fairer strain, but is more dependent
on the seizings; the under turns of the throat are the first to break
and the others the first to slip. With the cutter-stay fashion the
standing part of the shroud gives way under the nip of the eye.
A rope will afford the greatest resistance to strain when secured round
large thimbles with a straight end and a sufficient number of flat
or racking seizings. To splice shrouds round dead-eyes is objection-
able on account of opening the strands and admitting water, thus
hastening decay. In small vessels, especially yachts, it is admis-
sible on the score of neatness; in that case a round seizing is placed
between the dead-eye and the splice. The dead-eyes should be in
diameter l| times the circumference of a hemp shroud and thrice
that of wire; the lanyard should be half the nominal size of hemp
and the same size as wire: thus, hemp-shroud 12 in., wire 6 in.,
dead-eye 1 8 in., lanyard 6 in.
Short Splice (fig. 36). — The most common description of splice is
when a rope is lengthened by another of the same size, or nearly so.
FIG. 36 represents a splice of
this kind: the strands have
been unlaid, married and
passed through with the assist-
ance of a marling-spike, over
one strand and .under the next,
twice each way. The ends are **p^ rIG. 36.
then cut off close. To render the splice neater the strands should
have been halved before turning them in a second time, the upper
half of each strand only being turned in ; then all are cut off smooth.
Eye Splice. — Unlay the strands and place them upon the same rope
spread at such a distance as to give the size of the eye; enter the
centre strand (unlaid) under a strand of the rope (as above), and the
other two in a similar manner on their respective sides of the first ;
taper each end and pass them through again. If neatness is desired,
reduce the ends and pass them through once more; cut off smooth
and serve the part disturbed tightly with suitable hard line. Uses
too numerous to mention. Cut Sphce. — Made in a similar manner
to an eye splice, but of two pieces of rope, therefore with two splices.
Used for mast-head pendants, jib-guys, breast backstays, and even
odd shrouds, to keep the eyes of the rigging lower by one part.
It is not so strong as two separate eyes. Horseshoe Splice, — Made
similar to the above, but one part much shorter than the other, or
another piece of rope is spliced across an eye, forming a horseshoe
with two long legs. Used for back-ropes on dolphin striker, back
stays (one on each side) and cutter's runner pendants. Long Splice.
— The strands must be unlaid about three times as much as for a
short splice and married — care being taken to preserve the lay or
shape of each. Unlay one of the strands still further and follow up
KNOT
the vacant space with the corresponding strand of the other part,
fitting it firmly into the rope till only a few inches remain. Treat
the other side in a.similar manner. There will then appear two long
strands in the centre and a long and a short one on each side. The
splice is practically divided into three distinct parts; at each the
strands are divided and the corresponding halves knotted (as shown
on the top of fig. 38) and turned in twice. The half strand may, if
desired, be still further reduced before the halves are turned in for the
second time. This and all.other splices should be well stretched and
hammered into shape before the ends are cut off. The long splice
alone is adapted to running ropes.
Shroud Knot (fig. 37). — Pass a stop at such distance from each end
of the broken shroud as to afford sufficient length of strands, when it
is unlaid, to form a single wall
knot on each side after the
parts have been married; it will
then appear as represented in
the figure, the strands having
| been well tarred and hove taut
IG' 37- separately. The part a provides
the knot on the opposite side and the ends b, b; the part c pro-
vides the knot and the ends d, d. After the knot has been
well stretched the ends are tapered, laid smoothly between the
strands of the shroud, and firmly served over. This knot is used when
shrouds or stays are broken. French Shroud Knot. — Marry the parts
with a similar amount of end as before ; stop one set of strands taut
up on the shroud (to keep the parts together), and turn the ends
back on their own part, forming bights. Make a single wall knot
with the other three strands round the said bights and shroud;
haul the knot taut first and stretch the whole ; then heave down the
bights close: it will look like the ordinary shroud knot. It is very
liable to slip. If the ends by which the wall knot is made after
being hove were passed through the bights, it would make the
knot stronger. The ends would be tapered and served.
Flemish Eye (fig. 38). — Secure a spar or toggle twice the circum-
ference of the rope intended to be rove through the eye; unlay the
rope which is to form the eye about
three times its circumference, at which
part place a strong whipping. Point
the rope vertically under the eye, and
bind it taut up by the core if it is four-
stranded rope, otherwise by a few yarns.
While doing so arrange six or twelve
pieces of spun-yarn at equal distances on
the wood and exactly halve the number
of yarns that have been unlaid. If it
is a small rope, select two or three
yarns from each side near the centre;
cross them over the top at a, and half-
knot them tightly. So continue till all
are expended and drawn down tightly on the opposite side to that
from which they came, being thoroughly intermixed. Tie the pieces
of spun-yarn which were placed under the eye tightly round various
parts, to keep the eye in shape when taken off the spar, till they are
replaced by turns of marline hove on as taut as possible, the hitches
forming a central line outside the eye. Heave on a good seizing of
spun-yarn close below the spar, and another between six and twelve
inches below the first ; it may then be parcelled and served ; the eye
is served over twice, and well tarred each time. As large ropes are
composed of so many yarns, a greater number must be knotted over
the toggle each time; a 4-in. rope has 132 yarns, which would require
22 knottings of six each time; a lo-in. rope has 834 yarns, therefore,
if ten are taken from each side every time, about twice that number
of hitches will be required ; sometimes only half the yarns are hitched,
the others being merely passed over. The chief use of these eyes has
been to form the collars of stays, the whole stay in each case having
to be rove through it — a very inconvenient device. It is almost
superseded for that purpose by a leg spliced in the stay and lashing
eyes abaft the mast, for which it is commonly used at present.
This eye is not always called by the same name, but the weight of
evidence is in favour of calling it a Flemish eye. Ropemaker's Eye,
which also has alternative names, is formed by taking out of a rope
one strand longer by 6 in. or a foot than the required eye, then placing
the ends of the two strands a similar distance below the disturbance
of the one strand, that is, at the size of the eye; the single strand is
led back through the vacant space it left till it arrives at the neck of
the eye, with a similar length of spare end to the other two strands.
They are all seized together, scraped, tapered, marled and served.
The principal merit is neatness. Mouse on a Stay. — Formed by
turns of coarse spun-yarn hove taut round the stay, over parcelling
at the requisite distance from the eye to form the collar; assistance
is given by a padding of short yarns distributed equally round the
rope, which, after being firmly secured, especially at what is to be
the under part, are turned back over the first layer and seized down
again, thus making a shoulder; sometimes it is formed with parcelling
only. In either case it is finished by marling, followed by serving
or grafting. The use is to prevent the Flemish eye in the end of the
stay from slipping up any farther.
Rolling Hitch (fig. 39). — Two round turns are taken round a spar
or large rope in the direction in which it is to be hauled and one half-
FIG. 38.
hitch on the other side of the hauling part. This is very useful, as it
can be put on and off quickly.
Round Seizing (fig. 40).- — So named when the rope it secures does
not cross another and there are three sets of turns. The size of the
tas:
FIG. 39.
FIG. 40.
seizing line is about one-sixth (nominal) that of the ropes to be
secured, but varies according to the number of turns to be taken. An
eye is spliced in the line and the end rove through it, embracing both
parts. If either part is to be spread open, commence farthest from
that part; place tarred canvas under the seizing ; pass the line round
as many times (with much slack) as it is intended to have under-
turns; and pass the end back through them all and through the eye.
Secure the eye from rendering round by the ends of its splice ; heave
the turns on with a marling-spike (see fig. 17), perhaps seven or nine;
haul the end through taut, and commence again the riding turns
in the hollows of the first. If the end is not taken back through the
eye, but pushed up between the last two turns (as is sometimes
recommended), the riders must be passed the opposite way in order
to follow the direction of the under-turns, which are always one more
in number than the riders. When the riders are complete, the end is
forced between the last lower turns and two cross turns are taken, the
end coming up where it went down, when a wall knot is made with
the strands and the ends cut close; or the end may be taken once
round the shroud. Throat Seizing. — Two ropes or parts of ropes
are laid on each other parallel and receive a seizing similar to that
shown in figure 35 — that is with upper and riding but no cross
turns. As the two parts of rope are intended to turn up at right
angles to the direction in which they were secured, the seizing should
be of stouter line and short, not exceeding seven lower and six riding
turns. The end is better secured with a turn round the standing part.
Used for turning in dead-eyes and variously. Flat Seizing. — Com-
menced similarly to the above, but it has neither riding nor cross
turns.
Racking Seizing (fig. 41 ). — A running eye having been spliced round
one part of the rope, the line is passed entirely round the other part,
FIG. 41.
FIG. 42. FIG. 43.
crossed back round the first part, and so on for ten to twenty turns,
according to the expected strain, every turn being hove as tight as
possible; after which round turns are passed to fill the spaces at
the back of each rope, by taking the end a over both parts into the
hollow at b, returning at c, and going over to d. When it reaches e
a turn may be taken round that rope only, the end rove under it,
and a half-hitch taken, which will form a clove-hitch ; knot the end
and cut it close. When the shrouds are wire (which is half the size
of_hemp) and the end turned up round a dead-eye of any kind, wire
seizings are preferable. It appears very undesirable to have wire
rigging combined with plates or screws for setting it up, as in case
of accident — such as that of the mast going over the side, a shot or
collision breaking the ironwork — the seamen are powerless.
Diamond Knot (figs. 42, 43). — The rope must be unlaid as far as the
centre if the knot is required there, and the strands handled with
great care to keep the lay in them. Three bights are turned up as in
fig. 42, and the end of a is taken over b and up the bight c. The end
of 6 is taken over c and up through o. The end c is taken over a
and through 6. When hauled taut and the strands are laid up again
it will appear as in fig. 43. Any number of knots may be made on the
same rope. They were used on man-ropes, the foot-ropes on the jib-
boom, and similar places, where it was necessary to give a good hold
for the hands or feet. Turk's heads are now generally used. Double
Diamond. — Made by the ends of a single diamond following their
own part till the knot is repeated. Used at the upper end of a side
rope as an ornamental stopper-knot.
Strapping-Blocks. — There are various modes of securing blocks to
ropes; the most simple is to splice an eye at the end of the rope a
little longer than the block and pass a round seizing to keep it in
place; such is the case with jib-pendants. As a general rule, the
parts of a strop combined should possess greater strength than the
parts of the fall which act against it. The shell of an ordinary block
KNOT
B75
should be about three times the circumference of the rope which is
to reeve through it, as a 9-in. block for a 3-in. rope ; but small ropes
require larger blocks in proportion, as a 4-in. block for a i-in. rope.
When the work to be done is very important the blocks are much
larger: brace-blocks are more than five times the nominal size of the
brace. Leading-blocks and sheaves in racks are generally smaller
than the blocks through which the ropes pass farther away, which
appears to be a mistake, 'as more power is lost by friction. A clump-
block should be double the nominal size of the rope. A single strop
may be made by joining the ends of a rope of sufficient length to go
round the block and thimble by a common short splice, which rests
on the crown of the block (the opposite end to the thimble) and is
stretched into place by a jigger; a strand is then passed twice round
f t
FIG. 44.
FIG. 45.
the space between the block and the thimble and hove taut by a
Spanish windlass to cramp the parts together ready for the reception
of a small round seizing. The cramping or pinching into shape is
sometimes done by machinery invented by a rigger in Portsmouth
dockyard. The strop may be made the required length by a long
splice, but it would not possess any advantage.
Grummet-Strop (fig. 44). — Made by unlaying a piece of rope of the
desired size about a foot more than three times the length required
for the strop. Place the centre of the rope round the block and
thimble; mark with chalk where the parts cross; take one strand out
of the rope ; bring the two chalk marks together ; and cross the strand
in the lay on both sides, continuing round and round till the two
ends meet the third time ; they are then halved, and the upper halves
half-knotted and passed over and under the next strands, exactly
as one part of a long splice. A piece of worn or well-stretched
rope will better retain its shape, upon which success entirely depends.
The object is neatness, and if three or multiples of three strops are
to be made it is economical.
Double Strop (fig. 45). — Made with one piece of rope, the splice
being brought as usual to the crown of the block t, the bights fitting
into scores some inches apart, converging to the upper part, above
which the thimble receives the bights a, a; and the four parts of the
strop are secured at s, s by a round seizing doubly crossed. If the
block be not then on the right slew (the shell horizontal or vertical)
a union thimble is used with another strop, which produces the de-
sired effect; thus the fore and main brace-blocks, being very large
and thin, are required (for appearance) to lie horizontally; a single
strop round the yard vertically has a union thimble between it and
the double strop round the block. The double strop is used for large
blocks; it gives more support to the shell than the single strop and
admits of smaller rope being used. Wire rope is much used for
block-strops; the fitting is similar. Metal blocks are also used in
fixed positions; durability is their chief recommendation. Great
care should be taken that they do not chafe the ropes which pass
by them as well as those which reeve through.
Selvagee Strop. — Twine, rope-yarn or rope is warped round two
or more pegs placed at the desired distance apart, till it assumes
the requisite size and strength; the two ends are then knotted or
spliced. Temporary firm seizings are i pplied in several places
to bind the parts together before the rope or twine is removed from
the pegs, after which it is marled with suitable material. A large
strop should be warped round four or six pegs in order to give it
the shape in which it is to be used. This description of strop is much
stronger and more supple than rope of similar size. Twine strops
(covered with duck) are used for boats' blocks and in similar places
requiring neatness. Rope-yarn and spun-yarn strops are used
for attaching luff-tackles to shrouds and for many similar purposes.
To bring to a shroud or hawser, the centre of the strop is passed round
the rope and each part crossed three or four times before hooking
the " luff "; a spun-yarn stop above the centre will prevent slipping
and is very necessary with wire rope. As an instance of a large
selvagee block-strop being used — when the " Melville " was hove
down at Chusan (China), the main-purchase-block was double
stropped with a selvagee containing 28 parts of 3-in. rope; that would
produce 112 parts in the neck, equal to a breaking strain of 280 tons,
which is more than four parts of a ig-in cable. The estimated
strain it bore was 80 tons.
Stoppers for ordinary running ropes are made by splicing a piece
of rope to a bolt or to a hook and thimble, unlaying 3 or 4 ft., tapering
it by cutting away some of the yarns, and marling it down securely,
with a good whipping also on the end. It is used by taking a half-
hitch round the rope which is to be hauled upon, dogging the end
up in the lay and holding it by hand. The rope can come through
it when hauled, but cannot go back.
Whipping and Pointing. — The end of every working rope should
at least be whipped to prevent it fagging out ; in ships of war and
yachts they are invariably pointed. Whipping is done by placing
the end of a piece of twine or knittle-stuff on a rope about an inch
from the end, taking three or four turns taut over it (working towards
the end) ; the twine is then laid on the rope again lengthways con-
trary to the first, leaving a slack bight of twine; and taut turns
are repeatedly passed round the rope, over the first end and over the
bight, till there are in all six to ten turns; then haul the bight taut
through between the turns and cut it close. To point a rope, place
a good whipping a few inches from the end, according to size; open
out the end entirely; select all the outer yarns and twist them into
knittles either singly or two or three together; scrape down and taper
the central part, marling it firmly. Turn every alternate knittle
and secure the remainder down by a turn of twine or a smooth
yarn hitched close up, which acts as the weft in weaving. The
knittles are then reversed aud another turn of the weft taken, and
this is continued till far enough to look well. At the last turn the
ends of the knittles which are laid back are led forward over and
under the weft and hauled through tightly, making it present a circle
of small bights, level with which the core is cut off smoothly. Hawsers
and large ropes have a becket formed in their ends during the process
of pointing. A piece of I to I i in. rope about ij to 2 ft. long is
spliced into the core by each end while it is open : from four to seven
yarns (equal to a strand) are taken at a time and twisted up ; open the
ends of the becket only sufficient to marry them close in ; turn in the
twisted yarns between the strands (as splicing) three times, and stop
it above and below. Both ends are treated alike ; when the pointing
is completed a loop a few inches in length will protrude from the end
of the rope, which is very useful for reeving it. A hauling line or
reeving line should only be rove through the becket as a fair lead.
Grafting is very similar to pointing, and frequently done the whole
length of a rope, as a side-rope. Pieces of white line more than
double the length of the rope, sufficient in number to encircle it,
FIG. 46.
are made up in hanks called foxes; the centre of each is made fast
by twine and the weaving process continued as in pointing. Block-
strops are sometimes so covered; but, as it causes decay, a small wove
mat which can be taken off occasionally is preferable.
Sheep-Shank (fig. 46). — Formed by making a long bight in a top-
gallant back-stay, or any rope which it is desirable to shorten,
and taking a half-hitch near each bend, as at a, a. Rope-yarn stops
at b, b are desirable to keep it in place till the strain is brought on it.
Wire rope cannot be so treated, and it is injurious to hemp rope that
is large and stiff.
Knotting Yarns (fig. 47). — This operation becomes necessary when
a comparatively short piece of junk is to be made into spun-yarn,
or large rope into small, which is called twice laid. The end of each
yarn is divided, rubbed smooth and married (as for splicing).
Two of the divided parts, as c, c and d, d, are passed in opposite
directions round all the other parts and knotted. The ends e and /
remain passive. The figure is drawn open, but the forks of A and
B should be pressed close together, the knot hauled taut and the
ends cut off.
Butt Slings (fig. 48). — Made of 4-in. rope, each pair being 26 ft.
in length, with an eye spliced in one end, through which the other
FIG. 47. FIG. 48.
is rove before being placed over one end of the cask; the rope is then
passed round the opposite side of the cask and two half-hitches made
with the end, forming another running eye, both of which are beaten
down taut as the tackle receives the weight. Slings for smaller
casks requiring care should be of this description, though of smaller
rope, as the cask cannot possibly slip out. Bale Slings are made by
splicing the ends of about 3 fathoms of 3-in. rope together, which then
looks like a long strop, similar to the double strop represented in
fig- 45— the bights / being placed under the cask or bale and one of the
876
KNOUT— KNOWLES, SIR J.
bights a, a rove through the other and attached to the whip or
tackle.
For a complete treatise on the subject the reader may be referred
to The Book of Knots, being a Complete Treatise on the Art of Cordage,
illustrated by 172 Diagrams, showing the Manner of making every Knot,
Tie and Splice, by Tom Bowling (London, 1890).
Mathematical Theory of Knots.
In the scientific sense a knot is an endless physical line which
cannot be deformed into a circle. A physical line is flexible and
inextensible, and cannot be cut — so that no lap of it can be
drawn through another.
The founder of the theory of knots is undoubtedly Johann
Benedict Listing (1808-1882). In his " Vorstudien zur Topo-
logie " (Gottinger Studien, 1847), a work in many respects of
startling originality, a few pages only are devoted to the subject.1
He treats knots from the elementary notion of twisting one
physical line (or thread) round another, aud shows that from
the projection of a knot en a surface we can thus obtain a notion
of the relative situation of its coils. He distinguishes " reduced "
from " reducible " forms, the number of crossings in the reduced
knot being the smallest possible. The simplest form of reduced
knot is of two species, as in figs. 49 and 50. Listing points out
that these are formed, the first by right-handed the second by
left-handed twisting. In fact, if three half-twists be given to a
long strip of paper, and the ends be then pasted together, the
two edges become one line, which is the knot in question. We
may free it by slitting the paper along its middle line; and then
we have the juggler's trick of putting a knot on an endless un-
knotted band. One of the above forms cannot be deformed into
the other. The one is, in Listing's language, the " perversion "
of the other, i.e. its image in a plane mirror. He gives a method
of symbolizing reduced knots, but shows that in this method the
same knot may, in certain cases, be represented by different
symbols. It is clear that the brief notice he published contains
a mere sketch of his investigations.
The most extensive dissertation on the properties of knots is
that of Peter Guthrie Tail (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., xxviii. 145,
where the substance of a number of papers in the Proceedings
of the same society is reproduced). It was for the most part
written in ignorance of the work of Listing, and was suggested
by an inquiry concerning vortex atoms.
Tait starts with the almost self-evident proposition that, if any
plane closed curve have double points only, in passing continuously
along the curve from one of these to the same again an even number
of double points has been passed through. Hence the crossings
may be taken alternately over and under. On this he bases a scheme
for the representation of knots of every kind, and employs it to find
all the distinct forms of knots which have, in their simplest projec-
can be fully represented by three closed plane curves, none of which
. has double points and no two of which intersect. It may be stated
j here that the notion of beknottedness is founded on a remark of
Gauss, who in 1833 considered the problem of the number of inter-
linkings of two closed circuits, and expressed it by the electro-
dynamic measure of the work required to carry a unit magnetic pole
round one of the interlinked curves, while a unit electric current is
FIG. 49.
FIG. 50.
FIG. 51.
FIG. 52.
tions, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 crossings only. Their numbers are shown to
be i, i, 2, 4 and 8. The unique knot of three crossings has been
already given as drawn by Listing. The unique knot of four cross-
ings ments a few words, because its properties lead to a very singular
conclusion. It can be deformed into any of the four forms — figs. 51
and 52 and their perversions. Knots which can be deformed into
their own perversion Tait calls " amphicheiral " (from the Greek
&iut>l, on both sides, around, x«'p. hand), and he has shown that
there is at least one knot of this kjnd for every even number of
crossings. -He shows also that " links " (in which two endless
physical lines are linked together) possess a similar property; and
he then points out that there is a third mode of making a complex
figure of endless physical lines, without either knotting or linking.
This may be called " lacing " or " locking." Its nature is obvious
from fig. 53, in which it will be seen that no one of the three lines
is knotted, no two are linked, and yet the three are inseparably
fastened together.
The rest of Tait's paper deals chiefly with numerical character-
istics of knots, such as their " knottiness," " beknottedness " and
knotfulncss." He also shows that any knot, however complex,
1 See P. G. Tait " On Listing's Topologie," Phil. Mag., xvii. 30.
FIG. 53. FIG. 54-
kept circulating in the other. This original suggestion has been
developed at considerable length by Otto Boeddicker (ErweiSerung
der Gauss' schen Theorie der Verschlingungen (Stuttgart, 1876). This
author treats also of the connexion of knots with Riemann's surfaces.
It is to be noticed that, although every knot in which the crossings
are alternately over and under is irreducible, the converse is not
generally true. This is obvious at once from fig. 54, which is merely
the three-crossing knot with a doubled string — what Listing calls
" paradrpmic."
Christian Felix Klein, in the Mathematische Annalen, ix. 478, has
proved the remarkable proposition that knots cannot exist in space
of four dimensions. (P. G. T.)
KNOUT (from the French transliteration of a Russian word of
Scandinavian origin; cf. A.-S. cnotta, Eng. knot), the whip used
in Russia for flogging criminals and political offenders. It is
said to have been introduced under Ivan III. (1462-1505). The
knout had different forms. One was a lash of raw hide, 16 in.
long, attached to a wooden handle, 9 in. long. The lash ended
in a metal ring, to which was attached a second lash as
long, ending also in a ring, to which in turn was attached a few
inches of hard leather ending in a beak-like hook. Another kind
consisted of many thongs of skin plaited and interwoven with
wire, ending in loose wired ends, like the cat-o'-nine tails. The
victim was tied to a post or on a triangle of wood and stripped,
receiving the specified number of strokes on the back. A sen-
tence of ico or 1 20 lashes was equivalent to a death sentence;
but few lived to receive so many. The executioner was usually
a criminal who had to pass through a probation and regular
training; being let off his own penalties in return for his services.
Peter the Great is traditionally accused of knouting his son
Alexis to death, and there is little doubt that the boy was
actually beaten till he died, whoever was the executioner. The
emperor Nicholas I. abolished the earlier forms of knout and
substituted the pleti, a three-thonged lash. Ostensibly the knout
has been abolished throughout Russia and reserved for the penal
settlements.
KNOWLES, SIR JAMES (1831-1908), English architect and
editor, was born in London in 1831, and was educated, with a
view to following his father's profession, as an architect, at
University College and in Italy. His literary tastes also brought
him at an early age into the field of authorship. In 1860 he
published The Story of King Arthur. In 1867 he was introduced
to Tennyson, whose house, Aid worth, on Blackdown, he
designed; this led to a close friendship, Knowles assisting
Tennyson in business matters, and among other things helping
to design scenery for The Cup, when Irving produced that play
in 1880. Knowles became intimate with a number of the most
interesting men of the day, and in 1869, with Tennyson's co-
operation, he started the Metaphysical Society, the object of
which was to attempt some intellectual rapprochement between
religion and science by getting the leading representatives of
faith and unfaith to meet and exchange views.
The members from first to last were as follows: Dean Stanley.
Seeley, Roden Noel, Martineau, W. B. Carpenter, Hinton, Huxley
Pritchard, Hutton, Ward, Bagehot, Froude, Tennyson, Tyndall.
Alfred Barry, Lord Arthur Russell, Gladstone, Manning, Knowles.
Lord Ayebury, Dean Alford, Alex. Grant, Bishop Thirlwall,
F. Harrison, Father Dalgairns, Sir G. Grove, Shadworth Hodgson.
KNOWLES, J. S.— KNOW NOTHING PARTY
877
H. Sidgwick, E. Lushington, Bishop Ellicott, Mark Pattison, duke
of Argyll, Ruskin, Robert Lowe, Grant Duff, Greg, A. C. Fraser,
Henry Acland, Maurice, Archbishop Thomson, Mozley, Dean Church,
Bishop Magee, Croom Robertson, Fitzjames Stephen, Sylvester,
I. C. Bucknill, Andrew Clark, W. K. Clifford, St George Mivart,
M. Boulton, Lord Selborne, John Morlcy, Leslie Stephen, F. Pollock,
Gasquet, C. B. Upton, William Gull, Robert Clarke, A. J. Balfour,
James Sully and A. Barratt.
Papers were read and discussed at the various meetings on
such subjects as the ultimate grounds of belief in the objective
and moral sciences, the immortality of the soul, &c. An interest-
ing description of one of the meetings was given by Magee (then
bishop of Peterborough) in a letter of ijth of February 1873: —
" Archbishop Manning in the chair was flanked by two Protestant
bishops right and left; on my right was Hutton, editor of the
Spectator, an Arian ; then came Father Dalgairns, a very able Roman
Catholic priest; opposite him Lord A. Russell, a Deist; then two
Scotch metaphysical writers, Freethinkers; then Knowles, the very
broad editor of the Contemporary; then, dressed as a layman and
looking like a country squire, was Ward, formerly Rev. Ward, and
earliest of the perverts to Rome ; then Greg, author of The Creed of
Christendom, a Deist ; then Froude, the historian, once a deacon in
our Church, now a Deist; then Roden Noel, an actual Atheist and
red republican, and looking very like one ! Lastly Ruskin, who read
a paper on miracles, which we discussed for an hour and a half!
Nothing could be calmer, fairer, or even, on the whole, more reverent
then the discussion. In my opinion, we, the Christians, had much
the best of it. Dalgairns, the priest, was very masterly ; Manning,
clever and precise and weighty; Froude, very acute, and so was
Greg. We only wanted a Jew and a Mahommedan to make our
Religious Museum complete " (Life, i. 284).
The last meeting of the society was held on i6th May 1880.
Huxley said that it died " of too much love "; Tennyson, " be-
cause after ten years of strenuous effort no one had succeeded in
even defining metaphysics." According to Dean Stanley, " We
all meant the same thing if we only knew it." The society
formed the nucleus of the distinguished list of contributors who
supported Knowles in his capacity as an editor. In 1870 he
became editor of the Contemporary Review, but left it in 1877
and founded the Nineteenth Century (to the title of which, in 1901 ,
were added the words And After). Both periodicals became
very influential under him, and formed the type of the new sort
of monthly review which came to occupy the place formerly
held by the quarterlies. In 1904 he received the honour of
knighthood. He died at Brighton on the i3th of February
1908.
KNOWLES, JAMES SHERIDAN (1784-1862), Irish dramatist
and actor, was born in Cork, on the 1 2th of May 1 784. His father
was the lexicographer, James Knowles (1759-1840), cousin-
german of Richard Brinsley Sheridan. The family removed to
London in 1793, and at the age of fourteen Knowles published
a ballad entitled The Welsh Harper, which, set to music, was very
popular. The boy's talents secured him the friendship of
Hazlitt, who introduced him to Lamb and Coleridge. He served
for some time in the Wiltshire and afterwards in the Tower
Hamlets militia, leaving the service to become pupil of Dr
Robert Willan (1757-1812). He obtained the degree of M.D., and
was appointed vaccinator to the Jennerian Society. Although,
however, Dr Willan generously offered him a share in his
practice, he resolved to forsake medicine for the stage, rnaking
his first appearance probably at Bath, and playing Hamlet at the
Crow Theatre, Dublin. At Wexf ord he married, in October 1 809,
Maria Charteris, an actress from the Edinburgh Theatre. In
1810 he wrote Leo, in which Edmund Kean acted with great
success; another play, Brian Boroihme, written for the Belfast
Theatre in the next year, also drew crowded houses, but his
earnings were so small that he was obliged to become assistant
to his father at the Belfast Academical Institution. In 1817 he
removed from Belfast to Glasgow, where, besides conducting a
flourishing school, he continued to write for the stage. His
first important success was Caius Gracchus, produced at Belfast
in 1815; and his Virginius, written for Edmund Kean, was first
performed in 1820 at Covent Garden. In William Tell (1825)
Macready found one of his favourite parts. His best-known
play, The Hunchback, was produced at Covent Garden in 1832;
The Wife was brought out at the same theatre in 1833; and The
Love Chase in 1837. In his later years he forsook the stage for
the pulpit, and as a Baptist preacher attracted large audiences
at Exeter Hall and elsewhere. He published two polemical
works — the Rock of Rome and the Idol Demolished by its own
Priests — in both of which he combated the special doctrines of
the Roman Catholic Church. Knowles was for some years in the
receipt of an annual pension of £200, bestowed by Sir Robert
Peel. He died at Torquay on the 3Oth of November 1862.
A full list of the works of Knowles and of the various notices of
him will' be found in the Life (1872), privately printed by his son,
Richard Brinsley Knowles (1820-1882), who was well known as a
journalist.
KNOW NOTHING (or AMERICAN) PARTY, in United States
history, a political party of great importance in the decade
before 1860. Its principle was political proscription of natural-
ized citizens and of Roman Catholics. Distrust of alien immi-
grants, because of presumptive attachment to European insti-
tutions, has always been more or less widely diffused, and race
antagonisms have been recurrently of political moment; while
anti-Catholic sentiment went back to colonial sectarianism.
These were the elements of the political " nativism " — i.e.
hostility to foreign influence in politics — of 1830-1860. In
these years Irish immigration became increasingly preponderant;
and that of Catholics was even more so. The geographical
segregation and the clannishness of foreign voters in the cities
gave them a power that Whigs and Democrats alike (the latter
more successfully) strove to control, to the great aggravation
of naturalization and election frauds. " No one can deny that
ignorant foreign suffrage had grown to be an evil of immense
proportions " (J. F. Rhodes). In labour disputes, political
feuds and social clannishness, the alien elements — especially
the Irish and German — displayed their power, and at times gave
offence by their hostile criticism of American institutions.1 In
immigration centres like Boston, Philadelphia and New York,
the Catholic Church, very largely foreign in membership and
proclaiming a foreign allegiance of disputed extent, was really
" the symbol and strength of foreign influence " (Scisco); many
regarded it as a transplanted foreign institution, un-American
in organization and ideas.2 Thus it became involved in politics.
The decade 1830-1840 was marked by anti-Catholic (anti-Irish)
riots in various cities and by party organization of nativists in
many places in local elections. Thus arose the American-
Republican (later the Native-American) Party, whose national
career begun practically in 1845, and which in Louisiana in 1841
first received a state organization. New York City in 1844 and
Boston in 1845 were carried by the nativists, but their success
was due to Whig support, which was not continued,3 and the
national organization was by 1847 — in which year it endorsed
the Whig nominee for the presidency — practically dead. Though
some Whig leaders had strong nativist leanings, and though the
party secured a few representatives in Congress, it accomplished
little at this time in national politics. In the early 'fifties nativism
was revivified by an unparalleled inflow of aliens. Catholics,
moreover, had combated the Native-Americans defiantly. In
1852 both Whigs and Democrats were forced to defend their
presidential nominees against charges of anti-Catholic sentiment.
In 1853-1854 there was a wide-spread " anti-popery " propa-
ganda and riots against Catholics in various cities. Meanwhile
the Know Nothing Party had sprung from nativist secret societies,
whose relations remain obscure.4 Its organization was secret;
and hence its name — for a member, when interrogated, always
1E.g. for some extraordinary " reform " programmes among
German immigrants see Schmeckebier (as below), pp. 48-50.
"The actual offence of the Catholic Church was its non-con-
formity to American methods of church administration and popular
education " (Scisco). i
3 The Whigs bargained aid in New York city for "American "
support in the state, and charged that the latter was not given.
Millard Fillmore attributed the Whig loss of the state (see LIBERTY
PARTY) to the disaffection of Catholic Whigs angered by the alliance
with the nativists.
4 The Order of United Americans and the Order of the Star
Spangled Banner, established in New York respectively in 1845 and
1850, were the most important sources of its membership.
KNOX, H.— KNOX, JOHN
answered that he knew nothing about it. Selecting candidates
secretly from among those nominated by the other parties, and
giving them no public endorsement, the Know Nothings, as soon
as they gained the balance of power, could shatter at will Whig
and Democratic calculations. Their power was evident by
1852 — from which time, accordingly, " Know-Nothingism " is
most properly dated. The charges they brought against
naturalization abuses were only too well founded; and those
against election frauds not less so — though, unfortunately, the
Know Nothings themselves followed scandalous election methods
in some cities. The proposed proscription of the foreign-born
knew no exceptions: many wished never to concede to them all
the rights of natives, nor to their children unless educated in
the public schools. As for Catholics, the real animus of Know
Nothingism was against political Romanism; therefore, secon-
darily, against papal allegiance and episcopal church adminis-
tration (in place of administration by lay trustees, as was earlier
common practice in the United States) ; and, primarily, against
public aid to Catholic schools, and the alleged greed (i.e. the
power and success) of the Irish in politics. The times were pro-
pitious for the success of an aggressive third party ; for the Whigs
were broken by the death of Clay and Webster and the crushing
defeat of 1852, and both the Whig and Democratic parties were
disintegrating on the slavery issue. But the Know Nothings
lacked aggression. In entering national politics the party
abandoned its mysteries, without making compensatory gains;
when it was compelled to publish a platform of principles,
factions arose in its ranks; moreover, to draw recruits the faster
from Whigs and Democrats, it " straddled " the slavery question,
and this, although a temporary success, ultimately meant ruin.
In 1854, however, Know Nothing gains were remarkable.1
Thereafter the organization spread like wildfire in the South, in
which section there were almost no aliens, and the Whig dissolu-
tion was far advanced. The Virginia election of May 1855
proved conclusively, however, that Know Nothingism was no
stronger against the Democrats than was the Whig party it had
absorbed; it was the same organization under a new name. In
the North it was even clearer that slavery must be faced. Know
Nothing evasion probably helped the South,2 but neither Repub-
licans nor Democrats would endure the evasion; Douglas and
Seward, and later (1855-1856) their parties, denounced it. In
the North- West the Know Nothings were swept into the anti-
slavery movement in 1854 without retaining their organization.
In the state campaigns of 1855 professions were measured to the
latitude. The national platform of 1856 (adopted by a secret
grand council), besides including anti-alien and anti-Catholic
planks, offered sops to the North, the South and the " dough-
faces " on the slavery issue. Millard Fillmore was nominated
for the presidency. The anti-slavery delegates of eight Northern
states bolted the convention, and eight months later the Repub-
lican wave swept the Know Nothings out of the North.* The
national field being thus lost, the state councils became supreme,
and local opportunism fostered variation and weakness. By
1859 the party was confined almost entirely to the border states.
The Constitutional Union — the " Do Nothing " — Party of 1860
was mainly composed of Know Nothing remnants.4 The year
1860 practically marked, also, the disappearance of the party as a
local power.5
Except in city politics nativism had no vitality; in state and
1 This year " American Party " became the official name. Its
strength in Congress was almost thirty-fold that of 1852. It elected
governors, legislatures, or both, in four New England states, and in
Maryland, Kentucky and California; minor officers elsewhere; and
almost won six Southern states.
2 For it delayed anti-slavery organization in the North, and
presumably discouraged immigration, which was a source of strength
to the North rather than to the South.
3 They carried only Maryland. The popular vote in the North
was under one-seventh, in the South above three-sevenths, of the
total vote cast.
4 Note the presidential vote. Seward's loss of the Republican
nomination was partly due to Know Nothing hostility.
' Its firmest hold was in Maryland. Its rule in Baltimore (1854-
1860) was marked by disgraceful riots and abuses.
national politics it really had no excuse. Race antipathies gave
it local cohesive power in the North; various causes, already
mentioned, advanced it in the South; and as a device to win
offices it was of wide-spread attraction. Its only real contribu-
tion to government was the proof that nativism is not American-
ism. Public opinion has never accepted its estimate of the alien
nor of Catholic citizens. Some of its anti-Church principles,
however — as the non-support of denominational schools — have
been generally accepted; others — as the refusal to exclude the
(Protestant) Bible from public schools — have been generally
rejected ; others — as the taxation of all Church property — remain
disputed.
See L. D. Scisco, Political Nativism in New York State (doctoral
thesis, Columbia University, New York, 1901); L. F. Schmeckebierf
Know Nothing Party in Maryland (Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, 1899); G. H. Haynes, " A Know Nothing Legislature "
(Mass., 1855), in American Historical Assoc. Report, pt. I (1896);
J. B. McMaster, With the Fathers, including " The Riotous Career of
the Know Nothings " (New York, 1896) ; H. F. Desmond, The Know
Nothing Party (Washington, 1905).
KNOX, HENRY (1750-1806), American general, was born in
Boston, Massachusetts, of Scottish-Irish parentage, on the 25th
of July 1 750. He was prominent in the colonial -militia and tried
to keep the Boston crowd and the British soldiers from the
clash known as the Boston massacre (1770). In 1771 he opened
the " London Book-Store " in Boston. He had read much of
tactics and strategy, joined the American army at the outbreak
of the War of Independence, and fought at Bunker Hill, planned
the defences of the camps of the army before Boston, and brought
from Lake George and border forts much-needed artillery. At
Trenton he crossed the river before the main body, and in the
attack rendered such good service that he was made brigadier-
general and chief of artillery in the Continental army on the
following day. He was present at Princeton; was chiefly respon-
sible for the mistake in attacking the " Chew House " at German-
town; urged New York as the objective of the campaign of 1778;
served with efficiency at Monmouth and at Yorktown; and after
the surrender of Cornwallis was promoted major-general, and
served as a commissioner on the exchange of prisoners. His
services throughout the war were of great value to the American
cause; he was one of General Washington's most trusted advisers,
and he brought the artillery to a high degree of efficiency. From
December 1783 until June 1784 he was the senior officer of the
United States army. In April 1783 he had drafted a scheme
of a society to be formed by the American officers and the French
officers who had served in America during the war, and to be
called the " Cincinnati "; of this society he was the first secretary-
general (1783-1799) and in 1805 became vice-president-general.
In 1785-1794 Knox was secretary of war, being the first man to
hold this position after the organization of the Federal govern-
ment in 1789. He urged ineffectually a national militia system,
to enroll all citizens over 18 and under 60 in the " advanced
corps," the " main corps " or the " reserve," and for this and his
close friendship with Washington was bitterly assailed by the
Republicans. In 1793 he had begun to build his house, Mont-
pelier, at Thomaston, Maine, where he speculated unsuccess-
fully ir» the holdings of the Eastern Land Association; and he
lived there until his death on the 25th of October 1806.
See F. S. Drake, Memoir of General Henry Knox (Boston, 1873);
and Noah Brooks, Henry Knox (New York, 1900) in the " American
Men of Energy " series.
KNOX, JOHN (c. 1505-1572), Scottish reformer and historian.
Of his early life very little is certainly known, in spite of the
fact that his History of the Reformation and his private letters,
especially the latter, are often vividly autobiographical. Even
the year of his birth, usually given as 1505, is matter of dispute.
Beza, in his I cones, published in 1580, makes it 1515; Sir Peter
Young (tutor to James VI. of Scotland), writing to Beza from
Edinburgh in 1579, says 1513; and a strong case has been made
out for holding that the generally accepted date is due to an
error in transcription (see Dr Hay Fleming in the Bookman,
Sept. 1905). But Knox seems to have been reticent about his
early life, even to his contemporaries. What is known is that he
KNOX, JOHN
879
was a son of William Knox, who lived in or near the town of
Haddington, that his mother's name was Sinclair, and that his
forefathers on both sides had fought under the banner of the
Bothwells. William Knox was " simple," not " gentle " —
perhaps a prosperous East Lothian peasant. But he sent his
son John to school (no doubt the well-known grammar school
of Haddington), and thereafter to the university, where, like his
contemporary George Buchanan, he sat " at the feet " of John
Major. Major was a native of Haddington, who had recently re-
turned to Scotland from Paris with a great academical reputation.
He retained to the last, as his History of Greater Britain shows,
the repugnance characteristic of the university of Paris to the
tyranny of kings and nobles; but like it, he was now alarmed by
the revolt of Luther, and ceased to urge its ancient protest
against the supremacy of the pope. He exchanged his " re-
gency " or professorship in Glasgow University for one in that of
St Andrews in 1523. If Knox's college time was later than that
date (as it must have been, if he was born near 1515), it was no
doubt spent, as Beza narrates, at St Andrews, and probably
exclusively there. But in Major's last Glasgow session a
" Joannes Knox " (not an uncommon name, however, at that
time in the west of Scotland) matriculated there; and if this were
the future reformer, he may thereafter either have followed his
master to St Andrews or returned from Glasgow straight to
Haddington. But till twenty years after that date his career
has not been again traced. Then he reappears in his native
district as a priest without a university degree (Sir John Knox)
and a notary of the diocese of St Andrews. In 1543 he certainly
signed himself " minister of the sacred altar " under the arch-
bishop of St Andrews. But in 1546 he was carrying a two-
handed sword in defence of the reformer George Wishart, on the
day when the latter was arrested by the archbishop's order.
Knox would have resisted, though the arrest was by his feudal
superior, Lord Bothwell; but Wishart himself commanded his
submission, with the words " One is sufficient for a sacrifice,"
and was handed over for trial at St Andrews. And next year
the archbishop himself had been murdered, and Knox was
preaching in St Andrews a fully developed Protestantism.
Knox gives us no information as to how this startling change
in himself was brought about. During those twenty years
Scotland had been slowly tending to freedom in religious pro-
fession, and to friendship with England rather than with France.
The Scottish hierarchy, by this time corrupt and even profligate,
saw the twofold danger and met it firmly. James V., the
" Commons' King " had put himself into the hands of the
Beatons, who in 1528 burned Patrick Hamilton. On James's
death there was a slight reaction, but the cardinal-archbishop
took possession of the weak regent Arran, and in 1546 burned
George Wishart. England had by this time rejected the pope's
supremacy. In Scotland by a recent statute it was death even
to argue against it; and Knox after Wishart 's execution was
fleeing from place to place, when, hearing that certain gentlemen
of Fife had slain the cardinal and were in possession of his castle
of St Andrews, he gladly joined himself to them. In St Andrews
he taught " John's Gospel " and a certain catechism — probably
that which Wishart had got from " Helvetia " and translated;
but his teaching was supposed to be private and tutorial and for
the benefit of his friends' " bairns." The men about him how-
ever— among them Sir David Lindsay of the Mount, " Lyon
King " and poet — saw his capacity for greater things, and, on
his at first refusing " to run where God had not called him,"
planned a solemn appeal to Knox from the pulpit to accept
" the public office and charge of preaching." At the close of it
the speaker (in Knox's own narrative) " said to those that were
present, ' Was not this your charge to me ? And do ye not
approve this vocation ? ' They answered, ' It was, and we
approve it.' Whereat the said Johnne, abashed, burst forth
in most abundant tears and withdrew himself to his chamber,"
remaining there in " heaviness " for days, until he came forth
resolved and prepared. Knox is probably not wrong in regarding
this strange incident as the spring of his own public life. The
St. Andrews invitation was really one to danger and death;
John Rough, who spoke it, died a few years after in the flames
at Smithfield. But it was a call which many in that ardent
dawn were ready to accept, and it had now at length found, or
made, a statesman and leader of men. For what to the others
was chiefly a promise of personal salvation became for the
indomitable will of Knox an assurance also of victory, even in
this world, over embattled forces of ancient wrong. It is certain
at least that from this date he never changed and scarcely even
varied his public course. And looking back upon that course
afterwards, he records with much complacency how his earliest
St Andrews sermon built up a whole fabric of aggressive Protes-
tantism upon Puritan theory, so that his startled hearers mut-
tered, " Others sned (snipped) the branches; this man strikes
at the root."
Meantime the system attacked was safe for other thirteen
years. In June 1547 St Andrews yielded to the French fleet, and
the prisoners, including Knox, were thrown into the galleys on
the Loire, to remain in irons and under the lash for at least
nineteen months. Released at last (apparently through the
influence of the young English king, Edward VI.), Knox was
appointed one of the licensed preachers of the new faith for
England, and stationed in the great garrison of Berwick, and
afterwards at Newcastle. In 1551 he seems to have been made_
a royal chaplain; in 1552 he was certainly offered an English
bishopric, which he declined; and during most of this year he
used his influence, as preacher at court and in London, to make
the new English settlement more Protestant. To him at least
is due the Prayer-book rubric which explains that, when kneeling
at the sacrament is ordered, " no adoration is intended or ought
to be done." While in Northumberland Knox had been
betrothed to Margaret Bowes, one of the fifteen children of
Richard Bowes, the captain of Norham Castle. Her mother,
Elizabeth, co-heiress of Aske in Yorkshire, was the earliest of
that little band of women-friends whose correspondence with
Knox on religious matters throws an unexpected light on his
discriminating tenderness of heart. But now Mary Tudor
succeeded her brother, and Knox in March 1554 escaped into
five years' exile abroad, leaving Mrs. Bowes a fine treatise on
" Affliction," and sending back to England two editions of a
more acrid " Faithful Admonition " on the crisis there. He
first drifted to Frankfort, where the English congregation
divided as English Protestants have always done, and the party
opposed to Knox got rid of him at last by a complaint to the
authorities of treason against the emperor Charles V. as well
as Philip and Mary. At Geneva he found a more congenial
pastorate. Christopher Goodman (c. 1520-1603) and he, with
other exiles, began there the Puritan tradition, and prepared
the earlier English version of the Bible, " the household book of
the English-speaking nations " during the great age of Elizabeth.
Here, and afterwards at Dieppe (where he preached in French),
Knox kept in communication with the other Reformers, studied
Greek and Hebrew in the interest of theology, and having
brought his wife and her mother from England in 1555 lived
for years a peaceful life.
But even here Knox was preparing for Scotland, and facing
the difficulties of the future, theoretical as well as practical. In
his first year abroad he consulted Calvin and Bullinger as to the
right of the civil " authority " to prescribe religion to his sub-
jects— in particular, whether the godly should obey "a magis-
trate who enforces idolatry and condemns true religion," and
whom should they join " in the case of a religious nobility
resisting an idolatrous sovereign." In August 1555 be visited
his native country and found the queen-mother, Mary of Lorraine,
acting as regent in place of the real " sovereign," the youthful
and better-known Mary, new being brought up at the court of
France. Scripture-reading and the new views had spread
widely, and the regent was disposed to wink at this in the case of
the " religious nobility." Knox was accordingly allowed to
preach privately for six months throughout the south of Scotland,
and was listened to with an enthusiasm which made him break
out, " O sweet were the death which should follow such forty
days in Edinburgh as here I have had three! " Before leaving he
88o
KNOX, JOHN
even addressed a letter to the regent, urging her to favour the
Evangel. She accepted it jocularly as a " pasquil," and Knox
on his departure was condemned and burned in effigy. But he
left behind him a " Wholesome Counsel " to Scottish heads of
families, reminding them that within their own houses they
were "bishop and kings," and recommending the institution
of something like the early apostolic worship in private congre-
gations. Of the Protestant barons Knox, though in exile,
seems to have been henceforward the chief adviser; and before
the end of ISS7 they, under the name of the " Lords of the Con-
gregation," had entered into the first of the religious " bands "
or "covenants" afterwards famous in Scotland. In 1558 he
published his " Appellation " to the nobles, estates and common-
alty against the sentence of death recently pronounced upon him,
and along with it a stirring appeal " To his beloved brethren,
the Commonalty of Scotland," urging that the care of religion
fell to them also as being " God's creatures, created and formed
in His own image," and having a right to defend their conscience
against persecution. About this time, indeed, there was in
Scotland a remarkable approximation to that solution of the
toleration difficulty which later ages have approved; for the
regent was understood to favour the demand of the " congrega-
tion " that at least the penal statutes against heretics " be
suspended and abrogated," and " that it be lawful to us to use
ourselves in matters of religion and conscience as we must answer
to God." It was a consummation too ideal for that early date;
and next year the regent, whose daughter was now queen of
France and there mixed up with the persecuting policy of the
Guises, forbade the reformed preaching in Scotland. A rupture
ensued at once, and Knox appeared in Edinburgh on the 2nd of
May 1559 " even in the brunt of the battle." He was promptly
" blown to the horn " at the Cross there as an outlaw, but
escaped to Dundee, and commenced public preaching in the
chief towns of central Scotland. At Perth and at St Andrews
his sermons were followed by the destruction of the monasteries,
institutions disliked in that age in Scotland alike by the devout
and the profane. But while he notes that in Perth the act was
that of " the rascal multitude," he was glad to claim in St
Andrews the support of the civic " authority "; and indeed the
burghs, which were throughout Europe generally in favour of
freedom, soon became in Scotland a main support of the Refor-
mation. Edinburgh was still doubtful, and the queen regent
held the castle; but a truce between her and the lords for six
months to the ist of January 1560 was arranged on the footing
that every man there " may have freedom to use his own con-
science to the day foresaid " — a freedom interpreted to let Knox
and his brethren preach publicly and incessantly.
Scotland, like its capital, was divided. Both parties lapsed
from the freedom-of-conscience solution to which each when
unsuccessful appealed; both betook themselves to arms; and
the immediate future of the little kingdom was to be decided by
its external alliances. Knox now took a leading part in the
great transaction by which the friendship of France was ex-
changed for that of England. He had one serious difficulty.
Before Elizabeth's accession to the English crown, and after
the queen mother in Scotland had disappointed his hopes, he
had published a treatise against what he called " The Monstrous
Regiment (regimen or government) of Women"; though the
despotism of that despotic age was scarcely appreciably worse
when it happened to be in female hands. Elizabeth never for-
gave him; but Cecil corresponded with the Scottish lords, and
their answer in July 1559, in Knox's handwriting, assures
England not only of their own constancy, but of " a charge and
commandment to our posterity, that the amity and league
between you and us, contracted and begun in Christ Jesus, may
by them be kept inviolated for ever." The league was promised
by England; but the army of France was first in the field, and
towards the end of the year drove the forces of the " congre-
gation " from Leith into Edinburgh, and then out of it in a
midnight rout to Stirling — ".that dark and dolorous night," as
Knox long afterwards said, "wherein all ye, my lords, with
shame and fear left this town," and from which only a memorable
sermon by their great preacher roused the despairing multitude
into new hope. Their leaders renounced allegiance to the regent ;
she ended her not unkindly, but as Knox calls it " unhappy,"
life in the castle of Edinburgh; the English troops, after the usual
Elizabethan delays and evasions, joined their Scots allies; and
the French embarked from Leith. On the 6th of July 1560 a
treaty was at last made, nominally between Elizabeth and
the queen of France and Scotland; while Cecil instructed his mis-
tress's plenipotentiaries to agree " that the government of Scot-
land be granted to the nation of the land." The revolution was in
the meantime complete; and Knox, who takes credit for having
done much to end the enmity with England which was so long
thought necessary for Scotland's independence, was strangely
enough destined, beyond all other men, to leave the stamp of a
more inward independence upon his country and its history.
At the first meeting of the Estates, in August 1560, the Protes-
tants were invited to present a confession of their faith. Knox
and three others drafted it, and were present when it was
offered and read to the parliament. The statute-book says it
was " by the estates of Scotland ratified and approved, as
whclesome and sound doctrine grounded upon the infallible
truth of God's word." The Scots confession, though of course
drawn up independently, is in substantial accord with the others
then springing up in the countries of the Reformation, but is
Calvinist rather than Lutheran. It remained for two centuries
the authorized Scottish creed, though in the first instance the
faith of only a fragment of the people. Yet its approval became
the basis for three acts passed a week later; the first of which,
abolishing the pope's authority and jurisdiction in Scotland, may
perhaps have been consistent with toleration, as the second,
rescinding old statutes which had established and enforced that
and other catholic tenets, undoubtedly was. But the third,
inflicting heavy penalties, with death on a third conviction, on
those who should celebrate mass or even be present at it, showed
that the reformer and his friends had crossed the line, and that
their position could no longer be described as, in Knox's words,
" requiring nothing but the liberty of conscience, and our reli-
gion and fact to be tried by the word of God." He was prepared
indeed to fall back upon that, in the event of the Estates at any
time refusing sanction to either church or creed, as their sover-
eign in Paris promptly refused it. But the parliament of 1560
gave no express sanction to the Reformed Church, and Knox did
not wait until it should do so. Already " in our towns and places
reformed," as the Confession puts it, there were local or " par-
ticular kirks," and these grew and spread and were provincially
united, till, in the last month of this memorable year, the first
General Assembly of their representatives met, and became the
" universal kirk," or " the whole church convened." It had
before it the plan for church government and maintenance,
drafted in August at the same time with the Confession, under
the name of The Book of Discipline, and by the same framers.
Knox was even more clearly in this case the chief author, and he
had by this time come to desire a much more rigid Presbyterian-
ism than he had sketched in his " Wholesome Counsel " of 1555.
In planning it he seems to have used his acquaintance with the
" Ordonnances " of the Genevan Church under Calvin, and with
the " Forma " of the German Church in London under John
Laski (or A. Lasco). Starting with "truth" contained in
Scripture as the church's foundation, and the Word and Sacra-
ments as means of building it up, it provides ministers and elders
to be elected by the congregations, with a subordinate class of
" readers," and by their means sermons and prayers each
" Sunday " in every parish. In large towns these were to be
also on other days, with a weekly meeting for conference or
" prophesying." The " plantation " of new churches is to go on
everywhere under the guidance of higher church officers called
superintendents. All are to help their brethren, "for no man may
be permitted to live as best pleaseth him within the Church of
God." And above all things the young and the ignorant are to be
instructed, the former by a regular gradation or ladder of parish
or elementary schools, secondary schools and universities.
Even the poor were to be fed by the Church's hands ; and behind
KNOX, JOHN
881
its moral influence, and a discipline over both poor and rich, was
to be not only the coercive authority of the civil power but its
money. Knox had from the first proclaimed that " the teinds
(tithes of yearly fruits) by God's law do not appertain of necessity
to the kirkmen." And this book now demands that out of
them " must not only the ministers be sustained, but also the
poor and schools." But Knox broadens his plan so as to claim
also the property which had been really gifted to the Church by
princes and nobles — given by them indeed, as he held, without
any moral right and to the injury of the people, yet so as to
be Church patrimony. From all such property, whether land
or the sheaves and fruits of land, and also from the personal
property of burghers in the towns, Knox now held that the
state should authorize the kirk to claim the salaries of the minis-
ters, and the salaries of teachers in the schools and universities,
but above all, the relief of the poor — not only of the absolutely
" indigent " but of " your poor brethren, the labourers and
handworkers of the ground." For the danger now was that
some gentlemen were already cruel in exactions of their tenants,
" requiring of them whatever before they paid to the Church,
so that the papistical tyranny shall only be changed into the
tyranny of the lords or of the laird." The danger foreseen alike
to the new Church, and to the commonalty and poor, began to be
fulfilled a month later, when the lords, some of whom had already
acquired, as others were about to acquire, much of the Church
property, declined to make any of it over for Knox's magnificent
scheme. It was, they said, " a devout imagination." Seven
years afterwards, however, when the contest with the Crown was
ended, the kirk was expressly acknowledged as the only Church
in Scotland, and jurisdiction given it over all who should attempt
to be outsiders; while the preaching of the Evangel and the plant-
ing of congregations went on in all the accessible parts of Scot-
land. Gradually too stipends for most Scottish parishes were
assigned to the ministers out of the yearly teinds; and the Church
received — what it retained even down to recent times — the ad-
ministration both of the public schools and of the Poor Law of
Scotland. But the victorious rush of 1560 was already some-
what stayed, and the very next year raised the question whether
the transfer of intolerance to the side of the new faith was as
wise as it had at first seemed to be successful.
Mary Queen of Scots had been for a short time also queen of
France, and in 1561 returned to her native land, a young widow
on whom the eyes of Europe were fixed. Knox's objections to
the " regiment of women " were theoretical, and in the present
case he hoped at first for the best, favouring rather his queen's
marriage with the heir of the house of Hamilton. Mary had
put herself into the hands of her half-brother, Lord James
Stuart afterwards earl of Moray, the only man who could perhaps
have pulled her through. A proclamation now continued the
" state of religion ': begun the previous year; but mass was
celebrated in the queen's household, and Lord James himself
defended it with his sword against Protestant intrusion. Knox
publicly protested; and Moray, who probably understood and
liked both parties, brought the preacher to the presence of his
queen. There is nothing revealed to us by " the broad clear
light of that wonderful book,"1 The History of the Reformation
in Scotland, more remarkable than the four Dialogues or inter-
views, which, though recorded only by Knox, bear the strongest
stamp of truth, and do almost more justice to his opponent than
to himself. Mary took the aggressive and very soon raised the
real question. " Ye have taught the people to receive another
religion than their princes can allow; and how can that doctrine
be of God, seeing that God commands subjects to obey their
princes?" The point was made keener by the fact that
Knox's own Confession of Faith (like all those of that age, in
which an unbalanced monarchical power culminated) had held
kings to be appointed " for maintenance of the true religion,"
and suppression of the false; and the reformer now fell back on
'John Hill Burton (Hist, of Scotland, iii. 539). Mr Burton's view
(differing from that of Professor Hume Brown) was that the dialogues
— the earlier of them at least — must have been spoken in the French
tongue, in which Knox had recently preached for a year.
his more fundamental principle, that " right religion took
neither original nor authority from worldly princes, but from
the Eternal God alone." All through this dialogue too, as in
another at Lochleven two years afterwards, Knox was driven
to axioms, not of religion but of constitutionalism, which
Buchanan and he may have learned from their teacher Major,
but which were not to be accepted till a later age. " ' Think ye,'
quoth she, ' that subjects, having power, may resist their
princes? ' ' If their princes exceed their bounds, Madam, they
may be resisted and even deposed,' " Knox replied. But these
dialectics, creditable to both parties, had little effect upon the
general situation. Knox had gone too far in intolerance, and
Moray and Maitland of Lethington gradually withdrew their
support. The court and parliament, guided by them, declined to
press the queen or to pass the Book of Discipline; and meantime
the negotiations as to the queen's marriage with a Spanish, a
French or an Austrian prince revealed the real difficulty and peril
of the situation. Her marriage to a great Catholic prince would
be ruinous to Scotland, probably also to England, and perhaps
to all Protestantism. Knox had already by letter formally
broken with the earl of Moray, " committing you to your own
wit, and to the conducting of those who better please you ";
and now, in one of his greatest sermons before the assembled
lords, he drove at the heart of the situation — the risk of a Catho-
lic marriage. The queen sent for him for the last time and burst
into passionate tears as she asked, " What have you to do with
my marriage? Or what are you within this commonwealth? "
" A subject born within the same," was the answer of the son
of the East Lothian peasant; and the Scottish nobility, while
thinking him overbold, refused to find him guilty of any crime,
even when, later on, he had " convocated the lieges " to Edin-
burgh to meet a crown prosecution. In 1564 a change came.
Mary had wearied of her guiding statesmen, Moray and the
more pliant Maitland; the Italian secretary David Rizzio,
through whom she had corresponded with the pope, now more
and more usurped their place ; and a weak fancy for her handsome
cousin, Henry Darnley, brought about a sudden marriage in 1565
and swept the opposing Protestant lords into exile. Darnley,
though a Catholic, thought it well to go to Knox's preaching; but
was so unfortunate as to hear a very long sermon, with allusions
not only to'" babes and women " as rulers, but to Ahab who did
not control his strong-minded wife. Mary and the lords still
in her council ordered Knox not to preach while she was in
Edinburgh, and he was absent or silent during the weeks in
which the queen's growing distaste for her husband, and advance-
ment of Rizzio over the nobility remaining in Edinburgh,
brought about the conspiracy by Darnley, Morton and Ruthven.
Knox does not seem to have known beforehand of Rizzio's
" slaughter," which had been intended to be a semi-judicial act;
but soon after it he records that "that vile knave Davie was
justly punished, for abusing of the commonwealth, and for other
villainy which we list not to express." The immediate effect how-
ever of what Knox thus approved was to bring his cause to its
lowest ebb, and on the very day when Mary rode from Holy-
rood to her army, he sat down and penned the prayer, " Lord
Jesus, put an end to this my miserable life, for justice and truth
are not to be found among the sons of men!" He added a
short autobiographic fragment, whose mingled self-abasement
and exultation are not unworthy of its striking title — " John'
Knox, with deliberate mind, to his God." During the rest of
the year he was hidden in Ayrshire or elsewhere, and throughout
1566 he was forbidden to preach when the court was in Edin-
burgh. But he was influential at the December Assembly in
the capital where a greater tragedy was now preparing, for
Mary's infatuation for Bothwell was visible to all. At the Assem-
bly's request, however, Knox undertook a long visit to England,
where his two sons by his first wife were being educated, and were
afterwards to be Fellows of St John's, Cambridge, the younger
becoming a parish clergyman. It was thus during the reformer's
absence that the murder of Darnley, the abduction and sub-
sequent marriage of Mary, the flight of Bothwell, and the im-
prisonment in Lochleven of the queen, unrolled themselves
882
KNOX, P. C.
before the eyes of Scotland. Knox returned in time to guide
the Assembly which sat on the asth of June 1567 in dealing
with this unparalleled crisis, and to wind up the revolution
by preaching at Stirling on the gth of July 1567, after Mary's
abdication, at the coronation of the infant king.
His main work was now really done; for the parliament of
1567 made Moray regent, and Knox was only too glad to have
his old friend back in power, though they seem to have differed
on the question whether the queen should be allowed to pass
into retirement without trial for her husband's death, as they
had differed all along on the question of tolerating her private
religion. Knox's victory had not come too early, for his physical
strength soon began to fail. But Mary's escape in 1568 resulted
only in her defeat at Langside, and in a long imprisonment and
death in England. In Scotland the regent's assassination in
1570 opened a miserable civil war, but it made no permanent
change. The massacre of St Bartholomew rather united
English and Scottish Protestantism; and Knox in St Giles'
pulpit, challenging the French ambassador to report his words,
denounced God's vengeance on the crowned murderer and his
posterity. When open war broke out between Edinburgh
Castle, held by Mary's friends, and the town, held for her son,
both parties agreed that the reformer, who had already had a
stroke of paralysis, should remove to St Andrews. While there
he wrote his will, and published his last book, in the preface to
which he says, " I heartily take my good-night of the faithful
of both realms . . . for as the world is weary of me, so am I of
it." And when he now merely signs his name, it is " John
Knox, with my dead hand and glad heart." In the autumn of
1 57 2 he returned to Edinburgh to die, probably in the picturesque
house in the " throat of the Bow," which for generations has
been called by his name. With him were his wife and three
young daughters; for though he had lost Margaret Bowes at the
close of his year of triumph 1560, he had four years after married
Margaret Stewart, a daughter of his friend Lord Ochiltree.
She was a bride of only seventeen and was related to the royal
house; yet, as his Catholic biographer put it, " by sorcery and
witchcraft he did so allure that poor gentlewoman that she could
not live without him." But lords, ladies and burghers also
crowded around his bed, and his colleague and his servant
have severally transmitted to us the words in which his weakness
daily strove with pain, rising on the day before his death into a
solemn exultation — yet characteristically, not so much on his
own account as for " the troubled Church of God." He died on
the 24th of November 1572, and at his funeral in St Giles'
Churchyard the new Regent Morton, speaking under the hostile
guns of the castle, expressed the first surprise of those around as
they looked back on that stormy life, that one who had " neither
flattered nor feared any flesh " had now " ended his days in
peace and honour." Knox himself had a short time before put
in writing a larger claim for the historic future, " What I have
been to my country, though this unthankful age will not know,
yet the ages to come will be compelled to bear witness to the
truth."
Knox was a rather small man, with a well-knit body; he had a
powerful face, with dark blue eyes under a ridge of eyebrow,
high cheek-bones, and a long black beard which latterly turned
grey. This description, taken from a letter in 1579 by his
junior contemporary Sir Peter Young, is very like Beza's fine
engraving of him in the Icones — an engraving probably founded
on a portrait which was to be sent by Young to Beza along with
the letter. The portrait, which was unfortunately adopted by
Carlyle, has neither pedigree nor probability. After his two
years in the French galleys, if not before, Knox suffered perma-
nently from gravel and dyspepsia, and he confesses that his
nature " was for the most part oppressed with melancholy."
Yet he was always a hard worker; as sole minister of Edinburgh
studying for two sermons on Sunday and three during the week,
besides having innumerable cares of churches at home and abroad.
He was undoubtedly sincere in his religious faith, and most dis-
interested in his devotion to it and to the good of his countrymen.
But like too many of them, he was self-conscious, self-willed and
dogmatic; and his transformation in middle life, while it im-
mensely enriched his sympathies as well as his energies, left him
unable to put himself in the place of those who retained the views
which he had himself held. All his training too, university,
priestly and in foreign parts, tended to make him logical over-
much. But this was mitigated by a strong sense of humour
(not always sarcastic, though sometimes savagely so), and by
tenderness, best seen in his epistolary friendships with women;
and it was quite overborne by an instinct and passion for great
practical affairs. Hence it was that Knox as a statesman so
often struck successfully at the centre of the complex motives
of his time, leaving it to later critics to reconcile his theories of
action. But hence too he more than once took doubtful short-
cuts to some of his most important ends; giving the ministry
within the new Church more power over laymen than Protestant
principles would suggest, and binding the masses outside who
were not members of it, equally with their countrymen who were,
to join in its worship, submit to its jurisdiction, and contribute
to its support. And hence also his style (which contemporaries
called anglicized and modern), though it occasionally rises into
liturgical beauty, and often flashes into vivid historical por-
traiture, is generally kept close to the harsh necessities of the
few years in which he had to work for the future. That work
was indeed chiefly done by the living voice; and in speaking,
this " one man," as Elizabeth's very critical ambassador wrote
from Edinburgh, was " able in one hour to put more life in us
than five hundred trumpets continually blustering in our ears."
But even his eloquence was constraining and constructive — a
personal call for immediate and universal co-operation; and that
personal influence survives to this day in the institutions of his
people, and perhaps still more in their character. His country-
men indeed have always believed that to Knox more than to any
other man Scotland owes her political and religious individuality.
And since his igth century biography by Dr Thomas McCrie,
or at least since his recognition in the following generation by
Thomas Carlyle, the same view has taken its place in literature.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Knox's books, pamphlets, public documents
and letters are collected into the great edition in six volumes of
Knox's Works, by David Laing (Edinburgh, 1846-1864), with
introductions, appendices and notes. Of his books the chief are
the following: I. — The History of the Reformation in Scotland,
incorporating the Confession and the Book of Discipline. Begun
by Knox as a party manifesto in 1560, it was continued and revised
by himself in 1566 as so to form four books, with a fifth book appar-
ently written after his death from materials left by him. It was
partly printed in London in 1586 by Vautrollier, but was suppressed
by authority and published by David Buchanan, with a Life, in
1664. 2. — On Predestination: an Answer to an Anabaptist (London,
I59i)- 3-— On Prayer (1554). 4.— On Affliction (1556). 5.— Epistles,
and Admonition, both to English Brethren in 1554. 6. — The First
Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women
(1558). 7. — An Answer to a Scottish Jesuit (1572).
Knox's life is more or less touched upon by all the Scottish
histories and Church histories which include his period, as well as
in the mass of literature as to Queen Mary. Dr Laing's edition of
the Works contains important biographical material. But among
the many express biographies two especially should bo consulted —
those by Thomas'McCrie (Edinburgh, 1811 ; revised and enlarged in
1813, the later editions containing valuable notes by the author);
and by P. Hume Brown (Edinburgh, 1895). John Knox and the
Reformation, by Andrew Lang (London, 1905), is not so much a
biography as a collection of materials, bearing upon many parts of
the life, but nearly all on the unfavourable side. (A. T. I.)
KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE (1853- ), American lawyer
and political leader, was born in Brownsville, Pennsylvania,
on the 4th of May 1853. He graduated from Mount Union
College (Ohio) in 1872, and was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar
in 1875. He settled in Pittsburg, where he continued in private
practice, with the exception of two years' service (1876-1877)
as assistant United States district attorney, acquiring a large
practice as a corporation lawyer. In April 1901 he became
attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet of President
McKinley, and retained this position after the accession of
President Roosevelt until June 1904, when he was appointed
by Governor Penrrypacker of Pennsylvania to fill the unexpired
term of Matthew S. Quay in the United States Senate; in 1905 he
KNOXVILLE— KNUCKLEBONES
883
was re-elected to the Senate for the full term. In March 1909
he became secretary of state in the cabinet of President Taft.
KNOXVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Knox county,
Tennessee, U.S.A., in the E. part of the state, 160 m. E. of
Nashville, and about 190 m. S.E. of Louisville, Kentucky, on the
right bank of the Tennessee river, 4 m. below the point where
it is formed by the junction of the French Broad and Holston
Rivers. Pop. (1880), 9693; (1890), 22,535; (1900), 32,637, of
whom 7359 were negroes and 895 were foreign-born; (1910 cen-
sus), 36,346. It is served by the main line and by branches
of the Louisville & Nashville and the Southern railways, by the
Knoxville & Bristol railway (Morristown to Knoxville, 58 m.),
by the short Knoxville & Augusta railroad (Knoxville to
Walland, 26 m.), and by passenger and freight steamboat lines
on the Tennessee river, which is here navigable for the greater
part of the year. A steel and concrete street-car bridge crosses
the Tennessee at Knoxville. Knoxville is picturesquely situated
at an elevation of from 850 to 1000 ft. in the valley between the
Smoky Mountains and the Cumberland Mountains, and is one
of the healthiest cities in the United States. There are several
beautiful parks, of which Chilhowie and Fountain City are the
largest, and among the public buildings are a city-hall, Federal
building, court-house, the Knoxville general hospital, the
Lincoln memorial hospital, the Margaret McClung industrial
home, a Young Men's Christian Association building and the
Lawson-McGhee public library. A monument to John Sevier
stands on the site of the blockhouse first built there. Knox-
ville is the seat of Knoxville College (United Presbyterian, 1875)
for negroes, East Tennessee institute, a secondary school for
girls, the Baker-Himel school for boys, Tennessee Medical
College (1889), two commercial schools and the university of
Tennessee. The last, a state co-educational institution, was
chartered as Blount College in 1794 and as East Tennessee
College in 1807, but not opened until 1820 — the present name was
adopted in 1879. It had in 1907-1908 106 instructors, 755
students (536 in academic departments), and a library of 25,000
volumes With the university is combined the state college
of agriculture and engineering; and a large summer school for
teachers is maintained. At Knoxville are the Eastern State
insane asylum, state asylums- for the deaf and dumb (for both
white and negro), and a national cemetery in which more than
3200 soldiers are buried. Knoxville is an important commercial
and industrial centre and does a large jobbing business. It is
near hardwood forests and is an important market for hardwood
mantels. Coal-mines in the vicinity produce more than 2,000,000
tons annually, and neighbouring quarries furnish the famous
Tennessee marble, which is largely exported. Excellent building
and pottery clays are found near Knoxville. Among the city's
industrial establishments are flour and grist mills, cotton and
woollen mills, furniture, desk, office supplies and sash, door, and
blind factories, meat-packing establishments, clothing factories,
iron, steel and boiler works, foundries and machine shops, stove
works and brick and cement works. The value of the factory
product increased from $6,201,840 in 1900 to $12,432,880
in 1905, or 100-5 % in IOOS the value of the flour and grist
mill products alone being $2,048,509. Just outside the city the
Southern railway maintains large car and repair shops. Knox-
ville was settled in 1786 by James White (1737-1815), a North
Carolina pioneer, and was first known as "White's Fort'*; it
was laid out as a town in 1791, and named in honour of General
Henry Knox, then secretary of war in Washington's cabinet.
In 1791 the' 'Knoxville Gazette, the first newspaper in Tennessee
(the early issue, printed at Rogersville) began publication. From
1792 to 1796 Knoxville was the capital of the " Territory South
of the Ohio," and until 1811 and again in 1817 it was the capital
of the state. In 1796 the convention which framed the constitu-
tion of the new state of Tennessee met here, and here later in
the same year the first state legislature was convened. Knox-
ville was chartered as a city in 1815. In its early years it was
several times attacked by the Indians, but was never captured.
During the Civil War there was considerable Union sentiment
in East Tennessee, and in the summer of 1863 the Federal
authorities determined to take possession of Knoxville as well as
Chattanooga and to interrupt railway communications between
the Confederates of the East and West through this region.
As the Confederates had erected only slight defences for the pro-
tection of the city, Burnside, with about 12,000 men, easily
gained possession on the 2nd of September 1863. Fortifications
were immediately begun for its defence, and on the 4th of Novem-
ber, Bragg, thinking his position at Chattanooga impregnable
against Grant, Sherman, Thomas and Hooker, despatched a force
of 20,000 men under Longstreet to engage Burnside. Longstreet
arrived in the vicinity on the i6th of November, and on the
following day began a siege, which was continued with numerous
assaults until the 28th, when a desperate but unsuccessful attack
was made on Fort Sanders, and upon the approach of a relief
force under Sherman, Longstreet withdrew on the night of the
4th of December. The Confederate losses during the siege were
182 killed, 768 wounded and 192 captured or missing; the Union
losses were 92 killed, 394 wounded and 207 captured or missing.
West Knoxville (incorporated in 1888) and North Knoxville
(incorporated in 1889) were annexed to Knoxville in 1898.
See the sketch by Joshua W. Caldwell in Historic Towns of the
Southern States, edited by L. P. Powell (New York, 1900) ; and
W. Rule, G. F. Mellen and J. Wooldridge, Standard History of
Knoxville (Chicago, 1900).
KNUCKLE (apparently the diminutive of a word for " bone,"
found in Ger. Knochen), the joint of a finger, which, when the
hand is shut, is brought into prominence. In mechanical use
the word is applied to the round projecting part of a hinge
through which the pin is run, and in ship-building to an acute
angle on some of the timbers. A " knuckle-duster," said to have
originally come from the criminal slang of the United States,
is a brass or metal instrument fitting on to the hand across the
knuckles, with projecting studs and used for inflicting a brutal
blow.
KNUCKLEBONES (HUCKLEBONES, DIBS, JACKSTONES, CHUCK-
STONES, FIVE-STONES), a game of very ancient origin, played
with five small objects, originally the knucklebones of a sheep,
which are thrown up and caught in various ways. Modern
" knucklebones " consist of six points, or knobs, proceeding
from a common base, and are usually of metal. The winner is he
who first completes successfully a prescribed series of throws,
which, while of the same general character, differ widely in detail.
The simplest consists in tossing up one stone, the jack, and
picking up one or more from the table while it is in the air;
and so on until all five stones have been picked up. Another
consists in tossing up first one stone, then two, then three and
so on, and catching them on the back of the hand. Different
throws have received distinctive names, such as " riding the
elephant," " peas in the pod," and " horses in the stable."
The origin of knucklebones is closely connected with that of
dice, of which it is probably a primitive form, and is doubtless
Asiatic. Sophocles, in a fragment, ascribed the invention of
draughts and knucklebones (astragalof) to Palamedes, who
taught them to his Greek countrymen during the Trojan War.
Both the Iliad and the Odyssey contain allusions to games simi-
lar in character to knucklebones, and the Palamedes tradition, as
flattering to the national pride, was generally accepted through-
out Greece, as is indicated by numerous literary and plastic
evidences. Thus Pausanias (Corinth xx.) mentions a temple
of Fortune in which Palamedes made an offering of his newly
invented game. According to a still more ancient tradition,
Zeus, perceiving that Ganymede longed for his playmates upon
Mount Ida, gave him Eros for a companion and golden dibs
with which to play, and even condescended sometimes to join
in the game (Apollonius). It is significant, however, that both
Herodotus and Plato ascribe to the game a foreign origin.
Plato (Phaedrus) names the Egyptian god Theuth as its inventor,
while Herodotus relates that the Lydians, during a period of
famine in the days of King Atys, originated this game and indeed
almost all other games except chess. There were two methods of
playing in ancient times. The first, and probably the primitive
method, consisted in tossing up and catching the bones on the
884
KNUTSFORD— KOBELL
back of the hand, very much as the game is played to-day. In
the Museum of Naples may be seen a painting excavated at
Pompeii, which represents the goddesses Latona, Niobe, Phoebe,
Aglaia and Hileaera, the last two being engaged in playing
at Knucklebones (see GREEK ART, fig. 42). According to an
epigram of Asclepiodotus, astragals were given as prizes to school-
children, and we are reminded of Plutarch's anecdote of the
youthful Alcibiades, who, when a teamster threatened to drive
over some of his knucklebones that had fallen into the wagon-
ruts, boldly threw himself in front of the advancing team. This
simple form of the game was generally played only by women
and children, and was called pentalitha or five-stones. There were
several varieties of it besides the usual toss and catch, one being
called Iropa, or hole-game, the object having been to toss the
bones into a hole in the earth. Another was the simple and
primitive game of " odd or even."
The second, probably derivative, form of the game was one of
pure chance, the stones being thrown upon a table, either with
the hand or from a cup, and the values of the sides upon which
they fell counted. In this game the shape of the pastern-bones
used for astralagoi, as well as for the tali of the Romans, with
whom knucklebones was also popular, determined the manner
of counting. The pastern-bone of a sheep, goat or calf has, be-
sides two rounded ends upon which it cannot stand, two broad
and two narrow sides, one of each pair being concave and one
convex. The convex narrow side, called chios or " the dog "
counted i; the convex broad side 3; the concave broad side 4;
and the concave narrow side 6. Four astragals were used and
35 different scores were possible at a single throw, many receiving
distinctive names such as Aphrodite, Midas, Solon, Alexander,
and, among the Romans, Venus, King, Vulture, &c. The
highest throw in Greece, counting 40, was the Euripides, and
was probably a combination throw, since more than four sixes
could not be thrown at one time. The lowest throw, both in
Greece and Rome, was the Dog.
See Cassell's Book of Sports and Pastimes (London, 1896); Games
and Songs of American Children, by W. W. Newell (1893); ar>d The
Young Folks' Cyclopaedia of Games and Sports (New York, 1899), for
the modern children's game. For the history see Les Jeux des
Anciens, by L. Becq de Fouquieres (Paris, 1869); Das Knochelspiel
der Alien, by Bolle (Wismar, 1886); Die Spiele der Griechen und
Romer, by W. Richter (Leipzig, 1887).
KNUTSFORD, a market town in the Knutsford parliamentary
division of Cheshire, England; on the London & North Western
and Great Central railways, 24 m. E.N.E. of Chester, on the
Chesire Lines and London & North -Western railway. Pop.
of urban district (1901), 5172. It is pleasantly situated on an
elevated ridge, with the fine domains of Tatton Park and Tabley
respectively north and west of it. The meres in these domains
are especially picturesque. Knutsford is noted in modern times
as the scene of Mrs Gaskell's novel Cranford. Among several
ancient houses the most interesting are a cottage with the date
1411 carved on its woodwork, and the Rose and Crown tavern,
dated 1641. A number of curious old customs linger in the town,
such as the practice of working designs in coloured sand, when
a wedding takes place, before the bride's house. In what
is probably the oldest Unitarian graveyard in the kingdom
Mrs Gaskell lies buried; and in a churchyard a mile from the
town stood the ancient church, which, though partially rebuilt in
the time of Henry VIII., fell into ruin in 1741. The church of
St John, built in 1744, and enlarged in 1879, was supplemented,
in 1880, by St Cross Church, in Perpendicular style. The town
has a grammar school, founded before the reign of Henry VIII.,
but reorganized in 1885. Lord Egerton built the Egerton
schools in 1893. The industries comprise cotton, worsted and
leather manufactures; but Knutsford is mainly a residential
town, as many Manchester merchants have settled here,
attracted by the fine climate and surroundings. Knutsford was
the birthplace of Sir Henry Holland, Physician Extraordinary to
Queen Victoria (1788-1873); and his son, the second Sir Henry,
who was secretary of state for the colonies (1887-1892), was
raised to the peerage in 1888 with the title of Baron Knutsford.
The name Knutsford (Cunetesford, Knotesford) is said to signify
Cnut's ford, but there is no evidence of a settlement here previous
to Domesday. In 1086 Erthebrand held Knutsford immediately
of William FitzNigel, baron of Halton, who was himself a mesne
lord of Hugh Lupus earl of Chester. In 1292 William de Tabley,
lord of both Over and Nether Knutsford, granted free burgage
to his burgesses in both Knutsfords. This charter is the only
one which gives Knutsford a claim to the title of borough. It
provided that the burgesses might elect a bailiff from amongst
themselves every year. The office however carried little real
power with it, and soon lapsed. In the same year as the charter
to Knutsford the king granted to William de Tabley a market
ev.ery Saturday at Nether Knutsford, and a three days' fair at
the Feast of St Peter and St Paul. When this charter was con-
firmed by Edward III. another market (Friday) and another
three days' fair (Feast of St Simon and St Jude) were added.
The Friday market was certainly dropped by 1592, if it was ever
held. May-day revels are still kept up here and attract large
crowds from the neighbourhood. A silk mill was erected here
in 1770, and there was also an attempt to foster the cotton trade,
but the lack of means of communication made the undertaking
impossible.
See Henry Green, History of Knutsford (1859).
KOALA (Phascolarctus cinereus), a stoutly built marsupial, of
the family Phascolmyidae, which also contains the wombats.
This animal, which inhabits the south-eastern parts of the Aus-
tralian continent, is about 2 ft. in length, and of an ash-grey
colour, an excellent climber, residing generally in lofty eucalyp-
tus trees, the buds and tender shoots of which form its principal
food, though occasionally it descends to the ground in the night
in search of roots. From its shape the koala is called by the
colonists the "native bear"; the term "native sloth" being
also applied to it, from its arboreal habits and slow deliberate
movements. The flesh is highly prized by the natives, and is
palatable to Europeans. The skins are largely imported into
England, for the manufacture of articles in which a cheap and
durable fur is required.
KOBDO, a town of the Chinese Empire, in north-west
Mongolia, at the northern foot of the Mongolian Altai, on the
right bank of the Buyantu River, 13 m. from its entrance into
Lake Khara-usu; 500 m. E.S.E. of Biysk (Russian), and 470 m.
W. of Ulyasutai. It is situated amidst a dreary plain, and con-
sists cf a fortress, the residence of the governor of the Kobdo
district, and a small trading town, chiefly peopled by Chinese
and a few Mongols. It is, however, an important centre for
trade between the cattle-breeding nomads and Peking. It was
founded by the Chinese in 1731, and pillaged by the Mussulmans
in 1872. The district of KOBDO occupies the north-western
corner of Mongolia, and is peopled chiefly by Mongols, and also
by Kirghiz and a few Soyotes, Uryankhes and Khotons. It is
governed by a Chinese commissioner, who has under him a
special Mongol functionary (Mongol, dzurgan). The chief monas-
tery is at Ulangom. Considerable numbers of sheep (about
1,000,000), sheepskins, sheep and camel wool are exported to
China, while Chinese cottons, brick tea and various small goods
are imported. Leather, velveteen, cotton, iron and copper goods
boxes, &c., are imported from Russia in exchange for cattle, furs
and wool. The absence of a cart road to Biysk hinders the
development of this trade.
KOBELL, WOLFGANG XAVER FRANZ, BARON VON (1803-
1882), German mineralogist, was born at Munich on the igth of
July 1803. He studied chemistry and mineralogy at Landshut
(1820-1823), and in 1826 became professor of mineralogy in the
university of Munich. He introduced some new methods of
mineral analyses, and in 1855 invented the stauroscope for the
study of the optical properties of crystals. He contributed
numerous papers to scientific journals, and described many new
minerals. He died at Munich on the nth of November, 1882.
PUBLICATIONS. — Charakleristik der Mineralien (2 vols. 1830-1831 ) ;
Tafeln zur Bestimmune der Mineralien &c. (1833; and later editions,
ed. 12, by K. Oebbeke, 1884); Grundzuge der Mineralogie (1838);
Geschichte der Mineralogie von 1650-1860 (1864).
KOCH, R.— KODUNGALUR
885
KOCH, ROBERT (1843-1910), German bacteriologist, was born
at Klausthal, Hanover, on the nth of December 1843. He
studied medicine at Gottingen, and it was while he was practising
as a physician at Wollstein that he began those bacteriological
researches that made his name famous. In 1876 he obtained a
pure culture of the bacillus of anthrax, announcing a method of
preventive inoculation against that disease seven years later.
He became a member of the Sanitary Commission at Berlin and
a professor at the School of Medicine in 1880, and five years later
he was appointed to a chair in Berlin University and director
of the Institute of Health. In 1882, largely as the result of the
improved methods of bacteriological investigation he was able
to elaborate, he discovered the bacillus of tuberculosis; and in
the following year, having been sent on an official mission to
Egypt and India to study the aetiology of Asiatic cholera, he
identified the comma bacillus as the specific organism of that
malady. In 1890 great hopes were aroused by the announce-
ment that in tuberculin he had prepared an agent which exercised
an inimical influence on the growth of the tubercle bacillus, but
the expectations that were formed of it as a remedy for consump-
tion were not fulfilled, though it came into considerable vogue
as a means of diagnosing the existence of tuberculosis in animals
intended for food. At the Congress on Tuberculosis held in
London in 1901 he maintained that tuberculosis in man and in
cattle is not the same disease, the practical inference being that
the danger to men of infection from milk and meat is less than
from other human subjects suffering from the disease. This
statement, however, was not regarded as properly proved,
and one of its results was the appointment of a British Royal
Commission to study the question./ Dr Koch also investigated
the nature of rinderpest in South Africa in 1896, and found means
of combating the disease. In 1897 he went to Bombay at the
head of a commission formed to investigate the bubonic plague,
and he subsequently undertook extensive travels in pursuit of
his studies on the origin and treatment of malaria. He was
summoned to South Africa a second time in 1903 to give expert
advice on other cattle diseases, and on his return was elected
a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1906-1907 he
spent eighteen months in East Africa, investigating sleeping-
sickness. He died at Baden-Baden of heart-disease on the
28th of May 1910. Koch was undoubtedly one of the greatest
bacteriologists ever known, and a great benefactor of humanity
by his discoveries. Honours were showered upon him, and in
1905 he was awarded the Nobel prize for medicine.
Among his works may be mentioned: Weitere Mitteilungen uber
ein Heilmiltel gegen Tuberkulose (Leipzig, 1891); and Reiseberichte
uber Rinderpest, Bubonenpest in Indien und Afrika, Tsetse- oder
Surra-Krankheit, Texasfieber, tropische Malaria, Schwarzwasserfieber
(Berlin, 1898). From 1886 onwards he edited, with Dr Karl Flugge,
the Zeitschrift fur Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten (published at
Leipzig). See Loeffler, " Robert Koch, zum 6oten Geburtstage " in
Deut. Medizin. Wochenschr. (No. 50, 1903).
KOCH, a tribe of north-eastern India, which has given its
name to the state of Kuch Behar (q.ii.). They are probably of
Mongolian stock, akin to the Mech, Kachari, Garo and Tippera
tribes, and originally spoke, like these, a language of the Bodo
group. But since one of their chiefs established a powerful
kingdom at Kuch Behar in the i6th century they have gradually
become Hinduized, and now adopt the name of Rajbansi ( = " of
royal blood ")• In 1901 the number in Eastern Bengal and
Assam was returned at nearly a| millions.
KOCK, CHARLES PAUL DE (1793-1871), French novelist, was
born at Passy on the 2ist of May 1793. He was a posthumous
child, his father, a banker of Dutch extraction, having been a
victim of the Terror. Paul de Kock began life as a banker's clerk.
For the most part he resided on the Boulevard St Martin, and
was one of the most inveterate of Parisians. He died in Paris
on the 27th of April 1871. He began to write for the stage
very early, and composed many operatic libretti. His first
novel, L' Enfant de ma femme (1811), was published at his own
expense. In 1820 he began his long and successful series of
novels dealing with Parisian life with Georgette, ou la mere du
Tabellion. His period of greatest and most successful activity
was the Restoration and the early days of Louis Philippe. He
was relatively less popular in France itself than abroad, where he
was considered as the special painter of life in Paris. Major
Pendennis's remark that he had read nothing of the novel kind
for thirty years except Paul de Kock, " who certainly made him
laugh," is likely to remain one of the most durable of his testi-
monials, and may be classed with the legendary question of a
foreign sovereign to a Frenchman who was paying his respects,
" Vous venez de Paris et vous devez savoir des nouvelles.
Comment se porte Paul de Kock ? " The disappearance of the
griselte and of the cheap dissipation described by Henri Murger
practically made Paul de Kock obsolete. But to the student of
manners his portraiture of low and middle class life in the first
half of the igih century at Paris still has its value.
The works of Paul de Kock are very numerous. With the
exception of a few not very felicitous excursions into historical
romance and some miscellaneous works of which his share in
La Grande mile, Paris (1842), is the chief, they are all stories
of middle-class Parisian life, of guingueites and cabarets and
equivocal adventures of one sort or another. The most famous
are Andre le Savoyard (1825) and Le Barbier de Paris (1826).
His Memoires were published in 1873. See also Th. Trimm, La Vie
de Charles Paul de Kock (1873).
KODAIKANAL, a sanatorium of southern India, in the Madura
district of Madras, situated in the Palni hills, about 7000 ft.
above sea-level; pop. (1901), 1912, but the number in the hot
season would be much larger. It is difficult of access, being
44 m. from a railway station, and the last 1 1 m. are impracticable
for wheeled vehicles. It contains a government observatory,
the appliances of which are specially adapted for the study of
terrestrial magnetism, seismology and solar physics.
KODAMA, GENTARO, COUNT (1852-1907), Japanese general,
was born in Choshu. He studied military science in Germany,
and was appointed vice-minister of war in 1892. He became
governor-general of Formosa in 1900, holding at the same time
the portfolio of war. When the conflict with Russia became
imminent in 1903, he gave up his portfolio to become vice-chief
of the general staff, a sacrifice which elicited much public ap-
plause. Throughout the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5)116 served
as chief of staff to Field Marshal Oyama, and it was well under-
stood that his genius guided the strategy of the whole campaign,
as that of General Kawakami had done in the war with China
ten years previously. General Kodama was raised in rapid
succession to the ranks of baron, viscount and count, and his
death in 1907 was regarded as a national calamity.
KODUNGALUR (or CRANGANUR), a town of southern India,
in Cochin state, within the presidency of Madras. Though now
a place of little importance, its historical interest is considerable.
Tradition assigns to it the double honour of having been the first
field of St Thomas's labours (A.D. 52) in India and the seat of
Cheraman Perumal's government. The visit of St Thomas is
generally considered mythical; but it is certain that the Syrian
Church was firmly established here before the 9th century
(Burnell), and probably the Jews' settlement was still earlier.
The latter, in fact, claim to hold grants dated A.D. 378. The
cruelty of the Portuguese drove most of the Jews to Cochin. Up
to 1314, when the Vypin harbour was formed, the only opening
in the Cochin backwater, and outlet for the Periyar, was at
Kodungalur, which must then have been the best harbour on the
coast. In 1502 the Syrian Christians invoked the protection
of the Portuguese. In 1523 the latter built their first fort there,
and in 1565 enlarged it. In 1661 the Dutch took the fort, the
possession of which for the next forty years was contested
between this nation, the zamorin, and the raja of Kodungalur.
In 1776 Tippoo seized the stronghold. The Dutch recaptured
it two years later, and, having ceded it to Tippoo in 1784, sold
it to the Travancore raja, and again in 1789 to Tippoo, who
destroyed it in the following year. The country round Kodun-
galur now forms an autonomous principality, tributary to the
raja of Cochin.
886
KOENIG— KOHLHASE
KOENIG, KARL DIETRICH EBERHARD (1774-1851),
German palaeontologist, was born at Brunswick in 1774, and was
educated at Gottingen. In 1807 he became assistant keeper,
and in 1813 he was appointed keeper, of the department of natural
history in the British Museum, and afterwards of geology and
mineralogy, retaining the post until the close of his life. He
described many fossils in the British Museum in a classic work
entitled Icones fossilium sectiles (1820-1825). He died in London
on the 6th of September 1851.
KOESFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, on the Berkel, 38 m. by rail N.N.W. of Dortmund.
Pop. (1905), 8449. It has three Roman Catholic churches, one
of which — the Gymnasial Kirche — is used by the Protestant
community. Here are the ruins of the Ludgeri Castle, formerly
the residence of the bishops of Miinster, and also the castle
of Varlar, the residence of the princes of Salm-Horstmar.
The leading industries include the making of linen goods and
machinery.
KOHAT, a town and district of British India, in the Peshawar
division of the North- West Frontier Province. The town is
37 m. south of Peshawar by the Kohat Pass, along which a
military road was opened in 1901. The population in 1901
was 30,762, including 12,670 in the cantonment, which is garri-
soned by artillery, cavalry and infantry. In the Tirah cam-
paign of 1897-98 Kohat was the starting-point of Sir William
Lockhart's expedition against the Orakzais and Afridis. It is
the military base for the southern Afridi frontier as Peshawar is
for the northern frontier of the same tribe, and it lies in the heart
of the Pathan country.
The DISTRICT OF KOHAT has an area of 2973 sq. m. It consists
chiefly of a bare and intricate mountain region east of the Indus,
deeply scored with river valleys and ravines, but enclosing a few
scattered patches of cultivated lowland. The eastern or Khattak
country especially comprises a perfect labyrinth of ranges, which
fall, however, into two principal groups, to the north and south of
the Teri Toi river. The Miranzai valley, in the extreme west,
appears by comparison a rich and fertile tract. In its small but
carefully tilled glens, the plane, palm, fig and many orchard trees
flourish luxuriantly; while a brushwood of wild olive, mimosa and
other thorny bushes clothes the rugged ravines upon the upper
slopes. Occasional grassy glades upon their sides form favourite
pasture grounds for the Waziri tribes. The Teri Toi, rising on the
eastern limit of Upper Miranzai, runs due eastward to the Indus,
which it joins 12 m. N. of Makhad, dividing the district into two
main portions. The drainage from the northern half flows south-
ward into the Teri Toi itself, and northward into the parallel
stream of the Kohat Toi. That of the southern tract falls north-
wards also into the Teri Toi, and southwards towards the Kurram
and the Indus. The frontier mountains, continuations of the Saf ed
Koh system, attain in places a considerable elevation, the two
principal peaks, Dupa Sir and Mazi Garh, just beyond the British
frontier, being 8260 and 7940 ft. above the sea respectively.
The Waziri hills, on the south, extend like a wedge between the
boundaries pf Bannu and Kohat, with a general elevation of less
than 4000 ft. The salt-mines are situated in the low line of hills
crossing the valley of the Teri Toi, and extending along both
banks of that river. The deposit has a width of a quarter of a
mile, with a thickness of 1000 ft.; it sometimes forms hills 200 ft.
in height, almost entirely composed of solid rock-salt, and may
probably rank as one of the largest veins of its kind in the world.
The most extensive exposure occurs at Bahadur Khel, on the
south bank of the Teri Toi. The annual output is about 16,000
tons, yielding a revenue of £40,000. Petroleum springs exude
from a rock at Panoba, 23 m. east of Kohat; and sulphur abounds
in the northern range. In 1901 the population was 217,865,
showing an increase of 1 1 % in the decade. The frontier tribes
on the Kohat border are the Afridis, Orakzais, Zaimukhts and
Turis. All these are described under their separate names. A
railway runs from Kushalgarh through Kohat to Thai, and the
river Indus has been bridged at Kushalgarh.
KOHAT PASS, a mountain pass in the North-West Frontier
Province of India, connecting Kohat with Peshawar. From
the north side the defile commences at 45 m. S.W. of Fort
Mackeson, whence it is about 12 or 13 m. to the Kohat
entrance. The pass varies from 400 yds. to ij m. in width,
and its summit is some 600 to 700 ft. above the plain. It is
inhabited by the Adam Khel Afridis, and nearly all British
relations with that tribe have been concerned with this pass,
which is the only connexion between two British districts,
without crossing and recrossing the Indus (see AFRIDI). It is
now traversed by a cart-road.
KOHISTAN, a tract of country on the Peshawar border of
the North-West Frontier Province of India. Kohistan means
the " country of the hills " and corresponds to the English word
highlands; but it is specially applied to a district, which is very
little known, to the south and west of Chilas, between the Kagan
valley and the river Indus. It comprises an area of over
1000 sq. m., and is bounded on the N.W. by the river Indus,
on the N.E. by Chilas, and on the S. by Kagan, the Chor
Glen and Allai. It consists roughly of two main valleys running
east and west, and separated from each other by a mountain
range over 16,000 ft. high. Like the mountains of Chilas, those
in Kohistan are snow-bound and rocky wastes from their crests
downwards to 12,000 ft. Below this the hills are covered with
fine forest and grass to 5000 or 6000 ft., and in the valleys,
especially near the Indus, are fertile basins under cultivation.
The Kohistanis are Mahommedans, but not of Pathan race, and
appear to be closely allied to the Chilasis. They are a well-built,
brave but quiet people who carry on a trade with British
districts, and have never given the government much trouble.
There is little doubt that the Kohistanis are, like the Kafirs of
Kafiristan, the remnants of old races driven by Mahommedan
invasions from the valleys and plains into the higher mountains.
The majority have been converted to Islam within the last 200
years. The total population is about 16,000.
An important district also known as Kohistan lies to the north
of Kabul in Afghanistan, extending to the Hindu Kush. The
Kohistani Tajiks proved to be the most powerful and the best
organized clans that opposed the British occupation of Kabul
in 1879-80. Part of their country is highly cultivated, abound-
ing in fruit, and includes many important villages. It is here
that the remains of an ancient city have been lately discovered
by the amir's officials, which may prove to be the great city
of Alexander's founding, known to be to the north of Kabul,
but which had hitherto escaped identification.
The name of Kohistan is also applied to a tract of barren
and hilly country on the east border of Karachi district,
Sind.
KOHL, (i) The name of the cosmetic used from the earliest
times in the East by women to darken the eyelids, in order to
increase the lustre of the eyes. It is usually composed of finely
powdered antimony, but smoke black obtained from burnt
almond-shells or frankincense is also used. The Arabic word
kohl, from which has been derived " alcohol," is derived from
kahala, to stain. (2) " Kohl " or " kohl-rabi " (cole-rape, from
Lat. caulis, cabbage) is a kind of cabbage (q.v.), with a turnip-
shaped top, cultivated chiefly as food for cattle.
KOHLHASE, HANS, a German historical figure about whose
personality some controversy exists. He is chiefly known as
the hero of Heinrich von Kleist's novel, Michael Kohlhaas. He
was a merchant, and not, as some have supposed, a horsedealer,
and he lived at Kolln in Brandenburg. In October 1532, so the
story runs, whilst proceeding to the fair at Leipzig, he was
attacked and his horses were taken from him by the servants of
a Saxon nobleman, one Giinter von Zaschwitz. In consequence
of the delay the merchant suffered some loss of business at the
fair and on his return he refused to pay the small sum which
Zaschwitz demanded as a condition of returning the horses.
Instead Kohlhase asked for a substantial amount of money as
compensation for his loss, and failing to secure this he invoked
the aid of his sovereign, the elector of Brandenburg. Finding
however that it was impossible to recover his horses, he paid
Zaschwitz the sum required for them, but reserved to himself
the right to take further action. Then unable to obtain redress
KOKOMO— KOLAR
887
in the courts of law, the merchant, in a Fehdebrief, threw down
a challenge, not only to his aggressor, but to the whole of Saxony.
Acts of lawlessness were soon attributed to him, and after an
attempt to settle the feud had failed, the elector of Saxony, John
Frederick I., set a price upon the head of the angry merchant.
Kohlhase now sought revenge in earnest. Gathering around him
a band of criminals and of desperadoes he spread terror throughout
the whole of Saxony ; travellers were robbed, villages were burned
and towns were plundered. For some time the authorities were
practically powerless to stop these outrages, but in March 1540
Kohlhase 'and his principal associate, Georg Nagelschmidt, were
seized, and on the 22nd of the month they were broken on the
wheel in Berlin.
The life and fate of Kohlhase are dealt with in several dramas.
See Burkhardt, Der historische Hans Kohlhase und H. von Kleists
Michael Kohlhaas (Leipzig, 1864).
KOKOMO, a city and the county-seat of Howard county,
Indiana, U.S.A., on the Wildcat River, about 50 m. N. of Indiana-
polis. Pop. (1890), 8261; (1900), 10,609 of whom 499 were
foreign-born and 359 negroes; (1910 census), 17,010. It is
served by the Lake Erie & Western, the Pittsburg Cincinnati
Chicago & St Louis, and the Toledo St Louis & Western railways,
and by two interurban electric lines. Kokomo is a centre of
trade in agricultural products, and has various manufactures,
including flint, plate and opalescent glass, &c. The total value
of the factory product increased from $2,062,156 in 1900 to
$3,651,105 in 1905, or 77-1 %; and in 1905 the glass product
was valued at $864,567, or 23-7 % of the total. Kokomo was
settled about 1840 and became a city (under a state law)
in 1865.
KOKO-NOR (or KUKU-NOR) (Tsing-hai of the Chinese, and
Tso-ngombo of the Tanguts), a lake of Central Asia, situated at
an altitude of 9975 ft., in the extreme N.E. of Tibet, 30 m. from
the W. frontier of the Chinese province of Kan-suh, in 100° E.
and 37° N. It lies amongst the eastern ranges of the Kuen-lun,
having the Nan-shan Mountains to the north, and the southern
Kokonor range (10,000 ft.) on the south. It measures 66 m. by
40 m., and contains half a dozen islands, on one of which is a
Buddhist (i.e. Lamaist) monastery, to which pilgrims resort.
The water is salt, though an abundance of fish live in it, and it
often remains frozen for three months together in winter. The
surface is at times subject to considerable variations of level.
The lake is entered on the west by the river Buhain-gol. The
nomads who dwell round its shores are Tanguts.
KOKSHAROV, NIKOLAI IVANOVICH VON (1818-1893),
Russian mineralogist and major-general in the Russian army,
was born at Ust-Kamenogork in Tomsk, on the 5th of December
1818 (o.s.). He was educated at the military school of mines
in St Petersburg. At the age of twenty-two he was selected to
accompany R. I. Murchison and De Verneuil, and afterwards
De Keyserling, in their geological survey of the Russian Empire.
Subsequently he devoted his attention mainly to the study of
mineralogy and mining, and was appointed director of the
Institute of Mines. In 1865 he became director of the Imperial
Mineralogical Society of St Petersburg. He contributed numer-
ous papers on euclase, zircon, epidote, orthite, monazite and other
mineralogical subjects to the St Petersburg and Vienna academies
of science, to Poggendorf's Annalcn, Leonhard and Brown's
Jahrbuch, &c. He also issued as separate works Materialen zur
Mineralogie Russlands (10 vols., 1853-1891), and Vorlesungen
ubcr Mineralogie (1865). He died in St Petersburg on the
3rd of January 1893 (o.s.).
KOKSTAD, a town of South Africa, the capital of Griqualand
East, 236 m. by rail S.W. of Durban, no m. N. by W. of Port
Shepstone, and 150 m. N. of Port St John, Pondoland. Pop.
(1904), 2903, of whom a third were Griquas. The town is built
on the outer slopes of the Drakensberg and is 4270 ft. above the
sea. Behind it Mount Currie rises to a height of 7297 ft. An
excellent water supply is derived from the mountains. The town
is well laid cat, and possesses several handsome public buildings.
It is the centre of a thriving agricultural district and has a con-
siderable trade in wool, grain, cattle and horses with Basutoland,
Pondoland and the neighbouring regions of Natal. The town
is named after the Griqua chief Adam Kok, who founded it in
1869. In 1879 it came into the possession of Cape Colony and
was granted municipal government in 1893. It is the residence
of the Headman of the Griqua nation. (See KAFFRARIA and
GRIQUALAND.)
KOLA, a peninsula of northern Russia, lying between the
Arctic Ocean on the N. and the White Sea on the S. It forms
part of the region of Lapland and belongs administratively to
the government of Archangel. The Arctic coast, known as the
Murman coast (Murman being a corruption of Norman), is 260 m.
long, and being subject to the influence of the North Atlantic
drift, is free from ice all the year round. It is a rocky coast,
built of granite, and rising to 650 ft., and is broken by several
excellent bays. On one of these, Kola Bay, the Russian govern-
ment founded in 1895 the naval harbour of Alexandrovsk.
From May to August a productive fishery is carried on along this
coast. Inland the peninsula rises up to a plateau, 1000 ft. in
general elevation, and crossed by several ranges of low moun-
tains, which go up to over 3000 ft. in altitude. The lower slopes
of these mountains are clothed with forest up to 1300 ft., and
in places thickly studded with lakes, some of them of very con-
siderable extent, e.g. Imandra (330 sq. m.), Ump-jaur, Nuorti-
jarvi, Guolle-jaur or Kola Lake, and Lu-jaur. From these issue
streams of appreciable magnitude, such as the Tuloma, Voronya,
Yovkyok or Yokanka, and Ponoi, all flowing into the Arctic, and
the Varsuga and Umba, into the White Sea. The area of the
peninsula is estimated at 50,000 sq. m.
See A. O. Kihlmann and PalmSn, Die Expedition nach der Halbinsel
Kola (1887-1892) (Helsingfors) ; A. O. Kihlmann, Bericht einer natur-
•wissenschaftlichen Reise durch Russisch-Lappland (Helsingfors, 1890) ;
and W. Ramsay, Geologische Beobachtungen auf der Halbinsel Kola
(Helsingfors, 1899).
KOLABA (or COLABA), a district of British India, in the
southern division of Bombay. Area, 2131 sq. m.; pop. (1901),
605,566, showing an increase of 2 % in the decade. The head-
quarters are at Alibagh. Lying between the Western Ghats
and the sea, Kolaba district abounds in hills, some being spurs
running at right angles to the main range, while others are
isolated peaks or lofty detached ridges. The sea frontage, of
about 20 m., is throughout the greater part of its length fringed
by a belt of coco-nut and betel-nut palms. Behind this belt
lies a stretch of flat country devoted to rice cultivation. In
many places along the banks of the salt-water creeks there are
extensive tracts of salt marshland, some of them reclaimed,
some still subject to tidal inundation, and others set apart for
the manufacture of salt. The district is traversed by a few
small streams. Tidal inlets, of which the principal are the
Nagothna on the north, the Roha or Chaul in the west, and the
Bankot creek in the south, run inland for 30 or 40 m., forming
highways for a brisk trade in rice, salt, firewood, and dried fish.
Near the coast especially, the district is well supplied with
reservoirs. The Western Ghats have two remarkable peaks —
Raigarh, where Sivaji built his capital, and Miradongar. There
are extensive teak and black wood forests, the value of which
is increased by their proximity to Bombay. The Great Indian
Peninsula railway crosses part of the district, and communication
with Bombay is maintained by a steam ferry. Owing to its
nearness to that city, the district has suffered severely from
plague. Kolaba district takes its name from a little island off
Alibagh, which was one of the strongholds of Angria, the Mah-
ratta pirate of the i8th century. The same island has given
its name to Kolaba Point, the spur of Bombay Island running
south that protects the entrance to the harbour. On Kolaba
Point are the terminus of the Bombay & Baroda railway,
barracks for a European regiment, lunatic asylum and
observatory.
KOLAR, a town and district of India, hi the state of Mysore.
The town is 43 m. E. of Bangalore. Pop. (1901), 12,210.
Although of ancient foundation, it has been almost completely
modernized. Industries include the weaving of blankets and
the breeding of turkeys for export.
388
KOLBE— KOLDING
The DISTRICT or KOLAR has an area of 3180 sq. m. It
occupies the portion of the Mysore table-land immediately
bordering the Eastern Ghats. The principal watershed lies
in the north - west, around the hill of Nandidrug (4810 ft.),
from which rivers radiate in all directions; and the whole
country is broken by numerous hill ranges. The chief rivers
are the Palar, the South Pinakini or Pennar, the North Pinakini,
and the Papagani, which are industriously utilized for irrigation
by means of anicuts and tanks. The rocks of the district are
mostly syenite or granite, with a small admixture of mica and
feldspar. The soil in the valleys consists of a fertile loam; and
in the higher levels sand and gravel are found. The hills are
covered with scrub, jungle and brushwood. In 1901 the
population was 723,600, showing an increase of 22 % in the
decade. The district is traversed by the Bangalore line of
the Madras railway, with a branch 10 m. long, known as the
Kolar Goldfields railway. Gold prospecting in this region
began in 1876, and the industry is now settled on a secure
basis. Here are situated the mines of the Mysore, Champion
Reef, Ooregum, and Nandidrug companies. To the end of
1904 the total value of gold produced was 21 millions sterling,
and there had been paid in dividends 9 millions, and in royalty
to the Mysore state one million. The municipality called the
Kolar Gold Fields had in 1901 a population of 38,204; it has
suffered severely from plague. Electricity from the falls of
the Cauvery (93 m. distant) is utilized as the motive power
in the mines. Sugar manufacture and silk and cotton weaving
are the other principal industries in the district. The chief
historical interest of modern times centres round the hill fort
of Nandidrug, which was stormed by the British in 1791, after
a bombardment of 21 days.
KOLBE, ADOLPHE WILHELM HERMANN (1818-1884),
German chemist, was born on the 27th of September 1818 at
Elliehausen, near Gottingen, where in 1838 he began to study
chemistry under F. Wohler. In 1842 he became assistant to
R. W. von Bunsen at Marburg, and three years later to Lyon
Playfair at London. From 1847 to 1851 he was engaged at
Brunswick in editing the Dictionary of Chemistry started by
Liebig, but in the latter year he went to Marburg as successor
to Bunsen in the chair of chemistry. In 1865 he was called to
Leipzig in the same capacity, and he died in that city on the
25th of November 1884. Kolbe had an important share in the
great development of chemical theory that occurred about
the middle of the igth century, especially in regard to the con-
stitution of organic compounds, which he viewed as derivatives
of inorganic ones, formed from the latter — in some cases directly
—by simple processes of substitution. Unable to accept
Berzelius's doctrine of the unalterability of organic radicals,
he also gave a new interpretation to the meaning of copulae
under the influence of his fellow-worker Edward Frankland's
conception of definite atomic saturation-capacities, and thus
contributed in an important degree to the subsequent establish-
ment of the structure theory. Kolbe was a very successful
teacher, a ready and vigorous writer, and a brilliant experi-
mentalist whose work revealed the nature of many compounds
the composition of which had not prev:ously been understood.
He published a Lehrbuch der organischen Chcmie in 1854, smaller
textbooks of organic and inorganic chemistry in 1877-1883, and
Zur Entunckelungsgeschickte der theorelisdien Chemie in 1881.
From 1870 he was editor of the Journal fur praklische Chemie,
in which many trenchant criticisms of contemporary chemists
and their doctrines appeared from his pen.
KOLBERG (or COLBERG), a town of Germany, and seaport
of the Prussian province of .Pomerania, on the right bank of
the Persante, which falls into the Baltic about a mile below
the town, and at the junction of the railway lines to Belgard
and Gollnow. Pop. (1905), 22,804. It has a handsome market-
place with a statue of Frederick William III.; and there are
extensive suburbs, of which the most important is Miinde.
The principal buildings are the huge red-brick church of St
Mary, with five aisles, one of the most remarkable churches in
Pomerania, dating from the I4th century; the council-house
(Rathaus), erected after the plans of Ernst F. Zwirner; and the
citadel. Kolberg also possesses four other churches, a theatre,
a gymnasium, a school of navigation, and an exchange. Its
bathing establishments are largely frequented and attract a
considerable number of summer visitors. It has a harbour at
the mouth of the Persante, where there is a lighthouse. Woollen
cloth, machinery and spirits are manufactured; there is an
extensive salt-mine in the neighbouring Zillenberg; the salmon
and lamprey fisheries are important; and a fair amount of
commercial' activity is maintained. In 1903 a monument was
erected to the memory of Gneisenau and the patriot, Joachim
Christian Nettelbeck (1738-1824), through whose efforts the
town was saved from the French in 1806-7.
Originally a Slavonic fort, Kolberg is one of the oldest places
of Pomerania. At an early date it became the seat of a bishop,
and although it soon lost this distinction it obtained municipal
privileges in 1255. From about 1276 it ranked as the most
important place in the episcopal principality of Kamin, and
from 1284 it was a member of the Hanseatic League. During
the Thirty Years' War it was captured by the Swedes in 1631,
passing by the treaty of Westphalia to the elector of Branden-
burg, Frederick William I., who strengthened its fortifications.
The town was a centre of conflict during the Seven Years' War.
In 1758 and again in 1760 the Russians besieged Kolberg in
vain, but in 1 762 they succeeded in capturing it. Soon restored
to. Brandenburg, it was vigorously attacked by the French in
1806 and 1807, but it was saved by the long resistance of its
inhabitants. In 1887 the fortifications of the town were razed,
and it has since become a fashionable watering-place, receiving
annually nearly 15,000 visitors.
See Riemann, Geschichte der Stadt Kolberg (Kolberg, 1873);
Stoewer, Geschichte der Sladt Kolberg (Kolberg, 1897); Schonlein,
Geschichte der Belagerungen Kolbergs in den Jahren 1758, 1760, 1761
und 1807 (Kolberg, 1878); and Kempin, Fuhrer durch Bad Kolberg
(Kolberg, 1899).
KOLCSEY, FERENCZ (1790-1838), Hungarian poet, critic and
orator, was born at Szodemeter, in Transylvania, on the 8th of
August 1790. In his fifteenth year he made the acquaintance of
Kazinczy and zealously adopted his linguistic reforms. In 1809
Kolcsey went to Pest and became a " notary to the royal board."
Law proved distasteful, and at Cseke in Szatmar county he
devoted his time to aesthetical study, poetry, criticism, and the
defence of the theories of Kazinczy. Kolcsey's early metrical
pieces contributed to the Transylvanian Museum did not attract
much attention, whilst his severe criticisms of Csokonai, Kis,
and especially Berzsenyi, published in 1817, rendered him very
unpopular. From 1821 to 1826 he published many separate
poems of great beauty in the Aurora, Hebe, Aspasia, and other
magazines of polite literature. He joined Paul Szemere in a new
periodical, styled £let is literatura (" Life and Literature "),
which appeared from 1826 to 1829, in 4 vols., and gained for
Kolcsey the highest reputation as a critical writer. From 1832
to 1835 he sat in the Hungarian Diet, where his extreme liberal
views and his singular eloquence soon rendered him famous as a
parliamentary leader. Elected on the i7th of November 1830
a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, he took
part in its first grand meeting; in 1832, he delivered his
famous oration on Kazinczy, and in 1836 that on his former
opponent Daniel Berzsenyi. When in 1838 Baron Wesselenyi
was unjustly thrown into prison upon a charge of treason,!
Kolcsey eloquently though unsuccessfully conducted his defence;
and he died about a week afterwards (August 24) from internal
inflammation. His collected works, in 6 vols., were published
at Pest, 1840-1848, and his journal of the diet of 1832-1836
appeared in 1848. A monument erected to the memory of
Kolcsey was unveiled at Szatmar-Nemetf on the 2jth of
September 1864.
See G. Steinacker, Ungarische Lyriker (Leipzig, and Pest, 1874);
F. Toldy, Magyar Koltok elcte (2 vols., Pest, 1871); J. Ferenczy and
J. Danielik, Magyar Ir6k (2 vols., Pest, 1856-1858).
KOLDING, a town of Denmark in the ami (county) of Vejle, on
the east coast of Jutland, on the Koldingfjord, an inlet of the
KOLGUEV— KOLLIKER
Little Belt, 9 m. N. of the German frontier. Pop. (1901), 12,516.
It is on the Eastern railway of Jutland. The harbour throughout
has a depth of over 20 ft. A little to the north-west is the
splendid remnant of the royal castle Koldinghuus, formerly
called Oernsborg or Arensborg. It was begun by Duke Abel in
1248; in 1808 it was burned. The large square tower was built
by Christian IV. (1588-1648), and was surmounted by colossal
statues, of which one is still standing. It contains an anti-
quarian and historical museum (1892). The name of Kolding
occurs in the icth century, but its earliest known town-rights
date from 1321. In 1644 it was the scene of a Danish victory
over the Swedes, and on the 22nd of April 1849 of a Danish
defeat by the troops of Schleswig-Holstein. A comprehensive
view of the Little Belt with its i&lands, and over the mainland,
is obtained from the Skamlingsbank, a slight elevation 8| m.
S.E., where an obelisk (1863) commemorates the effort made to
preserve the Danish language in Schleswig.
KOLGUEV, KOLGUEFF or KALGUYEV, an island off the north-
west of Russia in Europe, belonging to the government of Arch-
angel. It lies about 50 m. from the nearest point of the mainland,
and is of roughly oval form, 54 m. in length from N.N.E. to S.S. W.
and 39 m. in extreme breadth. It lies in a shallow sea, and is
quite low, the highest point being 250 ft. above the sea. Peat-
bogs and grass lands cover the greater part of the surface; there
are several considerable streams and a large number of small lakes.
The island is of recent geological formation; it consists almost
wholly of disintegrated sandstone or clay (which rises at the
north-west into cliffs up to 60 ft. high), with scattered masses
of granite. Vegetation is scanty, but bears, foxes and other
Arctic animals, geese, swans, &c., provide means of livelihood for
a few Samoyed hunters.
KOLHAPUR, a native State of India, within the Deccan
division of Bombay. It is the fourth in importance of the Mah-
ratta principalities, the other three being Baroda, Gwalior and
Indore; and it is the principal state under the political control
of the government of Bombay. Together with its jagirs or
feudatories, it covers an area of 3165 sq. m. In 1901 the popula-
tion was 910,011. The estimated re venue is £300,000. Kolhapur
stretches from the heart of the Western Ghats eastwards into the
plain of the Deccan. Along the spurs of the main chain of the
Ghats lie wild and picturesque hill slopes and valleys, producing
little but timber, and till recently covered with rich forests.
The centre of the state is crossed by several lines of low hills run-
ning at right angles from the main range. In the east the
country becomes more open and presents the unpicturesque uni-
formity of a well-cultivated and treeless plain, broken only by an
occasional river. Among the western hills are the ancient Mah-
ratta strongholds of Panhala, Vishalgarh, Bavda and Rungna.
The rivers, though navigable during the rains by boats of 2 tons
burthen, are all fordable during the hot months. Iron ore is
found in the hills, and smelting was formerly carried on to a con-
siderable extent; but now the Kolhapur mineral cannot compete
with that imported from Europe. There are several good stone
quarries. The principal agricultural products are rice, millets,
sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, safflower and vegetables.
The rajas of Kolhapur trace their descent from Raja Ram, a
younger son of Sivaji the Great, the founder of the Mahratta
power. The prevalence of piracy caused the British government
to send expeditions against Kolhapur in 1765 and 1792; and in
the early years of the igth century the misgovernment of the
chief compelled the British to resort to military operations, and
ultimately to appoint an officer to manage the state. In
recent years the state has been conspicuously well governed, on
the pattern of British administration. The raja Shahu Chhatra-
pati, G.C.S.I. (who is entitled to a salute of 21 guns) was born in
1874, and ten years later succeeded to the throne by adoption.
The principal institutions are the Rajaram college, the high
school, a technical school, an agricultural school, and training-
schools for both masters and mistresses. The state railway from
Miraj junction to Kolhapur town is worked by the Southern
Mahratta company. In recent years the state has suffered from
both famine and plague.
The town of KOLHAPUR, or KARVIR, is the terminus of a branch
of the Southern Mahratta railway, 30 m. from the main line.
Pop. (1901), 54,373. Besides a number of handsome modern
public buildings, the town has many evidences of antiquity.
Originally it appears to have been an important religious centre,
and numerous Buddhist remains have been discovered in the
neighbourhood.
KOLIN, or NEU-KOLIN (also Kollin; Czech, Novy Kolin), a
town of Bohemia, Austria, 40 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop.
(1900), 15,025, mostly Czech. It is situated on the Elbe, and
amongst its noteworthy buildings may be specially mentioned
the beautiful early Gothic church of St Bartholomew, erected
during the latter half of the i4th century. The industries of the
town include sugar-refining, steam mills, brewing, and the manu-
facture of starch, syrup, spirits, potash and tin ware. The
neighbourhood is known for the excellence of its fruit and vege-
tables. Kolin is chiefly famous on account of the battle here
on the i8th of June 1757, when the Prussians under Frederick
the Great were defeated by the Austrians under Daun (see SEVEN
YEARS' WAR). The result was the raising of the siege of Prague
and the evacuation of Bohemia by the Prussians. Kolin was
colonized in the i3th century by German settlers and made a
royal city. In 1421 it was captured by the men of Prague, and
the German inhabitants who refused to accept " the four articles "
were expelled. In 1427 the town declared against Prague, was
besieged by Prokop the Great, and surrendered to him upon con-
ditions at the close of the year.
KOLIS, a caste or tribe of Western India, of uncertain origin.
Possibly the name is derived from the Turki kuleh a stave; and,
according to one theory, this name has been passed on to the
familiar word " cooly " for an agricultural labourer. They form
the main part of the inferior agricultural population of Gujarat,
where they were formerly notorious as robbers; but they also
extend into the Konkan and the Deccan. In 1901 the number
of Kolis in all India was returned as nearly 3! millions; but this
total includes a distinct weaving caste of Kolis or Koris in
northern India.
KOLLIKER, RUDOLPH ALBERT VON (1817-1905), Swiss
anatomist and physiologist, was born at Zurich on the 6th of
July 1817. His father and his mother were both Zurich people,
and he in due time married a lady from Aargau, so that Switzer-
land can claim him as wholly her own, though he lived the
greater part of his life in Germany. His early education was
carried on in Zurich, and he entered the university there in 1836.
After two years, however, he moved to the university of Bonn,
and later to that of Berlin, becoming at the latter place the pupil
of Johannes Miiller and of F. G. J. Henle. He graduated in philo-
sophy at Zurich in 1841, and in medicine at Heidelberg in 1842.
The first academic post which he held was that of prosector of
anatomy under Henle; but his tenure of this office was brief, for
in 1844 his native city called him back to its university to occupy
a chair as professor extraordinary of physiology and comparative
anatomy. His stay here too, however, was brief, for in 1847 the
university of Wurzburg, attracted by his rising fame, offered him
the post of professor of physiology and of microscopical and
comparative anatomy. He accepted the appointment, and at
Wurzburg he remained thenceforth, refusing all offers tempting
him to leave the quiet academic life of the Bavarian town, where
he died on the 2nd of November 1905.
Kolliker's name will ever be associated with that of the tool
with which during his long life he so assiduously and successfully
worked, the microscope. The time at which he began his studies
coincided with that of the revival of the microscopic investigation
of living beings. Two centuries earlier the great Italian Mal-
pighi had started, and with his own hand had carried far the
study by the help of the microscope of the minute structure of
animals and plants. After Malpighi this branch of knowledge,
though continually progressing, made no remarkable bounds for-
ward until the second quarter of the igth century, when the
improvement of the compound microscope on the one hand, and
the promulgation by Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden
of the " cell theory " on the other, inaugurated a new era of
890
KOLLONTAJ
microscopic investigation. Into this new learning Kolliker threw
himself with all the zeal of youth, wisely initiated into it by his
great teacher Henle, whose sober and exact mode of inquiry went
far at the time to give the new learning a right direction and to
counteract the somewhat fantastic views which, under the name
of the cell theory, were tending to be prominent. Henle's
labours were for the most part limited to the microscopic in-
vestigation of the minute structure of the tissues of man and of
the higher animals, the latter being studied by him mainly with
the view of illustrating the former. But Kolliker had another
teacher besides Henle, the even greater Johannes Muller, whose
active mind was sweeping over the whole animal kingdom,
striving .to pierce the secrets of the structure of living creatures
of all sorts, and keeping steadily in view the wide biological
problems of function and of origin, which the facts of structure
might serve to solve. We may probably trace to the influence
of these two great teachers, strengthened by the spirit of the
times, the threefold character of Kolliker's long-continued and
varied labours. In all of them, or in almost all of them, the
microscope was the instrument of inquiry, but the problem to be
solved by means of the instrument belonged now to one branch
of biology, now to another.
At Zurich, and afterwards at Wiirzburg, the title of the chair
which he held laid upon him the duty of teaching comparative
anatomy, and very many of the numerous memoirs which he
published, including the very first paper which he wrote, and
which appeared in 1841 before he graduated, " On the Nature of
the so-called Seminal Animalcules," were directed towards
elucidating, by help of the microscope, the structure of animals
of the most varied kinds — that is to say, were zoological in char-
acter. Notable among these were his papers on the Medusae
and allied creatures. His activity in this direction led him to
make zoological excursions to the Mediterranean Sea and to
the coasts of Scotland, as well as to undertake, conjointly with
his friend C. T. E. von Siebold, the editorship of the Zcitschrift fur
Wissenschaflliche Zoologie, which, founded in 1848, continued
under his hands to be one of the most important zoological
periodicals.
At the time when Kolliker was beginning his career the in-
fluence of Karl Ernst von Baer's embryological teaching was
already being widely felt, men were learning to recognize
the importance to morphological and zoological studies of
a knowledge of the development cf animals; and Kolliker
plunged with enthusiasm into the relatively new line of inquiry.
His earlier efforts were directed to the invertebrata, and his
memoir on the development of cephalopods, which appeared in
1844, is a classical work; but he soon passed on to the vertebrata,
and studied not only the amphibian embryo and the chick, but
also the mammalian embryo. He was among the first, if not the
very first, to introduce into this branch of biological inquiry the
newer microscopic technique — the methods of hardening, section-
cutting and staining. By doing so, not only was he enabled to
make rapid progress himself, but he also placed in the hands of
others the means of a like advance. The remarkable strides for-
ward which embryology made during the middle and during the
latter half of the ipth century will always be associated with his
name. His Lectures on Development, published in 1861, at once
became a standard work.
But neither zoology nor embryology furnished Kolliker's chief
claim to fame. If he did much for these branches of science, he
did still more for histology, the knowledge of the minute structure
of the animal tissues. This he made emphatically his own. It
may indeed be said that there is no fragment of the body of
man and of the higher animals on which he did not leave his mark,
and in more places than one his mark was a mark of fundamental
importance. Among his earlier results may be mentioned the
demonstration in 1847 that smooth or unstriated muscle is made
up of distinct units, of nucleated muscle-cells. In this work he
followed in the footsteps of his master Henle. A few years before
this men were doubting whether arteries were muscular, and
no solid histological basis as yet existed for those views as to the
action of the nervous system on the circulation, which were soon
to be put forward, and which had such a great influence on the
progress of physiology. By the above discovery Kolliker com-
pleted that basis. „
Even to enumerate, certainly to dwell on, all his contributions
to histology would be impossible here: smooth muscle, striated
muscle, skin, bone, teeth, blood-vessels and viscera were all
investigated by him; and he touched none of them without
striking out some new truths. The results at which he arrived
were recorded partly in separate memoirs, partly in his great
textbook on microscopical anatomy, which first saw the light
in 1850, and by which he advanced histology no less than by
his own researches. In the case of almost every tissue our
present knowledge contains something great or small which
we owe to Kolliker; but it is on the nervous system that his
name is written in largest letters. So early as 1845, while still
at Zurich, he supplied what was as yet still lacking, the clear
proof that nerve-fibres are continuous with nerve-cells, and so
furnished the absolutely necessary basis for all sound specula-
tions as to the actions of the central nervous system. From that
time onward he continually laboured, and always fruitfully,
at the histology of the nervous system, and more especially at the
difficult problems presented by the intricate patterns in which
fibres and cells are woven together in the brain and spinal cord.
In his old age, at a time when he had fully earned the right to
fold his arms, and to rest and be thankful, he still enriched neuro-
logical science with results of the highest value. From his early
days a master of method, he saw at a glance the value of the new
Golgi method for the investigation of the central nervous system,
and, to the great benefit of science, took up once more in his old
age, with the aid of a new means, the studies for which he had
done so much in his youth. It may truly be said that much of
that exacjt knowledge of the inner structure of the brain, which
is rendering possible new and faithful conceptions of its working,
came from his hands.
Lastly, Kolliker was in his earlier years professor of physiology
as well as of anatomy; and not only did his histological labours
almost always carry physiological lessons, but he also enriched
physiology with the results of direct researches of an experimental
kind, notably those on curare and some other poisons. In fact,
we have to go back to the science of centuries ago to find a man
of science of so many-sided an activity as he. His life constituted
in a certain sense a protest against that specialized differentiation
which, however much it may under certain aspects be regretted,
seems to be one of the necessities of modern development. In
Johannes Miiller's days no one thought of parting anatomy and
physiology; nowadays no one thinks of joining them together.
Kolliker did in his work join them together, and indeed said
himself that he thought they ought never to be kept apart.
Naturally a man of so much accomplishment was not left with-
out honours. Formerly known simply as Kolliker, the title
" von " was added to his name. He was made a member of the
learned societies of many countries; in England, which he visited
more than once, and where he became well known, the Royal
Society made him a fellow in 1860, and in 1897 gave him its
highest token of esteem, the Copley medal. (M. F.)
KOLLONTAJ, HUGO (1750-1812), Polish politician and writer,
was born in 1750 at Niccislawice in Sandomir, and educated at
Pinczow and Cracow. After taking orders he went (1770) to
Rome, where he obtained the degree of doctor of theology and
common law, and devoted himself enthusiastically to the study
of the fine arts, especially of architecture and painting. At
Rome too he obtained a canonry attached to Cracow cathedral,
and on his return to Poland in 1755 threw himself heart and soul
into the question of educational reform. His efforts were impeded
by the obstruction of the clergy of Cracow, who regarded him as
an adventurer; but he succeeded in reforming the university after
his own mind, and was its rector for three years (1782-1785).
Kollontaj next turned his attention to politics. In 1786 he was
appointed referendarius of Lithuania, and during the Four Years'
Diet (1788-1792) displayed an amazing and many-sided activity
as one of the reformers of the constitution. He grouped around
him all the leading writers, publicists and progressive young men
KOLOMEA— KOLYVAN
891
-of the day; declaimed against prejudices; stimulated the timid;
inspired the lukewarm with enthusiasm; and never rested till the
constitution of the 3rd of May 1791 had been carried through. In
June 1791 Kollontaj was appointed vice-chancellor. On the
triumph of the reactionaries and the fall of the national party,
he secretly placed in the king's hands his adhesion to the tri-
umphant Confederation of Targowica, a false step, much blamed
at the time, but due not to personal ambition but to a desire to
save something from the wreck of the constitution. He then
emigrated to Dresden. On the outbreak of Kosciuszko's in-
surrection he returned to Poland, and as member of the national
government and minister of finance took a leading part in affairs.
But his radicalism had now become of a disruptive quality, and
he quarrelled with and even thwarted Kosciuszko because the
dictator would not admit that the Polish republic could only be
saved by the methods of Jacobinism. On the other hand, the
more conservative section of the Poles regarded Kollontaj as ." a
second Robespierre," and he is even suspected of complicity in
the outrages of the 1 7th and iSth of June 1 794, when the Warsaw
mob massacred the political prisoners. On the collapse of the
insurrection Kollontaj emigrated to Austria, where from 1795
to 1802 he was detained as a prisoner. He was finally released
through the mediation of Prince Adam Czartoryski, and returned
to Poland utterly discredited. The remainder of his life was a
ceaseless struggle against privation and prejudice. He died at
Warsaw on the 28th of February 1812.
Of his numerous works the most notable are: Political Speeches
os Vice- Chancellor (Pol.) (in 6 vols., Warsaw, 1791); On the Erection
and Fall of the Constitution of May (Pol.) (Leipzig, 1793; Paris,
1868); Correspondence with T. Czacki (Pol.) (Cracow, 1854); Letters
witten during Emigration, 1792-1794 (Pol.) (Posen, 1872).
See Ignacz Badeni, Necrology of Hugo Kollontaj (Pol.) (Cracow,
1819); Henryk Schmitt, Review of the Life and Works of Kollontaj
(Pol.) (Lemberg, 1860); Wojciek Grochowski, " Life of Kollontaj '
(Pol.) in Tygod Illus. (Warsaw, 1861). (R. N. B.)
KOLOMEA (Polish, Kolomyja), a town of Austria, in Galicia,
122 m. S. of Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900), 34,188, of which half
were Jews. It is situated on the Pruth, and has an active trade
in agricultural products. To the N.E. of Kolomea, near the
Dniester, lies the village of Czernelica, with ruins of a strongly
fortified castle, which served as the residence of John Sobieski
during his campaigns against the Turks. Kolomea is a very old
town and is mentioned already in 1240, but the assertion that
it was a Roman settlement under the name of Colonia is not
proved. It was the principal town of the Polish province of
Pokutia, and it suffered severely during the isth and i6th
centuries from the attacks of the Moldavians and the Tatars.
KOLOMNA, a town of Russia, in the government of Moscow,
situated on the railway between Moscow and Ryazan, 72m. S.E.
of Moscow, at the confluence of the Moskva river with the Kolo-
menka. Pop. (1897), 20,970. It is an old town, mentioned in
the annals in 1177, and until the i4th century was the capital
of the Ryazan principality. It suffered greatly from the invasions
of the Tatars in the i3th century, who destroyed it four times, as
well as from the wars of the 1 7th century; but it always recovered
and has never lost its commercial importance. During the igth
century it became a centre for the manufacture of silks, cottons,
ropes and leather. Here too are railway workshops, where
locomotives and wagons are made. Kolomna carries on an
active trade in grain, cattle, tallow, skins, salt and timber. It
has several old churches of great archaeological interest, including
two of the i4th century, one being the cathedral. One gate
(restored in 1895) of the fortifications of the Kreml still survives.
KOLOZSVAR (Ger. Klausenburg; Rum. Cluj), a town of
Hungary, in Transylvania, the capital of the county of Kolozs,
and formerly the capital of the whole of Transylvania, 248 m.
E.S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 46,670. It is
situated in a picturesque valley on the banks of the Little
Szamos, and comprises the inner town (formerly surrounded
with walls) and five suburbs. The greater part of the town
lies on the right bank of the river, while on the other side is the
so-called Bridge Suburb and the citadel (erected in 1715).
Upon the slopes of the citadel hill there is a gipsy quarter.
With the exception of the old quarter, Kolozsvar is generally
well laid out, and contains many broad and fine streets, several
of which diverge at right angles from the principal square.
In this square is situated the Gothic church of St Michael (1396-
1432); in front is a bronze equestrian statue of King Matthias
Corvinus by the Hungarian sculptor Fadrusz (1902). Other
noteworthy buildings are the Reformed church, built by Matthias
Corvinus in 1486 and ceded to the Calvinists by Bethlen Gabor in
1622; the house in which Matthias Corvinus was born (1443),
which contains an ethnographical museum ; the county and town
halls, a museum, and the university buildings. A feature of
Kolozsvar is the large number of handsome mansions belonging
to the Transylvanian nobles, who reside here during the winter.
It is the seat of a Unitarian bishop, and of the superintendent
of the Calvinists for the Transylvanian circle. Kolozsvar is the
literary and scientific centre of Transylvania, and is the seat of
numerous literary and scientific associations. It contains a
university (founded in 1872), with four faculties — theology, phi-
losophy, law and medicine — frequented by about 1900 students
in 1905; and amongst its other educational establishments are
a seminary for Unitarian priests, an agricultural college, two
training schools for teachers, a commercial academy, and several
secondary schools for boys and girls. The industry comprises
establishments for the manufacture of woollen and linen cloth,
paper, sugar, candles, soap, earthenwares, as well as breweries
and distilleries.
Kolozsvar is believed to occupy the site of a Roman settlement
named Napoca. Colonized by Saxons in 1178, it then received
its German name of Klausenburg, from the old word Klause,
signifying a " mountain pass." Between the years 1545 and
1 570 large numbers of the Saxon population left the town in con-
sequence of the int reduction of Unitarian doctrines. In 1 798 the
town was to a great extent destroyed by fire. As capital of
Transylvania and the seat of the Transylvanian diets, Kolozsvar
from 1830 to 1848 became the centre of the Hungarian national
movement in the grand principality; and in December 1848 it
was taken and garrisoned by the Hungarians under General Bern.
KOLPINO, one of the chief iron-works of the crown in Russia,
in the government of St Petersburg, 16 m. S.E. of the city of St
Petersburg, on the railway to Moscow, and on the Izhora river.
Pop. (1897), 8076. A sacred image of St Nicholas in the Trinity
church is visited by numerous pilgrims on the 22nd of May
every year. Here is an iron-foundry of the Russian admiralty.
KOLS, a generic name applied by Hindus to the Munda, Ho
and Oraon tribes of Bengal. The Mundas are an aboriginal tribe
of Dravidian physical type, inhabiting the Chota Nagpur division,
and numbering 438,000 in 1901. The majority of them are ani-
mists in religion, but Christianity is making rapid strides among
them. The village community in its primitive form still exists
among the Mundas ; the discontent due to the oppression of their
landlords led to the Munda rising of 1899, and to the remedy of
the alleged grievances by a new settlement of the district. The
Hos, who are closely akin to the Mundas, also inhabit the Chota
Nagpur division; in 1901 they numbered 386,000. They were
formerly a very pugnacious race, who successfully defended their
territory against all comers until they were subdued by the
British in the early part of the igth century, being known as the
Larka (or fighting) Kols. They are still great sportsmen, using
the bow and arrow. Like the Mundas they are animists, but they
show little inclination for Christianity. Both Mundas and Hos
speak dialects of the obscure linguistic family known as Munda or
Kol.
See Imp. Gazetteer of India, vols. xiii., xviii. (Oxford, 1908).
KOLYVAN. (i) A town of West Siberia, in the government
of Tomsk, on the Chaus river, 5 m. from the Ob and 120 m.
S.S.W. of the city of Tomsk. It is a wealthy town, the merchants
carrying on a considerable export trade in cattle, hides, tallow,
corn and fish. It was founded in 1 713 under the name of Chausky
Ostrog, and has grown rapidly. Pop. (1897), 11,703. (2)
KOLYVANSKIY ZAVOD, another town of the same government,
in the district of Biysk, Altai region, on the Byelaya river, 192 m.
892
KOMAROM— KONGSBERG
S.E. of Barnaul; altitude, 1290 ft. It is renowned for its stone-
cutting factory, where marble, jasper, various porphyries and
breccias are worked into vases, columns, &c. Pop., 5000. (3)
Old name of Reval (q.v.).
KOMAROM (Ger., Komorn), the capital of the county of
Komarom, Hungary, 65 m. W.N.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop.
(1900), 16,816. It is situated at the eastern extremity of the
island Csallokoz or Grosse Schiitt, at the confluence of the Waag
with the Danube. Just below Komarom the two arms into
which the Danube separates below Pressburg, forming the Grosse
Schiitt island, unite again. Since 1896 the market-town of
Uj-Szony, which lies on the opposite bank of the Danube, has
been incorporated with Komarom. The town is celebrated
chiefly for its fortifications, which form the centre of the inland
fortifications of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. A brisk
trade in cereals, timber, wine and fish is carried on. Komarom
is one of the oldest towns of Hungary, having received its charter
in 1265. The fortifications were begun by Matthias Corvinus,
and were enlarged and strengthened during the Turkish wars
(1526-64). New forts were constructed in 1663 and were greatly
enlarged between 1805 and 1809. In 1543, 1594, 1598 and
1663 it was beleaguered by the Turks. It was raised to the
dignity of a royal free town in 1751. During the revolutionary
war of 1848-49 Komarom was a principal point of military
operations, and was long unsuccessfully besieged by the Austrians,
who on the nth of July 1849 were defeated there by General
Gorgei, and on the 3rd of August by General Klapka. On the
27th of September the fortress capitulated to the Austrians upon
honourable terms, and on the 3rd and 4th of October was evacu-
ated by the Hungarian troops. The treasure of the Austrian
national bank was removed here from Vienna in 1866, when that
city was threatened by the Prussians.
KOMATI, a river of south-eastern Africa. It rises at an ele-
vation of about 5000 ft. in the Ermelo district of the Transvaal,
ii m. W. of the source of the Vaal, and flowing in a general N.
and E. direction reaches the Indian Ocean at Delagoa Bay, after
a course of some 500 miles. In its upper valley near Steynsdorp
are gold-fields, but the reefs are almost entirely of low grade ore.
The river descends the Drakensberg by a pass 30 m. S. of Barber-
ton, and at the eastern border of Swaziland is deflected north-
ward, keeping a course parallel to the Lebombo mountains.
Just W. of 32° E. and in 25° 25' S. it is joined by one of the many
rivers of South Africa named Crocodile. This tributary rises, as
the Elands river, in the Bergendal (6437 ft.) near the upper
waters of the Komati, and flows E. across the high veld, being
turned northward as it reaches the Drakensberg escarpment.
The fall to the low veld is over 2000 ft. in 30 m., and across the
country between the Drakensberg and the Lebombo (100 m.)
there is a further fall of 3000 ft. A mile below the junction of
the Crocodile and Komati, the united stream, which from this
point is also known as the Manhissa, passes to the coast plain
through a cleft 626 ft. high in the Lebombo known as Komati
Poort, where are some picturesque falls. At Komati Poort, which
marks the frontier between British and Portuguese territory,
the river is less than 60 m. from its mouth in a direct line,
but in crossing the plain it makes a wide sweep of 200 m.,
first N. and then S., forming lagoon-like expanses and back-
waters and receiving from the north several tributaries. In
flood time there is a connexion northward through the swamps
with the basin of the Limpopo. The Komati enters the sea
15 m. N. of Lourenco Marques. It is navigable from its mouth,
where the water is from 12 to 18 ft. deep, to the foot of the
Lebombo.
The railway from Lourenco Marques to Pretoria traverses the
plain in a direct line, and at mile 45 reaches the Komati. It
follows the south bank of the river and enters the high country
at Komati Poort. At a small town with the same name, 2 m.
W. of the Poort, on the 23rd of September 1900, during the war
with England, 3000 Boers crossed the frontier and surrendered
to the Portuguese authorities. From the Poort westward the
railway skirts the south bank of the Crocodile river throughout
its length.
KOMOTAU (Czech, Chom&tov), a town of Bohemia, Austria
79 m. N.N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 15,925, almost
exclusively German. It has an old Gothic church, and its town-
hall was formerly a commandery of the Teutonic knights. The in-
dustrial establishments comprise manufactories of woollen cloth,
linen and paper, dyeing houses, breweries, distilleries, vinegar
works and the central workshops of the Buschtehrad railway.
Lignite is worked in the neighbourhood. Komotau was origin-
ally a Czech market-place, but in 1252 it came into the possession
of the Teutonic Order and was completely Germanized. In 1396
it received a town charter; and in 1416 the knights sold both
town and lordship to Wenceslaus IV. On the i6th of March
1421, the town was stormed by the Taborites, sacked and burned.
After several changes of ownership, Komotau came in 1588 to
Popel of Lobkovic, who established the Jesuits here, which led
to trouble between the Protestant burghers and the over-lord.
In 1594 the lordship fell to the crown, and in 1605 the town
purchased its freedom and was created a royal city.
KOMURA, JUTARO, COUNT (1855- ), Japanese states-
man, was born in Hiuga. He graduated at Harvard in 1877, and
entered the foreign office in Tokyo in 1884. He served as charge
d'affaires in Peking, as Japanese minister in Seoul, in Washing-
ton, in St Petersburg, and in Peking (during the Boxer trouble),
earning in every post a high reputation for diplomatic ability.
In 1901 he received the portfolio of foreign affairs, and held it
throughout the course of the negotiations with Russia and the
subsequent war (1904-5), being finally appointed by his sovereign
to meet the Russian plenipotentiaries at Portsmouth, and subse-
quently the Chinese representatives in Peking, on which occasions
the Portsmouth treaty of September 1905 and the Peking treaty
of November in the same year were concluded. For these
services, and for negotiating the second Anglo- Japanese alliance,
he received the Japanese title of count and was made a K.C.B.
by King Edward VII. He resigned his portfolio in 1906 and
became privy councillor, from which post he was transferred to
the embassy in London, but he returned to Tokyo in 1908 and
resumed the portfolio of foreign affairs in the second Katsura
cabinet.
KONARAK or KANARAK, a ruined temple in India, in the
Puri district of Orissa, which has been described as for its size
" the most richly ornamented building — externally at least — in
the whole world." It was erected in the middle of the I3th
century, and was dedicated to the sun-god. It consisted of a
tower, probably once over 180 ft. high, with a porch in front
140 ft. high, sculptured with figures of lions, elephants, horses, &c.
KONG, the name of a town, district and range of hills in the
N.W. of the Ivory Coast colony, French West Africa. The hills
are part of the band of high ground separating the inner plains
of West Africa from the coast regions. In maps of the first half
of the igth century the range is shown as part of a great moun-
tain chain supposed to run east and west across Africa, and is
thus made to appear a continuation of the Mountains of the
Moon, or the snow-clad heights of Ruwenzori. The culminating
point of the Kong system is the Pic des Kommono, 4757 ft. high.
In general the summits of the hills are below 2000 ft. and not
more than 700 ft. above the level of the country. The " circle
of Kong," one of the administrative divisions of the Ivory Coast
colony, covers 46,000 sq. m. and has a population of some
400,000. The inhabitants are negroes, chiefly Bambara and
Mandingo. About a fourth of the population profess Mahom-
medanism; the remainder are spirit worshippers. The town of
Kong, situated in 9° N., 4°2o' W., is not now of great importance.
Probably Rene Caillie, who spent some time in the western part
of the country in 1827, was the first European to visit Kong.
In 1888 Captain L. G. Binger induced the native chiefs to place
themselves under the protection of France, and in 1893 the
protectorate was attached to the Ivory Coast colony. For a
time Kong was overrun by the armies of Samory (see SENEGAL),
but the capture of that chief in 1898 was followed by the peaceful
development of the district by France (see IVORY COAST).
KONGSBERG, a mining town of Norway in Buskerud ami
(county), on the Laagen, 500 ft. above the sea, and 61 m. W.S.W.
KONIA— KONIG
893
of Christiania by rail. Pop. (1900), 5585. With the exception
of the church and the town-house, the buildings are mostly of
wood. The origin and whole industry of the town are connected
with the government silver-mines in the neighbourhood. Their
first discovery was made by a peasant in 1623, since which time
they have been worked with varying success. During the i8th
century Kongsberg was more important than now, and contained
double its present population. Within the town are situated
the smelting- works, the mint, and a Government weapon factory.
Three miles below the Laagen forms a fine fall of 140 ft.
(Labrofos). The neighbouring Jonksnut (2950 ft.) commands
extensive views of the Telemark. A driving-road from
Kongsberg follows a favourite route for travellers through this
district, connecting with routes to Sand and Odde on the west
coas^.
KONIA. (i) A vilayet in Asia Minor which includes the
whole, or parts of, Pamphylia, Pisidia, Phrygia, Lycaonia,
Cilicia and Cappadocia. It was formed in 1864 by adding to the
old eyalet of Karamania the western half of Adana, and part of
south-eastern Anadoli. It is divided into five sanjaks: Adaiia,
Buldur, Hamid-abad, Konia and Nigdeh. The population
(990,000 Moslems and 80,000 Christians) is for the most part
agricultural and pastoral. The only industries are carpet-
weaving and the manufacture of cotton and silk stuffs. There
are mines of chrome, mercury, cinnabar, argentiferous lead and
rock salt. The principal exports are salt, minerals, opium,
cotton, cereals, wool and live stock ; and the imports cloth-goods,
coffee, rice and petroleum. The vilayet is now traversed by the
Anatolian railway, and contains the railhead of the Ottoman line
from Smyrna.
(2) The chief town [anc. Iconium (q.v.)], altitude 3320 ft.,
situated at the S.W. edge of the vast central plain of Asia Minor,
amidst luxuriant orchards famous in the middle ages for their
yellow plums and apricots and watered by streams from the hills.
Pop. 45,000, including 5000 Christians. There are interesting
remains of Seljuk buildings, all showing strong traces of Persian
influence in their decorative details. The principal ruin is that
of the palace of Kilij Arslan II., which contained a famous hall.
The most important mosques are the great Tekke, which contains
the tomb of the poet Mevlana Jelal ed-din Rumi, a mystic (sufi)
poet, founder of the order of Mevlevi (whirling) dervishes, and
those of his successors, the " Golden " mosque and those of Ala
ed-Din and Sultan Selim. The walls, largely the work of Ala
ed-Din I., are preserved in great part and notable for the number
of ancient inscriptions built into them. They once had twelve
gates and were 30 ells in height. The climate is good — hot in
summer and cold, with snow, in winter. Konia is connected
by railway with Constantinople and is the starting-point of the
extension towards Bagdad. After the capture of Nicaea by the
Crusaders (1097), Konia became the capital of the Seljuk Sultans
of Rum (see SELJUKS and TURKS). It was temporarily occupied
by Godfrey, and again by Frederick Barbarossa, but this scarcely
affected its prosperity. During the reign of Ala ed-Din I.
(1219-1236) the city was thronged with artists, poets, historians,
jurists and dervishes, driven westwards from Persia and Bokhara
by the advance of the Mongols, and there was a brief period of
great splendour. After the break up of the empire of Rum,
Konia became a secondary city of the amirate of Karamania
and in part fell to ruin. In 1472 it was annexed to the Osmanli
empire by Mahommed II. In 1832 it was occupied by Ibrahim
Pasha who defeated and captured the Turkish general, Reshid
Pasha, not far from the walls. It had come to fill only part of
its ancient circuit, but of recent years it has revived considerably,
and, since the railway reached it, has acquired a semi-European
quarter, with a German hotel, cafes and Greek shops, &c.
See W. M. Ramsay, Historical Geography of Asia Minor (1890);
St Paul the Traveller (1895) ; G. Le Strange, Lands of the E. Caliphate
(1905). (D. G. H.)
KONIECPOLSKI, STANISLAUS (1591-1646), Polish soldier,
was the most illustrious member of an ancient Polish family
which rendered great services to the Republic. Educated at
the academy of Cracow, he learned the science of war under the
great Jan Chodkiewicz, whom he accompanied on his Muscovite
campaigns, and under the equally great Stanislaus Zolkiewski,
whose daughter Catherine he married. On the death of his first
wife he wedded, in 1619, Christina Lubomirska. In 1619 he
took part in the expedition against the Turks which terminated
so disastrously at Cecora, and after a valiant resistance was
captured and sent to Constantinople, where he remained a close
prisoner for three years. On his return he was appointed com-
mander of all the forces of the Republic, and at the head of an
army of 25,000 men routed 60,000 Tatars at Martynow, follow-
ing up this success with fresh victories, for which he received the
thanks of the diet and the palatinate of Sandomeria from the
king. In 1625 he was appointed guardian of the Ukraine
against the Tatars, but in 1626 was transferred to Prussia to
check the victorious advance of Gustavus Adolphus. Swedish
historians have too often ignored the fact that Koniecpolski's
superior strategy neutralized all the efforts of the Swedish king,
whom he defeated again and again, notably at Hornerstein
(April 1627) and at Trzciand (April 1629). But for the most
part the fatal parsimony of his country compelled Koniecpolski
to confine himself to the harassing guerrilla warfare in which he
was an expert. In 1632 he was appointed to the long vacant
post of hetman wiclki koronny, or commander in chief of Poland,
and in that capacity routed the Tatars at Sasowy Rogi (April
1633) and at Paniawce (April and October 1633), and the Turks,
with terrific loss, at Abazd Basha. To keep the Cossacks of the
Ukraine in order he also built the fortress of Kudak. As one
of the largest proprietors in the Ukraine he suffered severely
from Cossack depredations and offered many concessions to
them. Only after years of conflict, however, did he succeed in
reducing these unruly desperadoes to something like obedience.
In 1644 he once more routed the Tatars at Ockmatow, and again
in 1646 at Brody. This was his last exploit, for he died the same
year, to the great grief of Wladislaus IV., who had already con-
certed with him the plan for a campaign on a grand scale against
the Turks, and relied principally upon the Grand Hetman for its
success. Though less famous than his contemporaries Zolkiehwski
and Chodkiewicz, Koniecpolski was fully their equal as a general,
and his inexorable severity made him an ideal lord-marcher.
See an unfinished biography in the Tyg. Illus. of Warsaw for
1863; Stanislaw Przylenski, Memorials of the Koniecpolskis (Pol.)
(Lemberg, 1842). (R. N. B.)
KONIG, KARL RUDOLPH (1832-1901), German physicist,
was born at Konigsberg (Prussia) on the 26th of November 1832,
and studied at the university of his native town, taking the degree
of Ph.D. About 1852 he went to Paris, and became apprentice
to the famous violin-maker, J. B. Vuillaume, and some six years
later he started business on his own account. He called himself
a " maker of musical instruments," but the instruments for
which his name is best known are tuning-forks, which speedily
gained a high reputation among physicists for their accuracy
and general excellence. From this business Konig derived his
livelihood for the rest of his life. He was, however, very far
from being a mere tradesman, and even as a manufacturer he
regarded the quality of the articles that left his workshop as a
matter of greater solicitude than the profits they yielded. Acous-
tical research was his real interest, and to that he devoted all the
time and money he could spare from his business. An exhibit
which he sent to the London Exhibition of 1862 gained a gold
medal, and at the Philadelphia Exposition at 1876 great admira-
tion was expressed for a tonometric apparatus of his manufacture.
This consisted of about 670 tuning-forks, of as many different
pitches, extending over four octaves, and it afforded a perfect
means for testing, by enumeration of the beats, the number of
vibrations producing any given note and for accurately tuning
any musical instrument. An attempt was made to secure this
apparatus for the university of Pennsylvania, and Konig was
induced to leave it behind him in America on the assurance that
it would be purchased; but, ultimately, the money not being
forthcoming, the arrangement fell through, to his great dis-
appointment and pecuniary loss. Some of the forks he disposed
of to the university of Toronto and the remainder he used as a
8 94
KONIGGRATZ— KONIGSBERG
nucleus for the construction of a still more elaborate tonometer.
While the range of the old apparatus was only between 1 28 and
4096 vibrations a second, the lowest fork of the new one made
only 16 vibrations a second, while the highest gave a sound too
shrill to be perceptible by the human ear. Konig will also be
remembered as the inventor and constructor of many other
beautiful pieces of apparatus for the investigation of acoustical
problems, among which may be mentioned his wave-sirens, the
first of which was shown at Philadelphia in 1876. His original
work dealt, among other things, with Wheatstone's sound-figures,
the characteristic notes of the different vowels, manometric
flames, &c.; but perhaps the most important of his researches
are those devoted to the phenomena produced by the interference
of two tones, in which he controverted the views of H. von Helm-
holtz as to the existence of summation and difference tones. He
died in Paris on the 2nd of October 1901.
KONIGGRATZ (Czech, Hradec Kralove), a town and episcopal
see of Bohemia, Austria, 74 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop.
(1900), 9773, mostly Czech. It is situated in the centre of a very
fertile region called the " Golden Road," and contains many
buildings of historical and architectural interest. The cathedral
was founded in 1303 by Elizabeth, wife of Wenceslaus II; and the
church of St John, built in 1710, stands on the ruins of the old
castle. The industries include the manufacture of musical
instruments, machinery, colours, and carlon-pierre, as well as
gloves and wax candles. The original name of Koniggratz,
one of the oldest settlements in Bohemia, was Chlumec Dobros-
lavsky; the name Hradec, or " the Castle," was given to it when it
became the seat of a count, and Kralove, " of the queen " (Ger.
Konigin), was prefixed when it became one of the dower towns
of the queen of Wenceslaus II., Elizabeth of Poland, who lived
here for thirty years. It remained a dower town till 1620.
Koniggratz was the first of the towns to declare for the national
cause during the Hussite wars. After the battle of the White
Mountain (1620) a large part of the Protestant population left
the place. In 1639 the town was occupied for eight months by
the Swedes. Several churches and convents were pulled down
to make way for the fortifications erected under Joseph II. The
fortress was finally dismantled in 1884. Near Koniggratz took
place, on the 3rd of July 1866, the decisive battle (formerly
called Sadowa) of the Austro-Prussian war (see SEVEN WEEKS'
WAR).
KONIGINHOF (Dvur Kralove in Czech), the seat of a provincial
district and of a provincial law-court, is situated in north-eastern
Bohemia on the left bank of the Elbe, about 160 kilometres from
Prague. Brewing, corn-milling and cotton-weaving are the
principal industries. Pop. about n,ooo. The city is of very
ancient origin. Founded by King Wenceslaus II. of Bohemia
(1278-1305), it was given by him to his wife Elizabeth, and thus
received the name of Dvur Kralove (the court of the queen).
During the Hussite wars, Dvur Kralove was several times taken
and retaken by the contending parties. In a battle fought partly
within the streets of the town, the Austrian army was totally
defeated by the Prussians on the 2pth of June 1866. In the igth
century Dvur Kralove became widely known as the spot where a
MS. was found that was long believed to be one of the oldest
written documents in the Czech language. In 1817 Wenceslas
Hanka, afterwards for a long period librarian of the Bohemian
museum, declared that he had found in the church tower in the
town of Dvur Kralove when on a visit there, a very ancient MS.
containing epic and lyric poems. Though Dobrovsky, the
greatest Czech philologist of the time, from the first expressed
suspicions, the MS. known as the Kralodvorsky Rukopis manu-
script of Koniginhof was long accepted as genuine, frequently
printed and translated into most European languages. Doubts
as to the genuineness of the document never, however, ceased,
and they became stronger when Hanka was convicted of having
fabricated other false Bohemian documents. A series of works
and articles written by Professors Goll, Gebauer, Masoryk, and
others have recently proved that the MS. is a forgery, and hardly
any Bohemian scholars of the present day believe in its genuine-
ness.
The discussion of the authenticity of the MS. of Dvur Kralove
lasted with short interruptions about seventy years, and the
Bohemian works written on the subject would fill a considerable
library. Count Lutzow's History of Bohemian Literature gives a
brief account of the controversy.
KONIGSBERG (Polish Krolewiec), a town of Germany, capital
of the province of East Prussia and a fortress of the first rank.
Pop. (1880), 140,800; (1890), 161,666; (1905), 219,862 (including
the incorporated suburbs). It is situated on rising ground, on
both sides of the Pregel, 45 m. from its mouth in the Frische
Haff, 397 m. N. E. of Berlin, on the railway to Eydtkuhnen and
at the junction of lines to Pillau, Tilsit and Kranz. It consists
of three parts, which were formerly independent administrative
units, the Altstadt (old town), to the west, Lobenicht to the
east, and the island Kneiphof, together with numerous suburbs,
all embraced in a circuit of 9^ miles. The Pregel, spanned by
many bridges, flows through the town in two branches, which
unite below the Griine Briicke. Its greatest breadth within the
town is from 80 to 90 yards, and it is usually frozen from Novem-
ber to March. Konigsberg does not retain many marks of
antiquity. The Altstadt has long and narrow streets, but the
Kneiphof quarter is roomier. Of the seven market-places only
that in the Altstadt retains something of its former appearance.
Among the more interesting buildings are the Schloss, a long
rectangle begun in 1255 and added to later, with a Gothic
tower 277 ft. high and a chapel built in 1592, in which Frederick
I. in 1701 and William I. in 1861 crowned themselves kings of
Prussia; and the cathedral, begun in 1333 and restored in 1856,
a Gothic building with a tower 164 ft. high, adjoining which is
the tomb of Kant. The Schloss was originally the residence of
the Grand Masters of the Teutonic order and later of the dukes
of Prussia. Behind is the parade-ground, with the statues of
Albert I. and of Frederick William III. by August Kiss, and the
grounds also contain monuments to Frederick I. and William I.
To the east is the Schlossteich, a long narrow ornamental lake
covering 1 2 acres. The north-west side of the parade-ground is
occupied by the new university buildings, completed in 1865;
these and the new exchange on the south side of the Pregel are
the finest architectural features of the town. The university
(Collegium Albertinum) was founded in 1544 by Albert I., duke
of Prussia, as a " purely Lutheran " place of learning. It is
chiefly distinguished for its mathematical and philosophical
studies, and possesses a famous observatory, established in
i8ti by Frederick William Bessel, a library of about 240,000
volumes, a zoological museum, a botanical garden, laboratories
and valuable mathematical and other scientific collections.
Among its famous professors have been Kant (who was born
here in 1724 and to whom a monument was erected in 1864),
J. G. von Herder, Bessel, F. Neumann and J. F. Herbart.
It is attended by about 1000 students and has a teaching
staff of over too. Among other educational establishments,
Konigsberg numbers four classical schools (gymnasia) and three
commercial schools, an academy of painting and a school of
music. The hospitals and benevolent institutions are numerous.
The town is less well equipped with museums and similar insti-
tutions, the most noteworthy being the Prussia museum of
antiquities, which is especially rich in East Prussian finds
from the Stone age to the Viking period. Besides the cathedral
the town has fourteen churches.
Konigsberg is a naval and military fortress of the first order.
The fortifications were begun in 1843 and were only completed
in 1905, although the place was surrounded by walls in early
times. The works consist of an inner wall, brought into con-
nexion with an outlying system of works, and of twelve detached
forts, of which six are on the right and six on the left bank of the
Pregel. Between them lie two great forts, that of Friedrichsburg
on an island in the Pregel and that of the Kaserne Kronprinz on
the east of the town, both within the environing ramparts. The
protected position of its harbour has made Konigsberg one of the
most important commercial cities of Germany. A new channel
has recently been made between it and its port, Pillau, 29 miles
distant, on the outer side of the Frische Haff, so as to admit
vessels drawing 20 feet of water right up to the quays of
KONIGSBORN— KONIGSSEE
895
Konigsberg, and the result has been to stimulate the trade of
the city. It is protected for a long distance by moles, in which a
break has been left in the Fischhauser Wiek, to permit of freer
circulation of the water and to prevent damage to the mainland.
The industries of Konigsberg have made great advances
within recent years, notable among them are printing-works and
manufactures of machinery, locomotives, carriages, chemicals,
toys, sugar, cellulose, beer, tobacco and cigars, pianos and
amber wares. The principal exports are cereals and flour,
cattle, horses, hemp, flax, timber, sugar and oilcake. There are
two pretty public parks, one in the Hufen, with a zoological
garden attached, another the Luisenwahl which commemorates
the sojourn of Queen Louisa of Prussia in the town in the
disastrous year 1806.
The Altstadt of Konigsberg grew up around the castle built
in 1255 by the Teutonic Order, on the advice of Ottaker II.
King of Bohemia, after whom the place was named. Its first
site was near the fishing village of Steindamm, but after its
destruction by the Prussians in 1263 it was rebuilt in its present
position. It received civic privileges in 1286, the two other
parts of the present town — Lobenicht and Kneiphof — receiving
them a few years later. In 1340 Konigsberg entered the
Hanseatic League. From 1457 it was the residence of the grand
master of the Teutonic Order, and from 1525 till 1618 of the
dukes of Prussia. The trade of Konigsberg was much hindered
by the constant shifting and silting up of the channels leading
to its harbour; and the great northern wars did it immense
harm, but before the end of the I7th century it had almost
recovered.
In 1724 the three independent parts were united into a single
town by Frederick William I.
Konigsberg suffered severely during the war of liberation
and was occupied by the French in 1807. In 1813 the town was
the scene of the deliberations which led to the successful uprising
of Prussia against Napoleon. During the igth century the
opening of a railway system in East Prussia and Russia gave a
new impetus to its commerce, making it the principal outlet
for the Russian staples — grain, seeds, flax and hemp. It has
now regular steam communication with Memel, Stettin, Kiel,
Amsterdam and Hull.
See Faber, Die Haupt- und Residenzstadt Konigsberg in Preussen
(Konigsberg, i84o);Schubert,Zur6oo-jahrigenJubelfeierKonigsbergs
(Konigsberg. 1855) ; Beckherrn, Geschichte der Befestigungen Konigs-
bergs (Konigsberg, 1890) ; H. G. Prutz, Vie konigliche Albertus-
Universitdt zu Konigsberg im Ip Jahrhundert (Konigsberg, 1894);
Armstedt, Geschichte der kdniglichen Haupt- und Residenzstadt
Konigsberg (Stuttgart, 1 899) ; M .Schultze, Konigsberg und Ostpreussen
zu Anfang 1813 (Berlin, 1901); and Gordak, Wegweiser durch
Konigsberg (Konigsberg, 1904).
KONIGSBORN, a spa of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Westphalia, immediately to the N. of the town of Unna, of
which it practically forms a suburb. It has large saltworks,
producing annually over 15,000 tons. The brine springs, in
connexion with which there is a hydropathic establishment,
have a temperature of 93° F., and are efficacious in skin
diseases, rheumatism and scrofula.
See Wegele, Bad Kdnigsborn und seine Heilmittel (Essen, 1902).
KONIGSHUTTE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, situated in the middle of the Upper Silesian coal and
iron district, 3 m. S. of Beuthen and 122 m. by rail S.E. of
Breslau. Pop. (1852), 4495; (1875), 26,040; (1900), 57,910.
In 1869 it was incorporated with various neighbouring villages,
and raised to the dignity of a town. It has two Protestant
and three Roman Catholic churches and several schools and
benevolent institutions. The largest iron-works in Silesia is
situated at Konigshutte, and includes puddling works, rolling-
mills, and zinc-works. Founded in 1797, it was formerly in
the hands of government, but is now carried on by a company.
There are also manufactures of bricks and glass and a trade in
wood and coal. Nearly one-half of the population of the town
consists of Poles.
See Mohr, Geschichte der Stadt Konigshutte (Konigshutte, 1890).
KONIGSLUTTER, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Bruns-
wick, on the Lutter 36 m. E. of Brunswick by the railway to
Eisleben and Magdeburg. Pop. (1905), 3260. It possesses an
Evangelical church, a castle and some interesting old houses.
Its chief manufactures are sugar, machinery, paper and beer.
Near the town are the ruins of a Benedictine abbey founded in
1135. In its beautiful church, which has not been destroyed,
are the tombs of the emperor Lothair II., his wife Richenza, and
of his son-in-law, Duke Henry the Proud of Saxony and Bavaria.
KONIGSMARK, MARIA AURORA, COUNTESS or (1662-1728),
mistress of Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony and king of
Poland, belonged to a noble Swedish family, and was born on
the 8th of May 1662. Having passed some years at Hamburg,
where she attracted attention both by her beauty and her talents,
Aurora went in 1694 to Dresden to make inquiries about her
brother Philipp Christoph, count of Konigsmark, who had
suddenly and mysteriously disappeared from Hanover. Here
she was noticed by Augustus, who made her his mistress; and
in October 1696 she gave birth to a son Maurice, afterwards the
famous marshal de Saxe. The elector however quickly tired
of Aurora, who then spent her time in efforts to secure the
position of abbess of Quedlinburg, an office which carried with
it the dignity of a princess of the Empire, and to recover the
lost inheritance of her family in Sweden. She was made
coadjutor abbess and lady-provost (Propstin) of Quedlinburg,
but lived mainly in Berlin, Dresden and Hamburg. In 1702
she went on a diplomatic errand to Charles XII. of Sweden on
behalf of Augustus, but her adventurous journey ended in
failure. The countess, who was described by Voltaire as " the
most famous woman of two centuries," died at Quedlinburg on
the i6th of February 1728.
See F. Cramer, Denkwiirdigkeilen der Grdfin M. A. Konigsmark
(Leipzig, 1836) ; and Biographische Nachrichten von der Grdfin M. A.
Konigsmark (Quedlinburg, 1833); W. F. Palmblad, Aurora Konigs-
mark und ihre Verwandte (Leipzig, 1848-1853); C. L. de Pollnitz,
La Saxe galante (Amsterdam, 1734); and O. J. B. von Corvin-
Wiersbitzki, Maria Aurora, Grdfin von Konigsmark (Rudolstadt,
1902).
KONIGSMARK, PHILIPP CHRISTOPH, COUNT OF (1665-
1694), was a member of a noble Swedish family, and is chiefly
known as the lover of Sophia Dorothea, wife of the English king
George I. then electoral prince of Hanover. Born on the I4th of
March 1665, Konigsmark was a brother of the countess noticed
above. After wandering and fighting in various parts of Europe
he entered the service of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover.
Here he made the acquaintance of Sophia Dorothea, and assisted
her in one or two futile attempts to escape from Hanover.
Regarded, rightly or wrongly, as the lover of the princess, he
was seized, and disappeared from history, probably by assas-
sination, on the ist of July 1694. One authority states that
George I. was accustomed to boast about this deed; but this
statement is doubted, and the Hanoverian court resolutely
opposed all efforts to clear up the mystery. It is not absolutely
certain that Sophia Dorothea was guilty of a criminal intrigue
with Konigsmark, as it is probable that the letters which
purport to have passed between the pair are forgeries. The
question of her guilt or innocence, however, has been and still
remains a fruitful and popular subject for romance and
speculation.
See Briefwechsel des Grafen Konigsmark und der Prinzessin Sophie
Dorothea von Celle, edited by W. F. Palmblad (Leipzig, 1847);
A. Kocher, " Die Prinzessin von Ahlden," in the Historische Zeit-
schrift (Munich, 1882); and W. H. Wilkins, The Love of an
Uncrowned Queen (London, 1900).
KONIGSSEE, or Lake of St Bartholomew, a lake of Germany,
in the kingdom of Bavaria, province of Upper Bavaria, about
2\ m. S. from Berchtesgaden, r8so ft. above sea-level. It has a
length of 5 m., and a breadth varying from 500 yards to a little
over a mile, and attains a maximum depth of 600 ft. The
Konigssee is the most beautiful of all the lakes in the German
Alps, pent in by limestone mountains rising to an altitude of
6500 ft., the flanks of which descend precipitously to the green
waters below. The lake abounds in trout, and the surrounding
KONIGSTEIN— KONKAN
country is rich in game. On a promontory by the side of the
lake is a chapel to which pilgrimages are made on St Bar-
tholomew's Day. Separated by a narrow strip of land from
the Konigssee is the Obersee, a smaller lake.
KONIGSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
situated in a deep valley on the left bank of the Elbe, at the
influx of the Biela, in the centre of Saxon Switzerland, 25 m.
S.E. of Dresden by the railway to Bodenbach and Testchen.
It contains a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church, a monu-
ment to the composer Julius Otto, and has some small manu-
factures of machinery, celluloid, paper, vinegar and buttons.
It is chiefly remarkable for the huge fortress, lying immediately
to the north-west of the town, which crowns a sandstone rock
rising abruptly from the Elbe to a height of 750 ft. Across the
Elbe lies the Lilienstein, a similar formation, but unfortified.
The fortress of Konigstein was probably a Slav stronghold as
early as the I2th century, but it is not mentioned in chronicles
before the year 1241, when it was a fief of Bohemia. In 1401 it
passed to the margraves of Meissen and by the treaty of Eger
in 1450 it was formally ceded by Bohemia to Saxony. About
1540 the works were strengthened, and the place was used as
a point d'appui against inroads from Bohemia. Hence the
phrase frequently employed by historians that Konigstein is
" the key to Bohemia." As a fact, the main road from Dresden
into that country lies across the hills several miles to the south-
west, and the fortress has exercised little, if any, influence in
strategic operations, either during the middle ages or in modern
times. It was further strengthened under the electors Christian
I., John George I. and Frederick Augustus II. of Saxony, the
last of whom completed it in its present form. During the
Prussian invasion of Saxony in 1756 it served as a place of
refuge for the King of Poland, Augustus III., as it did also in
1849, during the Dresden insurrection of May in that year, to
the King of Saxony, Frederick Augustus II. and his ministers.
It was occupied by the Prussians in 1867, who retained posses-
sion of it until the peace of 1871. It is garrisoned by detach-
ments of several Saxon infantry regiments, and serves as a
treasure house for the state and also as a place of detention for
officers sentenced to fortress imprisonment. A remarkable
feature of the place is a well, hewn out of the solid rock to a
depth of 470 ft.
See Klemm, Der Konigstein in alter und neuer Zeit (Leipzig, 1905) ;
and Gautsch, Aeltesle Geschichte der sdchsischen Schweiz (Dresden,
1880).
KONIGSWINTER, a town and summer resort of Germany, in
the Prussian Rhine province, on the right bank of the Rhine,
24 m. S.S.E. of Cologne by the railway to Frankfort-on-Main,
atthefootof theSiebengebirge. Pop. (1905), 3944. Theromantic
Drachenfels (1010 ft.), crowned by the ruins of a castle built
early in the I2th century by the archbishop of Cologne, rises
behind the town. From the summit, to which there is a funi-
cular railway, there is a magnificent view, celebrated by Byron
in Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. A cave in the hill is said to
have sheltered the dragon which was slain by the hero Siegfried.
The mountain is quarried, and from 1267 onward supplied stone
(trachyte) for the building of Cologne cathedral. The castle of
Drachenburg, built in 1883, is on the north side of the hill.
Konigswinter has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church,
some small manufactures and a little shipping. It has a monu-
ment to the poet, Wolfgang Miiller. Near the town are the
ruins of the abbey of Heisterbach.
KONINCK, LAURENT GUILLAUME DE (1800-1887), Belgian
palaeontologist and chemist, was born at Louvain on the 3rd of
May 1809. He studied medicine in the university of his native
town, and in 1831 he became assistant in the chemical schools.
He pursued the study of chemistry in Paris, Berlin and Giessen,
and was subsequently engaged in teaching the science at Ghent
and Liege. In 1856 he was appointed professor of chemistry in
the Li6ge University, and he retained this post, until the close
of his life. About the year 1835 he began to devote his leisure
to the investigation of the Carboniferous fossils around Liege,
and ultimately he became distinguished for his researches on
the palaeontology of the Palaeozoic rocks, and especially for his
descriptions of the mollusca, brachiopods, Crustacea and crinoids
of the Carboniferous limestone of Belgium. In recognition of
this work the Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1875 by
the Geological Society of London, and in 1876 he was appointed
professor of palaeontology at Liege. He died at Liege on the
i6th of July 1887.
PUBLICATIONS. — Elements de chimie inorganique (1839); Descrip-
tion des animaux fossiles qui se trouvent dans le terrain Carbonifere
de Belgique (1842-1844, supp. 1851); Recherches sur les animaux
fossiles (1847, 1873). See Notice sur L. G. de Koninck, by E. Dupont ;
Annuaire de I'Acad. roy. de Belgique (1891), with portrait and
bibliography.
KONINCK, PHILIP DE [de Ccninck, de Koningh, van Koening]
(1619-1688), Dutch landscape painter, was born in Amsterdam
in 1619. Little is known of his history, except that he was a
pupil of Rembrandt, whose influence is to be seen in all his
work. He painted chiefly broad sunny landscapes, full of
space, light and atmosphere. Portraits by him, somewhat in
the manner of Rembrandt, also exist; there are examples of
these in the galleries at Copenhagen and Christiania. Of his
landscapes the principal are " Vue de 1'embouchure d'une
riviere," at the Hague; a slightly larger replica is in the National
Gallery, London; " Lisiere d'un bois," and " Paysage " (with
figures by A. Vandevelde) at Amsterdam; and landscapes in
Brussels, Florence (Uffizi). Berlin and Cologne.
Several of his works have been falsely attributed to
Rembrandt, and many more to his namesake and fellow-
townsman SALOMON DE KONINCK (1609-1656), who was also a
disciple of Rembrandt; his paintings and etchings consist
mainly of portraits and biblical scenes.
Both these painters are to be distinguished from DAVID DE
KONINCK (1636-? 1687), who is also known as " Rammelaar."
He was born in Antwerp. He studied there under Jan Fyt, and
later settled in Rome, where he is stated to have died in 1687;
this is, however, doubtful. His pictures are chiefly landscapes
with animals, and still-life.
KONITZ, a town of Germany, in the province of West Prussia,
at the junction of railways to Schneidemiihl and Gnesen, 68 m.
S.W. of Danzig. Pop. (1905), 11,014. It is still surrounded
by its old fortifications, has two Evangelical and two Roman
Catholic churches, a new town-hall, handsome public offices,
and a prison. It has iron-foundries, saw-mills, electrical works,
and manufactures of bricks. Konitz was the first fortified post
established in Prussia by Hermann Balk, who in 1230 had been
commissioned as Landmeister, by the grand-master of the
Teutonic order, to reduce the heathen Prussians. For a long
time it continued to be a place of military importance.
See Uppenkamp, Geschichte der Stadt Konitz (Konitz, 1873).
KONKAN, or CONCAN, a maritime tract of Western India,
situated within the limits of the Presidency of Bombay, and
extending from the Portuguese settlement of Goa on the S.
to the territory of Daman, belonging to the same nation, on
the N. On the E. it is bounded by the Western Ghats, and on
the W. by the Indian Ocean. This tract comprises the three
British districts of Thana, Ratnagiri and Kolaba, and the native
states of Janjira and Sawantwari. It may be estimated at
300 m. in length, with an average breadth of about 40. From
the mountains on its eastern frontier, which in one place attain
a height of 4700 ft., the surface, marked by a succession of
irregular hilly spurs from the Ghats, slopes to the westward,
where the mean elevation of the coast is not more than 100 ft.
above the level of the sea. Several mountain streams, but none
of any magnitude, traverse the country in the same direction.
One of the most striking characteristics of the climate is the vio-
lence of the monsoon rains — the mean annual fall at Mahabalesh-
war amounting to 239 in. The coast has a straight general
outline, but is much broken into small bays and harbours.
This, with the uninterrupted view along the shore, and the
land and sea breezes, which force vessels steering along the
coast to be always within sight of it, rendered this country
from time immemorial the seat of piracy; and so formidable
KONTAGORA— KOPRULU
897
had the pirates become in the i8th century, that all ships
suffered which did not receive a pass from their chiefs. The
Great Mogul maintained a fleet for the express purpose of
checking them, and they were frequently attacked by the
Portuguese. British commerce was protected by occasional
expeditions from Bombay; but the piratical system was not
finally extinguished until 1812. The southern Konkan has
given its name to a dialect of Marathi, which is the vernacular
of the Roman Catholics of Goa.
KONTAGORA, a province in the British protectorate of
Northern Nigeria, on the east bank of the Niger to the north
of Nupe and opposite Borgu. It is bounded W. by the Niger,
S. by the province of Nupe, E. by that of Zaria, and N. by that
of Sokoto. It has an area of 14,500 sq. m. and a population
estimated at about 80,000. At the time of the British occupa-
tion of Northern Nigeria the province formed a Fula emirate.
Before the Fula domination, which 'was established in 1864,
the ancient pagan kingdom of Yauri was the most important
of the lesser kingdoms which occupied this territory. The
Fula conquest was made from Nupe on the south and a tribe
of independent and warlike pagans continued to hold the
country between Kontagora and Sokoto on the north. The
province was brought under British domination in 1901 as the
result of a military expedition sent to prevent audacious slave-
raiding in British protected territory and of threats directed
against the British military station of Jebba on the Niger. The
town of Kontagora was taken in January of 1901. The emir
Ibrahim fled, and was not captured till early in 1902. The
province, after having been held for a time in military occupa-
tion, was organized for administration on the same system as
the rest of the protectorate. In 1903 Ibrahim, after agreeing
to take the oath of allegiance to the British crown and to accept
the usual conditions of appointment, which include the abolition
of the slave trade within the province, was reinstated as emir
and the British garrison was withdrawn. Since then the de-
velopment of the province has progressed favourably. Roads
have been opened and Kontagora connected by telegraph with
headquarters at Zungeru. British courts of justice have been
established at the British headquarters, and native courts in
every district. In 1904 an expedition reduced to submission
the hitherto independent tribes in the northern belt, who had
up to that time blocked the road to Sokoto. Their arms were
confiscated and their country organized as a district of the
province under a chief and a British assistant resident.
KOORINGA [BURRA], a town of Burra county, South Australia
on Burra Creek, 101 m. by rail N. by E. of Adelaide. Pop. (1901),
1994. It is the centre of a mining and agricultural district in
which large areas are devoted to wheat-growing. The famous
Burra Burra copper mine, discovered by a shepherd in 1844, is
close to the town, while silver and lead ore is also found in the
vicinity.
KOPENICK (COPENICK), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Brandenburg, on an island in the Spree, 9 m. S.E.
from Berlin by the railway to Fiirstenwalde. Pop. (1905), 27,721.
It contains a royal residence, which was built on the site of a
palace which belonged to the great elector, Frederick William.
This is surrounded by gardens and contains a fine banqueting
hall and a chapel. Other buildings are a Roman Catholic and a
Protestant church and a teachers' seminary. The varied in-
dustries embrace the manufacture of glass, linoleum, sealing-wax
and ink. In the vicinity is Spindlersfeld, with important dye-
works.
Kopenick, which dates from the I2th century, received
municipal rights in 1225. Shortly afterwards, it became the
bone of contention between Brandenburg and Meissen, but, at
the issue of the feud, remained with the former, becoming a
favourite residence of the electors of Brandenburg. In the
palace the famous court martial was held in 1730, which con-
demned the crown-prince of Prussia, afterwards Frederick the
Great, to death. In 1906 the place derived ephemeral fame
from the daring feat of a cobbler, one Wilhelm Voigt, who,
attired as a captain in the army, accompanied by soldiers, whom
xv. 29
his apparent rank deceived, took the mayor prisoner, on a
fictitious charge of having falsified accounts and absconded with
a considerable sum of municipal money. The " captain of
Kopenick " was arrested, tried, and sentenced to a term of
imprisonment.
See Graf zu Dohna, Kurfurstliche SMosser in der Mark Branden-
burg (Berlin, 1890).
KOPISCH, AUGUST (1799-1853), German poet, was born at
Breslau on the 26th of May 1799. In 1815 he began the study
of painting at the Prague academy, but an injury to his hand
precluded the prospects of any great success in this profession,
and he turned to literature. After a residence in Dresden
Kopisch proceeded, in 1822, to Italy, where, at Naples, he
formed an intimate friendship with the poet August, count of
Platen Hallermund. He was an expert swimmer, a quality
which enabled him in company with Ernst Fries to discover the
blue grotto of Capri. In 1828 he settled at Berlin and was
granted a pension by Frederick William IV., who in 1838 con-
ferred upon him the title of professor. He died at Berlin on the
3rd of February 1853. Kopisch produced some very original
poetry, light in language and in form. He especially treated
legends and popular subjects, and among his Gedichte (Berlin,
1836) are some naive and humorous little pieces such as Die-
Historic von Noah, Die Heinzelmannchen, Das grime Tier and
Der Scheiderjunge von Krippstedt, which became widely
popular. He also published a translation of Dante's Divine
Comedy (Berlin, 1840), and under the title Agrumi (Berlin, 1838)
a collection of translations of Italian folk songs.
Kopisch's collected works were published in 5 vols. (Berlin, 1856.)
KOPP, HERMANN FRANZ MORITZ (1817-1892), German
chemist, was born on the 3oth of October 1817 at Hanau, where
his father, Johann Heinrich Kopp (1777-1858), a physician, was
professor of chemistry, physics and natural history at the
Lyceum.
After attending the gymnasium of his native town, he studied
at Marburg and Heidelberg, and then, attracted by the fame of
Liebig, went in 1839 to Giessen, where he became a privatdozent
in 1841, and professor of chemistry twelve years later. In 1864
he was called to Heidelberg in the same capacity, and he re-
mained there till his death on the 2oth of February 1892. Kopp
devoted himself especially to physico-chemical inquiries, and in
the history of chemical theory his name is associated with several
of the most important correlations of the physical properties of
substances with their chemical constitution. Much of his work
was concerned with specific volumes, the conception of which he
set forth in a paper published when he was only twenty-two
years of age; and the principles he established have formed the
basis of subsequent investigations in that subject, although his
results have in some cases undergone modification. Another
question to which he gave much attention was the connexion of
the boiling-point of compounds, organic ones in particular, with
their composition. In addition to these and other laborious
researches, Kopp was a prolific writer. In 1843-1847 he published
a comprehensive History of Chemistry, in four volumes, to which
three supplements were added in 1869-1875. The Development
of Chemistry in Recent Times appeared in 1871-1874, and in 1886
he published a work in two volumes on Alchemy in Ancient and
Modern Times. In addition he wrote (1863) on theoretical and
physical chemistry for the Graham-Otto Lehrbuch der Chemie,
and for many years assisted Liebig in editing the Annalen der
Chemie and the Jahresbericht.
He must not be confused with EMIL KOPP (1817-1875), who,
born at Warselnheim, Alsace, became in 1847 professor of
toxicology and chemistry at the Ecole superieure de Pharmacie
at Strasburg, in 1849 professor of physics and chemistry at
Lausanne, in 1852 chemist to a Turkey-red factory near Man-
chester, in 1868 professor of technology at Turin, and finally, in
1871, professor of technical chemistry at the Polytechnic of
Zurich, where he died in 1875.
KOPRULU, or KUPRILI (Bulgarian Valesa, Greek Velissa), a
town of Macedonia, European Turkey, in the vilayet of Salonica,
898
KORA— KORAN
situated 600 ft. above sea-level, on the river Vardar, and on the
Salonica-Mitrovitza railway, 25 m. S.E. of Uskub. Pop. (1905),
about 22,000. Kopriilii has a flourishing trade in silk; maize
and mulberries are cultivated in the neighbourhood. The Greek
and Bulgarian names of the town may be corrupt forms of the
ancient Bylazora, described by Polybius as the chief city of
Paeonia.
KORA, or CORA, an ancient town of Northern India, in the
Fatehpur district of the United Provinces. Pop. (1901), 2806.
As the capital of a Mahommedan province, it gave its name to
part of the tract (with Allahabad) granted by Lord Clive to the
titular Mogul emperor, Shah Alam, in 1765.
KORAN. The Koran (Kor'an) is the sacred Book of Islam,
on which the religion of more than two hundred millions of
Mahommedans is founded, being regarded by them as the
immediate word of God. And since the use of the Koran in
public worship, in schools and otherwise, is much more extensive
than, for example, the reading of the Bible in most Christian
countries, it has been truly described as the most widely-read
book in existence. This circumstance alone is sufficient to give
it an urgent claim on our attention, whether it suit our taste and
fall in with our religious and philosophical views or not. Besides,
it is the work of Mahomet, and as such is fitted to afford a clue
to the spiritual development of that most successful of all pro-
phets and religious personalities. It must be owned that the
first perusal leaves on a European an impression of chaotic
confusion — not that the book is so very extensive, for it is not
quite as large as the New Testament. This impression can in
some degree be modified only by the application of a critical
analysis with the assistance of Arabian tradition.
To the faith of the Moslems, as has been said, the Koran is the
word of God, and such also is the claim which the book itself
advances. For except in sur. i. — which is a prayer for men — and
some few passages where Mahomet (vi. 104, 114; xxvii. 93; xlii.8)
or the angels (xix. 65; xxxvii. 164 sqq.) speak in the first person
without the intervention of the usual imperative " say " (sing, or
pi.), the speaker throughout is God, either in the first person
singular or more commonly the plural of majesty " we." The
same mode of address is familiar to us from the prophets of the
Old Testament; the human personality disappears, in the moment
of inspiration, behind the God by whom it is filled. But all the
greatest of the Hebrew prophets fall back speedily upon the
unassuming human " I "; while in the Koran the divine " I " is
the stereotyped form of address. Mahomet, however, really felt
Mahomet's himself to be the instrument of God; this con-
view of sciousness was no doubt brighter at his first appear-
Revelatioa. ar)ce ^&n jt afterwards became, but it never
entirely forsook him. Nevertheless we cannot doubt his good-
faith, not even in the cases in which the moral quality of his
actions leaves most to be desired. In spite of all, the dominant
fact remains, that to the end he was zealous for his God and for
the salvation of his people, nay, of the whole of humanity, and
that he never lost the unconquerable certainty of his divine
mission.
The rationale of revelation is explained in the Koran itself as
follows: In heaven is the original text (" the mother of the
book," xliii. 3; "a concealed book," Iv. 77; "a well-guarded
tablet," Ixxxv. 22). By the process of " sending down " (lanzil),
one piece after another was communicated to the Prophet. The
mediator was an angel, who is called sometimes the " Spirit "
(xxvi. 193), sometimes the " holy Spirit " (xvi. '104), and at a later
time " Gabriel " (only in ii. 91, 92; Ixvi. 4). This angel dictates
the revelation to the Prophet, who repeats it after him, and after-
wards proclaims it to the world (Ixxxvii. 6, &c.). It is plain that
we have here a somewhat crude attempt of the Prophet to repre-
sent to himself the more or less unconscious process by which his
ideas arose and gradually took shape in his mind. It is no
wonder if in such confused imagery the details are not always
self-consistent. When, for example, this heavenly archetype is
said to be in the hands of "exalted scribes" (Ixxx. 13 sqq.),
this seems a transition to a quite different set of ideas, namely,
the books of fate, or the record of all human actions — conceptions
which are actually found in the Koran. It is to be observed, at
all events, that Mahomet's transcendental idea of God, as a Being
exalted altogether above the world, excludes the thought of
direct intercourse between the Prophet and God.
It is an explicit statement of the Koran that the sacred book
was revealed (" sent down ") by God, not all at once, but piece-
meal and gradually (xxv. 34). This is evident component
from the actual composition of the book, and is Parts of the
confirmed by Moslem tradition. That is to say, Koraa-
Mahomet issued his revelations in fly-leaves of greater or less
extent. A single piece of this kind was called either, like the
entire collection, kor'an, i.e. " recitation," " reading," or, better
still, is the equivalent of Aramaic gerydnd " lectionary "; or kitab,
" writing "; or sura, which is perhaps the late-Hebrew sfiura,
and means literally " series." The last became, in the lifetime
of Mahomet, the regular designation of the individual sections
as distinguished from the "whole collection; and accordingly it is
the name given to the separate chapters of the existing Koran.
These chapters are of very unequal length. Since many of the
shorter ones are undoubtedly complete in themselves, it is natural
to assume that the longer, which are sometimes very compre-
hensive, have arisen from the amalgamation of various originally
distinct revelations. This supposition is favoured by the numer-
ous traditions which give us the circumstances under which this
or that short piece, now incorporated in a larger section, was
revealed; and also by the fact that the connexion of thought in
the present suras often seems to be interrupted. And in reality
many pieces of the long suras have to be severed out as originally
independent; even in the short ones parts are often found which
cannot have been there at first. At the same time we must
beware of carrying this sifting operation too far, — as Noldeke
now believes himself to have done in his earlier works, and as
Sprenger also sometimes seems to do. That some suras were of
considerable length from the first is seen, for example, from xii.,
which contains a short introduction, then the history of Joseph,
and then a few concluding observations, and is therefore per-
fectly homogeneous. In like manner, xx., which is mainly
occupied with the history of Moses, forms a complete whole.
The same is true of xviii., which at first sight seems to fall into
several pieces; the history of the seven sleepers, the grotesque
narrative about Moses, and that about Alexander " the Horned,"
are all connected together, and the same rhyme through the
whole sura. Even in the separate narrations we may observe
how readily the Koran passes from one subject to another, how
little care is taken to express all the transitions of thought, and
how frequently clauses are omitted, which are almost indispens-
able. We are not at liberty, therefore, in every case where the
connexion in the Koran is obscure, to say that it is really broken,
and set it down as the clumsy patchwork of a later hand. Even
in the old Arabic poetry such abrupt transitions are of very
frequent occurrence. It is not uncommon for the Koran, after
a new subject has been entered on, to return gradually or sud-
denly to the former theme, — a proof that there at least separa-
tion is not to be thought of. In short, however imperfectly the
Koran may have been redacted, in the majority of cases the
present suras are identical with the originals.
How these revelations actually arose in Mahomet's mind is a
question which it is almost as idle to discuss as it would be to
analyse the workings of the mind of a poet. In his early career,
sometimes perhaps in its later stages also, many revelations must
have burst from him in uncontrollable excitement, so that he
could not possibly regard them otherwise than as divine inspira-
tions. We must bear in mind that he was no cold systematic
thinker, but an Oriental visionary, brought up in crass supersti-
tion, and without intellectual discipline; a man whose nervous
temperament had been powerfully worked on by ascetic austeri-
ties, and who was all the more irritated by the opposition he
encountered, because he had little of the heroic in his nature.
Filled with his religious ideas and visions, he might well fancy
he heard the angel bidding him recite what was said to him.
There may have been many a revelation of this kind which no one
ever heard but himself, as he repeated it to himself in the silence
KORAN
899
The Koran
Written.
of the night (Ixxiii. 4). Indeed the Koran itself admits that he
forgot some revelations (Ixxxvii. 7). But by far the greatest
part of the book is undoubtedly the result of deliberation, touched
more or less with emotion, and animated by a certain rhetorical
rather than poetical glow. Many passages are based upon purely
intellectual reflection. It is said that Mahomet occasionally
uttered such a passage immediately after one of those epileptic
fits which not only his followers, but (for a time at least) he him-
self also, regarded as tokens of intercourse with the higher powers.
If that is the case, it is impossible to say whether the trick was
in the utterance of the revelation or in the fit itself.
How the various pieces of the Koran took literary form is
uncertain. Mahomet himself, so far as we can discover, never
wrote down anything. The question whether he
could read and write has been much debated
among Moslems, unfortunately more with dog-
matic arguments and spurious traditions than authentic proofs.
At present one is inclined to say that he was not altogether
ignorant of these arts, but that from want of practice he found
it convenient to employ some one else whenever he had anything
to write. After the migration to Medina (A.D. 622) we are told
that short pieces — chiefly legal decisions — were taken down
immediately after they were revealed, by an adherent whom he
summoned for the purpose; so that nothing stood in the way of
their publication. Hence it is probable that in Mecca, where
the art of writing was commoner than in Medina, he had already
begun to have his oracles committed to writing. That even long
portions of the Koran existed in written form from an early date
may be pretty safely inferred from various indications; especially
from the fact that in Mecca the Prophet had caused insertions
to be made, and pieces to be erased in his previous revelations.
For we cannot suppose that he knew the longer suras by heart so
perfectly that he was able after a time to lay his finger upon any
particular passage. In some instances, indeed, he may have
relied too much on his memory. For example, he seems to have
occasionally dictated the same sura to different persons in slightly
different terms. In such cases, no doubt, he may have partly
intended to introduce improvements; and so long as the differ-
ence was merely in expression, without affecting the sense, it
could occasion no perplexity to his followers. None of them had
literary pedantry enough to question the consistency of the divine
revelation on that ground. In particular instances, however,
the difference of reading was too important to be overlooked.
Thus the Koran itself confesses that the unbelievers cast it up
as a reproach to the Prophet that God sometimes substituted one
verse for another (xvi. 103). On one occasion, when a dispute
arose between two of his own followers as to the true reading of
a passage which both had received from the Prophet himself,
Mahomet is said to have explained that the Koran was revealed
in seven forms. In this apparently genuine dictum seven stands,
of course, as in many other cases, for an indefinite but limited
number. But one may imagine what a world of trouble it has
cost the Moslem theologians to explain the saying in accordance
with their dogmatic beliefs. A great number of explanations
are current, some of which claim the authority of the Prophet
himself; as, indeed, fictitious utterances of Mahomet play
throughout a conspicuous part in the exegesis of the Koran.
One very favourite, but utterly untenable interpretation is that
the " seven forms," are seven different Arabic dialects.
When such discrepancies came to the cognizance of Mahomet
it was doubtless his desire that only one of the conflicting texts
should be considered authentic; only he never gave
tfeadtotfs? himself much trouble to have his wish carried into
effect. Although in theory he was an upholder
of verbal inspiration, he did not push the doctrine to its extreme
consequences; his practical good sense did not take these things
so strictly as the theologians of later centuries. Sometimes,
however, he did suppress whole sections or verses, enjoining
his followers to efface or forget them, and declaring them to be
" abrogated." A very remarkable case is that of the two verses
in liii., when he had recognized three heathen goddesses as
exalted beings, possessing influence with God. This had occurred
Abrogated
Laws.
in a moment of weakness, in order that by such a promise, which
yet left Allah in his lofty position, he might gain over his fellow-
countrymen. This object he achieved, but soon his conscience
smote him, and he declared these words to have been an inspira-
tion of Satan.
So much for abrogated readings; the case is somewhat different
when we come to the abrogation of laws and directions to the
Moslems, which often occurs in the Koran. There
is nothing in this at variance with Mahomet's idea
of God. God is to him an absolute despot, who
declares a thing right or wrong from no inherent necessity but
by his arbitrary fiat. This God varies his commands at pleasure,
prescribes one law for the Christians, another for the Jews, and
a third for the Moslems; nay, he even changes his instructions
to the Moslems when it pleases him. Thus, for example, the
Koran contains very different directions, suited to varying
circumstances, as to the treatment which idolaters are to receive
at the hands of believers. But Mahomet showed no anxiety to
have these superseded enactments destroyed. Believers could
be in no uncertainty as to which of two contradictory passages
remained in force; and they might still find edification in that
which had become obsolete. That later generations might not
so easily distinguish the " abrogated " from the " abrogating "
did not occur to Mahomet, whose vision, naturally enough,
seldom extended to the future of his religious community.
Current events were invariably kept in view in the revelations.
In Medina it called forth the admiration of the Faithful to observe
how often God gave them the answer to a question whose settle-
ment was urgently required at the moment. The same naivete
appears in a remark of the Caliph Othman about a doubtful
case: " If the Apostle of God were still alive, methinks there had
been a Koran passage revealed on this point." Not unfrequently
the divine word was found to coincide with the advice which
Mahomet had received from his most intimate disciples. " Omar
was many a time of a certain opinion," says one tradition, " and
the Koran was then revealed accordingly."
The contents of the different parts of the Koran are extremely
varied. Many passages consist of theological or moral reflec-
tions. We are reminded of the greatness, the Contents
goodness, the righteousness of God as manifested of the
in Nature, in history, and in revelation through Koran,
the prophets, especially through Mahomet. God is magnified
as the One, the All-powerful. Idolatry and all deification of
created beings, such as the worship of Christ as the Son of
God, are unsparingly condemned. The joys of heaven and
the pains of hell are depicted in vivid sensuous imagery, as is also
the terror of the whole creation at the advent of the last day and
the judgment of the world. Believers receive general moral
instruction, as well as directions for special circumstances. The
lukewarm are rebuked, the enemies threatened with terrible
punishment, both temporal and eternal. To the sceptical the
truth of Islam is held forth; and a certain, not very cogent,
method of demonstration predominates. In many passages the
sacred book falls into a diffuse preaching style, others seem more
like proclamations or general orders. A great number contain
ceremonial or civil laws, or even special commands to individuals
down to such matters as the regulation of Mahomet's harem.
In not a few definite questions are answered which had actually
been propounded to the Prophet by believers or infidels.
Mahomet himself, too, repeatedly receives direct injunctions,
and does not escape an occasional rebuke. One sura (i.) is a
prayer, two (cxiii. cxiv.) are magical formulas. Many suras treat
of a single topic, others embrace several.
From the mass of material comprised in the Koran— and the
account we have given is far from exhaustive — we should select
the histories of the ancient prophets and saints
as possessing a peculiar interest. The purpose of arrat res'
Mahomet is to show from these histories how God in formei
times had rewarded the righteous and punished their enemies.
For the most part the old prophets only serve to introduce
a little variety in point of form, for they are almost in eveiy
case facsimiles of Mahomet himself. They preach exactly like
goo
KORAN
him, they have to bring the very same charges against their
opponents, who on their part behave exactly as the unbeliev-
ing inhabitants of Mecca. The Koran even goes so far as to make
Noah contend against the worship of certain false gods, mentioned
by name, who were worshipped by the Arabs of Mahomet's time.
In an address which is put in the mouth of Abraham (xxvi. 7 5 sqq. ) ,
the reader quite forgets that it is Abraham, and not Mahomet
(or God himself) , who is speaking. Other narratives are intended
rather for amusement, although they are always well seasoned
with edifying phrases. It is no wonder that the godless Kor-
rishites thought these stories of the Koran not nearly so enter-
taining as those of Rostam and Ispandiar, related by Nadr the
son of Harith, who had learned in the course of his trade journeys
on the Euphrates the heroic mythology of the Persians. But
the Prophet was so exasperated by this rivalry that when Nadr
fell into his power after the battle of Badr, he caused him to be
executed; although in all other cases he readily pardoned his
fellow-countrymen.
These histories are chiefly about Scripture characters, espe-
cially those of the Old Testament. But the deviations from the
Relation to Biblical narratives are very marked. Many of the
the Old alterations are found in the legendary anecdotes
and New of the Jewish Haggada and the New Testament
Tes<amente' Apocrypha; but many more are due perhaps to
misconceptions such as only a listener (not the reader of a book)
could fall into. One would suppose that the most ignorant Jew
could never have mistaken Haman, the minister of Ahasuerus,
for the minister of Pharaoh, as happens in the Koran, or identified
Miriam, the sister of Moses, with Mary ( = Mariam), the mother
of Christ. So long, however, as we have no closer acquaintance
with Arab Judaism and Christianity, we must always reckon
with the possibility that many of these mistakes were due to
adherents of these religions who were his authorities, or were a
naive reproduction of versions already widely accepted by his
contemporaries. In addition to his misconceptions there are
sundry capricious alterations, some of them very grotesque, due
to Mahomet himself. For instance, in his ignorance of every-
thing out of Arabia, he makes the fertility of Egypt — where rain
is almost never seen and never missed— depend on rain instead
of the inundations of the Nile (xii. 49).
It is uncertain whether his account of Alexander was borrowed
from Jews or Christians, since the romance of Alexander be-
longed to the stereotyped literature of that age. The description
of Alexander as " the Horned " in the Koran is, however, in
accordance with the result of recent researches, to be traced to a
Syrian legend dating from A.D. 514-515 (Th. Noldeke, " Beitrage
zur Gesch. des Alexanderromanes " in Denkschriften Akod. Wien,
vol. xxxviii. No. 5, p. 27, &c.). According to this, God caused
horns to grow on Alexander's head to enable him to overthrow
all things. This detail of the legend is ultimately traceable, as
Hottinger long ago supposed, to the numerous coins on which
Alexander is represented with the ram's horns of Ammon.1
Besides Jewish and Christian histories there are a few about old
Arabian prophets. In these he seems to have handled his
materials even more freely than in the others.
The opinion has already been expressed that Mahomet did
not make use of written sources. Coincidences and divergences
alike can always be accounted for by oral communications from
Jews who knew a little and Christians who knew next to nothing.
Even in the rare passages where we can trace direct resemblances
to the text of the Old Testament (cf. xxi. 105 with Ps. xxxvii. 29;
i. 5 with Ps. xxvii. u) or the New (cf. vii. 48 with Luke
xvi. 24; xlvi. 19 with Luke xvi. 25), there is nothing more than
might readily have been picked up in conversation with any Jew
or Christian. In Medina, where he had the opportunity of be-
coming acquainted with Jews of some culture, he learned some
things out of the Mishna, e.g. v. 35 corresponds almost word for
1 Reproductions of such Ptolemaic and Lysimachan coins are to
be found in J. J. Bernoulli!, Die erhaltenen Darslellungen Alexanders
d. Gr. (Munich, 1905), Tab. VIII.; also in Theodor Schreiber,
" Studien fiber das BiTdniss Alexanders des Gr." in the Abh. Sachs.
Gesellschaftder Wissenschajten, Bd. xxi. (1903), Tab. XIII.
word with Mishna Sanhedrin iv. 5; compare also ii. 183 with
Mishna Berak'hoth i. 2. That these are only cases of oral com-
munication will be admitted by any one with the slightest know-
ledge of the circumstances. Otherwise we might even conclude
that Mahomet had studied the Talmud; e.g. the regulation as to
ablution by rubbing with sand, where water cannot be obtained
(iv. 46), corresponds to a talmudic ordinance (Berak'hoth 15 a).
Of Christianity he can have been able to learn very little, even
in Medina; as may be seen from the absurd travesty of the institu-
tion of the Eucharist in v. 112 sqq. For the rest, it is highly
improbable that before the Koran any real literary production
— anything that could be strictly called a book — existed in the
Arabic language.
In point of style and artistic effect, the different parts of the
Koran are of very unequal value. An unprejudiced and critical
reader will certainly find very few passages where
his aesthetic susceptibilities are thoroughly satis-
fied. But he will often be struck, especially in the older pieces,
by a wild force of passion, and a vigorous, if not rich, imagination.
Descriptions of heaven and hell, and allusions to God's working
in Nature, not unfrequently show a certain amount of poetic
power. In other places also the style is sometimes lively and
impressive; though it is rarely indeed that we come across such
strains of touching simplicity as in the middle of xciii. The
greater part of the Koran is decidedly prosaic; much of it indeed
is stiff in style. Of course, with such a variety of material, we
cannot expect every part to be equally vivacious, or imaginative,
or poetic. A decree about the right of inheritance, or a point
of ritual, must necessarily be expressed in prose, if it is to be
intelligible. No one complains of the civil laws in Exodus or the
sacrificial ritual in Leviticus, because they want the fire of Isaiah
or the tenderness of Deuteronomy. But Mahomet's mistake
consists in persistent and slavish adherence to the semi-poetic
form which he had at first adopted in accordance with his own
taste and that of his hearers. For instance, he employs rhyme
in dealing with the most prosaic subjects, and thus produces
the disagreeable effect of incongruity between style and matter.
It has to be considered, however, that many of those sermonizing
pieces which are so tedious to us, especially when we read two
or three in succession (perhaps in a very inadequate translation),
must have had a quite different effect when recited under the
burning sky and on the barren soil of Mecca. There, thoughts
about God's greatness and man's duty, which are familiar to us
from childhood, were all new to the hearers — it is hearers we
have to think of in the first instance, not readers — to whom, at
the same time, every allusion had a meaning which often escapes
our notice. When Mahomet spoke of the goodness of the Lord
in creating the clouds, and bringing them across the cheerless
desert, and pouring them out on the earth to restore its rich
vegetation, that must have been a picture of thrilling interest
to the Arabs, who are accustomed to see from three to five
years elapse before a copious shower comes to clothe the wilder-
ness once more with luxuriant pastures. It requires an effort
for us, under our clouded skies, to realize in some degree the
intensity of that impression.
The fact that scraps of poetical phraseology are specially
numerous in the earlier suras, enables us to understand why the
prosaic mercantile community of Mecca regarded Rhetorical
their eccentric townsman as a " poet," or even a Form and
" possessed poet." Mahomet himself had to &&<"••
disclaim such titles, because he felt himself to be a divinely
inspired prophet; but we too, from our standpoint, shall fully
acquit him of poetic genius. Like many other predominantly
religious characters, he had no appreciation of poetic beauty;
and if we may believe one anecdote related of him, at a time when
every one made verses, he affected ignorance of the most element-
ary rules of prosody. Hence the style of the Koran is not poetical
but rhetorical; and the powerful effect which some portions pro-
duce on us is gained by rhetorical means. Accordingly the
sacred book has not even the artistic form of poetry; which,
among the Arabs, includes a stringent metre, as well as rhyme.
The Koran is never metrical, and only a few exceptionally
KORAN
901
eloquent portions fall into a sort of spontaneous rhythm. On
the other hand, the rhyme is regularly maintained; although,
especially in the later pieces, after a very slovenly fashion.
Rhymed prose was a favourite form of composition among the
Arabs of that day, and Mahomet adopted it; but if it imparts a
certain sprightliness to some passages, it proves on the whole
a burdensome yoke. The Moslems themselves have observed
that the tyranny of the rhyme often makes itself apparent in
derangement of the order of words, and in the choice of verbal
forms which would not otherwise have been employed; e.g. an
imperfect instead of a perfect. In one place, to save the rhyme,
he calls Mount Sinai Sin-in (xcv. 2) instead of Slnd (xxiii. 20);
in another Elijah is called Ilyasin (xxxvii. 130) instead of Ilyds
(vi. 85; xxxvii. 123). The substance even is modified to suit
exigencies of rhyme. Thus the Prophet would scarcely have
fixed on the unusual number of eight angels round the throne of
God (Ixix. 17) if the word thamdniyah, " eight," had not happened
to fall in so well with the rhyme. And when Iv. speaks of two
heavenly gardens, each with two fountains and two kinds of
fruit, and again of two similar gardens, all this is simply
because the dual termination (an) corresponds to the syllable
that controls the rhyme in that whole sura. In the later
pieces, Mahomet often inserts edifying remarks, entirely out of
keeping with the context, merely to complete his rhyme. In
Arabic it is such an easy thing to accumulate masses of words
with the same termination, that the gross negligence of the
rhyme in the Koran is doubly remarkable. One may say that
this is another mark of the Prophet's want of mental training,
and incapacity for introspective criticism.
On the whole, while many parts of the Koran undoubtedly
have considerable rhetorical power, even over an unbelieving
Stylistic reader, the book, aesthetically considered, is by
Weak- no means a first-rate performance. To begin with
nesses. what we are most competent to criticize, let us look
at some of the more extended narratives. It has already been
noticed how vehement and abrupt they are where they ought to
be characterized by epic repose. Indispensable links, both in
expression and in the sequence of events, are often omitted, so
that to understand these histories is sometimes far easier for us
than for those who heard them first, because we know most of
them from better sources. Along with this, there is a great deal
of superfluous verbiage; and nowhere do we find a steady advance
in the narration. Contrast in these respects the history of
Joseph (xii.) and its glaring improprieties with the admirably
conceived and admirably executed story in Genesis. Similar
faults are found in the non-narrative portions of the Koran.
The connexion of ideas is extremely loose, and even the syntax
betrays great awkwardness. Anacolutha are of frequent occur-
rence, and cannot be explained as conscious literary devices.
Many sentences begin with a " when " or " on the day when"
which seems to hover in the air, so that the commentators are
driven to supply a " think of this " or some such ellipsis. Again,
there is no great literary skill evinced in the frequent and needless
harping on the same words and phrases ; in xviii., for example, " till
that " (hallo, idhd) occurs no fewer than eight times. Mahomet,
in short, is not in any sense a master of style. This opinion will
be endorsed by any European who reads through the book with
an impartial spirit and some knowledge of the language, without
taking into account the tiresome effect of its endless iterations.
But in the ears of every pious Moslem such a judgment will sound
almost as shocking as downright atheism or polytheism. Among
Dogma at tne Moslems, the Koran has always been looked on
the stylistic as the most perfect model of style and language. This
Perfection feature of it is in their dogmatic the greatest of all
°Koraa miracles, the incontestable proof of its divine origin.
Such a view on the part of men who knew Arabic
infinitely better than the most accomplished European Arabist
will ever do, may well startle us. In fact, the Koran boldly
challenged its opponents to produce ten suras, or even a single
one, like those of the sacred book, and they never did so. That,
to be sure, on calm reflection, is not so very surprising. Revela-
tions of the kind which Mahomet uttered, no unbeliever could
produce without making himself a laughing-stock. However
little real originality there is in Mahomet's doctrines, as against
his own countrymen he was thoroughly original, even in the form
of his oracles. To compose such revelations at will was beyond
the power of the most expert literary artist; it would have
required either a prophet or a shameless impostor. And if such
a character appeared after Mahomet, still he could never be
anything but an imitator, like the false prophets who arose about
the time of his death and afterwards. That the adversaries
should produce any sample whatsoever of poetry or rhetoric
equal to the Koran is not at all what the Prophet demands. In
that case he would have been put to shame, even in ,the eyes of
many of his own followers, by the first poem that came to hand.
Nevertheless, it is on a false interpretation of this challenge that
the dogma of the incomparable excellence of the style and diction
of the Koran is based. The rest has been accomplished by
dogmatic prejudice, which is quite capable of working other
miracles besides turning a defective literary production into an
unrivalled masterpiece in the eyes of believers. This view once
accepted, the next step was to find everywhere evidence of the
perfection of the style and language. And if here and there, as
one can scarcely doubt, there was among the old Moslems a lover
of poetry who had his difficulties about this dogma, he had to
beware of uttering an opinion which might have cost him his
head. We know of at least one rationalistic theologian who de-
fined the dogma in such a way that we can see he did not believe
it (ShahrastanI, p. 39). The truth is, it would have been a
miracle indeed if the style of the Koran had been perfect. For
although there was at that time a recognized poetical style,
already degenerating to mannerism, a developed prose style did
not exist. All beginnings are difficult; and it can never be
esteemed a serious charge against Mahomet that his book, the
first prose work of a high order in the language, testifies to the
awkwardness of the beginner. And further, we must always
remember that entertainment and aesthetic effect were at most
subsidiary objects. The great aim was persuasion and conver-
sion; and, say what we will, that aim has been realized on the
most imposing scale.
Mahomet repeatedly calls attention to the fact that the Koran
is not written, like other sacred books, in a strange language, but
in Arabic, and therefore is intelligible to all. At
that time, along with foreign ideas, many foreign
words had crept into the language; especially
Aramaic terms for religious conceptions of Jewish or Christian
origin. Some of these had already passed into general use,
while others were confined to a more limited circle. Mahomet,
who could not fully express his new ideas in the common language
of his countrymen, but had frequently to find out new terms for
himself, made free use of such Jewish and Christian words, as was
done, though perhaps to a smaller extent, by certain thinkers
and poets of that age who had more or less risen above the level
of heathenism. In Mahomet's case this is the less wonderful
because he was indebted to the instruction of Jews and Christians,
whose Arabic — as the Koran pretty clearly intimates with regard
to one of them — was very defective. On the other hand, it is
yet more remarkable that several of such borrowed words in the
Koran have a sense which they do not possess in the original
language. It is not necessary that this phenomenon should in
every case be due to the same cause. Just as the prophet often
misunderstood traditional traits of the sacred history, he may,
as an unlearned man, likewise have often employed foreign
expressions wrongly. Other remarkable senses of words were
possibly already acclimatized in the language of Arabian Jews
or Christians. Thus, forqdn means really " redemption," but
Mahomet uses it for " revelation." The widespread opinion that
this sense first asserted itself in reference to the Arab root 3A
(faraqa), " sever," or " decide," is open to considerable doubt.
There is, for instance, no difficulty in deriving the Arab meaning
of " revelation " from the common Aramaic " salvation," and
this transference must have taken place in a community for
which salvation formed the central object of faith, i.e. either
amongst those Jews who looked to the coming of a Messiah or,
902
KORAN
more probably, among Christians, since Christianity is in a very
peculiar sense the religion of salvation. Milla is properly
" word " ( = Aramaic mellthd), but in the Koran " religion." It
is actually used of the religion of the Jews and Christians (once),
of the heathen (5 times), but mostly (8 times) of the religion
of Abraham, which Mahomet in the Medina period places on the
same level with Islam. Although of the Aramaic dialects none
employs the term Melltha in the sense of religion, it appears that
the prophet found such a use. Illiyun, which Mahomet uses of
a heavenly book (Sura 83; 18, 19), is clearly the Hebrew elyon,
" high " or " exalted." It is, however, doubtful in what sense
this word appeared to him, either as a name of God. as in the Old
Testament it often occurs and regularly without the article, or
actually as the epithet of a heavenly book, although this use
cannot be substantiated from Jewish literature. So again the
word malhdni is, as Geiger has conjectured, the regular plural
of the Aramaic mathnltha, which is the same as the Hebrew
Mishnah, and denotes in Jewish usage a legal decision of some
of the ancient Rabbins. But in the Koran Mahomet appears
to have understood it in the sense of " saying " or " sentence "
(cf. xxxix. 24). On the other hand, it is by no means certain
that by " the Seven Mathani " (xv. 87) the seven verses of Sura i.
are meant. Words of undoubtedly Christian origin are less
frequent in the Koran. It is an interesting fact that of these a
few have come over from the Abyssinian; such as hawarlyun
" apostles," mdida '' table," mundfig " doubter, sceptic," ragun
" cursed," mihrdb " temple "; the first three of these make their
first appearance in suras of the Medina period. The word
shaitdn " Satan," which was likewise borrowed, at least in the
first instance, from the Abyssinian, had probably been already
introduced into the language. Sprenger has rightly observed
that Mahomet makes a certain parade of these foreign terms, as
of other peculiarly constructed expressions; in this he followed
a favourite practice of contemporary poets. It is the tendency
of the imperfectly educated to delight in out-of-the-way expres-
sions, and on such minds they readily produce a remarkably
solemn and mysterious impression. This was exactly the kind
of effect that Mahomet desired, and to secure it he seems even
to have invented a few odd vocables, as ghislin (Ixix. 36), sijjin
(Ixxxiii. 7, 8), tasnim (Ixxxiii. 27), and salsabil (Ixxvi. 18). But,
of course, the necessity of enabling his hearers to understand
ideas which they must have found sufficiently novel in them-
selves, imposed tolerably narrow lim'ts on such eccentricities.
The constituents of our present Koran belong partly to the
Mecca period1 (before A.D. 622), partly to the period commencing
Date of the witn tne migration to Medina (from the autumn
Several of 622 to 8th June 632). Mahomet's position in
Parts. Medina was entirely different from that which he
had occupied in his native town. In the former he was from the
first the leader of a powerful party, and gradually became the
autocratic ruler of Arabia; in the latter he was only the despised
preacher of a small congregation. This difference, as was to be
expected, appears in the Koran. The Medina pieces, whether
entire suras or isolated passages interpolated in Meccan suras,
are accordingly pretty broadly distinct, as to their contents,
from those issued in Mecca. In the great majority of cases there
can be no doubt whatever whether a piece first saw the light in
Mecca or in Medina; and for the most part the internal evidence
is borne out by Moslem tradition. And since the revelations
given in Medina frequently take notice of events about which we
have fairly accurate information, and whose dates are at least
approximately known, we are often in a position to fix their date
with at any rate considerable certainty; here again tradition
renders valuable assistance. Even with regard to the Medina
passages, however, a great deal remains uncertain, partly because
the allusions to historical events and circumstances are generally
rather obscure, partly because traditions about the occasion of
the revelation of the various pieces are often fluctuating, and
often rest on misunderstanding or arbitrary conjecture. An
important criterion for judging the period during which individual
1For the schemes of Noldeke and Grimm see MAHOMMEDAN
RELIGION.
Meccan suras, interpolated in Medina revelations, arose (e.g.
Sur. xvi. 124, vi. 162) is provided by the Ibrahim legend, the
great importance of which, as throwing light on the evolution
of Mahomet's doctrine in its relation to older revealed religions,
has been convincingly set forth by Dr Snouck Hurgronje in his
dissertation for the doctor's degree and in later essays.2 Accord-
ing to this, Ibrahim, after the controversy with the Jews, first
of all became Mahomet's special forerunner in Medina, then the
first Moslem, and finally the founder of the Ka'ba. But at all
events it is far easier to arrange in some sort of chronological order
the Medina suras than those composed in Mecca. There is,
indeed, one tradition which professes to furnish a chronological
list of all the suras. But not to mention that it occurs in several
divergent forms, and that it takes no account of the fact that our
present suras are partly composed of pieces of different dates, it
contains so many suspicious or undoubtedly false statements,
that it is impossible to attach any great importance to it. Be-
sides, it is a priori unlikely that a contemporary of Mahomet
should have drawn up such a list; and if any one had made the
attempt he would have found it almost impossible to obtain
reliable information as to the order of the earlier Meccan suras.
We have in this list no genuine tradition, but rather the lucubra-
tions of an undoubtedly conscientious Moslem critic, who may
have lived about a century after the Flight.
Among the revelations put forth in Mecca there is a consider-
able number of (for the most part) short suras, which strike every
attentive reader as being the oldest. They are in
an altogether different strain from many others,
and in their whole composition they show least
resemblance to the Medina pieces. It is no doubt conceivable —
as Sprenger supposes — that Mahomet might have returned at
intervals to his earlier mariner; but since this group possesses
a remarkable similarity of style, and since the gradual formation
of a different style is on the whole an unmistakable fact, the
assumption has little probability; and we shall therefore abide
by the opinion that these form a distinct group. At the opposite
extreme from them stands another cluster, showing quite obvious
affinities with the style of the Medina suras, which must therefore
be assigned to the later part of the Prophet's work in Mecca.
Between these two groups stand a number of other Meccan suras,
which in every respect mark the transition from the first period
to the third. It need hardly be said that the three periods —
which were first distinguished by Professor Weil — are not
separated by sharp lines of division. With regard to some suras,
it may be doubtful whether they ought to be reckoned amongst
the middle group, or with one or other of the extremes. And it
is altogether impossible, within these groups, to establish even
a probable chronological arrangement of the individual revela-
tions. In default of clear allusions to well-known events, or
events whose date can be determined, we might indeed endeavour
to trace the psychological development of the Prophet by means
of the Koran, and arrange its parts accordingly. But in such
an undertaking one is always apt to take subjective assumptions
or mere fancies for established data. Good traditions about the
origin of the Meccan revelations are not very numerous. In fact
the whole history of Mahomet previous to the Flight is so
imperfectly related that we are not even sure in what year he
appeared as a prophet. Probably it was in A.D. 610; it may have
been somewhat earlier, but scarcely later. If, as one tradition
says, xxx. i seq. (" The Romans are overcome in the nearest
neighbouring land ") refers to the defeat of the Byzantines by
the Persians, not far from Damascus, about the spring of 614, it
would follow that the third group, to which this passage belongs,
covers the greater part of the Meccan period. And it is not in
itself unlikely that the passionate vehemence which characterizes
the first group was of short duration. Nor is the assumption
contradicted by the tolerably well attested, though far from
incontestable statement, that when Omar was converted (A.D.
615 or 616), xx., which belongs to the second group, already
existed in writing. But the reference of xxx. i seq. to this par-
ticular battle is by no means so certain that positive conclusions
1 See Bibliography at end.
KORAN
9°3
can be drawn from it. It is the same with other allusions
in the Meccan suras to occurrences whose chronology can be
partially ascertained. It is better, therefore, to rest satisfied
with a merely relative determination of the order of even the
three great clusters of Meccan revelations.
In the pieces of the first period the convulsive excitement of
the Prophet often expresses itself with the utmost vehemence.
oldest He is so carried away by his emotion that he cannot
Meccaa choose his words; they seem rather to burst from
ssras. jjim. Many of these pieces remind us of the oracles
of the old heathen soothsayers, whose style is known to us from
imitations, although we have perhaps not a single genuine
specimen. Like those other oracles, the suras of this period,
which are never very long, are composed of short sentences with
tolerably pure but rapidly changing rhymes. The oaths, too,
with which many of them begin were largely used by the sooth-
sayers. Some of these oaths are very uncouth and hard to
understand, some of them perhaps were not meant to be under-
stood, for indeed all sorts of strange things are met with in these
chapters. Here and there Mahomet speaks of visions, and appears
even to see angels before him in bodily form. There are some
intensely vivid descriptions of the resurrection and the last day
which must have exercised a demonic power over men who were
quite unfamiliar with such pictures. Other pieces paint in
glowing colours the joys of heaven and the pains of hell. How-
ever,the suras of this period are not all so wild as these; and those
which are conceived in a calmer mood appear to be the oldest.
Yet, one must repeat, it is exceedingly difficult to make out any
strict chronological sequence. For instance, it is by no means
certain whether the beginning of xcvi. is really, what a widely
circulated tradition calls it, the oldest part of the whole Koran.
That tradition goes back to the Prophet's favourite wife Ayesha;
but as she was not born at the time when the revelation is said
to have been made, it can only contain at the best what Mahomet
told her years afterwards, from his own not very clear recollec-
tion, with or without fictitious additions, and this woman is little
trustworthy. Moreover, there are other pieces mentioned by
others as the oldest. In any case xcvi. i sqq. is certainly very
early. According to the traditional view, which appears to be
correct, it treats of a vision in which the Prophet receives an
injunction to recite a revelation conveyed to him by the angel.
It is interesting to observe that here already two things are
brought forward as proofs of the omnipotence and care of God:
one is the creation of man out of a seminal drop — an idea to
which Mahomet often recurs; the other is the then recently
introduced art of writing, which the Prophet instinctively seizes
on as a means of propagating his doctrines. It was only after
Mahomet encountered obstinate resistance that the tone of the
revelations became thoroughly passionate. In such cases he was
not slow to utter terrible threats against those who ridiculed the
preaching of the unity of God, of the resurrection, and of the
judgment. His own uncle Abu Lahab had rudely repelled him.and
in a brief special sura (cxi.) he and his wife are consigned to hell.
The suras of this period form almost exclusively the concluding
portions of the present text. One is disposed to assume, how-
ever, that they were at one time more numerous, and that many
of them were lost at an .early period.
Since Mahomet's strength lay in his enthusiastic and fiery
imagination rather than in the wealth of ideas and clearness of
abstract thought on which exact reasoning depends, it follows
that the older suras, in which the former qualities have free
scope, must be more attractive to us than the later. In the
suras of the second period the imaginative glow perceptibly
diminishes; there is still fire and animation, but the tone becomes
gradually more prosaic. As the feverish restlessness subsides,
the periods are drawn out, and the revelations as a whole become
longer. The truth of the new doctrine is proved by accumulated
instances of God's working in nature and in history; the objec-
tions of opponents, whether advanced in good faith or in jest,
are controverted by arguments; but the demonstration is often
confused or even weak. The histories of the earlier prophets
which had occasionally been briefly touched on in the first period
are now related, sometimes at great length. On the whole, the
charm of the style is passing away.
There is one piece of the Koran, belonging to the beginning of
this period, if not to the close of the former, which claims par-
ticular notice. This is Sara i., the Lord's Prayer of The Fsti,,a
the Moslems, a vigorous hymn of praise to God,
the Lord of both worlds, which ends in a petition for aid and
true guidance (hudo). The words of this sura, which is known
as al-fdtiha (" the opening one "), are as follows: —
(i) In the name of God, the compassionate compassioner. (2)
Praise be [literally " is "] to God, the Lord of the worlds, (3) the
compassionate compassioner, (4) the Sovereign of the day of
judgment. (5) Thee do we worship and of Thee do we beg assist-
ance. (6) Direct us in the right way; (7) in the way of those to
whom Thou hast been gracious, on whom there is no wrath, and
who go not astray.
The thoughts are so simple as to need no explanation; and yet
the prayer is full of meaning. It is true that there is not a single
original idea of Mahomet's in it. Of the seven verses of the sura
no less than five (verses i, 2, 3, 4, 6) have an extremely suspicious
relationship with the stereotyped formulae of Jewish and Chris-
tian liturgies. Verse 6 agrees, word for word, with Ps. xxvri.
ii. On the other hand, the question must remain open whether
Mahomet only gave free renderings of the several borrowed
formulae, or whether in actually composing them he kept
existing models. The designation of God as the " Compas-
sioner," Rahman, is simply the Jewish Rahmand, which was a
favourite name for God in the Talmudic period. The word had
long before Mahomet's time been used for God in southern
Arabia (cf. e.g. the Sabaean Inscriptions, Glaser, 554, line 32;
618, line 2).
Mahomet seems for a while to have entertained the thought of
adopting al-Rahmdn as a proper name of God, in place of Allah,
which was already used by the heathens.1 This purpose he
ultimately relinquished, but it is just in the suras of the second
period that the use of Rahman is specially frequent. If, for this
reason, it is to a certain extent certain that Sura i. belongs to this
period, yet we can neither prove that it belongs to the beginning
of the Mecca period nor that the present introductory formula
" In the name of God," &c., belonged to it from the first. It may
therefore even be doubted whether Mahomet at the outset looked
upon the latter as revealed. Tradition, of course, knows in
this connexion no doubt, and looks upon the Fatiha precisely
as the most exalted portion of the Koran. Every Moslem who
says his five prayers regularly — as the most of them do — repeats
it not less than twenty times a day.
The suras of the third Meccan period, which form a fairly large
part of our present Koran, are almost entirely prosaic. Some
of the revelations are of considerable extent, and the Latest
single verses also are much longer than in the older Meccaa
suras. Only now and then a gleam of poetic power Suras.
flashes out. A sermonizing tone predominates. The suras are
very edifying for one who is already reconciled to their import,
but to us at least they do not seem very well fitted to carry con-
viction to the minds of unbelievers. That impression, however,
is not correct, for in reality the demonstrations of these longer
Meccan suras appear to have been peculiarly influential for the
propagation of Islam. Mahomet's mission was not to Euro-
peans, but to a people who, though quick-witted and receptive,
were not accustomed to logical thinking, while they had out-
grown their ancient religion.
When we reach the Medina period it becomes, as has been
indicated, much easier to understand the revelations in their
historical relations, since our knowledge of the history of
1 Since in Arabic also the root ;&>) signifies " to have pity," the
Arabs must have at once perceived the force of the new name.
While the foreign word Rahman is, in accordance with its origin,
everywhere in the Koran to be understood as " Merciful," there is
some doubt as to Rahim. The close connexion of the two expres-
sions, it is true, makes it probable that Mahomet only added the
adjective RaTflm to the substantive Ragman in order to strengthen
the conception. But the genuine Arab meaning of Rafyim is
" gracious," and thus, the old Mahommedan Arab papyri render this
word by <£iXdi'Spwiros.
9°4
KORAN
Mahomet in Medina is tolerably complete. In many cases the
historical occasion is perfectly clear, in others we can at least
Mediaan recognize the general situation from which they
Suras. arose, and thus approximately fix their time. There
still remains, however, a remnant, of which we can only say that
it belongs to Medina.
The style of this period bears a fairly close resemblance to
that of the latest Meccan period. It is for the most part pure
prose, enriched by occasional rhetorical embellishments. Yet
even here there are many bright and impressive passages,
especially in those sections which may be regarded as proclama-
tions to the army of the faithful. For the Moslems Mahomet
has many different messages. At one time it is a summons to do
battle for the faith; at another, a series of reflections on recently
experienced success or misfortune, or a rebuke for their weak
faith; or an exhortation to virtue, and so on. He often addresses
himself to the " doubters," some of whom vacillate between
faith and unbelief, others make a pretence of faith, while others
scarcely take the trouble even to do that. They are no con-
solidated party, but to Mahomet they are all equally vexatious,
because, as soon as danger has to be encountered, or a contribu-
tion is levied, they all alike fall away. There are frequent out-
bursts, ever increasing in bitterness, against the Jews, who were
very numerous in Medina and its neighbourhood when Mahomet
arrived. He has much less to say against the Christians, with
whom he never came closely in contact; and as for the idolaters,
there was little occasion in Medina to have many words with
them. A part of the Medina pieces consists of formal laws
belonging to the ceremonial, civil and criminal codes; or direc-
tions about certain temporary complications. The most objec-
tionable parts of the whole Koran are those which treat of
Mahomet's relations with women. The laws and regulations
were generally very concise revelations, but most of them have
been amalgamated with other pieces of similar or dissimilar
import, and are now found in very long suras.
Such is an imperfect sketch of the composition and the
internal history of the Koran, but it is probably sufficient to show
that the book is a very heterogeneous collection. If only those
passages had been preserved which had a permanent value for
the theology, the ethics, or the jurisprudence of the Moslems, a
few fragments would have been amply sufficient. Fortunately
for knowledge, respect for the sacredness of the letter has led to
the collection of all the revelations that could possibly be
collected — the " abrogating " along with the " abrogated,"
passages referring to passing circumstances as well as those of
lasting importance. Every one who takes up the book in the
proper religious frame of mind, like most of the Moslems, reads
pieces directed against long-obsolete absurd customs of Mecca
just as devoutly as the weightiest moral precepts — perhaps
even more devoutly, because he does not understand them so
well.
At the head of twenty-nine of the suras stand certain initial
letters, from which no clear sense can be obtained. Thus, before
ii. iii. xxxi. xxxii. we find jj\ (Alif Ldm Mlm), before
xl.-xlvi. ^t^- (Ha Mlm). Noldeke at one time suggested
that these initials did not belong to Mahomet's text,
but might be the monograms of possessors of codices, which, through
negligence on the part of the editors, were incorporated in the final
form of the Koran; he now deems it more probable that they are
to be traced to the Prophet himself, as Sprenger, Loth and others
suppose. One cannot indeed admit the truth of Loth's statement
that in the proper opening words of these suras wa may generally
find an allusion to the accompanying initials; but it can scarcely
be accidental that the first verse of the great majority of them (in
iii. it is the second verse) contains the word " book," ' revelation,"
or some equivalent. They usually begin with: " This is the book,"
or " Revelation (' down sending ') of the book," or something similar.
Of suras which commence in this way only a few (xviii. xxiy. xxv.
xxxix.) want the initials, while only xxix. and xxx. have the initials
and begin differently. These few exceptions may easily have pro-
ceeded from ancient corruptions; at all events they cannot neutralize
the evidence of the greater number. Mahomet seems to have meant
these letters for a mystic reference to the archetypal text in heaven.
To a man who regarded the art of writing, of which at the best he had
but a slight knowledge, as something supernatural, and who lived
amongst illiterate people, an A B C may well have seemed more
significant than to us who have been initiated into the mysteries
of this art from our childhood. The Prophet himself can hardly
have attached any particular meaning to these symbols : they served
their purpose if they conveyed an impression of solemnity and
enigmatical obscurity. In fact, the Koran admits that it contains
many things which neither can be, nor were intended to be, under-
stood (iii. 5). To regard these letters as ciphers is a precarious
hypothesis, for the simple reason that cryptography is not to be
looked for in the very infancy of Arabic writing. If they are actually
ciphers, the multiplicity of possible explanations at once precludes
the hope of a plausible interpretation. None of the efforts in this
direction, whether by Moslem scholars or by Europeans, has led
to convincing results. This remark applies even to the ingenious
conjecture of Sprenger, that the letters ^>aJUy^ (Ka/He YeAinSad)
before xix. (which treats of John and Jesus, and, according to tradi-
tion, was sent to the Christian king of Abyssinia) stand for Jesus
Nazarenus Rex Judaeorum. Sprenger arrives at this explanation by a
very artificial method ; and besides, Mahomet was not so simple as
the Moslem traditionalists, who imagined that the Abyssinians could
read a piece of the Arabic Koran. It need hardly be said that the
Moslems have from of old applied themselves with great assiduity
to the decipherment of these initials, and have sometimes found the
deepest mysteries in them. Generally, however, they are content
with the prudent conclusion that God alone knows the meaning of
these letters.
It is probable (see above) that Mahomet had already caused
revelations to be written down at Mecca, and that this began
from the moment when he felt certain that he was the trans-
mitter of the actual text of a heavenly book to mankind. It is
even true that he may at some time or another have formed the
intention of collecting these revelations. The idea of a heavenly
model would in itself have suggested such a course and, only
in an inferior degree to this, the necessity of setting a new and
uncorrupted document of the divine will over against the sacred
scriptures of the Jews and Christians, the people of the Book,
as the Koran calls them. In any case, when Mahomet died, the
separate pieces of the Koran, notwithstanding their theoretical
sacredness, existed only in scattered copies; they Trans-
were consequently in great danger of being partially mission of
or entirely destroyed. Many Moslems knew large tlleKoran-
portions by heart, but certainly no one knew the whole;
and a merely oral propagation would have left the door
open to all kinds of deliberate and inadvertent alterations. But
now, after the death of the Prophet, most of the Arabs revolted
against his successor, and had to be reduced to submission by
force. Especially sanguinary was the struggle against the pro-
phet Maslama (Mubarrad, KamU 443, 5), commonly known by
the derisive diminutive Mosailima. At that time (A.D. 633)
many of the most devoted Moslems fell, the very men who knew
most Koran pieces by heart. Omar then began to fear that the
Koran might be entirely forgotten, and he induced the Caliph
Abu Bekr to undertake the collection of all its parts. The
Caliph laid the duty on Zaid ibn Thabit, a native of Medina,
then about twenty-two years of age, who had often
acted as amanuensis to the Prophet, in whose service ^oran-
he is even said to have learned the Jewish letters.
The account of this collection of the Koran has reached^us in
several substantially identical forms, and goes back to Zaid him-
self. According to it, he collected the revelations from copies
written on flat stones, pieces of leather, ribs of palm-leaves
(not palm-leaves themselves), and such-like material, but chiefly
" from the breasts of men," i.e. from their memory. From these
he wrote a fair copy, which he gave to Abu Bekr, from whom it
came to his successor Omar, who again bequeathed it to his
daughter Hafsa, one of the widows of the Prophet. This redac-
tion, commonly called al-johof (" the leaves "), had from the
first no canonical authority; and its internal arrangement can
only be conjectured.
The Moslems were as far as ever from possessing a uniform text
of the Koran. The bravest of their warriors sometimes knew
deplorably little about it; distinction on that field they cheerfully
accorded to pious men like Ibn Mas'ud. It was inevitable, how-
ever, that discrepancies should emerge between the texts of pro-
fessed scholars, and as these men in their several localities were
authorities on the reading of the Koran, quarrels began to break
out between the levies from different districts about the true form
KORAN
905
of the sacred book. During a campaign in A.H. 30 (A.D. 650-651),
Hodhaifa, the victor in the great and decisive battle of
Nehaveand (see CALIPHATE; and PERSIA: History) perceived
that such disputes might become dangerous, and therefore
urged on the caliph Othman the necessity for a universally
othmaa's bindinS text- The matter was entrusted to Zaid,
Kor™a." ' wno nad made the former collection, with three lead-
ing Koreishites. These brought together as many
copies as they could lay their hands on, and prepared an edition
which was to be canonical for all Moslems. To prevent any
further disputes, they burned all the other codices except that of
Hafsa, which, however, was soon afterwards destroyed by Merwan
the governor of Medina. The destruction of the earlier codices
was an irreparable loss to criticism; but, for the essentially
political object of putting an end to controversies by admitting
only one form of the common book of religion and of law, this
measure was necessary.
The result of these labours is in our hands; as to how they were
conducted we have no trustworthy information, tradition being
here too much under the influence of dogmatic presuppositions.
The critical methods of a modern scientific commission will not
be expected of an age when the highest literary education for an
Arab consisted in ability to read and write. It now appears
highly probable that this second redaction took this simple form :
Zaid read off from the codex which he had previously written,
and his associates, simultaneously or successively, wrote one copy
each to his dictation. These three manuscripts will therefore be
those which the caliph, according to trustworthy tradition, sent
in the first instance as standard copies to Damascus, Basra and
Kufa to the warriors of the provinces of which these were the
capitals, while he retained one at Medina. Be that as it may, it is
impossible now to distinguish in the present form of the book
what belongs to the first redaction from what is due to the second.
In the arrangement of the separate sections, a classification
according to contents was impracticable because of the variety of
subjects often dealt with in one sura. A chronological arrange-
ment was out of the question, because the chronology of the older
pieces must have been imperfectly known, and because in some
cases passages of different dates had been joined together.
Indeed, systematic principles of this kind were altogether dis-
regarded at that period. The pieces were accordingly arranged
in indiscriminate order, the only rule observed being to place the
long suras first and the shorter towards the end, and even that
was far from strictly adhered to. The two magic formulae,
suras cxiii., cxiv. owe their position at the end of the collection
to their peculiar contents, which differ from all the other suras;
they are protecting spells for the faithful. Similarly it is by
reason of its contents that sura i. stands at the beginning; not
only because it is in praise of Allah, as Psalm i. is in praise of the
righteous man, but because it gives classical expression to im-
portant articles of the faith. These are the only special traces of
design. The combination of pieces of different origin may pro-
ceed partly from the possessors of the codices from which Zaid
compiled his first complete copy, partly from Zaid himself. The
individual suras are separated simply by the superscription:
" In the name of God, the compassionate Compassioner," which
is wanting only in the ninth. The additional headings found in
our texts (the name of the suras, the number of verses, &c.)
were not in the original codices, and form no integral part of the
Koran.
It is said that Othman directed Zaid and his associates, in
cases of disagreement, to follow the Koreish dialect; but, though
well attested, this account can scarcely be correct. The extremely
primitive writing of those days was quite incapable of rendering
such minute differences as can have existed between the pro-
nunciation of Mecca and that of Medina.
Othman's Koran was not complete. Some passages are
evidently fragmentary; and a few detached pieces are still extant
The Koran which were originally parts of the Koran, although
not com- they have been omitted by Zaid. Amongst these are
plete. some which there is no reason to suppose Mahomet
desired to suppress. Zaid may easily have overlooked a few stray
fragments, but that he purposely omitted anything which he
believed to belong to the Koran is very unlikely. It has been con-
jectured that in deference to his superiors he kept out of the book
the names of Mahomet's enemies, if they or their families came
afterwards to be respected. But it must be. remembered that it
was never Mahomet's practice to refer explicitly to contemporary
persons and affairs in the Koran. Only a single friend, his
adopted son Zaid (xxxiii. 37), and a single enemy, his uncle Abu
Lahab (cxi.) — and these for very special reasons— are mentioned
by name; and the name of the latter has been left in the Koran
with a fearful curse annexed to it, although his son had embraced
Islam before the death of Mahomet, and his descendants be-
longed to the noblest families. So, on the other hand, there is no
single verse or clause which can be plausibly made out to be an
interpolation by Zaid at the instance of Abu Bekr, Omar, or
Othman. Slight clerical errors there may have been, but the
Koran of Othman contains none but genuine elements — though
sometimes in very strange order. Ah1 efforts of European scholars
to prove the existence of later interpolations in the Koran have
failed.
Of the four exemplars of Othman's Koran, one was kept in
Medina, and one was sent to each of the three metropolitan cities,
Kufa, Basra, and Damascus. It can still be pretty clearly shown
in detail that these four codices deviated from one another in
points of orthography, in the insertion or omission of a wa ("and")
and such-like minutiae; but these variations nowhere affect the
sense. All later manuscripts are derived from these four originals.
At the same time, the other forms of the Koran did not at
once become extinct. In particular we have some information
about the codex of Ubay ibn Ka'b. If the list which
gives the order of its suras is correct, it must have Editions.
contained substantially the same materials as our
text; in that case Ubay ibn Ka'b must have used the original
collection of Zaid. The same is true of the codex of Ibn Mas'ud,
of which we have also a catalogue. It appears that the principle
of putting the longer suras before the shorter was more con-
sistently carried out by him than by Zaid. He omits i. and the
magical formulae of cxiii., cxiv. Ubay, on the other hand, had
embodied two additional short prayers, which we may regard
as Mahomet's. One can easily understand that differences of
opinion may have existed as to whether and how far formularies
of this kind belonged to the Koran. Some of the divergent
readings of both these texts have been preserved as well as a
considerable number of other ancient variants. Most of them
are decidedly inferior to the received readings, but some are quite
as good, and a few deserve preference.
The only man who appears to have seriously opposed the
general introduction of Othman's text is Ibn Mas'ud. He was
one of the oldest disciples of the Prophet, and had often rendered
him personal service; but he was a man of contracted
views, although he is one of the pillars of Moslem
theology. His opposition had no effect. Now when
we consider that at that time there were many Moslems who had
heard the Koran from the mouth of the Prophet, that other
measures of the imbecile Othman met with the most vehement
resistance on the part of the bigoted champions of the faith,
that these were still further incited against him by some of his
ambitious old comrades until at last they murdered him, and
finally that in the civil wars after his death the several parties
were glad of any pretext for branding their opponents as infidels;
— when we consider all this, we must regard it as a strong
testimony in favour of Othman's Koran that no party found
fault with his conduct in this matter, or repudiated the text
formed by Zaid, who was one of the most devoted adherents
of Othman and his family, and that even among theShiites
criticism of the caliph's action is only met with as a rare
exception.
But this redaction is not the close of the textual history of the
Koran. The ancient Arabic alphabet was very imperfect; it not
only wanted marks for the short and in part even for the long
vowels, but it often expressed several consonants by the same sign,
e.g. one and the same character could mean B, T, Th at the begin-
ning and N and J (I) in the middle of words. Hence there were
KORAT
many words which could be read in very different ways. This
variety of possible readings was at first very great, and many
readers seem to have actually made it their object to
discover pronunciations which were new, provided they
llstoryof were at an appr0priate to the ambiguous text. There
"x ' was also a dialectic licence in grammatical forms, which
had not as yet been greatly restricted. An effort was made by many
to establish a more refined pronunciation for the Koran than was
usual in common life or in secular literature. The various schools
of " readers " differed very widely from one another; although for
the most part there was no important divergence as to the sense of
words. A few of them gradually rose to special authority, and the
rest disappeared. Seven readers are generally reckoned chief
authorities, but for practical purposes this number was continually
reduced in process of time; so that at present only two " reading-
styles " are in actual use, — the common style of Hafs, and that of
Nafi'; which prevails in Africa to the west of Egypt. There is,
however, a very comprehensive massoretic literature in which a
number of other styles are indicated. The invention of vowel-signs
of diacritic points to distinguish similarly formed consonants, and
of other orthographic signs, soon put a stop to arbitrary conjectures
on the part of the readers. Many zealots objected to the introduc-
tion of these innovations in the sacred text, but theological consis-
tency had to yield to practical necessity. In accurate codices,
indeed, all such additions, as well as the titles of the sura, &c., are
written in coloured ink, while the black characters profess to repre-
sent exactly the original of Othman. But there is probably no copy
quite faithful in this respect. Moreover, the right recitation of the
Koran is an art which even people of Arab tongue can only learn with
great difficulty. In addition to the nuances of pronunciation already
alluded to, there is a semi-musical modulation. In these matters
also the various schools differ.
In European libraries, besides innumerable modern manuscripts of
the Koran, there are also codices, or fragments, of high antiquity,
some of them probably dating from the 1st century of
the Flight. For the restoration of the text, however,
icrlpts. tjie worjjs Of ancient scholars on its readings and modes
of writing are more important than the manuscripts; which, however
elegantly they may be written and ornamented, proceed from irre-
sponsible copyists. The original, written by Othman himself, has
indeed been exhibited in various parts of the Mahommedan world.
The library of the India Office contains one such manuscript,
bearing the subscription: " Written by 'Othman the son of "Affan."
These, of course, are barefaced forgeries, although of very ancient
date; so are those which profess to be from the hand of 'All, one of
which is preserved in the same library. In recent times the Koran
has been often printed and lithographed, both in the East and the
West. In Mahommedan countries lithography alone is employed.
Shortly after Mahomet's death certain individuals applied them-
selves to the exposition of the Koran. Much of it was obscure from
the beginning, other sections were unintelligible apart
Commea- from a knowledge of the circumstances of their origin.
tator*. Unfortunately, those who took possession of this field
were not very honourable. Ibn "Abbas, a cousin of Mahomet, and
thechief source of the traditional exegesis of the Koran, has.on theolo-
gical and other grounds, given currency to a number of falsehoods;
and at least some of his pupils have emulated his example. These
earliest expositions dealt more with the sense and connexion of whole
verses than with the separate words. Afterwards, as the knowledge
of the old language declined, and the study of philology arose, more
attention began to be paid to the explanation of vocables. A good
many fragments of this older theological and philological exegesis
have survived from the first two centuries of the Flight, although
we have no complete commentary of this period. The great com-
mentary of Tabari, A. p. 830-923, of which for the last few years we
have possessed an Oriental edition in 30 parts (Cairo A.H. 1321 =
A.D. 1903), is very full when it comes to speak of canonical law,
as well as in its accounts of the occasions of the several revelations;
for, as in his great historical work, he faithfully recordsa large number
of traditions with the channels by which they have come down to
us (genealogical trees, isndd). In other respects the hopes based
upon this commentary have not been fulfilled.
Another very famous commentary is that of Zamakhsharf (A.D.
1075-1144), edited by Nassau-Lees, Calcutta, 1859; but this scholar,
with his great insight and still greater subtlety, is too apt to read his
own scholastic ideas into the Koran. The favourite commentary
of Baidawi (d. A.D. 1286), edited by Fleischer (Leipzig, 1846-1848),
is little more than an abridgment of Zamakhshari's. Thousands of
commentaries on the Koran, some of them of prodigious size, have
been written by Moslems; and even the number of those still extant
in manuscript is by no means small. Although these works all con-
tain much that is useless or false, yet they are invaluable aids to
our understanding of the sacred book. An unbiased European can,
no doubt, see many things at a glance more clearly than a good
Moslem who is under the influence of religious prejudice; but we
should still be helpless without the exegetical literature of the
Mahommedans. Even the Arabian Moslems would only understand
the Koran very dimly and imperfectly if they did not give special
attention to the study of its interpretation. The advantage of being
in a language commonly understood, which the holy book claims for
itself, has vanished in the course of thirteen centuries. According
to the dominant view, however, the ritual use of the Koran is not in
the least concerned with the sacred words being understood, but
solely with their being quite properly recited. Nevertheless, a great
deal remains to be accomplished by European scholarship for the
correct interpretation of the Koran. We want, for example, an
exhaustive classification and discussion of all the Jewish elements
in the Koran ; a praiseworthy beginning was made in Geiger's youth-
ful essay Was hat Mohamed aus dent Judenthum aufgenpmmen ?
(Bonn, 1833; the " second revised edition," Leipzig, 1902, is only a
reprint). We want especially a thorough commentary, executed
with the methods and resources of modern science. No
European language, it would seem, can even boast of a //"
translation which completely satisfies modern require- latlons.
ments. The best are in English; where we have the extremely
paraphrastic, but for its time admirable translation of George Sale
(repeatedly printed), that of Rodwell (1861), which seeks to give
the pieces in chronological order, and that of Palmer (1880), who
wisely follows the traditional arrangements. The introduction
which accompanies Palmer's translation is not in all respects
abreast of the most recent scholarship. Considerable extracts
from the Koran are well translated in E. W. Lane's Selections
from the Kur-an. Not much can be said in praise of the com-
plete translations into the German language, neither of that of
Ullmann, which has appeared in several editions, nor of that of
Henning (Leipzig) and Grigull (Halle), all of them shallow amateurs
who have no notion of the difficulties to be met with in the task, and
are almost entirely dependent on Sale. Friedrich Riickert's excel-
lent version (published by August Miiller, Frankfort-on-Maine,
1888) gives only selections. M. Klamroth's translation of the fifty
oldest suras, Die fiinfzig altesten Suren (Hamburg, 1890) attempts
successfully to reproduce the rhymed form of the originals. The
publication of the translation of the Koran by the great Leipzig
Arabic scholar, H. L. Fleischer (d. 1888) has so far unfortunately
been delayed. (For modern editions, commentaries, &c., see
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION: Bibliography).
Besides commentaries on the whole Koran, or on special parts
and topics, the Moslems possess a whole literature bearing on their
sacred book. There are works on the spelling and right pronun-
ciation of the Koran, works on the beauty of its language, on the
number of its verses, words and letters, &c. ; nay, there are even
works which would nowadays be called " historical and critical
introductions." Moreover, the origin of Arabic philology is inti-
mately connected with the recitation and exegesis of the Koran.
To exhibit the importance of the sacred book for the whole mental
life of the Moslems would be simply to write the history of that
life itself; for there is no department in which its all-pervading,
but unfortunately not always salutary, influence has not been felt.
The unbounded reverence of the Moslems for the Koran reaches
its climax in the dogma that this book, as the divine word, i.e.
thought, is immanent in God, and consequently eternal
and uncreated. This dogma, which was doubtless due 7 'er""y
to the influence of the Christian doctrine of the eternal
Word of God, has been accepted by almost all Mahommedans since
the beginning of the 3rd century. Some theologians did indeed
protest against it with great energy; it was in fact too pre-
posterous to declare that a book composed of unstable words and
letters, and full of variants, was absolutely divine. But what
were the distinctions and sophisms of the theologians for, if they
coulfl not remove such contradictions, and convict their opponents
of heresy?
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The following works may be especially con-
sulted: Weil, Einleitung in den Koran (2nd cd., 1878) ; Th. Noldeke,
Geschichte des Qoran's (Gottingen, 1860; 2nd ed. by Friedrich
Schwally, 1908) ; the Lives of Mahomet by William Muir and Aloys
Sprenger (vols. i.-iii., Berlin, 1861-1865; 2nd ed., 1869); C. Snouck
Hurgronje, Ilet mekkaansche Feest (Leiden, 1880), De Islam (de Gids,
1886, ii. 257-273, 454-498, iii. 90-134; " Une nouvclle biographic de
Mohammed," Revue de I'histoire des religions, tome 29, p. 48 f.,
149 sqq.; Leone Caetani./lnno/j dell'Islam,i. (Milan, 1905), ii. (Milan,
1907) ; Frants Buhl, Muhammeds Liv (Copenhagen, 1903).
(TH. N.;FR. SY.)
KORAT, the capital of the provincial division (Monton) of
Nakawn Racha Sema, or " the frontier country," in Siam; in
102° 5' E., 14° 59' N. Pop. about 7000, mixed Cambodian and
Siamese. It is the headquarters of a high commissioner and of
an army division. It is the terminus of a railway from Bangkok,
170 m. distant, and the distributing centre for the whole of the
plateau district which forms the eastern part of Siam. There
are copper mines of reputed wealth in the neighbourhood. It
is the centre of a silk-growing district and is the headquarters
of the government sericultural department, instituted in 1904
with the assistance of Japanese experts for the purpose of im-
proving the quality of Siamese silk. The government is that of
an ordinary provincial division of Siam. A French vice-consul
resides here. Since the founding of Ayuthia in the I4th century,
KORDOFAN
907
Korat has been tributary to. or part of, Siam, with occasional
lapses into independence or temporary subjection to Cambodia.
Before that period it was probably part of Cambodia, as appears
from the nature of the ruins still to be seen in its neighbour-
hood. In 1896 the last vestige of its tributary condition
vanished with the introduction of the present system of Siamese
rural administration.
KORDOFAN, a country of north-east Africa, forming a
mudiria (province) of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It lies
mainly between 12° and 16° W. and 29° and 325° E., and has
an area of about 130,000 sq. m., being bounded W. by Darfur,
N. by the Bayuda steppes, E. by the White Nile mudiria and
S. by the country of the Shilluks and other negro tribes, forming
part of the Upper Nile mudiria.
The greater part of Kordofan consists of undulating plains,
riverless, barren, monotonous, with an average altitude of
1500 ft. Thickets and small acacias dot the steppes, which,
green during the kharif or rainy season, at other times present
a dull brown burnt-up aspect. In the west, isolated peaks,
such as Jebel Abu Senum and Jebel Kordofan, rise from 150
to 600 ft. above the plain. North-west are the mountain
groups of Kaja and Katul (2000 to 3000 ft.), in the east are
the Jebel Daier and Jebel Tagale (Togale), ragged granitic
ranges with precipitous sides. In the south are flat, fertile
and thickly wooded plains, which give place to jungle at the
foot of the hills of Dar Nuba, the district forming the south-
east part of Kordofan. Dar Nuba is well-watered, the scenery
is diversified and pretty, affording a welcome contrast to that
of the rest of the country. Some of the Nuba hills exceed
3000 ft. in height. The south-western part of the country, a
vast and almost level plain, is known as Dar Homr. A granitic
sand with abundance of mica and feldspar forms the upper
stratum throughout the greater part of Kordofan; but an
admixture of clay, which is observable in the north, becomes
strongly marked in the south, where there are also stretches
of black vegetable mould. Beneath there appears to be an
unbroken surface of mica schist. Though there are no perennial
rivers, there are watercourses (khors or wadis) in the rainy season;
the chief being the Khor Abu Habl, which traverses the south-
central region. In Dar Homr the Wadi el Ghalla and the Khor
Shalango drain towards the Homr affluent of the Bahr el Ghazal.
During the rainy season there is a considerable body of water in
these channels, but owing partly to rapid evaporation and partly
to the porous character of the soil the surface of the country dries
rapidly. The water which has found its way through the
granitic sand flows over the surface of the mica schist and
settles in the hollows, and by sinking wells to the solid rock a
supply of water can generally be obtained. It is estimated that
(apart from those in a few areas where the sand stratum is thin
and water is reached at the depth of a few feet) there are about
900 of these wells. They are narrow shafts going down usually
30 to 50 ft., but some are over 200 ft. deep. The water is raised
by rope and bucket at the cost of enormous labour, and in few
cases is any available for irrigation. The very cattle are trained
to go a long time without drinking. Entire villages migrate
after the harvest to the neighbourhood of some plentiful well.
In a few localities the surface depressions hold water for the
greater part of the year but there is only one permanent lake —
Keilat, which is some four miles by two. As there is no highland
area draining into Kordofan, the underground reservoirs are
dependent on the local rainfall, and a large number of the wells
are dry during many months. The rainy season lasts from mid-
June to the end of September, rain usually falling every three
or four days in brief but violent showers. In general the climate
is healthy except in the rainy season, when large tracts are
converted into swamps and fever is very prevalent. In the
shita or cold weather (October to February inclusive) there is a
cold wind from the north. The self or hot weather lasts from
March to mid- June; the temperature rarely exceeds 105° F.
The chief constituent of the low scrub which covers the northern
part of the country is the grey gum acacia (hashob). In the south
the red gum acacias (talk) are abundant. In Dar Hamid, in the
N.W. of Kordofan, date, dom and other palms grow. The basbab
or calabash tree, known in the eastern Sudan as the tebeldi and
locally Homr, is fairly common and being naturally hollow the trees
collect water, which the natives regularly tap. Another common
source of water supply is a small kind of water melon which grows
wild and is also cultivated. In the dense jungles of the south are
immense creepers, some of them rubber-vines. The cotton plant
is also found. The fauna includes the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo,
giraffe, lion, leopard, cheetah, roan-antelope, hartebeeste, kudu and
many other kinds of antelope, wart-hog, hares, quail, partridge,
jungle-fowl, bustard and guinea-fowl. Nearly all the kinds of
game mentioned are found chiefly in the western and southern
districts. The ril or addra gazelle found in N. and N.W. Kordo-
fan are not known elsewhere in the eastern Sudan. Reptiles,
sand-flies and mosquitoes are common. Ostriches are found in the
northern steppes. The chief wealth of the people consists in the
gum obtained from the grey acacias, in oxen, camels and ostrich
feathers. The finest cattle are of the humped variety, the bulls of
the Baggara being trained to the saddle and to carry burdens.
There are large herds of camel, the camel-owning Arabs usually
owning also large numbers of sheep and goats. Dukhn, a species
of millet which can grow in the and northern districts is there the
chief grain crop, its place in the south being taken by durra. Dukhn
is, however, the only crop cultivated in Dar Homr. From this
grain a beer called merissa is brewed. Barley and cotton are culti-
vated in some districts. A little gold dust is obtained, but the old
gold and other mines in the Tagale country have been, apparently,
worked out. Iron is found in many districts and is smelted in a
few places. In the absence of fuel the industry is necessarily a small
one. There are large beds of hematite some 60 m. N.W. and the
same distance N.E. of El Obeid.
Inhabitants. — The population of Kordofan was officially
estimated in 1903 to be 550,000. The inhabitants are roughly
divisible into two types — Arabs in the plains and Nubas in the
hills. Many of the villagers of the plains are however of very
mixed blood — Arab, Egyptian, Turkish, Levantine and Negro.
It is said that some village communities are descended from the
original negro inhabitants. They all speak Arabic. The most
important village tribe is the Gowama, who own most of the
gum-producing country. Other large tribes are the Dar Hamid
and the Bederia — the last-named living round El Obeid. The
nomad Arabs are of two classes, camel owners (Siat El Ilbil) and
cattle owners (Baggara), the first-named dwelling in the dry
northern regions, the Baggara in southern Kordofan. Of the
camel-owning tribes the chief are the Hamar and the Kabba-
bish. Many of the Hamar have settled down in villages. The
Baggara are great hunters, and formerly were noted slave
raiders. They possess many horses, but when journeying
place their baggage on their oxen. They use a stabbing spear,
small throwing spears, and a broad-bladed short sword. Some
of the richer men possess suits of chain armour. The principal
Baggara tribes are the Hawazma, Meseria, Kenana, Habbania,
and Homr. The Homr are said to have entered Kordofan
from Wadai about the end of the i8th century and to have
come from North Africa. They speak a purer Arabic than the
riverain tribes. The Nubas are split into many tribes, each
under a mek or king, who is not uncommonly of Arab descent.
The Nubas have their own language, though the inhabitants of
each hill have usually a different dialect. They are a primitive
race, very black, of small build but distinctive negro features.
They have feuds with one another and with the Baggara. During
the mahdia they maintained their independence. The Nubas
appear to have been the aboriginal inhabitants of the country
and are believed to be the original stock of the Nubians of the
Nile Valley (see NUBIA). In the northern hills are communities
of black people with woolly hair but of non-negro features.
They speak Arabic -and are called Nuba Arabs. Some of the
southern hills are occupied by Arab-speaking negroes, escaped
slaves and their descendants, who called themselves after the
tribe they formerly served and who have little intercourse with
the Nubas.
The capital, El Obeid (q.v.), is centrally situated. On it
converge various trade routes, notably from Darfur and from
Dueim. a town on the White Nile 125 m. above Khartum,
which served as port for the province. Thence was despatched
the gum for the Omdurman market. But the railway from
Khartum to El Obeid, via Sennar, built in 1909-1911, crosses
the Nile some 60 m. farther south above Abba Island. Nahud
9o8
KOREA
(pop. about 10,000), 165 m. W.S.W. of El Obeid, is a commercial
centre which has sprung into importance since the fall of the
dervishes. All the trade with Darfur passes through the town,
the chief commerce' being in cattle, feathers, ivory and cotton
goods. Trade is largely in the hands of Greeks, Syrians, Danagla
and Jaalin. Taiara, on the route between El Obeid and the Nile,
was destroyed by the dervishes but has been rebuilt and is a
thriving mart for the gum trade.. El Odoaiya or Eddaiya is the
headquarters of the Homr country. It and Baraka in the
Muglad district are on the trade road between Nahud and
Shakka in Darfur.
Bara is a small town some 50 m. N.N.E. of Obeid. Talodi
and Tendek are government stations in the Nuba country.
The Nubas have no large towns. They live in villages on the
hillsides or summits. The usual habitation built both by Arabs
and Nubas is the tukl, a conical-shaped hut made of stone, mud,
wattle and daub or straw. The Nuba tukls are the better built.
In the chief towns houses are built of mud bricks with flat roofs.
History. — Of the early history of Kordofan there is little
record. It never formed an independent state. About the
beginning of the i6th century Funj from Sennar settled in the
country; towards the end of that century Kordofan was con-
quered by Suleiman Solon, sultan of Darfur. About 1775 it
was conquered by the Funj, and there followed a considerable
immigration of Arab tribes into the country. The Sennari
however suffered a decisive defeat in 1784 and thereafter under
Darfur viceroys the country enjoyed prosperity. In 1821
Kordofan was conquered by Mahommed Bey the defterdar,
son-in-law of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt. It rsmained under
Egyptian rule till 1882 when Mahommed Ahmed, the mahdi,
raised the country to revolt. It was in Kordofan that Hicks
Pasha and his army, sent to crush the revolt, were annihilated
(Nov. 1883). The Baggara of Kordofan from that time onward
were the chief supporters of the mahdi, and his successor, the
khalifa Abdullah, was a Baggara. In Kordofan in 1899 the
khalifa met his death, the country having already passed into
the hands of the new Sudan government. The chief difficulty
experienced by the administration was to habituate the Arabs
and Nubas, both naturally warlike, to a- state of peace. In
consequence of the anti-slave raiding measures adopted, the
Arabs of Talodi in May 1906 treacherously massacred the
mamur of that place and 40 men of the Sudanese regiment.
The promptness with which this disturbance was suppressed
averted what otherwise might have been a serious rising. (See
SUDAN: Anglo-Egyptian, § " History.")
See The A nglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London,
1905) ; H. A. MacMichael, Notes on the History of Kordofan before the
Egyptian Conquest (Cairo, 1907) ; John Petherick, Egypt, the Sudan,
and Central Africa (London, 1861); Ignaz Pallme, Beschreibung von
Kordofan (Stuttgart, 1843; trans. Travels in Kordofan, London,
1844); Major H. G. Prout, General Report on Province of Kordofan
(Cairo, 1877); Ernst Marno, Reise in der egypt. Equal. Provinz
(Vienna, 1879); papers (with maps) by Capt. W. Lloyd in the Geog.
Journ. (June 1907 and March 1910); and the bibliography given
under SUDAN: Anglo-Egyptian.
KOREA, or COREA (CH'AO HSIEN, DAI HAN). Its mainland
portion consists of a peninsula stretching southwards from
Manchuria, with an estimated length of about 600 m., an ex-
treme breadth of 135 m., and a coast-line of 1740 m. It extends
from 34° 18' to 43° N., and from 124° 36' to 130° 47' E. Its
northern boundary is marked by the Tumen and Yalu rivers;
the eastern boundary by the Sea of Japan; the southern
boundary by Korea Strait; and the western boundary by the
Yalu and the Yellow Sea. For n m. along the Tumen river
the north frontier is conterminous with Russia (Siberia);
otherwise Korea has China (Manchuria) on its land frontier.
Nearly the whole surface of the country is mountainous. (For
map, see JAPAN.)
The south and west coasts are fringed by about 200 islands
(exclusive of islets), two-thirds of which are inhabited; 100 of
them are from 100 to 2000 ft. in height, and many consist of bold
bare masses of volcanic rock. The most important are Quelpart
and the Nan Hau group. The latter, 36 m. from the eastern
end of Quelpart, possesses the deep, well-sheltered and roomy
harbour of Port Hamilton, which lies between the north points
of the large and well-cultivated islands of Sun-ho-dan and So-
dan, which have a population of 2000. Aitan, between their
south-east points, completes this noble harbour. The east coast
of Korea is steep and rock-bound, with deep water and a tidal rise
and fall of i to 2 ft. The west coast is often low and shelving,
and abounds in mud-banks, and the tidal rise and fall is from
20 to 36 ft. Korean harbours, except two or three which are
closed by drift ice for some weeks in winter, are ice-free. Among
them are Port Shestakov, Port Lazarev, and Won-san (Gensan),
in Broughton Bay;1 Fusan, Ma-san-po, at the mouth of the
Nak-tong, on the south coast; Mok-po, Chin-nampo, near the
mouth of the Tai-dong; and Chemulpo, near the mouth of the
Han, the port of the capital and the sea terminus of the first
Korean railway on the west coast.
Korea is distinctly mountainous, and has no plains deserving
the name. In the north there are mountain groups with definite
centres, the most notable being Paik-tu San or Psi-shan (8700 ft.)
which contains the sources of the Yalu and Tumen. From these
groups a lofty range runs southwards, dividing the empire into
two unequal parts. On its east, between it and the coast, which
it follows at a moderate distance, is a fertile strip difficult of
access, and on the west it throws off so many lateral ranges and
spurs as to break up the country into a chaos of corrugated
and precipitous hills and steep-sided valleys, each with a rapid
perennial stream. Farther south this axial range, which in-
cludes the Diamond Mountain group, falls away towards the sea
in treeless spurs and small and often infertile levels. The
northern groups and the Diamond Mountain are heavily
timbered, but the hills are covered mainly with coarse, sour grass
and oak and chestnut scrub. The rivers are shallow and rocky,
and are usually only navigable for a few miles from the sea.
Among the exceptions are the Yalu (Amnok), Tumen, Tai-dong,
Naktong, Mok-po, and Han. The last, rising in Kang-won-do,
30 m. from the east coast, cuts Korea nearly in half, reaching the
sea on the west coast near Chemulpo; and, in spite of many serious
rapids, is a valuable highway for commerce for over 150 miles.
Geology. — The geology of Korea is very imperfectly known.
Crystalline schists occupy a large part of the country, forming all
the higher mountain ranges. They are always strongly folded and
it is in them that the mineral wealth of Korea is situated. Towards
the Manchurian frontier they are covered unconforroably by some
1600 ft. of sandstones, clay-slates and limestones, which contain
Cambrian fossils and are the equivalents of a part of the Sinian
system of China. Carboniferous beds, consisting chiefly of slates,
sandstones and conglomerates, are found in the south-eastern
provinces. They contain a few seams of coal, but the most impor-
tant coal-bearing deposits of the country belong to the Tertiary
period. Recent eruptive and volcanic rocks are met with in the
interior of Korea and also in the island of Quelpart. The principal
mountain in the latter, Hal-la-san (or Mount Auckland), according
to Chinese stories, was in eruption in the year 1007. With this
possible exception there are no active volcanoes in Korea, and the
region has also been remarkably free from earthquakes throughout
historic times.
Climate. — The climate is superb for nine months of the year, and
the three months of rain, heat and damp are not injurious to health.
Koreans suffer from malaria, but Europeans and their children are
fairly free from climatic maladies, and enjoy robust health. The
summer mean temperature of Seoul is about 75° F., that of winter
about 33°; the average rainfall, 36-3 in. in the year, and of the rainy
season 21-86 in. The rains come in July and August on the west
and north-east coasts, and from April to July on the south coast,
the approximate mean annual rainfall of these localities being 30,
35 and 42 in. respectively. These averages are based on the
observations of seven years only.
Flora. — The plants and animals await study and classification.
Among the indigenous trees are the Abies excelsa, Abies micro-
sperma, Pinus sinensis, Pinus pinea, three species of oak, five of
maple, lime, birch, juniper, mountain ash, walnut, Spanish chestnut,
hazel, willow, hornbeam, hawthorn, plum, pear, peach, Rhus verni-
cifera, (f)Rhus semipinnata, Acanthopanax ncinifolia, Zelkawa, Thuja
orientalis, Elaeagnus, Sophora Japonica, &c. Azaleas and rhodo-
dendrons are widely distributed, as well as other flowering shrubs
and creepers, Ampelopsis Veitchii being universal. Liliaceous plants
1 Named after William Robert Broughton (1762-1821), an English
navigator who explored these seas in 1795-1798.
KOREA
909
and cruciferae are numerous. The native fruits, except walnuts and
chestnuts, are worthless. The persimmon attains perfection,
and experiment has proved the suitability of the climate to many
foreign fruits. The indigenous economic plants are few, and are
of no commercial value, excepting wild ginseng, bamboo, which is
applied to countless uses, and " tak-pul " (Hibiscus Manihot), used
in the manufacture of paper.
Fauna. — The tiger takes the first place among wild animals. He
is of great size, his skin is magnificent, and he is so widely distributed
as to be a peril to man and beast. Tiger-hunting is a profession
with special privileges. Leopards are numerous, and have even
been shot within the walls of Seoul. There are deer (at least five
species), boars, bears, antelopes, beavers, otters, badgers, tiger-cats,
marten, an inferior sable, striped squirrels, &c. Among birds there
are black eagles, peregrines (largely used in hawking), and, specially
protected by law, turkey bustards, three varieties of pheasants,
swans, geese, common and spectacled teal, mallards, mandarin ducks
white and pink ibis, cranes, storks, egrets, herons, curlews, pigeons,
doves, nightjars, icpmmon and blue magpies, rooks, crows, orioles,
halcyon and blue kingfishers, jays, nut-hatches, redstarts, snipe, grey
shrikes, hawks, kites, &c. But, pending further observations, it is
not possible to say which of the smaller birds actually breed in Korea
and which only make it a halting-place in their annual migrations.
Area and Population. — The estimated area is 82,000 sq. m. —
somewhat under that of Great Britain. The first complete
census was taken in 1897, and returned the population in round
numbers at 17,000,000, females being in the majority. It was
subsequently, however, estimated at a maximum of 12,000,000.
There is a foreign population of about 65,000, of whom 60,000
are Japanese. It is estimated that little more than half the
arable land is under cultivation, and that the soil could support
an additional 7,000,000. The native population is absolutely
homogeneous. Northern Korea, with its severe climate, is thinly
peopled, while the rich and warm provinces of the south and west
are populous. A large majority of the people are engaged in
agriculture. There is little emigration, except into Russian
and Chinese territory, but some Koreans have emigrated to
Hawaii and Mexico.
The capital is the inland city of Seoul, with a population of
nearly 200,000. Among other towns, Songdo (Kaisong), the
capital from about 910 to 1392, is a walled city of the first rank,
25 m. N.W. of Seoul, with a population of 60,000. It possesses
the stately remains of the palace of the Korean kings of the
Wang dynasty, is a great centre of the grain trade and the sole
centre of the ginseng manufacture, makes wooden shoes, coarse
pottery and fine matting, and manufactures with sesamum oil
the stout oiled paper for which Korea is famous. Phyong-yang,
a city on the Tai-dong, had a population of 60,000 before the war
of 1894, in which it was nearly destroyed; but it fast regained
its population. It lies on rocky heights above a region of stoneless
alluvium on the east, and with the largest and richest plain in
Korea on the west. It has five coal-mines within ten miles, and
the district is rich in iron, silk, cotton, and grain. It has easy
communication with the sea (its port being Chin-nampo), and
is important historically and commercially. Auriferous quartz
is worked by a foreign company in its neighbourhood. Near
the city is the illustrated standard of land measurement cut by
Ki-tze in 1 1 24 B.C.
With the exceptions of Kang-hwa, Chong-ju, Tung-nai,
Fusan, and Won-san, it is very doubtful if any other Korean
towns reach a population of 15,000. The provincial capitals
and many other cities are walled. Most of the larger towns are
in the warm and fertile southern provinces. One is very much
like another, and nearly aU their streets are replicas of the better
alleys of Seoul. The actual antiquities of Korea are dolmens,
sepulchral pottery, and Korean and Japanese fortifications.
Race.— The origin of the Korean people is unknown. They are
of the Mongol family; their language belongs to the so-called
Turanian group, is polysyllabic, possesses an alphabet of n
vowels and 14 consonants, and a script named En-mun. Lite-
rature of the higher class and official and upper class corre-
spondence are exclusively in Chinese characters, but since 1895
official documents have contained an admixture of En-mun.
The Koreans are distinct from both Chinese and Japanese in
physiognomy, though dark straight hair, dark oblique eyes,
and a tinge of bronze in the skin are always present. The
cheek-bones are high; the nose inclined to flatness; the mouth
thin-lipped and refined among patricians, and wide and full-
lipped among plebeians; the ears are small, and the brow fairly
well developed. The expression indicates quick intelligence
rather than force and mental calibre. The male height averages
5 ft. 4^ in. The hands and feet are small and well-formed.
The physique is good, and porters carry on journeys from
zoo to 200 tb. Men marry at from 18 to 20 years, girls at 16,
and have large families, in which a strumous taint is nearly
universal. Women are secluded and occupy a very inferior
position. The Koreans are rigid monogamists, but concubinage
has a recognized status.
Production and Industries, i. Minerals. — Extensive coal-
fields, producing coal of fair quality, as yet undeveloped, occur
in Hwang-hai Do and elsewhere. Iron is abundant, especially
in Phyong-an Do, and rich copper ore, silver and galena are
found. Crystal is a noted product of Korea, and talc of good
quality is also present. In 1885 the rudest process of " placer "
washing produced an export of gold dust amounting to £120,000;
quartz-mining methods were subsequently introduced, and the
annual declared value of gold produced rose to about £450,000;
but much is believed to have been sent out of the country
clandestinely. The reefs were left untouched till 1897, when
an American company, which had obtained a concession hi
Phyong-an Do in 1895, introduced the latest mining appliances,
and raised the declared export of 1898 to £240,047, believed to
represent a yield for that year of £600,000. Russian, German,
English, French and Japanese applicants subsequently obtained
concessions. The concessionaires regard Korean labour as docile
and intelligent. The privilege of owning mines in Korea was
extended to aliens under the Mining Regulations of 1906.
ii. Agriculture.- — Korean soil consists largely of light sandy
loam, disintegrated lava, and rich, stoneless alluvium, from 3 to
10 ft. deep. The rainfall is abundant during the necessitous
months of the year, facilities for the irrigation of the rice crop
are ample, and drought and floods are seldom known. Land is
held from the proprietors on the terms of receiving seed from
them and returning half the produce, the landlord paying the
taxes. Any Korean can become a landowner by reclaiming
and cultivating unoccupied crown land for three years free of
taxation, after which he pays taxes annually. Good land
produces two crops a year. The implements used are two
makes of iron-shod wooden ploughs; a large shovel, worked by
three or five men, one working the handle, the others jerking
the blade by ropes attached to it; a short sharp-pointed hoe,
a bamboo rake, and a wooden barrow, all of rude construction.
Rice is threshed by beating the ears on a log; other grains, with
flails on mud threshing-floors. Winnowing is performed by
throwing up the grain on windy days. Rice is hulled and grain
coarsely ground in stone querns or by water pestles. There
are provincial horse-breeding stations, where pony stallions,
from 10 to 12 hands high, are bred for carrying burdens. Mag-
nificent red bulls are bred by the farmers for ploughing and
other farming operations, and for the transport of goods. Sheep
and goats are bred on the imperial farms, but only for sacrifice.
Small, hairy, black pigs, and fowls, are universal. The culti-
vation does not compare in neatness and thoroughness with
that of China and Japan. There are no trustworthy estimates
of the yield of any given measurement of land. The farmers
put the average yield of rice at thirty-fold, and of other grain
at twenty-fold. Korea produces all cereals and root crops
except the tropical, along with cotton, tobacco, a species of the
Rhea plant used for making grass-cloth, and the Brousonettia
papyri/era. The articles chiefly cultivated are rice, millet,
beans, ginseng (at Songdo), cotton, hemp, oil-seeds, bearded
wheat, oats, barley, sorghum, and sweet and Irish potatoes.
Korean agriculture suffers from infamous roads, the want of
the exchange of seed, and the insecurity of the gains of labour.
It occupies about three-fourths of the population.
iii. Other Industries. — The industries of Korea, apart from
supplying the actual necessaries of a poor population, are few
and rarely collective. They consist chiefly in the manufacture
KOREA
of sea-salt, of varied and admirable paper, thin and poor silk,
horse-hair crinoline for hats, fine split bamboo blinds, hats and
mats, coarse pottery, hemp cloth for mourners, brass bowls
and grass-cloth. Won-san and Fusan are large fishing centres,
and salt fish and fish manure are important exports; but the
prolific fishing-grounds are worked chiefly by Japanese labour
and capital. Paper and ginseng are the only manufactured
articles on the list of Korean exports. The arts are nil.
Commerce. — A commercial treaty was concluded with Japan
in 1876, and treaties with the European countries and the
United States of America were concluded subsequently. An
imperial edict of the 2oth of May 1904 annulled all Korean
treaties with Russia. After the opening of certain Korean ports
to foreign trade, the customs were placed under the management
of European commissioners nominated by Sir Robert Hart from
Peking. The ports and other towns open are Seoul, Chemulpo,
Fusan, Won-san, Chin-nampo, Mok-po, Kun-san, Ma-san-po,
Song-chin, Wiju, Yong-ampo, and Phyong-yang. The value
of foreign trade of the open ports has fluctuated considerably,
but has shown a tendency to increase on the whole. For
example, in 1884 imports were valued at £170,113 and exports
at £95,377. By 1890 imports had risen to £790,261, and there-
after fluctuated greatly, standing at only £473,598 in 1893, but
at £1,017,238 in 1897, and £1,382,352 in 1901, but under ab-
normal conditions in 1904 this last amount was nearly doubled.
Exports in 1890 were valued at £591,746; they also fluctuated
greatly, falling to £316, 072 in 1893, but standing at £863,828 in
1901, and having a further increase in some subsequent years.
These figures exclude the value of gold dust. The principal
imports are cotton goods, railway materials, mining supplies
and metals, tobacco, kerosene, timber, and clothing. Japanese
cotton yarns are imported to be woven into a strong cloth on
Korean hand-looms. Beans and peas, rice, cowhides, and
ginseng are the chief exports, apart from gold.
Communications. — Under Japanese auspices a railway from Che-
mulpo to Seoul was completed in 1900. This became a branch of the
longer line from Fusan to Seoul (286 m.), the concession for which
was granted in 1898. This line was pushed forward rapidly on the
outbre_ak of the Russo-Japanese War, and the whole was opened
early in 1905. A railway from Seoul to Wiju was planned under
French engineers, but the work was started by the Korean govern-
ment. This line also, however, was taken over by the Japanese
military authorities, and the first trains ran through early in 1905,
in which year Japan obtained control of the whole of the Korean
internal communications. The main roads centring in Seoul are
seldom fit even for the passage of ox-carts, and the secondary roads
are bad bridle-tracks, frequently degenerating into " rock ladders."
Some improvements, however, have been effected under Japanese
direction. The inland transit of goods is almost entirely on the
backs of bulls carrying from 450 to 600 Ib, on ponies carrying 200 ft,
and on men carrying from 100 to 150 Ib, bringing the average cost
up to a fraction over 8d. per mile per ton. The corvee exists, with
its usual hardships. Bridges are made of posts, carrying a framework
either covered with timber or with pine branches and earth. They
are removed at the beginning of the rainy season, and are not
replaced for three months. The larger rivers are unbridged, but
there are numerous government ferries. The infamous roads and
the risks during the bridgeless season greatly hamper trade. Japanese
steamers ply on the Han between Chemulpo and Seoul.
A postal system, established in 1894-1895, has been gradually
extended. There are postage stamps of four values. The Japanese,
under the agreement of 1905, took over the postal, telegraphic and
telephone services. Korea is connected with the Chinese and
Japanese telegraph systems by a Japanese line from Chemulpo via
Seoul to Fusan, and by a line acquired by the empire between Seoul
and Wiju. The state has also lines from Seoul to the open ports,
&c. Korea has regular steam communication with ports in Japan,
the Gulf of Pechih, Shanghai, &c. Her own mercantile marine is
considerable.
Government. — From 1895, when China renounced her claims
to suzerainty, to 1910 the king (since 1897 emperor) was in
theory an independent sovereign, Japan in 1904 guaranteeing
the welfare and dignity of the imperial house. Under a treaty
signed at Seoul on the I7th of November 1905, Japan directed
the external relations of Korea, and Japanese diplomatic and
consular representatives took charge of Korean subjects and
interests in foreign countries. Japan undertook the maintenance
of existing treaties between Korea and foreign powers; and
Korea agreed that her future foreign treaties should be con-
cluded through the medium of Japan. A resident-general rep-
resented Japan at Seoul, to direct diplomatic affairs, the first
being the Marquis Ito. Under a further convention of July 1907,
the resident-general's powers were enormously increased. In ad-
ministrative reforms the Korean government followed his guid-
ance; laws could not be enacted nor administrative measures
undertaken without his consent; the appointment and dis-
missal of high officials, and the engagement of foreigners in
government employ, were subject to his pleasure. Each depart-
ment of state has a Japanese vice-minister, and a large propor-
tion of Japanese officials were introduced into these departments
as well as Japanese chiefs of the bureaus of police and customs.
By a treaty dated August 22nd 1910, which came into effect
seven days later the emperor of Korea made " complete and per-
manent cession to the emperor of Japan of all rights of sover-
eignty over the whole of Korea." The entire direction of the
administration was then taken over by the Japanese resident-
general, who was given the title of governor-general. The
jurisdiction of the consular courts was abolished but Japan
guaranteed the continuance of the existing Korean tariff for
ten years.
Local Administration. — Korea for administrative purposes is
divided into provinces and prefectures or magistracies. Japanese
reforms in this department have been complete. Each provincial
government has a Japanese secretary, police inspector and clerks.
The secretary may represent the governor in his absence.
Law. — A criminal code, scarcely equalled for barbarity, though
twice mitigated by royal edict since 1785, remained in force in its
main provisions till 1895. Subsequently, a mixed commission of
revision carried out some good work. Elaborate legal machinery
was devised, though its provisions were constantly violated by the
imperial will and the gross corruption of officials. Five classes of
law courts were established, and provision was made for appeals in
both civil and criminal cases. Abuses in legal administration and in
tax-collecting were the chief grievances which led to local insurrec-
tions. Oppression by the throne and the official and noble classes
prevailed extensively; but the weak protected themselves by the
use of the Kyei, or principle of association, which developed among
Koreans into powerful trading gilds, trades-unions, mutual benefit
associations, money-lending gilds, &c. Nearly all traders, porters
and artisans were members of gilds, powerfully bound together and
strong by combined action and mutual helpfulness in time of need.
Under tne Japanese regime the judiciary and the executive were
rigidly separated. The law courts, including the court of cassation,
three courts of appeal, eight local courts, and 115 district courts,
were put under Japanese judges, and the codification of the laws
was undertaken. The prison system was also reformed.
Finance and Money. — Until 1904 the finances of Korea were
completely disorganized ; the currency was chaotic, and the budget
was an official formality making little or no attempt at accuracy.
By agreement of the 22nd of August 1904, Korea accepted a Japanese
financial adviser, and valuable reforms were quickly entered upon
under the direction of the first Japanese official, Mr T. Megata. He
had to contend against corrupt officialdom, indiscriminate expendi-
ture, and absence of organization in the collection of revenue, apart
from the confusion with regard to the currency. This last was
nominally on a silver standard. The coins chiefly in use were (i)
copper cash, which were strung in hundreds on strings of straw, and,
as about gib weight was equal to one shilling, were excessively
cumbrous, but were nevertheless valued at their face value; (ii)
nickel coins, which, being profitable to mint, were issued in enormous
quantities, quickly depreciated, and were moreover extensively
forged. _ The Dai Ichi Ginko (First Bank of Japan), which has a
branch in Seoul and agencies in other towns, was made the govern-
ment central treasury, and its notes were recognized as legal tender
in Korea. The currency of Korea being thus fixed, the first step
was to reorganize the nickel coinage. From the 1st of August 1905
the old nickels paid into the treasury were remitted and the
issue carefully regulated; so also with the cash, which was retained
as a subsidiary coinage, while a supplementary coinage was issued
of silver ip-sen pieces and bronze l-sen and half-sen pieces. To aid
the free circulation of money and facilitate trade, the government
grants subsidies for the establishment of co-operative warehouse
companies with bonded warehouses. Regulations have also been
promulgated with respect to promissory notes, which have long
existed in Korea. They took the form of a piece of paper about
an inch broad and five to eight inches long, on which was written
the sum, the date of payment and the name of the payer and payee,
with their seals; the paper was then torn down its length, and one
half given to each party. The debtor was obliged to pay the amount
of the debt to any person who presented the missing half of the bill.
The readiness with which they were accepted led to over-issue, and.
KOREA
911
consequently, financial crises. The new regulations require the
amount of the notes to be expressed in yen, not to be payable in old
nickel coins or cash. The notes can only be issued by members of
a note association, a body constituted under government regulations,
whose members must uphold the credit and validity of their notes.
The notes must also be made payable to a definite person and require
endorsement, safeguards which were previously lacking. Adminis-
trative reform was also taken in hand; the large number of super-
fluous and badly paid officials was considerably reduced, and the
status and salary of all existing government officials considerably
improved. An endeavour was made to publish an annual budget,
in which the revenue and expenditure should accurately represent
the sums actually received and expended. Regulations were framed
for the purpose of establishing adequate supervision over the
revenue and expenditure for the abolition of irregular taxation and
extortions, as well as the practice of farming out the collection of
the revenue to individuals, and, generally, to adapt the whole
collection and expenditure of the national revenue to modern ideas
of public finance. Down to 1910 the sum expended by Japan on
Korean reforms was estimated to approach fifteen millions sterling.
Among reforms not specifically referred to may be mentioned the
improvement of coastwise navigation, the provision of posts, roads,
railways, public buildings, hospitals and sanitary works, and the
official advancement of industries.
Religion. — Buddhism, which swayed Korea from the loth to the
I4_th century, has been discredited for three centuries, and its
priests are ignorant, immoral and despised. Confucianism is the
official cult, and all officials offer sacrifices and homage at stated
seasons in the Confucian temples. Confucian ethics are the basis
of morality and social order. Ancestor-worship is universal. The
popular cult is, however, the propitiation of demons, a modification
of the Shamanism of northern Asia. The belief in demons, mostly
malignant, keeps the Koreans in constant terror, and much of their
substance is spent on propitiations. Sorceresses and blind sorcerers
are the intermediaries. At the close of the igth century the fees
annually paid to these persons were estimated at £150,000; there
were in Seoul 1000 sorceresses, and very large sums are paid to the
male sorcerers and geomancers.
Putting aside the temporary Christian work of a Jesuit chaplain
to the Japanese Christian General. Konishe, in 1594 during the
Japanese invasion, as well as that on a larger scale by students who
received the evangel in the Roman form from Peking in 1792, and
had made 4000 converts by the end of 1793, the first serious attempt
at the conversion of Korea was made by the French Soctite des
Missions Etrangeres in 1835. In spite of frequent persecutions,
there were 16,500 converts in 1857 and 20,000 in 1866, in which
year the French bishops and priests were martyred by order of the
emperor's father, and several thousand native Christians were
beheaded, banished or imprisoned. This mission in 1900 had about
30 missionaries and 40,000 converts. In 1884 and 1885, toleration
being established, Protestant missionaries of the American Presby-
terian and Methodist Episcopal Churches entered Korea, and were
followed by a large number of agents of other denominations. An
English bishop, clergy, doctors and nursing sisters arrived in 1890.
Hospitals, orphanages, schools and an admirable college in Seoul
have been founded, along with tri-lingual (Chinese, Korean and
English) printing-presses; religious, historical and scientific works
and much of the Bible have been translated into En-mun, and
periodicals of an enlightened nature in the Korean script are also
circulated. The progress of Protestant missions was very slow for
some years, but from 1895 converts multiplied.
Education, — The " Royal Examinations " in Chinese literature
held in Seoul up to 1894, which were the entrance to official position,
being abolished, the desire for a purely Chinese education diminished.
In Seoul there were established an imperial English school with two
foreign teachers, a reorganized Confucian college, a normal college
under a very efficient foreign principal, Japanese, Chinese, Russian
and French schools, chiefly linguistic, several Korean primary
schools, mission boarding-schools, and thePai Chai College connected
with the American Methodist Episcopal Church, under imperial
patronage, and subsidized by government, in which a liberal
education of a high class was given and En-mun receives much
attention. The Koreans are expert linguists, and the government
made liberal grants to the linguistic schools. In the primary schools
boys learn arithmetic, and geography and Korean history are taught,
with the outlines of the governmental systems of other civilized
countries. The education department has been entirely reorganized
under the Japanese regime, Japanese models being followed.
History. — By both Korean and Chinese tradition Ki-tze — a
councillor of the last sovereign of the 3rd Chinese dynasty, a sage,
and the reputed author of parts of the famous Chinese classic, the
Shu- King — is represented as entering Korea in 1122 B.C. with
several thousand Chinese emigrants, who made him their king.
The peninsula was then peopled by savages living in caves and
subterranean holes. By both learned and popular belief in Korea
Ki-tze is recognized as the founder of Korean social order, and is
greatly reverenced. He called the new kingdom Ch'ao-Hsien,
pacified and policed its borders, and introduced laws and Chinese
etiquette and polity. Korean ancient history is far from satisfy-
ing the rigid demands of modern criticism, but it appears that
Ki-tze's dynasty ruled the peninsula until the 4th century B.C.,
from which period until the loth century A.D. civil wars and
foreign aggressions are prominent. Nevertheless, Hiaksai,
which with Korai and Shinra then constituted Korea, was a
centre of literary culture in the 4th century, through which the
Chinese classics and the art of writing reached the other two
kingdoms. Buddism, a forceful civilizing element, reached
Hiaksai in A.D. 384, and from it the sutras and images of northern
Buddhism were carried to Japan, as well as Chinese letters and
ethics. Internecine wars were terminated about 913 by Wang
the Founder, who unified the peninsula under the name Korai,
made Song-do its capital, and endowed Buddhism as the state
religion. In the nth century Korea was stripped of her
territory west of the Yalu by a warlike horde oi Tungus stock,
since which time her frontiers have been stationary. The Wang
dynasty perished in 1392, an important epoch in the peninsula,
when Ni Taijo, or Litan, the founder of the present dynasty,
ascended the throne, after his country had suffered severely from
Jenghiz and Khublai Khan. He tendered his homage to the
first Ming emperor of China, received from him his investiture as
sovereign, and accepted from him the Chinese calendar and
chronology, in itself a declaration of fealty. He revived the name
Ch'ao-Hsien, changed the capital from Song-do to Seoul, organ-
ized an administrative system, which with some modifications
continued till 1895, and exists partially still, carried out vigorous
reforms, disestablished Buddhism, made merit in Chinese literary
examinations the basis of appointment to office, made Confucian-
ism the state religion, abolished human sacrifices and the
burying of old men alive, and introduced that Confucian system
of education, polity, and social order which has dominated Korea
for five centuries. Either this king or an immediate successor
introduced the present national costume, the dress worn by the
Chinese before the Manchu conquest. The early heirs of this
vigorous and capable monarch used their power, like him, for
the good of the people; but later decay set in, and Japanese
buccaneers ravaged the coasts, though for two centuries under
Chinese protection Korea was free from actual foreign invasion.
In 1592 occurred the epoch-making invasion of Korea by a
Japanese army of 300,000 men, by order of the great regent
Hideyoshi. China came to the rescue with 60,000 men, and six
years of a gigantic and bloody war followed, in which Japan
used firearms for the first time against a foreign foe. Seoul and
several of the oldest cities were captured, and in some instances
destroyed, the country was desolated, and the art treasures and
the artists were carried to Japan. The Japanese troops were
recalled in 1598 at Hideyoshi's death. The port and fishing
privileges of Fusan remained in Japanese possession, a heavy
tribute was exacted, and until 1790 the Korean king stood in
humiliating relations towards Japan. Korea never recovered
from the effects of this invasion, which bequeathed to all
Koreans an intense hatred of the Japanese.
In 1866, 1867, and 1871 French and American punitive
expeditions attacked parts of Korea in which French missionaries
and American adventurers had been put to death, and inflicted
much loss of life, but retired without securing any diplomatic
successes, and Korea continued to preserve her complete
isolation. The first indirect step towards breaking it down had
been taken in 1860, when Russia obtained from China the cession
of the Usuri province, thus bringing a European power down
to the Tumen. A large emigration of famine-stricken Koreans
and persecuted Christians into Russian territory followed. The
emigrants were very kindly received, and many of them became
thrifty and prosperous farmers. In 1876 Japan, with the consent
of China, wrung a treaty from Korea by which Fusan was fully
opened to Japanese settlement and trade, and Won-san (Gensan)
and Inchiun (Chemulpo) were opened to her in 1880. In 1882
China promulgated her " Trade and Frontier Regulations,"
and America negotiated a commercial treaty, followed by
Germany and Great Britain in 1883, Italy and Russia in 1884,
912
KOREA
France in 1886, and Austria in 1892. A " Trade Convention "
was also concluded with Russia. Seoul was opened in 1884 to
foreign residence, and the provinces to foreign travel, and the
diplomatic agents of the contracting powers obtained a recognized
status at the capital. These treaties terminated the absolute
isolation which Korea had effectually preserved. During the
negotiations, although under Chinese suzerainty, she was
treated with as an independent state. Between 1897 and
1899, under diplomatic pressure, a number of ports were opened
to foreign trade and residence. From 1882 to 1894 the chief
event in the newly opened kingdom was a plot by the Tai-won-
Kun, the father of the emperor, to seize on power, which
led to an attack on the Japanese legation, the members of
which were compelled to fight their way, and that not blood-
lessly, to the sea. Japan secured ample compensation; and
the Chinese resident, aided by Chinese troops, deported the
Tai-won-Kun to Tientsin. In 1884 at an official banquet the
leaders of the progressive party assassinated six leading Korean
statesmen, and the intrigues in Korea of the banished or escaped
conspirators created difficulties which were very slow to sub-
side. In spite of a constant struggle for ascendancy between
the queen and the returned Tai-won-Kun, the next decade
was one of quiet. China, always esteemed in Korea, con-
solidated her influence under the new conditions through a
powerful resident; prosperity advanced, and certain reforms
were projected by foreign " advisers." In May 1894 a more
important insurrectionary rising than usual led the king to ask
armed aid from China. She landed 2000 troops on the loth of
June, having previously, in accordance with treaty provisions,
notified Japan of her intention. Soon after this Japan had
12,000 troops in Korea, and occupied the capital and the treaty
ports. Then Japan made three sensible proposals for Korean
reform, to be undertaken jointly by herself and China. China
replied that Korea must be left to reform herself, and that the
withdrawal of the Japanese troops must precede negotiations.
Japan rejected this suggestion, and on the 23rd of July attacked
and occupied the royal palace. After some further negotia-
tions and fights by land and sea between Japan and China war
was declared formally by Japan, and Korea was for some time
the battle-ground of the belligerents. The Japanese victories
resulted for Korea in the solemn renunciation of Chinese suze-
rainty by the Korean king, the substitution of Japanese for
Chinese influence, the introduction of many important reforms
under Japanese advisers, and of checks on the absolutism of
the throne. Everything promised well. The finances flour-
ished under the capable control of Mr (afterwards Sir) M'Leavy
Brown, C.M.G. Large and judicious retrenchments were car-
ried out in most of the government departments. A measure
of judicial and prison reform was granted. Taxation was placed
on an equable basis. The pressure of the trade gilds was
relaxed. Postal and educational systems were introduced.
An approach to a constitution was made. The distinction
between patrician and plebeian, domestic slavery, and beating
and slicing to death were abolished. The age for marriage of
both sexes was raised. Chinese literary examinations ceased
to be a passport to office. Classes previously degraded were
enfranchised, and the alliance between two essentially corrupt
systems of government was severed. For about eighteen
months all the departments were practically under Japanese
control. On the 8th of October 1895 the Tai-won-Kun, with
Korean troops, aided by Japanese troops under the orders of
Viscount Miura, the Japanese minister, captured the palace,
assassinated the queen, and made a prisoner of the king, who,
however, four months later, escaped to the Russian legation,
where he remained till the spring of 1897. Japanese influence
waned. The engagements of the advisers were not renewed.
A strong retrograde movement set in. Reforms were dropped.
The king, with the checks upon his absolutism removed, reverted
to the worst traditions of his dynasty, and the control and
arrangements of finance were upset by Russia.
At the close of 1897 the king assumed the title of emperor,
and changed the official designation of the empire to Dai Han —
Great Han. By 1898 the imperial will, working under partially
new conditions, produced continual chaos, and by 1900 suc-
ceeded in practically overriding all constitutional restraints.
Meanwhile Russian intrigue was constantly active. At last
Japan resorted to arms, and her success against Russia in the
war of 1904-5 enabled her to resume her influence over Korea.
On the 23rd of February 1904 an agreement was determined
whereby Japan resumed her position as administrative adviser
to Korea, guaranteed the integrity of the country, and bound
herself to maintain the imperial house in its position. Her
interests were recognized by Russia in the treaty of peace
(September 5, 1905), and by Great Britain in the Anglo-
Japanese agreement of the I2th of August 1905. The Koreans
did not accept the restoration of Japanese influence without
demur. In August 1905 disturbances arose owing to an attempt
by some merchants to obtain special assistance from the trea-
sury on the pretext of embarrassment caused by Japanese
financial reforms; these disturbances spread to some of the
provinces, and the Japanese were compelled to make a show
of force. Prolonged negotiations were necessary to the com-
pletion of the treaty of the I7th of November 1905, whereby
Japan obtained the control of Korea's foreign affairs and
relations, and the confirmation of previous agreements, the
far-reaching results of which have been indicated. Nor was
opposition to Japanese reforms confined to popular demon-
stration. In 1907 a Korean delegacy, headed by Prince Yong,
a member of the imperial family, was sent out to lay before
the Hague conference of that year, and before all the principal
governments, a protest against the treatment of Korea by
Japan. While this was of course fruitless from the Korean
point of view, it indicated that the Japanese must take strong
measures to suppress the intrigues of the Korean court.
At the instigation of the Korean ministry the emperor abdi-
cated on the igth of July 1907, handing over the crown to his
son. Somewhat serious tmeutes followed in Seoul and else-
where, and the Japanese proposals for a new convention,
increasing the powers of the resident general, had to be pre-
sented to the cabinet under a strong guard. The convention
was signed on the 25th of July. One of the reforms imme-
diately undertaken was the disbanding of the Korean standing
army, which led to an insurrection and an intermittent guerrilla
warfare which, owing to the nature of the country, was not
easy to subdue. Under the direction of Prince Ito (q.v.) the
work of reform was vigorously prosecuted. In July 1909, General
Teranchi, Japanese minister of war, became resident-general,
with the mission to bring about annexation. This was effected
peacefully in August 1910, the emperor of Korea by formal
treaty surrendering his country and crown. (See JAPAN.)
AUTHORITIES. — The first Asiatic notice of Korea is by Khordad-
beh, an Arab geographer of the gth century A.D., in his Book of Roadrs
and Provinces, quoted by Baron Richthofen in his great work on
China, p. 575. The earliest European source of information is a narra-
tive by H. Hamel, a Dutchman, who was shipwrecked on the coast
of Quelpart in 1654, and held in captivity in Korea for thirteen years.
The amount of papers on Korea scattered through English, German,
French and Russian magazines, and the proceedings of geographical
societies, is very great, and for the last three centuries Japanese
writers have contributed largely to the sum of general knowledge
of the peninsula. The list which follows includes some of the more
recent works which illustrate the history, manners and customs, and
awakening of Korea: British Foreign Office Reports on Korean Trade,
Annual Series (London); BibUographie koreanne (3 vols., Paris,
1897); Mrs. I. L. Bishop, Korea and her Neighbours (2 vols., London,
1897) ; M. von Brandt, Ostasiatische Fragen (Leipzig, 1897) ; A. E. J.
Cavendish and H. E. Goold Adams, Korea, and the Sacred White
Mountain (London, 1894); Stewart Culin, Korean Games (Philadel-
phia, 1895); Curzon, Problems of the Far East (London, 1896);
Dallet, Histoire de I'eglise de Koree (2 vols., Paris, 1874) ; J. S. Gale,
Korean Sketches (Edinburgh, 1898); W. E. Griffis, The Hermit
Nation (8th and revised edition, New York, 1907) ; H. Hamel,
Relation du naufrage d'un vaisseau Halindois, &c., traduite du
Flamond par M. Minutoli (Paris, 1670) ; Okoji Hidemoto, Der
Feldzug der Japanir gegen Korea im Jahre 1507: translated from
Japanese by Professor von Pfizmaier (3 vols., Vienna, 1875); M.
Jametel, "La Kor<5e: sesressources, son avenir commercial, " L Econo-
mists francaise (Paris, July 1881); Percival Lowell, Choson: The
Land of the Morning Calm (London, Boston, 1886); L. J. Miln,
KOREA— KOROCHA
Quaint Korea (Harper, New York, 1895); V. de Laguerie, La Koree
independante, russe ou japonaise? (Paris, 1898); J. Ross, Korea:
Its History, Manners and Customs (Paisley, 1880) ; W. H. Wilkinson,
The Korean Government: Constitutional Changes in Korea during the
period 2jrd July 1894— joth June 1896 (Shanghai, 1896) ; A. Hamil-
ton, Korea (London, 1903) ; C. J. D. Taylor, Koreans at Home (Lon-
don, 1904) ; E. Boudaret, En Coree (Pans, 1904) ; Laurent-Crdmazy,
Le Code penal de la Coree (Paris, 1904) ; G. T. Ladd, In Korea with
Marquis ltd (London, 1908) : Dictionaries and vocabularies by W. F.
Myers (English secretary of Legation at Peking), the French mission-
aries, and others, were superseded in 1898 by a large and learned
volume by the Rev J. S. Gale, a Presbyterian missionary, who
devoted some years to the work. On geology, see C. Gottsche,
" Geologische Skizze von Korea," Sitz. preuss. Akad. Wiss. (Berlin,
Jahrg. 1886, pp. 857-873, PI. viii.). A summary of this paper, with a
reproduction of the map, is given by L. Pervinquiere in Rev. sci.
Paris, 5th series, vol. i. (1904), pp. 545-552. (I. L. B.; O. J. R. H.)
KOREA, a tributary state of India, transferred from Bengal
to the Central Provinces in 1905; area, 1631 sq. m.; pop. (1901),
35,113, or only 22 persons per sq. m.; estimated revenue, £1200.
It consists of an elevated table-land, with hills rising to above
3000 ft. Such traffic as there is is carried by means of pack-
bullocks.
KORESHAN ECCLESIA, THE, or CHURCH ARCHTRIUMPHANT,
a communistic body, founded by Cyrus R. Teed, a medical
practitioner, who was born at Utica, New York, in 1839. Teed
was regarded by his adherents as " the new Messiah now in the
World," and many other extravagant views both in science and
economics are held by them. Two communities were founded:
in Chicago (1886) and at Estero, in Lee county, Florida (1894),
where in 1903 the Chicago community removed. Their name is
derived from Koresh, the Hebrew form of Cyrus, and they have
a journal, The Flaming Sword.
KORIN, OGATA (c. 1657-1716), Japanese painter and lac-
querer, was born at Koto, the son of a wealthy merchant who
had a taste for the arts and is said to have given his son some
elementary instruction therein. Korin also studied under
Soken Yamamoto, Kano, Tsunenobu and Gukei Sumiyoshi;
and he was greatly influenced by his predecessors Koyetsu
and Sotatsu. On arriving at maturity, however, he broke
away from all tradition, and developed a very original and
quite distinctive style of his own, both in painting and in the
decoration of lacquer. The characteristic of this is a bold
impressionism, which is expressed in few and simple highly
idealized forms, with an absolute disregard either of realism or
of the usual conventions. In lacquer Korin's use of white
metals and of mother-of-pearl is notable; but herein he followed
Koyetsu. Korin died on the 2nd of June 1716, at the age of
fifty-nine. His chief pupils were Kagei Tatebashi and Shiko
Watanable; but the present knowledge and appreciation of
his work are largely due to the efforts of Hoitsu Sakai, who
brought about a revival of Korin's style.
See A. Morrison, The Painters of Japan (1902) ; S. Tajima, Master-
pieces selected from the Korin School (1903) ; S. Hoitsu, The 100
Designs by Korin\(i8i5) and More Designs by Korin (1826).
(E. r . b.)
KORKUS, an aboriginal tribe of India, dwelling on the Satpura
hills in the Central Provinces. They are of interest as being the
westernmost representatives of the Munda family of speech.
They are rapidly becoming hinduized, as may be gathered from
the figures of the census of 1901, which show 140,000 Korkus by
race, but only 88,000 speakers of the Korku language.
KORMOCZ3ANYA (German, Kremnilz), an old mining town,
in the county of Bars, in Hungary, 158 m. N. of Budapest by
rail. Pop. (1900), 4299. It is situated in a deep valley in the
Hungarian Ore Mountains region. Among its principal build-
ings are the castle, several Roman Catholic (from the I3th and
I4th centuries) and Lutheran churches, a Franciscan monastery
(founded 1634), the town-hall, and the mint where the celebrated
Kremnitz gold ducats were formerly struck. The bulk of the
inhabitants find employment in connexion with the gold and
silver mines. By means of a tunnel 9 m. in length, con-
structed in 1851-1852, the water is drained off from the mines
into the river Gran. According to tradition, Kormoczbanya was
founded in the 8th century by Saxons. The place is mentioned
in documents in 1317, and became a royal free town in 1328,
being therefore one of the oldest free towns in Hungary.
KORNER, KARL THEODOR (1791-1813), German poet and
patriot, often called the German " Tyrtaeus," was born at
Dresden on the 23rd of September 1791. His father, Christian
Gottfried Korner (1756-1831), a distinguished Saxon jurist, was
Schiller's most intimate friend. He was educated at the Kreuz-
schule in Dresden and entered at the age of seventeen the min-
ing academy at Freiburg in Saxony, where he remained two years.
Here he occupied himself less with science than with verse, a
collection of which appeared under the title Knospen in 1810.
In this year he went to the university of Leipzig, in order to
study law; but he became involved in a serious conflict with the
police and was obliged to continue his studies in Berlin. In
August 1811 Korner went to Vienna, where he devoted himself
entirely to literary pursuits; he became engaged to the actress
Antonie Adamberger, and, after the success of several plays pro-
duced in 1812, he was appointed poet to the Hofburgtheater.
When the German nation rose against the French yoke, in 1813,
Korner gave up all his prospects at Vienna and joined Liitzow's
famous corps of volunteers at Breslau. On his march to Leipzig
he passed through Dresden, where he issued his spirited Aufruf
an die Sachsen, in which he called upon his countrymen to rise
against their oppressors. He became lieutenant towards the
end of April, and took part in a skirmish at Kitzen near Leipzig
on the 7th of June, when he was severely wounded. After being
nursed by friends at Leipzig and Carlsbad, he rejoined his corps
and fell in an engagement outside a wood near Gadebusch in
Mecklenburg on the 26th of August 1813. He was buried by his
comrades under an oak close to the village of Wobbelin, where
there is a monument to him.
The abiding interest in Korner is patriotic and political rather
than literary. His fame as a poet rests upon his patriotic lyrics,
which were published by his father under the title Leier und
Schwert in 1814. These songs, which fired the poet's comrades
to deeds of heroism in 1813, bear eloquent testimony to the
intensity of the national feeling against Napoleon, but judged
as literature they contain more bombast than poetry. Among
the best known are " Liitzow's wilde verwegene Jagd," " Gebet
wahrend der Schlacht " (set to music by Weber) and " Das
Schwertlied." This last was written immediately before his
death, and the last stanza added on the fatal morning. As a
dramatist Korner was remarkably prolific, but his comedies
hardly touch the level of Kotzebue's and his tragedies, of which
the best is Zriny (1814), are rhetorical imitations of Schiller's.
His works have passed through many editions. Among the more
recent are: Sdmtliche Werke (Stuttgart, 1890), edited by Adolf
Stern; by H. Zimmer (2 vols., Leipzig, 1893) and by E. Goetze
(Berlin, 1900). The most valuable contributions to our knowledge
of the poet have been furnished by E. Peschel, the founder and direc-
tor of the Korner Museum in Dresden, in Theodor Korners Tagebuch
und Kriegslieder, aus dem Jahre 1813 (Freiburg, 1893) and, in
conjunction with E. Wildenow, Theodor Korner und die Seinen
(Leipzig, 1898).
KORNEUBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 9 m.
N.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 8298. It is situated on
the left bank of the Danube, opposite Klosterneuburg. It is a
steamship station and an important emporium of the salt and
corn trade. The industry comprises the manufacture of coarse
textiles, pasteboard, &c. Its charter as a town dates from 1298,
and it was a much frequented market in the preceding century.
At the beginning of the I5th century it was surrounded by walls,
and in 1450 a fortress was erected. It was frequently involved
in the conflict between the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus
and the emperor Frederick William III., and also during the
Thirty Years' War.
KOROCHA, a town of central Russia, in the government of
Kursk, 75 m. S.S.E. of the city of Kursk, on the Korocha river.
Pop. (1897), 14,405. Its inhabitants live by gardening, export-
ing large quantities of dried cherries, by making candles and
leather, and by trade; the merchants purchase cattle, grain and
salt in the south and send them to Moscow. Founded in 1638,
Korocha was formerly a small fort intended to check the Tatar
invasions.
KORSOR— KOSCIUSZKO
KORSOR, a seaport of Denmark, in the ami (county) of the
island of Zealand, 69 m. by rail W.S.W. of Copenhagen, on the
east shore of the Great Belt. Pop. (1901), 6054. The harbour,
which is formed by a bay of the Baltic, has a depth throughout
of 20 ft. It is the point of departure and arrival of the steam
ferry to Nyborg on Fiinen, lying on the Hamburg, Schleswig,
Fredericia and Copenhagen route. There is also regular com-
munication by water with Kiel. The chief exports are fish,
cereals, bacon; imports, petroleum and coal. A market town
since the i4th century,' Korsor has ruins of an old fortified castle,
on the south side of the channel, dating from the i4th and I7th
centuries.
KORTCHA (Slavonic, Gorilza or Korilza), a city of Albania,
European Turkey, in the vilayet of lannina, in a wide plain
watered by the Devol and Dunavitza rivers, and surrounded by
mountains on every side except the north, where Lake Malik
constitutes the boundary. Pop. (1905), about 10,000, including
Greeks, Albanians and Slavs. Kortcha is the see of an Orthodox
Greek metropolitan, whose large cathedral is richly decorated in
the interior with paintings and statues. The Kortcha school
for girls, conducted by American missionaries, is the only educa-
tional establishment in which the Turkish government permits
the use of Albanian as the language of instruction. The local
trade is chiefly agricultural.
KORYAKS, a Mongoloid people of north-eastern Siberia, in-
habiting the coast-lands of the Bering Sea to the south of the
Anadyr basin and the country to the immediate north of the
Kamchatka Peninsula, the southernmost limit of their range
being Tigilsk. They are akin to the Chukchis, whom they closely
resemble in physique and in manner of life. Thus they are
divided into the settled fishing tribes and the nomad reindeer
breeders and hunters. The former are described as being more
morally and physically degraded even than the Chukchis, and
hopelessly poor. The Koryaks of the interior, on the other hand,
still own enormous reindeer herds, to which they are so attached
that they refuse to part with an animal to a stranger at any price.
They are in disposition brave, intelligent and self-reliant, and
recognize no master. They have ever tenaciously resisted
Russian aggression, and in their fights with the Cossacks have
proved themselves recklessly brave. When outnumbered they
would kill their women and children, set fire to their homes, and
die fighting. Families usually gather in groups of sixes or sevens,
forming miniature states, in which the nominal chief has no
predominating authority, but all are equal. The Koryaks are
polygamous, earning their wives by working for their fathers-in-
law. The women and children are treated well, and Koryak
courtesy and hospitality are proverbial. The chief wedding
ceremony is a forcible abduction of the bride. They kill the
aged and infirm, in the belief that thus to save them from pro-
tracted sufferings is the highest proof of affection. The victims
choose their mode of death, and young Koryaks practise the
art of giving the fatal blow quickly and mercifully. Infanticide
was formerly common, and one of twins was always sacrificed.
They burn their dead. The prevailing religion is Shamanism;
sacrifices are made to evil spirits, the heads of the victims being
placed on stones facing east.
See G. Kennan, Tent Life in Siberia (1871); "Cber die Koriaken
u. ihnen nahe verwandten Tchouktchen," in Bui. Acad. Sc. St.
Petersburg, xii. 99.
KOSCIUSCC, the highest mountain in Australia, in the range
of the Australian Alps, towards the south-eastern extremity of
New South Wales. Its height is 7328 ft. An adjacent peak to
the south, Mueller's Peak, long considered the highest in the con-
tinent, is 7 268 ft. high. A meteorological station was established
on Kosciusco in 1897.
KOSCIUSZKO, TADEUSZ ANDRZEJ BONAWENTURA
(1746-1817), Polish soldier and statesman, the son of Ludwik
Kosciuszko, sword-bearer of the palatinate of Brzesc, and Tekla
Ratomska, was born in the village of Mereczowszczyno. After
being educated at home he entered the corps of cadets at Warsaw,
where his unusual ability and energy attracted the notice of
Prince Adam Casimir Czartoryski, by whose influence in 1769 he
was sent abroad at the expense of the state to complete his military
education. In Germany, Italy and France he studied diligently,
completing his course at Brest, where he learnt fortification and
naval tactics, returning to Poland in 1 774 with the rank of captain
of artillery. While engaged in teaching the daughters of the
Grand Hetman, Sosnowski of Sosnowica, drawing and mathe-
matics, he fell in love with the youngest of them, Ludwika, and
not venturing to hope for the consent of her father, the lovers
resolved to fly and be married privately. Before they could
accomplish their design, however, the wooer was attacked by
Sosnowski's retainers, but defended himself valiantly till, covered
with wounds, he was ejected from the house. This was in 1776.
Equally unfortunate was Kosciuszko's wooing of Tekla Zurowska
in 1791, the father of the lady in this case also refusing his consent.
In the interval between these amorous episodes Kosciuszko
won his spurs in the New World. In 1776 he entered the army
of the United States as a volunteer, and brilliantly distinguished
himself, especially during the operations about New York and at
Yorktown. Washington promoted Kosciuszko to the rank of a col-
onel of artillery and made him his adjutant. His humanity and
charm of manner made him moreover one the most popular of the
American officers. In 1783 Kosciuszko was rewarded for his
services and his devotion to the cause of American independence
with the thanks of Congress, the privilege of American citizenship,
a considerable annual pension with landed estates, and the rank
of brigadier-general, which he retained in thePolish service.
In the war following upon the proclamation of the constitution
of the 3rd of May 1791 and the formation of the reactionary Con-
federation of Targowica (see POLAND: History), Kosciuszko took
a leading part. As the commander of a division under Prince
Joseph Poniatowski he distinguished himself at the battle of
Zielence in 1792, and at Dubienka (July 18) with 4000 men and
10 guns defended the line of the Bug for five days against the
Russians with 18,000 men and 60 guns, subsequently retiring
upon Warsaw unmolested. When the king acceded to the Targo-
wicians, Kosciuszko with many other Polish generals threw up
his commission and retired to Leipzig, which speedily became the
centre of the Polish emigration. In January 1 793 , provided with
letters of introduction from the French agent Perandier, Kosciu-
szko went on a political mission to Paris to induce the revolution-
ary government to espouse the cause of Poland. In return for
assistance he promised to make the future government of Poland
as close a copy of the French government as possible; but the
Jacobins, already intent on detaching Prussia from the anti-
French coalition, had no serious intention of fighting Poland's
battles. The fact that Kosciuszko's visit synchronized with the
execution of Louis XVI. subsequently gave the enemies of Poland
a plausible pretext for accusing her of Jacobinism, and thus pre-
judicing Europe against her. On his return to Leipzig Kosciu-
szko was invited by the Polish insurgents to take the command
of the national armies, with dictatorial power. He hesitated at
first, well aware that a rising in the circumstances was premature.
" I will have nothing to do with Cossack raiding," he replied; " if
war we have, it must be a regular war." He also insisted that
the war must be conducted on the model of the American War of
Independence, and settled down in the neighbourhood of Cracow
to await events. When, however, he heard that the insurrection
had already broken out, and that the Russian armies were con-
centrating to crush it, Kosciuszko hesitated no longer, but
hastened to Cracow, which he reached on the 23rd of March 1 794.
On the following day his arms were consecrated according to
ancient custom at the church of the Capucins, by way of giving
the insurrection a religious sanction incompatible with Jacobin-
ism. The same day, amidst a vast concourse of people in the
market-place, Kosciuszko took an oath of fidelity to the Polish
nation; swore to wage war against the enemies of his country;
but protested at the same time that he would fight only for the
independence and territorial integrity of Poland.
The insurrection had from the first a purely popular character.
We find none of the great historic names of Poland in the lists
of the original confederates. For the most part the confederates
of Kosciuszko were small squires, traders, peasants and men of
KOSEN
9*5
low degree generally. Yet the comparatively few gentlemen
who joined the movement sacrificed everything to it. Thus, to
take but a single instance, Karol Prozor sold the whole of his
ancestral estates and thus contributed 1,000,000 thalers to the
cause. From the 24th of March to the ist of April Kosciuszko
remained at Cracow organizing his forces. On the 3rd of April
at Raclawice, with 4000 regulars, and 2000 peasants armed only
with scythes and pikes, and next to no artillery, he defeated the
Russians, who had 5000 veterans and 30 guns. This victory had
an immense moral effect, and brought into the Polish camp crowds
of waverers to what had at first seemed a desperate cause. For
»the next two months Kosciuszko remained on the defensive near
Sandomir. He durst not risk another engagement with the only
army which Poland so far possessed, and he had neither money,
officers nor artillery. The country, harried incessantly during
the last two years, was in a pitiable condition. There was nothing
to feed the troops in the very provinces they occupied, and pro-
visions had to be imported from Galicia. Money could only be
obtained by such desperate expedients as the melting of the plate
of the churches and monasteries, which was brought in to Kos-
ciuszko's camp at Pinczow and subsequently coined at Warsaw,
minus the royal effigy, with the inscription: " Freedom, Integrity
and Independence of the Republic, 1794." Moreover, Poland
was unprepared. Most of the regular troops were incorporated
in the Russian army, from which it was very difficult to break
away, and until these soldiers came in Kosciuszko had principally
to depend on the valour of his scythemen. But in the month of
April the whole situation improved. On the i;th of that month
the 2000 Polish trpops in Warsaw expelled the Russian garrison
after days of street fighting, chiefly through the ability of General
Mokronowski, and a provisional government was formed. Five
days later Jakob Jasinski drove the Russians from Wilna.
By this time Kosciuszko's forces had risen to 14,000, of whom
10,000 were regulars, and he was thus able to resume the offensive.
He had carefully avoided doing anything to provoke Austria or
Prussia. The former was described in his manifestoes as a
potential friend; the latter he never alluded to as an enemy.
" Remember," he wrote, " that the only war we have upon our
hands is war to the death against the Muscovite tyranny."
Nevertheless Austria remained suspicious and obstructive; and
the Prussians, while professing neutrality, very speedily effected
a junction with the Russian forces. This Kosciuszko, misled by
the treacherous assurances of Frederick William's ministers,
never anticipated, when on the 4th of June he marched
against General Denisov. He encountered the enemy on
the 5th of June at Szczekociny, and then discovered that his
14,000 men had to do not merely with a Russian division but
with the combined forces of Russia and Prussia, numbering
25,000 men. Nevertheless, the Poles acquitted themselves man-
fully, and at dusk retreated in perfect order upon Warsaw un-
pursued. Yet their losses had been terrible, and of the six
Polish generals present three, whose loss proved to be irreparable,
were slain, and two of the others were seriously wounded. A
week later another Polish division was defeated at Kholm;
Cracow was taken by the Prussians on the 22nd of June; and
the mob at Warsaw -broke upon the gaols and murdered the
political prisoners in cold blood. Kosciuszko summarily
punished the ringleaders of the massacres and had 10,000 of
the rank and file drafted into his camp, which measures had a
quieting effect. But now dissensions broke out among the
members of the Polish government, and it required all the tact
of Kosciuszko to restore order amidst this chaos of suspicions
and recriminations. At this very time too he had need of all
his ability and resource to meet the external foes of Poland. On
the gth of July Warsaw was invested by Frederick William of
Prussia with an army of 25,000 men and 179 guns, and the
Russian general Fersen.with 16,000 men and 74 guns, while a
third force of 11,000 occupied the right bank of the Vistula.
Kosciuszko for the defence of the city and its outlying fortifica-
tions could dispose of 35,000 men, of whom 10,000 were regulars.
But the position, defended by 200 inferior guns, was a strong
one, and the valour of the Poles and the engineering skill of
Kosciuszko, who was now in his element, frustrated all the efforts
of the enemy. Two unsuccessful assaults were made upon the
Polish positions on the 26th of August and the ist of September,
and on the 6th the Prussians, alarmed by the progress of the Polish
arms in Great Poland, where Jan Henryk Dabrowski captured
the Prussian fortress of Bydogoszcz and compelled General
Schwerin with his 20,000 men to retire upon Kalisz, raised the
siege. Elsewhere, indeed, after a brief triumph the Poles were
everywhere worsted, and Suvarov, after driving them before him
out of Lithuania was advancing by forced marches upon Warsaw.
Even now, however, the situation was not desperate, for the
Polish forces were still numerically superior to the Russian.
But the Polish generals proved unequal to carrying out the plans
of the dictator; they allowed themselves to be beaten in detail,
and could not prevent the junction of Suvarov and Fersen.
Kosciuszko himself, relying on the support of Poninski's division
4 m. away, attacked Fersen at Maciejowice on the loth of
October. But Poninski never appeared, and after a bloody
encounter the Polish army of 7000 was almost annihilated by
the 16,000 Russians; and Kosciuszko, seriously wounded and
insensible, was made a prisoner on the field of battle. The long
credited story that he cried "Finis Poloniae!" as he fell is a
fiction.
Kosciuszko was conveyed to Russia, where he remained till
the accession of Paul in 1796. On his return on the igth of
December 1796 he paid a second visit to America, and lived at
Philadelphia till May 1 798, when he went to Paris, where the First
Consul earnestly invited his co-operation against the Allies. But
he refused to draw his sword unless Napoleon undertook to give
the restoration of Poland a leading place in his plans; and to
this, as he no doubt foresaw, Bonaparte would not consent. Again
and again he received offers of high commands in the French
army, but he kept aloof from public life in his house at Berville,
near Paris, where the emperor Alexander visited him in 1814.
At the Congress of Vienna his importunities on behalf of Poland
finally wearied Alexander, who preferred to follow the counsels of
Czartoryski; and Kosciuszko retired to Solothurn, where he
lived with his friend Zeltner. Shortly before his death, on the
2nd of April 1817, he emancipated his serfs, insisting only on the
maintenance of schools on the liberated estates. His remains
were carried to Cracow and buried in the cathedral; while the
people, reviving an ancient custom, raised a huge mound to his
memory near the city.
Kosciuszko was essentially a democrat, but a democrat of the
school of Jefferson and Lafayette. He maintained that the
republic could only be regenerated on the basis of absolute liberty
and equality before the law; but in this respect he was far in
advance of his age, and the aristocratic prejudices of his country-
men compelled him to resort to half measures. He wrote
Manoeuvres of Horse Artillery (New York, 1808) and a descrip-
tion of the campaign of 1792 (in vol. xvi. of E. Raczynski's Sketch
of the Poles and Poland (Posen, 1843).
See Jozef Zajaczek, History of the Revolution of 1794 (Pol.) (Lem-
berg, 1881) ; Leonard Jakob Borejko Chodzko, Biographic du general
Kosciuszko (Fontainebleau, 1837); Karol Falkenstein, Thaddaus
Kosciuszko (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1834; French ed., Paris, 1839) ; Antoni
Choloniewski, Tadeusz Kosciuszko (Pol.) (Leraberg, 1902) ; Franciszek
Rychlicki, T. Kosciuszko and the Partition of Poland (Pol.) (Cracow
I875)- ' (R. N. B.)
KOSEN, a village and summer resort of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Saxony, 33 m. by rail S. by W. of Halle, on the
Saale. Pop. (1905), 2990. The town has a mineral spring, which
is used for bathing, being efficacious for rheumatism and other
complaints. Kosen, which became a town in 1869, has large
mill-works; it has a trade in wood and wine. On the adjacent
Rudelsburg, where there is a ruined castle, the German students
have erected a monument to their comrades who fell in the
Franco-German War of 1870-71. Hereon are also memorials to
Bismarck and to the emperor William I. The town is famous
as the central meeting-place of the German students' corps,
which hold an annual congress here every Whitsuntide.
See Techow, Fuhrer durch Kosen und Umgegend (Kosen, 1889);
and Rosenberg, Kosen (Naumburg, 1877).
916
KOSHER— KOSSUTH, L,
KOSHER, or KASHER (Hebrew clean, right, or fit), the
Jewish term for any food or vessels for food made ritually fit
for use, in contradistinction to those pasul, unfit, and terefah,
forbidden. Thus the vessels used at the Passover are " kosher,"
as are also new metal vessels bought from a Gentile after they
have been washed in a ritual bath. But the term is specially
used of meat slaughtered in accordance with the law of Moses.
The schochat or butcher must be a devout Jew and of high moral
character, and be duly licensed by the chief rabbi. The slaughter-
ing— the object of which is to insure the complete bleeding of the
body, the Jews being forbidden to eat blood — is done by severing
the windpipe with a long and razor-sharp knife by one continuous
stroke backwards and forwards. No unnecessary force is per-
mitted, and no stoppage must occur during the operation. The
knife is then carefully examined, and if there be the slightest flaw
in its blade the meat cannot be eaten, as the cut would not have
been clean, the uneven blade causing a thrill to pass through the
beast and thus driving the blood again through the arteries.
After this every portion of the animal is thoroughly examined,
for if there is any organic disease the devout Jew cannot taste
the meat. In order to soften meat before it is salted, so as to
allow the salt to extract the blood more freely, the meat is soaked
in water for about half an hour. -It is then covered with salt
for about an hour and afterwards washed three times. Kosher
meat is labelled with the name of the slaughterer and the date of
killing.
KOSLIN, or COSLIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Pomerania, at the foot of the Gollenberg (450 ft.),
5 m. from the Baltic, and 105 m. N.E. of Stettin by rail. Pop.
(1905), 21,474. The town has two Evangelical and a Roman
Catholic church, a gymnasium, a cadet academy and a deaf and
dumb asylum. In the large market place is the statue of the
Prussian king Frederick William I., erected in 1824, and there is
a war memorial on the Friedrich Wilhelm Platz. The industries
include the manufacture of soap, tobacco, machinery, paper,
bricks and tiles, beer and other goods. Koslin was built about
1 1 88 by the Saxons, and raised to the rank of a town in 1266.
In 1532 it accepted the doctrines of the Reformation. It was
severely tried in the Thirty Years' War and in the Seven Years'
War, and in 1720 it was burned down. On the Gollenberg
stands a monument to the memory of the Pomeranians who fell
in the war of 1813-15.
KOSSOVO, or Kosovo, a vilayet of European Turkey, com-
prising the sanjak of Uskub in Macedonia, and the sanjaks of
Prizren and Novibazar (q.v.) in northern Albania. Pop. (1905),
about 1,100,000; area, 12,700 sq. m. For an account of the
physical features of Kossovo, see ALBANIA and MACEDONIA.
The inhabitants are chiefly Albanians and Slavs, with smaller
communities of Greeks, Turks, Vlachs and gipsies. A few good
roads traverse the vilayet (see USKUB), and the railway from
Salonica northward bifurcates at Uskiib, the capital, one branch
going to Mitrovitza in Albania, the other to Nish in Servia.
Despite the undoubted mineral wealth of the vilayet, the only
mines working in 1907 were two chrome mines, at Orasha and
Verbeshtitza. In the volume of its agricultural trade, however,
Kossovo is unsurpassed by any Turkish province. The exports,
worth about £950,000, include livestock, large quantities of
grain and fruit, tobacco, vegetables, opium, hemp and skins.
Rice is cultivated for local consumption, and sericulture is a
growing industry, encouraged by the Administration of the
Ottoman Debt. The yearly value of the imports is approximately
£1,200,000; these include machinery and other manufactured
goods, metals, groceries, chemical products and petroleum, which
is used in the flour-mills and factories on account of the pro-
hibitive price of coal. There is practically no trade with
Adriatic ports; two-thirds of both exports and imports pass
through Salonica, the remainder going by rail into Servia. The
chief towns, Uskub (32,000), Prizren (30,000), Koprulu (22,000),
Ishtib [Slav. Slip] (21,000), Novibazar (12,000) and Prishtina
(11,000) are described in separate articles.
In the middle ages the vilayet formed part of the Servian
Empire, its northern districts are still known to the Serbs as Old
Servia (Star a Srbiya). The plain of Kossovo (Kossovopolje,
" Field of Blackbirds "), a long valley lying west of Prishtina
and watered by the Sibnitza, a tributary of the Servian Ibar, is
famous in Balkan history and legend as the scene of the battle of
Kossovo (1389), in which the power of Servia was destroyed by
the Turks. (See SERVIA: History.)
KOSSUTH, FERENCZ LAJOS AKOS (1841- ), Hungarian
statesman, the son of Lajos Kossuth, was born on the i6th of
November 1841, and educated at the Paris Polytechnic and the
London University, where in 1859 he won a prize for political
economy. After working as a civil engineer on the Dean Forest
railway he went (1861) to Italy, where he resided for the next
thirty-three years, taking a considerable part in the railway con-
struction of the peninsula, and at the same time keeping alive
the Hungarian independence question by a whole series of
pamphlets and newspaper articles. At Cesena in 1876 he married
Emily Hoggins. In 1885 he was decorated for his services by the
Italian government. His last great engineering work was the
construction of the steel bridges for the Nile. In 1894 he escorted
his father's remains to Hungary, and the following year resolved
to settle in his native land and took the oath of allegiance. As
early as 1867 he had been twice elected a member of the Hun-
garian diet, but on both occasions refused to accept the mandate.
On the loth of April 1895 he was returned for Tapolca and in 1896
for Cegled, and from that time took an active part in Hungarian
politics. In the autumn of 1898 he became the leader of the
obstructionists or " Independence Party," against the successive
Szell, Khuen-Hadervary, Szapary and Stephen Tisza adminis-
trations (1898 — 1904), exercising great influence not only in
parliament but upon the public at large through his articles in
the Egyettrtes. The elections of 1905 having sent his party back
with a large majority, he was received in audience by the king
and helped to construct the Wekerle ministry, of which he was
one of the most distinguished members.
See Sturm, The Almanack of the Hungarian Diet (1905-1910), art.
"Kossuth" (Hung.) (Budapest, 1905).
KOSSUTH, LAJOS [Louis] (1802-1894), Hungarian patriot,
was born at Monok, a small town in the county of Zemplin, on
the igth of September 1802. His father, who was descended
from an old untitled noble family and possessed a small estate,
was by profession an advocate. Louis, who was the eldest of
four children, received from his mother a strict religious training.
His education was completed at the Calvinist college of Sarospatak
and at the university of Budapest. At the age of nineteen he
returned home and began practice with his father. His talents
and amiability soon won him great popularity, especially among
the peasants. He was also appointed steward to the countess
Szapary, a widow with large estates, and as her representative
had a seat in the county assembly. This position he lost owing
to a quarrel with his patroness, and he was accused of appro-
priating money to pay a gambling debt. His fault cannot have
been very serious, for he was shortly afterwards (he had in the
meantime settled in Pesth) appointed by Count Hunyady to be his
deputy at the National Diet in Pressburg (1825-1827, and again
in 1832). It was a time when, under able leaders, a great
national party was beginning the struggle for reform against the
stagnant Austrian government. As deputy he had no vote, and
he naturally took little share in the debates, but it was part of
his duty to send written reports of the proceedings to his patron,
since the government, with a well-grounded fear of all that might
stir popular feeling, refused to allow any published reports.
Kossuth's letters were so excellent that they were circulated in
MS. among the Liberal magnates, and soon developed into an
organized parliamentary gazette (Orszagyulesi tudositasok) , of
which he was editor. At once his name and influence spread.
In order to increase the circulation, he ventured on lithographing
the letters. This brought them under the official censure, and
was forbidden. He continued the paper in MS., and when the
government refused to allow it to be circulated through the post
sent it out by hand. In 1836 the Diet was dissolved. Kossuth
continued the agitation by reporting in letter form the debates
of the county assemblies, to which he thereby gave a political
KOSSUTH, L.
917
importance which they had not had when each was ignorant of
the proceedings of the others. The fact that he embellished with
his own great literary ability the speeches of the Liberals and
Reformers only added to the influence of his news-letters. The
government in vain attempted to suppress the letters, and other
means having failed, he was in May 1837, with Weszelenyi and
several others, arrested on a charge of high treason. After
spending a year in prison at Ofen, he was tried and condemned
to four more years' imprisonment. His confinement was strict
and injured his health, but he was allowed the use of books. He
greatly increased his political information, and also acquired,
from the study of the Bible and Shakespeare, a wonderful know-
ledge of English. His arrest had caused great indignation. The
Diet, which met in 1839, supported the agitation for the release of
the prisoners, and refused to pass any government measures;
Metternich long remained obdurate, but the danger of war in
1840 obliged him to give way. Immediately after his release
Kossuth married Teresa Meszleny, a Catholic, who during his
prison days had shown great interest in him. Henceforward
she strongly urged him on in his political career; and it was the
refusal of the Roman priests to bless their union that
first prompted Kossuth to take up the defence of mixed
marriages.
He had now become a popular leader. As soon as his
health was restored he was appointed (January 1841) editor of the
Pesti Hirlap, the newly founded organ of the party. Strangely
enough, the government did not refuse its consent. The success
of the paper was unprecedented. The circulation soon reached
what was then the immense figure of 7000. The attempts of
the government to counteract his influence by founding a rival
paper, the Vilag, only increased his importance and added to
the political excitement. The warning of the great reformer
Szechenyi that by his appeal to the passions of the people he
was leading the nation to revolution was neglected. Kossuth,
indeed, was not content with advocating those reforms — the
abolition of entail, the abolition of feudal burdens, taxation of
the nobles — which were demanded by all the Liberals. By in-
sisting on the superiority of the Magyars to the Slavonic inhabi-
tants of Hungary, by his violent attacks on Austria (he already
discussed the possibility of a breach with Austria), he raised the
national pride to a dangerous pitch. At last, in 1844, the gov-
ernment succeeded in breaking his connexion with the paper.
The proprietor, in obedience to orders from Vienna (this seems
the most probable account), took advantage of a dispute about
salary to dismiss him. He then applied for permission to start
a paper of his own. In a personal interview Metternich offered
to take him into the government service. The offer was refused,
and for three years he was without a regular position. He con-
tinued the agitation with the object of attaining both the political
and commercial independence of Hungary. He adopted the
economic principles of List, and founded a society, the " Vede-
gylet," the members of which were to consume none but home
produce. He advocated the creation of a Hungarian port at
Fiume. With the autumn of 1847 the great opportunity of his
life came. Supported by the influence of Louis Batthyany,
after a keenly fought struggle he was elected member for Buda-
pest in the new Diet. " Now that I am a deputy, I will cease
to be an agitator," he said. He at once became chief leader of
the Extreme Liberals. Deak was absent. Batthyany, Szechenyi,
Szemere, Eotvos, his rivals, saw how his intense personal ambition
and egoism led him always to assume the chief place, and to use
his parliamentary position to establish himself as leader of the
nation; but before his eloquence and energy all apprehensions
were useless. His eloquence was of that nature, in its im-
passioned appeals to the strongest emotions, that it required for
its full effect the highest themes and the most dramatic situations.
In a time of rest, though he could never have been obscure,
he would never have attained the highest power. It was there-
fore a necessity of his nature, perhaps unconsciously, always
to drive things to a crisis. The crisis came, and he used it to
the full.
On the 3rd of March 1848, as soon as the news of the revolution
in Paris had arrived, in a speech of surpassing power he demanded
parliamentary government for Hungary and constitutional
government for the rest of Austria. He appealed to the hope of
the Habsburgs, " our beloved Archduke Francis Joseph," to
perpetuate the ancient glory of the dynasty by meeting half-way
the aspirations of a free people. He at once became the leader
of the European revolution; his speech was read aloud in the
streets of Vienna to the mob by which Metternich was overthrown
(March 13), and when a deputation from the Diet visited Vienna
to receive the assent of the emperor to their petition it was
Kossuth who received the chief ovation. Batthyany, who formed
the first responsible ministry, could not refuse to admit Kossuth,
but he gave him the ministry of finance, probably because that
seemed to open to him fewest prospects of engrossing popularity.
If that was the object, it was in vaiix With wonderful energy
he began developing the internal resources of the country: he
established a separate Hungarian coinage — as always, using every
means to increase the national self-consciousness; and it was
characteristic that on the new Hungarian notes which he issued
his own name was the most prominent inscription ; hence the name
of Kossuth Notes, which was long celebrated. A new paper was
started, to which was given the name of Kossuth Hirlapia, so that
from the first it was Kossuth rather than the Palatine or the
president of the ministry whose name was in the minds of the
people associated with the new government. Much more was
this the case when, in the summer, the dangers from the Croats,
Serbs and the reaction at Vienna increased. In a great speech
of nth July he asked that the nation should arm in self-defence,
and demanded 200,000 men; amid a scene of wild enthusiasm
this was granted by acclamation. When Jellachich was march-
ing on Pesth he went from town to town rousing the people to the
defence of the country, and the popular force of the Homed was
his creation. When Batthyany resigned he was appointed with
Szemere to carry on the government provisionally, and at the
end of September he was made President of the Committee of
National Defence. From this time he was in fact, if not in name,
the dictator. With marvellous energy he kept in his own hands
the direction of the whole government. Not a soldier himself,
he had to control and direct the movements of armies; can we
be surprised if he failed, or if he was unable to keep control over
the generals or to establish that military co-operation so essential
to success? Especially it was Gorgei (q.v.) whose great abilities
he was the first to recognize, who refused obedience; the two men
were in truth the very opposite to one another: the one all feeling,
enthusiasm, sensibility; the other cold, stoical, reckless of life.
Twice Kossuth deposed him from the command; twice he had to
restore him. It would have been well if Kossuth had had some-
thing more of Gorgei's calculated ruthlessness, for, as has been
truly said, the revolutionary power he had seized could only b*
held by revolutionary means; but he was by nature soft-hearted
and always merciful; though often audacious, he lacked decision
in dealing with men. It has been said that he showed a want of
personal courage; this is not improbable, the excess of feeling
which made him so great an orator could hardly be combined with
the coolness in danger required of a soldier; but no one was
able, as he was, to infuse courage into others. During all the
terrible winter which followed, his energy and spirit never failed
him. It was he who overcame the reluctance of the army to
march to the relief of Vienna; after the defeat of Schwechat,
at which he was present, he sent Bern to carry on the war in
Transylvania. At the end of the year, when the Austrians were
approaching Pesth, he asked for the mediation of Mr Stiles, the
American envoy. Windischgratz, however, refused all terms,
and the Diet and government fled to Debrecszin, Kossuth taking
with him the regalia of St Stephen, the sacred Palladium of the
Hungarian nation. Immediately after the accession of the
Emperor Francis Joseph all the concessions of March had been
revoked and Kossuth with his colleagues outlawed. In April
1849, when the Hungarians had won many successes, after sound-
ing the army, he issued the celebrated declaration of Hungarian
independence, in which he declared that " the house of Habsburg-
Lorraine, perjured in the sight of God and man, had forfeited
KOSTER— KOSTROMA
the Hungarian throne." It was a step characteristic of his love
for extreme and dramatic action, but it added to the dissensions
between him and those who wished only for autonomy under the
old dynasty, and his enemies did not scruple to accuse him of
aiming at the crown himself. For the time the future form of
government was left undecided, but Kossuth was appointed
responsible governor. The hopes of ultimate success were frus-
trated by the intervention of Russia; all appeals to the western
powers were vain, and on the nth of August Kossuth abdicated
in favour of Gorgei, on the ground that in the last extremity the
general alone could save the nation. How Gorgei used his
authority to surrender is well known; the capitulation was indeed
inevitable, but a greater man than Kossuth would not have
avoided the last duty of conducting the negotiations so as to get
the best terms.
With the capitulation of Villages Kossuth's career was at an
end. A solitary fugitive, he crossed the Turkish frontier. He was
hospitably received by the Turkish authorities, who, supported
by Great Britain, refused, notwithstanding the threats of the
allied emperors, to surrender him and the other fugitives to the
merciless vengeance of the Austrians. In January 1849 he was
removed from Widdin, where he had been kept in honourable
confinement, to Shumla, and thence to Katahia in Asia Minor.
Here he was joined by his children, who had been confined at
Pressburg; his wife (a price had been set on her head) had joined
him earlier, having escaped in disguise. In September 1851 he
was liberated and embarked on an American man-of-war. He
first landed at Marseilles, where he received an enthusiastic
welcome from the people, but the prince-president refused to
allow him to cross France. On the 23rd of October he landed at
Southampton and spent three weeks in England, where he was
the object of extraordinary enthusiasm, equalled only by that
with which Garibaldi was received ten years later. Addresses
were presented to him at Southampton, Birmingham and other
towns; he was officially entertained by the lord mayor of
London; at each place he pleaded the cause of his unhappy
country. Speaking in English, he displayed an eloquence and
command of the language scarcely excelled by the greatest
orators in their own tongue. The agitation had no immediate
effect, but the indignation which he aroused against Russian
policy had much to do with the strong anti-Russian feeling which
made the Crimean War possible.
From England he went to the United States of America:
there his reception was equally enthusiastic, if less dignified; an
element of charlatanism appeared in his words and acts which
soon destroyed his real influence. Other Hungarian exiles pro-
tested against the claim he appeared to make that he was the
one national hero of the revolution. Count Casimir Batthyany
attacked him in The Times, and Szemere, who had been prime
minister under him, published a bitter criticism of his acts and
character, accusing him of arrogance, cowardice and duplicity.
He soon returned to England, where he lived for eight years in
close connexion with Mazzini, by whom, with some misgiving, he
was persuaded to join the Revolutionary Committee. Quarrels of
a kind only too common among exiles followed; the Hungarians
were especially offended by his claim still to be called governor.
He watched with anxiety every opportunity of once more freeing
his country from Austria. An attempt to organize a Hungarian
legion during the Crimean War was stopped ; but in 1859 he entered
into negotiations with Napoleon, left England for Italy, and
began the organization of a Hungarian legion, which was to make
a descent on the coast of Dalmatia. The Peace of Villafranca
made this impossible. From that time he resided in Italy; he
refused to follow the other Hungarian patriots, who, under the
lead of Deak, accepted the composition of 1867; for him there
could be no reconciliation with the house of Habsburg, nor would
he accept less than full independence and a republic. He would
not avail himself of the amnesty, and, though elected to the Diet
of 1867, never took his seat. He never lost the affections of his
countrymen, but he refrained from an attempt to give practical
effect to his opinions, nor did he allow his name to become a new
cause of dissension. A law of 1879, which deprived of citizenship
all Hungarians who had voluntarily been absent ten years, was a
bitter blow to him.
He died in Turin on the 2oth of March 1894; his body was taken
to Pesth, where he was buried amid the mourning of the whole
nation, Maurus Jokai delivering the funeral oration. A bronze
statue, erected by public subscription, in the Kerepes cemetery,
commemorates Hungary's purest patriot and greatest orator.
Many points in Kossuth's career and character will probably always
remain the subject of controversy. His complete works were pub-
lished in Hungarian at Budapest in 1880-1895. The fullest account
of the Revolution is given in Helfert, Geschichte Oesterreichs (Leipzig,
1869, &c.), representing the Austrian view, which may be compared
with that of C. Gracza, History of the Hungarian War of Indepen-
dence, 1848-1849 (in Hungarian) (Budapest, 1894). See also E. O. S.,
Hungary and its Revolutions, -with a Memoir of Louis Kossuth (Bohn,
1854); Horvath, 25 Jahre aus der Geschichte Ungarns, 1823-1848
(Leipzig,! 867) -Maurice, Revolutions of l848-i84Q;\V.H.St\\cs, Austria
in i848-l84Q,(Nevf York, 1852) ; Szemere, Politische Charakterskizzen:
III. Kossuth (Hamburg, 1853); Louis Kossuth, Memoirs of my
Exile (London, 1880); Pulszky, Meine Zeit, mein Leben (Pressburg,
1880) ; A. Somogyi, Lud-wig Kossuth (Berlin, 1894). (J. W. HE.)
KOSTER (or COSTER), LAURENS (c. 1370-1440), Dutch printer,
whose claims to be considered at least one of the inventors of
the art (see TYPOGRAPHY) have been recognized by many investi-
gators. His real name was Laurens Janssoen-Koster {i.e.
sacristan) being merely the title which he bore as an official of
the great parish church of Haarlem. We find him mentioned
several times between 1417 and 1434 as a member of the great
council, as an assessor (scabinus), and as the city treasurer.
He probably perished in the plague that visited Haarlem in
1439-1440; his widow is mentioned in the latter year. His
descendants, through his daughter Lucia, can be traced down
to 1724.
See Peter Scriver, Beschryvinge der Stad Harlem (Haarlem, 1628);
Scheltema, Levensschets van Laurens d. Raster (Haarlem, 1834);
Van der Linde, De Haarlemsche Costerlegende (Hague, 1870).
KOSTROMA, a government of central Russia, surrounded by
those of Vologda, Vyatka, Nizhniy-Novgorod, Vladimir and
Yaroslav, lying mostly on the left bank of the upper Volga.
It has an area of 32,480 sq. m. Its surface is generally undula-
ting, with hilly tracts on the right bank of the Volga, and exten-
sive flat and marshy districts in the east. Rocks of the Permian
system predominate, though a small tract belongs to the Jurassic,
and both are overlain by thick deposits of Quaternary clays.
The soil in the east is for the most part sand or a sandy clay;
a few patches, however, are fertile black earth. Forests, yield-
ing excellent timber for ship-building, and in many cases still
untouched, occupy 61 % of the area of the government. The
export of timber is greatly facilitated by the navigable tributaries
of the Volga, e.g. the Kostroma, Unzha, Neya, Vioksa and
Vetluga. The climate is severe; frosts of -22° F. are common
in January, and the mean temperature of the year is only 3°-!
(summer, 64°- 5; winter, -i3°-3). The population, which num-
bered 1,176,000 in 1870 and 1,424,171 in 1897, is almost entirely
Russian. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,596,700. Out
of 20,000,000 acres, 7,861,500 acres belong to private owners,
6,379,500 to the peasant communities, 3,660,800 to the crown,
and 1,243,000 to the imperial family. Agriculture is at a low
ebb; only 4,000,000 acres are under crops (rye, oats, wheat and
barley), and the yield of corn is insufficient for the wants of the
population. Flax and hops are cultivated to an increasing
extent. But market-gardening is of some importance. Bee-
keeping was formerly an important industry. The chief articles
of commerce are timber, fuel, pitch, tar, mushrooms, and
wooden wares for building and household purposes, which are
largely manufactured by the peasantry and exported to the
steppe governments of the lower Volga and the Don. Boat-
building is also carried on. Some other small industries, such
as the manufacture of silver and copper wares, leather goods,
bast mats and sacks, lace and felt boots, are carried on in the
villages; but the trade in linen and towelling, formerly the staple,
is declining. There are cotton, flax and linen mills, engineering
and chemical works, distilleries, tanneries and paper mills. The
government of Kostroma is divided into twelve districts, the
KOSTROMA— KOTZEBUE, A. F. F. VON
919
chief towns of which, with populations in 1897, are Kostroma
(q.v.), Bui (2626), Chukhloma (2200), Galich (6182), Kineshma
(7564), Kologriv (2566), Makariev (6068), Nerekhta (3002),
Soligalich (3420), Varnavin (1140), Vetluga (5200) and
Yurievets (4778).
KOSTROMA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of
the same name, 230 m. N.N.E. of Moscow and 57 m. E.N.E.
from Yaroslav, on the left bank of the Volga, at the mouth of the
navigable Kostroma, with suburbs on the opposite side of the
Volga. Pop. (1897), 41,268. Its glittering gilded cupolas make
it a conspicuous feature in the landscape as it climbs up the
terraced river bank. It is one of the oldest towns of Russia,
having been founded in 1152. Its fort was often the refuge
of the princes of Moscow during war, but the town was plundered
more than once by the Tatars. The cathedral, built in 1239
and rebuilt in 1773, is situated in the kreml, or citadel, and is a
fine monument of old Russian architecture. In the centre of the
town is a monument to the peasant Ivan Susanin and the tsar
Michael (1851). The former sacrificed his own life in 1669 by
leading the Poles astray in the forests in order to save the life of
his own tsar Michael Fedeorovich. On the opposite bank of the
Volga, close to the water's edge, stands the monastery of Ipati-
yev, founded in 1330, with a cathedral built in 1586, both associ-
ated with the election of Tsar Michael (1669). Kostroma has
been renowned since the i6th century for its linen, which was
exported to Holland, and the manufacture of linen and linen-
yarn is still kept up to some extent. The town has also cotton-
mills, tanneries, saw-mills, an iron-foundry and a machine
factory. It carries on an active trade — importing grain, and
exporting linen, linen yarn, leather, and especially timber and
wooden wares.
KOSZEG (Ger. Guns), a town in the county of Vas, in Hungary,
173 m. W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 7422. It is
pleasantly situated in the valley of the Guns, and is dominated
towards the west by the peaks of Altenhaus (2000 ft.) and of the
Geschriebene Stein (2900 ft.). It possesses a castle of Count
Esterhazy, a modern Roman Catholic Church in Gothic style and
two convents. It has important cloth factories and a lively trade
in fruit and wine. The town has a special historical interest
for the heroic and successful defence of the fortress by Nicolas
Jurisics against a large army of Sultan Soliman, in July-August
1532, which frustrated the advance of the Turks to Vienna for
that year.
To the south-east of Koszeg, at the confluence of the Guns with
the Raab, is situated the town of Sarvar (pop. 3158), formerly
fortified, where in 1526 the first printing press in Hungary was
established.
KOTAH, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency,
with an area of 5684 sq. m. The country slopes gently north-
wards from the high table-land of Malwa, and is drained by
the Chambal with its tributaries, all flowing in a northerly or
north-easterly direction. The Mokandarra range, from 1200
to 1600 ft. above sea-level, runs from south-east to north-west.
The Mokandarra Pass through these hills, in the neighbourhood
of the highest peak (1671 ft.), has been rendered memorable by
the passage of Colonel Monson's army on its disastrous retreat
in 1804. There are extensive game preserves, chiefly covered
with grass. In addition to the usual Indian grains, wheat,
cotton, poppy, and a little tobacco of good quality are cultivated.
The manufactures are very limited. Cotton fabrics are woven,
but are being rapidly superseded by the cheap products of
Bombay, and Manchaster. Articles of wooden furniture are also
constructed. The chief articles of export are opium and grain;
salt, cotton and woollen cloth are imported.
Kotah is an offshoot from Bundi state, having been bestowed
upon a younger son of the Bundi raja by the emperor Shah Jahan
in return for services rendered him when the latter was in rebel-
lion against his father Jahangir. In 1897 a considerable portion
of the area taken to form Jhalawar (q.v.) in 1838 was restored to
Kotah. In 1901 the population was 544,879, showing a decrease
of 24% due to the results of famine. The estimated revenue
is £206,000; tribute, £28,000. The maharao Umad Singh, was
born in 1873, and succeeded in 1889. He was educated at the
Mayo College, Ajmere, and became a major in the British army.
A continuation of the branch line of the Indian Midland rail-
way from Goona to Baran passes through Kotah, and it is also
traversed by a new line, opened in 1909. The state suffered from
drought in 1896-1897, and again more severely in 1899-1900.
The town of Kotah is on the right bank of the Chambal.
Pop. (1901), 33,679. It is surrounded and also divided into three
parts by massive walls, and contains an old and a new palace
of the maharao and a number of fine temples. Muslins are the
chief articles of manufacture, but the town has no great trade,
and this and the unhealthiness of the site may account for the
decrease in population.
KOTAS (Kotar, Koter, Kohatur, Gauhatar), an aboriginal
tribe of the Nilgiri hills, India. They are a well-made people,
of good features, tall, and of a dull copper colour, but some of
them are among the fairest of the hill tribes. They recognize
no caste among themselves, but are divided into keris (streets),
and a man must marry outside his keri. Their villages (of
which there are seven) are large, averaging from thirty to
sixty huts. They are agriculturists and herdsmen, and the only
one of the hill tribes who practise industrial arts, being excellent
as carpenters, smiths, tanners and basket-makers. They do
menial work for the Todas, to whom they pay a tribute. They
worship ideal gods, which are not represented by any images.
Their language is an old and rude dialect of Kanarese. In 1901
they numbered 1267.
KOTKA, a seaport of Finland, in the province of Viborg,
35 m. by rail from Kuivola junction on the Helsingfors railway,
on an island of the same name at the mouth of the Kymmene
river. Pop. (1904), 7628. It is the chief port for exports from
and imports to east Finland and a centre of the timber trade.
KOTRI, a town of British India, in Karachi district, Sind,
situated on the right bank of the Indus. Pop. (1901), 7617.
Kotri is the junction of branches of the North- Western railway,
serving each bank of the Indus, which is here crossed by a railway
bridge. It was formerly the station for Hyderabad, which lies
across the Indus, and the headquarters of the Indus steam
flotilla, now abolished in consequence of the development of
railway facilities. Besides its importance as a railway centre,
however, Kotri still has a considerable general transit trade by
river.
KOTZEBUE, AUGUST FRIEDRICH FERDINAND VON
(1761-1819), German dramatist, was born on the 3rd of May,
1761, at Weimar. After attending the gymnasium of his native
town, he went in his sixteenth year to the university of Jena,
and afterwards studied about a year in Duisburg. In 1780 he
completed his legal course and was admitted an advocate.
Through the influence of Graf Gortz, Prussian ambassador at
the Russian court, he became secretary of the governor-general
of St Petersburg, In 1783 he received the appointment of
assessor to the high court of appeal in Reval, where he married
the daughter of a Russian lieutenant-general. He was ennobled
in 1785, and became president of the magistracy of the province
of Esthonia. In Reval he acquired considerable reputation by
his novels, Die Leiden der Ortenbergischen Familie (1785) and
Geschichte meines Vaters (1788), and still more by the plays
Adelheid von Wulfingen (1789), Menschenhass und Reue (1790)
and Die Indianer in England (1790). The good impression
produced by these works was, however, almost effaced by a
cynical dramatic satire, Doktor Bahrdt mil der eisernen Slim,
which appeared in 1790 with the name of Knigge on the title-
page. After the death of his first wife Kotzebue retired from
the Russian service, and lived for a time in Paris and Mainz;
he then settled in 1795 on an estate which he had acquired near
Reval and gave himself up to literary work. Within a few years
he published six volumes of miscellaneous sketches and stories
(Die jungsten Kinder meiner Laune, 1793-1796) and more than
twenty plays, the majority of which were translated into several
European languages. In 1798 he accepted the office of drama-
tist to the court theatre in Vienna, but owing to differences with
the actors he was soon obliged to resign. He now returned to
920
KOTZEBUE, O. VON— KOUMOUNDOUROS
his native town, but as he was not on good terms with Goethe,
and had openly attacked the Romantic school, his position in
Weimar was not a pleasant one. He had thoughts of returning
to St Petersburg, and on his journey thither he was, for some
unknown reason, arrested at the frontier and transported to
Siberia. Fortunately he had written a comedy which flattered
the vanity of the emperor Paul I.; he was consequently speedily
brought back, presented with an estate from the crown lands
of Livonia, and made director of the German theatre in
St Petersburg. He returned to Germany when the em-
peror Paul died, and again settled in Weimar; he found
it, however, as impossible as ever to gain a footing in
literary society, and turned his steps to Berlin, where in
association with Garlieb Merkel (1769-1850) he edited Der
Freimulige (1803-1807) and began his Almanack dramatischer
Spiele (1803-1820). Towards the end of 1806 he was once
more in Russia, and in the security of his estate in Esthonia
wrote many satirical articles against Napoleon in his journals
Die Biene and Die Grille. As councillor of state he was attached
in 1816 to the department for foreign affairs in St Petersburg,
and in 1817 went to Germany as a kind of spy in the service of
Russia, with a salary of 15,000 roubles. In a weekly journal
(Literarisches Wochenblatt) which he published in Weimar he
scoffed at the pretensions of those Germans who demanded free
institutions, and became an object of such general dislike that
he was obliged to move to Mannheim. He was especially de-
tested by the young enthusiasts for liberty, and one of them, Karl
Ludwig Sand, a theological student, stabbed him, in Mannheim,
on the 23rd of March 1819. Sand was executed, and the govern-
ment made his crime an excuse for placing the universities under
strict supervision.
Besides his plays, Kotzebue wrote several historical works,
which, however, are too one-sided and prejudiced to have much
value. Of more interest are his autobiographical writings,
Meine Flucht nach Paris im Winter 1790 (1791), Uber meinen
Aufenlhalt in Wien (1799), Das merkwurdigsle Jahr meines
Lebens (1801), Erinnerungen aus Paris (1804), and Erinnerungen
von meiner Reise aus Liefland nach Rom und Neapel (1805).
As a dramatist he was extraordinarily prolific, his plays number-
ing over 200; his popularity, not merely on the German, but on
the European stage, was unprecedented. His success, however,
was due less to any conspicuous literary or poetic ability than
to an extraordinary facility in the invention of effective situa-
tions; he possessed, as few German playwrights before or since,
the unerring instinct for the theatre; and his influence on the
technique of the modern drama from Scribe to Sardou and from
Bauernfeld to Sudermann is unmistakable. Kotzebue is to be
seen to best advantage in his comedies, such as Der Wildfang,
Die beiden Klingsberg and Die deutschen Kleinstadter, which
contain admirable genre pictures of German life. These plays
held the stage in Germany long after the once famous Menschen-
hass und Reue (known in England as The Stranger), Graf Ben-
jowsky, or ambitious exotic tragedies like Die Sonnenjungfrau
and Die Spanier in Peru (which Sheridan adapted as Pizarro)
were forgotten.
Two collections of Kotzebue's dramas were published during
his lifetime: Schauspiele (5 vols., 1797); Neue Schauspiele (23 vols.,
1798-1820). His Samtliche dramatische Werke appeared in 44 vols., in
1827-1829, and again, under the title Theater, in 40 vols., in 1840-1841.
A selection of his plays in 10 vols. appeared at Leipzig in 1867—1868.
Cp. H. Doring, A. von Kotzebues Leben (1830); W. von Kotzebue,
A. von Kotzebue (1881); Ch. Rabany, Kotzebue, sa vie et son temps
(1893); W. Sellier, Kotzebue in England, (1901).
KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON (1787-1846), Russian navigator,
second son of the foregoing, was born at Reval on the 3oth of
December 1787. After being educated at the St Petersburg
school of cadets, he accompanied Krusenstern on his voyage of
1803-1806. After his promotion to lieutenant Kotzebue was
placed in command of an expedition, fitted out at the expense of
the imperial chancellor, Count Rumantsoff , in the brig " Rurick."
In this vessel, with only twenty-seven men, Kotzebue set out
on the 3Oth of July 1815 to find a passage across the Arctic
Ocean and explore the less-known parts of Oceania. Proceeding
by Cape Horn, he discovered the Romanzov, Rurik and Krusen-
stern Islands, then made for Kamchatka, and in the middle of
July proceeded northward, coasting along the north-west coast of
America, and discovering and naming Kotzebue Gulf or Sound
and Krusenstern Cape. Returning by the coast of Asia, he
again sailed to the south, sojourned for three weeks at the Sand-
wich Islands, and on the ist of January 1817 discovered New
Year Island. After some further cruising in the Pacific he again
proceeded north, but a severe attack of illness compelling him to
return to Europe, he reached the Neva on the 3rd of August
1818, bringing home a large collection of previously unknown
plants and much new ethnological information. In 1823 Kot-
zebue, now a captain, was entrusted with the command of an
expedition in two ships of war, the main object of which was to
take reinforcements to Kamchatka. There was, however, a
staff of scientists on board, who collected much valuable in-
formation and material in geography, ethnography and natural
history. The expedition, proceeding by Cape Horn, visited the
Radak and Society Islands, and reached Petropavlovsk in July
1 824. Many positions along the coast were rectified, the Naviga-
tor islands visited, and several discoveries made. The expe-
dition returned by the Marianna, Philippine, New Caledonia
and Hawaiian Islands, reaching Kronstadt on the loth of July
1826. There are English translations of both Kotzebue's
narratives: A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and
Beering's Straits for the Purpose of exploring a North-East
Passage, undertaken in the Years 1815-1818 (3 vols. 1821), and
A New Voyage Round the World in the Years 1823-1826 (1830).
Three years after his return from his second voyage, Kotzebue
died at Reval on the i5th of February 1846.
KOUMISS, milk-wine, or milk brandy, a fermented alco-
holic beverage prepared from milk. It is of very ancient
origin, and according to Herodotus was known to the Scythians.
The name is said to be derived from an ancient Asiatic tribe,
the Kumanes or Komans. It is one of the staple articles of diet
of the Siberian and Caucasian races, but of late years it has also
been manufactured on a considerable scale in western Europe,
on account of its valuable medicinal properties. It is generally
made from mares' or camels' milk by a process of fermentation
set up by the addition to the fresh milk of a small quantity of
the finished article. This fermentation, which appears to be
of a symbiotic nature, being dependent on the action of two dis-
tinct types of organisms, the one a fission fungus, the other a
true yeast, eventuates in the conversion of a part of the milk
sugar into lactic acid and alcohol. Koumiss generally contains
i to 2% of alcohol, 0-5 to 1-5% of lactic acid, 2 to 4% of milk
sugar and i to 2% of fat. Kefir is similar to koumiss, but is
usually prepared from cows' milk, and the fermentation is brought
about by the so-called Kefir Grains (derived from a plant).
KOUMOUNDOUROS, ALEXANDROS (1814-1883), Greek
statesman, whose name is commonly spelt Coumoundouros,
was born in 1814. His studies at the university of Athens were
repeatedly interrupted for lack of means, and he began to earn
his living as a clerk. He took part in the Cretan insurrection
of 1841, and in the demonstration of 1843, by which the Greek
constitution was obtained from King Otto, he was secretary to
General Theodoraki Grivas. He then settled down to the bar at
Kalamata in Messenia, where he married a lady belonging to
the Mavromichalis family. He was elected to the chamber in
1851, and four years later his eloquence and ability had secured
the president's chair for him. He became minister of finance
in 1856, and again in 1857 and 1859. He adhered to the moder-
ate wing of the Liberal party until the revolution of 1862 and
the dethronement of King Otto, when he was minister of justice
in the provincial government. He was twice minister of the
interior under Kanaris, in 1864 and in 1865. In March 1865 he
became prime minister, and he formed several subsequent admini-
strations in the intervals of the ascendancy of Tricoupi. During
the Cretan insurrection of 1866-68 he made active warlike
preparations against Turkey, but was dismissed by King George,
who recognized that Greece could not act without the support of
the Powers. He was again premier at the time of the outbreak
KOUSSO— KOVNO
921
of the insurrection in Thessaly in January 1878, and supported
by Delyanni as minister of foreign affairs he sent an army of
10,000 men to help the insurgents against Turkey. The troops
were recalled on the understanding that Greece should be repre-
sented at the Congress of Berlin. In October 1880 the fall of
the Tricoupi ministry restored him to power, when he resumed
his warlike policy, but repeated appeals to the courts of Europe
yielded little practical result, and Koumoundouros was obliged to
reduce his territorial demands and to accept the limited cessions
in Thessaly and Epirus, which were carried out in July 1881.
His ministry was overturned in 1882 by the votes of the new
Thessalian deputies, who were dissatisfied with the administra-
tive arrangements of the new province, and he died at Athens on
the gth of March 1883.
KOUSSO (Kosso or Cusso), a drug which consists of the
panicles of the pistillate flowers of Brayera anthelmintlca, a
handsome rosaceous tree 60 ft. high, growing throughout the
table-land of Abyssinia, at an elevation of 3000 to 8000 ft.
above the sea-level. The drug as imported is in the form of
cylindrical rolls, about 18 in. in length and 2 in. in diameter,
and comprises the entire inflorescence or panicle kept in form by
a band wound transversely round it. The active principle is
koussin or kosin, CaiHsgOio, which is soluble in alcohol and
alkalis, and may be given in doses of thirty grains. KOUSSO
is also used in the form of an unstrained infusion of \ to 5 oz.
of the coarsely powdered flowers, which are swallowed with the
liquid. It is considered to be an effectual vermifuge for Taenia
solium. In its anthelmintic action it is nearly allied to male
fern, but it is much inferior to that drug and is very rarely used
in Great Britain.
KOVALEVSKY, SOPHIE (1850-1891), Russian mathemati-
cian, daughter of General Corvin-Krukovsky, was born at Mos-
cow on the isth of January 1850. As a young girl she was fired
by the aspiration after intellectual liberty that animated so
many young Russian women at that period, and drove them to
study at foreign universities, since their own were closed to them.
This led her, in 1868, to contract one of those conventional
marriages in vogue at the time, with a young student, Walde-
mar Kovalevsky, and the two went together to Germany to
continue their studies. In 1869 she went to Heidelberg, where
she studied under H. von Helmholtz, G.R. Kirchhoff, L. Konigs-
berger and P. du Bois-Reymond, and from 1871-1874 read pri-
vately with Karl Weierstrass at Berlin, as the public lectures
were not then open to women. In 1874 the university of
Gottingen granted her a degree in absentia, excusing her from
the oral examination on account of the remarkable excellence
of the three dissertations sent in, one of which, on the theory
of partial differential equations, is one of her most remarkable
works. Another was an elucidation of P.S. Laplace's mathe-
matical theory of the form of Saturn's rings. Soon after this
she returned to Russia with her husband, who was appointed
professor of palaeontology at Moscow, where he died in 1883.
At this time Madame Kovalevsky was at Stockholm, where
Gustaf Mittag Leffler, also a pupil of Weierstrass, who had been
recently appointed to the chair of mathematics at the newly
founded university, had procured for her a post as lecturer.
She discharged her duties so successfully that in 1884 she was
appointed full professor. This post she held till her death on
the loth of February 1891. In 1888 she achieved the greatest
of her successes, gaining the Prix Bordin offered by the Paris
Academy. The problem set was " to perfect in one important
point the theory of the movement of a solid body round an im-
movable point," and her solution added a result of the highest
interest to those transmitted to us by Leonhard Eulerand J. L.
Lagrange. So remarkable was this work that the value of the
prize was doubled as a recognition of unusual merit. Unfor-
tunately Madame Kovalevsky did not live to reap the full reward
of her labours, for she died just as she had attained the height of
her fame and had won recognition even in her own country by
election to membership of the St Petersburg Academy of Science.
See E. de Kerbedz, " Sophie de Kowalevski," Benidiconti del
circolo mathematico di Palermo (1891); the obituary notice by
G. Mittag Leffler in the Acta mathematica, vol. xvi. ; and J. C. Poggen-
dorff, Biographisch-literarisches Handworterbuch.
KOVNO (in Lithuanian Kauna), a government of north-
western Russia, bounded N. by the governments of Courland
and Vitebsk, S.E. by that of Vilna, and S. and S.W. by Suwalki
and the province of East Prussia, a narrow strip touching the
Baltic near Memel. It has an area of 15,687 sq. m. The level
uniformity of its surface is broken only by two low ridges which
nowhere rise above 800 ft. The geological character is varied,
the Silurian, Devonian, Jurassic and Tertiary systems being all
represented : the Devonian is that which occurs most frequently,
and all are covered with Quaternary boulder-clays. The soil
is either a sandy clay or a more fertile kind of black earth. The
government is drained by the Niemen, Windau, Courland Aa and
Dvina, which have navigable tributaries. In the flat depressions
covered with boulder-clays there are many lakes and marshes,
while forests occupy about 253 %of the surface. The climate is
comparatively mild, the mean temperature at the city of Kovno
being44°F. The population was 1,156,040 in 1870, and 1,553,244
in 1897. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,683,600.
It is varied, consisting of Lithuanians proper and Zhmuds
(together 74%), Jews (14%), Germans (2|%), Poles (9%), with
Letts and Russians; 76-6% are Roman Catholics, 13-7 Jews,
4-5 Protestants, and 5% belong to the Greek Church. Of the
total 788,102 were women in 1897 and 147,878 were classed as
urban. The principal occupation of the inhabitants is agricul-
ture, 63% of the surface being under crops; both grain (wheat,
rye, oats and barley) and potatoes are exported. Flax is culti-
vated and the linseed exported. Dairying flourishes, and horse
and cattle breeding are attracting attention. Fishing is impor-
tant, and the navigation on the rivers is brisk. A variety of
petty domestic industries are carried on by the Jews, but only
to a slight extent in the villages. As many as 18,000 to 24,000
men are compelled every year to migrate in search of work.
The factories consist principally of distilleries, tobacco and steam
flour-mills, and hardware manufactories. Trade, especially the
transit trade, is brisk, from the situation of the government
on the Prussian frontier, the custom-houses of Yerburg and Tau-
roggen being amongst the most important in Russia. The chief
towns of the seven districts into which the government is divided,
with their populations in 1897, are Kovno (q.v.), (Novo-Alexan-
drovsk (6370), Ponevyezh (13,044), Rosieny (7455), Shavli
(15,914), Telshi (6215) and Vilkcmir (13,509).
The territory which now constitutes the government of Kovno
was formerly known as Samogitia and formed part of Lithuania.
During the I3th, i4th and isth centuries the Livonian and Teu-
tonic Knights continually invaded and plundered it, especially
the western part, which was peopled with Zhmuds. In 1569
it was annexed, along with the rest of the principality of Lithu-
ania, to Poland; and it suffered very much from the wars of
Russia with Sweden and Poland, and from the invasion of
Charles XII. in 1701. In 1795 the principality of Lithuania
was annexed to Russia, and until 1872, when the government of
Kovno was constituted, the territory now forming it was a part
of the government of Vilna.
KOVNO, a town and fortress of Russia, capital of the govern-
ment of the same name, stands at the confluence of the Niemen
with the Viliya, 550 m. S.W. of St Petersburg by rail, and 55 m.
from the Prussian frontier. Pop. (1863), 23,937; (1903), 73,743,
nearly one-half being Jews. It consists of a cramped Old Town
and a New Town stretching up the side of the Niemen. It is a
first-class fortress, being surrounded at a mean distance of 2\ m.
by a girdle of forts, eleven in number. The town lies for the most
part in the fork and is guarded by three forts in the direction
of Vilna, one covers the Vilna bridge, while the southern ap-
proaches are protected by seven. Kovno commands and bars
the railway Vilna-Eydtkuhnen. Its factories produce nails,
wire-work and other metal goods, mead and bone-meal. It is
an important entrepot for timber, cereals, flax, flour, spirits,
bone-meal, fish, coal and building-stone passing from and to
Prussia. The city possesses some 15th-century churches. It
was founded in the nth century; and from 1384 to 1398 belonged
922
KOVROV— KRAKATOA
to the Teutonic Knights. Tsar Alexis of Russia plundered
and burnt it in 1655. Here the Russians defeated the Poles on
the 26th of June 1831.
KOVROV, a town of Russia, in the government of Vladimir,
40 m. N.E. of the city of Vladimir by the railway from Moscow to
Nizhniy-Novgorod, and on the Klyazma River. It has railway-
carriage works, cotton mills, steam flour mills, tallow works
and quarries of limestone, and carries on an active trade in the
export of wooden wares and in the import of grain, salt and
fish, brought from the Volga governments. Pop. (1890), 6600;
(1900), 16,806.
KOWTOW, or KOTOU, the Chinese ceremonial act of prostra-
tion as a sign of homage, submission, or worship. The word is
formed from ko, knock, and iou, head. To the emperor, the
" kowtow " is performed by kneeling three times, each act
accompanied by touching the ground with the forehead.
KOZLOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Tambov, on
the Lyesnoi Voronezh River, 4 5 m. W.N. W. of the city of Tambov
by rail. Pop. (1900), 41,555. Kozlov had its origin in a small
monastery, founded in the forest in 1627; nine years later, an
earthwork was raised close by, for the protection of the Russian
frontier against the Tatars. Situated in a very fertile country,
on the highway to Astrakhan and at the head of water com-
munication with the Don, the town soon became a centre
of trade; as the junction of the railways leading to the Sea of
Azov, to Tsaritsyn on the lower Volga, to Saratov and to Orel,
its importance has recently been still further increased. Its
export of cattle, grain, meat, eggs (22,000,000), tallow, hides, &c.,
is steadily growing, and it possesses factories, flour mills, tallow
works, distilleries, tanneries and glue works.
KRAAL, also spelt craal, kraul, &c. (South African Dutch,
derived possibly from a native African word, but probably from
the Spanish corral, Portuguese curral, an enclosure for horses,
cattle and the like), in South and Central Africa, a native
village surrounded by a palisade, mud wall or other fencing
roughly circular in form; by transference, the community living
within the enclosure. Folds for animals and enclosures made
specially for defensive purposes are also called kraals.
KRAFFT (or KRAFT), ADAH (c. 1455-1507), German sculptor,
of the Nuremberg school, was born, probably at Nuremberg,
about the middle of the isth century, and died, some say in the
hospital, at Schwabach, about 1507. He seems to have emerged
as sculptor about 1490, the date of the seven reliefs of scenes
from the life of Christ, which, like almost every other specimen
of his work, are at Nuremberg. The date of his last work, an
Entombment, with fifteen life-size figures, in the Holzschuher
chapel of the St John's cemetery, is 1507. Besides these,
Krafft's chief works are several monumental reliefs in the various
churches of Nuremberg; he produced the great Schreyer monu-
ment (1492) for St Sebald's at Nuremberg, a skilful though
mannered piece of sculpture opposite the Rathaus, with realistic
figures in the costume of the time, carved in a way more suited
to wood than stone, and too pictorial in effect; Christ bearing
the Cross, above the altar of the same church; and various works
made for public and private buildings, as the relief over the door
of the Wagehaus, a St George and the Dragon, several Madonnas,
and some purely decorative pieces, as coats of arms. His master-
piece is perhaps the magnificent tabernacle, 62 ft. high, in the
church of St Laurence (1493-1500). He also made the great
tabernacle for the Host, 80 ft. high, covered with statuettes, in
Ulm Cathedral, and the very spirited " Stations of the Cross " on
the road to the Nuremberg cemetery.
See Adam Kraft und seine Schule, by Friedrich Wanderer (1869) ;
Adam Krafft und die Kunstler seiner Zeit, by Berthold Daun (1897) ;
Albert Gumbel in Repertorium fur Kunstwissenschaft, Bd. xxv. Heft 5,
1902.
KRAGUYEVATS (also written KRAGUIEVATZ and KRAGU-
JEVAC), the capital of the Kraguyevats department of Servia;
situated 59 m. S.S.W. of Belgrade, in a valley of the Shumadia,
or " forest-land," and on the Lepenitsa, a small stream flowing
north-east to join the Morava. On the opposite bank stands the
picturesque hamlet of Obilichevo, with a large powder factory.
Kraguyevats itself is the main arsenal of Servia, and possesses
an iron-foundry and a steam flour-mill. It is the seat of the
district prefecture, of a tribunal, of a fine library, and of a
large garrison. It boasts the finest college building and the
finest modern cathedral (in Byzantine style) in Servia. In
the first years of Servia's autonomy under Prince Milosh, it
was the residence of the prince and the seat of government
(1818-1839). Even later, between 1868 and 1880, the national
assembly (Narodna Skupshtina) usually met there. In 1885 it
was connected by a branch line (Kraguyevats-Lapovo) with
the principal railway (Belgrade-Nish), and thenceforward the
prosperity of the town steadily increased. Pop. (1900), 14,160.
KRAKATOA (KRAKATAO, KRAKATAU), a small volcanic island
in Sunda Strait, between the islands of Java and Sumatra,
celebrated for its eruption in 1883, one of the most stupendous
ever recorded. At some early period a large volcano rose in the
centre of the tract where the Sunda Strait now runs. Long
before any European had visited these waters an explosion took
place by which the mountain was so completely blown away
that only the outer portions of its base were left as a broken ring
of islands. Subsequent eruptions gradually built up a new
series of small cones within the great crater ring. Of these
the most important rose to a height of 2623 ft. above the sea and
formed the peak of the volcanic island of Krakatoa. But com-
pared with the great neighbouring volcanoes of Java and Suma-
tra, the islets of the Sunda Strait were comparatively unknown.
Krakatoa was uninhabited, and no satisfactory map or chart of
it had been made. In 1680 it appears to have been in eruption,
when great earthquakes took place and large quantities of pumice
were ejected. But the effects of this disturbance had been so
concealed by the subsequent spread of tropical vegetation that
the very occurrence of the eruption had sometimes been called
in question. At last, about 1877, earthquakes began to occur
frequently in the Sunda Strait and continued for the next few
years. In 1883 the manifestations of subterranean commotion
became more decided, for in May Krakatoa broke out in erup-
tion. For some time the efforts of the volcano appear to have
consisted mainly in the discharge of pumice and dust, with the
usual accompaniment of detonations and earthquakes. But
on the 26th of August a succession of paroxysmal explosions
began which lasted till the morning of the 28th. The four most
violent took place on the morning of the 27th. The whole of
the northern and lower portion of the island of Krakatoa, lying
within the original crater ring of prehistoric times, was blown
away; the northern part of the cone of Rakata almost entirely
disappeared, leaving a vertical cliff which laid bare the inner
structure of that volcano. Instead of the volcanic island which
had previously existed, and rose from 300 to 1400 ft. above the
sea, there was now left a submarine cavity, the bottom of which
was here and there more than 1000 ft. below the sea-level.
This prodigious evisceration was the result of successive violent
explosions of the superheated vapour absorbed in the molten
magma within the crust of the earth. The vigour and repetition
of these explosions, it has been suggested, may have been caused
by sudden inrushes of the water of the ocean as the throat of
the volcano was cleared and the crater ring was lowered and
ruptured. The access of large bodies of cold water to the top
of the column of molten lava would probably give rise at once
to some minor explosions, and then to a chilling of the surface
of the lava and a consequent temporary diminution or even
cessation of the volcanic eructations. But until the pent-up
water-vapour in the lava below had found relief it would only
gather strength until it was able to burst through the chilled
crust and overlying water, and to hurl a vast mass of cooled
lava, pumice and dust into the air.
The amount of material discharged during the two days of
paroxysmal energy was enormous, though there are no satis-
factory data for even approximately estimating it. A large
cavity was formed where the island had previously stood, and
the sea-bottom around this crater was covered with a wide and
thick sheet of fragmentary materials. Some of the surrounding
islands received such a thick accumulation of ejected stones and
KRAKEN— KRASNOVODSK
923
dust as to bury their forests and greatly to increase the area of
the land. So much was the sea filled up that a number of new
islands rose above its level. But a vast body of the fine dust
was carried far and wide by aerial currents, while the floating
pumice was transported for many hundreds of miles on the sur-
face of the ocean. At Batavia, 100 m. from the centre of erup-
tion, the sky was darkened by the quantity of ashes borne across
it, and lamps had to be used in the houses at midday. The
darkness even reached as far as Bandong, a distance of nearly
150 miles. It was computed that the column of stones, dust
and ashes projected from the volcano shot up into the air for a
height of 17 m. or more. The finer particles coming into the
higher layers of the atmosphere were diffused over a large part
of the surface of the earth, and showed their presence by the
brilliant sunset glows to which they gave rise. Within the
tropics they were at first borne along by air-currents at
an estimated rate of about 73 m. an hour from east to
west, until within a period of six weeks they were diffused over
nearly the whole space between the latitudes 30° N. and 45° S.
Eventually they spread northwards and southwards and were
carried over North and South America, Europe, Asia, South
Africa and Australasia. In the Old World they spread from the
north of Scandinavia to the Cape of Good Hope.
Another remarkable result of this eruption was the world-wide
disturbance of the atmosphere. The culminating paroxysm
on the morning of the 27th of August gave rise to an atmospheric
wave or oscillation, which, travelling outwards from the vol-
cano as a centre, became a great circle at 180° from its point
of origin, whence it continued travelling onwards and contracting
till it reached a node at the antipodes to Krakatoa. It was then
reflected or reproduced, travelling backwards again to the
volcano, whence it once more returned in its original direction.
" In this manner its repetition was observed not fewer than
seven times at many of the stations, four passages having been
those of the wave travelling from Krakatoa, and three those
of the wave travelling from its antipodes, subsequently to which
its traces were lost " (Sir R. Strachey).
The actual sounds of the volcanic explosions were heard over a
vast area, especially towards the west. Thus they were noticed
at Rodriguez, nearly 3000 English miles away, at Bangkok
(1413 m.), in the Philippine Islands (about 1450 m.), in Ceylon
(2058 m.) and in West and South Australia (from 1300 to
2250 m.). On no other occasion have sound-waves ever been
perceived at anything like the extreme distances to which the
detonations of Krakatoa reached.
Not less manifest and far more serious were the effects of the
successive explosions of the volcano upon the waters of the
ocean. A succession of waves was generated which appear to
have been of two kinds, long waves with periods of more than an
hour, and shorter but higher waves, with irregular and much
briefer intervals. The greatest disturbance, probably resulting
from a combination of both kinds of waves, reached a height of
about 50 ft. The destruction caused by the rush of such a body
of sea-water along the coasts and low islands was enormous.
All vessels lying in harbour or near the shore were stranded,
the towns, villages and settlements close to the sea were either
at once, or by successive inundations, entirely destroyed, and
more than 36,000 human beings perished. The sea-waves
travelled to vast distances from the centre of propagation. The
long wave reached Cape Horn (7818 geographical miles) and
possibly the English Channel (11,040 m.). The shorter waves
reached Ceylon and perhaps Mauritius (2900 m.).
See R. D. M. Verbeek, Krakalau (Batavia, 1886) ; " The Eruption
of Krakatoa and Subsequent Phenomena," Report of the Krakatoa
Committee of the Royal Society (London, 1888).
KRAKEN, in Norwegian folk-lore, a sea-monster, believed to
haunt the coasts of Norway. It was described in 1752 by the
Norwegian bishop Pontoppidan as having a back about a mile
and a half round and a body which showed above the sea like
an island, and its arms were long enough to enclose the largest
ship. The further assertion that the kraken darkened the water |
around it by an excretion suggests that the myth was based on
the appearance of some gigantic cuttle-fish.
See J. Gibson, Monsters of the Sea (1887) ; A. S. Packard, " Colossal
Cuttle-fishes," American Naturalist (Salem, 1873), vol. vii.; A. E.
Verrill, " The Colossal Cephalopods of the Western Atlantic," in
American Naturalist (Salem, 1875), vol. ix.; and " Gigantic Squids,"
in Trans, of Connecticut Academy (1879), vo'- v-
KRALYEVO (sometimes written KRALJEVO or KRALIEVO), a
city of Servia, and capital of a department bearing the same
name. Kralyevo is built beside the river Ibar, 4 m. W. of its con-
fluence with the Servian Morava; and in the midst of an upland
valley, between the Kotlenik Mountains, on the north, and the
Stolovi Mountains, on the south. Formerly known as Karano-
vats, Kralyevo received its present name, signifying " the King's
Town," from King Milan (1868-1889), wno als° made it a bishop-
ric, instead of Chachak, 22 m. W. by N. Kralyevo is a garrison
town, with a prefecture, court of first instance, and an agricultural
school. But by far its most interesting feature is the Coronation
church belonging to Jicha monastery. Here six or seven kings
are said to have been crowned. The church is Byzantine in
style, and has been partially restored ; but the main tower dates
from the year 1210, when it was founded by St Sava, the patron
saint of Servia. Pop. (1900), about 3600.
The famous monastery of Studenitsa, 24 m. S. by W. of Kral-
yevo, stands high up among the south-western mountains,
overlooking the Studenitsa, a tributary of the Ibar. It consists
of a group of old-fashioned timber and plaster buildings, a tall
belfry, and a diminutive church of white marble, founded in
1190 by King Stephen Nemanya, who himself turned monk and
was canonized as St Simeon. The carvings round the north,
south and west doors have been partially defaced by the Turks.
The inner walls are decorated with Byzantine frescoes, among
which only a painting of the Last Supper, and the portraits of
five saints, remain unrestored. The dome and narthex are
modern additions. Besides the silver shrine of St Simeon, many
gold and silver ornaments, church vessels and old manuscripts,
there are a set of vestments and a reliquary, believed by the
monks to have been the property of St Sava.
KRANTZ (ortCRANTz), ALBERT (c. 1450-1517), German his-
torian, was a native of Hamburg. He studied law, theology and
history at Rostock and Cologne, and after travelling through
western and southern Europe was appointed professor, first of
philosophy and subsequently of theology, in the university of
Rostock, of which he was rector in 1482. ^^1493 he returned
to Hamburg as theological lecturer, canon and prebendary in
the cathedral. By the senate of Hamburg he was employed on
more than one diplomatic mission abroad, and in 1500 he was
chosen by the king of Denmark and the duke of Holstein as
arbiter in their dispute regarding the province of Dithmarschen.
As dean of the cathedral chapter, to which office he was appointed
in 1508, Krantz applied himself with zeal to the reform of eccle-
siastical abuses, but, though opposed to various corruptions
connected with church discipline, he had little sympathy with
the drastic measures of Wycliffe or Huss. With Luther's pro-
test against the abuse of Indulgences he was in general sympathy,
but with the reformer's later attitude he could not agree. When,
on his death-bed, he heard of the ninety-five theses, he is said, on
good authority, to have exclaimed: " Brother, Brother, go into
thy cell and say, God have mercy upon me!" Krantz died
on the 7th of December 1517.
Krantz was the author of a number of historical works which for
the period when they were written are characterized by exceptional
impartiality and research. The principal of these are Chronica
regnorum aquilonarium Daniae, Sueciae, et Norvagiae (Strassburg,
1546); Vandalia, sive Historia de Vandalorum vera origine, &c.
(Cologne, 1518); Saxonia (1520); and Metropolis, sive Historia de
ecclesiis sub Carolo Magno in Saxonia (Basel, 1548). See life by
N. Wilckens (Hamburg, 1722).
KRASNOVOOSK, a seaport of Russian Transcaspia, on the
N. shore of Balkhan or Krasnovodsk Bay, on the S. side of the
Caspian Sea, opposite to Baku, and at 69 ft. below sea-leveL
Pop. (1897), 6359. It is defended by a fort. Here begins the
Transcaspian railway to Merv and Bokhara. There is a fishing
924
KRASNOYARSK— KRA WANG
industry, and salt and sulphur are obtained. Krasnovodsk,
which is the capital of the Transcaspian province, was founded
in 1869.
KRASNOYARSK, a town of Eastern Siberia, capital of the
government of Yeniseisk, on the left bank of the Yenisei River,
at its confluence with the Kacha, and on the highway from Mos-
cow to Irkutsk, 670 m. by rail N. W. from the latter. Pop. ( 1 900) ,
33»337- It has a municipal museum and a railway technical
school. It was founded by Cossacks in 1628, and during the
early years of its existence it was more than once besieged by the
Tatars and the Kirghiz. Its commercial importance depends
entirely upon the gold-washings of the Yeniseisk district.
Brick-making, soap-boiling, tanning and iron-founding are
carried on. The climate is very cold, but dry. The Yenisei
River is frozen here for 160 days in the year.
KRASZEWSKI, JOSEPH IGNATIUS (1812-1887), Polish
novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Warsaw on the
28th of July 1812, of an aristocratic family. He showed a
precocious talent for authorship, beginning his literary career
with a volume of sketches from society as early as 1829, and for
more than half a century scarcely ever intermitting his literary
production, except during a period of imprisonment upon a
charge of complicity in the insurrection of 1831. He narrowly
escaped being sent to Siberia, but, rescued by the intercession
of powerful friends, he settled upon his landed property near
Grodno, and devoted himself to literature with such industry
that a mere selection from his fiction alone, reprinted at Lemberg
from 1871 to 1875, occupies 102 volumes. He was thus the most
conspicuous literary figure of his day in Poland. His extreme
fertility was suggestive of haste and carelessness, but he declared
that the contrivance of his plot gave him three times as much
trouble as the composition ol his novel. Apart from his gifts
as a story-teller, he did not possess extraordinary mental powers;
the " profound thoughts " culled from his writings by his admir-
ing biographer Bohdanowicz are for the most part mere truisms.
His copious invention is nevertheless combined with real truth
to nature, especially evinced in the beautiful little story of
Jermola the Potter (1857), from which George Eliot appears to
have derived the idea of Silas Marner, though she can only have
known it at second hand. Compared with the exquisite art of
Silas Marner, Jermola appears rude and unskilful, but it is not
on this account the less touching in its fidelity to the tenderest
elements of human nature. Kraszewski's literary activity falls
into two well-marked epochs, the earlier when, residing upon his
estate, he produced romances like Jermola, Ulana (1843),
Kordecki (1852), devoid of any special tendency, and that after
1863, when the suspicions of the Russian government compelled
him to settle in Dresden. To this period belong several political
novels published under the pseudonym of Boleslawita, historical
fictions such as Countess Cosel, and the " culture " romances
Moriluri (1874-1875) and Resurrecluri (1876), by which he is
perhaps best known out of his own country. In 1884 he was
accused of plotting against the German government and
sentenced to seven years' imprisonment in a fortress, but was
released in 1886, and withdrew to Geneva, where he died on the
ipth of March 1887. His remains were brought to Poland and
interred at Cracow. Kraszewski was also a poet and dramatist;
his most celebrated poem is his epic Anafielas (3 vols., 1840-1843)
on the history of Lithuania. He was indefatigable as literary
critic, editor and translator, wrote several historical works, and
was conspicuous as a restorer of the study of national archaeo-
logy in Poland. Among his most valuable works were Litwa
(Warsaw, 2 vols., 1847-1850), a collection of Lithuanian anti-
quities; and an aesthetic history of Poland (Posen, 3 vols.,
1873-1875)- (R.G.)
KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1781-1832),
German philosopher, was born at Eisenberg on the 4th of May
1781, and died at Munich on the 27th of September 1832.
Educated at first at Eisenberg, he proceeded to Jena, where he
studied philosophy under Hegel and Fichte and became prival-
dozent in 1802. In the same year, with characteristic impru-
dence, he married a wife without dowry. Two years after,
lack of pupils compelled him to move to Rudolstadt and later to
Dresden, where he gave lessons in music. In 1805 his ideal of a
universal world-society led him to join the Freemasons, whose
principles seemed to tend in the direction he desired. He
published two books on Freemasonry, Die drei altesten Kunst-
urkunden der Freimaurerbriiderschaft and Hohere Vergeistigung
der echt uberlieferten Grundsymbole der Freimaurerei, but his
opinions drew upon him the opposition of the Masons. He
lived for a time in Berlin and became a privatdozent, but was
unable to obtain a professorship. He therefore proceeded to
Gottingen and afterwards to Munich, where he died of apoplexy
at the very moment when the influence of Franz von Baader
had at last obtained a position for him.
One of the so-called " Philosophers of Identity," Krause en-
deavoured to reconcile the ideas of a God known by Faith or
Conscience and the world as known to sense. God, intuitively
known by Conscience, is not a personality (which implies limita-
tions), but an all-inclusive essence (Wesen), which contains the
Universe within itself. This system he called Panentheism, a com-
bination of Theism and Pantheism. His theory of the world and
of humanity is universal and idealistic. The world itself and man-
kind, its highest component, constitute an organism (Gliedbau),
and the universe is therefore a divine organism (Wesengliedbau).
The process of development is the formation of higher unities,
and the last stage is the identification of the world with God.
The form which this development takes, according to Krause,
is Right or the Perfect Law. Right is not the sum of the condi-
tions of external liberty but of absolute liberty, and embraces all
the existence of nature, reason and humanity. It is the mode, or
rationale, of all progress from the lower to the highest unity or
identification. By its operation the reality of nature and reason
rises into the reality of humanity. God is the reality which
transcends and includes both nature and humanity. Right is,
therefore, at once the dynamic and the safeguard of progress.
Ideal society results from the widening of the organic operation
of this principle from the individual man to small groups of men,
and finally to mankind as a whole. The differences disappear
as the inherent identity of structure predominates in an ever-
increasing degree, and in the final unity Man is merged in
God.
The comparatively small area of Krause's influence was due
partly to the overshadowing brilliance of Hegel, and partly to
two intrinsic defects. The spirit of his thought is mystical and
by no means easy to follow, and this difficulty is accentuated,
even to German readers, by the use of artificial terminology.
He makes use of germanized foreign terms which are unintelli-
gible to the ordinary man. His principal works are (beside those
quoted above): Entwurf des Systems der Philosophic (1804);
System der Siltenlehre (1810); Das Urbild der Menschheit (1811);
and Vorlesungen iiber das System der Philosophic (1828). He left
behind him at his death a mass of unpublished notes, part of
which has been collected and published by his disciples,
H. Ahrens (1808-1874), Leonhardi, Tiberghien and others.
See H. S. Lindemann, Uebersichtliche Darstellung des Lebens . . .
Krauses (1839); P. Hohlfeld, Die Krausesche Philosophic (1879);
A. Procksch, Krause, ein Lebensbild nach seinen Brief en (1880);
R. Eucken, Zur Erinnerung an Krause (1881); B. Martin, Krauses
Leben und Bedeutung (1881), and Histories of Philosophy by Zeller,
Windelband and Hoffding.
KRAWANG, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East
Indies, bounded E. and S. by Charibon and the Preanger, W. by
Batavia, and N. by the Java Sea, and comprising a few insig-
nificant islands. The natives are Sundanese, but contain a
large admixture of Middle Javanese and Bantamers in the north,
where they established colonies in the i7th century. Like the
residency of Batavia, the northern half of Krawang is flat and
occasionally marshy, while the southern half is mountainous
and volcanic. Warm and cold mineral, salt and sulphur springs
occur in the hills. Salt is extracted by the government, though
in smaller quantities now than formerly. The principal products
are rice, coffee, sugar, vanilla, indigo and nutmeg. Fishing is
practised along the coast and forest culture in the hills, while the
KRAY VON KRAJOVA— KREUTZER, R.
925
industries also include the manufacture of coarse linen, sacks
and leather tanning. Gold and silver were formerly thought to
be hidden in the Parang mountain in the Gandasoli district
south-west of Purwakarta, and mining was begun by the Dutch
East India Company in 1722. The largest part of the residency
consists of private lands, and only the Purwakarta and Krawang
divisions forming the middle and north-west sections come
directly under government control. The remainder of the
residency is divided between the Pamanukan-Chiasem lands
occupying the whole eastern half of the residency and the
Tegalwaru lands in the south-western corner. The former is
owned by a company and forms the largest estate in Java.
The Tegalwaru is chiefly owned by Chinese proprietors.
Purwakarta is the capital of the residency. Subang and
Pama^iukan both lie at the junction of several roads near the
borders of Cheribon and are the chief centres of activity in the
east of the residency.
KRAY VON KRAJOVA, PAUL, FREIHERR (1735-1804),
Austrian soldier. Entering the Austrian army at the age of
nineteen, he arrived somewhat rapidly at the grade of major,
but it was many years before he had any opportunity of distin-
guishing himself. In 1784 he suppressed a rising in Transyl-
vania, and in the Turkish wars he took an active part at Porczeny
and the Vulcan Pass. Made major-general in 1790, three years
later he commanded the advanced guard of the Allies operating
in France. He distinguished himself at Famars, Charleroi,
Fleurus, Weissenberg, and indeed at almost every encounter with
the troops of the French Republic. In the celebrated campaign
of 1796 on the Rhine and Danube he did conspicuous service as
a corps commander. At Wetzlar he defeated Kleber, and at
Amberg and Wiirzburg he was largely responsible for the victory
of the archduke Charles. In the following year he was less
successful, being twice defeated on the Lahn and the Main.
Kray commanded in Italy in 1799, and reconquered from the
French the plain of Lombardy. For his victories of Verona,
Mantua, Legnago and Magnano he was promoted Feldzeugmeister,
and he ended the campaign by further victories at Novi and
Fossano. Next year he commanded on the Rhine against
Moreau. (For the events of this memorable campaign see
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS.) As a consequence of the
defeats he underwent at Biberach, Messkirch, &c., Kray was
driven into Ulm, but by a skilful march round Moreau's flank
succeeded in escaping to Bohemia. He was relieved of his
command by the Austrian government, and passed his remaining
years in retirement. He died in 1804. Kray was one of the
best representatives of the old Austrian army. Tied to an
obsolete system and unable from habit to realize the changed
conditions of warfare, he failed, but his enemies held him in the
highest respect as a brave, skilful and chivalrous opponent. It
was he who at Altenkirchen cared for the dying Marceau, and
the white uniforms of Kray and his staff mingled with the blue
of the French in the funeral procession of the young general of
the Republic.
KREMENCHUG, a town of south-west Russia, in the govern-
ment of Poltava, on the left bank of the Dnieper (which periodi-
cally overflows its banks), 73 m. S.W. of the city of Poltava, on
the Kharkov-Nikolayev railway. Pop. (1887), 31,000; (1897,
with Kryukov suburb), 58,648. The most notable public
buildings are the cathedral (built in 1808), the arsenal and
the town-hall. The town is supposed to have been founded in
1571. From its situation at the southern terminus of the
navigable course of the Dnieper, and on the highway from
Moscow to Odessa, it early acquired great commercial importance,
and by 1655 it was a wealthy town. From 1765 to 1789 it was
the capital of " New Russia." It has a suburb, Kryukov, on the
right bank of the Dnieper, united with the town by a railway
bridge. Nearly all commercial transactions in salt with White
Russia are effected at Kremenchug. The town is also the centre
of the tallow trade with Warsaw; considerable quantities of
timber are floated down to this place. Nearly all the trade in
the brandy manufactured in the government of Kharkov, and
destined for the governments of Ekaterinoslav and Taurida,
is concentrated here, as also is the trade in linseed between the
districts situated on the left affluents of the Dnieper and the
southern ports. Other articles of commerce are rye, rye-flour,
wheat, oats and buckwheat, which are sent partly up the Dnieper
to Pinsk, partly by land to Odessa and Berislav, but principally
to Ekaterinoslav, on light boats floated down during the spring
floods. The Dnieper is crossed at Kremenchug by a tubular
bridge 1081 yds. long; there is also a bridge of boats. The
manufactures consist of carriages, agricultural machinery,
tobacco, steam flour-mills, steam saw-mills and forges.
KREMENETS (Polish, Krzemieniec) , a town of south-west
Russia, in the government of Volhynia, 130 m. W. of Zhitomir,
and 25 m. E. of Brody railway station (Austrian Galicia). Pop.
(1900), 16,534. It is situated in a gorge of the Kremenets Hills
The Jews, who are numerous, carry on a brisk trade in tobacco
and grain exported to Galicia and Odessa. The picturesque
ruins of an old castle on a crag close by the town are usually
known as the castle of Queen Bona, i.e. Bona Sforza (wife of
Sigismund I. of Poland); it was built, however, in the 8th or 9th
century. The Mongols vainly besieged it in 1241 and 1255.
From that time Kremenets was under the dominion alternately
of Lithuania and Poland, till 1648, when it was taken by the
Zaporogian Cossacks. From 1805 to 1832 its Polish lyceum was
the centre of superior instruction for the western provinces
of Little Russia; but after the Polish insurrection of 1831 the
lyceum was transferred to Kiev, and is now the university of
that town.
KREMS, a town of Austria, in lower Austria, 40 m. W.N.W.
of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 12,657. It is situated at the
confluence of the Krems with the Danube. The manufactures
comprise steel goods, mustard and vinegar, and a special kind of
white lead (Kremser Weiss) is prepared from deposits in the
neighbourhood. The trade is mainly in these products and in
wine and saffron. The Danube harbour of Krems is at the
adjoining town of Stein (pop., 4299).
KREMSIER, (Czech, Kromlftz), a. town of Austria, in Moravia,
37 m. E. by N. of Briinn by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,991, mostly
Czech. It is situated on the March, in the fertile region of the
Hanna, and not far from the confluence of these two rivers. It
is the summer residence of the bishop of Olrnutz, whose palace,
surrounded by a fine park and gardens, and containing a picture
gallery, library and various collections, forms the chief object
of interest. Its industries include the manufacture of machi-
nery and iron-founding, brewing and corn-milling, and there is a
considerable trade in corn, cattle, fruit and manufactures. In
1131 Kremsier was the seat of a bishopric. It suffered con-
siderably during the Hussite war; and in 1643 it was taken and
burned by the Swedes. After the rising of 1848 the Austrian
parliament met in the palace at Kremsier from November 1848
till March 1849. In August 1885 a meeting took place here
between the Austrian and the Russian emperors.
KREUTZER, KONRADIN (1780-1849), German musical
composer, was born on the 22nd of November 1780 in Messkirch
in Baden, and died on the i4th of December 1849 in Riga. He
owes his fame almost exclusively to one opera, Das Nachtlager
von Granada (1834), which kept the stage for half a century in
spite of the changes in musical taste. It was written in the style
of Weber, and is remarkable especially for its flow of genuine
melody and depth of feeling. The same qualities are found in
Kreutzer's part-songs for men's voices, which at one time were
extremely popular in Germany, and are still listened to with
pleasure. Amongst these " Der Tag des Herrn " (" The Lord's
Day") may be named as the most excellent. Kreutzer was a
prolific composer, and wrote a number of operas for the theatre
at Vienna, which have disappeared from the stage and are not
likely to be revived. He was from 1812 to 1816 Kapellmeister
to the king of Wiirttemberg, and in 1840 became conductor of
the opera at Cologne. His daughter, Cecilia Kreutzer, was a
singer of some renown.
KREUTZER, RUDOLPH (1766-1831), French violinist, of
German extraction, was born at Versailles, his father being a
musician in the royal chapel. Rudolph gradually became
926
KREUZBURG— KRILOFF
famous as a violinist, playing with great success at various
continental capitals. It was to him that in 1803 Beethoven
dedicated his famous violin sonata (op. 47) known as the
" Kreutzer." Apart., however, from his fame as a violinist,
Kreutzer was also a prolific composer; he wrote twenty-nine
operas, many of which were successfully produced, besides
nineteen violin concertos and chamber music. He died at
Geneva in 1831.
KREUZBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, on the Stober, 24 m. N.N.E. of Oppeln. Pop. (i9°5)>
10,919. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a
gymnasium and a teacher's seminary. Here are flour-mills,
distilleries, iron-works, breweries, and manufactories of sugar and
of machinery. Kreuzburg, which became a town in 1252, was
the birthplace of the novelist Gustav Freytag.
KREUZNACH (CREUZNACH), a town and watering-place of
Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, situated on the Nahe,
a tributary of the Rhine, 9 m. by rail S. of Bingerbriick. Pop.
(1900), 21,321. It consists of the old town on the right bank of
the river, the new town on the left, and the Bade Insel (bath
island), connected by a fine stone bridge. The town has two
Evangelical and three Roman Catholic churches, a gymnasium,
a commercial school and a hospital. There is a collection of
Roman and medieval antiquities, among which is preserved a
fine Roman mosaic discovered in 1893. On the Bade Insel
is the Kurhaus (1872) and also the chief spring, the Elisabeth-
quelle, impregnated with iodine and bromine, and prescribed
for scrofulous, bronchial and rheumatic disorders. The chief
industries are marble-polishing and the manufacture of leather,
glass and tobacco. Vines are cultivated on the neighbouring
hills, and there is a trade in wine and corn.
The earliest mention of the springs of Kreuznach occurs in
1478, but it was only in the early part of the igth century that
Dr Prieger, to whom there is a statue in the town, brought them
into prominence. Now the annual number of visitors amounts
to several thousands. Kreuznach was evidently a Roman town,
as the ruins of a Roman fortification, the Heidenmauer, and
various antiquities have been found in its immediate neighbour-
hood. In the gth century it was known as Cruciniacum, and it
had a palace of the Carolingian kings. In 1065 the emperor
Henry IV. presented it to the bishopric of Spires; in the I3th
century it obtained civic privileges and passed to the counts of
Sponheim; in 1416 it became part of the Palatinate. The town
was ceded to Prussia in 1814. In 1689 the French reduced the
strong castle of Kauzenberg to the ruin which now stands on a
hill above Kreuznach.
See Schneegans, Historisch-lopographische Beschreibung Kreuz-
nachs und seiner Umgebung (7th ed., 1904) ; Engelmann, Kreuznach
•und seine Heilquellen (8th ed., 1890); and Stabel, Das Solbad
Krcu'nach fur Arzte dargestellt (Kreuznach, 1887).
KRIEGSPIEL (KRIEGSSPIEL), the original German name,
still used to some extent in England, for the War Game (<?.».).
KRIEMHILD (GRIMHILD), the heroine of the Nibelungenlied
and wife of the hero Siegfried. The name (from O. H. Ger. grlma,
a mask or helm, and kiltja or hilta, war) means " the masked
warrior woman," and has been taken to prove her to have been
originally a mythical, daemonic figure, an impersonation of the
powers of darkness and of death. In the north, indeed, the name
Grimhildr continued to have a purely mythical character and
to be applied only to daemonic beings; but in Germany, the
original home of the Nibelungen myth, it certainly lost all trace
of this significance, and in the Nibelungenlied Kriemhild is no
more than a beautiful princess, the daughter of King Dancrat
and Queen Uote, and sister of the Burgundian kings Gunther,
Giselhfir and Gern6t, the masters of the Nibelungen hoard. As
she appears in the Nibelungen legend, however, Kriemhild
would seem to have an historical origin, as the wife of Attila,
king of the Huns, as well as sister of the Nibelung kings. Accord-
ing to Jordanes (c. 49), who takes his information from the con-
temporary and trustworthy account of Priscus, Attila died of
a violent hemorrhage at night, as he lay beside a girl named
Iklico (i.e. O. H. Ger. Hildik6). The story got abroad that he
had perished by the hand of a woman in revenge for her relations
slain by him; according to some (e.g. Saxo Poeta and the Qued-
linburg chronicle) it was her father whom she revenged; but
when the treacherous overthrow of the Burgundians by Attila
had become a theme for epic poets, she figured as a Burgundian
princess, and her act as done in revenge for her brothers. Now
the name Hildiko is the diminutive of Hilda or Hild, which again
— in accordance with a custom common enough — may have
been used as an abbreviation of Grimhild (cf. Hildr for Bryn-
hildr). It has been suggested (Symons, Heldensage, p. 55) that
when the legend of the overthrow of the Burgundians, which
took place in 437, became attached to that of the death of Attila
(453), Hild, the supposed sister of the Burgundian kings, was
identified with the daemonic Grimhild, the sister of the mythical
Nibelung brothers, and thus helped the process by whicTi the
Nibelung myth became fused with the historical story of the
fall of the Burgundian kingdom. The older story, according to
which Grimhild slays her husband Attila in revenge for her
brothers, is preserved in the Norse tradition, though Grimhild's
part is played by Gudrun, a change probably due to the fact,
mentioned above, that the name Grimhild still retained in the
north its sinister significance. The name of Grimhild is trans-
ferred to Gudrun's mother, the " wise wife," a semi-daemonic
figure, who brews the potion that makes Sigurd forget his love
for Brunhild and his plighted troth. In the Nibelungenlied,
however, the primitive supremacy of the blood-tie has given
place to the more modern idea of the supremacy of the passion of
love, and Kriemhild marries Attila (Etzel) in order to compass
the death of her brothers, in revenge for the murder of Siegfried.
Theodor Abeling, who is disposed to reject or minimize the
mythical origins, further suggests a confusion of the story of
Attila's wife Ildico with that of the murder of Sigimund the
Burgundian by the sons of Chrothildis, wife of Clovis. (See
NIBELUNGENLIED.)
See B. Symons, Germanische Heldensage (Strassburg, 1905) ; F.
Zarnke, Das Nibelungenlied, p. ii. (Leipzig, 1875); T. Abeling,
Einleitung in das Nibelungenlied (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1909).
(W.A. P.)
KRILOFF (or KRUILOV), IVAN ANDREEVICH (1768-1844),
the great national fabulist of Russia, was born on the I4th of
February 1 768, at Moscow, but his early years were spent at Oren-
burg and Tver. His father, a distinguished military officer, died
in 1779; and young Kriloff was left with no richer patrimony than
a chest of old books, to be brought up by the exertions of a heroic
mother. In the course of a few years his mother removed to
St Petersburg, in the hope of securing a government pension; and
there Kriloff obtained a post in the civil service, but he gave it
up immediately after his mother's death in 1788. Already in
1 783 he had sold to a bookseller a comedy of his own composition,
and by this means had procured for himself the works of Moliere,
Racine, Boileau; and now, probably under the influence of these
writers, he produced Philomela and Cleopatra, which gave him
access to the dramatic circle of Knyazhin. Several attempts
he made to start a literary magazine met with little success;
but, together with his plays, they served to make the author
known in society. For about four years (1797-1801) Kriloff
lived at the country seats of Prince Sergius Galitzin, and when
the prince was appointed military governor of Livonia he accom-
panied him as official secretary. Of the years which follow his
resignation of this post little is known, the common opinion
being that he wandered from town to town under the influence
of a passion for card-playing. Before long he found his place
as a fabulist, the first collection of his Fables, 23 in number,
appearing in 1809. From 1812 to 1841 he held a congenial
appointment in the Imperial Public Library — first as assistant,
and then as head of the Russian books department. He died
on the 2ist of November 1844. His statue in the Summer
Garden is one of the finest monuments in St Petersburg.
Honours were showered upon Kriloff while he yet lived: the
Academy of Sciences admitted him a member in 1811, and be-
stowed upon him its gold medal; in 1838 a great festival was held
under imperial sanction to celebrate the jubilee of his first
KRISHNA— KRONSTADT
927
appearance as an author; and the emperor assigned him a hand-
some pension. Before his death about 77,000 copies of his Fables
had found sale in Russia; and his wisdom and humour had
become the common possession of the many. He was at once
poet and sage. His fables for the most part struck root in some
actual event, and they told at once by their grip and by their
beauty. Though he began as a translator and imitator he soon
showed himself a master of invention, who found abundant
material in the life of his native land. To the Russian ear his
verse is of matchless quality; while word and phrase are direct,
simple and eminently idiomatic, colour and cadence vary with
the theme.
A collected edition of Krilpff's works appeared at St Petersburg,
1844. Of the numerous editions of his Fables, which have been
often translated, may be mentioned that illustrated by Trutovski,
1872. The author's life has been written in Russian by Pletneff,
by Lebanoff and by Grot, Liter, zhizn Kruilova. " Materials " for.
his life are published in vol. vi. of the Sbornik Statei of the literary
department of the Academy of Sciences. W. R. S. Ralston prefixed
an excellent sketch to his English prose version of the Fables (1868;
2nd ed. 1871). Another translation, by T. H. Harrison, appeared
in 1883.
KRISHNA (the Dark One), an incarnation of Vishnu, or
rather the form in which Vishnu himself is the most popular
object of worship throughout northern India. In origin,
Krishna, like Rama, was undoubtedly a deified hero of the
Kshatriya caste. In the older framework of the Mahabharata he
appears as a great chieftain and ally of the Pandava brothers;
and it is only in the interpolated episode of the Bhagavad-gila
that he is identified with Vishnu and becomes the revealer of the
doctrine of bhakti or religious devotion. Of still later date are
the popular developments of the modern cult of Krishna
associated with Radha, as found in the Vishnu Purana. Here
he is represented as the son of a king saved from a slaughter of
the innocents, brought up by a cowherd, sporting with the milk-
maids, and performing miraculous feats in his childhood. The
scene is laid in the neighbourhood of Muttra, on the right bank
of the Jumna, where the whole country to the present day is
holy ground. Another place associated with incidents of his
later life is Dwarka, the westernmost point in the peninsula of
Kathiawar. The two most famous preachers of Krishna-worship
and founders of sects in his honour were Vallabha and
Chaitanya, both born towards the close of the isth century.
The followers of the former are now found chiefly in Rajputana
and Gujarat. They are known as Vallabhacharyas, and their
gosains or high priests as maharajas, to whom semi-divine
honours are paid. The licentious practices of this sect were
exposed in a lawsuit before the high court at Bombay in 1862.
Chaitanya was the Vaishnav reformer of Bengal, with his home
at Nadiya. A third influential Krishna-preacher of the igth
century was Swami Narayan, who was encountered by Bishop
Heber in Gujarat, where his followers at this day are numerous
and wealthy. Among the names of Krishna are Gopal, the cow-
herd; Gopinath, the lord of the milkmaids; and Mathuranath,
the lord of Muttra. His legitimate consort was Rukmini,
daughter of the king of Berar; but Radha is always associated
with him in his temples. (See HINDUISM.)
KRISHNAGAR, a town of British India, headquarters of
Nadia district in Bengal, situated on the left bank of the river
Jalangi and connected with Ranaghat, on the Eastern Bengal
railway, by a light railway. Pop. (1901), 24,547. It is the
residence of the raja of Nadia and contains a government
college. Coloured clay figures are manufactured.
KRISTIANSTAD (CHRISTIANSTAD), a port of Sweden, chief
town of the district (Ian) of Kristianstad, on a peninsula in Lake
Sjovik, an expansion of the river Helge, 10 m. from the Baltic.
Pop. (1900), 10,318. Its harbour, custom-house, &c., are at
Ahus at the mouth of the river. It is among the first twelve
manufacturing towns of Sweden as regards value of output,
having engineering works, flour-mills, distilleries, weaving mills
and sugar factories. Granite and wood-pulp are exported, and
coal and grain imported. The town is the seat of the court of
appeal for the provinces of Skane and Blekinge. It was founded
and fortified in 1614 by Christian IV. of Denmark, who built the
fine ornate church. The town was ceded to Sweden in 1658,
retaken by Christian V. in 1676, and again acquired by Sweden
in 1678.
KRIVOY ROG, a town of south Russia, in the government of
Kherson, on the Ingulets River, near the station of the same
name on the Ekaterinoslav railway, 113 m. S.W. of the city of
Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (1900), about 10,000. It is the centre of a
district very rich in minerals, obtained from a narrow stretch of
crystalline schists underlying the Tertiary deposits. Iron ores
(60 to 70% of iron), copper ores, colours, brown coal, graphite,
slate, and lithographic stone are obtained — nearly 2,000,000
tons of iron ore annually.
KROCHMAL, NAHMAN (1785-1840), Jewish scholar, was born
at Brody in Galicia in 1785. He was one of the pioneers in the
revival of Jewish learning which followed on the age of Moses
Mendelssohn. His chief work was the Moreh Nebuche ha-
zeman (" Guide for the Perplexed of the Age "), a title imitated
from that of the 12th-century " Guide for the Perplexed " of
Maimonides (q.v.). This book was not published till after the
author's death, when it was edited by Zunz (1851). The book
is a philosophy of Jewish history, and has a double importance.
On the one side it was a critical examination of the Rabbinic
literature and much influenced subsequent investigators. On
the other side, Krochmal, in the words of N. Slouschz, " was the
first Jewish scholar who views Judaism, not as a distinct and
independent entity, but as a part of the whole of civilization."
Krochmal, under Hegelian influences, regarded the nationality
of Israel as consisting in its religious genius, its spiritual gifts.
Thus Krochmal may be called the originator of the idea of the
mission of the Jewish people, " cultural Zionism " as it has more
recently been termed. He died at Tarnopol in 1840.
See S. Schechter, Studies in Judaism (1896), pp. 56 seq.; N.
Slouschz, Renascence of Hebrew Literature (1909), pp. 63 seq.
(I. A.)
KRONENBERG, a town of Germany in the Prussian Rhine
Province, 6 m. S.W. from Elberfeld, with which it is connected
by railway and by an electric tramway line. Pop. (1905), 11,340.
It is a scattered community, consisting of an agglomeration of
seventy-three different hamlets. It has a Roman Catholic and
two Protestant churches, a handsome modern town-hall and
considerable industries, consisting mainly of steel and iron
manufactures.
KRONSTADT or CRONSTADT, a strongly fortified seaport
town of Russia, the chief naval station of the Russian fleet in
the northern seas, and the seat of the Russian admiralty. Pop.
(1867), 4S,"S; (1897), 59,539. It is situated on the island of
Kotlin, near the head of the Gulf of Finland, 20 m. W. of
St Petersburg, of which it is the chief port, in 59° 59' 30" N. and
29° 46' 30" E. Kronstadt, always strong, has been thoroughly
refortified on modern principles. The old " three-decker "
forts, five in number, which formerly constituted the principal
defences of the place, and defied the Anglo-French fleets during
the Crimean War, are now of secondary importance. From the
plans of Todleben a new fort, Constantine, and four batteries
were constructed (1856-1871) to defend the principal approach,
and seven batteries to cover the shallower northern channel.
All these modern fortifications are low and thickly armoured
earthworks, powerfully armed with heavy Krupp guns in
turrets. The town itself is surrounded with an enceinte. The
island of Kotlin, or Kettle (Finn., Retusari, or Rat Island) in
general outline forms an elongated triangle, 75 m. in length by
about i in breadth, with its base towards St Petersburg. The
eastern or broad end is occupied by the town of Kronstadt, and
shoals extend for a mile and a half from the western point of
the island to the rock on which the Tolbaaken lighthouse is
built. The island thus divides the seaward approach to
St Petersburg into two channels; that on the northern side
is obstructed by shoals which extend across it from Kotlin to
Lisynos on the Finnish mainland, and is only passable by vessels
drawing less than 15 ft. of water; the southern channel, the high-
way to the capital, is narrowed by a spit which projects from
928
KROONSTAD— KROTOSCHIN
opposite Oranienbaum on the Russian mainland, and, lying
close to Kronstadt, has been strongly guarded by batteries.
The approach to the capital has been greatly facilitated by the
construction in 1875-1885 of a canal, 23 ft. deep, through the
shallows. The town of Kronstadt is built on level ground,
and is thus exposed to inundations, from one of which it
suffered in 1824. On the south side of the town there are
three harbours — the large western or merchant harbour, the
western flank of which is formed by a great mole joining the
fortifications which traverse the breadth of the island on this
side; the middle harbour, used chiefly for fitting out and repairing
vessels; and the eastern or war harbour for vessels of the
Russian navy. The Peter and Catherine canals, communi-
cating with the merchant and middle harbours, traverse the
town. Between them stood the old Italian palace of Prince
Menshikov, the site of which is now occupied by the pilot school.
Among other public buildings are the naval hospital, the British
seaman's hospital (established in 1867), the civic hospital,
admiralty (founded 1785), arsenal, dockyards and foundries,
school of marine engineering, the cathedral of St Andrew, and
the English church. The port is ice-bound for 140 to 160 days
in the year, from the beginning of December till April. A very
large proportion of the inhabitants are sailors, and large num-
bers of artisans are employed in the dockyards. Kronstadt
was founded in 1710 by Peter the Great, who took the island
of Kotlin from the Swedes in 1703, when the first fortifications
were constructed. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
KROONSTAD, a town of Orange River Colony, 127 m. by
rail N.E. of Bloemfontein and 130 m. S.W. of Johannesburg.
Pop. (1904), 7191, of whom 3708 were whites. Kroonstad lies
4489 ft. above the sea and is built on the banks of the Valsch
River, a perennial tributary of the Vaal. It is a busy town,
being the centre of a rich agricultural district and of the
diamond and coal-mining industry of the north-western parts
of the colony. It is also a favourite residential place and
resort of visitors from Johannesburg. It enjoys a healthy
climate, affords opportunities for boating rare in South Africa,
and boasts a golf-links. The principal building is the Dutch
Reformed church in the centre of the market square.
On the capture of Bloemfontein by the British during the
Anglo-Boer War of 1890-1902 Kroonstad was chosen by the
Orange Free State Boers as the capital of the state, a dignity it
held from the i3th of March to the nth of May 1900. On the
following day the town was occupied by Lord Roberts. The
linking of the town in 1906 with the Natal system made the route
via Kioonstad the shortest railway connexion between Cape
Town and Durban. Another line goes N.W. from Kroonstad
to Klerksdorp, passing (17 miles) the Lace diamond mine and
(45 miles) the coal mines at Vierfontein.
KROPOTKIN, PETER ALEXEIVICH, PRINCE (1842- ),
Russian geographer, author and revolutionary, was born at
Moscow in 1842. His father, Prince Alexei Petrovich Kropotkin,
belonged to the old Russian nobility; his mother, the daughter
of a general in the Russian army, had remarkable literary and
liberal tastes. At the age of fifteen Prince Peter Kropotkin, who
had been designed by his father for the army, entered the Corps
of Pages at St Petersburg (1857). Only a hundred and fifty
boys — mostly children of the nobility belonging to the court —
were educated in this privileged corps, which combined the
character of a military school endowed with special rights and
of a Court institution attached to the imperial household. Here
he remained till 1862, reading widely on his own account, and
giving special attention to the works of the French encyclo-
paedists and to modern French history. Before he left Moscow
Prince Kropotkin had developed an interest in the condition of
the Russian peasantry, and this interest increased as he grew
older. The years 1857-1861 witnessed a rich growth in the in-
tellectual forces of Russia, and Kropotkin came under the influence
of the new Liberal-revolutionary literature, which indeed largely
expressed his own aspirations. In 1862 he was promoted from
the Corps of Pages to the army. The members of the corps had
the prescriptive right of choosing the regiment to which they
would be attached. Kropotkin had never wished for a military
career, but, as he had not the means to enter the St Petersburg
University, he elected to join a Siberian Cossack regiment in the
recently annexed Amur district, where there were prospects of
administrative work. For some time he was aide de camp
to the governor of Transbaikalia at Chita, subsequently being
appointed attache for Cossack affairs to the governor-general of
East Siberia at Irkutsk. Opportunities for administrative work,
however, were scanty, and in 1864 Kropotkin accepted charge
of a geographical survey expedition, crossing North Manchuria
from Transbaikalia to the Amur, and shortly afterwards wag
attached to another expedition which proceeded up the Sungari
River into the heart of Manchuria. Both these expeditions
yielded most valuable geographical results. The impossibility
of obtaining any real administrative reforms in Siberia now
induced Kropotkin to devote himself almost entirely to scientific
exploration, in which he continued to be highly successful. In
1867 he quitted the army and returned to St Petersburg, where
he entered the university, becoming at the same time secretary
to the physical geography section of the Russian Geographical
Society. In 1873 he published an important contribution to
science, a map and paper in which he proved that the existing
maps of Asia entirely misrepresented the physical formation of
the country, the main structural lines being in fact from
south-west to north-east, not from north to south, or from east
to west as had been previously supposed. In 1871 he explored
the glacial deposits of Finland and Sweden for the Russian
Geographical Society, and while engaged in this work was offered
the secretaryship of that society. But by this time he had
determined that it was his duty not to work at fresh discoveries
but to aid in diffusing existing knowledge among the people at
large, and he accordingly refused the offer, and returned to
St Petersburg, where he joined the revolutionary party. In 1872
he visited Switzerland, and became a member of the Inter-
national Workingmen's Association at Geneva. The socialism
of this body was not, however, advanced enough for his views,
and after studying the programme of the more violent Jura
Federation at Neuchatel and spending some time in the com-
pany of the leading members, he definitely adopted the creed of
anarchism (q.v.) and, on returning to Russia, took an active part
in spreading the nihilist propaganda. In 1874 he was arrested
and imprisoned, but escaped in 1876 and went to England,
removing after a short stay to Switzerland, where he joined the
Jura Federation. In 1877 he went to Paris, where he helped to
start the socialist movement, returning to Switzerland in 1878,
where he edited for the Jura Federation a revolutionary news-
paper, Le Rtvolte, subsequently also publishing various revolu-
tionary pamphlets. Shortly after the assassination of the tsar
Alexander II. (1881) Kropotkin was expelled from Switzerland by
the Swiss government, and after a short stay at Thonon (Savoy)
went to London, where he remained for nearly a year, returning
to Thonon towards the end of 1882. Shortly afterwards he was
arrested by the French government, and, after a trial at Lyons,
sentenced by a police-court magistrate (under a special law passed
on the fall of the Commune) to five years' imprisonment, on the
ground that he had belonged to the International Workingmen's
Association (1883). In 1886 however, as the result of repeated
agitation on his behalf in the French Chamber, he was released,
and settled near London.
Prince Kropotkin's authority as a writer on Russia is univer-
sally acknowledged, and he has contributed largely to the
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Among his other works may be
named Paroles d'un revolte (1884); La Conquete du pain (1888);
L'Anarchie: sa philosophic, son ideal (1896); The State, its Part
in History (1898); Fields, Factories and Workshops (1899);
Memoirs of a Revolutionist (1900); Mutual Aid, a Factor of Evo-
lution (1902); Modern Science and Anarchism (Philadelphia,
1903); The Desiccation of Asia (1904); The Orography of Asia
(1904); and Russian Literature (1905).
KROTOSCHIN (in Polish, Krotoszyn), a town of Germany, in
the Prussian province of Posen, 32m. S.E. of Posen. Pop. (1900),
I2> 
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